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= HMS Garland ( H37 ) =
HMS Garland , also known by her Polish designation ORP Garland , was a G @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Shortly after World War II began , she was badly damaged by the premature explosion of her own depth charges and required over six months of repairs . Before these were completed , Garland was loaned to the Polish Navy in May 1940 . The ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet afterwards and escorted convoys there before being assigned to the Western Approaches Command in September for escort duties . She escorted a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta during Operation Halberd in September 1941 and escorted Convoy PQ @-@ 16 from Iceland to Murmansk in May 1942 . She was badly damaged by a near miss from a German bomber during that operation and required three months of repairs .
Garland was then assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in the North Atlantic until December 1943 , when she was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone to escort convoys off West Africa . In April 1944 , the ship was transferred to back to the Mediterranean Fleet where she escorted convoys . She sank one German submarine in September before returning to the UK for a lengthy refit that lasted until March 1945 . Garland was then assigned to the Western Approaches Command , but carried emergency supplies to coastal towns in Belgium and the Netherlands immediately after the war ended in May . She was paid off and reclaimed from the Polish Navy in July 1946 . A few months later , the ship was sold to the Royal Netherlands Navy for use as a school ship . Garland was refitted as an anti @-@ submarine training ship in 1948 and renamed HNLMS Marnix in 1950 . Reclassified as a frigate in 1952 , the ship was not decommissioned until 1964 and scrapped afterwards .
= = Description = =
Garland displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Garland carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but in increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Garland had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . By mid @-@ 1940 , this had increased to 44 depth charges .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Most ships of Garland 's class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940 , but it is not known exactly when this modification was made . By 1942 , the ship 's short range AA armament had been augmented by two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns on her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship 's bridge . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased . The .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons later . The ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge were removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar , after 1942 , and ' B ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was probably also fitted mid @-@ way through the war . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = History = =
= = = HMS Garland , 1936 – 1940 = = =
Ordered on 5 March 1934 from Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering , Garland was laid down at Govan , Scotland , on 22 August 1934 . She was launched on 24 October 1935 and completed on 3 March 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 250 @,@ 664 . She was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Garland patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee in 1937 and 1938 . The ship was overhauled at Sheerness between 24 May and 5 July 1937 and 31 May to 28 July 1938 during which her low @-@ pressure turbines were repaired . Garland patrolled off Cyprus in July 1939 .
When World War II began , the ship was en route to Alexandria from Aden and arrived there on 6 September . Whilst escorting a convoy to Malta , some of her depth charges detonated prematurely on 17 September and badly damaged the aft end of the ship . Garland had to be towed back to Alexandria where temporary repairs were made . She was towed to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted from 11 October to 8 May 1940 . Shortly before the completion of the repairs , she was loaned to the Polish Navy on 3 May 1940 , the anniversary of the 1791 Polish Constitution of 3 May .
= = = ORP Garland , 1940 – 1946 = = =
After working up , the ship escorted a convoy to and from Greece in late June 1940 . During Operation Hats , Garland was lightly damaged by Italian aircraft on 31 August whilst escorting a convoy to Malta . She was transferred to the Western Approaches Command in mid @-@ September and was assigned to the 10th Escort Group . On 13 November , Garland was badly damaged by storm whilst escorting the battleship Revenge and required over a month to make repairs . Two men were lost overboard during the storm . In early January 1941 , the ship was fitted with a new ASDIC system . She was transferred to the 14th Escort Group in April and was then briefly attached to the Home Fleet , escorting a tanker , during the Allied landing on Spitsbergen in July . Upon her return , Garland was assigned to Escort Group B3 for escort duties in the North Atlantic .
In late September , she joined the Polish @-@ manned destroyer Piorun in Operation Halberd , escorting a large convoy to Malta . The two ships escorted the battleship Nelson back to Gibraltar after she had been torpedoed during the operation . Garland then rejoined Escort Group B3 . The ship was refitted between 28 February and 5 May 1942 in Middlesbrough and was assigned to escort Convoy PQ @-@ 16 in late May after working up . On 27 May , a bomb was dropped by a Junkers Ju 88 bomber 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) off the starboard side of the ship , that decimated the crews of ' A ' and ' B ' guns and the starboard Oerlikon and .50 @-@ calibre machine guns ( 22 killed and 37 wounded ) . The ship 's fire @-@ control director and rangefinder were destroyed and she was ordered to proceed independently to Murmansk for temporary repairs . These took over a month to complete and Garland sailed on 4 July for Troon , as part of the escort for Convoy QP 13 , for permanent repairs that were not completed until 21 September .
The ship rejoined Escort Group B3 until she began a lengthy refit in May 1943 that lasted until 8 September . Garland was assigned to the 8th Support Group after working up and escorted several small convoys transporting Allied troops to the Azores to build airbases after the Portuguese gave their consent in late September . From November to April 1944 , the ship was based in Freetown to escort convoys between Freetown and Gibraltar . In May she was assigned to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet where she escorted convoys and supported Allied operations in the Aegean . On 19 September 1944 , together with two other British destroyers , she sank the German submarine U @-@ 407 off Santorini . The following month Garland supported the Allied liberation of Greece after the German withdrawal .
On 20 November , the ship sailed for the UK to begin a lengthy refit at Devonport that lasted until 31 March 1945 . She was assigned to the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in the Western Approaches Command , but had barely finished working up when the war ended in May . The ship transported emergency supplies to Belgium and the Netherlands immediately afterwards . At the end of 1945 , Garland took part in Operation Deadlight , the scuttling of captured German U @-@ boats . In early 1946 , the ship patrolled Norwegian waters and then was assigned to the Polish Squadron at Rosyth through June . In late July she was ordered to be paid off and the loan terminated . The ship was disarmed in late August before entering Category C reserve .
= = = HNLMS Marnix , 1946 – 1964 = = =
On 14 November 1946 , Garland was sold " as is " to the Royal Netherlands Navy for £ 9 @,@ 000 and was initially used as a school ship . She was refurbished in 1948 as an anti @-@ submarine training ship . This is probably when Garland was rearmed with two 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns in ' A ' and ' X ' positions , a Hedgehog in ' B ' position and six 20 @-@ millimetre Oerlikons . She carried four depth charge throwers and two depth charge rails . The ship was renamed HNLMS Marnix on 16 January 1950 and made port visits in southern British ports the following March . Marnix was reclassified as a frigate in 1952 and received a thorough overhaul in 1955 – 56 . She was decommissioned on 31 January 1964 and later scrapped .
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= County Route 106 ( Rockland County , New York ) =
County Route 106 ( CR 106 ) is a 7 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 6 km ) east – west county route in Rockland County , New York , in the United States . It serves as an eastward continuation of Orange CR 106 , extending from the Orange County line to U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) and US 202 in Stony Point via Harriman State Park . CR 106 intersects with several county highways in Rockland County along the way . The route is only one of two in Rockland County to keep its numbering from Orange County , with the other being CR 72 . CR 106 had one spur route , CR 106A , which was recently decommissioned .
The route was originally designated County Highway 416 in the 1920s and 1930s . In 1930 , it became the easternmost part of New York State Route 210 ( NY 210 ) , a state highway continuing westward into Orange County . In 1982 , NY 210 was truncated to end in Greenwood Lake , and its former routing east of NY 17 was replaced by CR 106 in Orange and Rockland counties .
= = Route description = =
CR 106 begins at the Orange County line in Harriman State Park as a continuation of that county 's CR 106 . The route is only one of two county routes that have the same number in both Rockland and Orange counties ; the other is CR 72 .
CR 106 proceeds east from here providing a border between Harriman State Park ( to the west ) and Bear Mountain State Park ( to the east ) . It then intersects Lake Welch Parkway , a seasonal road which provides a route to Lake Welch Beach on the northern side of the lake . Then , CR 106 splits Lake Welch in two different locations on the southern side of the lake . CR 106 then begins its trek out of Harriman State Park and into the town of Stony Point .
Immediately after entering Stony Point , CR 106 intersects CR 98 where CR 106 makes a left turn . CR 106 then proceeds east toward its intersection with the Palisades Parkway . This is at exit 15 and is the last residential exit northbound on the PIP , with everything north of this point being exits within Harriman and Bear Mountain .
Just after its intersection with the PIP , the road intersects two former Rockland County Routes ( CR 106A & CR 69 ) . Also , at this point CR 106 enters the village limits of Stony Point , and becomes a 55 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 89 km / h ) , highway with extra lanes in some places . The highway intersects CR 108 , CR 47 , and CR 33 as Central Drive . CR 106 comes to an end shortly after these intersections at US 9W and US 202 in downtown Stony Point , about a mile west from the Hudson River and the Stony Point Marina .
= = History = =
CR 106 originated in 1824 , when the road was chartered for the New Turnpike and headed from Monroe to Haverstraw . Back in the 1820s , what is now Southfields was known as Monroe . The New Turnpike started at a nail factory in Monroe to a crossing over the Ramapo River , and progressed eastward , passing Lake Stahahe ( then known as Car Pond ) . The turnpike continued eastward , meeting the Old Turnpike at a fork in the road . At the fork , part of the road became NY 210 in the 1930 New York State Route renumbering . In 1910 , when the park opened , the road became known as the Southfields Road . Three years later , it became part of the Seven Lakes Drive . Three more years later , the route became known as County Highway 416 . In 1919 and 1920 , the western section of the road was reconstructed . After a bridge was built to cross a river in 1923 , a new route , making up part of the original Warwick Turnpike , became NY 17A .
The responsibility for maintaining NY 210 was turned over to the county in 1982 . The road was replaced with CR 106 .
= = CR 106A = =
CR 106A was a 0 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) spur which began at CR 106 and ended at a dead end near CR 69 in Stony Point .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Slug and Lettuce =
Slug and Lettuce is a chain of bars that operate in the United Kingdom , with a large number located in London and South East England . As of 2013 , there are a total of 70 outlets . Hugh Corbett opened the first Slug and Lettuce opened in Islington in 1984 . Corbett attempted to premiumise the pub experience , at a time when standards were often low .
The bars are designed for a youthful clientele , and aim to attract an equal number of women as well as men with " female friendly " designs . The chain has remained relevant by continually re @-@ inventing itself for the contemporary marketplace . The chain has gone through a number of owners throughout its history , and is currently owned by the Stonegate Pub Company , based in Luton , Bedfordshire .
All Slug and Lettuce outlets serve food throughout the day , and the meals are English inspired , with offerings including sandwiches , burgers , pasta and salads . Outlets sell a range of cocktails , beer and wine . Since 2011 , outlets have opened early for breakfast .
= = History = =
Hugh Corbett , an entrepreneur with a background in the hotel industry , opened The Slug and Lettuce pub on Islington Green , North London in 1984 . At the time , Islington was becoming increasingly gentrified due to its proximity to the City of London financial district . Corbett owned a small number of pubs , which he rechristened with humorous or nonsensical names , with the effect of differentiating them from competitors . His pubs had the then notable differential of stripped out carpets and enlarged windows so that people could see inside from the street . Corbett listed his business in 1989 as Fast Forward , by which time it was a nine @-@ strong chain . In 1990 Roger Protz identified the group as an imitation of David Bruce 's Firkin chain pubs .
In 1992 , the David Bruce controlled Grosvenor Inns acquired Fast Forward for £ 4 @.@ 46 million , bringing Grosvenor 's total number of pubs to thirty . By this time , Fast Forward owned thirteen pubs , all based around the London area , with seven under the Slug name . The decision was taken to appeal to customers in their 20s and 30s and make the bar " more contemporary " , " more of a bar , less of a pub " , " young and even rowdy " and " not blokey - not a very male environment " , aiming for an equal proportion of both male and female clientele . Sheila McKenzie , who had founded the female @-@ friendly Pitcher & Piano chain , was enlisted to enact these changes , and the Slug and Lettuce concept has been described as her " brainchild " . Grovesnor felt that the pub chain had " lost its way " , and concentrated on boosting its food operations .
In 1995 , Slug and Lettuce was rebranded again , this time as a " contemporary English bar " , designed to occupy the middle ground between a continental cafe and a classic English pub . By this time , food constituted 30 per cent of total sales . In 1997 the chain identified its primary competitors as the All Bar One and Pitcher & Piano bar chains . In 1998 Grosvenor Inns changed its name to The Slug and Lettuce Group , reflecting the fact that the now 22 @-@ strong chain had become the company 's sole focus . The chain also announced that it would not stock the Amusement with Prizes machines common in many other pubs . In 1998 , the chain encountered its first major setback after it expanded into the North of England with five outlets in Nottingham , York , Manchester , Harrogate and Leeds . These all made profit losses in their first six months of operation , which triggered the company 's first profit warning . In 1999 , the chain first entered the Scottish market , with an outlet in Glasgow . Meanwhile , the company board was criticised for a lack of dynamism and being too slow to expand its number of outlets . The chain launched a website in February 2000 .
In mid @-@ 2000 , SFI , the owner of the Litten Tree bar chain , announced a £ 31 @.@ 6 million takeover of Slug and Lettuce , paid for in shares , and McKenzie left the chain in order to pursue new challenges . By this time the chain had 32 outlets . According to analysts , the chain was too small and had too much debt to survive alone . SFI refurbished a number of their existing pubs under the Slug and Lettuce concept , and by 2004 the chain had 56 outlets . In 2005 , SFI attempted to reposition the chain as an upmarket place to eat , in anticipation of the forthcoming smoking ban . In June 2005 SFI went into administration , and sold 98 of its 150 outlets to the Laurel Pub Company , controlled by Robert Tchenguiz , for £ 80 million . In 2008 Laurel itself collapsed , and the Slug chain became a part of the Bay Restaurant Group , later Town & City Pub Company . The chain has withdrawn from a number of locations , including Glasgow and Cardiff , leaving it with only one location in Scotland , and no presence in Wales . In 2010 , Town & City began to refurbish the outlets , switching from a brown colour scheme to aubergine and updating upholstery and lighting . In June 2011 Town & City merged with the Stonegate Pub Company .
Since 2011 outlets have opened early in order to serve breakfast . In September 2012 the Stonegate company chairman Ian Payne announced plans to expand the chain , which he claimed had outperformed the high street for the past three years , and was enjoying double digit growth . As of 2012 , outlets are being refurbished with a colour scheme of gold , purple , green and plum .
= = Operations = =
The menu largely comprises traditional English inspired cuisine , and includes such items as burgers , curries , pasta and salads . In drinks , the chain focuses on beer , wine and spirits based cocktails such as the Long Island Ice Tea and mojitos . Some outlets sell cask ale . In 2006 the chain switched to selling exclusively fair trade coffee . In 2000 , average annual turnover of each site was just below £ 900 @,@ 000 . Outlets typically occupy around 2 @,@ 000 square feet in area , and include converted banks and churches .
= = Reception = =
In 1994 The Times described the chain as " a modish hang @-@ out for the stripped pine brigade " . The chain 's interior layout has been described as " minimalist " . The chain has been criticised by some , such as the writer Will Self , for spreading a bland uniformity throughout British high streets , and for removing individual elements from the pubs that it converts . In 1997 , a Slug and Lettuce in a listed building in Islington Green illegally removed its old mahogany bar , which it was later forced to restore .
The appeal of the Slug and Lettuce concept has seen it become widely imitated , with Zoe Williams of The Guardian commenting in 2012 , " Does anybody remember in the 90s , when the Slug and Lettuce pub chain deliberately fancied itself up to appeal to the lady drinker ? And wham , two seconds later , that 's where all the men wanted to drink as well , so that all pubs had to become more like Slugs and Lettuces just to survive ? "
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= Caenorhabditis elegans =
Caenorhabditis elegans ( / ˌseɪnoʊræbˈdaɪtəs ˈɛləɡænz / ) is a free @-@ living ( not parasitic ) , transparent nematode ( roundworm ) , about 1 mm in length , that lives in temperate soil environments . The name is a blend of the Greek caeno- ( recent ) , rhabditis ( rod @-@ like ) and Latin elegans ( elegant ) . In 1900 , Maupas initially named it Rhabditides elegans , Osche placed it in the subgenus Caenorhabditis in 1952 , and in 1955 , Dougherty raised it to the status of genus .
C. elegans is an unsegmented pseudocoelomate , and lacks a respiratory and a circulatory system . It possesses gut granules which emit a brilliant blue fluorescence , a wave of which is seen at death in a ' death fluorescence ' . The majority of these nematodes are hermaphrodites . Males have specialised tails for mating that include spicules .
In 1963 , Sydney Brenner proposed research into C. elegans primarily in the area of neuronal development . In 1974 , he began research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans , which has since been extensively used as a model organism .
C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced , and as of 2012 , the only organism to have its connectome ( neuronal " wiring diagram " ) completed .
= = Anatomy = =
C. elegans is unsegmented , vermiform , and bilaterally symmetrical . It has a cuticle ( a tough outer covering ) , four main epidermal cords , and a fluid @-@ filled pseudocoelom ( body cavity ) . It also has some of the same organ systems as larger animals . About one in a thousand individuals is male and the rest are hermaphrodites . The basic anatomy of C. elegans includes a mouth , pharynx , intestine , gonad , and collagenous cuticle . Like all nematodes , they have neither a circulatory nor a respiratory system . The four bands of muscles that run the length of the body are connected to a neural system that allows the muscles to move the animal 's body only as dorsal bending or ventral bending , but not left or right , except for the head , where the four muscle quadrants are wired independently from one another . When a wave of dorsal / ventral muscle contractions proceeds from the back to the front of the animal , the animal is propelled backwards . When wave of contractions is initiated at the front and proceeds posteriorly along the body , the animal is propelled forwards . Because of this dorsal / ventral bias in body bends , any normal living , moving individual tends to lie on either its left side or its right side when observed crossing a horizontal surface . A set of ridges on the lateral sides of the body cuticle , the alae , are believed to give the animal added traction during these bending motions .
The pharynx is a muscular food pump in the head of C. elegans , which is triangular in cross @-@ section . This grinds food and transports it directly to the intestine . A set of " valve cells " connects the pharynx to the intestine , but how this valve operates is not understood . After digestion , the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum . No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the excretory canal , which functions in the release of liquid urine .
Males have a single @-@ lobed gonad , a vas deferens , and a tail specialized for mating , which incorporates spicules . Hermaphrodites have two ovaries , oviducts , spermatheca , and a single uterus .
= = Microanatomy = =
Numerous gut granules are present in the intestine of C. elegans , the functions of which are still not fully known , as are many other aspects of this nematode , despite the many years that it has been studied . These gut granules are found in all of the Rhabditida orders . They are very similar to lysosomes in that they feature an acidic interior and the capacity for endocytosis , but they are considerably larger , reinforcing the view of their being storage organelles . A remarkable feature of the granules is that when they are observed under ultraviolet light , they react by emitting an intense blue fluorescence . Another phenomenon seen is termed ' death fluorescence ' . As the worms die , a dramatic burst of blue fluorescence is emitted . This death fluorescence typically takes place in an anterior to posterior wave that moves along the intestine , and is seen in both young and old worms , whether subjected to lethal injury or peacefully dying of old age . Many theories have been posited on the functions of the gut granules , with earlier ones being eliminated by later findings . They are thought to store zinc as one of their functions . Recent chemical analysis has identified the blue fluorescent material they contain as a glycosylated form of anthranilic acid ( AA ) . The need for the large amounts of AA the many gut granules contain is questioned . One possibility is that the AA is antibacterial and used in defense against invading pathogens . Another possibility is that the granules provide photoprotection : the bursts of AA fluorescence entail the conversion of damaging UV light to relatively harmless visible light . This is seen a possible link to the melanin – containing melanosomes .
= = Reproduction and development = =
All cells of the germline arise from a single primordial germ cell , called the P4 cell established early in embryogenesis . This germ cell divides to generate two further germ cells and these do not divide further until after hatching . The hermaphrodite , which is considered to be a specialized form of self @-@ fertile female because its soma is female whereas its germline produces male gametes first , lays eggs through its uterus after internal fertilization . Under environmental conditions which are favourable for reproduction , hatched larvae develop through four stages or molts , designated as L1 to L4 . When conditions are stressed as in food insufficiency , C. elegans can enter an alternative third larval stage called the dauer state . Dauer is German for permanent . Dauer larvae are stress @-@ resistant ; they are thin and their mouths are sealed and cannot take in food , and they can remain in this stage for a few months . Hermaphrodites produce all their sperm in the L4 stage ( 150 sperm per gonadal arm ) and then produce only oocytes . The sperm cells are stored in the same area of the gonad as the oocytes until the first oocyte pushes the sperm into the spermatheca ( a chamber wherein the oocytes become fertilized by the sperm ) .
The male can inseminate the hermaphrodite , which will preferentially use male sperm ( both types of sperm are stored in the spermatheca ) . The sperm of C. elegans is ameboid , lacking flagella and acrosomes . When self @-@ inseminated , the wild @-@ type worm will lay about 300 eggs . When inseminated by a male , the number of progeny can exceed 1 @,@ 000 . At 20 ° C , the laboratory strain of C. elegans ( N2 ) has an average lifespan around 2 – 3 weeks and a generation time around 4 days .
Nematodes have a fixed , genetically determined number of cells , a phenomenon known as eutely . The male C. elegans , for example , has 1031 cells , a number which does not change after cell division ceases at the end of the larval period . Growth is solely due to an increase in the size of individual cells .
C. elegans has five pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes . Sex in C. elegans is based on an X0 sex @-@ determination system . Hermaphrodites of C. elegans have a matched pair of sex chromosomes ( XX ) ; the rare males have only one sex chromosome ( X0 ) .
= = Ecology = =
The different Caenorhabditis species occupy various nutrient- and bacteria @-@ rich environments . They feed on the bacteria that develop in decaying organic matter . Soil lacks enough organic matter to support self @-@ sustaining populations . C. elegans can survive on a diet of a variety of many kinds of bacteria , but its wild ecology is largely unknown . Most laboratory strains were taken from artificial environments such as gardens and compost piles . More recently , C. elegans has been found to thrive in other kinds of organic matter , particularly rotting fruit . Invertebrates such as millipedes , insects , isopods , and gastropods can transport dauer larvae to various suitable locations . The larvae have also been seen to feed on their hosts when they die . Nematodes can survive desiccation , and in C. elegans , the mechanism for this capability has been demonstrated to be late embryogenesis abundant proteins . C. elegans , as other nematodes , can be eaten by predator nematodes and other omnivores , including some insects .
= = Research use = =
In 1963 , Sydney Brenner proposed using C. elegans as a model organism for the investigation primarily of neural development in animals . It is one of the simplest organisms with a nervous system . In the hermaphrodite , this system comprises 302 neurons the pattern of which has been comprehensively mapped , in what is known as a connectome , and shown to be a small @-@ world network . Research has explored the neural and molecular mechanisms that control several behaviors of C. elegans , including chemotaxis , thermotaxis , mechanotransduction , learning , memory , and mating behaviour . Brenner also chose it as it is easy to grow in bulk populations , and convenient for genetic analysis . It is a multicellular eukaryotic organism , yet is simple enough to be studied in great detail . The transparency of C. elegans facilitates the study of cellular differentiation and other developmental processes in the intact organism . The spicules in the male clearly distinguish males from females . Strains are cheap to breed and can be frozen . When subsequently thawed , they remain viable , allowing long @-@ term storage .
= = = Notable findings = = =
The developmental fate of every single somatic cell ( 959 in the adult hermaphrodite ; 1031 in the adult male ) has been mapped . These patterns of cell lineage are largely invariant between individuals , whereas in mammals , cell development is more dependent on cellular cues from the embryo . The first cell divisions of early embryogenesis in C. elegans are among the best understood examples of asymmetric cell divisions .
Programmed cell death ( apoptosis ) eliminates many additional cells ( 131 in the hermaphrodite , most of which would otherwise become neurons ) ; this " apoptotic predictability " has contributed to the elucidation of some apoptotic genes . Cell death @-@ promoting genes and a single cell @-@ death inhibitor have been identified .
RNA interference ( RNAi ) is a relatively straightforward method of disrupting the function of specific genes . Silencing the function of a gene can sometimes allow a researcher to infer its possible function ( s ) . The nematode can be soaked in , injected with , or fed with genetically transformed bacteria that express the double @-@ stranded RNA of interest , the sequence of which complements the sequence of the gene that the researcher wishes to disable . RNAi has emerged as a powerful tool in the study of functional genomics . In C. elegans , it has been used to analyse gene functions and the report claims the promise of future findings in the systematic genetic interactions .
Environmental RNAi uptake is much worse in other species of worms in the Caenorhabditis genus . Although injecting RNA into the body cavity of the animal induces gene silencing in most species , only C. elegans and a few other distantly related nematodes can take up RNA from the bacteria they eat for RNAi . This ability has been mapped down to a single gene , sid @-@ 2 , which , when inserted as a transgene in other species , allows them to take up RNA for RNAi as C. elegans does .
Research into meiosis has been considerably simplified since every germ cell nucleus is at the same given position as it moves down the gonad , so is at the same stage in meiosis . In an early phase of meiosis , the oocytes become extremely resistant to radiation and this resistance depends on expression of genes rad51 and atm that have key roles in recombinational repair . Gene mre @-@ 11 also plays a crucial role in recombinational repair of DNA damage during meiosis . A study of the frequency of outcrossing in natural populations showed that selfing is the predominant mode of reproduction in C. elegans , but that infrequent outcrossing events occur at a rate around 1 % . Meioses that result in selfing are unlikely to contribute significantly to beneficial genetic variability , but these meioses may provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages that arise , especially under stressful conditions .
Nicotine dependence can also be studied using C. elegans because it exhibits behavioral responses to nicotine that parallel those of mammals . These responses include acute response , tolerance , withdrawal , and sensitization .
As for most model organisms , scientists that work in the field curate a dedicated online database and the WormBase is that for C. elegans . The WormBase attempts to collate all published information on C. elegans and other related nematodes . Their website has advertised a reward of $ 4000 for the finder of a new species of closely related nematode . Such a discovery would broaden research opportunities with the worm .
C. elegans has been a model organism for research into ageing ; for example , the inhibition of an insulin @-@ like growth factor signaling pathway has been shown to increase adult lifespan threefold . Moreover , extensive research on C. elegans has identified RNA @-@ binding proteins as essential factors during germline and early embryonic development .
C. elegans is notable in animal sleep studies as the most primitive organism to display sleep @-@ like states . In C. elegans , a lethargus phase occurs shortly before each moult .
= = = Spaceflight research = = =
C. elegans made news when specimens were discovered to have survived the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in February 2003 . Later , in January 2009 , live samples of C. elegans from the University of Nottingham were announced to be spending two weeks on the International Space Station that October , in a space research project to explore the effects of zero gravity on muscle development and physiology . The research was primarily about genetic basis of muscle atrophy , which relates to spaceflight or being bed @-@ ridden , geriatric , or diabetic . Descendants of the worms aboard Columbia in 2003 were launched into space on Endeavour for the STS @-@ 134 mission .
= = Genome = =
C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced . The sequence was published in 1998 , although some small gaps were present ; the last gap was finished by October 2002 . The C. elegans genome is about 100 million base pairs long and consists of six chromosomes and a mitochondrial genome . Its gene density is about one gene per five kilo @-@ base pairs . Introns make up 26 % and intergenic regions 47 % of the genome . Many genes are arranged in clusters and how many of these are operons is unclear . C. elegans and other nematodes are among the few eukaryotes currently known to have operons ; these include trypanosomes , flatworms ( notably the trematode Schistosoma mansoni ) , and a primitive chordate tunicate Oikopleura dioica . Many more organisms are likely to be shown to have these operons .
The genome contains an estimated 20 @,@ 470 protein @-@ coding genes . About 35 % of C. elegans genes have human homologs . Remarkably , human genes have been shown repeatedly to replace their C. elegans homologs when introduced into C. elegans . Conversely , many C. elegans genes can function similarly to mammalian genes . The number of known RNA genes in the genome has increased greatly due to the 2006 discovery of a new class of 21U @-@ RNA genes , and the genome is now believed to contain more than 16 @,@ 000 RNA genes , up from as few as 1 @,@ 300 in 2005 . Scientific curators continue to appraise the set of known genes ; new gene models continue to be added and incorrect ones modified or removed .
In 2003 , the genome sequence of the related nematode C. briggsae was also determined , allowing researchers to study the comparative genomics of these two organisms . The genome sequences of more nematodes from the same genus e.g. , C. remanei , C. japonica and C. brenneri ( named after Brenner ) , have also been studied using the shotgun sequencing technique . These sequences have now been completed .
The reference C. elegans genome sequence continues to change as new evidence reveals errors in the original sequencing . Most changes are minor , adding or removing only a few base pairs of DNA . For example , the WS202 release of WormBase ( April 2009 ) added two base pairs to the genome sequence . Sometimes , more extensive changes are made as noted in the WS197 release of December 2008 , which added a region of over 4 @,@ 300 bp to the sequence .
= = Scientific community = =
In 2002 , the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner , H. Robert Horvitz , and John Sulston for their work on the genetics of organ development and programmed cell death in C. elegans . The 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello for their discovery of RNA interference in C. elegans . In 2008 , Martin Chalfie shared a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on green fluorescent protein ; some of the research involved the use of C. elegans .
Many scientists who research C. elegans closely connect to Sydney Brenner , with whom almost all research in this field began in the 1970s ; they have worked as either a postdoctoral or a postgraduate researcher in Brenner 's lab or in the lab of someone who previously worked with Brenner . Most who worked in his lab later established their own worm research labs , thereby creating a fairly well @-@ documented " lineage " of C. elegans scientists , which was recorded into the WormBase database in some detail at the 2003 International Worm Meeting .
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= Walter Krueger =
Walter Krueger ( 26 January 1881 – 20 August 1967 ) was an American soldier and general officer in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his command of the Sixth United States Army in the South West Pacific Area during World War II . He rose from the rank of private to general in the United States Army .
Born in Flatow , West Prussia , Krueger migrated to the United States as a boy . He enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War and served in Cuba , and then re @-@ enlisted for service in the Philippine – American War . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1901 . In 1914 he was posted to the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . His regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border . After the United States commenced hostilities with Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) , and then its chief of staff . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School , and in October 1918 , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps .
Between the wars , Krueger served in a number of command and staff positions , and attended the Naval War College at his own request . In 1941 , he assumed command of the Third Army , which he led in the Louisiana Maneuvers . He expected , in view of his age , to spend the war at home training troops , but in 1943 he was sent to General Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area as commander of the Sixth Army and Alamo Force , which he led in a series of victorious campaigns against the Japanese . As an army commander , Krueger had to grapple with the problems imposed by vast distances , inhospitable terrain , unfavorable climate , and an indefatigable and dangerous enemy . He had to balance MacArthur 's need to speed up the tempo of operations in order to win campaigns with the more cautious approach of subordinates who often found themselves confronted by unexpectedly large numbers of Japanese troops . In the Battle of Luzon in 1945 , his largest , longest and last battle , he was finally able to maneuver his army as he had in 1941 against a Japanese army under Tomoyuki Yamashita .
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where he bought a house and wrote From Down Under to Nippon , an account of his campaigns in the Southwest Pacific . His retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman . His wife 's health deteriorated , and she died of cancer in 1956 . His daughter Dorothy stabbed her husband to death in 1952 . She was sentenced to life imprisonment by a court @-@ martial , but was freed by the Supreme Court in 1957 .
= = Education and early life = =
Walter Krueger was born in Flatow , West Prussia , then part of the German Empire , but now part of Poland . He was the son of Julius Krüger , a Prussian landowner who had served as an officer in the Franco @-@ Prussian War , and his wife , Anna , formerly Hasse . Following Julius 's death , Anna and her three children emigrated to the United States to be near her uncle in St. Louis , Missouri . Walter was then eight years old . In St. Louis , Anna married Emil Carl Schmidt , a Lutheran minister . The family subsequently settled in Madison , Indiana . Krueger was educated at the Upper Seminary School in Madison , and the Cincinnati Technical High School in Cincinnati , Ohio . As a teenager , he wanted to become a naval officer , but when his mother objected he decided to become a blacksmith instead .
= = Early military service = =
On 17 June 1898 , Krueger , along with many of his fellow high @-@ school students , enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War with the 2nd Volunteer Infantry . He reached Santiago de Cuba a few weeks after the Battle of San Juan Hill , and spent eight months there on occupation duties , rising to the rank of sergeant . Mustered out of the volunteers in February 1899 , he returned home to Ohio , planning to become a civil engineer .
However , many of his comrades were re @-@ enlisting for service in the Philippine – American War and in June 1899 Krueger re @-@ enlisted as a private in M Company of the 12th Infantry . Soon he was on his way to fight Emilio Aguinaldo 's Insurrectos as part of Major General Arthur MacArthur , Jr . ' s 2nd Infantry Division . He took part in the advance from Angeles City to Tarlac City , Aguinaldo 's capital . But Aguinaldo had fled , and the 12th Infantry pursued him vainly all the way through Luzon 's central plain to Dagupan City . While serving in an infantry unit in the Philippines , he was promoted to sergeant . On 1 July 1901 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and posted to the 30th Infantry on Marinduque .
Krueger returned to the United States with the 30th Infantry in December 1903 . The regiment moved to Fort Crook , Nebraska . In September 1904 , he married Grace Aileen Norvell , whom he had met in the Philippines . They had three children : James Norvell , born on 29 July 1905 ; Walter Jr . , born on 25 April 1910 ; and Dorothy Jane , who was born on 24 January 1913 . Both James and Walter Jr. attended the United States Military Academy , James graduating with the class of 1926 , and Walter Jr. with the class of 1931 . Dorothy married an Army officer , Aubrey D. Smith , of the class of 1930 .
In 1904 , Krueger attended and graduated from the Infantry @-@ Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . This was followed by the Command and General Staff College in 1907 . He then joined the 23rd Infantry at Fort Ontario , New York . After a second tour in the Philippines , he returned to the United States in June 1909 , and was assigned to Department of Languages at Fort Leavenworth as an instructor in Spanish , French and German , which he could speak fluently . He also taught National Guard officers at Camp Benjamin Harrison , Indiana , and Pine Camp , New York . He published translations of several German military texts , most notably William Balck 's Tactics . The book attracted the attention of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , Major General Leonard Wood , and was widely read .
= = World War I = =
With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Krueger was offered a post as an observer with the German Army but was forced to turn it down due to familial commitments . Instead , he was posted to the 10th Infantry of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . The regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border for five months as part of the Mexican Punitive Expedition under Major General John J. Pershing , although no National Guard units fought Mexican troops . The unit was mustered out in October 1916 . Afterwards , Krueger remained with the National Guard . He trained units , and helped establish a school for officers at the University of Pennsylvania . In an article in the Infantry Journal , he called for a large , national , conscript army similar to those of European countries , arguing that this would be in accord with America 's democratic values .
After the United States commenced hostilities against Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division at Camp Zachary Taylor as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) . He became its chief of staff , with the rank of major as of 5 August 1917 . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres , France , to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School . All officers from divisions that were not under orders for France were ordered to return home in May 1918 , but Krueger stayed on as G @-@ 3 of the 26th Infantry Division . The French Army requested that Krueger be sent home due to his German origin , and Krueger was re @-@ posted to the 84th Division , but he soon returned to France , as the 84th Division embarked for France in August 1918 . In October , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps . After the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in November 1918 , he became assistant chief of staff of VI and IV Corps on occupation duty , advancing to the rank of temporary colonel . For his service in the war , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1919 .
= = Interwar years = =
With the end of the war , Krueger returned to the United States on 22 June 1919 and was initially posted to the Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia . In 1920 , he assumed command of the 55th Infantry Regiment at Camp Funston , Kansas . He reverted to his permanent rank of captain on 30 June 1920 but was promoted to the permanent rank of major the next day . He attended the Army War College , graduating in 1921 , and remaining for a year as an instructor , where he taught such classes as the " Art of Command " . He paid a four @-@ month visit to Germany in 1922 as part of the War College 's Historical Section , during which he examined documents related to World War I in the German War Archives . These informed his lectures on the war , and he argued that much of the German Army 's effectiveness was attributable to its system of decentralized command . Krueger urged that American commanders in the field should be given wider latitude in carrying out their orders .
From 1922 to 1925 , Krueger served in the War Plans Division of the War Department General Staff in Washington , DC . Krueger worked on the United States color @-@ coded war plans , particularly War Plan Green , for another war with Mexico , and War Plan Blue , for another civil war in the United States . He traveled to the Panama Canal Zone in January 1923 to report on the state of the defenses there . After he returned , he was assigned to the Joint Army and Navy Planning Committee , an organ of the Joint Army and Navy Board responsible for coordinating war plans between the two services . While with the Joint Planning Committee , he worked on War Plan Orange , the plan for a war with Japan , and War Plan Tan , for a war with Cuba . Krueger considered the problems of inter @-@ service cooperation . At his own request , he attended the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , in 1925 and 1926 . He continued to ruminate on the nature of command . " Doctrine " , he wrote , " knits all the parts of the military force together in intellectual bonds . "
Krueger came to feel that the prospects for promotion in the infantry were very poor , and in 1927 he tried to transfer to the United States Army Air Corps . He attended the Air Corps Primary Flying School at Brooks Field , Texas , but suffered an attack of neuritis in his right arm , and his flight instructor , Lieutenant Claire Lee Chennault , failed him . In December 1927 , he was offered a position as an instructor at the Naval War College , where he taught classes on World War I , and on joint operations .
In June 1932 , Krueger became commander of the 6th Infantry Regiment at Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , where he was promoted to colonel again on 1 August 1932 . Now aged 51 , he became resigned to retiring as a colonel , but in 1934 he returned to the War Plans Division , becoming chief of the division in May 1936 , and was promoted to temporary brigadier general in October 1936 . In September 1938 , Krueger went to Fort George G. Meade , Maryland , as commander of the 16th Infantry Brigade . He was promoted to temporary major general in February 1939 , when he became commander of the 2nd Infantry Division at Fort Sam Houston , Texas . The 2nd Infantry Division was at the time being used as a test of the US Army 's new triangular division concept . As a result , Krueger made a series of suggestions as to how the organization could be improved . He became interested in the possibilities of mechanization and fast @-@ paced modern warfare , which were tested in maneuvers with his division . His troops called themselves the " Blitzkruegers " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Training in the United States = = =
Krueger became commander of IX Corps on 31 January 1940 . This corps was created to control units of the Third Army engaged in large scale maneuvers in 1940 , in which Krueger 's IX Corps conducted a series of mock battles against Walter Short 's IV Corps . On 27 June , Krueger became commander of the VIII Corps . On 16 May 1941 , he was promoted to lieutenant general , in command of the Third Army . He also became commander of the Southern Defense Command on 16 July 1941 . Krueger asked for — and got — Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower assigned to him as his chief of staff .
The Louisiana Maneuvers pitted Krueger 's Third Army against Lieutenant General Ben Lear 's Second Army . The maneuvers were a test ground for doctrine and equipment , and gave senior commanders experience in maneuvering their formations . In the first phase , Krueger quickly proved himself to be the more modern general . He responded adroitly to a changed battle situation by re @-@ orienting his front from northeast to northwest , and was able to inflict a series of reverses on Lear 's forces . In the second phase , Krueger had a superior force , and had to advance on Shreveport , Louisiana . Lear 's forces conducted a stubborn withdrawal , demolishing bridges in order to slow Krueger down . Krueger responded by sending Major General George S. Patton , Jr . ' s 2nd Armored Division on a wide flanking maneuver through Texas . Afterwards , Eisenhower became the head of the War Plans Division , and was replaced by Colonel Alfred M. Gruenther . After he too was transferred , Krueger replaced him with Colonel George B. Honnen .
Krueger wrote to a friend that
There 's nothing that I should like better than to have a command at the front . I should love to try to " rommel " Rommel . However , I am sure that younger men will be selected for tasks of that nature , in fact for all combat commands . I shall be 62 this coming January [ 1943 ] , and though I am in perfect health , can stand a lot of hardship and people tell me I look and act ten years younger , I do not delude myself .
= = = Sixth Army = = =
It therefore came as a surprise when Krueger was informed that a theater commander had requested his services . General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , said that he was " especially anxious to have Krueger due to my long and intimate association with him " . This too came as a surprise to Krueger ; while the two men had known each other for forty years , and Krueger had been chief of the War Plans Division when MacArthur was Chief of Staff , the two had never been close .
The War Department approved Krueger 's transfer to SWPA , but did not approve MacArthur 's request for Third Army headquarters . There were only three American divisions in SWPA : the 32nd Infantry Division at Rockhampton , Queensland , the 41st Infantry Division in the Buna area in Papua , and the 1st Marine Division in Melbourne , Victoria . The 1st Cavalry Division and the 24th Infantry Division were scheduled to arrive in 1943 , and other divisions would follow in 1944 , but for the time being there were much fewer troops than an army would normally control . The War Department therefore saw no need for a full strength army headquarters . Instead , Krueger had to make do with him a skeleton staff of a new Sixth Army , which was activated in January 1943 , with less than half the establishment strength of an army headquarters .
Krueger took with him several key members of the Third Army staff , including Brigadier General George Honnen as Chief of Staff , Colonel George H. Decker as Deputy Chief of Staff , Colonel George S. Price as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 ( Personnel ) , Colonel Horton V. White as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 ( Intelligence ) , Clyde Eddleman as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) and Colonel Kenneth Pierce as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 ( Supply ) . Honnen had health problems , and spent much of April , May and June 1943 in hospital before being ordered home on 18 June . He was replaced by Brigadier General Edwin D. Patrick , who had served on the staff of Admiral William F. Halsey in the South Pacific Area . Patrick did not get along smoothly with Krueger or the rest of the Sixth Army staff , and in May 1944 Patrick was appointed to command the 158th Regimental Combat Team , and Decker became chief of staff .
Command in the Southwest Pacific Area was complicated . Instead of operations being conducted by the Sixth Army , its headquarters was used for what became Alamo Force . As a task force , Alamo Force came directly under MacArthur , rather than under the Allied Land Forces . Krueger noted that " the inherent difficulties faced by my dual headquarters in planning and administration were aggravated by the command setup , which was a novel one to say the least . " Because Alamo Force was a purely operational entity , administration was handled by the United States Army Forces in the Far East . Although there was only one army staff , Alamo Force was in New Guinea while the main body of Sixth Army headquarters was in Brisbane until February 1944 , when the two were finally brought together . They still had a dual role as Alamo Force and Sixth Army until September , when Alamo Force was discontinued and the Sixth Army became directly responsible for operations .
= = = Bismarck Archipelago = = =
The geographical , engineering and logistical difficulties of conducting operations in SWPA were driven home by Alamo Force 's first operation , Operation Chronicle , the occupation of Woodlark and Kiriwina Islands in June 1943 . Despite the fact that the operation was unopposed by the Japanese , it was subject to delays . Krueger visited Kiriwina , where road work and airbase development were held up by heavy rains , on 11 July . He was dissatisfied with the rate of progress and relieved the task force commander . The arrival of additional engineers sped up the base development effort , and No. 79 Squadron RAAF commenced operations from Kiriwina on 18 August .
He was also concerned by reports of the invasion of Kiska in the Aleutian Islands in August 1943 , in which a large Allied force invaded an island that had already been evacuated by the Japanese . If this could happen , it was also possible that a force might attack where the Japanese were unexpectedly strong . Different levels of command sometimes came up with widely varying estimates of Japanese strength because they used different methods to estimate it .
An attempt to obtain information for Operation Dexterity , the attack on New Britain , with a joint Army @-@ Navy reconnaissance team raised issues of inter @-@ service cooperation . The Navy was mainly interested in gathering hydrographic data rather than information on the state of the Japanese defenders . Because of a breakdown in communications , the PT boat that was supposed to collect the team was unable to rendezvous with it , and the team had to spend eleven more days on the island . Finally , the Navy tried to prevent the Army commander from briefing Alamo Force headquarters on what had occurred .
Krueger decided that he needed to have his own strategic reconnaissance capability . In November 1943 , he formed the Alamo Scouts as a special unit for reconnaissance and raiding . An Alamo Scout Training Center for volunteers was established on Fergusson Island , not far from Alamo Force 's headquarters on Goodenough Island , under the command of Colonel Frederick W. Bradshaw , whom Krueger had first encountered during the Louisiana maneuvers . The top graduates of the six @-@ week training course were assigned to the Alamo Scouts ; the other graduates were returned to their units where they could be used for similar work . By the end of the war , Alamo Scouts teams had conducted 106 missions .
In what became a standard procedure in SWPA , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) nominated the objectives , set the target date , and allocated the troops to the operation , leaving Alamo Force to work out the details . MacArthur was not inflexible , however , and allowed Krueger to alter the staging areas , and postpone the operation by a month . Krueger 's concerns about the possibility of high casualties in securing the Gasmata area , and doubts as to whether the area was suitable for airbase development , led to it being dropped as a target . Arawe was substituted , and the size of the whole operation was scaled back . Krueger hoped to observe the 1st Marine Division 's landing at Cape Gloucester in December 1943 , but was unable to do so until the planning for the January 1944 landing at Saidor was complete . He crossed the Dampier Strait in a PT boat in stormy weather . PBY Catalinas sent to bring him back were unable to land , and he had to return on the destroyer USS Mullany .
Krueger accepted reports of a Japanese counterattack at Saidor , and sent reinforcements in response , but the attack did not eventuate . Because the 32nd Infantry Division was required for the upcoming Hansa Bay operation , he was initially reluctant to authorize it to block the trails behind the American beachhead . When he finally did so , it was too late . The retreating Japanese made good their escape , thereby defeating the whole purpose of the operation . The next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign in February 1944 , played out differently . Based on Fifth Air Force reports that the islands were unoccupied , MacArthur accelerated his timetable and ordered an immediate reconnaissance in force of the islands . Krueger sent in the Alamo Scouts , who confirmed that the islands were still well @-@ defended .
Krueger did what he could to accelerate the movement of units of Major General Innis P. Swift 's 1st Cavalry Division to the Admiralty Islands in response to urgent pleas from Brigadier General William C. Chase , who managed to defeat the numerically superior Japanese forces . Krueger was unimpressed with Chase . " His task " , Krueger wrote to Swift , " was undoubtedly a difficult one , but did not , in my judgment , warrant the nervousness apparent in some of his despatches . This , and his failure to obey repeated positive orders to furnish detailed information of his situation and his losses , his closing his radio station during long periods , and his evident ignorance that reinforcements could not reach him by the times he demanded , were not calculated to inspire confidence . "
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
Over the next few months , the tempo of operations increased , forcing the Sixth Army to plan and execute multiple operations simultaneously . Operations Reckless and Persecution in April 1944 together comprised the largest operation yet in SWPA , with the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions of Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger 's I Corps landing at Tanahmerah and Humboldt bays near Hollandia , while the 163rd Regimental Combat Team landed at Aitape . Eichelberger was Krueger 's most senior subordinate , but when he did not meet Krueger 's expectation , Krueger let him know in no uncertain terms . " In my more than 40 years as an officer " , Krueger told one of his staff , " I have never raised my voice to an enlisted man , but a corps commander should know better . "
Krueger visited the beachhead with MacArthur and Eichelberger on the first day . After inspecting the beachhead , they went to the USS Nashville for ice cream sodas , whereupon MacArthur suggested , in view of the victory at Hollandia , they could accelerate the campaign timetable by moving on to Wakde @-@ Sarmi immediately . Krueger was willing to consider the idea , although he had already ordered the troops designated for Wakde @-@ Sarmi , the 32nd Infantry Division , to reinforce the position at Aitape , where he expected a major Japanese counterattack . Eichelberger was vehemently opposed , and the matter was dropped .
Krueger moved his headquarters to Hollandia in May 1944 . The swampy area with its restricted anchorages proved unsuitable for a major airbase complex , although fighter strips were constructed , and it was developed as a staging area . MacArthur was compelled to press on with the Wakde @-@ Sarmi project lest his troops become stranded without adequate air cover . A shortage of shipping meant that the operation had to be carried out by the troops in the Hollandia area , so Krueger nominated the 163rd Regimental Combat Team for Wakde , while the rest of the 41st Infantry Division captured Sarmi . However , with only days to go , doubts surfaced about the viability of construction in the Sarmi area , and Biak was substituted . In view of the difficulties involved in changing plans , and moving the troops around , MacArthur agreed to postpone both operations , Wakde until 17 May and Biak to 27 May .
As a result , Alamo Force became involved in desperate fighting on three different fronts simultaneously . The landing at Wakde was opposed by nearly twice as many Japanese troops than had been expected . When Krueger discovered that the Japanese were massing for an assault on the American position , he ordered a pre @-@ emptive attack . " Krueger " , wrote Edward Drea , " was too good a soldier to stand pat and wait for a Japanese attack . " Official historian Robert Ross Smith noted that " This decision , based upon the scanty , incomplete information concerning Japanese strength and dispositions available to General Krueger at the time , was destined to precipitate a protracted and bitter fight . " However , even if Krueger had known the true size of the Japanese force , he might still , under the circumstances , have taken the same approach .
The estimates of the number of Japanese troops on Biak were out by a similar margin , resulting in heavy casualties . In the Battle of Biak , stubborn Japanese resistance halted the 41st Infantry Division , and forced its commander , Major General Horace H. Fuller , to appeal to Krueger for reinforcements . In response , Krueger sent the 163rd Regimental Combat Team from Wakde . MacArthur soon grew impatient , as he needed the airstrips on Biak to support Admiral Chester Nimitz 's Invasion of Saipan . Nimitz 's operation ultimately drew Japanese attention away from Biak . MacArthur put pressure on Krueger for results , and Krueger in turn put pressure on Fuller . Krueger decided that Fuller had too many responsibilities as both task force commander and division commander , and decided to supersede him by sending Eichelberger to take over the task force . Fuller then submitted his resignation . Eichelberger 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Clovis Byers , offered to have Decker intercept and destroy the resignation before Krueger saw it , but Fuller decided against this . The battle raged for nearly a month . Afterwards , Krueger demanded an explanation from Eichelberger as to why he had allowed Fuller to quit .
Meanwhile , Japanese forces under Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi attacked Alamo Force 's position at Aitape in the Battle of Driniumor River . Krueger called for an energetic defense , but the cautious commander of XI Corps , Major General Charles P. Hall , retained nine battalions around the airbase at Tadji . This left Brigadier General Clarence A. Martin without the resources to implement Krueger 's strategy , and he conducted a fighting withdrawal instead . Krueger travelled to Aitape where Hall presented him a counterattack plan , which he approved . By August , the fighting had ended and Adachi had been defeated .
= = = Philippines Campaign = = =
MacArthur accelerated his timetable yet again in September 1944 , and brought forward the planned invasion of Leyte to October 1944 . That this was the worst time of the year for campaigning on Leyte was not overlooked . Typhoons and heavy rains hampered the efforts to construct and rehabilitate airbases , and without them , large numbers of aircraft could not operate from Leyte . This meant not only that few air strikes could be flown in support of the Sixth Army , but that the Allied Air Forces could not prevent the Japanese from reinforcing Leyte . An additional five Japanese divisions and two mixed brigades were sent to Leyte , and the battle became one of grinding attrition . Able to view his troops in action more often than hitherto , Krueger found much to criticize . He noted that tanks were employed poorly , that the infantry were not aggressive enough , and saw poor sanitation and meals as a sign that officers were not taking adequate care of their men . Krueger 's generalship has also been questioned , with Ronald Spector criticizing " Krueger 's disastrous decision to delay the push into the mountains west of Carigara in favor of beach defense . " Krueger based his cautious appreciation of the situation on various intelligence sources rather than relying solely on Ultra .
In January 1945 , the Sixth Army embarked on its largest , longest and last campaign , the invasion of Luzon . Krueger intended to make " maximum utilization of America 's materiel and industrial superiority " . Once again , intelligence estimates of Japanese strength were questionable . MacArthur 's intelligence officer , Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby , basing his estimates on Ultra , believed that there were about 172 @,@ 000 Japanese troops on Luzon . Krueger 's intelligence officer , Colonel Horton V. White , reckoned that there were 234 @,@ 000 . MacArthur did not believe there were anywhere near that number . In fact , General Tomoyuki Yamashita had 287 @,@ 000 troops on Luzon . For the first time since Louisiana in 1941 , Krueger was able to maneuver his army as a single body instead of having elements employed on multiple battles on scattered islands . He regarded Yamashita 's employment of armor as poor . Instead of using the 2nd Armored Division for a decisive counterattack against the vulnerable flank , Yamashita frittered away its strength in piecemeal efforts .
As the campaign unfolded , Krueger was pressured by MacArthur to capture Manila . He sent messages reporting what he saw was a lack of drive among the troops , and even moved his theater headquarters forward of Krueger 's . MacArthur tried to exploit Krueger 's rivalry with Eichelberger by allowing the latter 's Eighth Army to conduct its own drive on Manila from the south . Krueger eventually sent a flying column from the 1st Cavalry Division , but MacArthur 's expectation that the Japanese would not defend Manila was proven incorrect . Weeks of ferocious fighting were required to capture the city .
Krueger was promoted to general on 5 March 1945 . MacArthur recommended Krueger for the rank , even as he clashed with him over the drive on Manila , and rated Krueger 's generalship higher than that of Patton or Omar Bradley . Krueger 's campaign on Luzon continued until 30 June 1945 , when he handed over responsibility to Eichelberger in order to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu .
This proved unnecessary when Japan surrendered , and in September 1945 the Sixth Army took up occupation duty in Japan . Krueger established his headquarters in Kyoto , and assumed responsibility for Kyushu , Shikoku and southern Honshu . The Sixth Army remained in Japan until it handed over its occupation responsibilities to the Eighth Army on 31 December 1945 . It was deactivated on 25 January 1946 , and Krueger retired in July . For his service as commander of the Sixth Army in World War II , Krueger was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal , and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . He was awarded a second oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his part in the Occupation of Japan .
= = Later life = =
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where , in February 1946 , he bought a house for the first time . Because of a large income tax bill left over from the war , he was unable to buy it outright and so some of his friends established the Krueger Fund Committee , which paid for much of the house . In retirement , Krueger was involved in a number of charity and community organizations , including the United Service Organization , the Red Cross , and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis , and he served as director of civil defense for San Antonio and Bexar County .
Colonel Horton White , Krueger 's former intelligence officer , approached him with an offer from George Edward Brett of Macmillan to publish his memoirs . Krueger did not wish to write an autobiography , which he felt was " invariably apt to be an apologia " , but was willing to write up an account of the Sixth Army 's exploits . He commenced work in 1947 , but the project proceeded slowly . The result was From Down Under to Nippon : The Story of the 6th Army In World War II , which was published in 1953 . Historians were disappointed with the book , as it recounted what was known from the Sixth Army 's reports , but provided little insight into the reasons why operations were conducted the way they were . Krueger kept in contact with his wartime colleagues . He was proud of the subsequent accomplishments of members of his wartime staff , and traveled to New York each year to celebrate MacArthur 's birthday with MacArthur and other former senior commanders of the Southwest Pacific Area . He lectured at Army Schools and civic organizations , offering opinions on subjects such as the value of training , the benefit of universal military service , and the need for a unified defense establishment .
Krueger 's retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman after a drunken incident . Grace 's health deteriorated , and she suffered from heart disease and high blood pressure . She was diagnosed with cancer in 1955 , and died on 13 May 1956 . Most dramatically , on 3 October 1952 , a lonely and depressed Dorothy fatally stabbed her husband , Colonel Aubrey D. Smith , with a hunting knife while he slept in their Army quarters in Japan . Dorothy , who felt that her husband now regarded her no more than " a clinging handicap to his professional career " , had turned to alcohol and drugs .
By six votes to three , a U.S. Army court @-@ martial found Dorothy Krueger guilty of first @-@ degree murder and sentenced her " to be confined at hard labor for the rest of her natural life " . A unanimous verdict of guilty would have made the death sentence mandatory . She was flown back to the United States in a Military Air Transport Service plane and was imprisoned at the Federal Prison Camp , Alderson , in West Virginia . The United States Court of Military Appeals rejected an appeal filed by Krueger 's lawyers that argued that Dorothy was not sane at the time of the incident , and that the testimony that the court @-@ martial had heard to the contrary was military rather than medical .
However , in 1955 , in a similar case involving another woman , Mrs. Clarice B. Covert , who had killed her husband in England with an axe , Federal District Court Judge Edward A. Tamm ruled that civilians who accompany military forces overseas could not be imprisoned by military courts . The two cases , Kinsella v. Krueger and Reid v. Covert , went to the US Supreme Court , which affirmed that military trials of civilians were indeed constitutional , only to reverse itself a year later in a review of the decisions . Dorothy was released , and went to live with Krueger in San Antonio .
When his old friend Fay Babson wrote a letter in 1960 complaining about not being promoted before retirement , Krueger replied that :
I wish you would compare your situation with mine for a moment . You are fortunate in having a loving wife by your side and three wonderful children . I , on the other hand , have lost my precious wife , my son Jimmie 's career ended in disgrace and my only daughter 's tragic action broke my heart . All the promotions and honors that have come to me cannot possibly outweigh these heartaches and disappointments . If true happiness is the aim of life — and I believe it is — then you are more fortunate than I and I would gladly trade with you .
= = Death and legacy = =
Krueger 's health began to decline in the late 1950s . He developed glaucoma in his right eye , and sciatica in his left hip . In 1960 , he had a hernia operation , followed by kidney surgery in 1963 . Nonetheless , he continued to attend MacArthur 's birthday in New York . He died from pneumonia at Valley Forge , Pennsylvania , on 20 August 1967 , and was buried in Section 30 of Arlington National Cemetery , among a number of family members . His papers are in the Cushing Memorial Library at Texas A & M University .
Although Krueger led a large force in operations over a large area for over two years , appearing on the cover of Time magazine on 20 January 1945 , and Krueger Middle School was named after him in San Antonio , Texas , in 1962 , he never became a well @-@ known figure like MacArthur . Krueger 's forte was what is today termed the operational level of war , transforming MacArthur 's strategic vision into reality . Krueger has usually been characterised as " an overly cautious commander who impeded MacArthur 's fast @-@ paced strategy . " William Manchester speculated that " the General knew his plodding subordinate was a useful counterweight to his own bravura " , and Edward Drea noted that at the Battle of the Drinumor , Krueger 's actions were " entirely out of keeping with his otherwise methodical and plodding generalship " . MacArthur wrote :
History has not given him due credit for his greatness . I do not believe that the annals of American history have shown his superior as an Army commander . Swift and sure in the attack , tenacious and determined in defense , modest and restrained in victory — I do not know what he would have been in defeat , because he was never defeated .
= = Awards = =
= = Dates of promotion = =
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= GE steam turbine locomotives =
The General Electric steam turbine locomotives were two steam turbine locomotives built by General Electric ( GE ) for Union Pacific ( UP ) in 1938 . The two units were streamlined , 90 feet 10 inches ( 27 @.@ 69 m ) in length , capable of producing 2 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) , and reputedly able to attain speeds of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) . Stylistically , they resembled contemporary Electro @-@ Motive Corporation ( EMC ) diesel designs , especially the UP 's M @-@ 10003 through M @-@ 10006 trainsets .
The two locomotives were delivered to UP in April 1939 , and they completed test runs and participated in a variety of publicity events for the railroad , including the grand opening of the Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal , the world premier of Cecil B. DeMille 's film Union Pacific , and even an inspection by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . While the locomotives displayed excellent acceleration and an ability to maintain schedules better than conventional steam locomotives , they also demonstrated serious reliability problems and relatively high maintenance costs ; they never entered regular revenue service .
In June 1939 , UP returned the locomotives to GE ; by December 1941 , the railroad had given up on the project . In 1941 , the GE steam turbine locomotives were tested by the New York Central , and they were operated by the Great Northern in 1943 during the World War II " power crunch " ( a lack of sufficient locomotives to sustain regular operations ) before being retired from service later that year . Ultimately , they were scrapped before the end of World War II .
= = Background = =
Development of the General Electric ( GE ) steam turbine locomotives began in late 1936 , when GE and the Union Pacific ( UP ) began collaborating on an oil @-@ powered steam turbine @-@ electric design that they termed a " steam @-@ electric locomotive " . To produce an altogether new type of locomotive , GE hoped to adopt mature steam turbine technology from maritime and stationary applications for railroad use . Early GE specifications detailed a streamlined shape , 2 + C @-@ C + 2 wheel arrangement , and production of 2 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) and 81 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 360 @,@ 000 N ) of starting tractive effort ( the force generated by a locomotive 's prime mover in order to generate motion through tractive force ) .
While GE had initially hoped to deliver a prototype steam turbine locomotive to UP in 1937 , none were completed until December 1938 , which were then delivered for testing in spring 1939 . In total , the two prototype locomotives had taken almost two years to complete .
= = Design = =
GE 's new steam turbine locomotives featured streamlined bodies with appearances somewhat similar to contemporary EMC diesel streamliner designs . The GE locomotives had lightweight bodies consisting of steel frames covered with riveted sheet metal , most of which was made of aluminum . They also had elevated cabs , similar to those of EMC 's M @-@ 10003 through M @-@ 10006 , which afforded greater visibility . The noses were significantly longer than the EMCs , at nine feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , which afforded safety for operating crews . In total , each unit measured 90 feet 10 inches ( 27 @.@ 69 m ) in length , 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in width ( at the cab ) , and 15 feet 3 ⁄ 4 inch ( 4 @.@ 591 m ) in height .
The February 1939 issue of General Electric Review claimed that each of the steam turbine locomotives could attain speeds of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) and that they had two times a conventional steam locomotive 's thermal efficiency . The two units built for UP were streamlined and capable of producing 2 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) , and had been designed to operate together " elephant style " , nose to tail . Fully loaded , each of the two locomotives weighed 548 @,@ 000 pounds ( 249 @,@ 000 kg ) . Each could produce 86 @,@ 500 pounds @-@ force ( 385 @,@ 000 N ) of starting tractive effort , and between 32 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 140 @,@ 000 N ) and 40 @,@ 500 pounds @-@ force ( 180 @,@ 000 N ) of continuous tractive effort , depending on the amount of cooling .
Both of the locomotives had Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers , as well as specialized Bailey Meter Company equipment designed to automatically fire and regulate the boiler . Each boiler regularly operated at 920 ° F ( 493 ° C ) and 1 @,@ 500 psi ( 10 @,@ 000 kPa ) to 1 @,@ 600 psi ( 11 @,@ 000 kPa ) , a boiler pressure higher than that of any extant steam locomotive and much higher than contemporary conventional steam locomotives . The GE locomotives stored enough oil to give them an operating range of 500 miles ( 800 km ) to 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) .
The turbines were designed to operate at 12 @,@ 500 rpm and were paired with a generator set with a 10 : 1 reduction gearing . A twin @-@ armature DC generator was used to power the traction motors , while a three @-@ phase , 220 @-@ volt AC generator provided auxiliary functions such as powering the traction motor blowers and providing head @-@ end power ; the latter , which was used to provide lighting , heating , and air conditioning to passenger cars , was incredibly unusual in 1939 and would not become standard until the 1970s .
Another feature that was ahead of its time was the use of dynamic brakes , where some ( or most ) of the braking effect is created by running the traction motors in reverse as generators , and then dissipating the generated electrical power in resistors to produce heat . In this case , the heat was generated in the locomotive as opposed to the more typically roof @-@ top open @-@ air coolers seen on most modern locomotives . The resistors were themselves cooled by the water from the steam loop , heating it . This allowed the braking energy to be recuperated , or as it is more typically known , offered regenerative braking .
The locomotives also used a gear ratio of 65 : 31 , as well as driving wheels with a diameter of 44 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) and 36 @-@ inch ( 910 mm ) -diameter guide and trailing wheels . Each also had a 2 + C @-@ C + 2 wheel arrangement , or 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T in Whyte notation . Although sold to UP together and promoted as a single 5 @,@ 000 @-@ horsepower ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) locomotive , the two units were capable of operation individually and independently of each other .
= = Operation = =
The locomotives were in operation only for six months , among the shortest operational careers in recorded railroading . After being completed in December 1938 , they were first tested by GE at its Erie , Pennsylvania facility , and then road tested on New York Central tracks between January and March 1939 . They were then delivered to UP in April 1939 at Omaha , Nebraska , in time for the 70th anniversary of the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in May , and given road numbers 1 and 2 . According to UP historians William Kratville and Harold Ranks , the new locomotives were hoped to be the " replacement to steam " and the " successor of diesels " . After completing test runs , UP put the locomotives on public display with tour trains , a national tour , and even an inspection by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . They were present at the grand opening of the Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal and were on display in Omaha for the world premier of Cecil B. DeMille 's film Union Pacific on April 28 .
During test runs , the locomotives displayed excellent acceleration and an ability to maintain schedules better than conventional steam engines , although they also demonstrated serious reliability problems and relatively high maintenance costs . On one occasion , the two locomotives broke down while hauling a train from Colorado to Omaha , necessitating a 2800 @-@ class Pacific steam locomotive to pull them along with the rest of the train for the remainder of the journey . The locomotives worked on several routes in a variety of different capacities , including both passenger and perishable freight service , although they never entered regular revenue service ; in June 1939 , the railroad returned them to GE in Chicago for what UP president W. M. Jeffers called " necessary modification and / or reconstruction " .
While UP retained interest in the concept of steam turbine locomotives for the next two years , in December 1941 it decided to end its agreement with GE . Rail transport author Brian Solomon opines that this was due to the development of other types of locomotives , particularly the 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 " Big Boy " steam locomotives , EMD E @-@ units , and EMD FT freight diesels , as well as a potential personnel change in the railroad 's motive power department in 1939 .
GE continued to work on its steam turbine locomotives after UP lost interest . In 1941 , the New York Central tested them along its Water Level Route in New York . During the " power crunch " on American railroads caused by World War II , in 1943 the steam turbine locomotives were operated by the Great Northern between Spokane and Wenatchee , Washington . By that point , they had been repainted a dark gray and renumbered GE @-@ 1 and GE @-@ 2 . According to a number of sources , including The Streamliner , they provided satisfactory service for GN . By late 1943 , the locomotives were retired from service and returned to GE . Ultimately , they were scrapped before the end of World War II .
= = Legacy = =
The GE steam turbine locomotives were both the first turbine locomotives to be built in North America as well as GE 's only steam @-@ powered locomotives .
In the words of history professor and author Jeffrey W. Schramm , the locomotives " were the most ambitious and technologically advanced locomotives to have traveled American rails to that point . " UP historian Alfred Bruce described the design as " one of the most exceptional steam locomotives ever built " .
UP steam turbine locomotives # 1 and # 2 have been reproduced in model form by Overland Models .
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= HMS Caradoc ( D60 ) =
HMS Caradoc was a C @-@ class light cruiser built for the Royal Navy during World War I. She was one of the four ships of the Caledon sub @-@ class . Assigned to the Grand Fleet during the war , the ship participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in late 1917 . Caradoc was briefly deployed to the Baltic in late 1918 supporting anti @-@ Bolshevik forces during the British campaign in the Baltic and then was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1919 and spent the next year and a half doing the same thing in the Black Sea during the Russian Civil War . The ship was withdrawn from the Black Sea in mid @-@ 1920 to observe the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 22 and the Chanak Crisis of late 1922 . Caradoc spent most of the rest of her time between the World Wars overseas or in reserve with deployments to the Far East and the North America and West Indies Station .
Recommissioned before the start of World War II in September 1939 , she returned to the North American Station where she helped to intercepted two German blockade @-@ runners . The ship was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in early 1942 , but saw no action before she was converted into a training ship in mid @-@ 1943 in South Africa . Caradoc was sent to Ceylon where she became an accommodation ship in 1944 . She briefly became the fleet flagship in August 1945 before returning home later in the year . The ship was placed in reserve at the end of the year and sold for scrap in early 1946 .
= = Design and description = =
The C @-@ class cruisers were intended to escort the fleet and defend it against enemy destroyers attempting to close within torpedo range . The Caledon sub @-@ class was a slightly larger and improved version of the preceding Centaur sub @-@ class with a more powerful armament . The ships were 450 feet 6 inches ( 137 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 42 feet 3 inches ( 12 @.@ 9 m ) and a deep draught of 18 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) . Displacement was 4 @,@ 238 long tons ( 4 @,@ 306 t ) at normal and 4 @,@ 911 long tons ( 4 @,@ 990 t ) at deep load . Caradoc was powered by two geared Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , which produced a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) . The turbines used steam generated by six Yarrow boilers which gave her a speed of about 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . She carried 935 long tons ( 950 t ) tons of fuel oil . The ship had a crew of about 400 officers and other ranks ; this increased to 437 when serving as a flagship .
The main armament of the Caledon @-@ class ships consisted of five BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns that were mounted on the centreline . One gun was forward of the bridge , two were fore and aft of the two funnels and the last two were in the stern , with one gun superfiring over the rearmost gun . The two QF 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 20 @-@ cwt anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were positioned abreast the fore funnel . The torpedo armament of the Caledons was four times more powerful than that of the Centaurs , with eight 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in four twin mounts , two on each broadside . The Caledons were protected by a waterline belt : 1 @.@ 5 – 3 in ( 38 – 76 mm ) thick and had a protective deck that was 1 in ( 25 mm ) thick over the steering gear . The walls of the conning tower had a thickness of 3 inches .
= = Construction and career = =
Caradoc , the second ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was ordered in December 1915 as part of the 1915 – 16 War Programme . The ship was laid down by Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company at their Greenock shipyard on 21 February 1916 . She was launched on 23 December 1916 and completed on 15 June 1917 . She was assigned to the 6th Light Cruiser Squadron ( LCS ) of the Grand Fleet together with three other C @-@ class cruisers . With her sister Cassandra , she ran aground on Fair Isle on 15 August , but both ships were successfully refloated .
Caradoc was back in action by 17 November when she participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . This was a successful attempt by the British to intercept German minesweeping forces that were clearing British minefields in the North Sea . The 6th LCS screened the two light Courageous @-@ class battlecruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron during the battle together with the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron . The British lost the German minesweepers in the smoke screen laid by the four German light cruisers and pursued the latter ships for most of the battle , although they inflicted little damage in the poor visibility caused by the German smoke . Caradoc , being the rear ship in her squadron , fired the least . She did not score any hits on her opponents , nor did they damage her .
In 1917 – 18 , her conning tower was replaced by an enlarged bridge and her 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders were exchanged for 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) models . In November 1918 , the ship was based at Rosyth and escorted the German High Seas Fleet as they sailed to Scapa Flow on 21 November to be interned . A few days later , the 6th LCS was ordered to the Baltic Sea to support the Baltic States as they attempted to secure their independence from Russia . While stopped in Copenhagen , Denmark , en route , Caradoc pulled off the collier , SS Tregarth , after she had run aground . Together with her half @-@ sister Cardiff and five destroyers , the ship bombarded Bolshevik positions with 155 six @-@ inch shells east of Reval ( Tallinn ) , Estonia , on 14 December and brought the Russian offensive to a halt after they destroyed the one bridge connecting them with Petrograd . Almost two weeks later , she helped to capture the Russian destroyer Avtroil near Reval on 27 December , which was later turned over to the Estonians . At the beginning of January 1919 , Caradoc and her sister Calypso ferried 500 Finnish volunteers from Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) to Reval and then bombarded the Bolsheviks in conjunction with an Estonian offensive on 4 January . The 6th LCS was recalled immediately afterwards and arrived back in Rosyth on 10 January .
The ship was transferred to the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet on 29 February . By 19 April she was stationed in the Crimea in support of the anti @-@ Bolshevik Volunteer Army . On 22 April , aerial reconnaissance reported that the Red Army was massing at Kaffa Bay in the town of Vladislovovka . The Greek battleship Lemnos and Caradoc bombarded the town , forcing the Soviet forces to withdraw . Joined by her half @-@ sister Centaur , and the destroyer Parthian , Caradoc and Lemnos again bombarded Soviet troops two days later , this time in the village of Parpach . On 2 May , Caradoc and the newly arrived battleship Emperor of India helped to break up a Bolshevik attack . Three months later , she was hit by three 3 @-@ inch shells as she engaged Bolshevik coastal artillery at Ochakov , but suffered no casualties or damage . Later that month , she supported an amphibious landing by the Volunteer Army near Odessa . In mid @-@ October , the ship supported a Volunteer Army offensive near Yalta .
By April 1920 , Caradoc was deployed off the coast of Georgia supporting the Volunteer Army against the Bolsheviks and continued to do so through May . She was withdrawn from Georgia in June in response to the Greek offensives during the Greco @-@ Turkish War and arrived in Istanbul on 18 June . During the Chanak Crisis of September 1922 , the ship was deployed to watch the Gulf of Smyrna . Caradoc participated in the withdrawal of ships from Turkish waters in December 1922 as the Treaty of Lausanne that ended the war was being negotiated . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until December 1926 when she was briefly transferred to the China Station . Around 1924 – 26 , she was fitted with a pair of 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) Mk II " pom @-@ pom " AA guns . After returning home , Caradoc began a lengthy refit from 15 September 1927 to October 1928 when she was assigned to the North America and West Indies Station . The ship remained there until February 1930 when she returned to the UK and was briefly placed in reserve . Caradoc was recommissioned in July for service on the China Station with the 5th Cruiser Squadron . She returned home four years later and was again placed in reserve on 17 October 1934 .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the beginning of the war on 3 September 1939 , Caradoc was at Portland Harbour and was reassigned to operate off the North American coast shortly afterwards . The following month , she ferried £ two million of gold to Halifax , Nova Scotia . On 23 October the light cruiser Orion and the Canadian destroyer Saguenay spotted the German oil tanker Emmy Friedrich in the Yucatan Channel . When Caradoc stopped the ship , the Germans scuttled her ship to prevent her capture . On 11 December 1940 the German blockade runner Rhein was intercepted by the Dutch sloop Van Kinsbergen west of the Florida Strait . Rhein was set on fire by her own crew to prevent her capture and the wreck was sunk later that day by Caradoc . The ship was refitted in New York City between 28 October 1941 – 26 February 1942 where her " pom @-@ pom " s were exchanged for five 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns on single mounts . In addition Caradoc was fitted with a Type 271 and Type 290 surface @-@ search radars .
The ship was then assigned to the Eastern Fleet where she remained until 1943 . She was converted into a gunnery training ship in Durban , South Africa , between 21 June – 3 July , and was transferred to Colombo , Ceylon , in 1944 . Caradoc became an accommodation ship in April 1944 and then the flagship of the East Indies Fleet , as the Eastern Fleet had been renamed , in August 1945 . She was placed in reserve in December 1945 after she returned home . The ship was sold for scrap on 5 April 1946 and subsequently broken up at Briton Ferry , Wales .
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= Extratropical cyclone =
Extratropical cyclones , sometimes called mid @-@ latitude cyclones or wave cyclones , are low @-@ pressure areas , which along with the anticyclones of high @-@ pressure areas , drive the weather over much of the Earth . Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales and thunderstorms . These types of cyclones are defined as large scale ( synoptic ) low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth . In contrast with tropical cyclones , they produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines about the center of the cyclone called weather fronts .
= = Terminology = =
The term " cyclone " applies to numerous types of low pressure areas , one of which is the extratropical cyclone . The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics in the middle latitudes of Earth between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude . They are termed mid @-@ latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes , or post @-@ tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes . Weather forecasters and the general public often describe them simply as " depressions " or " lows " . Terms like frontal cyclone , frontal depression , frontal low , extratropical low , non @-@ tropical low and hybrid low are often used as well .
Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic , because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones . They can become barotropic late in their life cycle , when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius .
= = Formation = =
Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the extratropical regions of the Earth ( usually between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude from the equator ) , either through cyclogenesis or extratropical transition . A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels , there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6 @-@ hour period . A separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter .
= = = Cyclogenesis = = =
Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature / dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear , and are thus classified as baroclinic cyclones . Initially , cyclogenesis , or low pressure formation , occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak . The favorable quadrants are usually at the right rear and left front quadrants , where divergence ensues . The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column . This in turn forces convergence in the low @-@ level wind field and increased upward motion within the column . The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower . This is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity , lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location . The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone ( a low pressure system ) . As the cyclone strengthens , the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone . Meanwhile , its associated warm front progresses more slowly , as the cooler air ahead of the system is denser , and therefore more difficult to dislodge . Later , the cyclones occlude as the poleward portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front , forcing a tongue , or trowal , of warm air aloft . Eventually , the cyclone will become barotropically cold and begin to weaken .
Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are strong upper level forces on the system . When pressures fall more than 1 millibar ( 0 @.@ 030 inHg ) per hour , the process is called explosive cyclogenesis , and the cyclone can be described as a ( weather ) bomb . These bombs rapidly drop in pressure to below 980 millibars ( 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) under favorable conditions such as near a natural temperature gradient like the Gulf Stream , or at a preferred quadrant of an upper level jet streak , where upper level divergence is best . The stronger the upper level divergence over the cyclone , the deeper the cyclone can become . Hurricane @-@ force extratropical cyclones are most likely to form in the northern Atlantic and northern Pacific oceans in the months of December and January . On 14 and 15 December 1986 , an extratropical cyclone near Iceland deepened to below 920 hectopascals ( 27 inHg ) , which is a pressure equivalent to a category 5 hurricane . In the Arctic , the average pressure for cyclones is 980 millibars ( 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) during the winter , and 1 @,@ 000 millibars ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) during the summer .
= = = Extratropical transition = = =
Tropical cyclones often transform into extratropical cyclones at the end of their tropical existence , usually between 30 ° and 40 ° latitude , where there is sufficient forcing from upper @-@ level troughs or shortwaves riding the Westerlies for the process of extratropical transition to begin . During this process , a cyclone in extratropical transition ( known across the eastern North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans as the post @-@ tropical stage ) , will invariably form or connect with nearby fronts and / or troughs consistent with a baroclinic system . Due to this , the size of the system will usually appear to increase , while the core weakens . However , after transition is complete , the storm may re @-@ strengthen due to baroclinic energy , depending on the environmental conditions surrounding the system . The cyclone will also distort in shape , becoming less symmetric with time .
During extratropical transition , the cyclone begins to tilt back into the colder airmass with height , and the cyclone 's primary energy source converts from the release of latent heat from condensation ( from thunderstorms near the center ) to baroclinic processes . The low pressure system eventually loses its warm core and becomes a cold @-@ core system .
The peak time of subtropical cyclogenesis ( the midpoint of this transition ) in the North Atlantic is in the months of September and October , when the difference between the temperature of the air aloft and the sea surface temperature is the greatest , leading to the greatest potential for instability . On rare occasions , an extratropical cyclone can transit into a tropical cyclone if it reaches an area of ocean with warmer waters and an environment with less vertical wind shear . An example of this happening is in the 1991 Perfect Storm . The process known as " tropical transition " involves the usually slow development of an extratropically cold core vortex into a tropical cyclone .
The Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses the extratropical transition ( XT ) technique to subjectively estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones becoming extratropical based on visible and infrared satellite imagery . Loss of central convection in transitioning tropical cyclones can cause the Dvorak technique to fail ; the loss of convection results in unrealistically low estimates using the Dvorak technique . The system combines aspects of the Dvorak technique , used for estimating tropical cyclone intensity , and the Hebert @-@ Poteat technique , used for estimating subtropical cyclone intensity . The technique is applied when a tropical cyclone interacts with a frontal boundary or loses its central convection while maintaining its forward speed or accelerating . The XT scale corresponds to the Dvorak scale and is applied in the same way , except that " XT " is used instead of " T " to indicate that the system is undergoing extratropical transition . Also , the XT technique is only used once extratropical transition begins ; the Dvorak technique is still used if the system begins dissipating without transition . Once the cyclone has completed transition and become cold @-@ core , the technique is no longer used .
= = Structure = =
= = = Surface pressure and wind distribution = = =
The windfield of an extratropical cyclone constricts with distance in relation to surface level pressure , with the lowest pressure being found near the center , and the highest winds typically just on the cold / poleward side of warm fronts , occlusions , and cold fronts , where the pressure gradient force is highest . The area poleward and west of the cold and warm fronts connected to extratropical cyclones is known as the cold sector , while the area equatorward and east of its associated cold and warm fronts is known as the warm sector .
The wind flow around an extratropical cyclone is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere , and clockwise in the southern hemisphere , due to the Coriolis effect ( this manner of rotation is generally referred to as cyclonic ) . Near this center , the pressure gradient force ( from the pressure at the center of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone ) and the Coriolis force must be in an approximate balance for the cyclone to avoid collapsing in on itself as a result of the difference in pressure . The central pressure of the cyclone will lower with increasing maturity , while outside of the cyclone , the sea @-@ level pressure is about average . In most extratropical cyclones , the part of the cold front ahead of the cyclone will develop into a warm front , giving the frontal zone ( as drawn on surface weather maps ) a wave @-@ like shape . Due to their appearance on satellite images , extratropical cyclones can also be referred to as frontal waves early in their life cycle . In the United States , an old name for such a system is " warm wave " .
In the northern hemisphere , once a cyclone occludes , a trough of warm air aloft — or " trowal " for short — will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast , and ultimately into its northwestern periphery ( also known as the warm conveyor belt ) , forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front . The trowal creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head , due to the comma @-@ like shape of the mid @-@ tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature . It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation , with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the trowal is unstable enough for convection .
= = = Vertical structure = = =
Extratropical cyclones slant back into colder air masses and strengthen with height , sometimes exceeding 30 @,@ 000 feet ( approximately 9 km ) in depth . Above the surface of the earth , the air temperature near the center of the cyclone is increasingly colder than the surrounding environment . These characteristics are the direct opposite of those found in their counterparts , tropical cyclones ; thus , they are sometimes called " cold @-@ core lows " . Various charts can be examined to check the characteristics of a cold @-@ core system with height , such as the 700 millibars ( 20 @.@ 67 inHg ) chart , which is at about 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 048 meters ) in height . Cyclone phase diagrams are used to tell whether a cyclone is tropical , subtropical , or extratropical .
= = Cyclone evolution = =
There are two models of cyclone development and lifecycles in common use — the Norwegian model and the Shapiro @-@ Keyser Model .
= = = Norwegian cyclone model = = =
Of the two theories on extratropical cyclone structure and life cycle , the older is the Norwegian Cyclone Model , developed during World War I. In this theory , cyclones develop as they move up and along a frontal boundary , eventually occluding and reaching a barotropically cold environment . It was developed completely from surface @-@ based weather observations , including descriptions of clouds found near frontal boundaries . This theory still retains merit , as it is a good description for extratropical cyclones over continental landmasses .
= = = Shapiro @-@ Keyser model = = =
A second competing theory for extratropical cyclone development over the oceans is the Shapiro @-@ Keyser model , developed in 1990 . Its main differences with the Norwegian Cyclone Model are the fracture of the cold front , treating warm @-@ type occlusions and warm fronts as the same , and allowing the cold front to progress through the warm sector perpendicular to the warm front . This model was based on oceanic cyclones and their frontal structure , as seen in surface observations and in previous projects which used aircraft to determine the vertical structure of fronts across the northwest Atlantic .
= = = = Warm seclusion = = = =
A warm seclusion is the mature phase of the extratropical cyclone lifecycle . This was conceptualized after the ERICA field experiment of the late 1980s , which produced observations of intense marine cyclones that indicated an anomalously warm low @-@ level thermal structure , secluded ( or surrounded ) by a bent @-@ back warm front and a coincident chevron @-@ shaped band of intense surface winds . The Norwegian Cyclone Model , as developed by the Bergen School of Meteorology , largely observed cyclones at the tail end of their lifecycle and used the term occlusion to identify the decaying stages .
Warm seclusions may have cloud @-@ free , eye @-@ like features at their center ( reminiscent of tropical cyclones ) , significant pressure falls , hurricane @-@ force winds , and moderate to strong convection . The most intense warm seclusions often attain pressures less than 950 millibars ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) with a definitive lower to mid @-@ level warm core structure . A warm seclusion , the result of a baroclinic lifecycle , occurs at latitudes well poleward of the tropics .
As latent heat flux releases are important for their development and intensification , most warm seclusion events occur over the oceans ; they may impact coastal nations with hurricane force winds and torrential rain . Climatologically , the Northern Hemisphere sees warm seclusions during the cold season months , while the Southern Hemisphere may see a strong cyclone event such as this during all times of the year .
In all tropical basins , except the Northern Indian Ocean , the extratropical transition of a tropical cyclone may result in reintensification into a warm seclusion . For example , Hurricane Maria of 2005 reintensified into a strong baroclinic system and achieved warm seclusion status at maturity ( or lowest pressure ) .
= = Motion = =
Extratropical cyclones are generally driven , or " steered " , by deep westerly winds in a general west to east motion across both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the Earth . This general motion of atmospheric flow is known as " zonal " . Where this general trend is the main steering influence of an extratropical cyclone , it is known as a " zonal flow regime " .
When the general flow pattern buckles from a zonal pattern to the meridional pattern , a slower movement in a north or southward direction is more likely . Meridional flow patterns feature strong , amplified troughs and ridges , generally with more northerly and southerly flow .
Changes in direction of this nature are most commonly observed as a result of a cyclone 's interaction with other low pressure systems , troughs , ridges , or with anticyclones . A strong and stationary anticyclone can effectively block the path of an extratropical cyclone . Such blocking patterns are quite normal , and will generally result in a weakening of the cyclone , the weakening of the anticyclone , a diversion of the cyclone towards the anticyclone 's periphery , or a combination of all three to some extent depending on the precise conditions . It is also common for an extratropical cyclone to strengthen as the blocking anticyclone or ridge weakens in these circumstances .
Where an extratropical cyclone encounters another extratropical cyclone ( or almost any other kind of cyclonic vortex in the atmosphere ) , the two may combine to become a binary cyclone , where the vortices of the two cyclones rotate around each other ( known as the " Fujiwhara effect " ) . This most often results in a merging of the two low pressure systems into a single extratropical cyclone , or can less commonly result in a mere change of direction of either one or both of the cyclones . The precise results of such interactions depend on factors such as the size of the two cyclones , their strength , their distance from each other , and the prevailing atmospheric conditions around them .
= = Effects = =
= = = General = = =
Extratropical cyclones can bring mild weather with a little rain and surface winds of 15 – 30 km / h ( 9 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 6 mph ) , or they can be cold and dangerous with torrential rain and winds exceeding 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) , ( sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe ) . The band of precipitation that is associated with the warm front is often extensive . In mature extratropical cyclones , an area known as the comma head on the northwest periphery of the surface low can be a region of heavy precipitation , frequent thunderstorms , and thundersnows . Cyclones tend to move along a predictable path at a moderate rate of progress . During fall , winter , and spring , the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall .
= = = Severe weather = = =
Squall lines , or solid bands of strong thunderstorms , can form ahead of cold fronts and lee troughs due to the presence of significant atmospheric moisture and strong upper level divergence , leading to hail and high winds . When significant directional wind shear exists in the atmosphere ahead of a cold front in the presence of a strong upper level jet stream , tornado formation is possible . Although tornadoes can form anywhere on Earth , the greatest number occur in the Great Plains in the United States , because downsloped winds off the north @-@ south oriented Rocky Mountains , which can form a dryline , aid their development at any strength .
Explosive development of extratropical cyclones can be sudden . The storm known in the UK as the " Great Storm of 1987 " deepened to 953 millibars ( 28 @.@ 14 inHg ) with a highest recorded wind of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , resulting in the loss of 19 lives , 15 million trees , widespread damage to homes and an estimated economic cost of £ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 billion ) .
Although most tropical cyclones that become extratropical quickly dissipate or are absorbed by another weather system , they can still retain winds of hurricane or gale force . In 1954 , Hurricane Hazel became extratropical over North Carolina as a strong Category 3 storm . The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 , which evolved from the remains of Typhoon Freda , caused heavy damage in Oregon and Washington , with widespread damage equivalent to at least a Category 3 . In 2005 , Hurricane Wilma began to lose tropical characteristics while still sporting Category 3 @-@ force winds ( and became fully extratropical as a Category 1 storm ) .
= = = Climate and general circulation = = =
In the classic analysis by Edward Lorenz ( the Lorenz Energy Cycle ) , extratropical cyclones ( so @-@ called atmospheric transients ) acts as a mechanism in converting potential energy that is created by pole to equator temperature gradients to eddy kinetic energy . In the process , the pole @-@ equator temperature gradient is reduced ( i.e. energy is transported poleward to warm up the higher latitudes ) .
The existence of such transients are also closely related to the formation of the Icelandic and Aleutian Low — the two most prominent general circulation features in the mid- to sub @-@ polar northern latitudes . The two lows are formed by both the transport of kinetic energy and the latent heating ( the energy released when water phase changed from vapor to liquid during precipitation ) from the extratropical cyclones .
= = Historic storms = =
A violent storm during the Crimean War on November 14 , 1854 , wrecked 30 vessels , and sparked initial investigations into meteorology and forecasting in Europe . In the United States , the Columbus Day Storm of 1962 , one of many Pacific Northwest windstorms , led to Oregon 's lowest measured pressure of 965 @.@ 5 hPa ( 96 @.@ 55 kPa ; 28 @.@ 51 inHg ) , violent winds , and US $ 170 million in damage ( 1964 dollars ) . The " Wahine storm " was an extratropical cyclone that struck Wellington , New Zealand on April 10 , 1968 , so named after causing the inter @-@ island ferry TEV Wahine to strike a reef and founder at the entrance to Wellington Harbour , resulting in 53 deaths . On November 10 , 1975 , an extratropical storm on Lake Superior contributed to the sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald near the US / Canadian border , 15 NM northwest of the entrance to Whitefish Bay . A rapidly strengthening storm struck Vancouver Island on October 11 , 1984 , and inspired the development of moored buoys off the western coast of Canada . The Braer Storm of January 1993 was the strongest extratropical cyclone known to occur across the northern Atlantic ocean , with a central pressure of 914 millibars ( 27 @.@ 0 inHg ) . In 2012 , Hurricane Sandy transitioned to a post @-@ tropical cyclone on the night of October 29 ; a few minutes later it made landfall on the New Jersey coast as an extratropical storm with winds similar to a Category 1 hurricane and a wind field of over 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) .
In the Southern Hemisphere , a violent extratropical storm hit Uruguay on August 23 – 24 , 2005 , killing 10 people . The system 's winds exceeded 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) while Montevideo , the country 's capital with 1 @.@ 5 million inhabitants , was affected by tropical storm @-@ force winds for over 12 hours and by hurricane @-@ force winds for nearly four hours . Peak gusts were registered at Carrasco International Airport as 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) and at the Harbour of Montevideo as 116 mph ( 187 km / h ) . The lowest reported pressure was 991 @.@ 7 hPa ( 99 @.@ 17 kPa ; 29 @.@ 28 inHg ) . Extratropical cyclones are common in this part of the globe during fall , winter and spring months . The winds usually peak to 80 – 110 km / h ( 50 – 68 mph ) , and winds of 116 mph ( 187 km / h ) are very uncommon .
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= Pattillo Higgins =
Pattillo Higgins ( December 5 , 1863 – June 5 , 1955 ) was a businessman as well as a self @-@ taught geologist . He earned the nickname the " Prophet of Spindletop " for his endeavors in the oil business , which accrued a fortune for many . He partnered to form the Gladys City Oil Gas and Manufacturing Company and later , established the Higgins Standard Oil Company .
= = Early life = =
Pattillo Higgins was born to Roberto James and Sarah ( Raye ) Higgins on December 5 , 1863 , in Sabine Pass , Texas . His family moved to Beaumont when he was at six years old . He attended school until he reached the fourth grade , after which he apprenticed as a gunsmith under his father ’ s direction . In his youth , he was a violent troublemaker , pulling pranks and harassing African Americans . When he was seventeen , he pulled a prank on a black Baptist church that got the attention of a sheriff deputy . The deputy fired a warning shot over Higgins ' head , after which Higgins fired back and delivered what would later turn out to be a fatal hit . The wounded deputy managed to fire again , striking Higgins lower left arm . Higgins ' arm would later become severely infected , requiring amputation from the elbow down . Higgins was put on trial for the murder of the deputy , but he would be found not guilty by a jury that perceived his act as self @-@ defense . After his acquittal , he worked as a logger along the Texas @-@ Louisiana border , apparently unhindered by his lack of an arm . It was in 1885 that he attended a Baptist revival meeting where he made the decision to become a Christian . Realizing that the lumber camps were not the ideal place to maintain a good morality , he decided to return to Beaumont , Texas to establish himself as a businessman .
= = Higgins ’ venture into business = =
Higgins ventured into real estate at first , and with the money that he saved as a logger , he started the Higgins Manufacturing Company to manufacture bricks . The business sparked his interest in oil and gas , as he used it for his kilns to burn the bricks evenly . He decided to travel to Pennsylvania to learn about these fuels and study the geographical features that give signs to the presence of underground oil . Studying geology on his own , he dedicated himself to finding these clues by reading all the United States Geological Survey reports and books that he could find . The details he learned reminded him of what some Beaumont locals back home referred to as " Sour Hill Mound " , a place where he frequently brought his Sunday school students for outings . This mound was described as " sour " due to the unpleasant sulfur smell that came out of the springs around it . Convinced that this salt dome mound had oil below it , Higgins first partnered with George O 'Brien , George Carroll , Emma John , and J.F. Lanier to form the Gladys City Oil , Gas , and Manufacturing Company in 1892 . It was during this time that other formally trained geologists dismissed the idea of finding oil along the gulf coast region of the United States . Higgins ' personal integrity was even challenged by the local newspaper . However , his informal training in geology influenced his belief that the Spindletop field contained oil below due to the presence of mineral water and gas seepage , and he managed to convince the partners to proceed with the venture . Work began the following year , but all three of the shallow drilling attempts failed to locate oil due to the shifting sands and unstable clay under the hill . Higgins held onto his ownership and leases of land over the salt dome , but resigned from the company .
= = = Partnership with Anthony Lucas = = =
Unwilling to give up hope of striking oil , Higgins placed numerous ads in industrial magazines and trade journals in an effort to spark others ' interests in the prospect of hitting a successful well at the site . Only one man responded to the ads , a Croatian @-@ American named Anthony Francis Lucas . Lucas signed agreements with the Gladys City Company and also with Higgins in 1899 , and in June of the following year , he began to drill . The first well Lucas made with his light equipment collapsed after reaching 575 feet ( 175 m ) . This failure exhausted the partners ' finances , so Lucas turned to John H. Galey and James M. Guffey in Pittsburgh for backing . The terms set forth by Guffey ( who held and controlled the funds ) limited Lucas ’ percentage cut to a small amount , and eliminated Higgins and cut him completely from the deal .
= = = The Lucas Gusher at Spindletop = = =
In late October 1900 , with the help of the experienced crew of Al and Curt Hamill from Corsicana , drilling began again . This time , the drilling would be done using a newer , heavier , and more efficient rotary type bit . Over the next several months , work was difficult maintaining the drilling through the underground sands . On January 10 , 1901 , the six tons of four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) drilling pipe began to shoot up out of the hole , sending the roughnecks fleeing for safety . The geyser shot oil over 150 feet ( 46 m ) high and flowed an estimated 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . The well was at a depth of 1 @,@ 020 feet ( 310 m ) , and as it turns out , was at the precise location as initially predicted by Higgins . The well would not have struck oil if it had been drilled just 50 feet ( 15 m ) to the south . The well , which was dubbed " Lucas 1 " , had an initial flow rate greater than all of the oil wells in the United States combined in that day . The Spindletop oilfield churned out over 3 million barrels ( 480 @,@ 000 m3 ) the first year of operation , and over 17 million barrels ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) the following year . This effectively brought an end to John D. Rockefeller ’ s world monopoly .
= = = Lawsuit against Lucas and the Gladys City Company = = =
Higgins sued Lucas and Gladys City Oil , Gas and Manufacturing Company for royalties , using the basis that the second lease was invalid due to the fact the first lease had not yet expired when the second was enacted . After the parties settled out of court , Higgins formed the Higgins Oil and Fuel Company located at the center of Spindletop . This company was vulnerable to takeover bids due to Higgins ' over @-@ zealous land prospecting , which enabled the lumber baron and businessman John Henry Kirby to overtake his ownership in 1902 by purchasing his shares of the company for $ 3 million . Higgins maintained his leasing rights to his land , and would establish the Higgins Standard Oil Company . He later established other wells with various investors , with an eccentric habit of pulling his interests out , leaving the majority of the profits for others .
= = Higgins ' later life and death = =
Higgins ' lifestyle was varied in interests and occupations . Along with working as a wildcatter , his diverse activities involved drafting , work as an inventor , an artist , as well as an engineer to name a few . His religious beliefs kept him away from public entertainment and resorts , as well as maintaining a strong belief against the selling of alcohol . In addition to residing in Beaumont , he owned estates in Houston and San Antonio . He remained a bachelor until the age of 45 . In 1905 , he adopted a young woman named Annie Johns , who at the time was fifteen . Three years later Higgins married her , and later had three children with her , despite the scandal . Higgins died in San Antonio on June 5 , 1955 .
On December 4 , 1955 , six months after Higgins ' death , he was dramatized by the actor Robert Bray in the CBS history series You Are There in the episode entitled " Spindletop - The First Great Texas Oil Strike ( January 10 , 1901 ) " . Mike Ragan was cast as Marion Fletcher ; Parley Baer as Captain Lucas , Jean Byron as Caroline Lucas , DeForest Kelley as Al Hammill , Tyler McVey as Mayor Wheat , and William Fawcett as a farmer .
= = Higgins World 's Oil Company = =
From the Prescott Evening Courier – Dec 23 , 1905 : Articles of Incorporation for the " Higgins World 's Oil Company "
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= Santikhiri =
The village of Santikhiri ( Thai : สันติคีรี ) , formerly known as Mae Salong ( Thai : แม ่ สลอง ) , is in the Thai highlands on Doi Mae Salong mountain of the Daen Lao Range , in Mae Fa Luang District , Chiang Rai Province , the northernmost province of Thailand . The area has an alpine @-@ like landscape and climate , and is known for its hill tribe villages , tea plantations , and cherry blossoms .
Santikhiri 's early history centered on the Golden Triangle 's opium trade , in which its distinctive population – the " lost army " of the Republic of China Army 's 93rd Division – became involved . At the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 , some remnants of the anti @-@ communist Kuomintang ( KMT ) forces refused to surrender , including 278th Regiment of the 93rd Division and 709th Regiment of the 237th Division ( led by General Li Kuo @-@ hui ) . The troops fought their way out of Yunnan in south @-@ western China , and its soldiers lived in Burma 's ( now Myanmar ) jungles . The army grew and part of it returned to Taiwan under international pressure . The remaining troops were led by Gen Tuan Shi @-@ wen ( also known as Chiwan Khamlue ) and sought asylum in Mae Salong later . In exchange for their asylum , they fought for Thailand until 1982 , helping to counter the communist insurgency on the Thai frontier . In reward , the Thai government granted citizenship to most of the KMT soldiers and their families .
Cash crops , especially tea , have now replaced the growing of opium poppies , and Santikhiri today is a tourist attraction known as " Little Switzerland " .
= = History = =
The origins of the Santikhiri community go back to the end of the Chinese Civil War . In October 1949 , after Mao Zedong 's communist party victory in China , the defeated Kuomintang ( KMT ) armies led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ shek retreated to Taiwan , except for the 3rd and 5th Regiments of the 93rd Division , which refused to surrender . Fighting between the communist and KMT troops continued in some remote parts of China , including Yunnan in the south @-@ west . When the communists marched into the provincial capital of Kunming in January 1950 , 12 @,@ 000 troops from the 3rd and 5th Regiments , commanded respectively by Generals Lee Wen @-@ huan ( Li Wenhuan ) and Tuan Shi @-@ wen , fought their way out of Yunnan and escaped into Burma 's jungles .
The soldiers ' war did not end after their own " long march " from Yunnan to Möng Hsat in Burma 's Shan State . The Burmese soon discovered that a foreign army was camped on their soil , and launched an offensive . The fighting continued for 12 years , and several thousand KMT soldiers were eventually evacuated to Taiwan . When China entered the Korean War , the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) had a desperate need for intelligence on China . The agency turned to the two KMT generals , who agreed to slip some soldiers back into China for intelligence @-@ gathering missions . In return , the agency offered arms to equip the generals to retake China from their bases in the Shan State . The KMT army tried on no fewer than seven times between 1950 and 1952 to invade Yunnan , but was repeatedly driven back into the Shan State . The ending of the Korean War in 1953 was not the end of the KMT 's fight against the communist Chinese and Burmese armies , which continued on for many years , supported by Washington and Taiwan and subsequently funded by the KMT 's involvement in the Golden Triangle 's drug trade .
= = = Refuge in Thailand = = =
In 1961 , Tuan led some 4 @,@ 000 battle @-@ weary KMT troops out of Burma to a mountainous sanctuary in Mae Salong in Thailand . In exchange for asylum , the Thai government allowed them to stay on the understanding that they would assist in policing the area against communist infiltration . As a result , most of the village 's inhabitants today are ethnic Chinese and direct descendants of those KMT soldiers . At the same time , General Lee of the 3rd Regiment established his headquarters at Tham Ngob , north @-@ west of Chiang Mai . The KMT army was renamed " Chinese Irregular Forces " ( CIF ) and was placed directly under the control of a special task force , code @-@ named " 04 " , commanded by Bangkok .
After the soldiers reached Mae Salong , China and Thailand struck an agreement to transfer the administration of the group to the Thai government . The provincial governor of southern Thailand , Pryath Samanmit , was reassigned as the governor of Chiang Rai , to oversee the KMT division , but upon taking up his position , Samanmit was killed by communist insurgents . Soon afterwards , the KMT division was ordered to assist the Thai government to counter the advancing armies on Thailand 's northern borders and the internal threat from the Communist Party of Thailand . Fierce battles were fought in the mountains of Doi Laung , Doi Yaw , Doi Phamon , and Mae Aabb , and the communist uprising was successfully countered . The bloodiest operation was launched on 10 December 1970 , a five @-@ year @-@ long campaign that claimed over 1 @,@ 000 lives , many from landmines . It was not until 1982 that the soldiers were able to give up their arms and were discharged to settle down to a normal life at Mae Salong . As a reward for their service , the Thai government gave citizenship to most of the KMT soldiers and their families .
Despite the Thai government 's attempts to integrate the KMT division and their families into the Thai nation , the inhabitants of Mae Salong preferred for many years to engage in the illegal opium trade , alongside the drug warlord Khun Sa of the Shan United Army . In 1967 , Tuan said in an interview with a British journalist :
We have to continue to fight the evil of communism , and to fight you must have an army , and an army must have guns , and to buy guns you must have money . In these mountains , the only money is opium .
According to a CIA report in 1971 , Mae Salong was then one of the largest heroin refineries in south @-@ east Asia . Only in the late 1980s , after Khun Sa 's army was finally routed and pushed over the border into Myanmar by the Thai military , was the Thai government able to make any headway in taming the region – part of which involved crop substitution plans and giving the area a new name . Santikhiri meaning " hill of peace " was introduced by the Thai government in an effort to disassociate the area from its former image as an established opium zone . King Bhumibol Adulyadej and other members of the royal family made regular visits as a sign of their support for the old soldiers who had fought against their own country for Thailand .
= = = Santikhiri today = = =
As late as the mid @-@ 1970s , Doi Mae Salong was strictly off @-@ limits to outsiders . Since 1994 , Santikhiri has capitalised on its unique history and has developed into a tourist attraction , with its narrow winding streets lined with inns , noodle shops and teashops . As a result , Santikhiri has become one of Thailand 's top ten destinations among backpackers today . The former soldiers had settled down , some of them having married ethnic Chinese brides who crossed the border after the fighting stopped , and others having married local Thais . The old soldiers carry on their normal lives peacefully now , but still retain their Chinese identity ; the main language spoken remains Yunnanese . Among their local @-@ born descendants , some have adopted a Thai identity and no longer identify with their Chinese ancestry . As of 2007 , General Lue Ye @-@ tien , aged 90 and Tuan 's former right @-@ hand man , is the leader of the group , after taking over the leadership on Tuan 's death in 1980 .
The crop substitution programs successfully encouraged the cultivation of tea , coffee , corn , and fruit trees , replacing the opium poppies that had previously been grown . New fruit orchards and tea factories were also set up , followed by production facilities for fruit wines and Chinese herbs , which are particularly popular among Thais and tourists from China , Taiwan , and other ethnic Chinese communities in south @-@ east Asia .
Santikhiri was chosen as the filming location for the subplot The Fortitude of the Buddha in the 2005 film 3 Needles . Although the narrative is supposed to be set in the rural southern province of Yunnan , director Thom Fitzergald stated that difficulties in obtaining permission from the Censorship Authority resulted in the decision to shoot the segment in Santikhiri instead . The segment , which stars Lucy Liu as a heavily @-@ pregnant blood merchant , depicts the blood @-@ selling scandals in China from the 1980s @-@ 2000s in which hundreds of thousands of people , mostly rural poor , contracted HIV through government sponsored campaigns to increase blood supplies . The traditional costume of the Akha people features heavily in the segment , however the blood selling scandals mostly impacted rural villagers in Henan province .
= = Geography and climate = =
Santikhiri is a hilltop village in the Mae Fa Luang district of Thailand 's Chiang Rai Province , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) from Chiang Rai . Santikhiri is on the highest peak of the Doi Mae Salong range of mountains , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 134 metres ( 3 @,@ 722 ft ) above sea level . It has an alpine @-@ like climate , with crisp cool air all year round and chilly in the winter months of November through February . Santikhiri is accessible via two routes – Route 1130 from Ban Basang and Route 1234 from the south , which until being paved were only accessible by pack horses . Now regular minibus services , running from 06 : 00 – 13 : 00 , are available from Chiang Rai to Santikhiri .
Santikhiri has long been the home of many hill tribes such as the Akha , Yao , Karen , and Hmong that originated from southern China and Myanmar . Each tribe has its own language , and follows animist customs and practices . Living among the native inhabitants are the ethnic Chinese , who form the majority of Santikhiri 's estimated population of 20 @,@ 000 .
= = Landmarks and attractions = =
Santikhiri is noted for its high mountain oolong , a high grade traditional Chinese tea , which makes up about 80 % of all tea production in Chiang Rai . The province produces about 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ; 220 short tons ) of tea a year . The combination of climate and soil conditions at Santikhiri is ideal for growing high quality oolongs ( " black dragon " in Chinese ) . Such teas are cultivated at elevations ranging from 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 3 @,@ 960 – 4 @,@ 620 ft ) . In 2005 , Santikhiri was selected by the Tourism and Sports Ministry as an OTOP ( " One Tambon One Product " ) tourism village in recognition of its fine oolong tea . The goals are to stimulate the grassroots economy , increase the number of tourists , and develop Thailand 's products and services . Taiwanese experts work alongside local farmers in tea processing plants which produce top @-@ quality tea for both the local and export markets . The number of tea plantations in the village has increased significantly since the mid @-@ 1990s , and includes Choke Chamroen Tea , Wang Put Tan , and 101 Tea .
From 28 December to 2 January each year , Santikhiri hosts the annual cherry blossoms festival , which is organised by Mae Salong Nok Tambon Administration Organisation in association with Mae Fa Luang District . The festival celebrates the culture of the hill tribe people from the Chiang Rai area , and includes a handicraft sale , a light and sound show , a parade by the tribes people , and a beauty contest .
General Tuan Shi @-@ wen died in 1980 , and was buried in a pagoda @-@ like tomb on a hilltop reached via a 300 @-@ metre ( 984 ft ) climb . From the top , there is a panoramic view of the village . There is also a memorial to the KMT soldiers who died in their fight against communism , The Martyrs ' Memorial , a museum whose wooden panels bear the names of the dead , set on an altar in the main building . It was constructed in the style of a large Chinese shrine like the National Revolutionary Martyrs ' Shrine in Taipei . The museum also features exhibits describing the struggles of the KMT soldiers and the development of the Doi Mae Salong valley .
Phra Boromathat Chedi is a chedi built on a hill near the village , in honour of the late Princess Mother , Srinagarindra . There is an excellent view of the Myanmar frontier from the top , an area that was off @-@ limits when it was under the control of the warlord Khun Sa .
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= Pituitary apoplexy =
Pituitary apoplexy or pituitary tumor apoplexy is bleeding into or impaired blood supply of the pituitary gland at the base of the brain . This usually occurs in the presence of a tumor of the pituitary , although in 80 % of cases this has not been diagnosed previously . The most common initial symptom is a sudden headache , often associated with a rapidly worsening visual field defect or double vision caused by compression of nerves surrounding the gland . This is followed in many cases by acute symptoms caused by lack of secretion of essential hormones , predominantly adrenal insufficiency .
The diagnosis is achieved with magnetic resonance imaging and blood tests . Treatment is by the timely correction of hormone deficiencies , and in many cases surgical decompression is required . Many people who have had a pituitary apoplexy develop pituitary hormone deficiencies and require long @-@ term hormone supplementation . The first case of the disease was recorded in 1898 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Acute symptoms = = =
The initial symptoms of pituitary apoplexy are related to the increased pressure in and around the pituitary gland . The most common symptom , in over 95 % of cases , is a sudden @-@ onset headache located behind the eyes or around the temples . It is often associated with nausea and vomiting . Occasionally , the presence of blood leads to irritation of the lining of the brain , which may cause neck rigidity and intolerance to bright light , as well as a decreased level of consciousness . This occurs in 24 % of cases .
Pressure on the part of the optic nerve known as the chiasm , which is located above the gland , leads to loss of vision on the outer side of the visual field on both sides , as this corresponds to areas on the retinas supplied by these parts of the optic nerve ; it is encountered in 75 % of cases . Visual acuity is reduced in half , and over 60 % have a visual field defect . The visual loss depends on which part of the nerve is affected . If the part of the nerve between the eye and the chiasm is compressed , the result is vision loss in one eye . If the part after the chiasm is affected , visual loss on one side of the visual field occurs .
Adjacent to the pituitary lies a part of the skull base known as the cavernous sinus . This contains a number of nerves that control the eye muscles . 70 % of people with pituitary apoplexy experience double vision due to compression of one of the nerves . In half of these cases , the oculomotor nerve ( the third cranial nerve ) , which controls a number of eye muscles , is affected . This leads to diagonal double vision and a dilated pupil . The fourth ( trochlear ) and sixth ( abducens ) cranial nerves are located in the same compartment and can cause diagonal or horizontal double vision , respectively . The oculomotor nerve is predominantly affected as it lies closest to the pituitary . The cavernous sinus also contains the carotid artery , which supplies blood to the brain ; occasionally , compression of the artery can lead to one @-@ sided weakness and other symptoms of stroke .
= = = Endocrine dysfunction = = =
The pituitary gland consists of two parts , the anterior ( front ) and posterior ( back ) pituitary . Both parts release hormones that control numerous other organs . In pituitary apoplexy , the main initial problem is a lack of secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH , corticotropin ) , which stimulates the secretion of cortisol by the adrenal gland . This occurs in 70 % of those with pituitary apoplexy . A sudden lack of cortisol in the body leads to a constellation of symptoms called " adrenal crisis " or " Addisonian crisis " ( after a complication of Addison 's disease , the main cause of adrenal dysfunction and low cortisol levels ) . The main problems are low blood pressure ( particularly on standing ) , low blood sugars ( which can lead to coma ) and abdominal pain ; the low blood pressure can be life @-@ threatening and requires immediate medical attention .
Hyponatremia , an unusually low level of sodium in the blood that may cause confusion and seizures , is found in 40 % of cases . This may be caused by low cortisol levels or by inappropriate release of antidiuretic hormone ( ADH ) from the posterior pituitary . Several other hormonal deficiencies may develop in the subacute phase . 50 % have a deficiency in thyroid @-@ stimulating hormone ( TSH ) , leading to undersecretion of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland and characteristic symptoms such as fatigue , weight gain , and cold intolerance . 75 % develop a deficiency to gonadotropins ( LH and FSH ) , which control the reproductive hormone glands . This leads to a disrupted menstrual cycle , infertility and decreased libido .
= = Causes = =
Almost all cases of pituitary apoplexy arise from a pituitary adenoma , a benign tumor of the pituitary gland . In 80 % , the patient has been previously unaware of this ( although some will retrospectively report associated symptoms ) . It was previously thought that particular types of pituitary tumors were more prone to apoplexy than others , but this has not been confirmed . In absolute terms , only a very small proportion of pituitary tumors eventually undergoes apoplexy . In an analysis of incidentally found pituitary tumors , apoplexy occurred in 0 @.@ 2 % annually , but the risk was higher in tumors larger than 10 mm ( " macroadenomas " ) and tumors that were growing more rapidly ; in a meta @-@ analysis , not all these associations achieved statistical significance .
The majority of cases ( 60 – 80 % ) are not precipitated by a particular cause . A quarter has a history of high blood pressure , but this is a common problem in the general population , and it is not clear whether it significantly increase the risk of apoplexy . A number of cases has been reported in association with particular conditions and situations ; it is uncertain whether these were in fact causative . Amongst reported associations are surgery ( especially coronary artery bypass graft , where there are significant fluctuations in the blood pressure ) , disturbances in blood coagulation or medication that inhibits coagulation , radiation therapy to the pituitary , traumatic brain injury , pregnancy ( during which the pituitary enlarges ) and treatment with estrogens . Hormonal stimulation tests of the pituitary have been reported to provoke episodes . Treatment of prolactinomas ( pituitary adenomas that secrete prolactin ) with dopamine agonist drugs , as well as withdrawal of such treatment , has been reported to precipitate apoplexy .
Hemorrhage from a Rathke 's cleft cyst , a remnant of Rathke 's pouch that normally regresses after embryological development , may cause symptoms that are indistinguishable from pituitary apoplexy . Pituitary apoplexy is regarded by some as distinct from Sheehan 's syndrome , where the pituitary undergoes infarction as a result of prolonged very low blood pressure , particularly when caused by bleeding after childbirth . This condition usually occurs in the absence of a tumor . Others regard Sheehan 's syndrome as a form of pituitary apoplexy .
= = Mechanism = =
The pituitary gland is located in a recess in the skull base known as the sella turcica ( " Turkish saddle " , after its shape ) . It is attached to the hypothalamus , a part of the brain , by a stalk that also contains the blood vessels that supply the gland . It is unclear why pituitary tumors are five times more likely to bleed than other tumors in the brain . There are various proposed mechanisms by which a tumor can increase the risk of either infarction ( insufficient blood supply leading to tissue dysfunction ) or hemorrhage . The pituitary gland normally derives its blood supply from vessels that pass through the hypothalamus , but tumors develop a blood supply from the nearby inferior hypophyseal artery that generates a higher blood pressure , possibly accounting for the risk of bleeding . Tumors may also be more sensitive to fluctuations in blood pressure , and the blood vessels may show structural abnormalities that make them vulnerable to damage . It has been suggested that infarction alone causes milder symptoms than either hemorrhage or hemorrhagic infarction ( infarction followed by hemorrhage into the damaged tissue ) . Larger tumors are more prone to bleeding , and more rapidly growing lesions ( as evidenced by detection of increased levels of the protein PCNA ) may also be at a higher risk of apoplexy .
After an apoplexy , the pressure inside the sella turcica rises , and surrounding structures such as the optic nerve and the contents of the cavernous sinus are compressed . The raised pressure further impairs the blood supply to the pituitary hormone @-@ producing tissue , leading to tissue death due to insufficient blood supply .
= = Diagnosis = =
It is recommended that magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan of the pituitary gland is performed if the diagnosis is suspected ; this has a sensitivity of over 90 % for detecting pituitary apoplexy ; it may demonstrate infarction ( tissue damage due to a decreased blood supply ) or hemorrhage . Different MRI sequences can be used to establish when the apoplexy occurred , and the predominant form of damage ( hemorrhage or infarction ) . If MRI is not suitable ( e.g. due to claustrophobia or the presence of metal @-@ containing implants ) , a computed tomography ( CT ) scan may demonstrate abnormalities in the pituitary gland , although it is less reliable . Many pituitary tumors ( 25 % ) are found to have areas of hemorrhagic infarction on MRI scans , but apoplexy is not said to exist unless it is accompanied by symptoms .
In some instances , lumbar puncture may be required if there is a suspicion that the symptoms might be caused by other problems ( meningitis or subarachnoid hemorrhage ) . This is the examination of the cerebrospinal fluid that envelops the brain and the spinal cord ; the sample is obtained with a needle that is passed under local anesthetic into the spine . In pituitary apoplexy the results are typically normal , although abnormalities may be detected if blood from the pituitary has entered the subarachnoid space . If there is remaining doubt about the possibility of subarachnoid hemorrhage ( SAH ) , a magnetic resonance angiogram ( MRI with a contrast agent ) may be required to identify aneurysms of the brain blood vessels , the most common cause of SAH .
Professional guidelines recommend that if pituitary apoplexy is suspected or confirmed , the minimal blood tests performed should include a complete blood count , urea ( a measure of renal function , usually performed together with creatinine ) , electrolytes ( sodium and potassium ) , liver function tests , routine coagulation testing , and a hormonal panel including IGF @-@ 1 , growth hormone , prolactin , luteinizing hormone , follicle @-@ stimulating hormone , thyroid @-@ stimulating hormone , thyroid hormone , and either testosterone in men or estradiol in women .
Visual field testing is recommended as soon as possible after diagnosis , as it quantifies the severity of any optic nerve involvement , and may be required to decide on surgical treatment .
= = Treatment = =
The first priority in suspected or confirmed pituitary apoplexy is stabilization of the circulatory system . Cortisol deficiency can cause severe low blood pressure . Depending on the severity of the illness , admission to a high dependency unit ( HDU ) may be required .
Treatment for acute adrenal insufficiency requires the administration of intravenous saline or dextrose solution ; volumes of over two liters may be required in an adult . This is followed by the administration of hydrocortisone , which is pharmaceutical grade cortisol , intravenously or into a muscle . The drug dexamethasone has similar properties , but its use is not recommended unless it is required to reduce swelling in the brain around the area of hemorrhage . Some are well enough not to require immediate cortisol replacement ; in this case , blood levels of cortisol are determined at 9 : 00 AM ( as cortisol levels vary over the day ) . A level below 550 nmol / l indicates a need for replacement .
The decision on whether to surgically decompress the pituitary gland is complex and mainly dependent on the severity of visual loss and visual field defects . If visual acuity is severely reduced , there are large or worsening visual field defects , or the level of consciousness falls consistently , professional guidelines recommend that surgery is performed . Most commonly , operations on the pituitary gland are performed through transsphenoidal surgery . In this procedure , surgical instruments are passed through the nose towards the sphenoid bone , which is opened to give access to the cavity that contains the pituitary gland . Surgery is most likely to improve vision if there was some remaining vision before surgery , and if surgery is undertaken within a week of the onset of symptoms .
Those with relatively mild visual field loss or double vision only may be managed conservatively , with close observation of the level of consciousness , visual fields , and results of routine blood tests . If there is any deterioration , or expected spontaneous improvement does not occur , surgical intervention may still be indicated . If the apoplexy occurred in a prolactin @-@ secreting tumor , this may respond to dopamine agonist treatment .
After recovery , people who have had pituitary apoplexy require follow @-@ up by an endocrinologist to monitor for long @-@ term consequences . MRI scans are performed 3 – 6 months after the initial episode and subsequently on an annual basis . If after surgery some tumor tissue remains , this may respond to medication , further surgery , or radiation therapy with a " gamma knife " .
= = Prognosis = =
In larger case series , the mortality was 1 @.@ 6 % overall . In the group of patients who were unwell enough to require surgery , the mortality was 1 @.@ 9 % , with no deaths in those who could be treated conservatively .
After an episode of pituitary apoplexy , 80 % of people develop hypopituitarism and require some form of hormone replacement therapy . The most common problem is growth hormone deficiency , which is often left untreated but may cause decreased muscle mass and strength , obesity and fatigue . 60 – 80 % require hydrocortisone replacement ( either permanently or when unwell ) , 50 – 60 % need thyroid hormone replacement , and 60 – 80 % of men require testosterone supplements . Finally , 10 – 25 % develop diabetes insipidus , the inability to retain fluid in the kidneys due to a lack of the pituitary antidiuretic hormone . This may be treated with the drug desmopressin , which can be applied as a nose spray or taken by mouth .
= = Epidemiology = =
Pituitary apoplexy is rare . Even in people with a known pituitary tumor , only 0 @.@ 6 – 10 % experience apoplexy ; the risk is higher in larger tumors . Based on extrapolations from existing data , one would expect 18 cases of pituitary apoplexy per one million people every year ; the actual figure is probably lower .
The average age at onset is 50 ; cases have reported in people between 15 and 90 years old . Men are affected more commonly than women , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 6 . The majority of the underlying tumors are " null cell " or nonsecretory tumors , which do not produce excessive amounts of hormones ; this might explain why the tumor has often gone undetected prior to an episode of apoplexy .
= = History = =
The first case description of pituitary apoplexy has been attributed to the American neurologist Pearce Bailey in 1898 . This was followed in 1905 by a further report from the German physician Bleibtreu . Surgery for pituitary apoplexy was described in 1925 . Before the introduction of steroid replacement , the mortality from pituitary apoplexy approximated 50 % .
The name of the condition was coined in 1950 in a case series by physicians from Boston City Hospital and Harvard Medical School . The term " apoplexy " was applied as it referred to both necrosis and bleeding into pituitary tumors .
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= Tricholoma vernaticum =
Tricholoma vernaticum is an agaric fungus of the genus Tricholoma native to the Pacific Northwest region of the United States . The fungus was originally described in 1976 as a species of Armillaria when that genus was more inclusive ; it received its current name twenty years later . The stout fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have moist white to grayish caps ( later becoming grayish @-@ brown with age ) , a membranous ring on the stipe , and an odor resembling cucumbers . Mycorrhizal with conifers , the fungus fruits in the spring or early summer , with its mushrooms appearing on the ground singly or in groups at high elevations , often at the edge of melting snowbanks . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown , but it has a strong unpleasant odor and a mealy taste .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described from California as Armillaria olida by mycologists Harry D. Thiers and Walter Sundberg in 1976 . The type specimen was collected on May 6 , 1972 , in the Crystal Basin Recreation Area in El Dorado County . Thiers and Sundberg classified it in the section Ponderosa of genus Armillaria due to its inamyloid spores , but noted that its relationship to other species was unclear . They also noted the similarity of the form and color of its cap to species in section Constricta of genus Lyophyllum .
Thiers and Sundberg used a broad species concept of Armillaria , including species with a white spore print , gills attached to the stipe , and a ring formed from a partial veil , regardless of their ecological preferences . Today , Armillaria is restricted to wood @-@ rotting species that form black rhizomorphs , and several mycorrhizal former Armillaria have since been transferred to Tricholoma . The name Tricholoma olida was unavailable for this species , because it was previously used in 1920 by Josef Velenovský , so Kris Shanks proposed the new name T. vernaticum . The specific epithet refers to its growth in the spring . The previous epithet olida derives from the Latin olidum , meaning " stinking " or " smelling " .
Tricholoma vernaticum is classified in the subgenus Contextocutis of the genus Tricholoma on account of its clamp connections and interwoven hyphae in the cap cuticle .
= = Description = =
The cap is convex to broadly convex before flattening out in age , and reaches diameters between 5 and 17 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide . The surface is dry to moist , smooth , and in maturity appears to be made of flattened fibers arranged radially . As the mushroom ages , the cap color changes from white to fuscous ( dusky brownish grey ) or brown , usually with olive , grayish or pale tan regions . The cap margin , initially curved downward , lifts up and becomes lobed or irregular with age . The flesh is thick and white , with a strongly farinaceous odor similar to cucumber or watermelon rind . Gills initially have an emarginate ( notched ) to adnate attachment to the stipe , but pull away as the mushroom matures to become seceding or almost free from attachment . They are thick and closely spaced , and whitish in color , sometimes developing pale pink tints . The solid stipe measures 4 – 14 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick , and is either equal in width through its length or slightly club @-@ shaped . It has a dry surface , and a texture that is smooth to silky fibrillose above the ring , and appressed fibrillose to scaly below the ring . The ring , located in the middle to upper half of the stem , is sometimes inconspicuous . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown with certainty , although it has been noted to have a strongly farinaceous taste , and an unpleasant odor " strongly reminiscent of rotting white potatoes . "
The spore print is white . Spores are elliptic ( or narrowly so ) , and measure 8 – 12 by 4 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 2 µm . There are clamp connections present in the hyphae . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , club @-@ shaped , and measure 23 – 30 by 8 – 10 µm . The hymenium lacks cystidia . The cap flesh comprises homogenous , interwoven hyphae that are 3 – 5 µm in diameter , while the cap cuticle is a 200 – 300 @-@ micrometer thick layer of interwoven , gelatinous hyphae up to 4 µm in diameter .
= = = Similar species = = =
When collected in its typical habitat and during the appropriate season , Tricholoma vernaticum mushrooms can be readily identified because of their prominent characteristics : white color , stocky fruit body , farinaceous odor , and ring on the stipe . Tricholoma lookalikes in the same geographic region grow at lower elevations , typically in autumn . T. portentosum has a gray cap , a stipe with yellow tints , and lacks a ring , while T. mutabile has violet tones in its cap and also lacks a ring . Other lookalikes include Hygrophorus subalpinus and H. camarophyllus , but these species have broad , waxy gills , and lack the characteristic odor of T. vernaticum .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies of Tricholoma vernaticum grow singly or in groups under conifers in late spring and early summer . A fairly common species throughout its range , it is found at high elevations in California north to Oregon and Washington . It is a snowbank fungus , meaning it is commonly found at the edge of melting snowbanks . Fruit bodies are often buried under humus , forming hardly visible " mushrumps " , apparent only as cracked bumps on the ground .
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= Serdar Tasci =
Serdar Tasci ( Turkish : Taşçı , [ ˈtaʃtʃɯ ] ; German : [ taskiː ] ) ( born 24 April 1987 ) is a German professional footballer who plays as a centre @-@ back for Russian club Spartak Moscow .
Tasci started his career with VfB Stuttgart in 2006 and played with the club until 2013 , captaining the side from 2011 . He played for the club nearly 250 times and helped them win the 2006 – 07 Bundesliga . He missed a large part of the 2013 – 14 season with an injury in his first season with his new club , Spartak Moscow . He represented the German national team from 2008 and 2010 , gaining 14 caps , including the 2010 World Cup , in which Germany came third .
= = Club career = =
= = = VfB Stuttgart = = =
Tasci was born in Esslingen , Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany , to Turkish parents from Artvin . He started playing football when he was six ; he then played for the youth teams of SC Altbach , Stuttgarter Kickers and Stuttgart . Before the 2005 – 06 season , he joined Stuttgart 's second team , playing in the Regionalliga ( third division ) . Prior to 2006 – 07 , he was promoted to the club 's Bundesliga side . In October 2006 , he signed a contract that ran until 2010 with the club .
After being included as an unused substitute in a match against Nürnberg , Tasci had his professional debut against Arminia Bielefeld on 20 August 2006 ; the match — the second of the season — was a 3 – 2 win in which Tasci was sustituted for injured Danish striker Jon Dahl Tomasson in the 68th minute . Tasci 's first goal followed a week later in a game against Borussia Dortmund in a 1 – 3 defeat . Tasci 's second goal of the season came on 29 October 2006 , in a 3 – 0 win over Schalke 04 . At the end of the season , Tasci had made twenty @-@ six appearances and scored twice ; he helped the club win the Bundesliga . He came on for Sami Khedira in extra time when Stuttgart lost 3 – 2 to Nürnberg in the final of the DFB @-@ Pokal . Manager Armin Veh said of Tasci , " He is a big surprise and with his 20 years plays well beyond his years . "
In the 2007 – 08 season , Tasci made a strong performance against Schalke in the opening game ; kicker described his performance as clever and cool . Tasci made his Champions League debut on matchday one , as Stuttgart lost 2 – 1 to Rangers . He scored his first goal of the season in a 4 – 1 loss against Hamburg on 20 October 2007 . Tasci made twenty @-@ one appearances that season , most of which he missed due to injuries .
In the 2008 – 09 season , Tasci found was paired with Khalid Boulahrouz in the center @-@ back position . In the qualification round of the UEFA Cup against Hungarian side Győri ETO , Tasci scored his first European goal in a 2 – 1 victory , taking his club to the next round . In December 2008 , Tasci 's manager and mentor Veh was sacked . On 4 April 2009 , Tasci scored his first league goal of the season in a 2 – 1 win over Bochum . Tasci missed the rest of the season after injuring his knee in a 2 – 0 loss against Eintracht Frankfurt . He required surgery but decided not to have it , ending his 2008 – 09 season .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , on 29 August 2009 , Tasci extended his contract with Stuttgart until the summer of 2014 . A buy @-@ out clause was included as part of signing a new contract . He scored his first Champions League goal as Stuttgart drew 1 – 1 with Romanian side Unirea Urziceni in the Group @-@ Stage matchday two on 29 September 2009 . In his first half of the season , Tasci captained three matches as a replacement for Thomas Hitzlsperger . However , Tasci sustained " a stress fracture in his foot " that could have put him out for the reminder of the season . He recovered after a few weeks and returned to the first team , where he scored his first goal of the Bundesliga season , in a 1 – 1 draw against Bochum on 5 December 2009 . Following Hitzlsperger removal of captaincy , Tasci was reportedly furious over not being chosen as a vice @-@ captain . On 12 March 2010 , Tasci scored his second league goal of the season , in a 2 – 1 loss against Schalke . A week later on 19 , Tasci was declared injured as he suffered a adductor problem . Six days later , he was declared fit , and was an un @-@ used substitute in a match against Bayern Munich . That season , Tasci made twenty @-@ seven appearance despite recurrence of injuries he sustained during the 2009 – 10 season .
At the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Tasci attracted interest from clubs around Europe . Stuttgart 's league rival Hamburger , as well as foreign clubs such as Tottenham Hotspur and Juventus reportedly expressed their desire to sign Tasci . This move was denied by his agent ; he said that Tasci would stay at Stuttgart only . On 15 July 2010 , Tasci expressed his desire to stay at the club . After being excluded from the opening game of the season , Tasci made his first appearance in a 3 – 2 loss against Borussia Dortmund . He scored his first goal for the club in the Europa League Group @-@ Stage matchday one in a 3 – 0 win over Young Boys . He then suffered a thigh problem that kept him out for a long time . In late November , Tasci returned to training with a bandage on his right knee . Once again , he was on the sideline after experiencing ongoing problems with his thigh injury despite reporting himself fit . He returned to the field on 19 December 2010 in the match against Bayern Munich , which Stuttgart lost 5 – 3 . Despite his injury , Tasci would go on to make twenty @-@ six league appearances . He continued to attract interest from Zenit Saint Petersburg , Tottenham Hotspur , Málaga and Arsenal .
In the 2011 – 12 season , Tasci scored his first goal of the season in a 3 – 0 win over Hannover on 10 September. and scored his second in a 1 – 1 draw against Borussia Dortmund on 29 October 2011 . Halfway through the 2011 – 12 season , on 12 January 2012 , Tasci was appointed the new captain of VfB Stuttgart by Bruno Labbadia . Seven days before being appointed , Tasci and Cristian Molinaro were involved in an incident at training . Tasci third goal came on 10 April 2012 in a 3 – 1 win over Augsburg . Despite injuries , he appeared twenty @-@ eight times that season .
In the 2012 – 13 season , Tasci revealed that Spanish club Barcelona was interested in signing him . But in late July , he said that though he was linked with a move to Barcelona , AC Milan and Manchester City , the clubs had not officially approached him . This occurred as the club was making budget cuts , including the wages bill . As the season started , Tasci remained as captain of Stuttgart . In October , Tasci injured his Achilles tendon that kept him out for a short while ; he made his return against Hamburg on 21 October 2012 . Tasci scored his first goal for the club in an Europa League 5 – 1 win over Steaua București to help the club progress to the knockout stage . On 1 December 2012 , Tasci received a straight red card for a serious foul play on Milorad Peković in a 1 – 0 victory over Greuther Fürth . Later in April 2013 , he was sidelined as he suffered from an achilles tendon rupture . Tasci made his return a week later as Stuttgart beat Schalke 2 – 1 on 11 May 2013 . In the DFB @-@ Pokal Final , Tasci captained Stuttgart for the match , which the club lost 3 – 2 to Bayern Munich .
In the 2013 – 14 season , Tasci sustained an injury during a match against Mainz in the opening game of the season and was replaced by Konstantin Rausch . At treatment , it was revealed that Tasci had torn his lateral meniscus . With one year left on his contract , Tasci said he was aiming to make progress to sign a new contract , having expressed a desire to prolong his contract to stay at Stuttgart .
= = = Spartak Moscow = = =
On 30 August 2013 , Tasci moved to Russian Premier League side Spartak Moscow for an undisclosed fee . Upon leaving Stuttgart , Tasci told the press : " It was not an easy decision . The present decision is not a decision against VfB , but for the new task . I had an incredibly great time at VfB , have played in the youth here , then I turned pro and recently been the captain . I have always said that I am a VfBler and that I will remain . " Immediately after joining the club , his debut was delayed by the injuries he sustained while at Stuttgart and he did not play for three weeks . He made his first appearance with the club on 2 October 2013 when he appeared in training . After damaging his meniscus , Tasci announced he would return in January following an operation . Tasci made his debut for the club on 17 March 2014 in a 2 – 2 draw against Anzhi Makhachkala . Tasci would make three more appearances that season .
In April 2014 , Izvestia reported that Tasci could be leaving Spartak Moscow , leading to interest from Turkish sides Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş . Despite making four appearances during the 2013 – 14 season , Tasci said he was learning Russian , though he communicates well in German with his team @-@ mates Lucas Barrios , José Manuel Jurado and Patrick Ebert . He could also communicate in Turkish with his new manager Murat Yakin .
Under the management of Yakin , Tasci made his first appearance of the season against Dynamo Moscow on 10 August 2014 , only to come off in the 23rd minutes following an injury , as Spartak Moscow won 2 – 1 . Tasci then scored his first Spartak Moscow goal on 2 November 2014 , in a 3 – 3 draw against Kuban Krasnodar . After making twenty @-@ three appearance and scoring once in all competitions , Tasci was offered a new contract by the club .
= = = = Bayern Munich = = = =
On 1 February 2016 , Tasci returned to the Bundesliga , signing for the title holders and league leaders Bayern Munich on loan for the rest of the season , amid an injury crisis in defence . He made his debut on 20 February , starting in a 3 – 1 home win over SV Darmstadt 98 at the Allianz Arena and playing 53 minutes before being replaced by Juan Bernat .
= = International career = =
Because of his Turkish descent and German birth , he is eligible to play for either Germany or Turkey , but in October 2006 he decided to pursue a career in Germany despite interest from Turkey . Tasci explained his decision to pursue his career in Germany , saying , " It was a decision for Germany and not against Turkey , but in the end , it 's German coach Joachim Löw , who made the most effort for me to come " .
Tasci made his debut for the Germany national under @-@ 21 football team on 6 February 2007 in a 2 – 0 win against Scotland and went on to make his senior international debut for Germany on 20 August 2008 in a friendly match against Belgium in Nuremberg , which they won 2 – 0 . The debut came exactly two years after his Bundesliga debut .
He was called up to the Germany squad for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa by coach Löw , being the second player of Turkish extraction in the squad , along with Özil . Tasci made his World Cup debut as a substitute in Germany 's third place match , against Uruguay , coming on in the 91st minute for Mesut Özil . His World Cup debut was a disappointment ; Tasci struggled to touch the ball in his 125 seconds on the pitch ; the club 's sporting director Jochen Schneider said : " But for Serdar Tasci the World Cup from a purely personal point of view was certainly not satisfactory " .
= = Personal life = =
While playing for Stuttgart , Tasci left school in February 2007 , four months before he was due to leave . Despite this choice , he said he intended to study sports management . He has one sister .
In August 2013 , the owner of a website faced legal action when he used Tasci 's name on his social network page .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
As of 30 April 2016 .
1 . ^ Includes German Cup and Russian Cup .
2 . ^ Includes UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup / Europa League .
= = = International appearances = = =
As of 19 August 2013
= = Honours = =
VfB Stuttgart
Bundesliga : 2006 – 07
Bayern Munich
Bundesliga : 2015 – 16
DFB @-@ Pokal : 2015 – 16
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= Jacobus Anthonie Meessen =
Jacobus Anthonie Meessen ( Dutch pronunciation : [ jaːˈkoːbɵs ɑnˈtoːni ˈmeːsən ] ; 5 December 1836 – 14 November 1885 ) was a Dutch photographer who took over 250 portraits and landscapes of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) between 1864 and 1870 . Born to a carpenter in Utrecht , Meessen worked in that trade in the Indies before marrying in the Netherlands in the early 1860s . He returned to the colony in 1864 , intent on documenting its land and people . He worked mostly in the capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , Java , and Padang , Sumatra ; he also photographed Bangka , Belitung , Borneo , and Nias .
When Meessen returned to the Netherlands in 1870 he established a short @-@ lived partnership with Abraham Vermeulen and began disseminating his photographs . Selected images were gifted to King William III in an elaborately decorated album in 1871 , while more were published by De Bussy in 1875 and exhibited in Paris and Amsterdam . In his final years Meessen worked predominantly as an architect . Collections of his albumen prints , some of which were hand @-@ tinted or annotated , are held in four institutions in the Netherlands .
= = Biography = =
Meessen was born in Utrecht , the Netherlands , on 5 December 1836 to the carpenter Hermanus Johannes Meessen and his wife Megteld Legué . In 1858 the younger Meessen first went to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , the capital of the Dutch colony in the East Indies , where he worked as a carpenter . By 1860 he was living in the Purbalingga area . Two years later he returned to the Netherlands , where he served as a special inspector for the Bureau voor den Waterstaat . On 11 December 1862 he wed Johanna Alida ( Jansje ) Steenbeek in Utrecht , and the couple settled in that city for the next two years . Their marriage produced three daughters , born in 1865 , 1866 , and 1869 ; the first , Antonia , died in infancy .
= = = Photography = = =
Meessen and his wife departed for the Indies in 1864 , first arriving in Batavia , where Meessen established a photo studio in early 1867 . He was one of the few photographers active in the Indies in the 1860s ; contemporaries included Isidore van Kinsbergen , Adolph Schaefer , and the commercial firm of Woodbury and Page ( operated by Walter B. Woodbury and James Page ) . Meessen hoped to eventually take images of the Indies ' various lands and people . From May to August he was in Sumatra , first in Padang and later in the Minang Highlands . There he offered various photographic services , including double and family portraits . When he returned to Batavia in September , he opened another studio , offering portraits and selling prints of landscapes .
Three months later Jacobus and Johanna sold their belongings and moved back to Padang , where the Meessens established a photography studio . In their biography of the photographer , Mattie Boom and Steven Wachlin suggest that this was likely a commercial necessity , as Meessen may have been unable to compete with the Batavia @-@ based Woodbury and Page . By November 1868 Jacobus was advertising his first album , titled Sumatra 's Westkust ( Sumatra 's West Coast ) . Bound in Moroccan leather , the album contained more than sixty landscapes of Padang and surrounding cities ( including Padang Panjang and Fort de Kock ) . By June 1869 , his studio at the Sumatra Hotel was offering workshops , as well as images from northern Sumatra and Nias .
Altogether , Meessen 's photographic ventures in the Indies – and the resulting albums – cost some 34 @,@ 000 Netherlands Indies gulden , which included camera equipment ( though it is not known what model ( s ) he used ) , chemicals , transportation , and accommodations . Meessen worked alone , never taking a partner while in the Indies , and documented the land and people in the colony in his albumen prints . In his ethnographic photography of the indigenous peoples of the Indies , he often had to overcome superstitions which , the Bataviaasch Handelsblad wrote , " made taking images of the people outside Java almost impossible " . Others were more enthusiastic , including the villagers of Nias : " Upon arrival I fired a few shots and flew the Dutch flag . Soon the villagers came and asked what I wanted . Once I told them , they promised their assistance . At exactly 5 a.m. the following morning I found some 60 warriors waiting for me on the beach . "
= = = Return to the Netherlands = = =
In June 1869 , Meessen and his wife returned to Batavia , and the following year they returned to Utrecht . There , in late 1870 , Meessen partnered with Abraham Adrianus Vermeulen to open a new studio , named A. A. Vermeulen & Company . They signed a contract for five years , but this collaboration collapsed in March 1873 . Boom and Wachlin suggest that Vermeulen – best known for portraits – had been interested in the possibility of expanding his range with landscapes , whereas Meessen required a place to print and market his images of the Indies . Indeed , in February 1871 Meessen gifted an album of his better @-@ executed photographs from his time in Java and Sumatra to King William III . This album of 153 images was lavishly decorated with silver and gold , and featured the names of Java , Sumatra , Borneo , and Nias in the corners . In the center were silver coconut and banana trees surrounding Dutch and Batavian weapons .
Over the next few years Meessen continued marketing his images of the Indies . In 1875 he published a collection of 250 – consisting of 175 landscapes and 75 portraits – through the Amsterdam @-@ based printer De Bussy ; this collection was titled Verzameling Fotografien van Nederlandsch Indië ( Collection of Photographs of the Dutch East Indies ) , sold for 225 gulden , and came in a walnut box . At the 1875 Exposition Géographique in Paris , he exhibited these images to critical acclaim . The Bataviaasch Handelsblad , in one review , wrote that the attempt to document the Indies was commendable , and expressed hope that images of animals could also be taken . In 1883 Meessen again exhibited his photographs , this time at the International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam . Ultimately , however , he does not appear to have made a return on his investment .
Meessen 's final years were migratory , with some time spent in Gorredijk and other parts of Opsterland , Friesland . He worked as a building superintendent , and later municipal architect . One of his projects in this capacity was an elementary school on Zuidwest Dubbele Street in Gorredijk , a Neo @-@ Gothic building – possibly influenced by similar schools in Raamsdonkveer and Amsterdam – constructed to replace an older school which had been demolished . Meessen died in Opsterland on 14 November 1885 after being stricken by an illness three days earlier . The incomplete school was finished by Hidde Petrus Nicolaas Halbertsma .
= = Style and legacy = =
Reviewing the quality of Meessen 's photography , Boom and Wachilin write that his Javanese pictures are among his best , whereas those from other islands are of more variable quality . They note considerable detail in his cityscapes . He chose buildings to photograph that were popular with other photographers , including the Governor General 's Palace and the home of Raden Saleh . Many of his studio portraits appear to be purely commercial , leading Boom and Wachlin to suggest that they were meant to fund Meessen 's landscape photography . Some of his images , particularly the portraits , were hand @-@ tinted .
Meessen 's photos from the album he gave to King William III are kept in the Hague at the National Library of the Netherlands . This album features a travelogue regarding Meessen 's photography , as well as images from six islands ( Java , Sumatra , Bangka , Belitung , Borneo , and Nias ) and various ethnic groups , including the Javanese , Chinese , Dayaks , and Malays . He includes commentary on several images of people , noting in an image of njai ( concubines ) : " [ They are ] a necessary evil for the military . They preserve , in and outside the barracks , the best discipline , and prove invaluable in expeditions or sea journeys . "
Two further photographs , one of the river Ciliwung in Batavia , and another of Kali Mati in Padang , are held at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam . The Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies holds a copy of the De Bussy publication , and the Leiden University Library holds 281 prints , 7 of which are of disputed provenance , which were donated to the Royal Dutch Geographical Society by Pieter Johannes Veth in 1891 . The four extant collections of Meessen 's work are considerably fewer than those of his contemporaries such as Woodbury and Page , and his oeuvre has been little studied or collected .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Applewood Farm =
Applewood Farm is a farmstead in Ledyard , Connecticut , United States . Constructed in 1826 by Russel Gallup , the farmhouse was built with a colonial center chimney design with Federal style details that has been modernized to the early 20th century without significantly changing the floor plan . Named after the apple orchards planted by Russel Gallup , Applewood Farm developed significantly under the ownership of Everett Gallup , the last member of the family to own the property . The property was later owned by Arlene Meyer Cohen and a 40 @-@ acre parcel was sold off in November 1984 . After the Betz family became the owners it was added to the National Register of Historic Places and operated as a bed and breakfast through the 1990s . In 1987 , the property included five contributory structures , the farmhouse , corn crib , barn , silo and chicken coop . The property also has one non @-@ contributing structure , a machinery shed from the 1960s .
= = History = =
The farmhouse was built by Russel Gallup in 1826 before the incorporation of the town of Ledyard in 1836 . Gallup served as a member of the Connecticut Militia in the War of 1812 . He would hold the office of deacon for the Ledyard Congregation Church for over fifty years . The property was split as a deed to his second son , Rufus Gallup in 1855 and ownership passed upon Russel Gallup 's death in 1869 . Rufus Gallup took the same approach with his son , Russell Gallup II , and split the property in 1877 . Russell Gallup II was a teacher and became a Judge of Probate from 1896 until his death in 1911 . Everett Gallup took over the farm in the 1920s and was the last member of the Gallup family to own the farm . The property was later owned by Arlene Meyer Cohen . A 40 @-@ acre parcel of the original property was sold to Sarter in November 1984 . The house was acquired by the Betz family , who sought to operate the farmhouse as a bed and breakfast . Betz owned the farmhouse at the time of its nomination to the National Historic Register in 1987 . Applewood Farm operated as " Applewood Farms Inn " , serving as a six @-@ guest room bed and breakfast through the 1990s . In 2005 , the property was sold from Applewoods Estates LLC
= = Construction = =
Built around 1826 by Russel Gallup , the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story Applewood Farm 's farmhouse design harkens back to the earlier colonial center chimney design with Federal style details . The National Register of Historic Places nomination form states that the house 's construction may have been influenced by an earlier house built on the opposite side of Colonal Ledyard Highway , but there is no evidence for that design , but notes that it was a retardetaire example . The farmhouse is 36 feet ( 11 m ) feet long and 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . Around 1842 a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story wing was added to the east side . The rear ell , a one @-@ and @-@ half @-@ story structure measuring 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , connects to a 60 feet ( 18 m ) by 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) shed . The house and its additions are all topped with gable roofs and were using wooden shingles at the time of its historic nomination in 1987 . The farmhouse has six fireplaces , with those on the first floor are made of cut granite blocks also with granite hearthstones and the second floor are made of brick with granite lintels with brick hearths . The house has had modernization throughout the years , including modernizing the kitchen and bathrooms that has not significantly altered the floor plan . The hardware in the house was modernized and updated over the years , but had reproduction colonial hardware and early 20th @-@ century hardware at the time of its nomination . Some changes , like the installation of a new door in 1986 were done specifically to meet fire code regulations .
Contributing to the property is a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) by 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) corn crib that has been previously rebuilt and dated to around the 19th century at the time of its nomination . The barn , a post @-@ and @-@ beam construction , is 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) long and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) with large double doors on the east and west sides . The rafters were made with a single planed side and the " rest is left round " . Attached to the barn is an early 20th century dairy shed measuring 43 feet ( 13 m ) long by 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide . Other contributing assets include a 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) in circumference silo and a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 45 feet ( 14 m ) , both likely built in the early 20th century . A machinery shed dating to the 1960s was specifically listed a non @-@ contributory asset . In 1987 , the listed property had 3 @.@ 6 acres ( 1 @.@ 5 ha ) out of the original 144 acres ( 58 ha ) farm .
= = Importance = =
Applewood Farm has served as a farm for over a century , with an 1850 census reporting it produced butter , cheese , rye , Indian corn , oats , wool , Irish potatoes and hay . Three apple orchards planted by Russell Gallup would become an important part of Applewood Farms and owe its name to those orchards . After Everett Gallup took over the farm in the 1920s , the farm produced fresh fruits and vegetables and poultry , eggs and dairy products . In 1994 , the Applewood Farm reported having 700 trees tapped for maple syrup production and showed visitors the process of producing the syrup . Applewood Farms was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 under criteria A for the Gallup family history that played an important role in the local history and under criteria C as an architecturally important example of a late colonial center chimney house .
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= Waveguide filter =
A waveguide filter is an electronic filter that is constructed with waveguide technology . Waveguides are hollow metal tubes inside which an electromagnetic wave may be transmitted . Filters are devices used to allow signals at some frequencies to pass ( the passband ) , while others are rejected ( the stopband ) . Filters are a basic component of electronic engineering designs and have numerous applications . These include selection of signals and limitation of noise . Waveguide filters are most useful in the microwave band of frequencies , where they are a convenient size and have low loss . Examples of microwave filter use are found in satellite communications , telephone networks , and television broadcasting .
Waveguide filters were developed during World War II to meet the needs of radar and electronic countermeasures , but afterwards soon found civilian applications such as use in microwave links . Much of post @-@ war development was concerned with reducing the bulk and weight of these filters , first by using new analysis techniques that led to elimination of unnecessary components , then by innovations such as dual @-@ mode cavities and novel materials such as ceramic resonators .
A particular feature of waveguide filter design concerns the mode of transmission . Systems based on pairs of conducting wires and similar technologies have only one mode of transmission . In waveguide systems , any number of modes are possible . This can be both a disadvantage , as spurious modes frequently cause problems , and an advantage , as a dual @-@ mode design can be much smaller than the equivalent waveguide single mode design . The chief advantages of waveguide filters over other technologies are their ability to handle high power and their low loss . The chief disadvantages are their bulk and cost when compared with technologies such as microstrip filters .
There is a wide array of different types of waveguide filters . Many of them consist of a chain of coupled resonators of some kind that can be modelled as a ladder network of LC circuits . One of the most common types consists of a number of coupled resonant cavities . Even within this type , there are many subtypes , mostly differentiated by the means of coupling . These coupling types include apertures , [ w ] irises , [ x ] and posts . Other waveguide filter types include dielectric resonator filters , insert filters , finline filters , corrugated @-@ waveguide filters , and stub filters . A number of waveguide components have filter theory applied to their design , but their purpose is something other than to filter signals . Such devices include impedance matching components , directional couplers , and diplexers . These devices frequently take on the form of a filter , at least in part .
= = Scope = =
The common meaning of waveguide , when the term is used unqualified , is the hollow metal kind , but other waveguide technologies are possible . The scope of this article is limited to the metal @-@ tube type . The post @-@ wall waveguide structure is something of a variant , but is related enough to include in this article — the wave is mostly surrounded by conducting material . It is possible to construct waveguides out of dielectric rods , the most well known example being optical fibres . This subject is outside the scope of the article with the exception that dielectric rod resonators are sometimes used inside hollow metal waveguides . Transmission line [ o ] technologies such as conducting wires and microstrip can be thought of as waveguides , but are not commonly called such and are also outside the scope of this article .
= = Basic concepts = =
= = = Filters = = =
In electronics , filters are used to allow signals of a certain band of frequencies to pass while blocking others . They are a basic building block of electronic systems and have a great many applications . Amongst the uses of waveguide filters are the construction of duplexers , diplexers , [ d ] and multiplexers ; selectivity and noise limitation in receivers ; and harmonic distortion suppression in transmitters .
= = = Waveguides = = =
Waveguides are metal conduits used to confine and direct radio signals . They are usually made of brass , but aluminium and copper are also used . Most commonly they are rectangular , but other cross @-@ sections such as circular or elliptical are possible . A waveguide filter is a filter composed of waveguide components . It has much the same range of applications as other filter technologies in electronics and radio engineering but is very different mechanically and in principle of operation .
The technology used for constructing filters is chosen to a large extent by the frequency of operation that is expected , although there is a large amount of overlap . Low frequency applications such as audio electronics use filters composed of discrete capacitors and inductors . Somewhere in the very high frequency band , designers switch to using components made of pieces of transmission line . [ p ] These kinds of designs are called distributed element filters . Filters made from discrete components are sometimes called lumped element filters to distinguish them . At still higher frequencies , the microwave bands , the design switches to waveguide filters , or sometimes a combination of waveguides and transmission lines .
Waveguide filters have much more in common with transmission line filters than lumped element filters ; they do not contain any discrete capacitors or inductors . However , the waveguide design may frequently be equivalent ( or approximately so ) to a lumped element design . Indeed , the design of waveguide filters frequently starts from a lumped element design and then converts the elements of that design into waveguide components .
= = = Modes = = =
One of the most important differences in the operation of waveguide filters compared to transmission line designs concerns the mode of transmission of the electromagnetic wave carrying the signal . In a transmission line , the wave is associated with electric currents on a pair of conductors . The conductors constrain the currents to be parallel to the line , and consequently both the magnetic and electric components of the electromagnetic field are perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave . This transverse mode is designated TEM [ l ] ( transverse electromagnetic ) . On the other hand , there are infinitely many modes that any completely hollow waveguide can support , but the TEM mode is not one of them . Waveguide modes are designated either TE [ m ] ( transverse electric ) or TM [ n ] ( transverse magnetic ) , followed by a pair of suffixes identifying the precise mode .
This multiplicity of modes can cause problems in waveguide filters when spurious modes are generated . Designs are usually based on a single mode and frequently incorporate features to suppress the unwanted modes . On the other hand , advantage can be had from choosing the right mode for the application , and even sometimes making use of more than one mode at once . Where only a single mode is in use , the waveguide can be modelled like a conducting transmission line and results from transmission line theory can be applied .
= = = Cutoff = = =
Another feature peculiar to waveguide filters is that there is a definite frequency , the cutoff frequency , below which no transmission can take place . This means that in theory low @-@ pass filters cannot be made in waveguides . However , designers frequently take a lumped element low @-@ pass filter design and convert it to a waveguide implementation . The filter is consequently low @-@ pass by design and may be considered a low @-@ pass filter for all practical purposes if the cutoff frequency is below any frequency of interest to the application . The waveguide cutoff frequency is a function of transmission mode , so at a given frequency , the waveguide may be usable in some modes but not others . Likewise , the guide wavelength [ h ] ( λg ) and characteristic impedance [ b ] ( Z0 ) of the guide at a given frequency also depend on mode .
= = = Dominant mode = = =
The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency of all the modes is called the dominant mode . Between cutoff and the next highest mode , this is the only mode it is possible to transmit , which is why it is described as dominant . Any spurious modes generated are rapidly attenuated along the length of the guide and soon disappear . Practical filter designs are frequently made to operate in the dominant mode .
In rectangular waveguide , the TE10 [ q ] mode ( shown in figure 2 ) is the dominant mode . There is a band of frequencies between the dominant mode cutoff and the next highest mode cutoff in which the waveguide can be operated without any possibility of generating spurious modes . The next highest cutoff modes are TE20 , [ r ] at exactly twice the TE10 mode , and TE01 [ s ] which is also twice TE10 if the waveguide used has the commonly used aspect ratio of 2 : 1 . The lowest cutoff TM mode is TM11 [ t ] ( shown in figure 2 ) which is <formula> times the dominant mode in 2 : 1 waveguide . Thus , there is an octave over which the dominant mode is free of spurious modes , although operating too close to cutoff is usually avoided because of phase distortion .
In circular waveguide , the dominant mode is TE11 [ u ] and is shown in figure 2 . The next highest mode is TM01 . [ v ] The range over which the dominant mode is guaranteed to be spurious @-@ mode free is less than that in rectangular waveguide ; the ratio of highest to lowest frequency is approximately 1 @.@ 3 in circular waveguide , compared to 2 @.@ 0 in rectangular guide .
= = = Evanescent modes = = =
Evanescent modes are modes below the cutoff frequency . They cannot propagate down the waveguide for any distance , dying away exponentially . However , they are important in the functioning of certain filter components such as irises and posts , described later , because energy is stored in the evanescent wave fields .
= = Advantages and disadvantages = =
Like transmission line filters , waveguide filters always have multiple passbands , replicas of the lumped element prototype . In most designs , only the lowest frequency passband is useful ( or lowest two in the case of band @-@ stop filters ) and the rest are considered unwanted spurious artefacts . This is an intrinsic property of the technology and cannot be designed out , although design can have some control over the frequency position of the spurious bands . Consequently , in any given filter design , there is an upper frequency beyond which the filter will fail to carry out its function . For this reason , true low @-@ pass and high @-@ pass filters cannot exist in waveguide . At some high frequency there will be a spurious passband or stopband interrupting the intended function of the filter . But , similar to the situation with waveguide cutoff frequency , the filter can be designed so that the edge of the first spurious band is well above any frequency of interest .
The range of frequencies over which waveguide filters are useful is largely determined by the waveguide size needed . At lower frequencies the waveguide needs to be impractically large in order to keep the cutoff frequency below the operational frequency . On the other hand , filters whose operating frequencies are so high that the wavelengths are sub @-@ millimetre cannot be manufactured with normal machine shop processes . At frequencies this high , fibre @-@ optic technology starts to become an option .
Waveguides are a low @-@ loss medium . Losses in waveguides mostly come from ohmic dissipation caused by currents induced in the waveguide walls . Rectangular waveguide has lower loss than circular waveguide and is usually the preferred format , but the TE01 circular mode is very low loss and has applications in long distance communications . Losses can be reduced by polishing the internal surfaces of the waveguide walls . In some applications which require rigorous filtering , the walls are plated with a thin layer of gold or silver to improve surface conductivity . An example of such requirements is satellite applications which require low loss , high selectivity , and linear group delay from their filters .
One of the main advantages of waveguide filters over TEM mode technologies is the quality of their resonators . Resonator quality is characterised by a parameter called Q factor , or just Q. The Q of waveguide resonators is in the thousands , orders of magnitude higher than TEM mode resonators . The resistance of conductors , especially in wound inductors , limits the Q of TEM resonators . This improved Q leads to better performing filters in waveguides , with greater stop band rejection . The limitation to Q in waveguides comes mostly from the ohmic losses in the walls described earlier , but silver plating the internal walls can more than double Q.
Waveguides have good power handling capability , which leads to filter applications in radar . Despite the performance advantages of waveguide filters , microstrip is often the preferred technology due to its low cost . This is especially true for consumer items and the lower microwave frequencies . Microstrip circuits can be manufactured by cheap printed circuit technology , and when integrated on the same printed board as other circuit blocks they incur little additional cost .
= = History = =
The idea of a waveguide for electromagnetic waves was first suggested by Lord Rayleigh in 1897 . Rayleigh proposed that a coaxial transmission line could have the centre conductor removed , and waves would still propagate down the inside of the remaining cylindrical conductor despite there no longer being a complete electrical circuit of conductors . He described this in terms of the wave reflecting repeatedly off the internal wall of the outer conductor in a zig @-@ zag fashion as it progressed down the waveguide . Rayleigh was also the first to realise that there was a critical wavelength , the cutoff wavelength , proportional to the cylinder diameter , above which wave propagation is not possible . Waveguides were first developed , in a circular form , by George Clark Southworth and J. F. Hargreaves in 1932 .
The first analogue filter design which went beyond a simple single resonator was created by George Ashley Campbell in 1910 and marked the beginning of filter theory . Campbell 's filter was a lumped @-@ element design of capacitors and inductors suggested by his work with loading coils . Otto Zobel and others quickly developed this further . Development of distributed element filters began in the years before World War II . A major paper on the subject was published by Mason and Sykes in 1937 ; a patent filed by Mason in 1927 may contain the first published filter design using distributed elements .
Mason and Sykes ' work was focused on the formats of coaxial cable and balanced pairs of wires , but other researchers later applied the principles to waveguides as well . Much development on waveguide filters was carried out during World War II driven by the filtering needs of radar and electronic countermeasures . A good deal of this was at the MIT Radiation Laboratory ( Rad Lab ) , but other laboratories in the US and the UK were also involved such as the Telecommunications Research Establishment in the UK . Amongst the well @-@ known scientists and engineers at Rad Lab were Julian Schwinger , Nathan Marcuvitz , Edward Mills Purcell , and Hans Bethe . Bethe was only at Rad Lab a short time but produced his aperture theory while there . Aperture theory is important for waveguide cavity filters , which were first developed at Rad Lab . Their work was published after the war in 1948 and includes an early description of dual @-@ mode cavities by Fano and Lawson .
Theoretical work following the war included the commensurate line theory of Paul Richards . Commensurate lines are networks in which all the elements are the same length ( or in some cases multiples of the unit length ) , although they may differ in other dimensions to give different characteristic impedances . [ a ] Richards ' transformation allows any lumped element design to be taken " as is " and transformed directly into a distributed element design using a very simple transform equation . In 1955 K. Kuroda published the transformations known as Kuroda 's identities . These made Richard 's work more usable in unbalanced and waveguide formats by eliminating the problematic series connected elements , but it was some time before Kuroda 's Japanese work became widely known in the English speaking world . Another theoretical development was the network synthesis filter approach of Wilhelm Cauer in which he used the Chebyshev approximation to determine element values . Cauer 's work was largely developed during World War II ( Cauer was killed towards the end of it ) , but could not be widely published until hostilities ended . While Cauer 's work concerns lumped elements , it is of some importance to waveguide filters ; the Chebyshev filter , a special case of Cauer 's synthesis , is widely used as a prototype filter for waveguide designs .
Designs in the 1950s started with a lumped element prototype ( a technique still in use today ) , arriving after various transformations at the desired filter in a waveguide form . At the time , this approach was yielding fractional bandwidths no more than about 1 / 5 . In 1957 , Leo Young at Stanford Research Institute published a method for designing filters which started with a distributed element prototype , the stepped impedance prototype . This filter was based on quarter @-@ wave impedance transformers of various widths and was able to produce designs with bandwidths up to an octave ( a fractional bandwidth of 2 / 3 ) . Young 's paper specifically addresses directly coupled cavity resonators , but the procedure can equally be applied to other directly coupled resonator types .
The first published account of a cross @-@ coupled filter is due to John R. Pierce at Bell Labs in a 1948 patent . A cross @-@ coupled filter is one in which resonators that are not immediately adjacent are coupled . The additional degrees of freedom thus provided allow the designer to create filters with improved performance , or , alternatively , with fewer resonators . One version of Pierce 's filter , shown in figure 3 , uses circular waveguide cavity resonators to link between rectangular guide cavity resonators . This principle was not at first much used by waveguide filter designers , but it was used extensively by mechanical filter designers in the 1960s , particularly R. A. Johnson at Collins Radio Company .
The initial non @-@ military application of waveguide filters was in the microwave links used by telecommunications companies to provide the backbone of their networks . These links were also used by other industries with large , fixed networks , notably television broadcasters . Such applications were part of large capital investment programs . They are now also used in satellite communications systems .
The need for frequency @-@ independent delay in satellite applications led to more research into the waveguide incarnation of cross @-@ coupled filters . Previously , satellite communications systems used a separate component for delay equalisation . The additional degrees of freedom obtained from cross @-@ coupled filters held out the possibility of designing a flat delay into a filter without compromising other performance parameters . A component that simultaneously functioned as both filter and equaliser would save valuable weight and space . The needs of satellite communication also drove research into the more exotic resonator modes in the 1970s . Of particular prominence in this respect is the work of E. L. Griffin and F. A. Young , who investigated better modes for the 12 @-@ 14 GHz band when this began to be used for satellites in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Another space @-@ saving innovation was the dielectric resonator , which can be used in other filter formats as well as waveguide . The first use of these in a filter was by S. B. Cohn in 1965 , using titanium dioxide as the dielectric material . Dielectric resonators used in the 1960s , however , had very poor temperature coefficients , typically 500 times worse than a mechanical resonator made of invar , which led to instability of filter parameters . Dielectric materials of the time with better temperature coefficients had too low a dielectric constant to be useful for space saving . This changed with the introduction of ceramic resonators with very low temperature coefficients in the 1970s . The first of these was from Massé and Pucel using barium tetratitanate at Raytheon in 1972 . Further improvements were reported in 1979 by Bell Labs and Murata Manufacturing . Bell Labs ' barium nonatitanate resonator had a dielectric constant of 40 and Q of 5000 – 10 @,@ 000 at 2 @-@ 7 GHz . Modern temperature @-@ stable materials have a dielectric constant of about 90 at microwave frequencies , but research is continuing to find materials with both low loss and high permittivity ; lower permittivity materials , such as zirconium stannate titanate ( ZST ) with a dielectric constant of 38 , are still sometimes used for their low loss property .
An alternative approach to designing smaller waveguide filters was provided by the use of non @-@ propagating evanescent modes . Jaynes and Edson proposed evanescent mode waveguide filters in the late 1950s . Methods for designing these filters were created by Craven and Young in 1966 . Since then , evanescent mode waveguide filters have seen successful use where waveguide size or weight are important considerations .
A relatively recent technology being used inside hollow @-@ metal @-@ waveguide filters is finline , a kind of planar dielectric waveguide . Finline was first described by Paul Meier in 1972 .
= = = Multiplexer history = = =
Multiplexers were first described by Fano and Lawson in 1948 . Pierce was the first to describe multiplexers with contiguous passbands . Multiplexing using directional filters was invented by Seymour Cohn and Frank Coale in the 1950s . Multiplexers with compensating immittance resonators at each junction are largely the work of E. G. Cristal and G. L. Matthaei in the 1960s . This technique is still sometimes used , but the modern availability of computing power has led to the more common use of synthesis techniques which can directly produce matching filters without the need for these additional resonators . In 1965 R. J. Wenzel discovered that filters which were singly terminated , [ k ] rather than the usual doubly terminated , were complementary — exactly what was needed for a diplexer . [ c ] Wenzel was inspired by the lectures of circuit theorist Ernst Guillemin .
Multi @-@ channel , multi @-@ octave multiplexers were investigated by Harold Schumacher at Microphase Corporation , and his results were published in 1976 . The principle that multiplexer filters may be matched when joined together by modifying the first few elements , thus doing away with the compensating resonators , was discovered accidentally by E. J. Curly around 1968 when he mistuned a diplexer . A formal theory for this was provided by J. D. Rhodes in 1976 and generalised to multiplexers by Rhodes and Ralph Levy in 1979 .
From the 1980s , planar technologies , especially microstrip , have tended to replace other technologies used for constructing filters and multiplexers , especially in products aimed at the consumer market . The recent innovation of post @-@ wall waveguide allows waveguide designs to be implemented on a flat substrate with low @-@ cost manufacturing techniques similar to those used for microstrip .
= = Components = =
Waveguide filter designs frequently consist of two different components repeated a number of times . Typically , one component is a resonator or discontinuity with a lumped circuit equivalent of an inductor , capacitor , or LC resonant circuit . Often , the filter type will take its name from the style of this component . These components are spaced apart by a second component , a length of guide which acts as an impedance transformer . The impedance transformers have the effect of making alternate instances of the first component appear to be a different impedance . The net result is a lumped element equivalent circuit of a ladder network . Lumped element filters are commonly ladder topology , and such a circuit is a typical starting point for waveguide filter designs . Figure 4 shows such a ladder . Typically , waveguide components are resonators , and the equivalent circuit would be LC resonators instead of the capacitors and inductors shown , but circuits like figure 4 are still used as prototype filters with the use of a band @-@ pass or band @-@ stop transformation .
Filter performance parameters , such as stopband rejection and rate of transition between passband and stopband , are improved by adding more components and thus increasing the length of the filter . Where the components are repeated identically , the filter is an image parameter filter design , and performance is enhanced simply by adding more identical elements . This approach is typically used in filter designs which use a large number of closely spaced elements such as the waffle @-@ iron filter . For designs where the elements are more widely spaced , better results can be obtained using a network synthesis filter design , such as the common Chebyshev filter and Butterworth filters . In this approach the circuit elements do not all have the same value , and consequently the components are not all the same dimensions . Furthermore , if the design is enhanced by adding more components then all the element values must be calculated again from scratch . In general , there will be no common values between the two instances of the design . Chebyshev waveguide filters are used where the filtering requirements are rigorous , such as satellite applications .
= = = Impedance transformer = = =
An impedance transformer is a device which makes an impedance at its output port appear as a different impedance at its input port . In waveguide , this device is simply a short length of waveguide . Especially useful is the quarter @-@ wave impedance transformer which has a length of λg / 4 . This device can turn capacitances into inductances and vice versa . It also has the useful property of turning shunt @-@ connected elements into series @-@ connected elements and vice versa . Series @-@ connected elements are otherwise difficult to implement in waveguide .
= = = Reflections and discontinuities = = =
Many waveguide filter components work by introducing a sudden change , a discontinuity , to the transmission properties of the waveguide . Such discontinuities are equivalent to lumped impedance elements placed at that point . This arises in the following way : the discontinuity causes a partial reflection of the transmitted wave back down the guide in the opposite direction , the ratio of the two being known as the reflection coefficient . This is entirely analogous to a reflection on a transmission line where there is an established relationship between reflection coefficient and the impedance that caused the reflection . This impedance must be reactive , that is , it must be a capacitance or an inductance . It cannot be a resistance since no energy has been absorbed — it is all either transmitted onward or reflected . Examples of components with this function include irises , stubs , and posts , all described later in this article under the filter types in which they occur .
= = = Impedance step = = =
An impedance step is an example of a device introducing a discontinuity . It is achieved by a step change in the physical dimensions of the waveguide . This results in a step change in the characteristic impedance of the waveguide . The step can be in either the E @-@ plane [ f ] ( change of height [ j ] ) or the H @-@ plane [ g ] ( change of width [ i ] ) of the waveguide .
= = Resonant cavity filter = =
= = = Cavity resonator = = =
A basic component of waveguide filters is the cavity resonator . This consists of a short length of waveguide blocked at both ends . Waves trapped inside the resonator are reflected back and forth between the two ends . A given geometry of cavity will resonate at a characteristic frequency . The resonance effect can be used to selectively pass certain frequencies . Their use in a filter structure requires that some of the wave is allowed to pass out of one cavity into another through a coupling structure . However , if the opening in the resonator is kept small then a valid design approach is to design the cavity as if it were completely closed and errors will be minimal . A number of different coupling mechanisms are used in different classes of filter .
The nomenclature for modes in a cavity introduces a third index , for example TE011 . The first two indices describe the wave travelling up and down the length of the cavity , that is , they are the transverse mode numbers as for modes in a waveguide . The third index describes the longitudinal mode caused by the interference pattern of the forward travelling and reflected waves . The third index is equal to the number of half wavelengths down the length of the guide . The most common modes used are the dominant modes : TE101 in rectangular waveguide , and TE111 in circular waveguide . TE011 circular mode is used where very low loss ( hence high Q ) is required but cannot be used in a dual @-@ mode filter because it is circularly symmetric . Better modes for rectangular waveguide in dual @-@ mode filters are TE103 and TE105 . However , even better is the TE113 circular waveguide mode which can achieve a Q of 16 @,@ 000 at 12 GHz .
= = = Tuning screw = = =
Tuning screws are screws inserted into resonant cavities which can be adjusted externally to the waveguide . They provide fine tuning of the resonant frequency by inserting more , or less thread into the waveguide . Examples can be seen in the post filter of figure 1 : each cavity has a tuning screw secured with jam nuts and thread @-@ locking compound . For screws inserted only a small distance , the equivalent circuit is a shunt capacitor , increasing in value as the screw is inserted . However , when the screw has been inserted a distance λ / 4 it resonates equivalent to a series LC circuit . Inserting it further it causes the impedance to change from capacitive to inductive , that is , the arithmetic sign changes .
= = = Iris = = =
An iris is a thin metal plate across the waveguide with one or more holes in it . It is used to couple together two lengths of waveguide and is a means of introducing a discontinuity . Some of the possible geometries of irises are shown in figure 5 . An iris which reduces the width of a rectangular waveguide has an equivalent circuit of a shunt inductance , whereas one which restricts the height is equivalent to a shunt capacitance . An iris which restricts both directions is equivalent to a parallel LC resonant circuit . A series LC circuit can be formed by spacing the conducting portion of the iris away from the walls of the waveguide . Narrowband filters frequently use irises with small holes . These are always inductive regardless of the shape of the hole or its position on the iris . Circular holes are simple to machine , but elongated holes , or holes in the shape of a cross , are advantageous in allowing the selection of a particular mode of coupling .
Irises are a form of discontinuity and work by exciting evanescent higher modes . Vertical edges are parallel to the electric field ( E field ) and excite TE modes . The stored energy in TE modes is predominately in the magnetic field ( H field ) , and consequently the lumped equivalent of this structure is an inductor . Horizontal edges are parallel to the H field and excite TM modes . In this case the stored energy is predominately in the E field and the lumped equivalent is a capacitor .
It is fairly simple to make irises that are mechanically adjustable . A thin plate of metal can be pushed in and out of a narrow slot in the side of the waveguide . The iris construction is sometimes chosen for this ability to make a variable component .
= = = Iris @-@ coupled filter = = =
An iris @-@ coupled filter consists of a cascade of impedance transformers in the form of waveguide resonant cavities coupled together by irises . In high power applications capacitive irises are avoided . The reduction in height of the waveguide ( the direction of the E field ) causes the electric field strength across the gap to increase and arcing ( or dielectric breakdown if the waveguide is filled with an insulator ) will occur at a lower power than it would otherwise .
= = = Post filter = = =
Posts are conducting bars , usually circular , fixed internally across the height of the waveguide and are another means of introducing a discontinuity . A thin post has an equivalent circuit of a shunt inductor . A row of posts can be viewed as a form of inductive iris .
A post filter consists of several rows of posts across the width of the waveguide which separate the waveguide into resonant cavities as shown in figure 7 . Differing numbers of posts can be used in each row to achieve varying values of inductance . An example can be seen in figure 1 . The filter operates in the same way as the iris @-@ coupled filter but differs in the method of construction .
= = = Post @-@ wall waveguide = = =
A post @-@ wall waveguide , or substrate integrated waveguide , is a more recent format that seeks to combine the advantages of low radiation loss , high Q , and high power handling of traditional hollow metal pipe waveguide with the small size and ease of manufacture of planar technologies ( such as the widely used microstrip format ) . It consists of an insulated substrate pierced with two rows of conducting posts which stand in for the side walls of the waveguide . The top and bottom of the substrate are covered with conducting sheets making this a similar construction to the triplate format . The existing manufacturing techniques of printed circuit board or low temperature co @-@ fired ceramic can be used to make post @-@ wall waveguide circuits . This format naturally lends itself to waveguide post filter designs .
= = = Dual @-@ mode filter = = =
A dual @-@ mode filter is a kind of resonant cavity filter , but in this case each cavity is used to provide two resonators by employing two modes ( two polarizations ) , so halving the volume of the filter for a given order . This improvement in size of the filter is a major advantage in aircraft avionics and space applications . High quality filters in these applications can require many cavities which occupy significant space .
= = Dielectric resonator filter = =
Dielectric resonators are pieces of dielectric material inserted into the waveguide . They are usually cylindrical since these can be made without machining but other shapes have been used . They can be made with a hole through the centre which is used to secure them to the waveguide . There is no field at the centre when the TE011 circular mode is used so the hole has no adverse effect . The resonators can be mounted coaxial to the waveguide , but usually they are mounted transversally across the width as shown in figure 8 . The latter arrangement allows the resonators to be tuned by inserting a screw through the wall of the waveguide into the centre hole of the resonator .
When dielectric resonators are made from a high permittivity material , such as one of the barium titanates , they have an important space saving advantage compared to cavity resonators . However , they are much more prone to spurious modes . In high @-@ power applications , metal layers may be built into the resonators to conduct heat away since dielectric materials tend to have low thermal conductivity .
The resonators can be coupled together with irises or impedance transformers . Alternatively , they can be placed in a stub @-@ like side @-@ housing and coupled through a small aperture .
= = = Insert filter = = =
In insert filters one or more metal sheets are placed longitudinally down the length of the waveguide as shown in figure 9 . These sheets have holes punched in them to form resonators . The air dielectric gives these resonators a high Q. Several parallel inserts may be used in the same length of waveguide . More compact resonators may be achieved with a thin sheet of dielectric material and printed metallisation instead of holes in metal sheets at the cost of a lower resonator Q.
= = = Finline filter = = =
Finline is a different kind of waveguide technology in which waves in a thin strip of dielectric are constrained by two strips of metallisation . There are a number of possible topological arrangements of the dielectric and metal strips . Finline is a variation of slot @-@ waveguide but in the case of finline the whole structure is enclosed in a metal shield . This has the advantage that , like hollow metal waveguide , no power is lost by radiation . Finline filters can be made by printing a metallisation pattern on to a sheet of dielectric material and then inserting the sheet into the E @-@ plane of a hollow metal waveguide much as is done with insert filters . The metal waveguide forms the shield for the finline waveguide . Resonators are formed by metallising a pattern on to the dielectric sheet . More complex patterns than the simple insert filter of figure 9 are easily achieved because the designer does not have to consider the effect on mechanical support of removing metal . This complexity does not add to the manufacturing costs since the number of processes needed does not change when more elements are added to the design . Finline designs are less sensitive to manufacturing tolerances than insert filters and have wide bandwidths .
= = Evanescent @-@ mode filter = =
It is possible to design filters that operate internally entirely in evanescent modes . This has space saving advantages because the filter waveguide , which often forms the housing of the filter , does not need to be large enough to support propagation of the dominant mode . Typically , an evanescent mode filter consists of a length of waveguide smaller than the waveguide feeding the input and output ports . In some designs this may be folded to achieve a more compact filter . Tuning screws are inserted at specific intervals along the waveguide producing equivalent lumped capacitances at those points . In more recent designs the screws are replaced with dielectric inserts . These capacitors resonate with the preceding length of evanescent mode waveguide which has the equivalent circuit of an inductor , thus producing a filtering action . Energy from many different evanescent modes is stored in the field around each of these capacitive discontinuities . However , the design is such that only the dominant mode reaches the output port ; the other modes decay much more rapidly between the capacitors .
= = Corrugated @-@ waveguide filter = =
Corrugated @-@ waveguide filters , also called ridged @-@ waveguide filters , consist of a number of ridges , or teeth , that periodically reduce the internal height of the waveguide as shown in figures 10 and 11 . They are used in applications which simultaneously require a wide passband , good passband matching , and a wide stopband . They are essentially low @-@ pass designs ( above the usual limitation of the cutoff frequency ) , unlike most other forms which are usually band @-@ pass . The distance between teeth is much smaller than the typical λ / 4 distance between elements of other filter designs . Typically , they are designed by the image parameter method with all ridges identical , but other classes of filter such as Chebyshev can be achieved in exchange for complexity of manufacture . In the image design method the equivalent circuit of the ridges is modelled as a cascade of LC half sections . The filter operates in the dominant TE10 mode , but spurious modes can be a problem when they are present . In particular , there is little stopband attenuation of TE20 and TE30 modes .
= = = Waffle @-@ iron filter = = =
The waffle @-@ iron filter is a variant of the corrugated @-@ waveguide filter . It has similar properties to that filter with the additional advantage that spurious TE20 and TE30 modes are suppressed . In the waffle @-@ iron filter , channels are cut through the ridges longitudinally down the filter . This leaves a matrix of teeth protruding internally from the top and bottom surfaces of the waveguide . This pattern of teeth resembles a waffle iron , hence the name of the filter .
= = Waveguide stub filter = =
A stub is a short length of waveguide connected to some point in the filter at one end and short @-@ circuited at the other end . Open @-@ circuited stubs are also theoretically possible , but an implementation in waveguide is not practical because electromagnetic energy would be launched out of the open end of the stub , resulting in high losses . Stubs are a kind of resonator , and the lumped element equivalent is an LC resonant circuit . However , over a narrow band , stubs can be viewed as an impedance transformer . The short @-@ circuit is transformed into either an inductance or a capacitance depending on the stub length .
A waveguide stub filter is made by placing one or more stubs along the length of a waveguide , usually λg / 4 apart , as shown in figure 12 . The ends of the stubs are blanked off to short @-@ circuit them . When the short @-@ circuited stubs are λg / 4 long the filter will be a band @-@ stop filter and the stubs will have a lumped @-@ element approximate equivalent circuit of parallel resonant circuits connected in series with the line . When the stubs are λg / 2 long , the filter will be a band @-@ pass filter . In this case the lumped @-@ element equivalent is series LC resonant circuits in series with the line .
= = Absorption filter = =
Absorption filters dissipate the energy in unwanted frequencies internally as heat . This is in contrast to a conventional filter design where the unwanted frequencies are reflected back from the input port of the filter . Such filters are used where it is undesirable for power to be sent back towards the source . This is the case with high power transmitters where returning power can be high enough to damage the transmitter . An absorption filter may be used to remove transmitter spurious emissions such as harmonics or spurious sidebands . A design that has been in use for some time has slots cut in the walls of the feed waveguide at regular intervals . This design is known as a leaky @-@ wave filter . Each slot is connected to a smaller gauge waveguide which is too small to support propagation of frequencies in the wanted band . Thus those frequencies are unaffected by the filter . Higher frequencies in the unwanted band , however , readily propagate along the side guides which are terminated with a matched load where the power is absorbed . These loads are usually a wedge shaped piece of microwave absorbent material . Another , more compact , design of absorption filter uses resonators with a lossy dielectric .
= = Filter @-@ like devices = =
There are many applications of filters whose design objectives are something other than rejection or passing of certain frequencies . Frequently , a simple device that is intended to work over only a narrow band or just one spot frequency will not look much like a filter design . However , a broadband design for the same item requires many more elements and the design takes on the nature of a filter . Amongst the more common applications of this kind in waveguide are impedance matching networks , directional couplers , power dividers , power combiners , and diplexers . Other possible applications include multiplexers , demultiplexers , negative @-@ resistance amplifiers , and time @-@ delay networks .
= = = Impedance matching = = =
A simple method of impedance matching is stub matching with a single stub . However , a single stub will only produce a perfect match at one particular frequency . This technique is therefore only suitable for narrow band applications . To widen the bandwidth multiple stubs may be used , and the structure then takes on the form of a stub filter . The design proceeds as if it were a filter except that a different parameter is optimised . In a frequency filter typically the parameter optimised is stopband rejection , passband attenuation , steepness of transition , or some compromise between these . In a matching network the parameter optimised is the impedance match . The function of the device does not require a restriction of bandwidth , but the designer is nevertheless forced to choose a bandwidth because of the structure of the device .
Stubs are not the only format of filter than can be used . In principle , any filter structure could be applied to impedance matching , but some will result in more practical designs than others . A frequent format used for impedance matching in waveguide is the stepped impedance filter . An example can be seen in the duplexer [ e ] pictured in figure 13 .
= = = Directional couplers and power combiners = = =
Directional couplers , power splitters , and power combiners are all essentially the same type of device , at least when implemented with passive components . A directional coupler splits a small amount of power from the main line to a third port . A more strongly coupled , but otherwise identical , device may be called a power splitter . One that couples exactly half the power to the third port ( a 3 dB coupler ) is the maximum coupling achievable without reversing the functions of the ports . Many designs of power splitter can be used in reverse , whereupon they become power combiners .
A simple form of directional coupler is two parallel transmission lines coupled together over a λ / 4 length . This design is limited because the electrical length of the coupler will only be λ / 4 at one specific frequency . Coupling will be a maximum at this frequency and fall away on either side . Similar to the impedance matching case , this can be improved by using multiple elements , resulting in a filter @-@ like structure . A waveguide analogue of this coupled lines approach is the Bethe @-@ hole directional coupler in which two parallel waveguides are stacked on top of each other and a hole provided for coupling . To produce a wideband design , multiple holes are used along the guides as shown in figure 14 and a filter design applied . It is not only the coupled @-@ line design that suffers from being narrow band , all simple designs of waveguide coupler depend on frequency in some way . For instance the rat @-@ race coupler ( which can be implemented directly in waveguide ) works on a completely different principle but still relies on certain lengths being exact in terms of λ .
= = = Diplexers and duplexers = = =
A diplexer is a device used to combine two signals occupying different frequency bands into a single signal . This is usually to enable two signals to be transmitted simultaneously on the same communications channel , or to allow transmitting on one frequency while receiving on another . ( This specific use of a diplexer is called a duplexer . ) The same device can be used to separate the signals again at the far end of the channel . The need for filtering to separate the signals while receiving is fairly self @-@ evident but it is also required even when combining two transmitted signals . Without filtering , some of the power from source A will be sent towards source B instead of the combined output . This will have the detrimental effects of losing a portion of the input power and loading source A with the output impedance of source B thus causing mismatch . These problems could be overcome with the use of a 3 dB directional coupler , but as explained in the previous section , a wideband design requires a filter design for directional couplers as well .
Two widely spaced narrowband signals can be diplexed by joining together the outputs of two appropriate band @-@ pass filters . Steps need to be taken to prevent the filters from coupling to each other when they are at resonance which would cause degradation of their performance . This can be achieved by appropriate spacing . For instance , if the filters are of the iris @-@ coupled type then the iris nearest to the filter junction of filter A is placed λgb / 4 from the junction where λgb is the guide wavelength in the passband of filter B. Likewise , the nearest iris of filter B is placed λga / 4 from the junction . This works because when filter A is at resonance , filter B is in its stopband and only loosely coupled and vice versa . An alternative arrangement is to have each filter joined to a main waveguide at separate junctions . A decoupling resonator is placed λg / 4 from the junction of each filter . This can be in the form of a short @-@ circuited stub tuned to the resonant frequency of that filter . This arrangement can be extended to multiplexers with any number of bands .
For diplexers dealing with contiguous passbands proper account of the crossover characteristics of filters needs to be considered in the design . An especially common case of this is where the diplexer is used to split the entire spectrum into low and high bands . Here a low @-@ pass and a high @-@ pass filter are used instead of band @-@ pass filters . The synthesis techniques used here can equally be applied to narrowband multiplexers and largely remove the need for decoupling resonators .
= = = Directional filters = = =
A directional filter is a device that combines the functions of a directional coupler and a diplexer . As it is based on a directional coupler it is essentially a four @-@ port device , but like directional couplers , port 4 is commonly permanently terminated internally . Power entering port 1 exits port 3 after being subject to some filtering function ( usually band @-@ pass ) . The remaining power exits port 2 , and since no power is absorbed or reflected this will be the exact complement of the filtering function at port 2 , in this case band @-@ stop . In reverse , power entering ports 2 and 3 is combined at port 1 , but now the power from the signals rejected by the filter is absorbed in the load at port 4 . Figure 15 shows one possible waveguide implementation of a directional filter . Two rectangular waveguides operating in the dominant TE10 mode provide the four ports . These are joined together by a circular waveguide operating in the circular TE11 mode . The circular waveguide contains an iris coupled filter with as many irises as needed to produce the required filter response .
= = Glossary = =
^ aperture
An opening in a wall of a waveguide or barrier between sections of waveguide through which electromagnetic radiation can propagate .
^ a b characteristic impedance
Characteristic impedance , symbol Z0 , of a waveguide for a particular mode is defined as the ratio of the transverse electric field to the transverse magnetic field of a wave travelling in one direction down the guide . The characteristic impedance for air filled waveguide is given by ,
<formula>
where Zf is the impedance of free space , approximately 377 Ω , λg is the guide wavelength , and λ is the wavelength when unrestricted by the guide . For a dielectric filled waveguide , the expression must be divided by √ κ , where κ is the dielectric constant of the material , and λ replaced by the unrestricted wavelength in the dielectric medium . In some treatments what is called characteristic impedance here is called the wave impedance , and characteristic impedance is defined as proportional to it by some constant .
^ c d e diplexer , duplexer
A diplexer combines or separates two signals occupying different passbands . A duplexer combines or splits two signals travelling in opposite directions , or of differing polarizations ( which may also be in different passbands as well ) .
^ E @-@ plane
The E @-@ plane is the plane lying in the direction of the transverse electric field , that is , vertically along the guide .
^ guide wavelength
Guide wavelength , symbol λg , is the wavelength measured longitudinally down the waveguide . For a given frequency , λg depends on the mode of transmission and is always longer than the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave of the same frequency in free space. λg is related to the cutoff frequency , fc , by ,
<formula>
where λ is the wavelength the wave would have if unrestricted by the guide . For guides that are filled only with air , this will be the same , for all practical purposes , as the free space wavelength for the transmitted frequency , f .
^ H @-@ plane
The H @-@ plane is the plane lying in the direction of the transverse magnetic field ( H being the analysis symbol for magnetic field strength ) , that is , horizontally along the guide .
^ i j height , width
Of a rectangular guide , these refer respectively to the small and large internal dimensions of its cross @-@ section . The polarization of the E @-@ field of the dominant mode is parallel to the height .
^ iris
A conducting plate fitted transversally across the waveguide with a , usually large , aperture .
^ singly terminated , doubly terminated
A doubly terminated filter ( the normal case ) is one where the generator and load , connected to the input and output ports respectively , have impedances matching the filter characteristic impedance . A singly terminated filter has a matching load , but is driven either by a low impedance voltage source or a high impedance current source .
^ TEM mode
Transverse electromagnetic mode , a transmission mode where all the electric field and all the magnetic field are perpendicular to the direction of travel of the electromagnetic wave . This is the usual mode of transmission in pairs of conductors .
^ TE mode
Transverse electric mode , one of a number of modes in which all the electric field , but not all the magnetic field , is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the electromagnetic wave . They are designated H modes in some sources because these modes have a longitudinal magnetic component . The first index indicates the number of half wavelengths of field across the width of the waveguide , and the second index indicates the number of half wavelengths across the height . Properly , the indices should be separated with a comma , but usually they are run together , as mode numbers in double figures rarely need to be considered . Some modes specifically mentioned in this article are listed below . All modes are for rectangular waveguide unless otherwise stated .
^ TE01 mode
^ TE10 mode
^ TE20 mode
^ TE11 circular mode
^ TM mode
Transverse magnetic mode , one of a number of modes in which all the magnetic field , but not all the electric field , is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the electromagnetic wave . They are designated E modes in some sources because these modes have a longitudinal electric component . See TE mode for a description of the meaning of the indices . Some modes specifically mentioned in this article are :
^ TM11 mode
^ TM01 circular mode
^ o p transmission line
A transmission line is a signal transmission medium consisting of a pair of electrical conductors separated from each other , or one conductor and a common return path . In some treatments waveguides are considered to be within the class of transmission lines , with which they have much in common . In this article waveguides are not included so that the two types of medium can more easily be distinguished and referred .
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= SM UB @-@ 5 =
SM UB @-@ 5 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the Imperial German Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She sank five ships during her career and was broken up in Germany in 1919 .
UB @-@ 5 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 5 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 tonnes ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 5 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched and commissioned there as SM UB @-@ 5 in March 1915 .
UB @-@ 5 was initially assigned to the Flanders Flotilla in March 1915 and sank five British ships of 996 gross register tons ( GRT ) under the command of Wilhelm Smiths . The U @-@ boat was assigned to the Baltic Flotilla in October 1915 , and relegated to a training role from September 1916 . At the end of the war , UB @-@ 5 was deemed unseaworthy and unable to surrender at Harwich with the rest of Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet . She remained in Germany where she was broken up by Dräger at Lübeck , Germany , in 1919 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the Imperial German Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow environment off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 5 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 5 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 22 November . As built , UB @-@ 5 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 5 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 5 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 5 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 5 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , UB @-@ 5 was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 5 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 5 was assembled and launched sometime in March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Service career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 5 on 25 March under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Wilhelm Smiths , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . UB @-@ 5 soon joined the other UB I boats then comprising the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 5 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom ( including the English Channel ) , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
The UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla were initially limited to patrols in the Hoofden , the southern portion of the North Sea between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . UB @-@ 4 made the first sortie of the flotilla on 9 April , and UB @-@ 5 departed on her first patrol soon after . On 15 April , 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) from the North Hinder lightship , UB @-@ 5 scored her first success when she torpedoed and sank the British steamer Ptarmigan . The 784 @-@ ton steamer was carrying a general cargo from Rotterdam to London when she went down with the loss of eight crewmen .
After UB @-@ 5 's sister boat UB @-@ 6 pioneered a route around past British anti @-@ submarine nets and mines in the Straits of Dover in late June , boats of the flotilla began to patrol the western English Channel . UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 5 , and UB @-@ 10 soon followed with patrols in the Channel , but were hampered by fog and bad weather . Even though none of the boats sank any ships , by successfully completing their voyages they helped further prove the feasibility of defeating the British countermeasures in the Straits of Dover .
On 13 and 14 August , while patrolling in Lowestoft – Cromer area , UB @-@ 5 sank four British fishing smacks with a combined tonnage of just over 200 GRT , the largest being Sunflower and J.W.F.T. , each of 60 gross register tons ( GRT ) . All four of the smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 5 , and sunk with explosives . These were the last ships UB @-@ 5 sank during the war .
Germany 's submarine offensive was suspended on 18 September by the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , In response to American demands after the sinking of the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive from ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . Shortly after this cessation , UB @-@ 5 was transferred to the Baltic Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Ostseetreitträfte V. U @-@ Halbflotille ) on 9 October .
Boats of the Baltic flotilla were based at either Kiel , Danzig , or Libau , but where UB @-@ 5 was stationed during this time is not reported in sources . On 21 September 1916 , UB @-@ 5 was transferred to training duties . According to authors R.H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , submarines assigned to training duties were " war @-@ worn craft " unfit for service . At the end of the war , the Allies required all German U @-@ boats to be sailed to Harwich for surrender . UB @-@ 5 was one of eight U @-@ boats deemed unseaworthy and allowed to remain in Germany . UB @-@ 5 was broken up by Dräger at Lübeck in 1919 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
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= Sometimes ( Britney Spears song ) =
" Sometimes " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . Written by Spears and Jörgen Elofsson and produced by Per Magnusson and David Kreuger , the song was released as Spears ' second single on April 30 , 1999 by JIVE Records . " Sometimes " is a teen pop song that is influenced by bubblegum pop , and alludes to a relationship where a shy girl is reserved on expressing feelings to her lover . The song received generally mixed reviews from contemporary critics .
" Sometimes " attained worldwide success , peaking inside the top ten in eleven countries . In the United States , the song peaked at number twenty one . The song reached number one in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Netherlands and New Zealand , while reaching number two in Australia . In the United Kingdom , the song reached number three , and is also Spears ' third best @-@ selling single in the country . An accompanying music video , directed by Nigel Dick , was shot at the Paradise Cove in Malibu , California . It portrays Spears watching her love interest from afar . Spears has performed " Sometimes " in four of her concert tours , including at the ... Baby One More Time Tour ( 1999 ) , the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 – 01 ) , and the Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 – 02 ) .
= = Background = =
Before recording her debut album , Spears had originally envisioned it in style of " Sheryl Crow music , but younger [ and ] more adult contemporary " . However , the singer agreed with her label 's appointment of producers , who had the objective to reach a teen public at the time . She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . " Sometimes " was written by Jörgen Elofsson , and produced by Per Magnusson and David Kreuger . Spears recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998 , at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Martin . Esbjörn Öhrwall played the acoustic guitar , while bass guitar was done by Thomas Lindberg . Keyboards and programming was done by Kreuger , and additional keyboards by Magnusson . Background vocals were provided by Anders von Hoffsten . Spears also co @-@ wrote and recorded a track called " I 'm So Curious " , produced by Eric Foster White , that was released as a b @-@ side to " Sometimes " . The track was recorded in 1997 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey . " Sometimes " was released as the second single from ... Baby One More Time on April 30 , 1999 .
= = = Songwriting controversy = = =
The song created controversy over the writing credits . Steve Wallace , an Indiana songwriter , claimed he wrote " Sometimes " in 1990 , but didn 't copyright it until 2003 , four years after Spears registered the song 's copyright . Wallace claimed Spears confessed he wrote the song , by showing to the court a possible e @-@ mail from the singer , which said , " I now know for a fact that you wrote [ ' Sometimes ' ] . But there 's nothing I can do about it . That 's all I can say about it . " The e @-@ mail was considered fake and the lawsuit was dismissed on October 31 , 2005 , when Judge John D. Tinder claimed the singer didn 't steal the song .
= = Composition = =
" Sometimes " is a romantic teen pop song that is influenced by bubblegum pop , with a length of four minutes and four seconds . The song is composed in the key of B ♭ major and is set in time signature of common time with a moderately slow tempo of 96 beats per minute . After the bridge , it transposes to B major . Spears ' vocal range spans almost two octaves from the low note F3 to the high note E5 . The song has a sequence of Cm11 – F7sus – B ♭ – B ♭ ( 9 ) / D – F / A – F as its chord progression . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic noted " Sometimes " has " a catchy hook and endearing melody , with a reminiscent euro @-@ dance rhythm . "
Lyrically , the song is a " heartbroken ballad " , where Spears declares on the introduction , " You tell me you 're in love with me / That you can 't take your pretty eyes away from me / It 's not that I don 't wanna stay / But every time you come too close I move away " . According to musicologist Melanie Lowe , " Spears shows a different side of her personality [ with ' Sometimes ' ] than she does in her other songs . " Both of them also commented the song " lacks rhythmic drive and the backing track is fuller , with smoother and rounder synthsized instruments " , while describing Spears ' vocals as more natural when compared to " ... Baby One More Time " and " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Sometimes " received mixed reviews from music critics . A reviewer from CD Universe commented that the song " warns a potential love of [ Spears ] need for time and patience , rolling along nicely with a slow groove and a big beat . " Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic considered " Sometimes " a competent single , but claimed the song as unremarkable . Kyle Anderson of MTV said that the song " introduces the first sorta @-@ ballad to [ ... Baby One More Time ] , " and considered it " reasonable enough , though through three songs Spears ' lyric approach appears to be entirely about guys . Like , she never stops thinking about them . " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone called " Sometimes " a " further hit " from ... Baby One More Time , along with " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " and " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " . Spence D. of IGN considered " Sometimes " a " [ Max Martin ] glossy grown @-@ up pop " song , while Annabel Leathes of BBC Online said the song " represent the innocent years when Britney annoyed and titillated in equal measure . " During the 2000 BMI Pop Awards , " Sometimes " was honored with the award of Most Performed BMI Song .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Sometimes " achieved commercial success worldwide . The song reached number one in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Netherlands and New Zealand , and was certified Gold in the latter by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , for selling more than 7 @,@ 500 physical units of the single . It also peaked at number two in Australia , where it was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , after shipping over 70 @,@ 000 units , and number four in Finland and Sweden , while reaching the top ten on other five music charts . " Sometimes " was also successful in the United Kingdom . It entered and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart on June 26 , 1999 . According to The Official Charts Company , " Sometimes " is Spears ' third best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom , with sales over 456 @,@ 000 physical units . In the United States , the song peaked at number 21 on Billboard Hot 100 on the week of July 24 , 1999 , while reaching number 11 on the Adult Contemporary and number 29 on the Adult Pop Songs charts . It also managed to peak at number six on Pop Songs . " Sometimes " was also certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , for sales over 125 @,@ 000 units of the single in France , where it peaked at number 13 .
= = Music video = =
Spears started rehearsing for the music video for " Sometimes " in February 1999 . However , during the rehearsals , the singer injured her knee and was forced to start sessions of physical therapy . A month later , Spears released in a statement : " I want to thank my wonderful fans and all of the people who have offered their love and support during this time , " while revealing she wouldn 't be able to shoot the music video until April 1999 . The music video was later directed by Nigel Dick , who also directed her previous video for Spears ' 1998 debut single " ... Baby One More Time " . It was shot at the Paradise Cove in Malibu , California . The music video was released on May 6 , 1999 on Total Request Live .
According to MTV , the initial concept for the music video was to portray Spears on the porch of a beachfront home watching a group of kids having fun , prompting flashbacks about her former boyfriend . The video begins with Spears going to the telescope , and Spears is looking through a telescope , The concept was later changed a man and a dog walk on the beach , portraying the singer as the girl next door , watching her love interest , played by model Chad Cole , from afar . The beach location was kept , and the music video intercuts with scenes of Spears ' dancing on the Paradise Cove pier with her dancers dressed all in beach @-@ friendly white attire , then Spears sits near a car . A writer of Rolling Stone noted the video is best known for " purifying the sexy persona Spears introduced in the ' ... Baby One More Time ' video " , while describing it as " a virginal Britney in a long , flowing white dress ( and other demure outfits ) gazes at a clean @-@ cut boy on the beach , then she walks on the balcony with a pink ball , then does some chaste choreography that features her dancers forming a heart while she sings that she only wants to " hold you tight , treat you right . " Spears is sitting on a picnic blanket wishing she was there with him . She leaves alone . " On February 20 , 2012 , behind the scenes footage of the music video leaked online .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Spears performed " Sometimes " in four concert tours , with the first time being on the ... Baby One More Time Tour ( 1999 ) , where she performed a cover of " Open Arms " by Journey before following into the performance of the song . The song was also performed in a medley with ( You Drive Me ) Crazy at the Teen Choice Awards in 1999 , at the Summer Music Mania in 1999 , at the UK version of Top Of The Pops in 1999 and at the U.S. Open Arthur Ashe Kid 's Day in 1999 along with ... Baby One More Time , ( You Drive Me ) Crazy and I Will Be There . It was performed again on 2000s Crazy 2k Tour before the show 's encore , and , in the same year , on the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 – 01 ) , wearing an outfit similar to the one she wore in the music video of the song during the performance . " Sometimes " was performed for the last time on Dream Within a Dream Tour . Right after the performance of " Overprotected " ( 2001 ) , a giant musical box was raised on the stage , and Spears emerged from the middle as a ballerina to perform the song in a medley with " Lucky " ( 2000 ) and " Born to Make You Happy " ( 1999 ) . the song was briefly sung at The Onyx Hotel Tour . She sang the lines sometimes I run sometimes I fall . " Sometimes " was covered by hardcore punk band Reach the Sky for the compilation album Punk Goes Pop ( 2002 ) . Jamaican singer Sanchez also covered the song in a reggae form for his album Simply Being Me ( 2000 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Sometimes " and " I 'm So Curious " are taken from the single 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Papal election , 1159 =
The Papal election of 4 – 7 September 1159 followed the death of Pope Adrian IV . It resulted in a double election . A majority of the cardinals elected Cardinal Rolando of Siena as Pope Alexander III , but a minority refused to recognize him and elected their own candidate Ottaviano de Monticelli , who took the name Victor IV , creating a schism which lasted until 1178 .
The schism was a result of the growing tensions inside the Sacred College of Cardinals concerning the foreign policy of the Holy See . The Papal states in the 12th century were some kind of buffer between two European powers – the Holy Roman Empire and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily . In the period after Concordat of Worms in 1122 the Papacy was allied with Empire rather than with Normans , but during the pontificate of Adrian IV ( 1154 – 59 ) this alliance had broken up because Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa did not fulfil the terms of the treaty of Constance ( 1153 ) that obliged him to help the Papacy to restore its authority in Rome , ruled by the commune , and some other territories of the Papal Patrimony , which fell under the control of the king of Sicily . In these circumstances Adrian IV decided to break the alliance with Emperor and to make peace with William I of Sicily by signing the Treaty of Benevento ( 1156 ) . In the following years there were growing tensions between the papacy and Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa ( e.g. a dispute at the diet of Besançon in 1157 ) . Frederick tried – with significant success – to strengthen his influence on the Church in Germany . The change of the direction of the papal foreign policy resulted with the division of the Sacred College into supporters and opponents of the new policy , who were unable to achieve a compromise after the death of Adrian IV .
The election of 1159 had also significant legal consequences . Up to that time , the election of the new Pope required unanimity among the electors , which led to the schism when the existence of factions in the Sacred College made the unanimity impossible . To avoid the schism in the future , Third Lateran Council in 1179 promulgated the decree Licet de evitanda discordia , which established the rule that the Pope is elected with the majority of two thirds of the cardinals participating in the election .
= = Death of Adrian IV = =
Pope Adrian IV died on 1 September 1159 . Fearing a possible schism , shortly before his death he recommended to the cardinals the election of Cardinal Bernard of Porto as his successor .
= = List of participants = =
There were thirty one cardinals in September 1159 . One of them seem not to have participated in the election , leaving the number of thirty electors . :
Five electors were created by Pope Innocent II , two by Pope Celestine II , four by Pope Lucius II , eight by Pope Eugenius III and eleven by Pope Adrian IV .
= = Absentee = =
= = Divisions in the Sacred College = =
The College of Cardinals was divided into two factions : the so @-@ called " Sicilian " party , led by chancellor Rolando of Siena and Camerlengo Boso ; they supported pro @-@ Sicilian policy of Adrian IV . The opposite Imperial faction was led by Ottaviano of S. Cecilia .
It is known that Sicilian party counted thirteen cardinals . They were chancellor Roland of S. Marco , camerlengo Boso of SS . Cosma e Damiano , cardinal @-@ bishops Bernard of Porto , Ubaldo of Ostia , Walter of Albano and Gregorio of Sabina , as well as cardinals Odone of S. Giorgio , Ubaldo of S. Croce , Ottone of S. Nicola , Ardicio of S. Teodoro , Giovanni of S. Anastasia , Ildebrando of SS . Apostoli and Pietro of S. Eustachio .
The Imperial party may have counted as many as nine cardinals. but only six can be actually identified as its members : Ottaviano of S. Cecilia , Giovanni of SS . Silvestro e Martino , Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere , Imar of Tusculum , Raymond of S. Maria in Via Lata and Simeone of S. Maria in Domnica Guglielmo of S. Pietro in Vincoli was probably the seventh one . Perhaps Cardinal Cinzio of S. Adriano also belonged to this faction . The remaining ten cardinals were neutral .
It is believed that both factions made some preparations to the election in the last months of the pontificate of Adrian IV , although these attempts are known only from the hostile accounts produced for the polemical purposes during the subsequent schism and it is impossible to verify their factual accuracy . Both sides accused each other of illegal conspiracies . The adherents of Victor IV accused " Sicilians " of receiving the bribes from the king William I of Sicily and the anti @-@ Imperial cities of Brescia , Milan and Piacenza . They ostensibly made an oath not to vote for any candidate outside their circle . On the other hand , " Sicilians " accused imperialists of hatching a plot with the imperial envoy Otto von Wittelsbach , who was present at Rome at the time of the election and gave the significant support to Victor IV in taking control over the Patrimony of St. Peter . It is known that the secular adherents of Cardinal Ottaviano de Monticelli , who was related to the powerful family of the counts of Tusculum , were prepared for the armed confrontation in Rome . Evidently , neither party was prepared for compromise .
= = Proceedings = =
= = = Election of Alexander III = = =
The cardinals assembled in the Vatican Basilica on 4 September , three days after the death of Adrian IV . They had decided that , according to the custom , the election should be unanimous to be valid . It seems that the candidature of Bernard of Porto , recommended by Adrian as acceptable for both factions , had never been even advanced . Both parties put forward candidates mutually unacceptable : the imperial party proposed Ottaviano de Monticelli , while " Sicilians " proposed chancellor Rolando . The cardinals discussed for three days without achieving a compromise . However , the Sicilian party was able to join all the neutral cardinals and probably detached also some members of the imperial faction . On the fourth day ( 7 September ) , Cardinal Rolando of Siena was proclaimed pope by them and took the name Alexander III , although the unanimity had not been achieved and some cardinals still opposed his candidature . According to the manifest of Alexandrine party of October 1159 and an account of Cardinal Boso , on that day Rolando received the votes of all cardinals assembled except three : those of Ottaviano of S. Cecilia , Giovanni of SS . Silvestro e Martino and Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere . Then supporters of Rolando recognized that “ It seemed inappropriate that ... the apostolic see ... should remain any longer without a ruler because of the contentiousness of the aforesaid [ three ] men ” . On the other hand , the opposite party claimed that Ottaviano had still nine votes , and that the Sicilian party , having majority , simply broke the rule that required unanimity for the valid election . However , the version of the imperial cardinals is believed to be less reliable than the version of the Alexandrine party , even if the latter may be also not fully accurate ; based on the subscriptions of the manifests of both parties issued shortly after the election , it is possible to assume that at least twenty @-@ three electors voted for Rolando , and no more than six opposed him .
= = = Election of Victor IV = = =
The electors of Cardinal Rolando , immediately after proclaiming him Pope , attempted to place upon him the purple mantle which symbolized the assumption of the papal office , but then the election entered the tumultuous stage . Cardinal Ottaviano Monticelli snatched the mantle from Alexander ’ s back and his armed bands burst into the basilica . Alexander III and his supporters fled to the citadel of St. Peter , which was in the hands of Cardinal Boso . In their absence , the few cardinals who remained in basilica elected Ottaviano of S. Cecilia to the papacy and enthroned him as Victor IV . The exact number of his electors is not known , but there are good reasons to believe that it amounted six , including Ottaviano himself , since only five cardinals signed the manifest in his favour in the following month . However , it is possible that some additional cardinals participated in the election of Victor IV but very quickly joined the obedience Alexander III .
= = = Consecration of Alexander III = = =
Pope Alexander III remained in the citadel for a week until he was rescued and escorted from Rome by Odo Frangipane , and on September 18 he was eventually bestowed with the purple mantle . On 20 September at the small village of Ninfa , south @-@ east of Velletri , he was consecrated bishop of Rome by Cardinal Ubaldo Allucingoli , bishop of Ostia e Velletri , and crowned by Cardinal Odone Bonecase , protodeacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro . On 27 September he excommunicated Victor IV and his adherents .
= = = Consecration of Victor IV = = =
Victor IV was consecrated on 4 October in the abbey of Farfa by Cardinal @-@ Bishop Imar of Tusculum , dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals , assisted by the bishops Ubaldo of Ferentino and Riccardo of Melfi . With the armed assistance of Otto von Wittelsbach and his own armed groups in relatively short time he took control over the City of Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter , while Alexander III took refuge in the territory of the Kingdom of Sicily , and later in France .
= = = Manifests of both factions in October 1159 = = =
Both rivals together with their adherents defended the legality of their elections . In October 1159 cardinals of both obediences produced the manifests to the Emperor Frederick in favour of their elects . The “ Alexandrine ” manifest was subscribed by twenty three cardinals , while that of Victorine faction only by five . Supporters of Victor IV , admitting that they were in minority , justified their action by the fact that the opposite faction broke the rule of unanimity and – in consequence – the election of Rolando was invalid . The opposite party claimed that the principle of unanimity had been breached by the obstructive conduct of merely three cardinals of the Imperial faction , who stubbornly refused to recognize the candidate desired by the rest of the Sacred College .
= = = Final division of the Sacred College of Cardinals in October 1159 = = =
Simeone Borelli joined the obedience of Alexander III already at the end of 1159 . Raymond of S. Maria in Vi Lata did the same between February and April 1160 . Besides , at the end of 1159 Victor IV created at least three new cardinal @-@ deacons : Bernard of SS . Sergio e Bacco , Giovanni of S Maria in Aquiro and Lando of S. Angelo , while Alexander III appointed on February 18 , 1160 cardinal @-@ deacon Milo of S. Maria in Aquiro .
= = Schism = =
Both popes sent their legates to the catholic kingdoms in order to secure their recognition . At the council of Pavia in February 1160 Emperor Frederick I declared himself in favour of Victor IV , and the episcopate of the Empire followed him , with the significant exception of archbishop of Salzburg Eberhard I von Hilpolstein @-@ Biburg and his suffragans . King Valdemar I of Denmark also gave his support to Victor IV , but the primate of Denmark archbishop Eskil of Lund became partisan of Alexander III . It seems that Poland also supported Victor IV . The rest of Europe , namely France , England , Spain , Sweden , Norway , Scotland , Hungary , Sicily and the Latin territories in Outremer , recognized Alexander III as true Pope , even if in some of these countries there were a significant Victorine minorities in episcopates or among feudal rulers . The papal schism in Europe was now a fact .
The unity of the Church had been restored only after eighteen years , when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III signed a Treaty of Venice ( 1 August 1177 ) ; shortly thereafter the pro @-@ imperial pope Callistus III ( successor of Victor IV ) abandoned his claims to the papacy and submitted to Alexander III ( 29 August 1178 ) . Victor IV and his successors Paschal III ( 1164 – 68 ) and Callistus III ( 1168 – 78 ) are now regarded as antipopes by the Catholic Church , while Alexander III is recognized as legitimate successor of St. Peter the Apostle .
= = Aftermath = =
The election of 1159 and the subsequent schism shows the necessity of amending the rules concerning papal elections . The decree Licet de evitanda discordia issued by the Third Lateran Council in 1179 abolished the rule of unanimity in favour of the rule of the majority of two thirds . The decree confirmed also that all three orders of the College of Cardinals ( bishops , priests and deacons ) are equal in the papal elections . Although the practice allowing the participation of cardinal @-@ priests and cardinal @-@ deacons on equal rights with cardinal @-@ bishops had been introduced no later than in the papal election , 1118 , the decree In Nomine Domini ( 1059 ) conferring the special electoral rights on the cardinal @-@ bishops had never been formally revoked up to that time .
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= Interstate 80 in Nevada =
Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) traverses the northern portion of the U.S. state of Nevada . The freeway serves the Reno – Sparks metropolitan area and also goes through the towns of Fernley , Lovelock , Winnemucca , Battle Mountain , Elko , Wells and West Wendover on its way through the state .
I @-@ 80 follows the historical routes of the California Trail , First Transcontinental Railroad and Feather River Route throughout portions of Nevada . Throughout the entire state , I @-@ 80 follows the historical routes of the Victory Highway , State Route 1 and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) . The freeway corridor follows the paths of the Truckee and Humboldt Rivers . These rivers have been used as a transportation corridor since the California Gold Rush of the 1840s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Truckee River = = =
I @-@ 80 enters Nevada in the canyon of the Truckee River , paralleling the California Trail and the First Transcontinental Railroad . Upon exiting the canyon , the freeway serves the Truckee Meadows , a name for the urban area consisting of Verdi , Reno and Sparks . The freeway passes north of Downtown Reno in a depressed alignment before intersecting Interstate 580 / U.S. Route 395 . The interchange with US 395 is the busiest portion , averaging 122 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in 2006 . The freeway passes through downtown Sparks via a viaduct over the casino floor of the Nugget Casino Resort . After leaving the Reno – Sparks metropolitan area the freeway resumes following the Truckee River in a canyon to Fernley . Traffic volumes drop to 26 @,@ 600 vehicles per day by Fernley and continue dropping to 8 @,@ 400 by the time the freeway reaches the center of the state . The freeway exits the Truckee River corridor near Wadsworth .
= = = Lahontan Valley / Forty Mile Desert = = =
Past Wadsworth , the freeway cuts across the Lahontan Valley . The Lahontan Valley is a barren desert , sometimes called the Forty Mile Desert , from the era of the California Trail . The name comes from the California Gold Rush where the emigrants who came into the Lahontan Valley via the Humboldt River . The travelers would have then to endure 40 miles ( 64 km ) without usable water while crossing the valley , regardless of which of the two routes across the valley the travelers followed . I @-@ 80 closely approximates the path of the emigrants between the Humboldt and Truckee Rivers .
A marker stands at a rest area on the eastern edge of the valley , near the junction of I @-@ 80 and US 95 , that honors travelers who suffered crossing the valley , thousands of whom abandoned possessions , animals and even loved ones in the desert . Per the marker , this portion was the most dreaded portion of the California Trail .
= = = Humboldt River = = =
For the next 246 miles ( 396 km ) , I @-@ 80 follows the Humboldt River . Along the way , the freeway passes through the towns of Lovelock , Winnemucca , Battle Mountain , Carlin , Elko and Wells . At Winnemucca , I @-@ 80 is joined by the Feather River Route ; I @-@ 80 runs parallel to this railroad until the Utah state line .
The freeway is within visual distance of the river for most of this run . However , there are portions where the freeway bypasses bends by cutting across or tunneling under mountains along the canyon walls . Between Winnemucca and Battle Mountain , the freeway bypasses bends via side canyons and Golconda Summit , 5 @,@ 159 feet ( 1 @,@ 572 m ) . The highway also bypasses Palisade Canyon ( between Beowawe and Carlin ) via Emigrant Pass 6 @,@ 114 feet ( 1 @,@ 864 m ) . Just east of Carlin , I @-@ 80 passes through the Carlin Tunnel to bypass curves of the river in the Carlin Canyon ( between the Carlin Tunnel and Elko ) .
= = = Eastern Nevada = = =
After Wells , I @-@ 80 departs the Humboldt River , First Transcontinental Railroad and the California Trail . From this point east , the freeway follows the routes of the Hastings Cutoff , Feather River Route , former US 40 and State Route 1 . The freeway cuts across two mountain ranges before arriving at the Great Salt Lake Desert . The first is the Pequop Mountains via Pequop Summit , elevation 6 @,@ 967 feet ( 2 @,@ 124 m ) — the highest point on Interstate 80 in Nevada — and the second is the Toano Range via Silver Zone Pass at 5 @,@ 955 feet ( 1 @,@ 815 m ) . After crossing these mountains the freeway arrives at West Wendover where the freeway enters both Utah and the Great Salt Lake Desert at the Bonneville Salt Flats .
= = = Overlaps = = =
Portions of I @-@ 80 run concurrently with three U.S. Highways in Nevada :
US 95 Alt , which runs concurrently with I @-@ 80 between Fernley and Trinity Junction near Lovelock .
US 95 , which runs concurrently with I @-@ 80 between Trinity Junction and Winnemucca .
US 93 Alt , which runs concurrently with I @-@ 80 between the towns of Wells and West Wendover .
= = History = =
= = = California Trail = = =
The general route of Interstate 80 was first used by California @-@ bound travelers and was called the California Trail . From the Utah State line west to the Humboldt River , I @-@ 80 follows a modified routing of a lesser used branch of the trail called Hastings Cutoff . The cutoff rejoins the main route of the trail in the Humboldt River canyon . Through this portion of Nevada , the main route of the California Trail ran north of modern State Route 233 .
From Elko west to Lovelock , I @-@ 80 faithfully follows the California Trail . West of Lovelock , in the middle of the Humboldt Sink , the California Trail again splits into two branches . These branches , the Carson River route and the Truckee River route , are named for the waterways that guide each branch up the Sierra Nevada mountains . I @-@ 80 follows the Truckee route , the Carson route is approximated by U.S. Route 95 , U.S. Route 50 , U.S. Route 395 and State Route 88 / California State Route 88 .
= = = Transcontinental railroads = = =
The route of modern I @-@ 80 was also previously used for the construction of two transcontinental railroads . The First Transcontinental Railroad , completed in 1869 , closely followed the main line of the California Trail and I @-@ 80 west of Wells . The Feather River Route was constructed in 1909 and generally follows the Hastings Cutoff through Eastern Nevada . It also runs parallel to I @-@ 80 in Nevada east of Winnemucca .
= = = Highways = = =
The first paved road across this portion of Nevada was the Victory Highway , designated in Nevada as State Route 1 . With the formation of the U.S. Highway system , this route was numbered U.S. Route 40 . From the formation of the Interstate Highway System , the highway was gradually upgraded to Interstate Highway standards and signed as Interstate 80 . In 1974 , officials in Utah initiated meetings with officials in Nevada and California to truncate the route of U.S. Route 91 . By that time , US 91 was mostly redundant with Interstate 15 . Nevada officials agreed and further suggested that both US 91 and US 40 be truncated . Nevada officials recommended the changes occur in 1975 , when the last Nevada piece of I @-@ 15 was expected to be completed . The 1976 edition of the Official Highway map for Nevada was the first not showing the US 40 designation . Even though the US Highway designation was removed , the freeway was not yet completed . The last piece of I @-@ 80 in Nevada to be finished was the Lovelock bypass which started construction in 1981 . The 1982 Official Nevada Highway Map was the first to note I @-@ 80 as a contiguous freeway across the state . All of the business loops for I @-@ 80 in Nevada use the historical route of US 40 .
Interstate 80 is also known in Nevada as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Highway and Purple Heart Trail .
= = Exit list = =
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= Nikephoros Phokas the Elder =
Nikephoros Phokas ( Greek : Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς , Nikēphoros Phōkas ; died 895 / 6 or ca . 900 ) , usually surnamed the Elder to distinguish him from his grandson , Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas , was one of the most prominent Byzantine generals of the late 9th century , and the first important member of the Phokas family . As a youth he was taken into the personal retinue of Emperor Basil I the Macedonian , rising quickly to the posts of protostrator and then governor of Charsianon , whence he fought with success against the Arabs . In ca . 886 he led a major expedition in southern Italy , where his victories laid the foundation for the Byzantine resurgence in the peninsula . After his return , he was raised to the post of Domestic of the Schools , in effect commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army , which he led with success against the Arabs in the east and the Bulgarians of Tsar Simeon in the Balkans . He died either in 895 / 6 or , less likely , sometime ca . 900 . Contemporaries and later historians lauded him for his military ability and character . Both of his sons later succeeded him as Domestics of the Schools . His grandsons Nikephoros and Leo were likewise distinguished generals , while the former became emperor in 963 – 969 , spearheading the recovery of several lost provinces from the Arabs .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Nikephoros was the son of the founder of the Phokas family , a man called Phokas , a native of Cappadocia . During one of the campaigns of Emperor Basil I the Macedonian ( reigned 867 – 886 ) sometime in the 870s ( probably ca . 872 ) , Nikephoros ' father caught the emperor 's attention and was raised to the rank of tourmarches . At the same time Nikephoros , still in his youth , was taken into the imperial retinue , and was soon appointed to the guard corps of the manglabitai . He possibly participated in Basil 's 873 campaign against Samosata .
Shortly after , at any rate before 878 , Nikephoros was promoted to the rank of protostrator and received from the emperor his own palace in the vicinity of the Church of St. Thecla . Eventually he rose to the post of military governor ( strategos ) of the theme of Charsianon , a post from which , according to the continuators of Georgios Monachos , he scored numerous successes against the Arabs .
= = = Command in southern Italy = = =
Nikephoros remained in command of Charsianon until his appointment as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( monostrategos , " single @-@ general " ) against the Arabs in southern Italy in replacement of Stephen Maxentios , who had been defeated by the Arabs . This took place in 885 , according to traditional dating . It is likely , however , that Nikephoros was originally sent to Italy already before that , at the head of a picked detachment of troops from Charsianon , which Theophanes Continuatus records as part of Maxentios ' expeditionary force . His command involved the forces of several western themes ( Thrace , Macedonia , Cephallenia , Longobardia and Calabria ) , but Theophanes Continuatus also reports that Nikephoros received further reinforcements from the themes of Asia Minor , including a Paulician detachment . Nikephoros ' command in Italy lasted until his recall to Constantinople following the accession of Leo VI the Wise , in late 886 . Shaun Tougher however posits that Nikephoros was sent to Italy only after the accession of Leo VI , as Leo in his writings takes credit for his dispatch there , and that his recall was not until ca . 887 .
Byzantium had been absent from the affairs of southern Italy for almost a century , but the accession of Basil the Macedonian changed this : from 868 on , the imperial fleet and diplomacy were employed in an effort to secure the Adriatic Sea from Saracen raids , re @-@ establish Byzantine dominance over Dalmatia , and extend Byzantine control once more over parts of Italy . Otranto was taken from the Saracens in 873 , and Bari in 876 . According to the Byzantine sources , during his tenure in Italy Nikephoros recovered numerous towns taken by the Arabs in the previous years , including Taranto , Bari , Santa Severina , Rhegion and Taormina , Tropai and especially Amantia , which Maxentios had previously attacked without success . According to the continuators of Georgios Monachos , he was besieging Amantia when news came of Emperor Basil 's death and his own recall by Leo VI ; Nikephoros kept the news a secret until he had persuaded the Arab garrison to surrender on guarantee of safe passage . During his time in Italy he also took steps to strengthen the Byzantine position by settling many Armenians in the region , as well as 1 @,@ 000 manumitted slaves donated by Emperor Basil 's old benefactor , the widow Danielis . The 11th @-@ century historian John Skylitzes furthermore reports that Nikephoros brought an end to abuse against the local population , by ending the practice of returning Byzantine soldiers carrying off local Italians to be sold off in the East as slaves . According to Skylitzes , the grateful Italians dedicated a church in his honour . By the time of his departure , he had extended Byzantine control over most of Apulia and Calabria . These victories were followed up by his successors and laid the foundation of a resurgence of Byzantine power in southern Italy , culminating in the establishment of the theme of Longobardia in ca . 892 . The regions of Apulia , Calabria and Basilicata would remain firmly under Byzantine control until the 11th century .
= = = Domestic of the Schools and the war with Bulgaria = = =
His successes in Italy secured Nikephoros a friendly welcome and honours on his return to Constantinople , but he is not mentioned again for several years , until the outbreak of war with Bulgaria in 894 . In the meantime , he was raised to the rank of patrikios and named to the post of Domestic of the Schools , in effect commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine army , after the death of his predecessor , Andrew the Scythian .
In 895 , he was sent against the Bulgarians at the head of a large army . It is unclear whether Nikephoros engaged the Bulgarians in battle , for a Byzantine @-@ instigated invasion by the Magyars from the north , and the activities of the Byzantine navy in the Danube , forced the Bulgarian ruler Simeon to ask for a truce , and the Byzantines withdrew .
This is the last campaign associated with Nikephoros Phokas , and Symeon Logothetes reports that he died in 895 / 6 . His death reportedly encouraged Tsar Simeon to reopen hostilities , with devastating success against Nikephoros ' successor as Domestic , Leo Katakalon . The later chronicle of Theophanes Continuatus , however , reports a different story , according to which Nikephoros was disgraced and dismissed from his post after refusing proposals for a marriage alliance with Leo 's powerful chief minister , Stylianos Zaoutzes . After a period out of office , Nikephoros was then appointed strategos either of Charsianon or of the Thracesian Theme , spending his remaining years , until his death around 900 , fighting against the Arabs . Leo VI 's Tactica and the later De velitatione further mention a successful raid into the Arab lands of Cilicia led by Nikephoros , in retaliation of an Arab attack on the fortress of Mistheia in the Anatolic Theme . While directing the strategoi of the Anatolics and of the Opsician Theme to deal with the Arab invasion , Nikephoros led his forces to raid the vicinity of Adana , making many prisoners , and confounded the Arabs by following a different course on his return , thereby avoiding the Arab army sent to block his retreat . This undated raid probably took place either in the years before or directly after the Bulgarian war .
No definite conclusion as to the date of Nikephoros ' death can be reached today , but most modern scholars , such as Jean @-@ Claude Cheynet , are doubtful of the version of Theophanes Continuatus . It would have been very unusual for a former Domestic to be appointed to the subordinate position of a thematic strategos , and there is reason to doubt the authenticity of the tale of Zaoutzes ' seeing in Nikephoros a potential future emperor and offering the hand of an — otherwise unknown — daughter in marriage .
= = = Assessment and family = = =
By all accounts , Nikephoros Phokas was a capable soldier . Leo VI lauds his military talents in his Tactica , and he is credited with the invention of a weapon to counter cavalry during his campaign against the Bulgarians , consisting of a sharpened stake driven into the ground . Skylitzes assesses him as a " brave and prudent man , pious towards God and just towards men " .
Nikephoros was the father of Bardas Phokas the Elder and Leo Phokas the Elder , both of whom became Domestics of the Schools . So did his grandsons through Bardas , Nikephoros and Leo Phokas the Younger , with the first becoming emperor as Nikephoros II in 963 – 969 . Both Leo and Nikephoros II scored major successes against the Arabs , with Nikephoros in particular leading the recovery of Crete , Cyprus , Cilicia and Antioch .
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= Madurai =
Madurai is a major city and cultural headquarters in the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India . It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and the 31st largest urban agglomeration in India . Madurai is the third largest city by area and third largest city by population in Tamil Nadu . Located on the banks of River Vaigai , Madurai has been a major settlement for two millennia and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world .
Madurai is closely associated with the Tamil language , and the third Tamil Sangam , a major congregation of Tamil scholars , is said to have been held in the city . The recorded history of the city goes back to the 3rd century BCE , being mentioned by Megasthenes , the Greek ambassador to India , and Kautilya , a minister of the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya . Signs of human settlements and Roman trade links dating back to 300BC are evident from excavations by Archeological Survey of India in Manalur . The city is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled , at different times , by the Pandyas , Cholas , Madurai Sultanate , Vijayanagar Empire , Madurai Nayaks , Carnatic kingdom , and the British .
The city has a number of historical monuments , with the Meenakshi Amman Temple and Tirumalai Nayak Palace being the most prominent . Madurai is an important industrial and educational hub in South Tamil Nadu . The city is home to various automobile , rubber , chemical and granite manufacturing industries . It has developed as a second @-@ tier city for information technology ( IT ) , and some software companies have opened offices in Madurai . The Tamil Nadu government has planned a satellite town for Madurai near Thoppur .
Madurai has important government educational institutes like the Madurai Medical College , Homeopathic Medical College , Madurai Law College , Agricultural College and Research Institute . Madurai city is administered by a municipal corporation established in 1971 as per the Municipal Corporation Act . Madurai is the second corporation in Tamil Nadu next to Chennai corporation . The city covers an area of 242 @.@ 97 km2 and had a population of 1 @,@ 017 @,@ 865 in 2011 . The city is also the seat of a bench of the Madras High Court , one of only a few courts outside the state capitals of India .
= = Etymology = =
The city is referred by various names including " Madurai " , " Koodal " , " Malligai Maanagar " , " Naanmadakoodal " and " Thirualavai " . The word Madurai may be derived from Madhura ( sweetness ) arising out of the divine nectar showered on the city by the Hindu god Shiva from his matted hair . Another theory is that Madurai is the derivative of the word Marutham , which refers to the type of landscape of the Sangam age . A town in the neighbouring Dindigul district is called Vada Madurai ( North Madurai ) and another in Sivagangai district is called Manamadurai . The different names by which the city has been referred to historically are listed in the 7th @-@ century poem Thiruvilayaadal puraanam written by Paranjothi Munivar .
Koodal means an assembly or congregation of scholarly people , referring to the three Tamil Sangams held at Madurai . Naanmadakoodal , meaning the junction of four towers , refers to the four major temples for which Madurai was known for . Tevaram , the 7th- or 8th @-@ century Tamil compositions on Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars ( Saivites ) , namely Appar , Sundarar and Thirugnanasambandar , address the city as Thirualavai . As per Iravatham Mahadevan , a 2nd @-@ century BCE Tamil @-@ Brahmi inscription refers to the city as matiray , an Old Tamil word meaning a " walled city " derived from an older Dravidian source .
= = History = =
Madurai has been inhabited since at least the 3rd century BCE . Megasthenes may have visited Madurai during the 3rd century BCE , with the city referred as " Methora " in his accounts . The view is contested by some scholars who believe " Methora " refers to the north Indian city of Mathura , as it was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire . Madurai is also mentioned in Kautilya 's ( 370 – 283 BCE ) Arthashastra . Sangam literature like Maturaikkāñci records the importance of Madurai as a capital city of the Pandyan dynasty . Madurai is mentioned in the works of Roman historians Pliny the Younger ( 61 – c . 112 CE ) , Ptolemy ( c . 90 – c . CE 168 ) , those of the Greek geographer Strabo ( 64 / 63 BCE – c . 24 CE ) , and also in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea .
After the Sangam age , most of present @-@ day Tamil Nadu , including Madurai , came under the rule of the Kalabhra dynasty , which was ousted by the Pandyas around 590 CE . The Pandyas were outsted from Madurai by the Chola dynasty during the early 9th century . The city remained under the control of the Cholas until the early 13th century , when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital . After the death of Kulasekara Pandian ( 1268 – 1308 CE ) , Madurai came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate . The Madurai Sultanate then seceded from Delhi and functioned as an independent kingdom until its gradual annexation by the Vijayanagar Empire in 1378 CE . Madurai became independent from Vijayanagar in 1559 CE under the Nayaks . Nayak rule ended in 1736 CE and Madurai was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 CE ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 CE ) in the middle of 18th century .
In 1801 , Madurai came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency . The British government made donations to the Meenakshi temple and participated in the Hindu festivals during the early part of their rule . The city evolved as a political and industrial complex through the 19th and 20th centuries to become a district headquarters of a larger Madurai district . In 1837 , the fortifications around the temple were demolished by the British . The moat was drained and the debris was used to construct new streets – Veli , Marat and Perumaal Mesthiri streets . The city was constituted as a municipality in 1866 CE . The British government faced initial hiccups during the earlier period of the establishment of municipality in land ceiling and tax collection in Madurai and Dindigul districts under the direct administration of the officers of the government . The city , along with the district , was resurveyed between 1880 and 1885 CE and subsequently , five municipalities were constituted in the two districts and six taluk boards were set up for local administration . Police stations were established in Madurai city , housing the headquarters of the District Superintendent .
It was in Madurai , in 1921 , that Mahatma Gandhi , pre @-@ eminent leader of Indian nationalism in British @-@ ruled India , first adopted the loin cloth as his mode of dress after seeing agricultural labourers wearing it . Leaders of the independence movement in Madurai included N.M.R. Subbaraman and Mohammad Ismail Sahib . The Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act passed by the government of Madras Presidency under C. Rajagopalachari in 1939 removed restrictions prohibiting Shanars and Dalits from entering Hindu temples . The temple entry movement was first led in Madurai Meenakshi temple by independence activist A. Vaidyanatha Iyer in 1939 .
= = Architecture = =
Madurai is built around the Meenakshi Amman Temple , which acted as the geographic and ritual centre of the ancient city of Madurai . The city is divided into a number of concentric quadrangular streets around the temple . Vishwanatha Nayak ( 1159 – 64 CE ) , the first Madurai Nayak king , redesigned the city in accordance with the principles laid out by Shilpa Shastras ( Sanskrit : śilpa śāstra , also anglicised as silpa sastra meaning rules of architecture ) related to urban planning . These squares retain their traditional names of Aadi , Chittirai , Avani @-@ moola and Masi streets , corresponding to the Tamil month names and also to the festivals associated . The temple prakarams ( outer precincts of a temple ) and streets accommodate an elobrate festival calendar in which dramatic processions circumambulate the shrines at varying distances from the centre . The temple chariots used in processions are progressively larger in size based on the size of the concentric streets . Ancient Tamil classics record the temple as the centre of the city and the surrounding streets appearing liken a lotus and its petals . The city 's axes were aligned with the four quarters of the compass , and the four gateways of the temple provided access to it . The wealthy and higher echelons of the society were placed in streets close to the temple , while the poorest were placed in the fringe streets . With the advent of British rule during the 19th century , Madurai became the headquarters of a large colonial political complex and an industrial town ; with urbanisation , the social hierarchical classes became unified .
= = Geography and climate = =
Madurai is located at 9 @.@ 93 ° N 78 @.@ 12 ° E / 9 @.@ 93 ; 78 @.@ 12 . It has an average elevation of 101 metres . The city of Madurai lies on the flat and fertile plain of the river Vaigai , which runs in the northwest @-@ southeast direction through the city , dividing it into two almost equal halves . The Sirumalai and Nagamalai hills lie to the north and west of Madurai . The land in and around Madurai is utilised largely for agricultural activity , which is fostered by the Periyar Dam . Madurai lies southeast of the western ghats , and the surrounding region occupies the plains of South India and contains several mountain spurs . The soil type in central Madurai is predominantly clay loam , while red loam and black cotton types are widely prevalent in the outer fringes of the city . Paddy is the major crop , followed by pulses , millet , oil seed , cotton and sugarcane .
The municipal corporation of Madurai has an area of 147 @.@ 977 km2 . Madurai is hot and dry for eight months of the year . Cold winds are experienced during February and March as in the neighbouring Dindigul . The hottest months are from March to July . The city experiences a moderate climate from August to October , tempered by heavy rain and thundershowers , and a slightly cooler climate from November to February . Fog and dew are rare , occurring only during the winter season . Being equidistant from mountains and the sea , it experiences similar monsoon pattern with Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon , with the former providing more rain during October to December . The average annual rainfall for the Madurai district is about 85 @.@ 76 cm .
Temperatures during summer generally reach a maximum of 40 ° C and a minimum of 26 @.@ 3 ° C , although temperatures up to 42 ° C are not uncommon . Winter temperatures range between 29 @.@ 6 ° C and 18 ° C. A study based on the data available with the Indian Meteorological Department on Madurai over a period of 62 years indicate rising trend in atmospheric temperature over Madurai city , attributed to urbanisation , growth of vehicles and industrial activity . The maximum temperature of 42 ° C for the decade of 2001 – 2010 was recorded in 2004 and in 2010 .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census based on per @-@ expansion limits , thea area covered under the Madurai Municipal Corporation had a population of 1 @,@ 017 @,@ 865 with a sex @-@ ratio of 999 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 100 @,@ 324 were under the age of six , constituting 51 @,@ 485 males and 48 @,@ 839 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 6 @.@ 27 % and .31 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the city was 81 @.@ 95 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . There were a total of 391 @,@ 315 workers , comprising 1 @,@ 224 cultivators , 2 @,@ 178 main agricultural labourers , 11 @,@ 282 in house hold industries , 348 @,@ 849 other workers , 27 @,@ 782 marginal workers , 388 marginal cultivators , 616 marginal agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 611 marginal workers in household industries and 25 @,@ 167 other marginal workers . The Madurai metropolitan area ( urban agglomeration ) had a population of 1 @,@ 465 @,@ 625 . Madurai metropolitan area constitutes the third largest metropolitan area in Tamil Nadu and the 31st in India .
According to the religious census of 2011 , Madurai had 85 @.@ 8 % Hindus , 8 @.@ 5 % Muslims , 5 @.@ 2 % Christians and 0 @.@ 5 % others . Tamil is spoken by most , and the standard dialect is the Madurai Tamil dialect . Saurashtrian is the mother tongue of the Patnūlkarars who migrated from Gujarat in the 16th century CE . Roman Catholics in Madurai are affiliated with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Madurai , while Protestants are affiliated with the Madurai @-@ Ramnad Diocese of the Church of South India .
In 2001 , Slum @-@ dwellers comprise 32 @.@ 6 per cent of the total population , much higher than the national average of 15 @.@ 05 per cent . The increase in growth rate to 50 per cent from 1971 to 1981 is due to the city 's upgrade to a municipal corporation in 1974 and the subsequent inclusion of 13 Panchayats into the corporation limits . The decline in the population growth rate between 1981 and 2001 is due to the bifurcation of Madurai district into two , Madurai and Dindigul in 1984 , and the subsequently of part of the city into the Theni district in 1997 . The compounded annual growth rate dropped from 4 @.@ 10 per cent during 1971 – 81 to 1 @.@ 27 per cent during 1991 – 2004 .
= = Administration and politics = =
The municipality of Madurai was constituted on 1 November 1866 as per the Town Improvement Act of 1865 . The municipality was headed by a chairperson and elections were regularly conducted for the post except during the period 1891 to 1896 , when no elections were held due to violent factionalism . During the early years of independent India , the Madurai municipality was dominated by reformists of the Indian National Congress . Madurai was upgraded to a municipal corporation on 1 May 1971 as per the Madurai City Municipal Corporation Act , 1971 . It is the second oldest municipal corporation in Tamil Nadu , after Chennai . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner , who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 100 members , one each from the 100 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Mayor assisted by a Deputy Mayor . The corporation received several awards in 2008 for implementing development works .
The city of Madurai is represented in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly by six elected members , one each for the Madurai East , Madurai West , Madurai North , Madurai Central , Madurai South and thirupparankundram constituencies . Madurai is also a part of the Madurai Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Parliament of India , once every five years . From 1957 , the Madurai parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress seven times in the 1962 – 67 , 1971 – 77 , 1977 – 80 , 1980 – 84 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 and 1991 elections . The Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) won the seat three times during 1967 – 71 , 1999 – 2004 and 2004 – 09 general elections . The Communist Party of India ( 1957 – 61 ) , Tamil Maanila Congress ( Moopanar ) ( 1996 – 98 ) , Janata Party ( 1998 ) , Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( 2009 – 2014 ) and All India Anna Dravida Munnertra Kazhagam ( 2014 – 2019 ) have each won once .
Law and order is enforced by the Tamil Nadu Police , which , for administrative purposes , has constituted Madurai city as a separate district . The district is divided into four sub @-@ divisions , namely Thallakulam , Anna Nagar , Thilagar Thidal and Town , with a total of 27 police stations . The Madurai city police force is headed by a Commissioner of police , assisted by Deputy Commissioners . Enforcement of law and order in the suburban areas are handled by the Madurai district police . In 2008 , the crime rate in the city was 283 @.@ 2 per 100 @,@ 000 people , accounting for 1 @.@ 1 per cent of all crimes reported in major cities in India , and it was ranked 19th among 35 major cities in India . As of 2008 , Madurai recorded the second highest SLL ( Special and Local Laws ) crimes , at 22 @,@ 728 , among cities in Tamil Nadu . However , Madurai had the second lowest crime rate at 169 @.@ 1 of all the cities in Tamil Nadu . The city is also the seat of a bench of the Madras High Court , one of only a few outside the state capitals of India . It started functioning in July 2004 .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
The National Highways NH 7 , NH 45B , NH 208 and NH 49 pass through Madurai . The state highways passing through the city are SH @-@ 33 , SH @-@ 72 , SH @-@ 72A , SH @-@ 73 and SH @-@ 73A which connect various parts of Madurai district . Madurai is one of the seven circles of the Tamil Nadu State Highway network . Madurai is the headquarters of the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation ( Madurai ) and provides local and inter @-@ city bus transport across the districts of Madurai , Dindigul , Sivagangai , Theni , Virudhunagar . Madurai has three bus terminals , namely , Mattuthavani Bus Terminus ( MIBT ) and Arappalayam ( for inter city buses ) and Periyar Bus stand ( for intra city buses ) . There are 12 @,@ 754 registered three @-@ wheeled vehicles called auto rickshaws , which are commercially available for renting within the city . In addition to the government operated city buses , there are 236 registered private mini @-@ buses that support local transportation .
= = = Rail = = =
Madurai Junction is the major railway station serving the city . It is an important railway junction in southern Tamil Nadu and is one of the top 100 booking stations in Indian Railways . It is the headquarters of the Madurai division of the Southern Railway . There are direct trains from connecting Madurai with major cities and towns across India . The state government announced a Mono rail project for Madurai in 2011 , which is in planning stages . There are ten other sub urban railway stations serving the city .
= = = Air = = =
Madurai airfield was first used by the Royal Air Force in World War II in 1942 . The first passenger flight was a Fokker Friendship aircraft from Madras in 1956 . Madurai Airport was established in 1957 and is located 12 kilometres from the city . The airport was declared a customs airport in 2012 allowing limited number of international flights . It offers domestic flight services to some cities in India and international services to Colombo and Dubai . It is the Third busiest airport in the state of Tamil Nadu after Chennai and Coimbatore . The carriers operating from the airport are Air India , Jet Airways , Mihin Lanka , Air Pegasus and SpiceJet . The airport handled 687 @,@ 221 passengers between April 2014 and March 2015 . The airport was identified as one of 35 non @-@ metro airports for modernisation and a new integrated terminal building was inaugurated on 12 September 2010 . The international flight services are extended up to Dubai ( Spicejet , Mihin Lanks ) & Colombo ( Spicejet / Mihin Lanka ) .
= = Education = =
Madurai has been an academic centre of learning for Tamil culture , literature , art , music and dance for centuries . All three assemblies of the Tamil language , the Tamil Sangam ( about the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE ) , were held at Madurai . Tamil poets of different epochs participated in these assemblies , and their compositions are referred to as Sangam literature . During the third Tamil sangam , the comparative merit of the poets was decided by letting the works float in the lotus tank of the temple . It was believed that a divine force would cause the work of superior merit to float on the surface , while the inferior ones would sink .
The American College is the oldest college in Madurai , and was established in 1881 by American Christian missionaries . The Lady Doak college , established in 1948 , is the oldest women 's college in Madurai . Thiagarajar College ( established in 1949 ) , Madura College ( established in 1889 ) , Fatima College ( established in 1953 ) , and M.S.S.Wakf Board College ( established in 1964 ) are among the oldest educational institutions of the city . Madurai Kamaraj University ( originally called Madurai University ) , established in 1966 , is a state @-@ run university which has 109 affiliated arts and science colleges in Madurai and neighbouring districts . There are 47 approved institutions of the university in and around the city , consisting of autonomous colleges , aided colleges , self @-@ financing colleges , constituent colleges , evening colleges and other approved institutions . There are seven polytechnical schools and five Industrial training institutes ( ITIs ) in Madurai , with the Government ITI and the Government Polytechnic for Women being the most prominent of them all . There are two government medical institutes in Madurai , Madurai Medical College and Homoeopathic Medical College , Thirumangalam and 11 paramedical institutes . There are seven engineering colleges in Madurai affiliated to Anna University , with the Thiagarajar College of Engineering being the oldest . The Madurai Law College , established in 1979 , is one of the seven government law colleges in the state . It is administered by the Tamil Nadu Government Department of Legal Studies , and affiliated with the Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University . There are three teacher training institutes , two music colleges , three management institutes and 30 arts and sciences colleges in Madurai . The agricultural college and research institute in Madurai , started in 1965 by the state government , provides agricultural education to aspirants in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu . There are a total of 369 primary , secondary and higher secondary schools in the city .
= = Economy = =
Madurai was traditionally an agrarian society , with rice paddies as the main crop . Cotton crop cultivation in the regions with black soil in Madurai district was introduced during the Nayaka rule during the 16th century to increase the revenue from agriculture . The paddy fields cultivated in the Vaigai delta across Madurai North , Melur , Nilakottai and Uthamapalayam are known as " double @-@ crop paddy belts " . Farmers in the district supplement their income with subsidiary occupations like dairy farming , poultry @-@ farming , pottery , brick making , mat @-@ weaving and carpentry . Madurai is famed for its jasmine plantations , called " Madurai Malli " , primarily carried out at the foothills of Kodaikanal hills and traded at the Madurai morning flower market . An average of 2 @,@ 000 farmers sell flowers daily at the flower market .
With the advent of Small Scale Industries ( SSI ) after 1991 , the industrialisation of Madurai increased employment in the sector across the district from 63 @,@ 271 in 1992 – 93 to 166 @,@ 121 persons in 2001 – 02 . Madurai is one of the few rubber growing areas in South India , and there are rubber @-@ based industries in Madurai . Gloves , sporting goods , mats , other utility products and automobile rubber components are the most produced items by these industries . Automobile manufacturers are the major consumers of rubber components produced in the city . There are numerous textile , granite and chemical industries operating in Madurai .
Madurai is promoted as a second @-@ tier city for IT and some software companies have opened their offices in Madurai . Software Technology Parks of India , an agency of the Government of India , has authorised several such companies to receive benefits under its national information technology development program . The state government proposed two IT @-@ based Special Economic Zones ( SEZ ) in Madurai , and these have been fully occupied by various IT companies .
= = Religious sites = =
Meenakshi Amman Temple is a historic Hindu temple located on the south side of the Vaigai River in Madurai and is one of the most prominent landmarks of the city . It is dedicated to Meenakshi and her consort , Sundareswarar . The complex houses 14 gopurams ( gateway towers ) ranging from 45 – 50 metres ( 148 – 164 ft ) in height , the tallest being the southern tower , 51 @.@ 9 metres ( 170 ft ) high . There are also two golden sculptured vimana ( shrines ) over the sanctum of the main deities . The temple is a significant symbol for Tamils and has been mentioned since antiquity in Tamil literature , though the present structure was built between 1623 and 1655 CE . The temple attracts on average 15 @,@ 000 visitors a day , which grows to around 25 @,@ 000 on Fridays . There are an estimated 33 @,@ 000 sculptures in the temple , and it was in the list of top 30 nominees for the " New7Wonders of the World " .
Koodal Azhagar Temple is a Vishnu temple located in the city . It has idols of the Navagraha ( nine planet deities ) , which are otherwise found only in Shiva temples . Alagar Koyil is a celebrated Vishnu temple 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) northeast of Madurai situated on the foothills of Solaimalai . The deity , Azhagar , is believed to be the brother of Meenakshi , the presiding deity at the Meenakshi temple . The festival calendars of these two temples overlap during the Meenakshi Thirukalyanam festival .
Pazhamudircholai , one of the other six abodes of the Hindu god Murugan , is located atop the Solaimalai hill . Tirupparankunram is a hill 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) away from Madurai where the Hindu god Murugan is said to have married Deivanai . The temple is the first among the Six Abodes of Murugan and is one of the most visited tourist spots in Madurai , next only to the Meenakshi Amman Temple . The temple has a wide range of Hindu gods carved on the walls .
Kazimar Big Mosque is the oldest Islamic place of worship in the city . It was constructed under the supervision of Kazi Syed Tajuddin , who is a descendant of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and the Madurai Maqbara is located inside the mosque . Kazi Syed Tajuddin came from Oman and received the piece of land as a gift from the Pandyan ruler Kulasekara Pandyan I , during the 13th century for the construction of the mosque . Goripalayam Mosque is located in Gorippalayam , the name of which is derived from the Persian word gor ( " grave " ) and the graves of Sulthan Alauddin , Sulthan Shamsuddeen and Sulthan Habibuddin who are part of the Delhi Sultanate who ruled Madurai for a shorter reign are found here . Tirupparankunram Dargah is located at the top of the Thiruparankundram hill where the cemetery of Sultan Sikandhar Badushah the then ruler of Jeddah and Madurai who travelled to India along with Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed of Ervadi during 12th century is located . St. Mary 's Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Madurai . CSI church at South gate falling under the Madurai @-@ Ramnad CSI Diocese is the headquarters for CSI Christians in the city .
= = Culture , tourism and entertainment = =
Madurai is popularly called Thoonga Nagaram meaning the city that never sleeps , on account of the active night life . The city attracts a large number of tourists from within the country and abroad . About 9 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 tourists visited Madurai in 2010 , including 524 @,@ 000 foreigners . Madurai is now attracting medical tourism also . The palace complex of Thirumalai Nayak Palace was constructed in the Indo @-@ Saracenic style by Thirumalai Nayakar in 1636 CE . It is a national monument maintained by the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department . The daily sound and light show organised by the department explains the virtues of King Thirumalai and the features of the palace . The palace of Rani Mangamma has been renovated to house one of the five Gandhi Sanghralayas ( Gandhi Memorial Museum , Madurai ) in the country . It includes apart of the blood @-@ stained garment worn by Mahatma Gandhi when he was assassinated by Nathuram Godse . A visit by Dr.Martin Luther King Jr. to the museum inspired him to lead peaceful protests against discrimination . The Eco park , situated in Tallakulam , features fountains and lighting in trees using optical fibres . Rajaji children 's park , maintained by the Madurai Municipal Corporation , is situated between the Gandhi museum and the Tamukkam grounds . It has a visitor average of 5000 per day during holidays and 2000 – 3000 on working days . Madurai also has Theme Park , Athisayam which is situated in Paravai , Madurai – Dindugal main road . MGR Race Course Stadium is an athletic stadium which has a synthetic track and a swimming pool . Several national meets are held here . It also hosts several international and national level kabbadi championships .
The people of Madurai celebrate numerous festivals , including Meenakshi Tirukkalyanam , the Chittirai Festival and the Car Festival . The annual 10 @-@ day Meenakshi Tirukalyanam festival , also called Chittirai festival , is celebrated during April – May every year and attracts one million visitors . Legend has it that the Hindu god Vishnu , as Alagar , rode on a golden horse to Madurai to attend the celestial wedding of Meenakshi ( Parvati ) and Sundareswarar ( Shiva ) . During the Cradle festival , the festive idols of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar are taken in procession to a mirror chamber and set on a rocking swing for nine days . Avanimoolam festival is celebrated during September when the 64 sacred games of Shiva , thiruvilayadal , are recited . The Thepporchavam festival , or float festival , is celebrated on the full moon day of the Tamil month Thai , which falls around January – February , to celebrate the birth anniversary of King Thirumalai Nayak . The decorated icons of Meenakshi and her consort are taken out in a procession from the Meenakshi Temple to the Mariamman Teppakulam . The icons are floated in the tank on a raft decked with flowers and flickering lamps . Jallikattu is one of the most popular historical sport in Tamil Nadu , and is a part of the Pongal festival ( harvest festival ) celebrated during January . The bull taming event is held in the villages surrounding Madurai , and people from the neighbouring villages throng to the open grounds to watch man and bull pitting their strength against each other . The event was banned in the years 2014 , 2015 and 2016 following an order by Supreme court of India . Santhanakoodu festivals in Madurai are celebrated on various days during the Islamic calendar year to commemorate Islamic saints.Madurai is consider as important hub for Indian film industry for film shootings .
= = Media and utility services = =
The city hosts several radio stations , including the state @-@ owned All India Radio and private channels like Hello FM , Radio Mirchi and Suryan FM . The Hindu , The New Indian Express and The Times of India are the three principal English language daily newspapers which have Madurai editions . Deccan Chronicle , though not printed in the city , is another English language daily newspaper available in the city . The most read Tamil language daily morning newspapers include Dina Malar , Dina Thanthi , Dina Mani and Dinakaran – all these newspapers have editions from Madurai . There are also daily Tamil evening newspapers like Tamil Murasu , Malai Murasu and Malai Malar published in Madurai . Television broadcasting from Chennai for whole of Tamil Nadu was started on 15 August 1975 . Direct @-@ to @-@ home cable television services are provided by DD Direct Plus and other private service providers .
Electricity supply to the city is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . The city is the headquarters of the Madurai region of TNEB and along with its suburbs , forms the Madurai Metro Electricity Distribution Circle , which is further divided into six divisions . Water supply is provided by the Madurai City Corporation with overhead tanks and power pumps . In the period 2010 – 2011 , a total of 950 @.@ 6 lakh litres of water was supplied to 87 @,@ 091 connections for households in Madurai .
About 400 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city every day by door @-@ to @-@ door collection , and the subsequent source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the Madurai Municipal corporation All the major channels in Madurai are linked by the corporation to receive the flood water from primary , secondary and tertiary drains constructed along the roadsides to dispose of rain water . The sewer system was first established by the British in Madurai in 1924 to cover the core city area , which covers 30 per cent of the present city area . It was further expanded in 1959 and 1983 by a corporation plan . The 2011 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission covered 90 per cent of households with underground drainage system .
Madurai comes under the Madurai telecom district of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Both Global System for Mobile Communications ( GSM ) and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services are available . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service and Caller Line Identification ( CLI ) based internet service Netone .
A regional passport office was opened on 17 December 2007 and caters to the needs of nine districts . The city is served by the Government Rajaji Hospital .
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= Polikarpov VIT @-@ 1 =
The Polikarpov VIT @-@ 1 ( Russian : Vozdooshny Istrebitel ' Tahnkov — Flying Tank Destroyer ) was a Soviet twin @-@ engined multi @-@ purpose aircraft developed before World War II . One prototype was built in 1937 , with an extremely heavy armament for ground attack duties . That was the only example built as it was decided to revise the design with more powerful engines as the VIT @-@ 2 .
= = Development = =
The Polikarpov design bureau ( OKB ) was ordered , in 1936 , to begin development of a fast twin @-@ engined aircraft that could be used for ground attack duties and as a heavy fighter . It delivered the ground attack version the following year for evaluation , although it could be modified as necessary for other roles . The VIT @-@ 1 was reasonably successful , but it was decided to give it more powerful engines and modify its structure . The improved aircraft was designated as the VIT @-@ 2 .
The VIT @-@ 1 was a low @-@ winged , twin @-@ engined aircraft with a mixed structure . The monocoque fuselage was made in halves of ' shpon ' , molded birch plywood . The wing and tail structures were built from a mix of steel tubes and duralumin with a duralumin skin . The VIT @-@ 1 had the first metal @-@ skinned control surfaces in the USSR . The main legs of the conventional landing gear retracted aft into the engine nacelles , but the tailwheel was fixed . The nose was extensively glazed to give the bombardier / navigator good visibility and he was armed with a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon with 10 ° of vertical travel . The rear gunner / radio operator sat behind the pilot in a manually operated turret armed with a 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine gun . Two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Shpitalnyi Sh @-@ 37 cannon were mounted in the wing roots with very prominent barrels . Up to 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) of bombs could be carried internally in the fuselage or a pair of 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) FAB @-@ 500 bombs could be carried under the wings . It used a pair of 716 kW ( 960 hp ) Klimov M @-@ 103 inline engines driving 3 @-@ bladed propellers .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Gordon , Soviet Airpower in World War 2
General characteristics
Crew : 3
Length : 12 @.@ 7 m ( 41 ft 8 in )
Wingspan : 16 @.@ 5 m ( 54 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 40 @.@ 4 m2 ( 435 sq ft )
Airfoil : Clark YH
Empty weight : 4 @,@ 013 kg ( 8 @,@ 847 lb )
Gross weight : 6 @,@ 453 kg ( 14 @,@ 226 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Klimov M @-@ 103 liquid @-@ cooled V12 engines , 716 kW ( 960 hp ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed
Performance
Maximum speed : 530 km / h ( 329 mph ; 286 kn ) at 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 843 ft )
Range : 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ; 540 nmi )
Service ceiling : 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 247 ft )
Armament
Guns :
2 x 37 mm Sh @-@ 37 cannon
1x 20 mm ShVAK cannon
1x 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine gun
Bombs : up to a total of 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb )
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= Weeping Willow ( Law & Order : Criminal Intent ) =
" Weeping Willow " is the tenth episode of the sixth season of Law & Order : Criminal Intent . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 8 , 2006 . In the episode , a teenage blogger nicknamed WeepingWillow17 , played by guest star Michelle Trachtenberg , is apparently kidnapped during the filming of one of her Internet videos . Detectives Mike Logan and Megan Wheeler investigate the so @-@ called " cyber @-@ kidnapping " , which they and the public speculate may be an elaborate Internet hoax .
The episode and character was written by Stephanie Sengupta and Warren Leight , and directed by Tom DiCillo . The story and the WeepingWillow17 character were inspired by the lonelygirl15 video blogs on YouTube , which were originally believed the works of a real @-@ life 15 @-@ year @-@ old blogger , but were eventually discovered to be a professionally filmed hoax . The episode received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was seen by 9 @.@ 8 million households the week it aired , the most viewership for a Law & Order : Criminal Intent episode in six weeks .
= = Plot summary = =
In what appears to be an Internet vlog , a teenage girl nicknamed " WeepingWillow17 " ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) and her boyfriend Holden ( Michael Goduti ) are interrupted when two men in masks storm into the room and apparently kidnap them on @-@ camera . Detectives Logan and Wheeler begin investigating the so @-@ called " cyber @-@ kidnapping " , which they and the public suspect could be an Internet hoax . Eventually , the supposed kidnappers release an online video with Willow and Holden tied up , claiming they will kill them both if 100 @,@ 000 people do not purchase their online videos for $ 1 @.@ 99 each within 48 hours . The news media covers the story , and speculates on the possibility that it is a hoax . Eventually , a video is released in which Willow provides her real name , Lisa Willow Tyler , as proof that she is real . Logan and Wheeler visit her parents , who are elderly farmers that believe Willow is doing charity work in Africa ; the police learn Willow has lied to her family and tried to achieve Internet fame to escape her dull life .
Wheeler suggests responding to the kidnappers " on their own turf " via a video blog . In response to Wheeler 's video , the kidnappers make another vlog and cut off Holden 's ear on @-@ camera to prove they are serious . Although the ear is mailed to forensics and proven to be real , police quickly discover that Willow and Holden placed an online advertisement seeking actors to play kidnapper roles ; they soon identify actor Reggie Luckman ( Pedro Pascal ) as one of the kidnappers in the WeepingWillow17 videos . Yet another vlog is released , this time with Holden escaping his bonds and shooting one of the kidnappers , before being shot himself by Reggie . Police come to the scene and find Holden alive , along with the dead body of one of the supposed kidnappers named Todd ( Trevor Oswalt ) . Holden insisted the on @-@ camera shooting was fake , and that Reggie shot Todd over a dispute over money after the video was filmed . Holden says the kidnapping videos started as a hoax , but that Reggie has now actually kidnapped Willow .
Additional live WeepingWillow17 videos are shown online , which police trace to a van in Union Square , where they find Willow and arrest Reggie . During interrogation , Reggie says he did not know Todd was really dead ; he insists he fired a prop gun with blanks to scare Holden into splitting the money from the videos with them . Police soon learn the wadding from a blank was accidentally fired into Todd , and a horrified Reggie faces manslaughter charges . Willow , claiming to have simply been seeking fame as an actress , is released without criminal charges . The episode ends with Logan and Wheeler watching a video of Larry King interviewing Willow on a giant screen in Times Square .
= = Production = =
" Weeping Willow " was written by René Balcer , Stephanie Sengupta and Warren Leight , who served as the show 's executive producer and head writer . The episode was directed by Tom DiCillo , marking his first time as director with the series ; he would go on to direct the episodes Players , Offense and Last Rites . The story and the character WeepingWillow17 are modeled after Bree , the protagonist from the lonelygirl15 video blogs on YouTube . Originally believed to be a real @-@ life 15 @-@ year @-@ old blogger , Bree was eventually discovered to be a hoax . She was in fact a fictional character played by actress Jessica Lee Rose and created by filmmakers Mesh Flinders and Miles Beckett .
" Weeping Willow " analyzes the concept of 15 minutes of fame during the Information Age from the perspective of the Internet celebrity , one who gains fame through the creation of or participation in a popular website . Leight said of the episode , " Forget about 15 minutes of fame : there are hundreds of people who get their 15 inches of bandwidth , people making names for themselves on YouTube and others . ... This blogging phenomenon has created a certain kind of ' cyberfame , ' people who don 't have to do anything more than put themselves on the Web and catch a cyberwave . We now have a spate of very strange celebrities . " Leight said the episode also focuses on the extent to which one will go to achieve such fame . While the Law & Order shows routinely draw on inspiration from real @-@ life events in an approach the creators call " ripped from the headlines " , Criminal Intent producers referred to this episode as " ' pre @-@ ripping ' from the headlines " , because the script usually took a real @-@ life event ( as the lonelygirl15 phenomenon ) and added to it a fictional dramatic conflict ( the kidnapping ) .
The so @-@ called " cyber @-@ kidnapping " portrayed in " Weeping Willow " is believed to be the first such crime ever portrayed on television . While the writers and producers prepared the episode , several district attorneys they consulted said the law was dangerously vague regarding what charges could be filed in the event of such a real @-@ life cyber @-@ kidnapping ; Wright said , " They told me that this is a real problem , that there 's a lag between what 's on the books now and what 's happening out there . " The script also includes a difficulty on the part of the detectives in coping and dealing this new form of cyber @-@ crime and differentiating the truth from the hoax ; Leight said , " Their biggest frustration is trying to understand what 's real and what isn 't . Does this woman , Willow , really exist , and has something happened to her ? Is she playing a character and a game that 's gotten out of hand ? And how do you locate someone in cyberspace ? "
Julianne Nicholson , who plays Det . Megan Wheeler , said " Weeping Willow " was her favorite Law & Order : Criminal Intent episode . She described it as " really different from a lot of the ones we 've done before and very exciting and current . " Nicholson also said she enjoyed working with Michelle Trachtenberg and the other supporting actors , as well as director DiCillo , who also directed Living in Oblivion , one of Nicholson 's favorite movies .
During one of the kidnappers ' videos featured in the episode , a banner is visible advertising the website FreeWillow17.com. The producers of the show set up a real @-@ life website with that domain , containing eight video blogs starring Trachtenberg and the other cast members . The videos were created from video content filmed for the " Weeping Willow " episode , most of which was ultimately not used in the episode . The producers originally also established a mirror site , WeepingWillow17.com , but it is no longer active .
= = Cultural references = =
The WeepingWillow17 videos in the episode are featured on a website called " YouLenz " , a reference to the popular video sharing website YouTube , where the original lonelygirl15 videos were posted . YouLenz also stands in for YouTube in the pilot episode of Smash . Willow 's friend tells police she found her apartment on Craigslist , a popular online classified advertising website . During the first WeepingWillow17 video shown in the episode 's first scene , the song " Fearless " by The Bravery is played .
Ira Whipple ( Gary Patent ) says , " In cyberspace , everyone hears you scream " , a reference to the tagline of the 1979 film Alien : " In space , no one can hear you scream . " A New York Film Academy professor refers to Holden as a " James Cameron @-@ wannabe " , referring to the American director of such films as The Terminator and Aliens . The vlog in which Holden 's ear is cut off is described by one characters as a rip @-@ off of director Quentin Tarantino , a reference to his 1992 feature film debut , Reservoir Dogs . During an interrogation , Mike Logan sarcastically refers to Reggie as James Dean , the famous actor and American cultural icon . Captain Danny Ross refers to the episode 's shooting as " cyber @-@ Rashomon . Reggie says Holden shot Todd , Holden says Reggie did it and Willow doesn 't even believe anyone 's dead . " This references the 1950 Japanese film Rashomon , in which multiple characters describe vastly different interpretations of the same murder . A poster for Grand Illusion , the 1932 Jean Renoir war film , hangs in Holden 's apartment . In the episode 's final scene , Willow is interviewed by CNN journalist Larry King , host of Larry King Live , which is shown on a giant scene in Times Square .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Weeping Willow " received a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 1 and an 8 share in adults aged 18 – 49 , translating to 9 @.@ 8 million households overall . The rating was the highest overall viewership for a Law & Order : Criminal Intent episode since " Bedfellows " aired on October 17 , 2006 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Farah Farouque of The Age said although she feels Law & Order : Criminal Intent had largely dropped in overall quality , she described " Weeping Willow " as " very postmodern and very watchable " . Likewise , Todd Thatcher of TV Guide said although the sixth season of Criminal Intent had several episodes he deemed failures , he called " Weeping Willow " one of the " true gems " . Canada 's National Post said " Weeping Willow " had an interesting plot and listed it as a " must see " . David Bianculli , of the New York Daily News , wrote , " The twist is easy to see coming , but Trachtenberg is easy to watch , regardless . "
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= Mutual Broadcasting System =
The Mutual Broadcasting System ( commonly referred to simply as Mutual ; sometimes referred to as MBS , the Mutual Broadcasting Company , or the Mutual Radio Network ; corporate name Mutual Broadcasting System , Inc . ) was an American radio network in operation from 1934 to 1999 . In the golden age of U.S. radio drama , Mutual was best known as the original network home of The Lone Ranger and The Adventures of Superman and as the long @-@ time radio residence of The Shadow . For many years , it was a national broadcaster for Major League Baseball ( including the All @-@ Star Game and World Series ) , the National Football League , and Notre Dame football . From the mid @-@ 1930s and for decades after , Mutual ran a highly respected news service accompanied by a variety of popular commentary shows . Toward the end of its run as a major programmer , it introduced the country to Larry King .
In the early 1970s , acting in much the same style as rival ABC had two years earlier ( in 1968 ) , Mutual launched four radio networks : Mutual Black Network ( MBN ; eventually became today 's American Urban Radio Networks ( AURN ) ) , Mutual Cadena Hispánica ( trans . " Mutual Spanish Network " ) , Mutual Southwest Network , & Mutual Lifestyle Radio ( was cancelled in 1983 ) .
Of the four national networks of American radio 's classic era , Mutual had for decades the largest number of affiliates , but the least certain financial position ( which prevented Mutual from expanding into television broadcasting after World War II , as the other three networks did ) . For the first 18 years of its existence , Mutual was owned and operated as a cooperative ( A system similar to that of today 's National Public Radio ) , setting the network apart from its competitors . Mutual 's member stations shared their own original programming , transmission and promotion expenses , and advertising revenues . From December 30 , 1936 , when it debuted in the West , the Mutual Broadcasting System had affiliates from coast to coast . Its business structure would change after General Tire assumed majority ownership in 1952 through a series of regional and individual station acquisitions .
Once General Tire sold the network in 1957 , Mutual 's ownership was largely disconnected from the stations it served , leading to a more conventional , top @-@ down model of program production and distribution . Not long after the sale , one of the network 's new executive teams was charged with accepting money to use Mutual as a vehicle for foreign propaganda . The network 's reputation was severely damaged , but soon rebounded . Mutual changed hands frequently in succeeding years — even leaving aside larger @-@ scale acquisitions and mergers , its final direct corporate parent , Westwood One , which purchased it in 1985 , was the seventh in a string of new owners that followed General Tire .
= = History = =
= = = 1934 – 1935 : The launch of Mutual = = =
Attempts at establishing cooperatively owned radio networks had been made since the 1920s . In 1929 , a group of four radio stations in the major markets of New York City , Chicago , Cincinnati , and Detroit organized into a loose confederation known as the Quality Network . Five years later , a similar or identical group of stations founded the Mutual Broadcasting System . Mutual 's original participating stations were WOR – Newark , New Jersey , just outside New York ( owned by the Bamberger Broadcasting Service , a division of R.H. Macy and Company ) , WGN – Chicago ( owned by WGN Inc . , a subsidiary of the Chicago Tribune ) , WXYZ – Detroit ( owned by Kunsky @-@ Trendle Broadcasting ) , and WLW – Cincinnati ( owned by the Crosley Radio Company ) . The network was organized on September 29 , 1934 , with the members contracting for telephone @-@ line transmission facilities and agreeing to collectively enter into contracts with advertisers for their networked shows . WOR and WGN , based in the two largest markets and providing the bulk of the programming , were the acknowledged leaders of the group . On October 29 , 1934 , Mutual Broadcasting System , Inc. was incorporated , with Bamberger and WGN Inc. each holding 50 % of the stock — five each of the 10 total shares .
The three national radio networks already in operation — the Columbia Broadcasting System and the National Broadcasting Company 's NBC Red and NBC Blue — were corporate controlled : programming was produced by the network ( or by advertising agencies of program sponsors that purchased airtime on the network ) and distributed to affiliates , most of which were independently owned . In contrast , the Mutual Broadcasting System was run as a true cooperative venture , with programming produced by and shared between the group 's members . The majority of the early programming , from WOR and WGN , consisted of musical features and inexpensive dramatic serials . WOR had The Witch 's Tale , a horror anthology series whose " hunner @-@ an ' -thirteen @-@ year @-@ old " narrator invited listeners to " douse all [ the ] lights . Now draw up to the fire an ' gaze into the embers ... gaaaaze into ' em deep ! ... an ' soon ye 'll be across the seas , in th ' jungle land of Africa ... hear that chantin ' and them savage drums ? " WGN contributed the popular comedy series Lum and Abner . Detroit 's WXYZ provided The Lone Ranger , which had debuted in 1933 and was already in demand . It is often claimed that Mutual was launched primarily as a vehicle for the Western serial , but Lum and Abner was no less popular at the time . What WLW brought was sheer power ; billing itself as " The Nation 's Station , " in May 1934 it had begun night broadcasting at a massive 500 @,@ 000 watts , ten times the clear @-@ channel standard .
On May 24 , 1935 , the network aired its inaugural live event — the first @-@ ever night baseball game , between the Cincinnati Reds and the Philadelphia Phillies . In September , WXYZ dropped out to join NBC Blue , though contractual obligations kept The Lone Ranger on Mutual , airing three times a week , through spring 1942 . The hole in the Detroit market was immediately filled by CKLW in Windsor , Ontario , just across the river . In October , the network began a decades @-@ long run as broadcaster of baseball 's World Series , with airtime responsibilities shared between WGN 's Bob Elson and Quin Ryan and WLW 's Red Barber ( NBC and CBS also carried the series that year ; the Fall Classic would air on all three networks through 1938 ) . Mutual broadcast its first Notre Dame football game that autumn as well , beginning another relationship that would last for decades . As an income @-@ generating business , the Mutual network was a modest endeavor at the start : in the first eleven months of 1935 , the cooperative garnered $ 1 @.@ 1 million in advertising , compared to NBC 's $ 28 @.@ 3 million and CBS 's $ 15 @.@ 8 million .
= = = Late 1930s : National expansion = = =
In the fall of 1936 , Mutual lost another of its founding members when WLW departed . The network , however , was in the midst of a major expansion : the first outside group of stations to sign on with Mutual was John Shepard 's Colonial Network with its Boston flagship station , WAAB , and thirteen affiliates around New England . There was good reason for this affiliation : Shepard had been involved with the founding of Mutual , and served on its Board of Directors . Cleveland 's WGAR also became an affiliate , as did five Midwestern stations : KWK – St. Louis , Mo . ; KSO – Des Moines , Iowa ; WMT – Cedar Rapids , Iowa ; KOIL – Omaha , Neb . ; and KFOR – Lincoln , Neb . The big prize came in December , when the Don Lee Broadcasting System , the leading regional web on the West Coast , left CBS to become a central participant in Mutual . Don Lee brought its four owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations — KHJ – Los Angeles , KFRC – San Francisco , KGB – San Diego , and KDB – Santa Barbara — along with six California affiliates and , via shortwave hookup , two more in Hawaii . Mutual now had a nationwide presence . During 1936 , as well , an offer by Warner Bros. to purchase the network was apparently made and rejected .
In January 1937 , ownership of WAAB was consolidated with that of another Boston station controlled by Shepard : WNAC was flagship of the Yankee Network , a circuit of New England radio stations whose membership partially overlapped with that of Colonial . Yankee flagship WNAC had been an affiliate of CBS Radio , changing affiliation to NBC Red later in 1937 when CBS purchased WEEI in that city . The Texas Network soon added twenty @-@ three more stations to the Mutual affiliate roster . WGAR dropped out , but the United Broadcasting Company , part of The Plain Dealer business , joined with its lead station , WHK . Within a few years , this new Ohio participant would become one of the network 's central members , a shareowner in Mutual . By the end of 1938 , Mutual had 74 exclusive affiliates ; though the two leading radio network companies discouraged dual hookups , Mutual shared another 25 affiliates with NBC and 5 with CBS . The total of 104 affiliates put Mutual not far behind the leaders . Because of the corporate strength behind NBC and CBS , however , and the fact that the lion 's share of the most powerful stations in the country had already signed with them before Mutual 's emergence ( the exceptional , and soon departed , WLW aside ) , the cooperative network would be at a permanent disadvantage .
= = = = Programming : The Shadow and diverse political voices = = = =
On the programming front , 1936 saw Mutual launch the first network advice show , The Good Will Hour , hosted by John J. Anthony and sponsored by physical culture guru Bernarr Macfadden . The program was a new take on Ask Mister Anthony , which had aired on a local New York station in 1932 , " dedicated to helping the sufferers from an antiquated and outmoded domestic relations code . " Anthony , whose real name was Lester Kroll , brought a wealth of relevant experience to his work — he had once been jailed for failing to make alimony payments . In July 1937 came the premiere of a seven @-@ part adaptation of Les Misérables , produced , written , and directed by Orson Welles and featuring many of his Mercury Theatre performers — Mercury 's first appearance on the air . September 26 , 1937 , proved a particularly momentous date : that evening , The Shadow came to Mutual . The show would become a mainstay of the network for more than a decade and a half and one of the most popular programs in radio history . For the first year of its Mutual run , Welles provided the voice of The Shadow and his newly created alter ego , Lamont Cranston . He played the part anonymously at first . But , as one chronicler put it , " nothing to do with Welles could remain a secret for very long . "
In April 1938 , the network picked up The Green Hornet from former member WXYZ . Mutual gave the twice @-@ a @-@ week series its first national exposure until November 1939 , when it switched to NBC Blue . ( The series would return very briefly to Mutual in the fall of 1940 ) . Mutual also provided the national launching pad for Kay Kyser and his Kollege of Musical Knowledge . Kyser 's enormous success at Mutual soon allowed his show to move to NBC and its much larger audience . By May 1939 , Mutual was broadcasting the Indianapolis 500 . That autumn , Mutual won exclusive broadcast rights to the World Series . As described in a 1943 Supreme Court ruling upholding the regulatory power of the Federal Communications Commission , Mutual " offered this program of outstanding national interest to stations throughout the country , including NBC and CBS affiliates in communities having no other stations . CBS and NBC immediately invoked the ' exclusive affiliation ' clauses of their agreements with these stations , and as a result thousands of persons in many sections of the country were unable to hear the broadcasts of the games . " This was the first example given in the ruling of " abuses " perpetrated by the two leading broadcast companies .
Mutual also began building a reputation as a strong news service , rivaling the industry leaders in quality if not budget . The broadcasts of WOR reporter Gabriel Heatter from the Lindbergh kidnapping " trial of the century " in 1935 , heard over Mutual , were highly regarded ; Heatter soon had his own regularly scheduled newscast , aired nationally five nights a week . In 1936 , also via WOR , Mutual began broadcasting the reports of news commentator Raymond Gram Swing , who became one of the country 's leading voices on foreign affairs . In November 1937 , conservative commentator Fulton Lewis Jr . , heard five nights weekly from Mutual affiliate WOL , became the first national news personality to broadcast out of Washington , D.C. ; he would remain with the network until his death almost three decades later . In 1938 , Mutual started rebroadcasting news reports from the BBC and English @-@ language newscasts from the European mainland . The network also began employing its own reporters in Europe as the continent headed toward crisis , including John Steele , Waverly Root , Arthur Mann , and Victor Lusinchi . Among these was Sigrid Schultz , the first accomplished female foreign correspondent to appear on American news radio .
= = = 1940s : One of the " Big Four " = = =
Early in 1940 , the corporate organization of Mutual became even more inclusive , as described by scholar Cornelia B. Rose :
Until January , 1940 , six groups bore the expense of the network operation in varying degree : stations WGN and WOR owned all the stock of the corporation and guaranteed to make up any deficit ; the Colonial Network in New England , the Don Lee System on the Pacific Coast , and the group of stations owned by the Cleveland Plain Dealer , participated in responsibility for running expenses . A new contract effective February 1 , 1940 , provides for contributing membership by all the above group [ s ] plus station CKLW in Detroit @-@ Windsor . These groups now agree to underwrite expenses and become stockholders in the network .... An operating board for the network is comprised of representatives from each of these groups , together with additional representation appointed by other affiliated stations .
The new cooperative structure was also joined by the owners of WKRC in Cincinnati , which had replaced Mutual cofounder WLW in that market . The Mutual corporation now had 100 shares , apportioned as follows :
In 1941 , WOR 's official city of license was changed to New York . Within two years , the Colonial Network 's affiliate roster and shares in Mutual had been fully absorbed into the Yankee Network by John Shepard III ; WNAC was the sole flagship , WAAB having been moved to Worcester , in central Massachusetts , to avoid duopoly restrictions . With WBZ taking over the slot as the NBC Red affiliate in Boston , WNAC switched to Mutual . In January 1943 , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) approved the sale of the Yankee Network — with WNAC , its three other owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations , its contracts with 17 additional affiliates , and its Mutual shares — to the Ohio @-@ based General Tire and Rubber Company .
Already by 1940 , Mutual was on a par with the industry leaders in terms of affiliate roster size . Still , because Mutual affiliates were mostly in small markets or lesser stations in big ones , the network lagged way behind in advertising revenue — NBC took in eleven times as much as Mutual that year . In 1941 , the FCC , calling for NBC to divest one of its two networks , observed that the company " has utilized the Blue to forestall competition with the Red .... Mutual is excluded from , or only lamely admitted to , many important markets . " On January 10 , 1942 , Mutual filed a $ 10 @.@ 275 million suit against NBC and its parent company , RCA , alleging a conspiracy " hindering and restricting Mutual freely and fairly to compete in the transmission in interstate commerce of nationwide network programs . " The FCC 's Supreme Court victory in 1943 led to the sale of the Blue Network and Mutual dropping its lawsuit . These developments appear to have been of more symbolic than practical value to Mutual — the transfer of the NBC Blue stations to the new American Broadcasting Company did little to help Mutual 's competitive position . In 1945 it reached 384 affiliates , and by December 1948 , Mutual Broadcasting was heard on more than 500 stations in the United States . But this growth did not reflect any ability on Mutual 's part to attract leading stations from the corporate @-@ controlled networks . Rather , the FCC had eased its technical standards for local stations , facilitating the establishment of new outlets in small markets : between 1945 and 1952 , the number of AM stations rose from around 940 to more than 2 @,@ 350 . It was these new , relatively weak stations Mutual kept picking up . Though by now it had many more affiliates than any other U.S. radio network , for the most part they remained " less desirable in frequency , power , and coverage , " as the Supreme Court had put it . For instance , in the postwar era CBS and NBC covered all of North Carolina each with only four stations . Mutual needed fourteen affiliates to deliver comparable statewide coverage .
Late in the decade , there was a brief exploration into the idea of launching a Mutual television network , serious enough to prompt talks with MGM as a potential source of programming talent . In fact , Bamberger Broadcasting 's WOR @-@ TV & WOIC ( the latter a Washington , D.C. video outlet ) maintained letterhead with " Mutual Television " decorating their identifications . There is no confirmation , however , that a cooperative video service was ever serisouly surmounted . The plans never got off the ground and Mutual thus became the only one of the " Big Four " U.S. radio networks not to start ( and eventually be dominated by ) a television network . While there was no Mutual TV network , this did not mean the group did not have an influence over commercial television 's early development . For one thing , several Mutual radio affiliates launched television stations that would often be affiliated with the television networks of ABC , CBS , DuMont , or NBC . For another thing , the cooperative held the rights to a number of valuable radio properties that made the transition to the new medium , including two of the era 's most popular variations on what would later become known as the tabloid talk show and " reality " programming : the crabby gabfest Leave It to the Girls and , in particular , Queen for a Day , which both started on Mutual radio in 1945 . Referred to by some as a " misery show , " Queen for a Day " awarded prizes to women who could come up with the most heart @-@ stabbing stories told by the sick and the downtrodden .... On one show , a mother of nine requested a washing machine to replace one that broke when it fell on her husband and disabled him — and who , by the way , also needed heart surgery . " In May 1947 , a simulcast version began airing on the Don Lee system 's experimental TV station in Los Angeles , W6XAO ( later KTSL ) . It was a smash hit , and by the turn of the decade TV stations all along the coast were broadcasting it to high ratings . In the 1950s , Mutual would stare down NBC for four years as the mighty network sought to take control of the show .
= = = = Programming : World War II and Superman = = = =
Offscreen , Mutual remained an enterprising broadcaster . In 1940 , a program featuring Cedric Foster joined Mutual 's respected schedule of news and opinion shows . Foster 's claim to fame was as the first daytime commentator to be heard nationally on a daily basis . The network aired that year 's NFL Championship Game on December 8 , the first national broadcast of the annual event . Over the following half decade , Mutual 's war coverage held its own with that of the wealthier networks , featuring field correspondents such as Henry Shapiro and Piet Van T Veer and commentators such as Cecil Brown , formerly of CBS . At 2 : 26 p.m. Eastern time , on Sunday , December 7 , 1941 , Mutual flagship WOR interrupted a football game broadcast with a news flash reporting the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . It was the initial public announcement of the attack heard on the U.S. mainland . The first bombs had dropped 63 minutes earlier . In May 1945 , Sigrid Schultz reported from one of the last Nazi concentration camps to be discovered , Ravensbrück . The following month , Meet the Press premiered with Martha Rountree as moderator . For a year and a half in the late 1940s , William Shirer came over from CBS to do current events commentary after his famous falling out with Edward Murrow . In 1948 , Mutual 's four @-@ part series To Secure These Rights , dramatizing the findings of President Truman 's Committee on Civil Rights , outraged many politicians and the network 's own affiliates in the segregated South .
In the field of entertainment , Mutual built on the incomparable success of The Shadow . WGN 's Chicago Theater of the Air , featuring hour @-@ long opera and musical theater productions before a live audience , was broadcast for the first time in May 1940 . By 1943 , the weekly show was being recorded in front of houses 4 @,@ 000 strong , gathered to see performances featuring a full orchestra and chorus . Chicago Theater of the Air would run on Mutual through March 1955 . Mutual provided an early national outlet for the influential , iconoclastic satirist Henry Morgan , whose show Here 's Morgan began its network run in October 1940 . Though The Lone Ranger moved over to NBC Blue in May 1942 , within a few months Mutual had another reliable , and no less famous , action hero . The Adventures of Superman , picked up from WOR , would run on the network from August 1942 to June 1949 . In April 1943 , Mutual launched what would turn into one of its longest @-@ lasting shows : debuting as The Return of Nick Carter and later retitled Nick Carter , Master Detective , it would be a network staple through September 1955 . From May 1943 through May 1946 , Mutual aired The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes , starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce . An earlier incarnation of the show had run briefly on the network in 1936 ; a less starry version would return to Mutual from September 1947 through June 1949 . The Mysterious Traveler , a proto – Twilight Zone anthology series , aired every week on Mutual from December 1943 until September 1952 .
In February 1946 , Mutual introduced a quiz show , Twenty Questions , that would run for more than seven years . In October , the detective series Let George Do It , starring Bob Bailey , launched as a Mutual / Don Lee presentation ; it would also run into the mid @-@ 1950s . For two years , starting in 1946 as well , Steve Allen got his first network exposure on the Mutual / Don Lee morning show Smile Time , out of Los Angeles 's KHJ . In February 1947 , the religiously oriented Family Theater premiered ; with frequent appearances by major Hollywood stars , the series aired on Mutual for ten and a half years . That March , Kate Smith , a major star on CBS since 1931 , moved over to Mutual . During most of her initial run at the network , which lasted until September 1951 , she had two distinct weekday shows , each 15 minutes long : Kate Smith Speaks , at noon , and Kate Smith Sings , later in the hour . The network gave an outlet to radio dramatist Wyllis Cooper and his highly regarded suspense anthology Quiet , Please , which ran on Mutual from June 1947 to September 1948 . It also aired actor Alan Ladd 's similarly lauded drama about a crime @-@ solving mystery novelist , Box 13 , which ran for precisely a year . Its 52 episodes , which aired every Sunday beginning August 22 , 1948 , were produced by Ladd 's own company , Mayfair Productions .
= = = 1950s : New ownership = = =
Toward the end of 1950 , the executors of the estate of Thomas S. Lee ( the son of Don Lee , who had died in 1934 ) decided to liquidate the estate 's interests in the broadcasting field . The Don Lee Broadcasting System , with its major station groups KHJ in Los Angeles and KFRC in San Francisco and its shares in the Mutual Broadcasting System , was sold to General Tire ( which already had a stake in Mutual via its Yankee Network holdings ) . Around the same time , Mutual acquired the television broadcast rights to the World Series and All @-@ Star Game for the next six years . Mutual may have been reindulging in TV network dreams or simply taking advantage of a long @-@ standing business relationship ; in either case , the broadcast rights were sold to NBC in time for the following season 's games at an enormous profit .
Early in 1952 , General Tire purchased the Bamberger Broadcasting Service from R.H. Macy and Company . With the deal , General Tire acquired the WOR radio and TV stations and the rights to the name General Teleradio , under which the company merged its broadcasting interests as a new division ( Bamberger had previously sold its TV station in the nation 's capital , WOIC , to CBS and the Washington Post ) . Most importantly , as far as the future of the Mutual Broadcasting System was concerned , WOR 's founding shares in the network , when added to the Yankee and Don Lee holdings , gave General Tire majority control of Mutual . That same year , NBC began its attempts to win the television rights to Queen for a Day from Mutual . As a measure of the afternoon show 's success , its audience at its new Los Angeles home , General Teleradio / Don Lee 's KHJ @-@ TV , was triple that of the city 's six other stations combined . Mutual might not have had a TV network , but it controlled one of the most profitable properties in the early history of commercial television .
Mutual was at this point the largest U.S. radio network in affiliate numbers , by far — it had 560 , almost three times as many as its most powerful competitors , CBS ( 194 ) and NBC ( 191 ) . In 1955 , General Tire expanded its media holdings by acquiring RKO Radio Pictures from Howard Hughes , only to close the movie studio a year and a half later ( General Teleradio , renamed RKO Teleradio after the acquisition , would soon be known as RKO General ) . General Tire also decided to spin off its holdings in Mutual and sell it as a programming service even as it retained the stations that had given it control . Indeed , in 1956 , General purchased a governing interest in yet another Mutual shareholder , Western Ontario Broadcasting , and its station in Windsor , CKLW . In July 1957 , General Tire sold the Mutual Broadcasting business to a group led by Dr. Armand Hammer .
The network soon changed hands again : in September 1958 , it was acquired by the Scranton Corporation . Scranton was under the control of the F.L. Jacobs Company , whose chairman , Alexander Guterma , envisioned a media empire uniting Mutual with another recent purchase , the Hal Roach movie studio . After being questioned by federal investigators in February 1959 about financial improprieties , Guterma stepped down . Mutual , by this point , was floundering . For some years it had been run by owners who were either uninterested ( General Tire , Armand Hammer ) or now , as a growing amount of evidence would show , criminal . Mutual was also confronted with the situation the entire industry was facing : major advertisers were abandoning radio for television . Commercial rates had been cut . Limited sponsorship packages had been introduced , in which an advertiser could back a show for an abbreviated period rather than an entire season — but there was no reversing the trend . The networks were left with the bills for an increasing number of nonsponsored programs , known as " sustaining " shows in the industry . The loss of mainstay advertisers was accompanied by what historian Ronald Garay describes as the " mass desertion of network radio talent , management and technicians for television .... [ T ] hese people were taking with them the programming that had popularized the radio networks . "
Under its new chairman , Hal Roach Jr . , F.L. Jacobs put Mutual into Chapter 11 bankruptcy . In September 1959 , Guterma , Roach , and Garland Culpepper , a Scranton Corp. vice president , were indicted for failing to register as " foreign agents " ; they were charged with secretly accepting money from Dominican Republic dictator Rafael Trujillo that previous January in return for favorable coverage of the country and its government on Mutual news programs . It was never proven that Guterma , who was identified as the primary player on Mutual 's side and pleaded no contest to the charge , actually fulfilled his part of the deal and arranged for slanted coverage . Nonetheless , the incident led to a reported 130 stations cutting their affiliation with Mutual . Whether precipitated by the scandal or not , among the stations cutting its ties with Mutual in 1959 was one of the network 's two original flagships , WOR . Businessman Albert G. McCarthy , meanwhile , had taken over the network , arranging to settle its debts while seeking an owner interested in running it on an ongoing basis .
= = = = Programming : Korean War and original drama 's decline = = = =
Before the Guterma fiasco , the network had maintained its reputation for running a strong news organization . As the conflict on the Korean peninsula began to heat up in mid @-@ 1950 , Mutual started airing two special reports nightly on the situation , featuring the commentary of Major George Fielding Eliot , military analyst for CBS during World War II . By August , Mutual was represented by six correspondents in Korea , more than ABC or NBC . In June 1958 , just a few months before the Scranton takeover , the network had launched a nightly 25 @-@ minute newscast , The World Today , hosted by Westbrook Van Voorhis , famous as the voice of The March of Time . On occasion , Mutual 's commentary programs made the news : On March 11 , 1954 , Fulton Lewis Jr. featured Senator Joseph McCarthy as his guest , two days after the senator 's ethics had been called into question on the TV show See It Now , hosted by Edward R. Murrow . In his radio interview , McCarthy dismissed Murrow as " the extreme left @-@ wing , bleeding @-@ heart element of television . "
By the end of the 1950s , Mutual had forsworn original dramatic programming . Early in the decade , however , it picked up the adventure series Challenge of the Yukon , which had originated at Mutual cofounder WXYZ in 1938 after the station 's departure from the network . The show , subsequently renamed Sergeant Preston of the Yukon , ran on Mutual from January 1950 until its finale in June 1955 . In 1950 as well , Mutual introduced radio listeners to adult science fiction with 2000 Plus , which first aired on March 15 , almost a month before the premiere of NBC 's similarly themed Dimension X. The Shadow 's long run finally ended in December 1954 . In November 1957 , Mutual aired the final episodes of its last two remaining half @-@ hour original dramatic shows , Counterspy and Gang Busters , both picked up from other networks earlier in the decade . It would be almost sixteen years before the network again aired a new dramatic series . In 1955 , the famous comedy team Bob and Ray came over from NBC for a five @-@ day @-@ a @-@ week afternoon show . Kate Smith returned in 1958 for her final radio series , which ran from January to August . Sports began to occupy an increasing portion of Mutual 's schedule : the network began regularly airing a Major League Baseball Game of the Day , every day except Sunday . This expansion into daily sports programming would run well into the 1960s . While baseball 's World Series and All @-@ Star Game would go to rival NBC in 1957 , Mutual secured exclusive national radio rights the following year to Notre Dame football , which would remain a cornerstone for the rest of the network 's existence .
= = = 1960s – 1970s : Narrowed focus = = =
In the spring of 1960 , the 3M Company stepped in , purchasing Mutual and restoring much @-@ needed stability to the operation . Despite the recent scandal , Mutual still had 443 affiliates , easily the most of any network . By this time , as historian Jim Cox describes , both Mutual and ABC " had largely wiped their slates clean of most of their network programming — save news and sporting events and a few long @-@ running features " . This would characterize Mutual 's essential approach for the next three and a half decades , through a further series of ownership changes .
In July 1966 , 3M sold the network to a privately held company , Mutual Industries , Inc . , headed by John P. Fraim . Upon Mutual Industries 's acquisition of Mutual , it was renamed to " Mutual Broadcasting Corporation " . The following month , after the death of Mutual stalwart Fulton Lewis Jr . , his son Fulton Lewis III took over his Monday @-@ to @-@ Friday , 7 p.m. slot . When ABC Radio " split " into four demographically targeted networks on January 1 , 1968 , Mutual unsuccessfully sued to block the move . Meanwhile , the network was undergoing some management instability , with frequent changes at the top : for example , Matthew J. Culligan was Mutual 's president from October 1966 to June 1968 . He was replaced by Robert R. Pauley , who came over from the American Broadcasting Company 's radio division , where he had served as president for nearly seven years . But Pauley only lasted a year , and resigned after clashes with the board over the need for cost @-@ cutting , and other decisions with which he disagreed . His replacement was Victor C. Diehm , owner of several Mutual @-@ affiliated radio stations and active on the Mutual Affiliates Advisory Council . But Diehm also did not remain in the position of Mutual 's president for very long . Four years later , he was replaced by a new president , a former Miami radio executive named C. Edward Little . Under Little , Mutual began its own niche programming services , taking advantage , like ABC , of the prevailing FCC requirement that all radio stations , of whatever primary format , regularly air news and public affairs ( a responsibility that would be eliminated in the early 1980s ) .
In 1967 , Ohio businessman Daniel H. Overmeyer looked to start his own TV network , and sought a merger with Mutual ; the offer was quickly rebuffed , but three Mutual stockholders joined with eleven other investors to buy Overmyer 's hookup and rename it the United Network . The net ( and its only offering , " The Las Vegas Show " ) folded after only a month on the air . On May 1 , 1972 , the network launched the Mutual Black Network ( MBN ) and Mutual Cadena Hispánica ( aka the Mutual Spanish Network ) ; each provided 100 five @-@ minute @-@ long news and sports capsules a week , along with other programming . While the Spanish @-@ language service would last only six months , by 1974 MBN had 98 affiliates . It was eventually spun off and acquired by the Sheridan Broadcasting Corporation , leading to the creation of American Urban Radio Networks . Additional targeted services , such as the Mutual Southwest Network and Mutual Lifestyle Radio , followed from Mutual .
On September 30 , 1977 , Amway bought the network . Soon after the purchase , Mutual began developing what would become the first nationwide commercial broadcast satellite network , leading to the end of decades of reliance on telephone lines for the broadcast industry 's transmission capacity . In 1979 , Amway purchased WCFL from the Chicago Federation of Labor . For the first time , the network that had been founded by radio stations directly controlled a station of its own , and in one of the country 's largest markets . Mutual also reached its greatest number of affiliates that year — 950 . This was fewer than ABC , whose multipronged approach had proven very successful , but far in front of NBC and CBS . It appeared that Amway was ready to pose a major challenge to the industry leaders .
= = = = Programming : Rise of the call @-@ in talk show = = = =
One of the few primary network programs outside of news and sports that Mutual initiated during this era became one of the most successful in its history : the first nationwide , all @-@ night call @-@ in show , which launched on November 3 , 1975 , with Herb Jepko as host . Jepko , who had run a telephone talk show out of KSL in Salt Lake City for years , so determinedly avoided controversy that some callers simply talked about the weather where they lived . Jepko was briefly succeeded by Long John Nebel , before Mutual tapped a local talk show host at WIOD in Miami . Larry King made his national debut on Mutual on January 30 , 1978 ; by the turn of the decade , he was being carried by 150 stations and credited with attracting many new affiliates to the network . King continued his Mutual call @-@ in show until 1994 , even as he began appearing on television in the mid @-@ 1980s . From 1970 through 1977 , Mutual was the national radio broadcaster for Monday Night Football .
= = = 1980s – 1990s : The end of Mutual = = =
In 1980 , Amway purchased WHN in New York , giving Mutual a second major @-@ market owned @-@ and @-@ operated station . On a Country Road , a music show hosted by WHN 's Lee Arnold , was introduced and given national distribution . At the beginning of the year , Mutual had begun airing Mutual Radio Theater , formerly Sears Radio Theater , which it had just picked up . A number of well @-@ regarded dramas were produced as part of the anthology series . In 1981 , Mutual launched Dick Clark 's National Music Survey , a three @-@ hour @-@ long weekly program combining music and interviews . Despite these developments and the fact that its satellite network was now fully on line , Amway was making little if any profit out of Mutual . The network 's corporate parent began backing out of the radio business . Mutual Radio Theater , the network 's last ever original dramatic series , had its final show on December 19 , 1981 . In November 1983 , Amway sold off Mutual 's WCFL to Statewide Broadcasting . A year later , a deal was struck for the sale of WHN to Doubleday Broadcasting .
In 1985 , Westwood One , a major radio production company and syndicator — that is , a budding network — was looking to expand its operations . Westwood and Mutual were a good match : The demographics of Mutual affiliates tended to be adult ; most of the stations that bought Westwood 's programming , much of it in the pop music field , had substantially younger audiences . Mutual had the news operations that Westwood lacked . And there was Mutual 's size ; though down from its peak , it still commanded 810 affiliates , a strong second among the Big Four . In September 1985 , Amway sold the network to Westwood One for $ 39 million . " It 's a perfect fit , " declared Westwood head Norman J. Pattiz . Referring to the united company 's ability to give advertisers access to a broad demographic sweep , he called it " a classic case of two plus two equaling five . " In 1987 , the number got even bigger : Westwood One snapped up Mutual 's long @-@ time competitor , the NBC Radio Network , for $ 50 million . Mutual was now part of a much larger programming service , and its identity was being slowly phased out . In 1993 , when Larry King switched his radio show to the daytime a year before giving it up , the late @-@ night call @-@ in slot went to WCFL alumnus Jim Bohannon ; within a few years , it was a Westwood One – branded show . Westwood One was itself taken over by Infinity Broadcasting in 1994 . In a deal announced in June 1996 and completed that December , CBS 's new parent company , Westinghouse , acquired Infinity for just shy of $ 5 billion . The direct descendants of the three original U.S. network companies had merged .
At this point , Mutual was little more than a brand name for certain news and sports programming provided by the new conglomerate 's Westwood One division . Mutual and NBC Radio newscasters sat back to back in the Westwood One studio , the former main Mutual facility in Crystal City , Virginia . In April 1999 , Westwood One announced it was dropping the Mutual brand in favor of CNN Radio , which it began distributing through a deal with Time Warner 's Turner Broadcasting System . A former member of the news team described the end : " Official time of Mutual Radio 's death was Midnight 4 / 17 / 99 . No tribute , no mention it was the last newscast ... it just died . " The Crystal City facility was closed in March 2001 , and Westwood 's primary operations were transferred to the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City .
= = Legacy = =
Some programming on Westwood One , which is now owned by Cumulus Media , can still trace its lineage directly to Mutual . Jim Bohannon remains on the air , hosting his interview / call @-@ in show which is a direct descendant of Herb Jepko 's 1975 launch on Mutual , as well as the morning news magazine , America in the Morning , which premiered on Mutual in 1984 . The current incarnation of Meet the Press , which launched on Mutual in 1945 , has a simulcast on Westwood One . A simulcast of TV 's Larry King Live continued to run until the end of 2009 . Country Countdown USA , founded as a Mutual program after the Westwood One purchase , continues to air in its original format as CMT Country Countdown USA .
The radio rights to Notre Dame Fighting Irish football were eventually rebranded as a Westwood One product , years before the end of the Mutual network itself . At the conclusion of the 2007 football season , Notre Dame ended its relationship with Westwood One , citing financial reasons , and subsequently announced a deal with ISP Sports .
Mutual founding stations WOR and WLW are now both under the ownership of iHeartMedia , who operates a network of their own , Premiere Networks . WGN syndicates Orion Samuelson farm reports through its Tribune Radio Network , which also carried Chicago Cubs broadcasts until 2014 . WOR syndicated some weekend talk programs through the WOR Radio Network , and several WLW hosts have been syndicated through Premiere .
Mutual Broadcasting System LLC , based in Spokane , Washington , uses the Mutual and Liberty names on its two stations , KTRW – Spokane and KTAC – Ephrata . These stations have no connection with the original network . They present adult standards , nostalgia , and some Christian programming , using the Mutual name as part of their old @-@ time radio branding .
= = = Listening = = =
Gabriel Heatter on the Doolittle Raid audio extract from news report , May 10 , 1942 ; part of Authentic History Center website
Mutual : Blackout on the West Coast audio extract from news report , December 8 , 1941 ; part of Authentic History Center website
Spotlight on Golden Age Networks — MBS links to audio samples of classic Mutual shows ( note that the Lone Ranger sample comes from 1948 , after the show had left Mutual ) ; part of Digital Deli Online
WOR : Interruption of Giants – Dodgers Football Game audio clip of news flash , December 7 , 1941 ; part of Authentic History Center website
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= Ohio State Route 778 =
State Route 778 ( SR 778 , OH 778 ) is a short north – south state highway in northern Ohio . The southern terminus of SR 778 is at SR 101 approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) northeast of Tiffin . The highway 's northern terminus is at SR 19 about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Green Springs . The route was created in 1942 and has not changed since .
= = Route description = =
Existing entirely within Seneca County 's Adams Township , SR 778 is not included as a part of the National Highway System . SR 778 has a AADT of 1150 .
SR 778 's short journey begins at the intersection of SR 101 and County Road 43 ( CR 43 ) , and travels north , taking over for the county road . The two @-@ lane connector route travels primarily amidst farmland , passing a small group of trees and a couple of homes on the west side of the roadway prior to arriving at its endpoint at the intersection of SR 19 and CR 44 . As SR 778 enters the intersection from the south , SR 19 forms the northern and eastern legs , and CR 44 uses the western approach to the intersection .
= = History = =
First appearing in 1942 , SR 778 was designated along the short alignment that it currently occupies between SR 101 and SR 19 . The route has not seen any significant change since its inception . The road was repaved in 1983 and 1995 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Adams Township , Seneca County .
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= SMS Hessen =
SMS Hessen was the third of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class . She was laid down in 1902 , launched the following year , and commissioned into the German Imperial Navy in 1905 . She was named after the state of Hesse . Her sister ships were SMS Braunschweig , SMS Elsass , SMS Preussen , and SMS Lothringen . Like all other pre @-@ dreadnoughts built at the turn of the century , Hessen was quickly made obsolete by the launching of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 ; as a result , she saw only limited service with the German fleet .
During World War I , Hessen saw action in the Battle of Jutland as the second ship of the III Division of the II Battle Squadron . In the last daytime action between capital ships at Jutland , Hessen and the other pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron covered the retreat of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battered battlecruisers from Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruiser squadron . After the battle , the vessel was disarmed and used as a depot ship .
Hessen was one of the few obsolete battleships Germany was permitted to retain under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . She served as a coastal defense ship in the 1920s and early 1930s , though she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in 1934 . The following year , the ship was converted into a radio @-@ controlled target . During World War II Hessen served in this capacity , while also working as an icebreaker in the Baltic and North Seas . The ship was ceded to the Soviet Union in 1946 after the end of the war and , renamed Tsel , served until scrapped in 1960 .
= = Construction = =
Hessen 's keel was laid in 1899 , at the Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 100 . The third unit of her class , she was ordered under the contract name " L " as a new unit for the fleet . The ship cost 23 @,@ 867 @,@ 000 marks . Hessen was launched on 18 September 1903 and commissioned on 19 July 1905 .
The ship was 127 @.@ 7 m ( 419 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 7 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Hessen 's powerplant was rated at 16 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 15 @,@ 781 ihp ; 11 @,@ 768 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Hessen 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
In July 1908 , Hessen participated in the annual summer cruise , which went into the Atlantic that year . During the cruise , the ship stopped in Tenerife , along with the battleships Deutschland and Pommern . During fleet exercises on 23 August 1911 , Hessen accidentally rammed and sank the Danish steamer Askesund . The crew of the steamer was rescued and there were no reported injuries . In October , the ship was badly damaged when she was rammed by the Danish steamer Argo . In July 1913 , Hessen collided with the torpedo boat G110 . The torpedo boat suffered significant damage , though it did not sink , and three of its crew were killed .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the ship was assigned to the IV Battle Squadron along with her four sisters , and served primarily in the Baltic Sea . Hessen performed fleet duties up through the first two years of World War I. Hessen was present as part of the distant support for the battlecruisers that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of 12 dreadnoughts and 8 pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced the German commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home .
Another raid on the English coast followed on 24 – 25 April ; this time , the battlecruisers bombarded Yarmouth and Lowestoft . During this operation , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a British mine and had to return to port prematurely . Visibility was poor , so the operation was quickly called off before the British fleet could intervene and inflict further losses .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Hessen took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . Hessen and the five ships of the Deutschland class formed the II Battle Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve . During the battle , Hessen and the Deutschland @-@ class ships performed a vital blocking action that covered the withdrawal of the German battlecruisers . Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers had attacked the German ships in the darkness , and when the German ships had turned westward to evade their attackers , Mauve continued in a southerly course , which placed his ships between the British and German battlecruisers . The British battlecruisers turned their attention to the pre @-@ dreadnoughts , who in turn altered their course to the southwest in order to bring all of their guns to bear on the British ships . In the darkness , only muzzle flashes from the British ships could be seen ; as a result Hessen and the other II Squadron ships held their fire .
At approximately 03 : 00 on 1 June , a group of British destroyers launched a torpedo attack against the German battle line . At 03 : 07 , Hessen narrowly avoided a torpedo , but Pommern , the ship directly ahead of Hessen , was not so lucky . At 03 : 10 , Pommern was struck by at least one torpedo , which is believed to have detonated one of the ship 's 6 @.@ 7 in ( 17 cm ) shell magazines , destroying the ship . Hessen was undamaged . Aboard Hessen , it was assumed that a submarine had destroyed Pommern ; at 03 : 12 Hessen fired her main battery at an imagined submarine . Hessen and several other battleships engaged imaginary submarines again at 05 : 06 , and again at 05 : 13 . Gunfire from Hessen and Hannover during the latter incident nearly hit the light cruisers Stettin and München ; Admiral Scheer ordered them to cease fire . At 06 : 55 , Hessen and Schlesien mistook a mine buoy dropped by Kaiser as a periscope and attacked it . In the course of the battle , Hessen had fired five 28 cm rounds , thirty @-@ four 17 cm shells , and twenty @-@ four 8 @.@ 8 cm rounds .
In 1917 , Hessen was withdrawn from active service , disarmed , and used as a depot ship in Brunsbüttel . While in reserve at Brunsbüttel , Hessen was jokingly referred to as SMS " Kleinste Fahrt " ( SMS " Dead Slow " ) because of a warning that had been painted on the ship 's hull . The ship 's four 28 cm guns were re @-@ mounted as railroad guns and employed on the Western Front . The Australian Army captured one of the guns on 8 August 1918 ; it 's preserved as the Amiens Gun at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , Australia .
= = = Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine = = =
Hessen was one of eight old pre @-@ dreadnoughts , along with the other ships of her class and the Deutschland @-@ class battleships Schleswig @-@ Holstein and Schlesien , that Germany was permitted to retain under the terms of Treaty of Versailles . After being refitted and rearmed , Hessen returned to service with the Reichsmarine in 1925 . Of the eight ships , Hessen was one of only three still in service as a warship when the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 . The Nazis began a program of naval rearmament ; this included the battleship Gneisenau , which was ordered as a replacement for Hessen in 1934 .
On 12 November 1934 , Hessen was withdrawn from fleet service and placed in reserve . On 31 March 1935 , Hessen was stricken from the reserve list and converted into a target ship . Her armament was removed , the hull was lengthened , and new machinery was installed . The longer hull allowed room for two additional watertight compartments , which brought the number up to 15 from the original 13 . The ship 's superstructure was cut down nearly entirely ; Hessen retained only a single funnel , a tower foremast , and the two armored barbettes for the main battery turrets . The ship had a crew of 80 , but could be operated by remote control when being used as a target .
Hessen was recommissioned on 1 April 1937 and served in the Kriegsmarine through World War II . On 31 March 1940 , Hessen acted as an icebreaker for the auxiliary cruisers Atlantis , Widder , and Orion , on their trip from Kiel to the North Sea . She and her control ship , Blitz , were ceded to the Soviet Union in 1946 . She recommissioned on 3 June 1946 as Tsel , and continued to operate as a target ship until scrapped in 1960 .
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= Frigatebird =
Frigatebirds ( also listed as " frigate bird " , " frigate @-@ bird " , " frigate " , frigate @-@ petrel " ) are a family of seabirds called Fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans . The five extant species are classified in a single genus , Fregata . All have predominantly black plumage , long , deeply forked tails and long hooked bills . Females have white underbellies and males have a distinctive red gular pouch , which they inflate during the breeding season to attract females . Their wings are long and pointed and can span up to 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) , the largest wing area to body weight ratio of any bird .
Able to soar for weeks on wind currents , frigatebirds spend most of the day in flight hunting for food , and roost on trees or cliffs at night . Their main prey are fish and squid , caught when chased to the water surface by large predators such as tuna . Frigatebirds are referred to as kleptoparasites as they occasionally rob other seabirds for food , and are known to snatch seabird chicks from the nest . Seasonally monogamous , frigatebirds nest colonially . A rough nest is constructed in low trees or on the ground on remote islands . A single egg is laid each breeding season . The duration of parental care is among the longest of any bird species ; frigatebirds are only able to breed every other year .
The Fregatidae are a sister group to Suloidea which consists of cormorants , darters , gannets , and boobies . Three of the five extant species of frigatebirds are widespread , ( the magnificent , great and lesser frigatebirds ) while two are endangered ( the Christmas Island and Ascension Island frigatebirds ) and restrict their breeding habitat to one small island each . The oldest fossils date to the early Eocene , around 50 million years ago . Classified in the genus Limnofregata , the three species had shorter , less @-@ hooked bills and longer legs , and lived in a freshwater environment .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The term Frigate Bird itself was used in 1738 by the English naturalist and illustrator Eleazar Albin in his A Natural History of the Birds . The book included an illustration of the male bird showing the red gular pouch . Like the genus name , the English term is derived from the French mariners ' name for the bird la frégate — a frigate or fast warship . The etymology was mentioned by French naturalist Jean @-@ Baptiste Du Tertre when describing the bird in 1667 .
Christopher Columbus encountered frigatebirds when passing the Cape Verde Islands on his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 . In his journal entry for 29 September he used the word rabiforçado , modern Spanish rabihorcado or forktail . In the Caribbean frigatebirds were called Man @-@ of @-@ War birds by English mariners . This name was used by the English explorer William Dampier in his book An Account of a New Voyage Around the World published in 1697 :
The Man @-@ of @-@ War ( as it is called by the English ) is about the bigness of a Kite , and in shape like it , but black ; and the neck is red . It lives on Fish yet never lights on the water , but soars aloft like a Kite , and when it sees its prey , it flys down head foremost to the Waters edge , very swiftly takes its prey out of the Sea with his Bill , and immediately mounts again as swiftly ; never touching the Water with his Bill . His Wings are very long ; his feet are like other Land @-@ fowl , and he builds on Trees , where he finds any ; but where they are wanting on the ground .
= = = Classification = = =
Frigatebirds were grouped with cormorants , and sulids ( gannets and boobies ) as well as pelicans in the genus Pelecanus by Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae . He described the distinguishing characteristics as a straight bill hooked at the tip , linear nostrils , a bare face , and fully webbed feet . The genus Fregata was defined by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 . Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot described the genus name Tachypetes in 1816 for the great frigatebird . The genus name Atagen had been coined by German naturalist Paul Möhring in 1752 , though this has no validity as it predates the official beginning of Linnaean taxonomy .
In 1874 , English zoologist Alfred Henry Garrod published a study where he had examined various groups of birds and recorded which muscles of a selected group of five they possessed or lacked . Noting that the muscle patterns were different among the steganopodes ( classical Pelecaniformes ) , he resolved that there were divergent lineages in the group that should be in separate families , including frigatebirds in their own family Fregatidae . Urless N. Lanham observed in 1947 that frigatebirds bore some skeletal characteristics more in common with Procellariiformes than Pelecaniformes , though concluded they still belonged in the latter group ( as suborder Fregatae ) , albeit as an early offshoot . Martyn Kennedy and colleagues derived a cladogram based on behavioural characteristics of the traditional Pelecaniformes , calculating the frigatebirds to be more divergent than pelicans from a core group of gannets , darters and cormorants , and tropicbirds the most distant lineage . The classification of this group as the traditional Pelecaniformes , united by feet that are totipalmate ( with all four toes linked by webbing ) and the presence of a gular pouch , persisted until the early 1990s . The DNA – DNA hybridization studies of Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist placed the frigatebirds in a lineage with penguins , loons , petrels and albatrosses . Subsequent genetic studies place the frigatebirds as a sister group to the group Suloidea , which comprises the gannets and boobies , cormorants and darters . Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of frigatebirds resembled those of other Pelecaniformes in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells .
Molecular studies have consistently shown that pelicans , the namesake family of the Pelecaniformes , are actually more closely related to herons , ibises and spoonbills , the hamerkop and the shoebill than to the remaining species . In recognition of this , the order comprising the frigatebirds and Suloidea was renamed Suliformes in 2010 .
In 1994 the family name Fregatidae , cited as described in 1867 by French naturalists Côme @-@ Damien Degland and Zéphirin Gerbe , was conserved under Article 40 ( b ) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in preference to the 1840 description Tachypetidae by Johann Friedrich von Brandt . This was because the genus names Atagen and Tachypetes had been synonymised with Fregata before 1961 , resulting in the aligning of family and genus names .
= = = Fossil record = = =
The Eocene frigatebird genus Limnofregata comprises birds whose fossil remains were recovered from prehistoric freshwater environments , unlike the marine preferences of their modern @-@ day relatives . They had shorter less @-@ hooked bills and longer legs , and longer slit @-@ like nasal openings . Three species have been described from fossil deposits in the western United States , two — L. azygosternon and L. hasegawai — from the Green River Formation ( 48 – 52 million years old ) and one — L. hutchisoni — from the Wasatch Formation ( between 53 and 55 million years of age ) . Fossil material indistinguishable from living species dating to the Pleistocene and Holocene has been recovered from Ascension Island ( for F. aquila ) , Saint Helena Island , both in the southern Atlantic Ocean , and also from various islands in the Pacific Ocean ( for F. minor and F. ariel ) .
A cladistic study of the skeletal and bone morphology of the classical Pelecaniformes and relatives found that the frigatebirds formed a clade with Limnofregata . Birds of the two genera have 15 cervical vertebrae , unlike almost all other Ciconiiformes , Suliformes and Pelecaniformes , which have 17 . The age of Limnofregata indicates that these lineages had separated by the Eocene .
= = = Living species and infrageneric classification = = =
The type species of the genus is the Ascension frigatebird ( Fregata aquila ) . For many years , the consensus was to recognise only two species of frigatebird , with larger birds as F. aquila and smaller as F. ariel . In 1914 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews delineated five species , which remain valid . Analysis of ribosomal and mitochondrial DNA indicated that the five species had diverged from a common ancestor only recently — as little as 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . There are two species pairs , the great and Christmas Island frigatebirds , and the magnificent and Ascension frigatebirds , while the fifth species , the lesser frigatebird , is an early offshoot of the common ancestor of the other four species . Three subspecies of the lesser and five subspecies of the great frigatebird are recognised .
= = Description = =
Frigatebirds are large slender mostly black @-@ plumaged seabirds , with the five species similar in appearance to each other . The largest species is the magnificent frigatebird , which reaches 114 cm ( 45 in ) in length , with three of the remaining four almost as large . The lesser frigatebird is substantially smaller , at around 71 cm ( 28 in ) long . Frigatebirds exhibit marked sexual dimorphism ; females are larger and up to 25 percent heavier than males , and generally have white markings on their underparts . Frigatebirds have short necks and long , slender hooked bills . Their long narrow wings ( male wingspan can reach 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) ) taper to points . Their wings have eleven primary flight feathers , with the tenth the longest and eleventh a vestigial feather only , and 23 secondaries . Their tails are deeply forked , though this is not apparent unless the tail is fanned . The tail and wings give them a distinctive ' W ' silhouette in flight . The legs and face are fully feathered . The totipalmate feet are short and weak , the webbing is reduced and part of each toe is free .
The bones of frigatebirds are markedly pneumatic ( filled with air ) , making them very light and contribute only 5 % to total body weight . The pectoral girdle ( shoulder joint ) is strong as its bones are fused . The pectoral muscles are well @-@ developed , and weigh as much as the frigatebird 's feathers — around half the body weight is made up equally of these muscles and feathers . The males have inflatable red @-@ coloured throat pouches called gular pouches , which they inflate to attract females during the mating season . The gular sac is , perhaps , the most striking frigatebird feature . These can only deflate slowly , so males that are disturbed will fly off with pouches distended for some time .
Frigatebirds remain in the air and do not settle on the ocean . They produce very little oil from their uropygial glands so their feathers would become sodden if they settled on the surface . In addition , with their long wings relative to body size , they would have great difficulty taking off again .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Frigatebirds are found over tropical oceans , and ride warm updrafts under cumulus clouds . Their range coincides with availability of food such as flying fish , and with the trade winds , which provide the windy conditions that facilitate their flying . They are rare vagrants to temperate regions and not found in polar latitudes . Adults are generally sedentary , remaining near the islands where they breed . However , male frigatebirds have been recorded dispersing great distances after departing a breeding colony — one male great frigatebird relocated from Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel to the Maldives 4 @,@ 400 km ( 2 @,@ 700 mi ) away , and a male magnificent frigatebird flew 1 @,@ 400 km ( 870 mi ) from French Guiana to Trinidad . Great frigatebirds marked with wing tags on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals were found to regularly travel the 873 km ( 542 mi ) to Johnston Atoll , although one was reported in Quezon City in the Philippines . Genetic testing seems to indicate that the species has fidelity to their site of hatching despite their high mobility . Young birds may disperse far and wide , with distances of up to 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) recorded .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Having the largest wing @-@ area @-@ to @-@ body @-@ weight ratio of any bird , frigatebirds are essentially aerial . This allows them to soar continuously and only rarely flap their wings . One great frigatebird , being tracked by satellite in the Indian Ocean , stayed aloft for two months . They can fly higher than 4 @,@ 000 meters in freezing conditions . Like swifts they are able to spend the night on the wing , but they will also return to an island to roost on trees or cliffs . Field observations in the Mozambique Channel found that great frigatebirds could remain on the wing for up to 12 days while foraging . Highly adept , they use their forked tails for steering during flight and make strong deep wing @-@ beats , though not suited to flying by sustained flapping . Frigatebirds bathe and clean themselves in flight by flying low and splashing at the water surface before preening and scratching afterwards . Conversely , frigatebirds do not swim and with their short legs cannot walk well or take off from the sea easily .
The average life span is unknown but in common with seabirds such as the wandering albatross and Leach 's storm petrel , frigatebirds are long @-@ lived . In 2002 , 35 ringed great frigatebirds were recovered on Tern Island in the Hawaiian Islands . Of these ten were older than 37 years and one was at least 44 years of age .
Despite having dark plumage in a tropical climate , frigatebirds have found ways not to overheat — particularly as they are exposed to full sunlight when on the nest . They ruffle feathers to lift them away from the skin and improve air circulation , and can extend and upturn their wings to expose the hot undersurface to the air and lose heat by evaporation and convection . Frigatebirds also place their heads in the shade of their wings , and males frequently flutter their gular pouches .
= = = Feeding = = =
Frigatebirds ' feeding habits are pelagic , and they may forage up to 500 km ( 310 mi ) from land . They do not land on the water but snatch prey from the ocean surface using their long , hooked bills . They mainly catch small fish such as flying fish , particularly the genera Exocoetus and Cypselurus , that are driven to the surface by predators such as tuna and dolphinfish , but they will also eat cephalopods , particularly squid . Menhaden of the genus Brevoortia can be an important prey item where common , and jellyfish and larger plankton are also eaten . Frigatebirds have learned to follow fishing vessels and take fish from holding areas . Conversely tuna fishermen fish in areas where they catch sight of frigatebirds due to their association with large marine predators . Frigatebirds also at times prey directly on eggs and young of other seabirds , including boobies , petrels , shearwaters and terns , in particular the sooty tern .
Frigatebirds will rob other seabirds such as boobies , particularly the red @-@ footed booby , tropicbirds , shearwaters , petrels , terns , gulls and even ospreys of their catch , using their speed and manoeuvrability to outrun and harass their victims until they regurgitate their stomach contents . They may either assail their targets after they have caught their food or circle high over seabird colonies waiting for parent birds to return laden with food . Although frigatebirds are renowned for their kleptoparasitic feeding behaviour , kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species , and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting . A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40 % of the food they needed , and on average obtained only 5 % .
Unlike most other seabirds , frigatebirds drink freshwater when they come across it , by swooping down and gulping with their bills .
= = = Breeding behaviour = = =
Frigatebirds typically breed on remote oceanic islands , generally in colonies of up to 5000 birds . Within these colonies , they most often nest in groups of 10 to 30 ( or rarely 100 ) individuals . Breeding can occur at any time of year , often prompted by commencement of the dry season or plentiful food .
Frigatebirds have the most elaborate mating displays of all seabirds . The male birds take up residence in the colony in groups of up to thirty individuals . They display to females flying overhead by pointing their bills upwards , inflating their red throat pouches and vibrating their outstretched wings , showing the lighter wing undersurfaces in the process . They produce a drumming sound by vibrating their bills together and sometimes give a whistling call . The female descends to join a male she has chosen and allows him to take her bill in his . The pair also engages in mutual " head @-@ snaking " .
After copulation it is generally the male who gathers sticks and the female that constructs the loosely woven nest . The nest is subsequently covered with ( and cemented by ) guano . Frigatebirds prefer to nest in trees or bushes , though when these are not available they will nest on the ground . A single white egg that weighs up to 6 – 7 % of mother 's body mass is laid , and is incubated in turns by both birds for 41 to 55 days . The altricial chicks are naked on hatching and develop a white down . They are continuously guarded by the parents for the first 4 – 6 weeks and are fed on the nest for 5 – 6 months . Both parents take turns feeding for the first three months , after which the male 's attendance tails off leaving the mother to feed the young for another six to nine months on average . The chicks feed by reaching their heads in their parents ' throat and eating the part @-@ regurgitated food . It takes so long to rear a chick that frigatebirds generally breed every other year .
The duration of parental care in frigatebirds is among the longest for birds , rivalled only by the southern ground hornbill and some large accipitrids . Frigatebirds take many years to reach sexual maturity . A study of great frigatebirds in the Galapagos Islands found that they only bred once they have acquired the full adult plumage . This was attained by female birds when they were eight to nine years of age and by male birds when they were ten to eleven years of age .
= = = Parasites = = =
Frigatebirds are unusual among seabirds in that they often carry blood parasites . Blood @-@ borne protozoa of the genus Haemoproteus have been recovered from four of the five species . Bird lice of the ischnoceran genus Pectinopygus and amblyceran genus Colpocephalum and species Fregatiella aurifasciata have been recovered from magnificent and great frigatebirds of the Galapagos Islands . Frigatebirds tended to have more parasitic lice than did boobies analysed in the same study .
A heavy chick mortality at a large and important colony of the magnificent frigatebird , located on Île du Grand Connétable off French Guiana , was recorded in summer 2005 . Chicks showed nodular skin lesions , feather loss and corneal changes , with around half the year 's progeny perishing across the colony . An alphaherpesvirus was isolated and provisionally named Fregata magnificens herpesvirus , though it was unclear whether it caused the outbreak or affected birds already suffering malnutrition .
= = Status and conservation = =
= = = Populations and threats = = =
Two of the five species are considered at risk . In 2003 , a survey of the four colonies of the critically endangered Christmas Island frigatebirds counted 1200 breeding pairs . As frigatebirds normally breed every other year , the total adult population was estimated to lie between 1800 and 3600 pairs . Larger numbers formerly bred on the island , but the clearance of breeding habitat during World War II and dust pollution from phosphate mining have contributed to the decrease . The population of the vulnerable Ascension frigatebird has been estimated at around 12 @,@ 500 individuals . The birds formerly bred on Ascension Island itself , but the colonies were exterminated by feral cats introduced in 1815 . The birds continued to breed on a rocky outcrop just off the shore of the island . A program conducted between 2002 and 2004 eradicated the feral cats and a few birds have returned to nest on the island .
The other three species are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern . The populations of all three are large , with that of the magnificent frigatebird thought to be increasing , while the great and lesser frigatebird decreasing . Monitoring populations of all species is difficult due to their movements across the open ocean and low reproductivity . The status of the Atlantic populations of the great and lesser frigatebirds are unknown and possibly extinct .
As frigatebirds rely on large marine predators such as tuna for their prey , overfishing threatens to significantly impact on food availability and jeopardise whole populations . As frigatebirds nest in large dense colonies in small areas , they are vulnerable to local disasters that could wipe out the rare species or significantly impact the widespread ones .
= = = Hunting = = =
In Nauru , catching frigatebirds was an important tradition still practised to a some degree . Donald W. Buden writes : " Birds typically are captured by slinging the weighted end of a coil of line in front of an approaching bird attracted to previously captured birds used as decoys . In a successful toss , the line becomes entangled about the bird 's wing and bringing [ sic ] it to ground . " Marine birds including frigatebirds were once harvested for food on Christmas Island but this practice ceased in the late 1970s . Eggs and young of magnificent frigatebirds were taken and eaten in the Caribbean . Great frigatebirds were eaten in the Hawaiian Islands and their feathers used for decoration .
= = Cultural significance = =
The great frigatebird was venerated by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island ; carvings of the birdman Tangata manu depict him with the characteristic hooked beak and throat pouch . Its incorporation into local ceremonies suggests that the now @-@ vanished species was extant there between the 1800s and 1860s .
Maritime folklore around the time America was discovered held that frigatebirds were birds of good omen as their presence meant land was near .
There are anecdotal reports of tame frigatebirds being kept across Polynesia and Micronesia in the Pacific . A bird that had come from one island and had been taken elsewhere could be reliably trusted to return to its original home , hence would be used as a speedy way to relay a message there . There is firmer evidence of this practice taking place in the Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu .
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= Bioluminescence =
Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism . It is a form of chemiluminescence . Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates , as well as in some fungi , microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria and terrestrial invertebrates such as fireflies . In some animals , the light is produced by symbiotic organisms such as Vibrio bacteria .
The principal chemical reaction in bioluminescence involves the light @-@ emitting pigment luciferin and the enzyme luciferase , assisted by other proteins such as aequorin in some species . The enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin . In some species , the type of luciferin requires cofactors such as calcium or magnesium ions , and sometimes also the energy @-@ carrying molecule adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) . In evolution , luciferins vary little : one in particular , coelenterazine , is found in nine different animal ( phyla ) , though in some of these , the animals obtain it through their diet . Conversely , luciferases vary widely in different species . Bioluminescence has arisen over forty times in evolutionary history .
Both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder mentioned that damp wood sometimes gives off a glow and many centuries later Robert Boyle showed that oxygen was involved in the process , both in wood and in glow @-@ worms . It was not until the late nineteenth century that bioluminescence was properly investigated . The phenomenon is widely distributed among animal groups , especially in marine environments where dinoflagellates cause phosphorescence in the surface layers of water . On land it occurs in fungi , bacteria and some groups of invertebrates , including insects .
The uses of bioluminescence by animals include counter @-@ illumination camouflage , mimicry of other animals , for example to lure prey , and signalling to other individuals of the same species , such as to attract mates . In the laboratory , luciferase @-@ based systems are used in genetic engineering and for biomedical research . Other researchers are investigating the possibility of using bioluminescent systems for street and decorative lighting , and a bioluminescent plant has been created .
= = History = =
Before the development of the safety lamp for use in coal mines , dried fish skins were used in Britain and Europe as a weak source of light . This experimental form of illumination avoided the necessity of using candles which risked sparking explosions of firedamp . Another safe source of illumination in mines was bottles containing fireflies . In 1920 , the American zoologist E. Newton Harvey published a monograph , The Nature of Animal Light , summarizing early work on bioluminescence . Harvey notes that Aristotle mentions light produced by dead fish and flesh , and that both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder ( in his Natural History ) mention light from damp wood . He also records that Robert Boyle experimented on these light sources , and showed that both they and the glow @-@ worm require air for light to be produced . Harvey notes that in 1753 , J. Baker identified the flagellate Noctiluca " as a luminous animal " " just visible to the naked eye " , and in 1854 Johann Florian Heller ( 1813 @-@ 1871 ) identified strands ( hyphae ) of fungi as the source of light in dead wood .
Tuckey , in his posthumous 1818 Narrative of the Expedition to the Zaire , described catching the animals responsible for luminescence . He mentions pellucids , crustaceans ( to which he ascribes the milky whiteness of the water ) , and cancers ( shrimps and crabs ) . Under the microscope he described the " luminous property " to be in the brain , resembling " a most brilliant amethyst about the size of a large pin 's head " .
Charles Darwin noticed bioluminescence in the sea , describing it in his Journal :
While sailing in these latitudes on one very dark night , the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle . There was a fresh breeze , and every part of the surface , which during the day is seen as foam , now glowed with a pale light . The vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus , and in her wake she was followed by a milky train . As far as the eye reached , the crest of every wave was bright , and the sky above the horizon , from the reflected glare of these livid flames , was not so utterly obscure , as over the rest of the heavens .
Darwin also observed a luminous " jelly @-@ fish of the genus Dianaea " and noted that " When the waves scintillate with bright green sparks , I believe it is generally owing to minute crustacea . But there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals , when alive , are phosphorescent . " He guessed that " a disturbed electrical condition of the atmosphere " was probably responsible . Daniel Pauly comments that Darwin " was lucky with most of his guesses , but not here " , noting that biochemistry was too little known , and that the complex evolution of the marine animals involved " would have been too much for comfort " .
Bioluminescence attracted the attention of the United States Navy in the Cold War , since submarines in some waters can create a bright enough wake to be detected ; a German submarine was sunk in the First World War , having been detected in this way . The navy was interested in predicting when such detection would be possible , and hence guiding their own submarines to avoid detection .
Among the anecdotes of navigation by bioluminescence , the Apollo 13 astronaut Jim Lovell recounted how as a navy pilot he had found his way back to his aircraft carrier USS Shangri @-@ La when his navigation systems failed . Turning off his cabin lights , he saw the glowing wake of the ship , and was able to fly to it and land safely .
The French pharmacologist Raphaël Dubois carried out work on bioluminescence in the late nineteenth century . He studied click beetles ( Pyrophorus ) and the marine bivalve mollusc Pholas dactylus . He refuted the old idea that bioluminescence came from phosphorus , and demonstrated that the process was related to the oxidation of a specific compound , which he named luciferin , by an enzyme . He sent Harvey siphons from the mollusc preserved in sugar . Harvey had become interested in bioluminescence as a result of visiting the South Pacific and Japan and observing phosphorescent organisms there . He studied the phenomenon for many years . His research aimed to demonstrate that luciferin , and the enzymes that act on it is to produce light , were interchangeable between species , showing that all bioluminescent organisms had a common ancestor . However , he found this hypothesis to be false , with different organisms having major differences in the composition of their light @-@ producing proteins . He spent the next thirty years purifying and studying the components , but it fell to the young Japanese chemist Osamu Shimomura to be the first to obtain crystalline luciferin . He used the sea firefly Vargula hilgendorfii , but it was another ten years before he discovered the chemical 's structure and was able to publish his 1957 paper Crystalline Cypridina Luciferin . More recently , Martin Chalfie , Osamu Shimomura and Roger Y. Tsien won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their 1961 discovery and development of green fluorescent protein as a tool for biological research .
= = Evolution = =
Bioluminescence in fish began at least by the Cretaceous period . About 1 @,@ 500 fish species are known to be bioluminescent , and this feature evolved independently at a minimum of 27 times . Of these 27 occasions , 17 involved the taking up of bioluminous bacteria from the surrounding water while in the others , the intrinsic light evolved through chemical synthesis . These fish have become surprisingly diverse in the deep ocean and control their light with the help of their nervous system , using it not just to lure prey or hide from predators , but also for communication .
= = Chemical mechanism = =
Bioluminescence is a form of chemiluminescence where light energy is released by a chemical reaction . Fireflies , anglerfish , and other organisms produce the light @-@ emitting pigment luciferin and the enzyme luciferase . Luciferin reacts with oxygen to create light :
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Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , adenosine monophosphate ( AMP ) and phosphate groups ( PP ) are released as waste products . Luciferase catalyzes the reaction , which may be mediated by cofactors such as calcium ( Ca2 + ) or magnesium ( Mg2 + ) ions , and for some types of luciferin ( L ) also the energy @-@ carrying molecule adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) . The reaction can occur either inside or outside the cell . In bacteria such as Aliivibrio , the expression of genes related to bioluminescence is controlled by the lux operon .
In evolution , luciferins generally vary little : one in particular , coelenterazine , is the light emitting pigment for nine ancient phyla ( groups of very different organisms ) , including polycystine radiolaria , Cercozoa ( Phaeodaria ) , protozoa , comb jellies , cnidaria including jellyfish and corals , crustaceans , molluscs , arrow worms and vertebrates ( ray @-@ finned fish ) . Not all these organisms synthesize coelenterazine : some of them obtain it through their diet . Conversely , luciferase enzymes vary widely and tend to be different in each species . Overall , bioluminescence has arisen over forty times in evolutionary history .
Luciferin @-@ luciferase reactions are not the only way that organisms produce light . The parchment worm Chaetopterus ( a marine Polychaete ) makes use of another photoprotein , aequorin , instead of luciferase . When calcium ions are added , the aequorin 's rapid catalysis creates a brief flash quite unlike the prolonged glow produced by luciferase . In a second , much slower , step luciferin is regenerated from the oxidised ( oxyluciferin ) form , allowing it to recombine with aequorin , in readiness for a subsequent flash . Photoproteins are thus enzymes , but with unusual reaction kinetics .
In the hydrozoan jellyfish Aequorea victoria , some of the blue light released by aequorin in contact with calcium ions is absorbed by green fluorescent protein ; it in turn releases green light .
= = Distribution = =
Bioluminescence occurs widely among animals , especially in the open sea , including fish , jellyfish , comb jellies , crustaceans , and cephalopod molluscs ; in some fungi and bacteria ; and in various terrestrial invertebrates including insects . Many , perhaps most deep @-@ sea animals produce light . Most marine light @-@ emission is in the blue and green light spectrum . However , some loose @-@ jawed fish emit red and infrared light , and the genus Tomopteris emits yellow light .
The most frequently encountered bioluminescent organisms may be the dinoflagellates present in the surface layers of the sea , which are responsible for the sparkling phosphorescence sometimes seen at night in disturbed water . At least eighteen genera exhibit luminosity . A different effect is the thousands of square miles of the ocean which shine with the light produced by bioluminescent bacteria , known as mareel or the milky seas effect .
Non @-@ marine bioluminescence is less widely distributed , the two best @-@ known cases being in fireflies and glow worms . Other invertebrates including insect larvae , annelids and arachnids possess bioluminescent abilities . Some forms of bioluminescence are brighter ( or exist only ) at night , following a circadian rhythm .
= = Uses in nature = =
Bioluminescence has several functions in different taxa . Haddock et al . ( 2010 ) list as more or less definite functions in marine organisms the following : defensive functions of startle , counterillumination ( camouflage ) , misdirection ( smoke screen ) , distractive body parts , burglar alarm ( making predators easier for higher predators to see ) , and warning to deter settlers ; offensive functions of lure , stun or confuse prey , illuminate prey , and mate attraction / recognition . It is much easier for researchers to detect that a species is able to produce light than to analyse the chemical mechanisms or to prove what function the light serves . In some cases the function is unknown , as with species in three families of earthworm ( Oligochaeta ) , such as Diplocardia longa where the coelomic fluid produces light when the animal moves . The following functions are reasonably well established in the named organisms .
= = = Counterillumination camouflage = = =
In many animals of the deep sea , including several squid species , bacterial bioluminescence is used for camouflage by counterillumination , in which the animal matches the overhead environmental light as seen from below . In these animals , photoreceptors control the illumination to match the brightness of the background . These light organs are usually separate from the tissue containing the bioluminescent bacteria . However , in one species , Euprymna scolopes , the bacteria are an integral component of the animal 's light organ .
= = = Attraction = = =
A fungus gnat from New Zealand , Arachnocampa luminosa , lives in the predator @-@ free environment of caves and its larvae emit bluish @-@ green light . They dangle silken threads that glow and attract flying insects , and wind in their fishing @-@ lines when prey becomes entangled . The bioluminescence of the larvae of another fungus gnat from North America which lives on streambanks and under overhangs has a similar function . Orfelia fultoni builds sticky little webs and emits light of a deep blue colour . It has an inbuilt biological clock and , even when kept in total darkness , turns its light on and off in a circadian rhythm .
Fireflies use light to attract mates . Two systems are involved according to species ; in one , females emit light from their abdomens to attract males ; in the other , flying males emit signals to which the sometimes sedentary females respond . Click beetles emit an orange light from the abdomen when flying and a green light from the thorax when they are disturbed or moving about on the ground . The former is probably a sexual attractant but the latter may be defensive . Larvae of the click beetle Pyrophorus nyctophanus live in the surface layers of termite mounds in Brazil . They light up the mounds by emitting a bright greenish glow which attracts the flying insects on which they feed .
In the marine environment , use of luminescence for mate attraction is chiefly known among ostracods , small shrimplike crustaceans , especially in the Cyprididae family . Pheromones may be used for long @-@ distance communication , with bioluminescence used at close range to enable mates to " home in " . A polychaete worm , the Bermuda fireworm creates a brief display , a few nights after the full moon , when the female lights up to attract males .
= = = Defense = = =
Many cephalopods , including at least 70 genera of squid , are bioluminescent . Some squid and small crustaceans use bioluminescent chemical mixtures or bacterial slurries in the same way as many squid use ink . A cloud of luminescent material is expelled , distracting or repelling a potential predator , while the animal escapes to safety . The deep sea squid Octopoteuthis deletron may autotomise portions of its arms which are luminous and continue to twitch and flash , thus distracting a predator while the animal flees .
Dinoflagellates may use bioluminescence for defence against predators . They shine when they detect a predator , possibly making the predator itself more vulnerable by attracting the attention of predators from higher trophic levels . Grazing copepods release any phytoplankton cells that flash , unharmed ; if they were eaten they would make the copepods glow , attracting predators , so the phytoplankton 's bioluminescence is defensive . The problem of shining stomach contents is solved ( and the explanation corroborated ) in predatory deep @-@ sea fishes : their stomachs have a black lining able to keep the light from any bioluminescent fish prey which they have swallowed from attracting larger predators .
The sea @-@ firefly is a small crustacean living in sediment . At rest it emits a dull glow but when disturbed it darts away leaving a cloud of shimmering blue light to confuse the predator . During World War II it was gathered and dried for use by the Japanese military as a source of light during clandestine operations .
The larvae of railroad worms ( Phrixothrix ) have paired photic organs on each body segment , able to glow with green light ; these are thought to have a defensive purpose . They also have organs on the head which produce red light ; they are the only terrestrial organisms to emit light of this colour .
= = = Warning = = =
Aposematism is a widely used function of bioluminescence , providing a warning that the creature concerned is unpalatable . It is suggested that many firefly larvae glow to repel predators ; millipedes glow for the same purpose . Some marine organisms are believed to emit light for a similar reason . These include scale worms , jellyfish and brittle stars but further research is needed to fully establish the function of the luminescence . Such a mechanism would be of particular advantage to soft @-@ bodied cnidarians if they were able to deter predation in this way . The limpet Latia neritoides is the only known freshwater gastropod that emits light . It produces greenish luminescent mucus which may have an anti @-@ predator function . The marine snail Hinea brasiliana uses flashes of light , probably to deter predators . The blue @-@ green light is emitted through the translucent shell , which functions as an efficient diffuser of light .
= = = Communication = = =
Communication in the form of quorum sensing plays a role in the regulation of luminescence in many species of bacteria . Small extracellularly secreted molecules stimulate the bacteria to turn on genes for light production when cell density , measured by concentration of the secreted molecules , is high .
Pyrosomes are colonial tunicates and each zooid has a pair of luminescent organs on either side of the inlet siphon . When stimulated by light , these turn on and off , causing rhythmic flashing . No neural pathway runs between the zooids , but each responds to the light produced by other individuals , and even to light from other nearby colonies . Communication by light emission between the zooids enables coordination of colony effort , for example in swimming where each zooid provides part of the propulsive force .
Some bioluminous bacteria infect nematodes that parasitize Lepidoptera larvae . When these caterpillars die , their luminosity may attract predators to the dead insect thus assisting in the dispersal of both bacteria and nematodes . A similar reason may account for the many species of fungi that emit light . Species in the genera Armillaria , Mycena , Omphalotus , Panellus , Pleurotus and others do this , emitting usually greenish light from the mycelium , cap and gills . This may attract night @-@ flying insects and aid in spore dispersal , but other functions may also be involved .
Quantula striata is the only known bioluminescent terrestrial mollusc . Pulses of light are emitted from a gland near the front of the foot and may have a communicative function , although the adaptive significance is not fully understood .
= = = Mimicry = = =
Bioluminescence is used by a variety of animals to mimic other species . Many species of deep sea fish such as the anglerfish and dragonfish make use of aggressive mimicry to attract prey . They have an appendage on their heads called an esca that contains bioluminescent bacteria able to produce a long @-@ lasting glow which the fish can control . The glowing esca is dangled or waved about to lure small animals to within striking distance of the fish .
The cookiecutter shark uses bioluminescence to camouflage its underside by counterillumination , but a small patch near its pectoral fins remains dark , appearing as a small fish to large predatory fish like tuna and mackerel swimming beneath it . When such fish approach the lure , they are bitten by the shark .
Female Photuris fireflies sometimes mimic the light pattern of another firefly , Photinus , to attract its males as prey . In this way they obtain both food and the defensive chemicals named lucibufagins , which Photuris cannot synthesize .
South American giant cockroaches of the genus Lucihormetica were believed to be the first known example of defensive mimicry , emitting light in imitation of bioluminescent , poisonous click beetles . However , doubt has been cast on this assertion , and there is no conclusive evidence that the cockroaches are bioluminescent .
= = = Illumination = = =
While most marine bioluminescence is green to blue , some deep sea barbeled dragonfishes in the genera Aristostomias , Pachystomias and Malacosteus emit a red glow . This adaptation allows the fish to see red @-@ pigmented prey , which are normally invisible in the deep ocean environment where red light has been filtered out by the water column .
The black dragonfish ( also called the northern stoplight loosejaw ) Malacosteus niger is believed to be one of the only fish to produce a red glow . Its eyes , however , are insensitive to this wavelength ; it has an additional retinal pigment which fluoresces blue @-@ green when illuminated . This alerts the fish to the presence of its prey . The additional pigment is thought to be assimilated from chlorophyll derivatives found in the copepods which form part of its diet .
= = Biotechnology = =
= = = Biology and medicine = = =
Bioluminescent organisms are a target for many areas of research . Luciferase systems are widely used in genetic engineering as reporter genes , each producing a different colour by fluorescence , and for biomedical research using bioluminescence imaging . For example , the firefly luciferase gene was used as early as 1986 for research using transgenic tobacco plants . Vibrio bacteria symbiose with marine invertebrates such as the Hawaiian bobtail squid ( Euprymna scolopes ) , are key experimental models for bioluminescence . Bioluminescent activated destruction is an experimental cancer treatment . See also optogenetics which involves the use of light to control cells in living tissue , typically neurons , that have been genetically modified to express light @-@ sensitive ion channels , and also see biophoton , a photon of non @-@ thermal origin in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum emitted from a biological system .
= = = Light production = = =
The structures of photophores , the light producing organs in bioluminescent organisms , are being investigated by industrial designers . Engineered bioluminescence could perhaps one day be used to reduce the need for street lighting , or for decorative purposes if it becomes possible to produce light that is both bright enough and can be sustained for long periods at a workable price . The gene that makes the tails of fireflies glow has been added to mustard plants . The plants glow faintly for an hour when touched , but a sensitive camera is needed to see the glow . University of Wisconsin – Madison is researching the use of genetically engineered bioluminescent E. coli bacteria , for use as bioluminescent bacteria in a light bulb . In June 2013 the Glowing Plant project raised nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 on the crowdfunding site Kickstarter to create a bioluminescent plant . An iGEM team from Cambridge ( England ) has started to address the problem that luciferin is consumed in the light @-@ producing reaction by developing a genetic biotechnology part that codes for a luciferin regenerating enzyme from the North American firefly ; this enzyme " helps to strengthen and sustain light output " . In 2016 , Glowee , a French company started selling bioluminescent lights , tageting shop fronts and municipal street signs as their main markets . France has a law that forbids retailers and offices from illumunating their windows between 1 and 7 in the morning in order to minimise energy consumption and pollution . Glowee hoped their product would get round this ban . They used bacteria called Aliivibrio fischeri which glow in the dark but the maximum lifetime of their product was three days .
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= Hurricane Gabrielle ( 2001 ) =
Hurricane Gabrielle was a North Atlantic hurricane that caused flooding in both Florida and Newfoundland in September 2001 . It developed in the Gulf of Mexico on the same day as the September 11 attacks ; after the attacks , flights were canceled nationwide for two days , and when Gabrielle struck Florida on September 14 , it caused a day of additional cancellations . The storm moved ashore with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) near Venice , a city located south of the Tampa Bay area . The combination of the winds and heavy rainfall , which peaked at 15 @.@ 1 in ( 380 mm ) in Parrish , left 570 @,@ 000 customers without power along the west coast and 126 @,@ 000 customers without power on the east coast . The storm caused about $ 230 million ( 2001 USD ) in damage in Florida . In the Gulf of Mexico , high waves contributed to two deaths , one of which was indirect ; there was also a death due to flooding in Winter Haven .
After crossing the state , Gabrielle had the appearance of an occluded frontal low or subtropical cyclone ; this was after the convection decreased near the center . However , Gabrielle gradually re @-@ intensified and became a hurricane on September 17 as it passed northwest of Bermuda . The hurricane reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , but weakened subsequently due to wind shear . Gabrielle transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 19 , and later that day it passed just southeast of Newfoundland . The storm produced record rainfall that caused what was described the " worst flooding in 100 years " in St. John 's . Several roads and houses were flooded in the region . The extratropical remnants of Gabrielle continued to the northeast and dissipated on September 21 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 5 , a weak low- to mid @-@ level trough was nearly stationary a short distance off the southeastern coastline of the United States . It remained stationary for several days , before developing a low @-@ level circulation over Florida by September 9 . The system moved into the Gulf of Mexico , and by September 11 , the low and its associated convection were well @-@ organized enough for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as Tropical Depression Eight . By that time , the system was located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) west @-@ northwest of Key West , Florida . Located in an environment of weak steering currents , the depression drifted to the west @-@ southwest after forming . Northerly wind shear and the presence of a nearby upper @-@ level low initially prevented further organization , leaving the center of the depression poorly – defined with minimal convection . The depression gradually became better organized while it slowly executed a small counter @-@ clockwise loop . Early on September 12 , the system developed increased banding features over the eastern half of its circulation . By early on September 13 , the upper level outflow over the depression became much more conducive for intensification , although the circulation remained broad and weak . Shortly thereafter , deep convection developed and persisted near the center , and at 1200 UTC on September 13 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gabrielle while located about 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of Venice , Florida .
Under the influence of a mid @-@ level trough , Gabrielle accelerated northeastward and quickly intensified , despite increasing amounts of westerly wind shear . Its center reformed several times under the deep convection , and on September 14 Gabrielle made landfall near Venice with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . At the time , Hurricane Hunters reported gusts to hurricane force , and the National Hurricane Center indicated the possibility that Gabrielle made landfall as a hurricane . Land interaction and vertical wind shear quickly weakened Gabrielle over land ; its convection decreased markedly with the strongest remaining convection remaining well to the northeast of the center . The storm reached the Atlantic Ocean with winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) about 18 hours after it made landfall ; by that time , one forecaster at the National Hurricane Center remarked that the storm resembled an occluded frontal low , with a large circulation devoid of convection in a non @-@ symmetric wind field . Another forecaster likened the storm to a subtropical cyclone , due to dry air continuing to limit organization .
On September 15 , convection gradually developed closer to the center , though operationally forecasters were unsure whether the convection was in association with Gabrielle or to a cold front to its west . A Hurricane Hunters flight into the system reported the center of Gabrielle became elongated , resembling a trough , and one forecaster considered the storm on the verge of becoming an extratropical cyclone . Shortly thereafter , convection increased near the center as the storm became stronger and better organized . Despite strong amounts of wind shear , Gabrielle intensified to attain hurricane status early on September 17 while located about 350 mi ( 560 km ) to the west of Bermuda . Continuing northeastward , the hurricane strengthened slightly further to reach peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) about 230 miles ( 370 km ) northwest of Bermuda . Shortly thereafter , a banding eye briefly developed in the center of the convection . Increased wind shear eventually diminished the convection , and Gabrielle weakened to tropical storm status September 18 . By early on September 19 , wind shear dissipated nearly all of the associated deep convection , and Gabrielle transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about 350 miles ( 560 km ) south of Newfoundland . The extratropical remnant continued to the northeast , passing a short distance southeast of Newfoundland before restrengthening to reach winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . The storm weakened , and on September 21 the extratropical remnant of Gabrielle merged with another extratropical storm over the far northern Atlantic Ocean .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after Gabrielle became a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from Craig Key through the Dry Tortugas in the Florida Keys and along the Florida west coast from Flamingo to the mouth of the Suwanee River . Additionally , a hurricane watch was issued from Chokoloskee to Tarpon Springs . On September 14 , a tropical storm warning was issued for Lake Okeechobee and the Florida east coast from Jupiter to Saint Augustine . Due to the storm , schools in six counties along the west coast were closed . All aircraft from MacDill Air Force Base were evacuated to Kansas as a precaution . Gabrielle struck Florida three days after the September 11 attacks , after which all flights nationwide were canceled for two days . Flights resumed the day Gabrielle moved ashore , with the exception of Sarasota @-@ Bradenton International Airport which closed due to the inclement weather . In the Tampa area , two major bridges closed due to the storm . Disney World closed three water parks and several rides .
The government of Bermuda issued a gale warning for the island before changing it to a tropical storm warning on September 16 .
The Newfoundland Weather Center issued severe weather warnings for portions of Atlantic Canada prior to the arrival of the extratropical remnant of Gabrielle . Rough sea warnings were issued for waters off of the Avalon Peninsula of eastern Newfoundland , and fishermen were recommended to remain away from the sea .
= = Impact = =
= = = United States = = =
While the storm was moving east across the Gulf of Mexico , Gabrielle produced rip currents along the coast of Alabama , killing one man in Orange Beach . High surf along the Florida Panhandle destroyed a retaining wall in Pensacola Beach . In the Florida Keys , there was an indirect drowning death of a man who fell off his boat ; this was due to a combination of high seas , engine failure , and intoxication . Upon making landfall , Gabrielle produced moderate winds along coastal areas of western Florida , with sustained winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Venice . The same station reported a wind gust of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) . High tides from rough waves and the storm surge reached 6 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) , the highest tide since 1926 . The tide flooded the northern shoreline of Charlotte Harbor and at the entrance to the Peace River , while further to the south a surge of greater than 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) inundated the barrier island at Fort Myers Beach and flooded some cars . Beach erosion was common in the areas where the storm surge was greatest .
In Lee County , tropical storm @-@ force winds damaged many roofs , although damage was primarily due to flooding . Along the coast , high storm tides severely damaged about 100 homes and lightly damaged 500 other homes . In nearby Charlotte County , several homes were flooded along Gasparilla Island . Strong winds in Sarasota and Manatee counties downed trees and power lines , and across western Florida , 570 @,@ 000 electric customers lost power . In Brandenton , high winds damaged the roof of a motel , forcing 100 people to evacuate . High rainfall in Pasco County flooded a portion of U.S. Route 301 . Along the west coast of Florida , Gabrielle spawned four weak tornadoes . In Everglades City , sustained winds reached 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) , with gusts to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
While crossing the state , Gabrielle interacted with a decaying cold front , which produced intense rainfall . The highest total was 15 @.@ 1 in ( 380 mm ) in Parrish along the west coast . Jacksonville reported 6 @.@ 32 in ( 161 mm ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . In Winter Springs , a boy drowned after being swept away by a flooded stream . In Volusia , the rains flooded about 30 homes or apartments , and roads in several counties were closed . After moving across the state , the storm produced locally strong winds along the Atlantic Florida coastline , peaking at 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) at Saint Augustine . High wind gusts left about 126 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without power in eastern Florida . Rainbands spawned five tornadoes , one of which damaged six mobile homes in Cocoa . Along the coast in Brevard and Volusia , high storm tides and waves produced significant beach erosion .
Overall , Gabrielle caused an estimated $ 230 million in damage in Florida . There were 18 tornadoes in the state , and three deaths related to the storm . Heavy rainfall extended into Georgia ; a station in Brunswick reported a total of 3 @.@ 84 in ( 98 mm ) . In South Carolina , high winds and tides produced coastal flooding in Garden City .
= = = Bermuda and Canada = = =
In Bermuda , the combination of Gabrielle and the cold front to its west dropped about 1 @.@ 8 in ( 46 mm ) of precipitation in a four @-@ day period . Wind gusts peaked at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) in an outer rainband .
While extratropical , the remnants of Gabrielle passed a short distance south of Newfoundland , the second cyclone in less than a week to affect the area . The storm produced moderately strong wind gusts of over 60 mph ( 100 km ) across the southern portion of the island , including a peak gust of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at Cape Race . Seas reached 36 ft ( 11 m ) in height . The remnant of Gabrielle dropped heavy rainfall in a short amount of time across Newfoundland , with one station at Cape Race recording 1 @.@ 9 in ( 48 mm ) in just one hour . This set the all time 6 – hour precipitation record at St. John 's , with a total of 3 @.@ 54 in ( 90 mm ) . In a 24 ‑ hour period , the St. John 's airport recorded 4 @.@ 67 in ( 118 @.@ 6 mm ) , which was only 0 @.@ 1 in ( 2 @.@ 6 mm ) less than the existing record . Rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 9 in ( 175 mm ) at the Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John 's .
In St. John 's , the rainfall caused severe flooding , and the mayor of the city considered Gabrielle " the worst storm in 100 years " . The flooding washed out two roads and flooded 20 others , forcing several closures . The rains flooded the basements of houses with several feet of water , affecting at least four homes . Flooding damage closed 15 schools and affected 45 businesses . There were multiple reports of sewers unable to accompany the excess of water . Hurricane @-@ force wind gusts forced the cancellation of flights and left thousands without power , telephone , or heat . Dangerous conditions caused Canada Post to cancel delivery on the day of the storm . Hundreds of homes and buildings were damaged by the passage of Gabrielle , resulting in several million dollars in damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the flooding in Florida , the heavy rainfall proved beneficial in alleviating drought conditions . By late September , water levels in 18 counties in southwestern Florida were within the normal range for the first time in 18 months . On September 28 , the head of the Federal Emergency Management Agency declared seven Florida counties as disaster areas ; this allocated federal funding for debris removal and repairing damaged public facilities . After the storm 's passage , there were more than 32 @,@ 000 insurance claims for homes , and 10 @,@ 000 claims for damaged cars .
In response to the flooding in St. John 's , Newfoundland , the city mayor activated the city 's Emergency Preparedness Program . On September 27 , about a week after the passage of the storm , the Emergency Measures Organization began accepting applications for flood @-@ related damage . By about a month after the storm , 169 applications were processed , with an additional 1 @,@ 762 received by the Emergency Measures Organization . Eligibility for the disaster assistance included restoration to property or household items of an essential nature . A few days after the passage of the storm , the government of Newfoundland appealed to the federal government for federal disaster relief fund ; the government later approved . Ultimately , disaster relief assistance totaled $ 6 @.@ 3 million ( 2001 CAD ) , primarily to individual assistance .
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= Star Wars Episode I : Battle for Naboo =
Star Wars Episode I : Battle for Naboo ( known as Star Wars : Battle for Naboo on the PC ) is an arcade @-@ style action game co @-@ developed by Factor 5 and LucasArts ; LucasArts supplied most of the art and level @-@ design , while Factor 5 provided the programming , tools , sound , and most of the cut @-@ scene and art post @-@ production work . It is a spiritual sequel to the successful Star Wars : Rogue Squadron released two years earlier . Despite the similarities between the two games , the development team designed a completely new game engine for Battle for Naboo and included land- and water @-@ based combat in addition to aerial combat .
Set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy , the game takes place entirely during the events depicted in the film Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace . Players control Gavyn Sykes , a lieutenant in Naboo 's Royal Security Forces . As the game progresses , Sykes and the Royal Security Forces fight the Trade Federation in 15 missions that take place on Naboo or in the space immediately surrounding it . The game concludes after the player completes a mission that recreates the film 's climactic assault on the Trade Federation 's Droid Control Ship .
Battle for Naboo was published by LucasArts and THQ and released for the Nintendo 64 in December 2000 . A Windows port was released three months later in March 2001 . The Nintendo 64 version received generally positive reviews ; critics praised the game 's tight and responsive controls , but expressed dislike for the game 's Episode I setting . The game 's PC port was less well @-@ received , with critics citing poor visuals and difficult controls .
= = Gameplay = =
A follow @-@ up to the previous game Star Wars : Rogue Squadron , Battle for Naboo is a fast @-@ paced , arcade @-@ style action game . Each of the game 's 15 levels introduces mission objectives that must be completed to progress to the next level . Enemy aircraft are primarily composed of Trade Federation Droid starfighters and air mines . Ground defenses are more varied and include battle and destroyer droids , laser and missile turrets , Armored Assault Tanks ( AATs ) , Multi @-@ troop transports ( MTTs ) , gunboats and Single trooper aerial platform ( STAPs ) .
The heads @-@ up display features a health meter , a radar and an ammunition count for secondary weapons . Depending on the level , the player can control several different air , land and water vehicles . Aircraft are the Naboo N @-@ 1 Starfighter , the Naboo Bomber and Police Cruiser , while land and watercraft are the Flash and Gian speeders , the Trade Federation Gunboat and the Heavy STAP . Each vehicle offers a unique armament arrangement , as well as varying degrees of speed and maneuverability . The game initially restricts the player to a particular craft for each level ; however , after a level is completed , it can be replayed with any available craft that falls within its air , land or watercraft specification . Some levels offer the player the option to change craft mid @-@ level . Seven bonus power @-@ ups are hidden in different levels throughout the game . These bonuses improve a craft 's weapons or durability and are applied to each eligible craft for the remainder of the game .
The player 's performance is measured throughout the game , and performance statistics are checked after each level against four medal benchmarks . Each benchmark contains six categories : completion time , number of enemies destroyed , shot accuracy , number of friendly craft and structures saved , number of bonuses collected and lives remaining . If a player 's performance exceeds one of the level 's four benchmarks in all five categories , a medal — bronze , silver , gold or platinum — is awarded on completion . Unlike other medal benchmarks , platinum medal benchmarks are undisclosed to the player . Acquiring medals promotes the player 's rank and helps unlock hidden content .
= = = Unlockable content = = =
Battle for Naboo includes a number of unlockable secrets . The player can unlock three bonus levels : " Trade Federation Secrets " , " Coruscant Encounter " and " Dark Side " . These levels are made available when the player obtains all bronze , silver or gold medals , respectively , on every level . Alternatively , they can be unlocked via password . Several craft are also available when unlocked . The Sith Infiltrator , a Swamp Speeder and an AAT may be selected when the player enters the correct passwords or achieves all gold or platinum medals , respectively , on all levels . A TIE fighter and a playable model of a 1969 Buick Electra 225 based on a car owned by the game 's sound designer , Rudolph Stember , can be unlocked via password only .
The development team also included early game design sketches and audio commentary for each of the game 's 15 standard levels , unlockable via passwords . Each level features more than five minutes of audio that totals over an hour of commentary in all . IGN likened the " captivating " commentary to DVD bonus material and believed the addition could start a trend in video games . MTV reporter Stephen Totilo believes that this audio commentary " may very well be " the earliest in video gaming .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Battle for Naboo takes place in the fictional Star Wars galaxy . The overarching conflict is an escalating battle between the Trade Federation and the people of Naboo . All 15 missions occur during the events depicted in Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . The taxation of trade routes is in dispute and the Trade Federation has sent an invasion force to the planet 's capital city of Theed hoping to capture the planet and steal its resources . The planet 's queen , Padmé Amidala , has left the city for Coruscant to try to gain support from the Galactic Senate . To help defend the planet , Lieutenant Gavyn Sykes must form a resistance movement .
= = = Plot = = =
The game starts with an opening crawl resembling the ones featured in the Star Wars films . Further story details are presented through the game 's instruction manual , pre @-@ mission briefings , characters ' conversations during the game and in @-@ game cut scenes . During the Trade Federation 's initial invasion of Theed , Lieutenant Gavyn Sykes and Captain Kael are able to escape the capital and head into the surrounding farmland . The two attempt to protect civilian farmers , but Federation presence is too strong , and they retreat into the nearby swamps . There they learn of a smuggler hidden in the mountains who might aid them . With the help of farmer Ved Deviss , Sykes and Kael find Borvo the Hutt . Borvo agrees to assist the resistance movement against the Trade Federation after the group helps him escape Federation forces .
In their first strike against the Trade Federation , Kael , Sykes and Kol Kotha , a mercenary agent of Borvo 's , destroy the communications satellite Comm 4 . The satellite 's destruction temporarily disables a Federation base on the planet , allowing the resistance to successfully attack it and destroy numerous droids and heavy equipment . During the fight , Sykes commandeers a Federation gunboat and uses it to liberate labor camps along the Andrevea River , escorting the freed prisoners to a rendezvous point among ruins to the north .
However , during the escort mission , Kael disappears and Sykes begins a search and rescue mission for the missing Captain . Sykes discovers a mortally wounded Kael near his crashed fighter , and it is revealed that Borvo had shot down Kael after he 'd learned of the Hutt 's secret plan to sell the escaped prisoners into slavery . Seeking vengeance and the freedom of his people , Sykes hunts down Borvo , assisted by a disgruntled Kotha who disagrees with Borvo 's betrayal . Though the Hutt is able to escape to Nal Hutta , the prisoners are saved .
Now in charge of the resistance on Naboo , Sykes leads a mission to liberate the Camp 4 , a detention center where the Trade Federation has placed most of Naboo 's important leaders . After the camp is freed , Sykes is contacted by Captain Panaka , and the plan to finally liberate Naboo is set in motion . After taking part in the diversionary attack on Theed that allows Queen Amidala and Panaka to infiltrate the Palace and capture Trade Federation Viceroy Nute Gunray , Sykes joins the rest of Bravo Flight in the climactic assault on the Droid Control Ship . Partnered with R2 @-@ C4 , Sykes knocks out the Droid Control Ship 's Shield Generator , which allows young Anakin Skywalker to destroy the ship from within . With the Trade Federation army disabled , Naboo is freed .
= = Development = =
With Star Wars : Rogue Squadron and Star Wars Episode I : Racer already released under a three @-@ game exclusivity agreement signed by Nintendo , LucasArts began planning for the third and final game . After the success of Rogue Squadron in 1998 , LucasArts and Factor 5 started initial testing for a follow @-@ up in February 1999 . The team discussed how they could build on that success and began planning the development of a new game engine . Possible plot ideas involving the film Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace were also discussed . After it was released in May 1999 , the team watched the movie several times in an attempt to find interesting characters , situations and craft for the game . Factor 5 stated that tying a movie plot into a vehicle combat game was " hard " . They included all the characters and vehicles from the movie they could , and attempted to mix these elements with entirely new content .
During the development process , LucasArts supplied most of the art and level @-@ design , while Factor 5 provided the programming , tools , sound , and most of the cut @-@ scene and art post @-@ production work . After contemplating the idea of reusing Rogue Squadron 's game engine , the team decided it was necessary to develop a new engine from scratch . Being more familiar with the Nintendo 64 , Factor 5 was able to write Battle for Naboo 's microcode by identifying the previous engine 's strengths and weaknesses . Factor 5 stated that many of Battle for Naboo 's technical aspects ( such as a farther draw distance ) " simply would not have been possible " using the Rogue Squadron engine . The game uses a particle system that was written in microcode for the Nintendo 64 's Reality Signal Processor . The team first developed the technique to display falling snow in Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine , another Nintendo 64 game that was developed simultaneously by the company . The result allowed Battle for Naboo to have rain and the snow effects that display up to 3 @,@ 000 particles at any given time without compromising the game 's frame rate and without using the system 's central processing unit . Explosions and fountains also use these particle effects .
Skywalker Sound supplied the development team with sound directly from The Phantom Menace for use in Battle for Naboo . Because its music is fully interactive and in real @-@ time , the game required new material to be composed and pieces from the movie to be rewritten . Factor 5 again used its own sound drivers called MusyX to handle the game 's sound , as it did with Rogue Squadron ( then called MOsys FX Surround ) . The game includes voice work from voice actors Jeff Coopwood , Roger L. Jackson , Doug Boyd and Terence McGovern .
Unlike Rogue Squadron , which was developed and released for the Nintendo 64 and Windows simultaneously , Battle for Naboo was ported to Windows and released two months later . The Windows version features enhanced resolution and textures and includes a mouse @-@ supported menu interface . On October 24 , 2001 , it was re @-@ released as a part of the LucasArts Archive Series .
= = Reception = =
Many reviews compared Battle for Naboo to Star Wars : Rogue Squadron . GamePro remarked that the games share the same " exciting aerial combat , sturdy controls , and ... absorbing story line " , and IGN 's Fran Mirabella III wrote , " Battle for Naboo proves to be a worthy follow up to Rogue by improving on nearly everything that held it back from perfection . " EGM believed that , " if you liked Rogue Squadron , it 's a good bet you 'll like Naboo even more . " GameSpot 's Ryan Davis , however , thought that the game remained fun despite the " general lack of innovation over its predecessor " and believed it to be " one of the best Episode I titles to hit the market " . The Nintendo 64 version received mostly positive reviews and received an aggregate score of 82 percent and 84 from GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively .
Battle for Naboo 's controls were described as tight and responsive . Reviewers praised the addition of ground vehicles , which were completely absent from Rogue Squadron . Both Davis and Mirabella remarked that this addition keeps the game from getting stale or redundant . Nintendo Power thought that the game is at its best when the action isn 't grounded , however , describing some of the ground missions as " tedious " and " uninspired " . Some reviewers believed that the game 's Episode I setting is less engaging than Rogue Squadron 's original trilogy setting . Mirabella stated that " any fan of Rogue Squadron should enjoy Battle for Naboo just as much if they can get past the Episode I barrier " , and Davis wrote that the game 's setting " does not carry the same impact as the story of the original [ trilogy ] . "
The game 's visuals were a source of disagreement between some critics . Extended Play 's Matthew Keil wrote that the game 's visuals are the " most notable improvement " over Rogue Squadron . Mirabella agreed and went on to call Battle for Naboo " one of the prettiest games to grace the N64 . " Both Keil and Mirabella praised the game for being less dependent on distance fog and " vastly " improving the draw distance over Rogue Squadron . Davis , however , wrote that " the graphics in Battle for Naboo are exactly the same as those of Rogue Squadron , flaws and all " , and Nintendo Power 's Andy Meyers cited " drab backgrounds and dry cinemas " . EGM enjoyed the game 's models and lighting , but thought the environments looked " blurry " . Reviewers ' opinions on the game 's music and sound effects were generally less divided . Keil stated that the game showcases Factor 5 's audio talents , and Mirabella and Davis described the audio as " atmospheric " and " immersive " , respectively . One EGM reviewer lamented " the low @-@ quality cartridge Episode I music " , but another thought the sound was impressive .
With aggregated scores of 57 percent and 54 from GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively , Battle for Naboo 's PC port garnered significantly lower review scores than its Nintendo 64 counterpart . Many complaints about the PC version stemmed from the fact that the game was not optimized for the PC when it was ported . Computer Games Magazine 's Adam Fleet thought the game was ugly , citing " truly bland textures and sad @-@ looking 2D sprites " . Next Generation 's Jim Preston bluntly wrote that the " graphics suck . " Of the audio , GameSpot 's Giancarlo Varanini wrote , " [ it ] isn 't that bad , but it isn 't quite as good as the audio in other similar games " , and goes on to describe the music as sounding " tinny . " Varanini also took issue with the PC version 's aiming controls , stating that because Battle for Naboo was originally designed for the Nintendo 64 's analog controller , it is difficult to aim using a PC 's digital keyboard . Preston agreed , writing that controlling the game is " nearly impossible " with a digital controller or mouse .
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= Abbey Road =
Abbey Road is the eleventh studio album by English rock band the Beatles , released on 26 September 1969 by Apple Records . The recording sessions for the album were the last in which all four Beatles participated . Although Let It Be was the final album that the Beatles completed before the band 's dissolution in April 1970 , most of the album had been recorded before the Abbey Road sessions began . A double A @-@ side single from the album , " Something " / " Come Together " , released in October , topped the Billboard chart in the US .
Abbey Road is a rock album that incorporates genres such as blues , pop and progressive rock , and it makes prominent use of the Moog synthesizer and the Leslie speaker . Side two contains a medley of song fragments edited together to form a single piece . The album was recorded amidst a more collegial atmosphere than the Get Back / Let It Be sessions earlier in the year , but there were still frequent confrontations within the band , particularly over Paul McCartney 's song " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , one of four tracks on which John Lennon did not perform . He had privately left the group by the time the album was released and McCartney publicly quit the following year .
Although Abbey Road was an immediate commercial success and reached number one in the UK and US , it received mixed reviews , with some critics describing its music as inauthentic and bemoaning the production 's artificial effects . Many critics now view the album as the Beatles ' best and rank it as one of the greatest albums of all time . In particular , George Harrison 's contributions , " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " , are considered to be among the best songs he wrote for the group . The album 's cover features the four band members walking across a zebra crossing outside Abbey Road Studios and has become one of the most famous and imitated images in the history of recorded music . As of 2011 , Abbey Road remains one of the Beatles ' best @-@ selling albums .
= = Composition and recording = =
= = = Background = = =
After the unpleasant recording sessions for the proposed Get Back album ( later released as Let It Be ) , Paul McCartney suggested to the music producer George Martin that the group get together and make an album " the way we used to do it " , free of the conflict that had begun following the death of Brian Epstein and carried over to the sessions for the White Album . Martin agreed , on the strict condition that all the group – particularly John Lennon – allow him to produce the record in the same manner as earlier albums , and that discipline would be adhered to .
The first sessions for Abbey Road began on 22 February 1969 , only three weeks after the Get Back sessions , in Trident Studios . There , the group recorded a backing track to " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " with Billy Preston accompanying them on Hammond organ . No further group recording occurred until April due to Ringo Starr 's commitments on the film The Magic Christian . After a small amount of work that month and a session for " You Never Give Me Your Money " on 6 May , the group took an eight @-@ week break before recommencing on 2 July . Recording continued through July and August , with the last backing track , for " Because " , being taped on 1 August . Overdubs continued through the month , with the final sequencing of the album coming together on 20 August – the last time all four Beatles appeared in a studio together .
McCartney , Starr and Martin have positive recollections of the sessions , while George Harrison said , " we did actually perform like musicians again " . Lennon and McCartney had enjoyed working together on the non @-@ album single " The Ballad of John and Yoko " in April , contributing friendly banter between takes , and some of this camaraderie carried over to the Abbey Road sessions . Nevertheless , there was a significant amount of tension between the group members . According to Beatles author Ian MacDonald , McCartney had an acrimonious argument with Lennon during the sessions . Lennon 's wife Yoko Ono had become a permanent presence at Beatles recordings and clashed with other members . Halfway through recording in June , Lennon and Ono were involved in a car accident . A doctor told Ono to rest in bed , so one was installed in the studio so she could supervise the recording process from there .
The album 's two @-@ halves were a compromise ; Lennon wanted a traditional release with distinct and unrelated songs while McCartney and Martin wanted to continue their thematic approach from Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band by incorporating a medley . Lennon ultimately disliked Abbey Road as a whole and felt that it lacked authenticity , calling McCartney 's contributions " [ music ] for the grannies to dig " and not " real songs " and describing the medley as " junk ... just bits of songs thrown together " . During the sessions , Lennon expressed a desire to have all of his songs on one side of the album , with McCartney 's on the other .
Nobody was entirely sure that the work was going to be the group 's last , though Harrison said " it felt as if we were reaching the end of the line " . After the album was released , the Get Back / Let It Be project was re @-@ examined , with work continuing into 1970 . Therefore , Let It Be became the last album to be finished by the Beatles , even though its recording had begun before Abbey Road .
By September 1969 , after the recording of Abbey Road , Lennon had formed a new group , the Plastic Ono Band , in part because the Beatles had rejected his song " Cold Turkey " . While Harrison worked with artists such as Leon Russell , Doris Troy , Preston and Delaney & Bonnie through to the end of the year , McCartney took a hiatus from the group after his daughter Mary was born on 28 August . On 20 September , Lennon formally announced his departure to the other Beatles . Abbey Road was released on 26 September . The single " Something " / " Come Together " followed in October , with Lennon releasing the Plastic Ono Band 's version of " Cold Turkey " the same month . The Beatles did not promote Abbey Road directly , but no public announcement was made of the band 's split until McCartney announced he was leaving the group in April 1970 , at which point they officially disbanded .
= = = Side one = = =
= = = = " Come Together " = = = =
" Come Together " was an expansion of " Let 's Get It Together " , a song Lennon originally wrote for Timothy Leary 's California gubernatorial campaign against Ronald Reagan . A rough version of the lyrics for " Come Together " was written at Lennon 's and Ono 's second bed @-@ in event in Montreal .
Beatles author Jonathan Gould suggested that the song has only a single " pariah @-@ like protagonist " and Lennon was " painting another sardonic self @-@ portrait " . MacDonald has suggested that the " juju eyeballs " has been claimed to refer to Dr John and " spinal cracker " to Ono . The song was later the subject of a lawsuit brought against Lennon by Morris Levy because the opening line in " Come Together " – " Here come old flat @-@ top " – was admittedly lifted from a line in Chuck Berry 's " You Can 't Catch Me " . A settlement was reached in 1973 whereby Lennon promised to record three songs from Levy 's publishing catalogue for his next album .
" Come Together " was later released as a double A @-@ side single with " Something " . In the liner notes to the compilation album Love , Martin described the track as " a simple song but it stands out because of the sheer brilliance of the performers " .
= = = = " Something " = = = =
Harrison was inspired to write " Something " during sessions for the White Album by listening to label @-@ mate James Taylor 's " Something in the Way She Moves " from his album James Taylor . After the lyrics were refined during the Let It Be sessions ( tapes reveal Lennon giving Harrison some songwriting advice during its composition ) , the song was initially given to Joe Cocker , but was subsequently recorded for Abbey Road . Cocker 's version appeared on his album Joe Cocker ! that November .
" Something " was Lennon 's favourite song on the album , and McCartney considered it the best song Harrison had written . Frank Sinatra once commented that it was his favourite Lennon – McCartney composition ( though the song was actually Harrison 's ) and " the greatest love song ever written " . Lennon contributed piano to the recording and while most of the part was removed , traces of it remain in the final cut , notably on the middle eight , prior to Harrison 's guitar solo .
The song was issued as a double A @-@ side single with " Come Together " in October 1969 and topped the US charts for one week , becoming the first Beatles number @-@ one single that was not a Lennon – McCartney composition ; it was also the first Beatles single from an already released album . Apple 's Neil Aspinall filmed a promotional video , which combined separate footage of the Beatles and their wives .
= = = = " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " = = = =
" Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , McCartney 's first song on the album , was first performed by the Beatles during the Let It Be sessions ( as can be seen in the film ) . He wrote the song after the group 's trip to India in 1968 and wanted to record it for the White Album , but it was rejected by the others as " too complicated " .
The recording was fraught with tension between band members , as McCartney annoyed others by insisting on a perfect performance . The track was the first Lennon was invited to work on following his car accident , but he hated it and declined to do so . According to engineer Geoff Emerick , Lennon said it was " more of Paul 's granny music " and left the session . He spent the next two weeks with Ono and did not return to the studio until the backing track for " Come Together " was laid down on 21 July . Harrison was also tired of the song , adding " we had to play it over and over again until Paul liked it . It was a real drag " . Starr was more sympathetic to the song . " It was granny music " , he admitted , " but we needed stuff like that on our album so other people would listen to it " . Roadie and assistant Mal Evans played the anvil sound in the chorus .
= = = = " Oh ! Darling " = = = =
" Oh ! Darling " was written by McCartney in the doo @-@ wop style , similar to contemporary work by Frank Zappa . It was tried at the Get Back sessions , and a version appears on Anthology 3 . It was subsequently re @-@ recorded in April , with overdubs in July and August .
McCartney attempted recording the lead vocal only once a day . He said : " I came into the studios early every day for a week to sing it by myself because at first my voice was too clear . I wanted it to sound as though I 'd been performing it on stage all week . " Lennon thought he should have sung it , remarking that it was more his style .
= = = = " Octopus 's Garden " = = = =
As was the case with most of the Beatles ' albums , Starr sang lead vocal on one track . " Octopus 's Garden " is his second and last solo composition released on any album by the band . It was inspired by a trip to Sardinia aboard Peter Sellers ' yacht after Starr left the band for two weeks with his family during the sessions for the White Album . Starr received a full songwriting credit and composed most of the lyrics , though the song 's melodic structure was partly written in the studio by Harrison . The pair would later collaborate as writers on Starr 's solo singles " It Don 't Come Easy " , " Back Off Boogaloo " and " Photograph " .
= = = = " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " = = = =
" I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " was written by Lennon about his relationship with Ono , and he made a deliberate choice to keep the lyrics simple and concise . Author Tom Maginnis thought the song had a progressive rock influence , with its unusual length and structure , repeating guitar riff , and white noise effects , though he noted the " I Want You " section has a straightforward blues structure .
The finished song is a combination of two different recording attempts . The first attempt occurred almost immediately after the Get Back / Let It Be sessions , in February 1969 , with Preston . This was subsequently combined with a second version made during the Abbey Road sessions proper in April . The two sections together ran to nearly 8 minutes , making it the Beatles ' second @-@ longest released track . Lennon used Harrison 's Moog synthesizer with a white noise setting to create a " wind " effect that was overdubbed on the second half of the track . During the final edit , Lennon told Emerick to " cut it right there " at 7 minutes and 44 seconds , creating a sudden , jarring silence that concludes the first side of Abbey Road ( the recording tape would have run out within 20 seconds as it was ) . The final mixing and editing for the track occurred on 20 August 1969 , the last day all four Beatles were together in the studio .
= = = Side two = = =
= = = = " Here Comes the Sun " = = = =
" Here Comes the Sun " was written by Harrison in Eric Clapton 's garden in Surrey while Harrison took a break from stressful band business meetings . The basic track was recorded on 7 July 1969 . Harrison sang lead and played acoustic guitar , McCartney provided backing vocals and played bass and Starr played the drums . Lennon was still recuperating from his car accident and did not perform on the track . Martin provided an orchestral arrangement in collaboration with Harrison , who overdubbed a Moog synthesizer part on 19 August , immediately before the final mix .
The song was not released as a single but still attracted critical praise . It has been featured several times on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs , having been chosen by Sandie Shaw , Jerry Springer , Boris Johnson and Elaine Page . The Daily Telegraph 's Martin Chilton said it was " almost impossible not to sing along to " . Since digital downloads have become eligible to chart , it reached number 56 in 2010 after the Beatles ' back catalogue was released on iTunes .
Harrison recorded a guitar solo for this track that did not appear in the final mix . It was rediscovered in 2012 , and footage of Martin and Harrison 's son Dhani listening to it in the studio was released on the DVD of Living in the Material World .
= = = = " Because " = = = =
" Because " was inspired by Lennon listening to Ono playing Ludwig van Beethoven 's " Moonlight Sonata " on the piano . He recalled he was " lying on the sofa in our house , listening to Yoko play ... Suddenly , I said , ' Can you play those chords backward ? ' She did , and I wrote ' Because ' around them . " The track features three @-@ part harmonies by Lennon , McCartney and Harrison , which were then triple @-@ tracked to give nine voices in the final mix . The group considered the vocals to be some of the hardest and most complex they attempted . Harrison played the Moog synthesizer , and Martin played the harpsichord that opens the track .
= = = = Medley = = = =
Side two contains a 16 @-@ minute medley of several short songs , recorded over July and August and blended into a suite by McCartney and Martin . Some songs were written ( and originally recorded in demo form ) during sessions for the White Album and Get Back / Let It Be , which later appeared on Anthology 3 . While the idea for the medley was McCartney 's , Martin claims credit for some structure , adding he " wanted to get John and Paul to think more seriously about their music " .
The first track recorded for the medley was the opening number , " You Never Give Me Your Money " . McCartney cites the band 's dispute over Allen Klein , and what McCartney viewed as Klein 's empty promises , as an inspiration for the song 's lyrics . MacDonald doubts this given that the backing track , recorded on 6 May at Olympic Studios , predated the worst altercations between Klein and McCartney . The track is a suite of varying styles , ranging from a piano @-@ led ballad at the start to arpeggiated guitars at the end . Both Harrison and Lennon provided guitar solos with Lennon playing the solos at the end of the track , which Beatles author Walter Everett considers his favourite Lennon guitar contribution .
This song transitions into Lennon 's " Sun King " which , like " Because " , showcases Lennon , McCartney and Harrison 's triple @-@ tracked harmonies . Following it are Lennon 's " Mean Mr. Mustard " ( written during the Beatles ' 1968 trip to India ) and " Polythene Pam " . These in turn are followed by four McCartney songs , " She Came in Through the Bathroom Window " ( written after a fan entered McCartney 's residence via his bathroom window ) , " Golden Slumbers " ( based on Thomas Dekker 's 17th @-@ century poem set to new music ) , " Carry That Weight " ( reprising elements from " You Never Give Me Your Money " , and featuring chorus vocals from all four Beatles ) , and closing with " The End " .
" The End " features Starr 's only drum solo in the Beatles ' catalogue ( the drums are mixed across two tracks in " true stereo " , unlike most releases at that time where they were hard panned left or right ) . Fifty @-@ four seconds into the song are 18 bars of lead guitar : the first two bars are played by McCartney , the second two by Harrison , and the third two by Lennon , with the sequence repeating . Harrison suggested the idea of a guitar solo in the track , Lennon decided they should trade solos and McCartney elected to go first . The solos were cut live against the existing backing track in one take . Immediately after Lennon 's third and final solo , the piano chords of the final part of the song begin . The song ends with the memorable final line , " And in the end , the love you take is equal to the love you make " . This section was taped separately to the first , and required the piano to be re @-@ recorded by McCartney , which was done on 18 August . An alternative version of the song , with Harrison 's lead guitar solo played against McCartney 's ( with Starr 's drum solo heard in the background ) , appears on the Anthology 3 album and the 2012 digital @-@ only compilation album Tomorrow Never Knows .
= = = = " Her Majesty " = = = =
" Her Majesty " was recorded by McCartney on 2 July when he arrived before the rest of the group at Abbey Road . It was included in a rough mix of the side two medley , appearing between " Mean Mr. Mustard " and " Polythene Pam " . McCartney disliked the way the medley sounded when it included " Her Majesty " , so he asked for it to be cut . The second engineer , John Kurlander , had been instructed not to throw out anything , so after McCartney left , he attached the track to the end of the master tape after 20 seconds of silence . The tape box bore an instruction to leave " Her Majesty " off the final product , but the next day when mastering engineer Malcolm Davies received the tape , he ( also trained not to throw anything away ) cut a playback lacquer of the whole sequence , including " Her Majesty " . The Beatles liked this effect and included it on the album .
" Her Majesty " opens with the final , crashing chord of " Mean Mr. Mustard " , while the final note of " Her Majesty " remained buried in the mix of " Polythene Pam " . This is the result of " Her Majesty " being snipped off the reel during a rough mix of the medley on 30 July . The medley was subsequently mixed again from scratch although " Her Majesty " was not touched again and still appears in its rough mix on the album .
Original US and UK pressings of Abbey Road do not list " Her Majesty " on the album 's cover nor on the record label , making it a hidden track . The song title appears on the inlay card and disc of the 1987 remastered CD reissue , as track 17 . It also appears on the sleeve , booklet and disc of the 2009 remastered CD reissue , but not on the cover or record label of the 2012 vinyl reissue .
= = = Unreleased material = = =
Three days after the session for " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " , Harrison recorded solo demos of " All Things Must Pass " ( which became the title track of his 1970 triple album ) , " Something " and " Old Brown Shoe " . The latter was re @-@ recorded by the Beatles in April 1969 and issued as the B @-@ side to " The Ballad of John and Yoko " the following month . All three of these Harrison demos were later featured on Anthology 3 .
During the sessions for the medley , McCartney recorded " Come and Get It " , playing all the instruments . It was assumed to be a demo recording for another artist but McCartney later said that he originally intended to put it on Abbey Road . It was instead covered by Badfinger , while McCartney 's original recording appeared on Anthology 3 .
The original backing track to " Something " , featuring a piano @-@ led coda , and " You Never Give Me Your Money " , which leads into a fast rock @-@ n @-@ roll jam session , have appeared on bootlegs .
= = Release history = =
Abbey Road has remained in print since its first release in 1969 . The original album was released on 26 September in the UK and 1 October in the US on Apple Records . It was reissued on vinyl in the US under Capitol on 27 December 1978 , while a CD reissue of the album was released in 1987 , with a remastered version appearing in 2009 . The remaster included additional photographs with additional liner notes and the first , limited edition , run also included a short documentary about the making of the album .
The album continues to be reissued on vinyl . It was included as part of the Beatles ' Collector 's Crate series in September 2009 and saw a remastered LP release on 180 @-@ gram vinyl in 2012 .
= = Commercial performance = =
Abbey Road sold four million copies in its first two months of release . In the UK , the album debuted at number 1 , where it remained for 11 weeks before being displaced for one week by the Rolling Stones ' Let It Bleed . The following week ( which was Christmas ) , Abbey Road returned to the top for another six weeks ( completing a total of 17 weeks ) before being replaced by Led Zeppelin II . In all it spent 81 weeks on the UK albums chart .
Reaction overseas was similar . In the US , the album spent 12 weeks at number one on the Billboard Top LPs chart . It was the National Association of Recording Merchandisers ( NARM ) best @-@ selling album of 1969 and was number four on Billboard magazine 's top LPs of 1970 year @-@ end chart . Abbey Road was certified 12 × platinum by the RIAA in 2001 . In Japan , it was one of the longest @-@ charting albums to date , remaining in the top 100 for 298 weeks during the 1970s .
In June 1970 , Allen Klein reported that Abbey Road was the Beatles ' best @-@ selling album in the US with sales of about five million . By 1992 , Abbey Road had sold nine million copies . The album became the ninth @-@ most downloaded on the iTunes Store a week after it was released there on 16 November 2010 . A CNN report stated it was the best @-@ selling vinyl album of 2011 . It is the first album from the 1960s to sell over five million albums since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales . In the US , the album had sold 7 @,@ 177 @,@ 797 copies by the end of the 1970s . The album has sold over 31 million copies worldwide and is one of the band 's best @-@ selling albums .
= = Critical reception = =
Abbey Road received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics , who criticised the production 's artificial sounds and viewed its music as inauthentic . William Mann of the London Times said that the album will " be called gimmicky by people who want a record to sound exactly like a live performance " , although he considered it to be " teem [ ing ] with musical invention " and added : " Nice as Come Together and Harrison 's Something are – they are minor pleasures in the context of the whole disc … Side Two is marvellous … " Ed Ward of Rolling Stone called the album " complicated instead of complex " and felt that the Moog synthesizer " disembodies and artificializes " the band 's sound , adding that they " create a sound that could not possibly exist outside the studio " . While he found the medley on side two to be their " most impressive music " since Rubber Soul , Nik Cohn of The New York Times said that , " individually " , the album 's songs are " nothing special " . Albert Goldman of Life magazine wrote that Abbey Road " is not one of the Beatles ' great albums " and , despite some " lovely " phrases and " stirring " segues , side two 's suite " seems symbolic of the Beatles ' latest phase , which might be described as the round @-@ the @-@ clock production of disposable music effects " .
Conversely , Chris Welch wrote in Melody Maker : " the truth is , their latest LP is just a natural born gas , entirely free of pretension , deep meanings or symbolism … While production is simple compared to past intricacies , it is still extremely sophisticated and inventive . " Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times found the album " refreshingly terse and unpretentious " , and although he lamented the band 's " cod @-@ 1920s jokes ( Maxwell 's Silver Hammer ) and … Ringo 's obligatory nursery arias ( Octopus 's Garden ) " , he considered that Abbey Road " touches higher peaks than did their last album " . John Mendelsohn , writing for Rolling Stone , called it " breathtakingly recorded " and praised side two especially , equating it to " the whole of Sgt. Pepper " and stating , " That the Beatles can unify seemingly countless musical fragments and lyrical doodlings into a uniformly wonderful suite ... seems potent testimony that no , they 've far from lost it , and no , they haven 't stopped trying . "
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
Many critics have since cited Abbey Road as the Beatles ' greatest album . In a retrospective review , Nicole Pensiero of PopMatters called it " an amazingly cohesive piece of music , innovative and timeless " . Mark Kemp of Paste viewed the album as being " among The Beatles ' finest works , even if it foreshadows the cigarette @-@ lighter @-@ waving arena rock that technically skilled but critically maligned artists from Journey to Meatloaf would belabor throughout the ' 70s and ' 80s " . Neil McCormack of The Daily Telegraph dubbed it the Beatles ' " last love letter to the world " and praised its " big , modern sound " , calling it " lush , rich , smooth , epic , emotional and utterly gorgeous " . AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger felt that the album shared Sgt. Pepper 's " faux @-@ conceptual forms " , but had " stronger compositions " , and wrote of its standing in the band 's catalogue : " Whether Abbey Road is the Beatles ' best work is debatable , but it 's certainly the most immaculately produced ( with the possible exception of Sgt. Pepper ) and most tightly constructed . " Ian MacDonald gave a mixed opinion of the album , noting that several tracks had been written at least a year previously , and would possibly have been unsuitable without being integrated into the medley on side two . He did , however , praise the production , particularly the sound of Starr 's bass drum .
Abbey Road received high rankings in several " best albums in history " polls by critics and publications . Time included it in their 2006 list of the All @-@ Time 100 Albums . In 2009 , readers of Rolling Stone named Abbey Road the greatest Beatles album. and in 2012 , the magazine ranked it number 14 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
Musicologist Walter Everett interprets that most of the lyrics on side two 's medley deal with " selfishness and self @-@ gratification – the financial complaints in ' You Never Give Me Your Money , ' the miserliness of Mr. Mustard , the holding back of the pillow in ' Carry That Weight , ' the desire that some second person will visit the singer 's dreams – perhaps the ' one sweet dream ' of ' You Never Give Me Your Money ' ? – in ' The End . ' " Everett adds that the medley 's " selfish moments " are played in the context of the tonal centre of A , while " generosity " is expressed in songs where C major is central . The medley concludes with a " great compromise in the ' negotiations ' " in " The End " , which serves as a structurally balanced coda . In response to the repeated A @-@ major choruses of " love you " , McCartney sings in realisation that there is as much self @-@ gratifying love ( " the love you take " ) as there is of the generous love ( " the love you make " ) , in A major and C major , respectively .
= = Production notes = =
Abbey Road was recorded on professional eight @-@ track reel to reel tape machines rather than the four @-@ track machines that were used for earlier Beatles albums such as Sgt Pepper , and was the first Beatles album not to be issued in mono . The album makes prominent use of the Moog synthesizer , and the guitar played through a Leslie speaker . The Moog is prominently featured , not merely as a background effect but sometimes playing a central role , as in " Because " where it is used for the middle eight . It is also prominent on " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " ( played using a ribbon strip ) and " Here Comes the Sun " . The instrument was introduced to the band by Harrison who acquired one in November 1968 and subsequently used it to create his Electronic Sound album . Starr made more prominent use of the tom @-@ toms on Abbey Road , later saying the album was " tom @-@ tom madness ... I went nuts on the toms . "
Abbey Road was also the first and only Beatles album to be entirely recorded through a solid state transistor mixing desk , the TG12345 Mk I , as opposed to earlier thermionic valve based REDD desks . The TG console also allowed better support for eight @-@ track multitrack recording , helping the Beatles ' considerable use of overdubbing . Emerick recalls the TG desk used to record the album had individual limiters and compressors on each audio channel and noted the overall sound was " softer " than the earlier valve desks .
One of the assistant engineers working on the album was a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Alan Parsons . He went on to engineer Pink Floyd 's landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon and produce many popular albums himself with the Alan Parsons Project . Kurlander also assisted on many of the sessions , and went on to become a successful engineer and producer , most noteworthy for his success on the scores for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy .
= = Album cover = =
The cover was designed by Apple Records creative director Kosh . It is the only original UK Beatles album sleeve to show neither the artist name nor the album title on its front cover , which was Kosh 's idea , despite EMI claiming the record would not sell without this information . He later explained that " we didn 't need to write the band 's name on the cover ... They were the most famous band in the world " .
= = = Imagery = = =
The front cover design , a photograph of the group on a zebra crossing , was based on ideas sketched by McCartney , and taken on 8 August 1969 outside EMI Studios in Abbey Road . At around 11 : 30 that morning , photographer Iain Macmillan was given only ten minutes to take the photo whilst he stood on a step @-@ ladder and a policeman held up traffic behind the camera .
In the scene , the group walk across the street in single file from left to right , with Lennon leading , followed by Starr , McCartney , and Harrison . McCartney is barefoot and out of step with the other members . Apart from Harrison , the group are wearing suits designed by Tommy Nutter . To the left of the picture , parked next to the zebra crossing , is a white Volkswagen Beetle motor @-@ car which belonged to one of the people living in the block of flats across from the recording studio . After the album was released , the number plate ( LMW 281F ) was stolen repeatedly from the car . In 1986 , the car was sold at auction for £ 2 @,@ 530 and in 2001 was on display in a museum in Germany . The man standing on the pavement to the right of the picture is Paul Cole ( c . 1911 – 13 February 2008 ) , an American tourist unaware he had been photographed until he saw the album cover months later . On the original cover , McCartney holds a cigarette ; in 2003 several US poster companies airbrushed this cigarette out of the image , without permission from either Apple or McCartney .
= = = Legacy = = =
The image of the Beatles on the crossing has become one of the most famous and imitated in recording history . The crossing is a popular destination for Beatles fans and there is a webcam featuring it . In December 2010 , the crossing was given grade II listed status for its " cultural and historical importance " ; the Abbey Road studios themselves had been given similar status earlier in the year . In 2013 , Kolkata Police launched a traffic safety awareness advertisement against jaywalking , using the cover and a caption that read : " If they can , why can 't you ? " The cover has been parodied on several occasions , not least from McCartney 's own 1993 live album , Paul Is Live . The Red Hot Chili Peppers ' The Abbey Road E.P. parodies the cover with the band crossing a similar zebra crossing near @-@ naked , though the musical content is different .
= = Cover versions = =
The songs on Abbey Road have been covered many times and the album itself has been covered in its entirety . One month after Abbey Road 's release , George Benson recorded a cover version of the album called The Other Side of Abbey Road . Later in 1969 Booker T. & the M.G. ' s recorded McLemore Avenue ( the location of Stax Records ) which covered the Abbey Road songs and had a similar cover photo .
Additionally , several artists have covered some or all of the side @-@ B medley , including Phil Collins ( for the Martin / Beatles tribute album In My Life ) , The String Cheese Incident , Transatlantic and Tenacious D ( who performed the medley with Phish keyboardist Page McConnell ) . Furthur , a jam band including former Grateful Dead members Bob Weir and Phil Lesh , played the entire Abbey Road album during its Spring Tour 2011 . It began with a " Come Together " opener at Boston on 4 March and ended with the entire medley in New York City on 15 March , including " Her Majesty " as an encore .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Lennon – McCartney , except where noted .
Notes
" Her Majesty " appears as a hidden track . Between " The End " and " Her Majesty " is 14 seconds of silence . Later releases of the album included the song on the track listing .
Some cassette tape versions in the UK and US had " Come Together " and " Here Comes the Sun " swapped to even out the playing time of each side .
= = Personnel = =
According to Mark Lewisohn , Alan W. Pollack , Ian MacDonald and Barry Miles .
The Beatles
John Lennon – lead , harmony and background vocals ; lead and rhythm guitars ; acoustic and electric pianos , Hammond organ and Moog synthesizer ; white noise generator and sound effects ; percussion
Paul McCartney – lead , harmony and background vocals ; lead , rhythm and bass guitars ; acoustic and electric pianos , Hammond organ and Moog synthesizer ; sound effects ; wind chimes , handclaps and percussion
George Harrison – harmony and background vocals ; lead , rhythm and bass guitars ; Hammond organ , harmonium and Moog synthesizer ; handclaps and percussion ; lead vocals ( on " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " )
Ringo Starr – drums and percussion ; background vocals ; lead vocals ( on " Octopus 's Garden " )
Additional musicians
George Martin – piano , harpsichord , organ and harmonium ; percussion
Billy Preston – Hammond organ ( on " Something " and " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " )
Mal Evans – " anvil " ( on " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " )
Production
" Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " orchestrated and conducted by George Martin ( with George Harrison )
" Golden Slumbers " , " Carry That Weight " and " The End " orchestrated and conducted by George Martin ( with Paul McCartney )
Produced by George Martin ( with the Beatles )
Recorded by Geoff Emerick and Phil McDonald
Assistant Engineering by Alan Parsons
Mixed by Geoff Emerick , Phil McDonald and George Martin ( with the Beatles )
Moog programming by Mike Vickers
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
BPI certification awarded only for sales since 1994 .
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= SM UB @-@ 44 =
SM UB @-@ 44 was a Type UB II submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 44 operated in the Mediterranean and disappeared in August 1916 .
UB @-@ 44 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September . UB @-@ 44 was a about 37 metres ( 121 ft 5 in ) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes ( 266 and 300 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 5 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun . As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service , UB @-@ 44 was broken into railcar sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled and launched in April 1916 and commissioned in May .
In two patrols in her three @-@ month career , UB @-@ 44 sank one ship of 3 @,@ 409 gross register tons ( GRT ) . In early August 1916 , UB @-@ 44 departed from Cattaro for Hersingstand and never arrived . Her fate is officially unknown , but she may have been sunk by a torpedo boat near the island of Paxoi on 8 August .
= = Design and construction = =
The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats , which had been ordered in September 1914 . In service , the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow . A major problem was that , because they had a single propeller shaft / engine combo , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat became almost totally disabled . To rectify this flaw , the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines ( one shaft for each engine ) , which also increased the U @-@ boat 's top speed . The new design also included more powerful batteries , larger torpedo tubes , and a deck gun . As a UB II boat , U @-@ 47 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts , and nearly ten times as much fuel . To contain all of these changes the hull was larger , and the surface and submerged displacement was more than double that of the UB I boats .
The Imperial German Navy ordered UB @-@ 44 from AG Weser on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats ( numbered from UB @-@ 42 to UB @-@ 47 ) . UB @-@ 44 was 36 @.@ 90 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) long and 4 @.@ 37 metres ( 14 ft 4 in ) abeam . She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draught of 3 @.@ 68 metres ( 12 ft 1 in ) when surfaced . She displaced 305 tonnes ( 300 long tons ) while submerged but only 272 tonnes ( 268 long tons ) on the surface .
The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motors — for surfaced and submerged running , respectively — that drove one propeller shaft . UB @-@ 44 had a surface speed of up to 8 @.@ 82 knots ( 16 @.@ 33 km / h ; 10 @.@ 15 mph ) and could go as fast as 6 @.@ 22 knots ( 11 @.@ 52 km / h ; 7 @.@ 16 mph ) while underwater . The U @-@ boat could carry up to 27 tonnes ( 27 long tons ) of diesel fuel , giving her a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged .
UB @-@ 44 was equipped with two 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes . The U @-@ boat was also armed with one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Uk L / 30 deck gun .
UB @-@ 44 was laid down by AG Weser at its Bremen shipyard on 3 September 1915 . As one of six U @-@ boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction , UB @-@ 44 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped overland to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola . Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola , where she was launched on 20 April 1916 .
= = Service career = =
SM UB @-@ 44 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 11 May 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Franz Wäger . UB @-@ 44 , Wäger 's fourth U @-@ boat command , was assigned to the Navy 's Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) . Although the flotilla was based in Pola , the site of the main Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base , boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean . German U @-@ boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs .
On 30 June , Wäger and UB @-@ 44 achieved their only success when they sank the steamer Moeris 46 nautical miles ( 85 km ; 53 mi ) southeast of Cape Sidero , Crete . The 3 @,@ 409 @-@ gross register ton British steamer was carrying a general cargo from Glasgow for Alexandria when she went down with the loss of three men .
After Germany 's conquest of Romania ( see Romania during World War I ) , the German Imperial Navy had sufficient fuel oil for submarines located in the Black Sea . UB @-@ 44 and three of her sister ships in the Pola Flotilla were ordered to Constantinople and , en route , had to navigate through the Dardanelles , which had been heavily mined by the Allies in the middle of 1916 . UB @-@ 44 departed from Cattaro on 8 August for Hersingstand ( located on the Gallipoli peninsula ) to pick up a pilot for the trip through the Dardanelles , but never arrived .
UB @-@ 44 's fate is unknown . Two British post @-@ war reports list UB @-@ 44 as falling victim to the Otranto Barrage on 30 July but , as author Dwight Messimer points out , German records record UB @-@ 44 's departure from Cattaro nine days after that . Messimer reports that it is possible that UB @-@ 44 was sunk by the torpedo boat HMS 368 , which was reported by an Athenian newspaper as sinking a U @-@ boat 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) on 8 August off Paxoi with a lance bomb .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Dendrocollybia =
Dendrocollybia is a fungal genus in the family Tricholomataceae of the order Agaricales . It is a monotypic genus , containing the single species Dendrocollybia racemosa , commonly known as the branched Collybia or the branched shanklet . The somewhat rare species is found in the Northern Hemisphere , including the Pacific Northwest region of western North America , and Europe , where it is included in several Regional Red Lists . It usually grows on the decaying fruit bodies of other agarics — such as Lactarius and Russula — although the host mushrooms may be decayed to the point of being difficult to recognize .
Dendrocollybia racemosa fruit bodies have small pale grayish @-@ white or grayish @-@ brown caps up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and thin stems up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . The species is characterized by its unusual stem , which is covered with short lateral branches . The branches often produce spherical slimeheads of translucent conidiophores on their swollen tips . The conidiophores produce conidia ( asexual spores ) by mitosis . Because the fungus can rely on either sexual or asexual modes of reproduction , fruit bodies sometimes have reduced or even missing caps . The unusual stems originate from black pea @-@ sized structures called sclerotia . The anamorphic form of the fungus , known as Tilachlidiopsis racemosa , is missing the sexual stage of its life cycle . It can reproduce at relatively low temperatures , an adaptation believed to improve its ability to grow quickly and fruit on decomposing mushrooms .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The genus Dendrocollybia was first described in 2001 , to accommodate the species previously known as Collybia racemosa . Before then , the so @-@ named taxon was considered to be one of four species of Collybia , a genus which had itself been redefined and reduced in 1997 , when most of its species were transferred to Gymnopus and Rhodocollybia . C. racemosa was originally described and named Agaricus racemosus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 , and sanctioned under that name by Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 . In his Systema Mycologicum , Fries classified it in his " tribe " Collybia along with all other similar small , white @-@ spored species with a convex cap and a fragile stem . In 1873 Lucien Quélet raised Fries ' tribe Collybia to generic rank . Samuel Frederick Gray called the species Mycena racemosa in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants ; both this name and Joanne Lennox 's 1979 Microcollybia racemosa are considered synonyms .
Rolf Singer 's fourth edition ( 1986 ) of his comprehensive Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy included Collybia racemosa in section Collybia , in addition to the three species that currently comprise the genus Collybia : C. tuberosa , C. cirrhata and C. cookei . A phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer sequences of ribosomal DNA by Karen Hughes and colleagues showed that C. tuberosa , C. cirrhata and C. cookei form a monophyletic group within a larger Lyophyllum – Tricholoma – Collybia clade that includes several species of Lyophyllum , Tricholoma , Lepista , Hypsizygus and the species C. racemosa . Hughes and colleagues could not identify a clade that included all four species of Collybia . Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the ribosomal DNA from the four species corroborated the results obtained from phylogenetic analysis . Based on these results , as well as differences in characteristics such as the presence of unique stem projections , fruit body pigmentation , and macrochemical reactions , they circumscribed the new genus Dendrocollybia to contain C. racemosa .
The fungus is commonly known as the branched Collybia , or the branched shanklet ; Samuel Gray referred to it as the " racemelike high @-@ stool " . The genus name Dendrocollybia is a combination of the Ancient Greek words dendro- , meaning " tree " , and collybia , meaning " small coin " . The specific epithet racemosa is from the Latin word racemus — " a cluster of grapes " .
= = Description = =
The cap of Dendrocollybia racemosa is typically between 3 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , and depending on its stage of development , may be conic to convex , or in maturity , somewhat flattened with a slight rounded central elevation ( an umbo ) . The cap surface is dry and opaque , with a silky texture ; its color in the center is fuscous ( a dusky brownish @-@ gray color ) , but the color fades uniformly towards the margin . The margin is usually curved toward the gills initially ; as the fruit body matures the edge may roll out somewhat , but it also has a tendency to fray or split with age . There may be shallow grooves on the cap that correspond to the position of the gills underneath , which may give the cap edge a crenate ( scalloped ) appearance . The flesh is very thin ( less than 1 mm thick ) and fragile , lacking in color , and has no distinctive odor or taste . The gills are relatively broad , narrowly attached to the stem ( adnexed ) , spaced closely together , and colored gray to grayish @-@ tan , somewhat darker than the cap . There are additional gills , called lamellulae , that do not extend all the way to the stem ; they are interspersed between the gills and arranged in up to three series ( tiers ) of equal length . Occasionally , the fungus produces stems with aborted caps , or with the caps missing entirely .
The stem is 4 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 1 mm thick , roughly equal in width throughout , and tapers to a long " root " which terminates in a dull black , roughly spherical sclerotium . The stem may be buried deeply in its substrate . The stem surface is roughly the same color as the cap , with a fine whitish powder on the upper surface . In the lower portion , the stem is brownish , and has fine grooves that run lengthwise up and down the surface . The lower half is covered with irregularly arranged short branch @-@ like protuberances at right angles to the stem that measure 2 – 3 by 0 @.@ 5 mm . These projections are cylindrical and tapering , with ends that are covered with a slime head of conidia ( fungal spores produced asexually ) . D. racemosa is the only mushroom species known that forms conidia on side branches of the stem . The sclerotium from which the stem arises is watery grayish and homogeneous in cross section ( not divided into internal chambers ) , with a thin dull black outer coat , and measures 3 to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) in diameter . American mycologist Alexander H. Smith cautioned that novice collectors will typically miss the sclerotium the first time they find the species . The edibility of D. racemosa is unknown , but as David Arora says , the fruit bodies are " much too puny and rare to be of value . "
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are narrowly ellipsoid to ovoid , thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , with dimensions of 4 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 – 3 µm . When stained with Melzer 's reagent , the spores turn a light blue color . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , measure 16 – 20 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 µm , and taper gradually towards the base . Cystidia are not differentiated in this species . The cap surface is made of a cuticle of radial , somewhat agglutinated , rather coarse hyphae that differ chiefly in size from the underlying tissue — initially 1 – 3 µm in diameter , becoming 5 – 7 µm wide in the underlying tissue . The hyphae are clamped , and encrusted with shallow irregularly shaped masses that are most conspicuous in the surface cells . The gill tissue is made of hyphae that project downward from the cap and arranged in a subparallel fashion , meaning that the hyphae are mostly parallel to one another and are slightly intertwined . The hyphae are clamped , with a narrow , branched compact subhymenium ( a narrow zone of small , short hyphae immediately beneath the hymenium ) composed of hyphae 2 – 3 µm in diameter . The conidia are 8 @.@ 5 – 12 by 4 – 5 µm , peanut @-@ shaped , non @-@ amyloid ( not changing color when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , clamped , and produced by fragmentation of the coarse mycelium . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . Asexual spores are 10 @.@ 0 – 15 @.@ 5 by 3 – 4 µm , ellipsoid to oblong , non @-@ amyloid , and contain granular contents . The grayish color of the fruit bodies is caused by encrusted pigments ( crystalline aggregates of pigment molecules , possibly melanin ) that occur throughout the tissue of the stem and cap , including the gills ; these pigments are absent in Collybia species .
= = = Similar species = = =
In contrast to the three species of Collybia , D. racemosa shows negligible reactivity to common chemical tests used in mushroom identification , including aniline , alpha @-@ napthol , guaiacol , sulfoformol , phenol , and phenol @-@ aniline .
The cortex ( outer tissue layer ) of the sclerotium can be used as a diagnostic character to distinguish between D. racemosa and small white specimens of Collybia . The hyphae of the cortex of D. racemosa are " markedly angular " , in comparison with C. cookei ( rounded hyphae ) and C. tuberosa ( elongated hyphae ) . The cortical layer in D. racemosa has an arrangement that is known as textura epidermoidea — with the hyphae arranged like a jigsaw puzzle . Heavy deposits of dark reddish @-@ brown pigment are evident throughout the cortical tissue in or on the walls and the tips of hyphae . The remaining Collybia species , C. cirrhata , does not form sclerotia .
= = = Anamorph form = = =
The anamorphic or imperfect fungi are those that seem to lack a sexual stage in their life cycle , and typically reproduce by the process of mitosis in conidia . In some cases , the sexual stage — or teleomorph stage — is later identified , and a teleomorph @-@ anamorph relationship is established between the species . The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permits the recognition of two ( or more ) names for one and the same organism , one based on the teleomorph , the other ( s ) restricted to the anamorph . Tilachlidiopsis racemosa ( formerly known as Sclerostilbum septentrionale , described by Alfred Povah in 1932 ) was shown to be the anamorphic form of Dendrocollybia racemosa . The synnemata ( reproductive structures made of compact groups of erect conidiophores ) produced by T. racemosa always grow on the stem of Dendrocollybia racemosa . The anamorph has an unusually low optimum growth temperature , between 12 and 18 ° C ( 54 and 64 ° F ) , within a larger growth range of 3 and 22 ° C ( 37 and 72 ° F ) . It is thought this is an adaptation that allows the mycelium to grow quickly and enhance its chances of fruiting on agaric mushrooms , which are generally short @-@ lived .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Dendrocollybia racemosa is a saprobic species , meaning it derives nutrients by breaking down dead or dying tissue . Its fruit bodies grow on the well @-@ decayed remains of agarics , often suspected to be Lactarius or Russula , although the hosts ' identities are often unclear due to an advanced state of decay . A 2006 study used molecular analysis to confirm Russula crassotunicata as a host for D. racemosa . This Russula has a long and persistent decay period , and , in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States where the study was conducted , provides a " nearly year @-@ round substrate for mycosaprobic species " . Dendrocollybia is one of four agaric genera obligately associated with growth on the fruit bodies of other fungi , the others being Squamanita , Asterophora , and Collybia . Dendrocollybia is also found less commonly in deep coniferous duff , in groups or small clusters . The fungus can form sclerotia in the mummified host fruit bodies , and may also develop directly from their sclerotia in soil . The fungus is widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere , but rarely collected " probably due to its small size , camouflage color , and tendency to be immersed in its substrate . " In North America , where the distribution is restricted to the Pacific Northwest , fruit bodies are found in the late summer to autumn , often after a heavy fruiting period for other mushrooms is over . In Europe , it is known from the United Kingdom , Scandinavia , and Belgium . Dendrocollybia racemosa is in the Danish , Norwegian , and British Red Lists .
The saprobic behaviors of Collybia and Dendrocollybia are slightly different . In the autumn , fruit bodies of C. cirrhata , C. cookei and C. tuberosa , can be found on blackened , leathery , mummified fruit bodies of their hosts . Sometimes , these species appear to be growing in the soil ( or from their sclerotium in soil or moss ) , but usually not in huge clusters . In these cases it is assumed that the hosts are remnants of fruit bodies from a previous season . In all observed cases of D. racemosa , however , the hosts have not been readily observed , suggesting that rapid digestion of the host ( rather than mummification ) may have taken place . Hughes and colleagues suggest that this may indicate the presence of a different enzymatic system , and a differing ability to compete with other fungi or bacteria .
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= 2012 Tour de France , Prologue to Stage 10 =
The 2012 Tour de France began on 30 June , and stage 10 occurred on 11 July . The 2012 edition began with a prologue – a short individual time trial stage – where each member of the starting peloton of 198 riders competed against the clock – in Liège , Belgium with two more stages held in the country before moving back into France . The race resumed in Orchies for the start of the third stage ; also during the first half of the race , the peloton visited Switzerland for the finish to the eighth stage in Porrentruy , and contested another individual time trial stage – having returned to France – the following day .
Fabian Cancellara held the lead of the race throughout its opening Belgian leg ; having won the race @-@ commencing prologue , Cancellara defended it on the following two stages before the race returned to France . Cancellara maintained his overall lead for the rest of the race 's first week , before eventually losing time on the first true mountain stage of the race – stage seven – as he was dropped on the closing climb to La Planche des Belles Filles . As a result , Bradley Wiggins assumed the maillot jaune , becoming the first British rider to wear the jersey since 2000 . Wiggins maintained the lead for the following three stages , including his first victory at the Tour during the ninth stage individual time trial in Besançon . Wiggins held a lead of almost two minutes in the overall standings with the more mountainous second half of the Tour still to race . Two riders won multiple stages during the first half of the race ; Peter Sagan , in his first Tour de France , won three stages and also held the lead of the points classification , while André Greipel took back @-@ to @-@ back stage victories on the fourth and fifth stages . World champion Mark Cavendish achieved one stage victory , while French riders Thibaut Pinot and Thomas Voeckler each took breakaway victories .
The race was also marked by several large crashes , most notably on the sixth stage , when the majority of the field crashed with around 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining . In total , twelve riders had to abandon the race due to injuries suffered during the crash . During the race 's first rest day – held after the ninth stage individual time trial – the team hotel of the Cofidis squad , in Bourg @-@ en @-@ Bresse , was searched by French police and gendarmerie . One of team 's riders in the Tour , Rémy Di Gregorio , was arrested in relation to an ongoing anti @-@ doping case , and was immediately suspended by the French team ; although the case had been open since 2011 , when Di Gregorio was a member of the Astana team .
= = Classification standings = =
= = Prologue = =
30 June 2012 — Liège ( Belgium ) , 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) , ( ITT )
The prologue was a short and fairly flat circuit around Liège , with expected stage times to be about eight minutes . The start ramp was located at Avenue Rogier next to the Parc d 'Avroy ; the riders then headed north by the Boulevard d 'Avroy and Boulevard de la Sauvenière . They then followed the Quai Roosevelt , along the Meuse , until the midway point when they returned on the opposite carriageway , before turning right towards Place Saint @-@ Lambert , in front of the Palais des Princes @-@ Évêques . From there , the riders rejoined the original route on the opposite carriageway of Boulevard de la Sauvenière before the finish line located on Boulevard d 'Avroy on the opposite side of the Parc d 'Avroy from the start .
With several tight corners , the prologue was expected to favour riders with good bike handling skills . The first rider to leave the start house in Liège was Argos – Shimano 's Tom Veelers , with most of the general classification contenders going towards the end of the starting order , as rain was not scheduled to disrupt the race . Veelers set a time of 7 ' 47 " for the course – which was near @-@ identical to the 2004 prologue held in the city , won by then @-@ Fassa Bortolo rider Fabian Cancellara , over a 6 @.@ 1 km ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) parcours – but this was immediately beaten by Orica – GreenEDGE rider Simon Gerrans , who went five seconds quicker around the course . Gerrans ' lead was also not to last for long , as Ukrainian national champion Andriy Hryvko ( Astana ) bettered his mark by 14 seconds ; the time was ultimately good enough for tenth place in the stage results . Hryvko held the lead for over an hour , as no other rider could get within three seconds of his time at that point .
It was not until Gerrans ' teammate Brett Lancaster , a former prologue winner at the Giro d 'Italia , that Hryvko 's time was beaten ; Lancaster recorded a time four seconds quicker , crossing the line at 7 ' 24 " . Team Sky rider Edvald Boasson Hagen marginally bettered Lancaster 's time to assume the lead for a time , but French champion Sylvain Chavanel ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) set a mark of 7 ' 20 " for the course . His time held until the final ten riders to take to the course ; Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) trailed Chavanel by six seconds at the intermediate time @-@ check – coming around halfway through the test – but paced the second half better to negate the deficit , and beat the time of Chavanel by around half a second . Cancellara , the pre @-@ stage favourite , recorded the fastest time of 3 ' 35 " to the intermediate point , and extended his eventual stage @-@ winning margin to seven seconds by the finish ; in the process , Cancellara won his fifth Tour prologue stage , a record .
Of other overall contenders , defending champion Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) , Liquigas – Cannondale 's Vincenzo Nibali and Garmin – Sharp rider Ryder Hesjedal , the winner of May 's Giro d 'Italia , all placing solidly inside the top twenty riders . Nibali 's teammate Peter Sagan and world time trial champion Tony Martin ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) , who both had been tipped as favourites to win the stage , both encountered difficulties on the course during their respective runs . Sagan lost time after he overshot one of the 180 @-@ degree hairpin bends and had to clip out of the pedals , while Martin – who had set a similar time to teammate Chavanel at the intermediate time @-@ check – suffered a puncture , and ultimately finished 23 seconds down on Cancellara 's time .
= = Stage 1 = =
1 July 2012 — Liège ( Belgium ) to Seraing ( Belgium ) , 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi )
The Tour remained in Belgium for the first full day 's racing with a stage through the rolling countryside of the Ardennes . After four Category 4 climbs en route , the race finished at Seraing , a municipality just outside Liège . The finish was at the top of a long and fairly steep drag – the Côte de Seraing – rising for 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) at an average of 4 @.@ 7 % , which was expected to suit the race 's puncheurs such as BMC Racing Team rider Philippe Gilbert , who won a similar finish in the opening stage of the 2011 Tour at Mont des Alouettes .
Six riders – Yohann Gène ( Team Europcar ) , Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Pablo Urtasun , Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Maxime Bouet , Nicolas Edet of Cofidis , Anthony Delaplace ( Saur – Sojasun ) and Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Michael Mørkøv – advanced clear of the main field in the early running of the stage ; the sextet managed to extend their advantage to a maximum of almost five minutes around a quarter of the way through the stage . By this point , Mørkøv and Urtasun had both scored a point towards the mountains classification , having led over the Côte de Cokaifagne and the Côte de Francorchamps respectively . Overall leader Fabian Cancellara was being paced by his RadioShack – Nissan teammates , and help to stabilise the gap to the leaders at around three minutes . Mørkøv then proceeded to win the two remaining climbs on the day , to take the race 's first polka @-@ dot jersey , becoming only the third Danish rider to have held the lead of that classification .
The breakaway also scored the major points at the stage 's intermediate sprint point in Érezée , where Gène took the honours ahead of Urtasun and Edet , while in the main field , Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss out @-@ sprinted his former teammates Mark Cavendish ( Team Sky ) and André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) for seventh place . RadioShack – Nissan were joined by Gilbert 's BMC Racing Team squad in order to reduce the lead advantage ; it was cut to around a minute with 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to go , and the break was eventually caught inside of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining . The field remained together onto the Côte de Seraing , but halfway up the climb , Cancellara attacked and only Peter Sagan ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) could hold pace with him . Team Sky 's Edvald Boasson Hagen later bridged up to the duo , and it was left to the three riders to fight it out for the stage win , with the reduced peloton chasing behind . Cancellara attacked first , but Sagan came around the outside and freewheeled to his fourteenth victory of 2012 , ahead of Cancellara – who maintained his overall lead – and Boasson Hagen . Gilbert led home the peloton in fourth , as 22 @-@ year @-@ old Sagan became the youngest rider to win a Tour stage since Lance Armstrong in 1993 .
= = Stage 2 = =
2 July 2012 — Visé ( Belgium ) to Tournai ( Belgium ) , 207 @.@ 5 km ( 128 @.@ 9 mi )
The race remained in Belgium for one more day with a flat course heading almost due west from Visé . There was one fourth @-@ category climb of the Côte de la Citadelle de Namur during the stage , but it was expected to ultimately result in a sprint finish in Tournai . Three riders – French pairing Anthony Roux of FDJ – BigMat and Team Europcar rider Christophe Kern , along with Michael Mørkøv ( Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank ) , wearing the polka @-@ dot jersey as mountains classification leader following his part in the breakaway on the first stage – went clear around 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) after the start of the stage , making the early breakaway from the field , and the trio managed to extend their advantage over the main field to around eight minutes , around 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) later .
RadioShack – Nissan took up duties at the front of the peloton in order to reduce the gap that the leaders had held ; although by the time that Mørkøv scored the point for crossing the summit of the Côte de la Citadelle de Namur first , around 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) later , the lead had only been reduced to around six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . Again , the breakaway took top points on offer at the intermediate sprint point in Soignies , with Kern taking maximum points for Team Europcar for the second successive day . None of the trio elected to contest the sprint , while back in the main field , Matthew Goss ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) again won the sprint contest for fourth place ahead of Rabobank rider Mark Renshaw , Mark Cavendish of Team Sky and the previous day 's stage winner , Liquigas – Cannondale 's Peter Sagan . With around 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining of the stage , Roux attacked his two fellow breakaway companions , going off on his own as Mørkøv and Kern allowed themselves to fall back into the confines of the main field .
Roux managed to gain an advantage of almost a minute , but he too was brought back by the main field inside the final 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) of the stage . Orica – GreenEDGE , Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step and Lotto – Belisol held the front with Argos – Shimano sprinter Marcel Kittel falling off the back of the field , as he was suffering from stomach problems ; instead their focus would be left with his lead @-@ out man Tom Veelers . The field remained together for the sprint finish in Tournai ; Lotto – Belisol led it out for Greipel , with Sagan just behind . Cavendish moved up the order , behind two other riders – Orica – GreenEDGE 's Daryl Impey and Team Katusha rider Óscar Freire – and slid in behind Greipel with around 300 m ( 980 ft ) to go . Cavendish launched his sprint off Greipel 's wheel with 200 m ( 660 ft ) left , and got the better of him by half a wheel to take his 21st Tour stage victory , moving out of a tie with Luxembourg 's Nicolas Frantz for sixth place on the all @-@ time Tour stage wins list . Greipel , Goss , Veelers and Lampre – ISD 's Alessandro Petacchi completed the top five on the stage , with Sagan taking the points classification lead , and the green jersey , from RadioShack – Nissan 's Fabian Cancellara with sixth place . Cancellara maintained his seven @-@ second overall lead over Cavendish 's teammate Bradley Wiggins .
= = Stage 3 = =
3 July 2012 — Orchies to Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , 197 km ( 122 @.@ 4 mi )
Following its three @-@ day opening salvo in Belgium , the Tour moved back to France , starting in Orchies – where the fifth stage team time trial of the 1982 race was abandoned in progress due to industrial action – before heading west towards Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . There were six climbs within the closing 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) of the parcours – all 1 @.@ 7 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) long or shorter – including the final 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) long climb up to the finish , with an average gradient of 7 @.@ 4 % . Like the first stage , the course was ideally favoured towards the puncheurs .
There was a fast @-@ paced start to the stage with several short and punchy attacks , but were closed down immediately . However , a five @-@ rider move was allowed to be initiated after 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) , with Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Sébastien Minard , Rubén Pérez of Euskaltel – Euskadi , Andriy Hryvko representing the Astana team , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Michael Mørkøv – continuing his run of being in the breakaway in each of the road stages so far – and Giovanni Bernaudeau of Team Europcar all breaking free , quickly gaining a lead of around two minutes . Their lead eventually reached a maximum of over five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes before RadioShack – Nissan and Liquigas – Cannondale made their presence at the front of the peloton , for their respective classification leaders Fabian Cancellara ( overall ) and Peter Sagan ( points ) . The breakaway again scored the major points at the intermediate sprint point in Senlecques ; Team Sky rider Mark Cavendish won the bunch sprint for sixth place , despite being boxed in by Vacansoleil – DCM 's Kenny van Hummel , with the two riders later exchanging words .
Mørkøv extended his mountains lead by crossing each of the first two climbs ahead of his rivals , while behind , several large crashes in the peloton took down a number of riders . Two riders suffered fractures and had to abandon on the route : Team Sky 's Kanstantsin Sivtsov ( tibia ) and Movistar Team 's José Joaquín Rojas ( collarbone ) . Mørkøv and Hryvko dropped their breakaway companions , and managed to hold off until 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to go when Mørkøv cracked on the Côte du Mont Lambert . Hryvko held off until the top of the climb , where he was then caught himself . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Sylvain Chavanel attacked with 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) to go , and at one point , put fifteen seconds between himself and the field , but he was caught 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) before the finish by the BMC Racing Team @-@ led field . Sagan comfortably took the sprint for the line , holding enough of a lead to free @-@ wheel the closing metres and performing a " running man " salute akin to Tom Hanks 's character in 1994 film Forrest Gump . A one @-@ second time difference between Sagan and the field – led home by Team Sky 's Edvald Boasson Hagen , Peter Velits ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) and Cancellara – was announced by the organisers , with all riders that were delayed in a crash in the closing metres , given the same time as Boasson Hagen et al .
= = Stage 4 = =
4 July 2012 — Abbeville to Rouen , 214 @.@ 5 km ( 133 @.@ 3 mi )
The first half of the stage followed the coast of Picardy and Normandy along the English Channel through Dieppe to the intermediate sprint point of Fécamp , before turning inland towards the finish at Rouen , with four fourth @-@ category climbs during the 214 @.@ 5 km ( 133 @.@ 3 mi ) parcours . The wind on the coast was expected to have an influence on the race , while the two tight turns to get over the Guillaume le Conquérant Bridge with 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) to go , were potentially disruptive for the lead @-@ outs ahead of an expected sprint finish along the quayside in Rouen .
A three @-@ rider breakaway was formed in the early kilometres of the stage , with the riders all representing French @-@ licensed Professional Continental teams . Home riders David Moncoutié ( Cofidis ) and Anthony Delaplace ( Saur – Sojasun ) were joined by Japan 's Yukiya Arashiro representing Team Europcar , as they set about gaining an advantage of over eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes from the main field . On the day , Moncoutié and Delaplace would ultimately share the four categorised climbs between them , each scoring two points towards the mountains classification ; while Arashiro , the best sprinter among the trio , took maximum points at Fécamp . The now @-@ customary bunch sprint for the minor points was again taken by Team Sky 's Mark Cavendish , after launching his sprint off the rear wheel of Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss . Rabobank 's Mark Renshaw just edged out points leader Peter Sagan of Liquigas – Cannondale for sixth place points . A light rain shower hit the race with around 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining , before the first crash of the day with Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Jonathan Cantwell and Sagan 's teammate Vincenzo Nibali among those delayed , but both would later rejoin the main field .
The lead gap continued to dwindle as the race wore on , with Delaplace eventually leaving his breakaway companions behind with 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to go . Six more riders looked to join the leading trio but all riders were eventually brought back 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) ahead of the finish . Inside the final 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , another crash took down a number of riders including Cavendish and lead @-@ out man Bernhard Eisel , as well as the Garmin – Sharp duo Robert Hunter and Tyler Farrar . The final sprint was between the sprint trains of Lotto – Belisol , Argos – Shimano and Orica – GreenEDGE ; Jürgen Roelandts , Marcel Sieberg and Greg Henderson set the tempo for André Greipel to lead it out from the front , and Greipel achieved a stage victory at the Tour for the second consecutive year , the first such occurrence for a German rider since Erik Zabel . Alessandro Petacchi ( Lampre – ISD ) beat Argos – Shimano 's Tom Veelers to the line for second , with Goss and Sagan – the latter despite being delayed by the late @-@ stage crash – rounding out the top five .
= = Stage 5 = =
5 July 2012 — Rouen to Saint @-@ Quentin , 196 @.@ 5 km ( 122 @.@ 1 mi )
This was a very flat day 's racing heading in a north @-@ easterly direction with no rated climbs , with a wide straight finish in the Champs @-@ Élysées Park . As a result , the stage was expected to favour the sprinters . Almost immediately after the peloton rolled out of the start in Rouen , FDJ – BigMat 's Mathieu Ladagnous , was the first rider to break the confines of the main field and was allowed to go clear without resistance . He was joined by three more riders over the next few kilometres , as Pablo Urtasun of Euskaltel – Euskadi , Saur – Sojasun 's Julien Simon and Cofidis rider Jan Ghyselinck provided assistance , and soon the quartet held an advantage of 5 ' 30 " after 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) of the stage .
It was at that point that Marcel Kittel , Argos – Shimano 's main sprinter , abandoned the race due to his ongoing gastroenteritis . The leaders held an advantage of around three minutes as they approached the intermediate sprint point in Breteuil , coming after 107 @.@ 5 km ( 66 @.@ 8 mi ) of the parcours . Ladagnous took the maximum points on offer , as the four leaders rolled through the line without competition . As it was the previous day , Mark Cavendish ( Team Sky ) led the main field across the line , ahead of Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss and Rabobank rider Mark Renshaw . The gap remained around the three @-@ minute mark until 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go , when it was gradually brought back by the peloton . At 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , the lead quartet held a lead of 20 seconds , while in the peloton , another big crash occurred ; among those hitting the tarmac were points leader Peter Sagan ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) and Garmin – Sharp 's Tyler Farrar .
Farrar , suffering his fourth crash of the race , fell after a clash of elbows with Argos – Shimano rider Tom Veelers ; after the stage , an angered Farrar tried to board the Argos – Shimano team bus to voice his feelings towards Veelers , but was escorted away by Garmin – Sharp staff , including general manager Jonathan Vaughters . Ghyselinck attacked with just 1 @.@ 1 km ( 0 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining , gaining some space from his three breakaway companions . He faded on the finishing incline , as Urtasun and Ladagnous both passed him ; Urtasun was ultimately passed by the sprinters with 200 m ( 660 ft ) to go . Goss launched his sprint first , with Ghyselinck 's teammate Samuel Dumoulin on his wheel ; but for the second stage running , it was André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) who took victory ahead of Goss , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Juan José Haedo , Dumoulin and Cavendish . RadioShack – Nissan 's Fabian Cancellara maintained the yellow jersey – earning the 27th of his career – which set a record for a rider not to have won the Tour , surpassing France 's René Vietto .
= = Stage 6 = =
6 July 2012 — Épernay to Metz , 207 @.@ 5 km ( 128 @.@ 9 mi )
This was the last flat stage before the race entered the mountains ; during the 207 @.@ 5 km ( 128 @.@ 9 mi ) parcours , there was one fourth @-@ category climb of the Côte de Buxières , around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) after the intermediate sprint point , coming at 135 @.@ 5 km ( 84 @.@ 2 mi ) in the commune of Saint @-@ Mihiel . The race finished near the Centre Pompidou where another bunch sprint was expected . Once again , it was a four @-@ rider breakaway that was allowed to be instigated in the early kilometres . David Zabriskie ( Garmin – Sharp ) was the first rider to go off the front , and he was later bolstered by Team Europcar 's Davide Malacarne , Cofidis rider Romain Zingle and Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Karsten Kroon , who joined him after around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of racing . They later established a maximum lead of around six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes early in the stage .
Around 35 km ( 21 @.@ 7 mi ) into the stage , there was a minor crash involving the winner of the previous two stages , André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) , and overall contenders Robert Gesink ( Rabobank ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) amongst others . Greipel suffered a dislocated shoulder in the crash , although all riders would later rejoin the main field ; Greipel did not contest the intermediate sprint for points , where Kroon led over the line in the breakaway , while behind , it was Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss that took the most available points from the main field – eleven for fifth – ahead of Team Sky 's Mark Cavendish and points leader Peter Sagan of Liquigas – Cannondale . Zabriskie crossed the summit of the Côte de Buxières first to claim the point on offer for the mountains classification , while in the peloton , there was another minor crash ; Greipel was involved again , as were his teammate Jelle Vanendert and Rabobank 's Bauke Mollema . Again , the peloton splintered due to the crashes , but due to a reduction in pace , those delayed were able to rejoin the main field .
With 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) of the day 's stage remaining , a much larger crash delayed the majority of the field . According to Lampre – ISD 's Danilo Hondo , the crash was caused by his teammate Davide Viganò while adjusting his jersey and fell into a ditch , causing other riders to stack up behind . Amongst the riders that were delayed by the crash were Fränk Schleck ( RadioShack – Nissan ) , Steven Kruijswijk ( Rabobank ) , Gesink , Mollema , Valverde , Vanendert , Lampre – ISD 's Michele Scarponi , Team Europcar 's Pierre Rolland and the entire Garmin – Sharp team with the exception of Zabriskie . Cavendish was also delayed , but although he was able to avoid the crash , he picked up a puncture in the process . Four riders abandoned the race on the route due to injuries suffered ; Garmin – Sharp 's Tom Danielson – who had already been racing with a separated shoulder – suffered trauma to his other shoulder , hip and arm , and was sent to hospital ; he was joined there by Viganò ( damaged shoulder ) , Euskaltel – Euskadi 's Mikel Astarloza ( dislocated elbow ) , and Vacansoleil – DCM 's Wout Poels , who tried to ride on for 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) but eventually had to abandon ; he was later diagnosed with a ruptured spleen and kidney , as well as three broken ribs and bruised lungs . After completing the stage , Team Katusha 's Óscar Freire ( broken rib and punctured lung ) , Imanol Erviti of the Movistar Team ( " loss of muscle mass " ) , and Maarten Wynants of Rabobank ( broken ribs and punctured lung ) had to withdraw as well .
After the crash , the race had split into many distinct groups ; the breakaway still held a minute 's lead over a reduced peloton of around sixty riders , with those delayed in several more groups a few minutes and more behind . With nearly all of their riders able to get through the chaos , Orica – GreenEDGE took up pace @-@ making on the front of the peloton , in the hopes of getting Goss the stage victory . The breakaway held a 15 @-@ second lead with 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to go , but it took until the final 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) to catch them , with Zabriskie holding off to 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 8 mi ) remaining . This set up the sprint , with Goss going first , while Sagan was nearly boxed in by Vacansoleil – DCM 's Kris Boeckmans as he suffered a snapped chain with 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) to go ; he made it round him and soon passed Greipel , who faded in the closing stages , and he picked up his third stage victory of his début Tour , becoming the fifteenth rider to do so . With Edvald Boasson Hagen ( Team Sky ) and Ryder Hesjedal ( Garmin – Sharp ) among those delayed , Sagan moved into the top ten overall along with Maxime Monfort ( RadioShack – Nissan ) , as Monfort 's teammate Fabian Cancellara maintained the overall lead once again .
= = Stage 7 = =
7 July 2012 — Tomblaine to La Planche des Belles Filles , 199 km ( 123 @.@ 7 mi )
The race entered the high mountains with a first @-@ time finish at 1 @,@ 035 m ( 3 @,@ 396 ft ) at the ski resort of La Planche des Belles Filles in the Vosges . After two third @-@ category climbs , the final climb was 5 @.@ 9 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) long and averaged 8 @.@ 5 % with places of the climbs reaching 14 – 20 % in the closing stages . Following on from the crash the previous day , five more riders abandoned the race prior to the stage ; Giro d 'Italia winner Ryder Hesjedal of Garmin – Sharp ( hip and leg ) , was joined on the sidelines by teammate Robert Hunter ( vertebrae ) , Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Hubert Dupont ( sprained ankle , fractures to vertebrae and radius ) , Movistar Team 's Iván Gutiérrez ( knee ) , and Euskaltel – Euskadi 's Amets Txurruka , who fractured his collarbone .
An initial breakaway of nineteen riders went clear after 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) , but it was eventually reduced to seven riders , representing seven different teams , by the time the race reached the 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) mark . They eventually established a lead of nearly six minutes around a third of the way through the stage ; by the intermediate sprint point in Gérardmer , it had been reduced by a minute , as Cyril Gautier ( Team Europcar ) took the twenty points for first over the line , and Peter Sagan ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) extended his points lead by one , as he beat Matthew Goss ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) in the main field sprint , for eighth place . Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Chris Anker Sørensen crossed both of the third @-@ category climbs first ahead of Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez , but the peloton started reducing their advantage by each passing kilometre . Astana 's Dmitry Fofonov launched an attack at the front , which dislodged Gautier from the lead group ; the peloton remained a minute in arrears , with Team Sky holding station and setting the tempo , protecting Bradley Wiggins from any danger .
Jurgen Van den Broeck of Lotto – Belisol , Movistar Team rider Alejandro Valverde , and Rabobank 's Robert Gesink encountered difficulties at this point , and would lose over a minute by the end of the day . Sørensen and Orica – GreenEDGE 's Michael Albasini were the last of the leaders to be caught , with just over 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining . Team Sky continued to break the peloton apart , and by the time the leaders had reached the flamme rouge , only five riders remained at the front – Wiggins and his teammate Chris Froome , BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans , Liquigas – Cannondale rider Vincenzo Nibali and Rein Taaramäe of Cofidis – for the closing kilometre . Evans hit the final corner first , but Froome looked strongest on the steepest part of the climb , and he eventually went past him and Wiggins , accelerating away to a two @-@ second time gap over his rivals . With RadioShack – Nissan 's Fabian Cancellara losing almost two minutes on the day , he surrendered the yellow jersey to Wiggins , who became the fifth British rider to wear the jersey , and first since David Millar in 2000 . Froome assumed the polka @-@ dot jersey thanks to the stage victory , while Taaramäe took the white jersey from Evans ' teammate Tejay van Garderen .
= = Stage 8 = =
8 July 2012 — Belfort to Porrentruy ( Switzerland ) , 157 @.@ 5 km ( 97 @.@ 9 mi )
The race entered Switzerland after 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) of the parcours , going through the Jura Mountains with a total of seven rated climbs including the first @-@ category Col de la Croix – the summit of which was at 789 m ( 2 @,@ 589 ft ) after a 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) , 9 @.@ 2 % average gradient climb – 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) before the finish in Porrentruy . Ten riders made the immediate breakaway from the peloton , but the gap that they had achieved was closed down by the Astana team ahead of the day 's first climb , the Côte de Bondeval . Jens Voigt of RadioShack – Nissan attacked off the front of the lead group to take the point on offer for the mountains classification , and was joined by several more riders on the descent ; however , the group only held a gap of twenty seconds at the 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) mark .
Jérémy Roy attacked from the peloton for FDJ – BigMat , and soon caught and passed Voigt on the road ; while in the peloton , Samuel Sánchez ( Euskaltel – Euskadi ) had to abandon the race , after crashing with teammate Jorge Azanza and Movistar Team 's Alejandro Valverde , and suffered a fractured metacarpal in his left hand . Roy was joined by Astana rider Fredrik Kessiakoff on the day 's fourth climb , the Côte de Saignelégier , while a 22 @-@ rider chase group formed behind the duo . Steven Kruijswijk ( Rabobank ) and Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Kevin De Weert left that group , and soon joined up with the two leaders on the Côte de Saulcy , before Kessiakoff left them behind , after attacking once again . He held a lead of 1 ' 45 " over the dwindling chase group on the penultimate climb , the Côte de la Caquerelle , and eventually the group had reduced to just French pairing Tony Gallopin ( RadioShack – Nissan ) and Roy 's teammate Thibaut Pinot , the youngest rider in the Tour .
Gallopin lost ground to Pinot on the final climb , and soon Pinot was chasing after Kessiakoff on the climb itself ; he ultimately caught him towards the summit of the climb . Kessiakoff could not stick with Pinot on the climb , with Pinot crossing the summit with a 12 @-@ second advantage over Kessiakoff . The group of overall contenders had also been reduced , with Lotto – Belisol 's Jelle Vanendert setting the tempo for teammate Jurgen Van den Broeck , around a minute @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half behind Pinot . With boisterous support from his team manager Marc Madiot , Pinot maintained an advantage of a minute into the final 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , as Kessiakoff was swept up by the small chasing group . Van Den Broeck and Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) looked to go clear in the closing stages , but they were brought back ; while at the front , Pinot soloed to a 26 @-@ second margin of victory , ahead of Evans , Gallopin and the rest of the group . Kessiakoff took the polka @-@ dot jersey from Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , as Froome 's teammate Bradley Wiggins maintained the overall lead into the following day 's individual time trial .
= = Stage 9 = =
9 July 2012 — Arc @-@ et @-@ Senans to Besançon , 41 @.@ 5 km ( 25 @.@ 8 mi ) , ( ITT )
The first of two lengthy individual time trial stages was fairly flat with rolling hills in the early kilometres before the parcours entered the valley of the River Doubs at Boussières . It was expected that the main contenders for the general classification were to emerge after this stage . As was customary of time trial stages , the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . Thus , Brice Feillu of Saur – Sojasun , who , in 178th place , trailed overall leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) by one hour , eleven minutes and thirty @-@ nine seconds , was the first rider to set off on the stage . Feillu ultimately recorded a time of 57 ' 33 " for the course , which was not bettered until the thirteenth rider to complete the course , Vacansoleil – DCM rider Gustav Larsson , who recorded a time over three minutes quicker than Feillu .
He completed the course in a time of 54 ' 19 " , and his time held for around an hour before his teammate Lieuwe Westra assumed top spot ; despite being ten seconds down on Larsson at the second intermediate time point , Westra completed the final portion of the course some twenty seconds quicker , and recorded a time of 54 ' 09 " . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Tony Martin , the world champion , was the next rider to assume the top spot , setting the first time underneath 54 minutes ; he set a time of 53 ' 40 " , despite riding with a fractured scaphoid bone in his left wrist and suffering a flat tyre in the opening 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of the stage . Fabian Cancellara of RadioShack – Nissan improved the quickest time benchmark ; he set the fastest time at each of the two intermediate time points on the stage , and having passed the rider who started three minutes before him on the road , Rabobank 's Bauke Mollema , Cancellara established a time for the course of 52 ' 21 " , beating Martin 's time by 1 ' 19 " .
His time was threatened by BMC Racing Team rider Tejay van Garderen , as he went beneath the time of Cancellara at each of the intermediate time checks , but faded towards the end and fell nine seconds outside of his target . Ultimately , only two riders beat Cancellara 's time , both riding for Team Sky . Chris Froome improved upon van Garderen 's times at the splits , but maintained his pace until the end , setting a time half a second inside 52 minutes , beating Cancellara 's time by 22 seconds . Wiggins went even quicker and by the time he had finished , he had put 35 seconds into his teammate with a time of 51 ' 24 " , winning his first Tour stage . Wiggins also put substantial time into his major general classification rivals , as the margin on the day ranged between 1 ' 43 " for Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) who finished sixth on the stage , and 3 ' 29 " for Cofidis rider Rein Taaramäe , who was 28th and lost the white jersey as leader of the young rider classification to van Garderen .
= = Stage 10 = =
11 July 2012 — Mâcon to Bellegarde @-@ sur @-@ Valserine , 194 @.@ 5 km ( 120 @.@ 9 mi )
After a rest day , the Tour remained in the Jura Mountains , with much of the day 's route the same as that followed on stage five of the 2012 Critérium du Dauphiné , including the Tour 's first passage over the hors catégorie climb of the Col du Grand Colombier ; a 17 @.@ 4 km ( 10 @.@ 8 mi ) long climb , reaching an altitude of 1 @,@ 501 m ( 4 @,@ 925 ft ) at an average gradient of 7 @.@ 1 % , but with sections in excess of 12 % . The Tour then passed over the 1 @,@ 051 m ( 3 @,@ 448 ft ) Col de Richemond , 20 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) before the finish ; the race descended towards Billiat before a gradual uphill finish in Bellegarde @-@ sur @-@ Valserine .
Several small attacks occurred in the early kilometres of the stage , and the peloton allowed the riders to establish an advantage off the front of the main field . It eventually amounted to some twenty @-@ five riders in the breakaway , including Lampre – ISD rider Michele Scarponi – the highest @-@ placed rider in the group , some ten minutes in arrears of race leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) – and the top two riders in the points classification , Liquigas – Cannondale 's Peter Sagan and Matthew Goss of Orica – GreenEDGE . After Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Michael Mørkøv took maximum points over the first climb of the day , the Côte de Corlier , the next focus was on the intermediate sprint point at Béon ; Sagan launched his sprint first but was beaten to the line by both Goss and FDJ – BigMat 's Yauheni Hutarovich , with Goss reducing Sagan 's lead in the standings to 27 points . The breakaway group split apart on the Col du Grand Colombier ; only Scarponi , Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler , Rabobank rider Luis León Sánchez and Dries Devenyns of Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step remained at the front .
Voeckler crossed the summit of the climb first , taking the 25 points on offer for the hors catégorie climb . The peloton crossed five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes later . Voeckler also took maximum points at the Col de Richemond , and as a result , took the polka @-@ dot jersey for the mountains classification lead from Astana rider Fredrik Kessiakoff . Sagan had dropped back to aid his teammate Vincenzo Nibali , who had attacked on the descent of the Col du Grand Colombier , but both riders were not to stay in front ahead of the Team Sky @-@ led peloton . RadioShack – Nissan 's Jens Voigt made up a minute on the lead quartet to join them , with around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining ; Devenyns looked to go clear in the closing stages , but Voeckler had kept most in hand to take his third career Tour stage victory , three seconds ahead of Scarponi and seven ahead of Voigt . Wiggins remained on the wheel of his closest rival , Cadel Evans of the BMC Racing Team , to maintain his 1 ' 53 " lead in the general classification into the Alps .
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= Amor Prohibido ( song ) =
" Amor Prohibido " ( English : Forbidden Love ) is a song recorded by American Tejano singer Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . Released as the lead single by EMI Latin on April 13 , 1994 , " Amor Prohibido " was written by Selena alongside her brother @-@ music producer A.B. Quintanilla and Selena y Los Dinos backup vocalist Pete Astudillo . Selena wanted to record a song about the true story of her grandparents — who fell in love despite being of different social classes . Since its release , the lyrical content and themes explored on " Amor Prohibido " has fostered various opinions by authors , musicologists , and journalists who found themes similar to those facing the LGBT community while others expressed it to be a Romeo & Juliet @-@ esque recording , among other popular interpretations of the song by the media .
" Amor Prohibido " is a Tejano cumbia dance @-@ pop song and received widespread acclaim from music critics who cited the single as one of the most popular tracks recorded by Selena . It peaked at number one on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks ; her first as a solo act , and became the most successful US Latin single of 1994 . " Amor Prohibido " received the Tejano Music Award for Single of the Year and was honored Regional Mexican Song of the Year at both the Lo Nuestro Awards and at the Billboard Latin Music Awards . The recording became the first Spanish @-@ language song to receive a Broadcast Pop Music Award in 1996 . Many musicians have since recorded the song and released it on their respective albums including Mexican pop singer Thalía , glam rock band Moderatto , Finnish singer Meiju Suvas , American entertainer Jennifer Lopez , Mexican pop singer Samo , and Broadway singer Shoshana Bean .
= = Background and production = =
The writing process for " Amor Prohibido " was requested by Selena , she wanted to record a song based on the true story of her grandparents — who fell in love despite being of different social classes . She pitched the idea to her brother – music producer A.B. Quintanilla who began co @-@ writing the track with her and Selena y Los Dinos backup vocalist Pete Astudillo . Recording sessions took place in a San Antonio , Texas recording studio . Her husband , Chris Pérez wrote , in his 2012 book about his and Selena 's relationship , that during the recording session for the song : " there was a noticeable difference between her voice on [ this song ] and [ the one 's on ] Entre a Mi Mundo ( 1992 ) , especially . I can 't say that it was an improvement , exactly , because I always thought that Selena 's voice sounded incredible . It 's just that her voice was richer and more mature than before , and her singing was more emotional and powerful as a result . "
During the recording sessions , Selena added the ad libitum " oh baby " onto " Amor Prohibido " , which A.B. believed the song would " not have been the same if she had not added the ' oh baby ' part . " In a 2002 interview , A.B. confessed to wanting " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " released as the lead single but found that Selena and EMI Latin pushed for " Amor Prohibido " instead . " Amor Prohibido " was released on April 13 , 1994 in the United States and Mexico .
= = Composition = =
= = = Instrumentation = = =
" Amor Prohibido " is a Spanish @-@ language Tejano cumbia dance @-@ pop song . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " Amor Prohibido " is a " synthesizer @-@ heavy cumbia piece that 's so catchy it 's sinful " . Tarradell also called the song " Tejano @-@ like " , and a " pop @-@ styled opus " . The Daily Democrat wrote that " Amor Prohibido " had a mixture of sounds that included a modernized version of cumbia music which itself added the sounds of guitars , accordions , bass guitar , flutes , drums , and other percussion . Paul Verna , singles editorial for Billboard magazine , called the song a " spunky cumbia " , while John Lannert , also from Billboard , called it a " peppy cumbia " . Written in the key of E minor , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 90 beats per minute . The song features a descending keyboard hook . Interviewed for the San Antonio Current , A.B. confessed that he added the cencerro which he believed grabbed Cubans and Puerto Rican people to gravitate towards Selena 's music . He further said that he played the cencerro in a salsa @-@ style and that it wasn 't " coincidental " . He believed by adopting this musical style to " Amor Prohbibido " and Selena 's repertoire , the singer " went from selling 25 @,@ 000 @-@ 50 @,@ 000 to more than 500 @,@ 000 . " copies of her albums .
= = = Lyrical interpretation = = =
Lyrically , musicologist Howard Blumenthal interpreted " Amor Prohibido " as a " love forbidden " story by an unprivileged girl who is separated by social class from her love interest and finds that true love is what really matters . Marco Torres of the Houston Press saw similarities between the lyrical content of " Amor Prohibido " and that of Selena 's and Pérez 's relationship — who were banned from having a romantic relationship because Pérez was a rocker by Selena 's father – manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ; who later accepted the relationship . The lyrics have also drawn similarities among female teenagers ' " trouble " partners and their parents forbidding their relationship .
The lyrical content of " Amor Prohibido " has foster various opinions from several authors , journalist , and musicologist who found themes in the lyrics to those facing the LGBT community . It has since become an anthem for the LGBT community because of its lyrics . According to Deborah Paredez in her 2009 book Selenidad , the lyrics of " Amor Prohibido " invokes " a legibly queer text " that resonates with the LGBT community . This was echoed by Emma Perez in her book The Decolonial Imaginary : Writing Chicanas into History ( 1999 ) , who found that the LGBT community reconceptualized the song and found that the recording was most popular with drag queens at nightclubs . Perez further explained that the lyrical content of forbidden love between two people of different social class was altered with prohibited love between same @-@ sex couples . Alejandra Molina of The Orange County Register reported on a tribute to Selena by LGBT fans in Santa Ana , California who found the singer 's songs to be " ambiguous " and that " Amor Prohibido " was interpreted " as a love that is forbidden due to a person 's sexuality , race or class . "
Other music critics have called the song a Romeo & Juliet @-@ esque recording with society opposing a relationship based on socio @-@ economic status or a look into modern society 's views on romantic relationships . Author Ellie D. Hernández wrote in her book about Chicano culture that " Amor Prohibido " spoke of " social and cultural desire that transcends the boundaries of romantic love " . Hernández believed that the central theme of the song dwells on social divisions , class , and race " that divides [ Selena ] from her beloved . " which " suggests hegemonic crisis informing Selena 's lamentations . " Hernández believes that the lyrics spoke about modern societal views on romantic relationships and that one must " live in accordance " to those views or face " emotional banishment from her family and culture . " Hernández ended her interpretation of the lyrics that " risking everything for this love is not at all an innocent choice but a decision abundant with agency and consciousness that begins as a consequence of the forbidden . "
= = Critical reception = =
The majority of contemporary reviews were positive , with " Amor Prohibido " receiving a widespread critical acclaim . In Chican @ s in the Conversations ( 2007 ) , Elizabeth Rodriguez Kessler and Anne Perrin called the song " soap- operaish " . South African magazine Drum , called " Amor Prohibido " a " gently rocking song " . Leila Cobo , head of the Latin music editorial division of Billboard magazine , called the song " catchy " . Marco Torres of the Houston Press called " Amor Prohibido " Selena 's " most personal song " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune , wrote that " Amor Prohibido " had " a bit more contemporary snap to it . " Mary Talbot of The New York Daily News , wrote that " Amor Prohibido " and " Como la Flor " ( 1992 ) are " two straight @-@ up Tejano hits " and believed it to have been " requiem to Selena 's career " . Michael Clark of the Houston Chronicle , wrote that A.B. " added even more world @-@ music flourishes " to " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , and " Fotos y Recuerdos " . John Lannert , from Billboard , called " Amor Prohibido " a " great smash " during its reign atop the Hot Latin Songs chart . BuzzFeed contributor Brian Galindo , called the song an " awesome ode to star @-@ crossed lovers everywhere . " Ashley Velez of Neon Tommy called the track " a true testament to the forbidden love " which " proves that love conquers all . "
The Daily Vault called the song a " seamless track " . Ed Morales wrote that " Amor Prohibido " is a " classic mass market hit that inhabits the memory , easily floating in the summer air of radios on the streets . " Don McLeese of the Austin American Statesmen , called the recording " compelling " . Ramiro Burr , also a Latin music editorial for Billboard magazine , believed that the song " marked Selena 's ascendancy " . Burr , also writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , wrote that " [ Selena ] balanced torchy ballads full of hurt and pain such as " Amor Prohibido " with fun dance cumbias with a sense of humor . " Burr wrote in the San Antonio Express @-@ News that " songs such as " Baila Esta Cumbia , " " La Carcacha , " " Como la Flor " and " Amor Prohibido " had that instant appeal , that memorable melodic hook . " , and that " Amor Prohibido " and " No Me Queda Más " were " heartbreaking ballads " . Texas Monthly editor Joe Nick Patoski called " Amor Prohibido " the " perfect pop cumbia " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Amor Prohibido " debuted on the Hot Latin Songs chart at number 13 on the week of April 23 , 1994 . It its second week on the chart , the song climbed to number five . " Amor Prohibido " remained at number four for two consecutive weeks , starting on the week of May 7 , 1994 . When " Amor Prohibido " climbed to the third slot of the Hot Latin Songs chart on the week of May 21 , 1994 , John Lannert predicted that it would top the chart in two weeks . The song peaked at number one on the week of June 11 , 1994 , depositing La Mafia 's " Vida " from the top spot , which in turn dethroned Selena 's collaboration with the Barrio Boyzz 's single " Donde Quiera Que Estés " on May 7 , 1994 . In its fourth week atop the chart , Lannert pointed out that there were " no challengers in sight " and predicted that it would remain atop for an additional two weeks . During its fifth week atop the Hot Latin Songs chart , Lannert noticed that Cuban singer Jon Secada 's " Si Te Vas " single was climbing the charts and believe it would knock " Amor Prohibido " off the top in three weeks . On its seven week atop the chart , Secada 's " Si Te Vas " climbed to the second position and Ricardo Montaner 's single " Quisiera " jumped to the third position , Lannert predicted any two would displace " Amor Prohibido " from the top spot in the coming weeks . The following week , Lannert provided data inquires for " Amor Prohibido " showing that the single " no longer appears to be under threat " even though it lost 65 points from the Nielsen ratings ; it had a wide gap of 350 points from Secada 's number two single " Si Te Vas " . After nine weeks atop the Hot Latin Songs chart , " Amor Prohibido " was displaced by Secada 's " Si Te Vas " on the week of August 13 , 1994 . Selena had the most successful singles of 1994 with " Amor Prohibido " .
Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. clothing boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . Four of her singles , " No Me Queda Más " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " Como la Flor " , and " Amor Prohibido " , re @-@ entered the Hot Latin Tracks and the Regional Mexican Airplay chart in the issue dated April 15 , 1995 on Billboard magazine . Billboard magazine posthumously named Selena the Top Artist of the 1990s , due to her fourteen top @-@ ten singles in the Hot Latin Songs chart ( including seven number @-@ one hits ) .
= = Legacy = =
" Amor Prohibido " is Selena 's best @-@ selling cumbia single , according to sales figures analyzed by Guadalupe San Miguel in 2002 . The song also became the singer 's " biggest hit of her career " for staying atop the Hot Latin Songs chart for twelve nonconsecutive weeks . Music critics have called " Amor Prohibido " Selena 's " best known " recording and love track and as well as one of her signature songs or her most successful single . Emmanuel Hapsis wrote on the KQED @-@ FM radio webpage that anyone visiting a karaoke bar will most likely hear someone sing " Amor Prohibido " or her posthumously released single " Dreaming of You " ( 1995 ) . To date , " Amor Prohibido " continues to receive extensive airplay in South Texas and at Tejano nightclubs . Sales of Amor Prohibido and its titular single represented Tejano music 's first commercial success in Puerto Rico . " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , a 2002 promotional single released from Ones , is a mash @-@ up of " Amor Prohibido " , " Si Una Vez " and " Como la Flor " , which was released to favorable criticism . An editor from La Prensa believed Selena had put an " imprint on popular music " because of " Amor Prohibido " , " La Carcacha " , " Como la Flor " , and " La Llamada " . In November 2012 , Mexican comedian La Coacha released a satire video replicating the music video of " Amor Prohibido " for American actor Ryan Gosling . María Herrera @-@ Sobek wrote in her book Chicano folklore : a handbook that " Como la Flor " and " Amor Prohibido " achieved national and international success . Burr also believed " Amor Prohibido " , among other chart @-@ topping Selena songs , is her " fans favorite " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News believed , among other singles also released from the same album , that " the doors were wide open " when " Amor Prohibido " was released . Sally Jacobs of the Sun Sentinel wrote that " Amor Prohibido " is immensely popular in Spanish @-@ speaking countries .
The song has received a number of awards and nominations including winning the Broadcast Pop Music Awards twice in 1995 and 1996 . " Amor Prohibido " became the first and only Spanish @-@ language recording to win a Broadcast Music Award in the pop category based on radio performances . The track also won the Regional Mexican Song of the Year at the 1994 Billboard Latin Music Awards . It won the same category at the 1995 Lo Nuestro Awards . At the 1995 Tejano Music Awards , it won Single of the Year . During the decade @-@ ballots at the 2010 Tejano Music Awards , " Amor Prohibido " was nominated for Best 1990s Songs , though " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " won the award . Since its release , the song has been included on many music critics " best of Selena songs " list including the Latino Post ( at number five ) , OC Weekly ( at number one ) , BuzzFeed ( at number two ) , Latina ( at number two ) , and Neon Tommy ( at number two ) .
Salsa singer Yolanda Duke recorded the song for the tribute album Familia RMM Recordando a Selena ( 1996 ) . Mexican pop singer Thalía performed and recorded " Amor Prohibido " for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . The song was later included in her album El Sexto Sentido ( 2005 ) . On March 30 , 2013 , the singer performed a " bouncy " version of the song during her Houston , Texas concert . Mexican singer Yuridia performed " Amor Prohibido " in 2014 during her Tour Essential . American trio Brisa recorded " Amor Ilegal " , which was influenced by " Amor Prohibido " and became a popular radio song in Ecuador . Mexican Spanish @-@ language pop rock band Moderatto recorded the song for their album Malditos Pecadores ( 2014 ) . Colombian singer Shakira sung the verse – chorus during an interview in 2002 for Univision 's Otro Rollo . Finnish recording artist Meiju Suvas , recorded the song in Finnish called " Kielletty Rakkus " . Mexican singer Samo recorded a duet version of " Amor Prohibido " for the 2012 posthumous remix album Enamorada de Ti . Samo told the Ecuadoran newspaper El Telégrafo that he had always dreamed of recording a duet with Selena and that " Amor Prohibido " was one of his favorite songs . He said he felt the " presence of Selena " as soon as he put his headphones on and began recording . Joey Guerra of the San Antonio Express @-@ News believed that the duet version " proved a solid preview for the album " and that its " wistful lyrics work nicely as a duet with Samo " . Guerra described the song as a " gentle pop @-@ rock arrangement " and felt that this arrangement might have been how it was intended . Nilan Lovelace of Reporter Magazine called the duet version of " Amor Prohibido " an " album favorite " and believed it to be the type of music that Selena would be recording today . Other artists who recorded or covered the song includes Broadway singer Shoshana Bean , African American entertainer Keke Palmer , and American entertainer Jennifer Lopez released as " A Selena Tribute " ( 2015 ) .
= = Charts = =
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= LW9 =
LW9 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC for people with upper and lower limb function problems , and includes cerebral palsy skiers classified CP5 , CP6 and CP7 , along with people with hemiplegia or amputations . For international skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . This classification is separated into two subclasses including LW9.1 and LW9.2.
Para @-@ Alpine skiers in this classification have their choice regarding how many skis and ski poles they wish to user , along with the type of ski poles they wish to utilize . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , skiers use two skis and have an option to use one or two ski poles . Outriggers are one type of ski pole LW9 skiers can use , which requires its own techniques to use . As there are a broad range of disabilities in this class , different skiing techniques are learned by competitors . Skiers missing an arm use a technique that corrects lateral balance issues resulting from the missing arm . Skiers with cerebral palsy have the introduction of ski poles delayed as skiers may overgrip them .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . During the 2011 / 2012 para @-@ Alpine ski season , the LW9.1 factoring was 0 @.@ 855 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8648 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 867 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8769 for downhill , and for LW9.2 was 0 @.@ 9287 for slalom , 0 @.@ 9439 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9443 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9552 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 85 @-@ 95 % for classic and 82 @-@ 96 % for free . This classification has competed in its own separate events at the Paralympics and World Championships during the 1990s , but this changed during the 2000s . Skiers in this classification include Australian James Patterson , and French LW9.2 skier Solène Jambaqué .
= = Definition = =
This standing classification is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . LW9 is a standing classification for people with upper and lower limb function problems . This classification is open for skiers with cerebral palsy or a similar neurological condition as long as it affects one leg and one arm .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as competitors typically having " one upper @-@ limb and one lower @-@ limb amputation skiing with the equipment of their choice . " This classification has two subclasses , LW9.1 and LW9.2. In July 1997 , at the World Cup Technical Meeting for para @-@ Alpine skiing , this class was subdivided into two classes in order to improve factoring for the range of disabilities found within the class at the time . In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee described this classification as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , two poles , combination of disability in an arm and a leg . "
For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this class for " those with a combination of impairments in both the upper and lower extremities . " Para @-@ Nordic skiers in this class would be eligible for LW4 and LW8 based on the relevant upper and lower body disability . Cross Country Canada described this classification for para @-@ Nordic as " A combination of impairment in both upper and lower extremities . Impairment in one arm and one leg meeting the criteria of LW4 and LW8 , or cerebral palsy or neurological impairment that presents in a similar way to cerebral palsy affecting at least one arm and one leg . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = = LW9.1 = = =
LW9.1 is for people with upper extremity issues and above the knee amputation or similar problem with the issues and includes people classes CP7 who have severe hemiplegia . CP7 includes people with incomplete use of their fingers , wrists , and elbows , and is defined by the American College of Sports Medicine as " Involvement hemiplegic ; walk / run with limp . Good function unaffected side . " Hemoplegia is damage on one side of the brain that results in paralysis on the other side of the body .
= = = LW9.2 = = =
LW9.2 is for skiers with an upper extremity issue and below knee amputation or comparable disability ; it includes people classes CP7 who have slight to moderate hemiplegia .
= = Equipment = =
Para @-@ alpine skiers in this classification have their choice regarding how many skis and ski poles they wish to use , along with the type of ski poles they wish to utilize , which may include outriggers . The rules FIS rules governing ski boots and bindings are not enforced for this class , with different requirements than rules that apply to that equipment for able @-@ bodied competitors . For below the knee amputees in this class , their ski boot may have their prosthetic leg built into it . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , skiers use two skis and have an option to use one or two ski poles .
Across both types of skiing , LW9 competitors use skis that would be slightly longer than if they were able @-@ bodied . If they are using outriggers , these are fitted to the skier based the height of the skier 's hip joint when the skier is standing . While learning to ski , skiers in this class with cerebral palsy may use ski @-@ bras , bungi cords , outriggers , slant boards or toe boards . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
Outriggers are used to stop using a technique that involves bringing the skiers elbows from their raised position down to their hips while pushing the outriggers down . When using the outrigger , skiers do not rotate their arms as this changes the location of the ski on the snow .
Skiers missing an arm use a technique that corrects lateral balance issues resulting from the missing arm . A skier with an above the knee amputation may have a better ability to complete turns on the opposite of their amputation . Skiers with hemiplegia have to be trained to use both sides of their body equally . If they do not , they are likely to fall over when their skis cross in front of them .
One of the skiing techniques used by this class is called the three track method , and was developed as part of the American Training System . For skiers with an amputation , one of the first skills learned using this technique is how to walk with the ski so the skier can learn how to flex the ankle , knee and hip . This allows the skier to determine their centre of gravity . The skier is then taught how hop turn in order to understand arm and leg coordination while on skis . This technique is only used while stationary and is not a competition skill . The skier next learns how to fall down and get back up again . The next skill learned is climbing gentle terrain , followed by learning to go down a straight run and learning to stop . After this , the skier learns how to get on and off a ski lift . This is followed by learning how to traverse the fall line , which teaches the skier how to maintain the ski edge . Other skills are then taught including the Uphill Christie , beginning turns , parallel turns , short swings and moguls .
In teaching skiers with cerebral palsy , instructors are encouraged to delay the introduction ski poles as skiers may overgrip them . Use of a ski bra is also encouraged as it helps the skier learn correct knee and hip placement . One method of learning to ski for competitors with cerebral palsy in this classification is the American Teaching System . They first thing skiers learn is what their equipment is , and how to put it on and take it off . Next , skiers learn about positioning their body in a standing position on flat terrain . After this , the skier learns how to side step , and then how to fall down and get back up again . The skier then learns how to do a straight run , and then is taught how to get on and off the chair lift . This is followed by learning wedge turns and weight transfers , wedge turns , wide track parallel turns , how to use ski poles , and advanced parallel turns .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for LW9 using the classic technique was 85 @-@ 95 % and percentage for free was 82 @-@ 95 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 85 @-@ 95 % for classic and 82 @-@ 96 % for free technique . The factoring for LW9.0 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 8366 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8451 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8477 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8573 for downhill . During the 2011 / 2012 para @-@ Alpine ski season , the LW9.1 factoring was 0 @.@ 855 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8648 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 867 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8769 for downhill , and for LW9.2 was 0 @.@ 9287 for slalom , 0 @.@ 9439 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9443 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9552 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 85 @-@ 95 % for classic and 82 @-@ 96 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last .
During competition , LW9 skiers cannot use a limb not in a ski for competitive advantage to gain speed or keep balance by putting it in the snow . If they do so , the rules state they will be disqualified from the event .
= = Events = =
This classification has competed in its own separate events at the Paralympics and World Championships during the 1990s , but this changed during the 2000s . At the 1994 Winter Paralympics , events for this classification included the Downhill and Giant Slalom , and was not grouped with others for medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships in Lech , Austria , medals were awarded for skiers in this class , who were not grouped with other skiers . The 1998 Winter Paralympics featured the same events as the 1994 Games , and the same class groupings . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , LW3 , LW5 / 7 and LW9 were grouped for the men 's downhill , slalom , Giant Slalom and Super @-@ G events . On the women 's side of the para @-@ Alpine programme , LW3 , LW4 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 were grouped for the downhill and Super @-@ G events , while LW3 , LW4 , and LW9 were grouped for the slalom and Giant Slalom events . At the 2004 World Championships , LW3 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 classified women all skied in together during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were no women and six men from this class the standing downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this classification include Australian James Patterson , French LW9.2 skier Solène Jambaqué , and 1998 New Zealander 2006 Winter Paralympian Mathew Butson .
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= Vogue ( Ayumi Hamasaki song ) =
" Vogue " ( uncapitalized as " vogue " ) is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki for her third studio album , Duty ( 2000 ) . It was written by Hamasaki , while production was handled by Max Matsuura . It premiered on April 26 , 2000 as the lead single from the album . Her third consecutive lead single to be produced by Matsuura , the song is part of a trilogy from Duty ; the other two singles being " Far Away " and " Seasons " .
Musically , " Vogue " was described as a Japanese pop song with musical elements of Latin pop . The lyrics discusses her presence in the music industry . Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised the composition and Hamasaki 's song writing . It also achieved success in Japan , peaking at number three on the Oricon Singles Chart and four on the TBS Count Down TV chart . " Vogue " has sold over 767 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
The accompanying music video for " Vogue " was directed by Wataru Takeishi ; it features two children in a post @-@ apocalyptic city , reading a book that contains video imagery of Hamasaki in a cherry blossom field . Both the music video and the song has appeared on several compilations by Hamasaki , including A Best ( 2001 ) and A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) . For additional promotion , the song was featured on several concert tours by Hamasaki including her 2000 self @-@ titled and the Power of Music tour .
= = Background and release = =
" Vogue " was written by Hamasaki , while production was handled by Japanese musician Max Matsuura . The song was composed and arranged by long @-@ term collaborator Kazuhito Kikuchi , whilst Japanese musician Naoto Suzuki co @-@ arranged it . This was Kikuchi 's final collaboration with Hamasaki , until he returned as the main composer for her sixth studio album , My Story ( 2004 ) . For the track 's instrumentation , Suzuki played the keyboards , Naoki Hayashibe played the guitar , and Takahiro Iida mixed the final composition . It was selected as the lead single from Duty , and was released on April 26 , 2000 by Avex Trax .
The maxi CD of the single contains the original composition and its instrumental version , plus seven remixes and the b @-@ side " Ever Free " . " Vogue " is her first single to include an unreleased non @-@ album b @-@ side since her 1999 single " Depend on You " , and remains her final to do so . As a single from the Duty trilogy , which included Hamasaki 's singles " Far Away " and " Seasons " , the singles were released as a DVD single and VHS . It included the three mini @-@ music videos , alongside the making of the videos and a TV commercial . The CD and digital cover sleeve has a close @-@ up of Ayumi Hamasaki 's face , edited with digital effects . The song 's title , " Vogue " , is present on cover . According to Matt Wilce from Metropolis magazine , the song 's title was influenced by the same titular song by American recording artist Madonna . The standalone CD cover was used as the digital EP cover for the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.
= = Composition = =
" Vogue " was recorded in 2000 at Avex Studios and Prime Sound Studios in Tokyo , Japan . The song was described as a Japanese pop song with musical elements of Latin pop . As part of the trilogy set with " Far Away " and " Seasons " , " Vogue " highlights the theme of the present . With this , " Far Away " details the past and " Seasons " discusses Hamasaki 's future . The trilogy set also focuses on hopelessness , a reflection of Hamasaki 's disappointment that she had not expressed herself thoroughly in any of her previous songs . Based on her song writing , she described her feelings after the writing all the tracks from Duty as " unnatural " and was constantly " nervous " for the final result . A staff reviewer from Amazon Japan noticed the trilogy set had a " healing effect " that was absent on Hamasaki 's two previous studio albums .
= = Critical response = =
" Vogue " received highly favourable reviews from music critics . Alexey Eremenko , who had written her extended biography at AllMusic , highlighted the song as an album and career stand out track . A staff reviewer from Yahoo ! GeoCities reviewed Hamasaki 's greatest hits album A Best , and singled out the song as one of her best tracks . They commented that " Vogue " was the best examples of " classic J @-@ pop music . " Morimosa from Nifty.com complimented Hamasaki 's song writing ; he compared the song writing to the rest of the songs from Duty , and commended how she inducted a " pessimistic " nature rather than " anxiety " or " aggression " . Hamasaki hosted an online voting poll for fans to choose their favourite tracks to be featured on her Ayumi Hamasaki 15th Anniversary Tour . As a result , " Vogue " was included on the list . The song was remixed as an orchestral song for her remix album ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Acoustic Orchestra Version ( 2003 ) , and was commended alongside other tracks for its " rich melody " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In Japan , " Vogue " debuted at number three on the Oricon Singles Chart . It lasted for seventeen weeks on the chart , selling 767 @,@ 660 units by the end of 2000 . This became Hamasaki 's third highest selling single at the time . Currently , the song is Hamasaki 's eighth best selling single , according to Oricon Style . The DVD single , released under the title of Vogue / Far Away / Seasons reached at number one on the Oricon DVD Chart , spending seventeen weeks in the top fifty . It is Hamasaki 's second best selling DVD single , and her eighth best seller overall . " Vogue " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 800 @,@ 000 units . The single entered at number four on Japan 's TBS Count Down TV Chart ; it stayed there for two consecutive weeks , and lasted seventeen weeks in the chart . " Vogue " was placed at number twenty @-@ five on their Annual Count Down TV chart in 2000 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi . Because the music video was part of the trilogy set with " Far Away " and " Seasons " , only a portion of the song was shot for the video . As a result , the video for " Vogue " lasts for two minutes and fifty @-@ one seconds . The artwork for the single was a screen shoot from the music video . Two out take shots from the video were then used for the artworks for " Far Away " and " Seasons " . The music video was included on the DVD and VHS formats of the three singles . The music video also appeared on Hamasaki 's DVD compilation box sets : A Clips Vol.2 ( 2002 ) , Complete Clip Box ( 2004 ) , A Clip Box 1998 – 2011 ( 2011 ) , and the bonus DVD version with A Complete : All Singles .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with two children walking through an post @-@ apocalyptic world , with industrial cites in the background . The two children are barred in with barded wire fences . Hamasaki then appears inside a photo album , singing the song in front of cherry blossom trees . Hamasaki 's scenes are inter cuts that are featured throughout the entire video . The two children escape by crawling under the fence , but are being watched by camera surveillance .
They are free and start to run around a hilly surface , only to see more industrial cites blowing out fumes in the distance . The two children find an unusual object buried in the sands surface and dig it up . They find an electronic @-@ powered crate , open it , and find a blank photo album . The photo album starts to show the cherry trees from where Hamasaki is singing from , and finally watch Hamasaki singing . The last chorus features Hamasaki singing , fully colored , with the children flipping each page to observe the flowers where Hamasaki is singing from . The final scene features a destructed Empire State Building in the distance , with Hamasaki in the middle of the land by herself ; this scene then leds onto the music video for " Far Away " .
= = Live performances and other appearances = =
Hamasaki has performed " Vogue " on several concert tours and New Years countdown shows throughout Asia . It has been included in all of Hamasaki 's New Years countdown concerts up until the Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2006 – 2007 A. The song made its debut tour performance on Hamasaki 's 2000 Japan Concert Tour . It appeared on her 2002 Stadium Tour and The Power of Music Tour . The song 's last live performance was her 2014 Ayumi Hamasaki Premium Showcase : Feel the love , in which was supported by her 2014 studio album Colours . The song has been included on two of her greatest hits compilations , which are A Best ( 2002 ) , and A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) ,
" Vogue " was remixed by several professional disc jockeys and producers , and has appeared on several remix albums by Hamasaki . The remixes include the Computerhell and Junkie XL remix on ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Non @-@ Stop Mega Mix Version ( 2001 ) and Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 4 + Selection Non @-@ Stop Mega Mix Version ( 2002 ) , the Dave Rodgers remix on Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix 2 ( 2001 ) , the Traditional remix on Rmx Works from Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix 3 ( 2003 ) , and the Groove Coverage remix on Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 7 Presents Ayu Trance 4 ( 2011 ) . The orchestral acoustic remix , and its instrumental version , was included on her third orchestral remix album , ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Acoustic Orchestra Version ( 2001 ) . It was used as the theme song for Japanese cosmetics brand Kose Visee , and the b @-@ side track " Ever Free " was used as the theme song for the 2000 Japanese TV series Tenki Yohou no Koibito .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the singles liner notes :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Interception of the Rex =
The interception of the Rex was a training exercise and military aviation achievement of the United States Army Air Corps prior to World War II . The tracking and location of an ocean @-@ going vessel by B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses on 12 May 1938 was a major event in the development of a doctrine that led to a United States Air Force independent of the Army . The mission was ostensibly a training exercise for coastal defense of the United States , but was conceived by planners to be a well @-@ publicized demonstration of the capabilities of " heavy bombers ( as ) long range instruments of power " .
The flight was conducted during coastal defense maneuvers held by the Air Corps without the participation of the United States Navy , and apparently without understanding of their purpose by the Army Chief of Staff . Both had continuing disagreements with the leaders of the Air Corps over roles and missions , with the Navy disputing its maritime mission and the Army seeking to limit its role to that of supporting ground forces .
With a characteristic flair for creating publicity , the Air Corps ' General Headquarters Air Force ( its combat organization ) not only successfully made the interception at sea , but exploited both live radio news coverage and dramatic photographs . Although the publicity resulted in a short @-@ term setback for Air Corps ambitions , within a year both U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and future Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall became new proponents of long @-@ range air power .
= = Background = =
= = = Ostfriesland = = =
In July 1921 , promoting the concept of an independent Air Force , Gen. Billy Mitchell staged a series of aerial bombing exercises that resulted in the sinking of the former German battleship Ostfriesland by the U.S. Air Service . Although he incurred the enmity of the Navy , which considered the achievement nothing more than a publicity stunt , Mitchell continued to discredit the value of the battleship as the main weapon for projection of power by sinking several more obsolete ships in the next two years . However the Air Service was limited by Army policy to being an auxiliary of the ground forces and was unable to obtain a role that would employ the use of long distance bombers .
= = = The " Shasta Disaster " = = =
When the Air Service was renamed the Air Corps in 1926 , the Joint Army @-@ Navy Board was in the process of reconsidering service responsibilities in coastal defense . Both Chief of Air Corps Major General Mason Patrick and Rear Admiral William A. Moffett , Chief of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics , resisted any restrictions on range or missions for their respective services ' aircraft . The resulting Joint Action statement was vague regarding Air Corps actions over water but " left the door open " for the Navy 's interpretation of its own authority , which was that the shore @-@ based coastal patrol mission was its prerogative . Efforts by the War Department to clarify the issue were rebuffed by the Navy to the extent that the Secretary of War warned President Herbert Hoover in 1930 that the situation was endangering national defense .
On 7 January 1931 , Army Chief of Staff Gen. Douglas MacArthur and Navy CNO Adm. William V. Pratt reached an agreement modifying the Joint Action statement by assigning the coastal defense role for land @-@ based aircraft to the Air Corps . This came at a time when the Air Corps was seeking a mission to justify the development of all @-@ metal monoplane bombers , and theorists at the Air Corps Tactical School were advocating the use of long @-@ range heavy bombers . In August of that year , to garner publicity and generate favorable public opinion , Lt.Col. Frank M. Andrews , on the staff of outgoing Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. James Fechet , proposed to bomb another ship during joint maneuvers with the Navy off the coast of North Carolina . Before the mission Col. Roy Kirtland , the base commander at Langley Field , cautioned reporters that the operation was to be only a bombing exercise using small bombs , and that " nothing spectacular " should be expected .
The United States Shipping Board made available a World War I cargo ship , the 4865 gross ton USS Mount Shasta , that had been tied up in the James River for a decade . An Army mine vessel towed the hulk to sea 60 nautical miles ( 111 km ) off Currituck Beach Light . The next morning , August 11 , Major Harbert A. Dargue led nine B @-@ 3A and B @-@ 5 bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group , little different from the Martin NBS @-@ 1s that had destroyed the Ostfriesland , to locate and attack the Mount Shasta , but a combination of bad weather and failed communications resulted in the planes being unable to locate the ship . Worse , the failure was witnessed by several dozen reporters , movie newsreel crews , a broadcast team from NBC radio , and observers from both the Army and Navy , some aboard airplanes that did find the ship . The Navy responded immediately with scornful public mocking of the effort . When a second attempt three days later scored only a few hits with inadequately small 300- and 600 @-@ pound bombs , and failed to sink the Mount Shasta , a pair of United States Coast Guard ocean @-@ going tugboats used small guns to sink it .
Despite its earlier disclaimer and subsequent explanations , the Air Corps was highly embarrassed by the incident , referred to as " the bombing flop " within the service . Navy Captain Dudley Knox dubbed it " the Shasta Disaster " , and the New York Evening Post commented that " the Navy evened up an old score " . Hanson W. Baldwin , military editor of the New York Times and a Naval Academy graduate , averred that it was " illustrative of the inefficiency of land @-@ based pilots over water . " As a result , Andrews and six subordinates were replaced by incoming Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Benjamin Foulois , and the Secretary of War recommended that the Air Corps ' budget be slashed . Andrews and Lt.Col. Henry H. Arnold ( executive officer of the Air Materiel Division at Wright Field ) , however , expressed concerns about the apparent lack of capability and possible failures in Air Corps training demonstrated by the fiasco .
Two months later a second opportunity presented itself . Another old ship , the Haines , sank in shallow water while being towed off Plum Tree Island and became a hazard to navigation . The 2nd Bombardment Group redeemed itself by completely destroying the derelict from the air , even though their only visible target was a ten @-@ foot @-@ square float marker . This accomplishment , however , went entirely unpublicized .
Regardless of the MacArthur @-@ Pratt agreement , the Navy had gone ahead with development of land @-@ based patrol aircraft and expansion of its naval air stations , and in 1933 formally repudiated the agreement after Adm. Pratt retired . On 11 September 1935 , the Joint Board , at the behest of the Navy and the concurrence of Gen. MacArthur , issued a revised Joint Action statement that reasserted the limited role of all Air Corps missions , including coastal defense , as auxiliary to the " mobile Army " . However , long @-@ range bomber advocates interpreted its language to mean that the Air Corps could conduct long @-@ range reconnaissance , attack approaching fleets , reinforce distant bases , and attack enemy air bases , all in furtherance of its mission to prevent an air attack on America .
= = = Joint Air Exercise No. 4 = = =
On 4 March 1937 , the 2nd Bombardment Group , now commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Olds , received the first of the newly developed B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers , with 12 delivered during the spring and summer of 1937 . Designated the YB @-@ 17 because of its prototype status , the Flying Fortress was the first multi @-@ engine long @-@ range bomber acquired by the Air Corps , despite resistance from the Army General Staff over its necessity , and the centerpiece of the General Headquarters Air Force ( GHQ Air Force ) .
The B @-@ 17s made their first significant operational contribution during Joint Air Exercise No. 4 , an Army @-@ Navy summer maneuver conducted at sea west of San Francisco , California . Authorized by a directive of President Roosevelt issued 10 July 1937 , the exercise used the target ship Utah to represent a hostile fleet of two battleships , an aircraft carrier , and nine destroyers . A patrol wing of 30 Navy planes commanded by Rear Admiral Ernest J. King was assigned to locate the fleet , after which a force of 41 Air Corps bombers ( including seven B @-@ 17s operating from March Field ) would attack it . War Department orders limited the Air Corps aircraft to operating no more than 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ) offshore , even though the directive had specified an exercise area out to 500 nautical miles ( 930 km ) .
The exercise began at noon on 12 August 1937 and was scheduled to end in 24 hours . After several hours of searching through a foggy undercast that extended 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) offshore , Navy planes found the Utah 275 nautical miles ( 510 km ) from the coast and tracked it heading northwest . Air Corps bombers were sent to attack the ship but searched well into the evening without locating it . Admiral King then found an error in the Navy 's position reports , which he later attributed to " clerical error " . The Utah had actually been 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ) west of the search area provided to the Air Corps . Worse , the ship disappeared into the extensive low fog during the night , breaking the contact by the Navy 's scout planes . The poor weather also prevented an early morning search for the Utah .
Brig. Gen. Delos Emmons , commander of the GHQ Air Force 's 1st Wing , dispatched bombers at 0900 on 13 August to search an area of 30 @,@ 000 square miles ( 78 @,@ 000 km2 ) entirely covered by low clouds . Olds surmised that the Utah had feinted towards San Francisco , then reversed course to attack the industrial Los Angeles area . Accompanied by Maj. Gen. Frank Andrews ( commanding the GHQ Air Force ) , he flew in the lead B @-@ 17 above the clouds , patrolling an area 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) offshore . A Navy patrol aircraft located the Utah at 11 : 00 steaming southeast 285 nautical miles ( 530 km ) off the coast . The 2nd BG bombers responded to the position report and located the Utah shortly before the noon termination of the exercise . From an altitude of 400 feet they attacked the former battleship with Navy @-@ supplied water bombs .
When the Navy protested the low @-@ altitude attack , claiming that evasive action could have avoided the attack , both B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 18s repeated the mission the next day . They found the Utah and bombed it , with the B @-@ 17s bombing from 18 @,@ 000 feet . The Air Corps produced photographs and bombing data that showed it achieved a higher percentage of hits and near @-@ misses than earlier Navy tests , and the Navy subsequently had the exercise classified " Secret " . The joint report sent to the president by the secretaries of the Navy and War omitted the information showing the success both in navigation and bombing . Despite the secrecy restriction , the success of the B @-@ 17s was leaked to radio commentator Boake Carter , who disclosed it to the public .
In an attempt to overcome this compartmentalization , Andrews bypassed the chain of command on 8 January 1938 , in a memorandum of his own regarding a minor joint air exercise held in November 1937 off the Virginia Capes . There four B @-@ 17s had found and successfully bombed Navy target vessels . Andrews sent a memo directly to Roosevelt 's military aide , Col. Edwin M. Watson , that included confidential Navy memoranda confirming the accuracy of the Army 's bombing .
= = Intercepting the Rex = =
= = = Northeast Maneuvers = = =
In May 1938 the Air Corps conducted one of the largest maneuvers in its history . 468 officers , 2 @,@ 380 enlisted men , and 131 aircraft were drawn from all three wings of the GHQ Air Force and based at 18 airports in the northeast United States , " from Schenectady , New York , and Aberdeen , Maryland , westward to Harrisburg , Pennsylvania " . Included were eight B @-@ 17s of the 2d Bombardment Group . All were assigned as the " Blue Force " defending New England from the " Black Force " , an attacking aircraft carrier fleet . The Navy , involved in fleet exercises off the West Coast , did not provide ships to play the role of the Black Force . The Army publicized the resulting scenario as depicting simultaneous attacks on America by hostile fleets on both coasts , with the Air Corps tasked to defend against one of them .
Attached to the exercise was Lt. Col. Ira C. Eaker , the Chief of the Air Corps ' Information Division . Eaker , who had a degree in journalism and had just completed a course in news photography at the University of Oklahoma , used the maneuvers as a platform for publicizing both the capabilities and materiel deficiencies of the Air Corps . His assistant was 2d Lt. Harris Hull , a reservist on temporary duty for the exercise who was a reporter for the Washington Post in civilian life . When newspapers , including the Los Angeles Times , criticized the maneuvers for using a " mythical fleet " as a target , Hull suggested that an ocean liner be substituted for naval vessels . He learned that the Italian Line 's SS Rex was bound for New York and would pass the 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) mark on 11 May . Eaker recommended the interception of the liner to Gen. Andrews , who concurred and received approval from the office of the Army 's Chief of Staff . Hull arranged to receive position reports from officials of the line .
Olds , whose B @-@ 17s were deployed to Olmsted Field in Harrisburg , was given the assignment of locating the Rex as far at sea as possible , and assigned Major Vincent J. Meloy , the commanding officer of the 20th Bomb Squadron , to act as nominal head of the Black Force . Olds selected three aircraft from the 49th Bomb Squadron for the mission . On the afternoon of 11 May 1937 , Olds and his crews flew from Olmsted to the staging base at Mitchel Field on Long Island .
Assigned as lead navigator was 1st Lt. Curtis E. LeMay , who had navigated the finding of the Utah and been a participant in a goodwill mission to South America in February that had won the group the MacKay Trophy . The Chief of the Materiel Division 's Photographic Section , Maj. George W. Goddard , flew co @-@ pilot in aircraft No. 81 to document the mission using a specially @-@ modified Graflex camera . Reporters were also invited to accompany the mission . They included Hanson Baldwin , possibly because of his earlier excoriation of the " Shasta Disaster , " and a radio crew from the National Broadcasting Company ( which on 4 April 1937 , had made a live six @-@ minute broadcast from a B @-@ 17 at Langley Field ) to broadcast from aboard the lead aircraft while it made the interception .
The Blue Force bombers and crews were :
LeMay used the Rex 's noon position report of 11 May in conjunction with known routes and speeds of ocean liners bound for New York to calculate an intercept point for the next day , based on the ship 's expected noon position for 12 May . An updated position report to refine his calculations was expected that evening but not received . Weather conditions deteriorated during the night , with a forecast that " ceilings would be down to nothing " in the vicinity of the anticipated interception .
= = = Interception = = =
At 08 : 30 on 12 May , the three B @-@ 17s had begun to taxi in a rain squall when a morning position report from Rex was relayed to LeMay . It indicated that the liner was then 725 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) from New York , farther east than his original computations had placed it . LeMay 's original flight plan had incorporated an area search if necessary , but weather conditions and the ship 's distance from Long Island precluded that possibility .
The B @-@ 17s took off from Mitchel Field at 08 : 45 and cruised east from Sandy Hook at 170 mph on a true course of 101 degrees through rain , hail , downdrafts , and an intense headwind that reduced their ground speed by 11 @.@ 5 mph . LeMay was unable to check the effect of the winds on ground speed and drift because of a heavy overcast that limited their altitude to 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) . At 10 : 00 they emerged into good weather that lasted an hour . LeMay took double drifts until the B @-@ 17s had to separate to transit a cold front . At 11 : 15 they reassembled in clear weather on the other side , where LeMay checked their course again . He calculated an intercept time of 12 : 25 for his pilot , who in turn passed it to Meloy to schedule the live radio broadcast . At noon the B @-@ 17s encountered an area of " scattered rain squalls , " spreading into a line abreast formation with the aircraft 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) apart to increase their chances of spotting the Rex .
At 12 : 23 , the bombers broke out of a squall line , and Cousland in No. 81 immediately sighted the Rex . " There it is ! There it is ! " he transmitted by radio to the other pilots , " 81 to 80 , twelve o 'clock . " At 12 : 25 , as predicted , the B @-@ 17s flew by the Rex while it was 620 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of Sandy Hook . The aircraft reversed course and came up the ship 's port side , with No. 82 flying wing on No. 80 " at smoke stack level " . From the co @-@ pilot 's seat of No. 81 , Goddard took a series of photographs with the Graflex . In the waist position of No. 80 , Meloy made voice contact by radio with the ship 's captain , who invited " all members of the flight to come down to lunch . " The ship 's passengers filled its decks , waving to the bombers , with a group of Americans purportedly singing the Star Spangled Banner .
Because of the bad weather , the B @-@ 17s returned individually to Mitchel Field . Cousland 's Flying Fortress encountered severe hail , damaging all the forward surfaces of the plane , and ice caused a temporary shutdown of one engine . As a result , Cousland lagged behind the others , landing at 16 : 30 . The next morning the three bombers took off to return to Harrisburg and spotted the Rex passing the Statue of Liberty at 09 : 30 as it entered New York Harbor .
The NBC radio crew aboard the lead bomber made its live broadcast coast @-@ to @-@ coast as the bombers flew by the Rex . The Army 's low @-@ altitude photographs were featured the next day on the front pages of hundreds of newspapers . Eaker exploited a trust of Americans in radio broadcasts and in photography , particular to that era , to bolster the credibility of Air Corps claims that air power was essential in defending the western hemisphere . In addition to the Rex episode , the May 1938 maneuvers conducted a well @-@ publicized mock attack on New York City , and arranged the first voluntary blackout in the United States , also planned by Eaker , during a mock raid on Farmingdale , New York , on 16 May .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Impact = = =
The response of the War Department was to curb further expansion of the Air Corps and its roles . On 16 May , the day of the " Farmingdale raid , " the Army 's deputy chief of staff , Maj. Gen. Stanley Embick , approved a request from Air Corps chief Maj. Gen. Oscar Westover to substitute a single Boeing Y1B @-@ 20 ( an advanced design of the Boeing B @-@ 15 ) for two B @-@ 15s ordered for Project A , the development program for the very long range bomber . On 9 June , however , Secretary of War Harry Woodring countermanded the approval , which he had endorsed only three weeks before . On 3 August , the Army went on to cancel orders for 67 more B @-@ 17s authorized under a " balanced " plan Woodring himself had put forth in March , instead allocating the funds to buy smaller combat aircraft , and forbade any further spending for R & D of long @-@ range bombers .
It was not until January 1939 , when U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued a public statement calling for an expansion of the Air Corps in anticipation of the coming of World War II and the needs of the United States in defending the Western Hemisphere , that Army policy was reversed . Gen. George C. Marshall , who was soon to move up from head of the War Plans Division to be the Army 's chief of staff , received personal instruction on the capabilities and strengths of long @-@ range bombers from new Air Corps chief Gen. Henry H. Arnold .
= = = Operational restriction = = =
The day after the rendezvous with the Rex , Chief of Staff General Malin Craig telephoned Andrews and issued an order that restricted all Air Corps aircraft to operating within 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) of the coast . Arnold , Eaker , Olds , and Lt. Col. Carl Spaatz all believed that complaints from the Navy motivated the order . Spaatz , who personally answered the call , recorded that Andrews requested the order be issued in writing , but Arnold states he never saw a written order .
Two Air Corps historians state that no evidence exists that the Navy was behind the order . One explained that Craig believed the Air Corps violated War Department policy on publicity , while the second asserted that Craig was unhappy about not being provided details of the mission before it was publicly announced , and thus issued the order to ensure full notification before granting exceptions to the restriction . Deputy chief of staff Embick made the claim that the restriction had been issued only as a safety measure . Greer , however , in his history of Air Corps doctrine , firmly attributes the restriction to the Navy , noting that in November 1938 it achieved a new modification of the Joint Action statement specifically granting it the authorization for long @-@ range land @-@ based flights that the Army was denied , and immediately prepared six major bases to conduct them . A fourth historian , in a biography of Arnold , stated that the restriction had actually been promulgated on 1 September 1936 , at the insistence of the Navy , but was not enforced by Craig until after the Rex incident .
In any event , the restriction fomented further interservice enmity between the Air Corps and the Navy that did not abate until World War II . The Navy specifically included the 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) limit in plans for joint maneuvers in 1939 that was deleted only after Andrews objected to Marshall , who had replaced Embick as deputy chief of staff . Emmons , who succeeded Andrews as commander of GHQ Air Force , complained in his " Report on Annual Tactical Inspection " , dated 28 July 1939 , that because of the operational restriction , navigation training in the Air Corps had suffered .
Despite this , exceptions to the restriction quickly became the norm . Only a month after the interception of the Rex , B @-@ 17s intercepted the 22 @,@ 000 @-@ ton liner SS Queen of Bermuda 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ) at sea on 12 June , and aircraft based in Hawaii twice located Army transports at similar distances during the summer of 1938 . In March 1939 , Arnold , as Chief of the Air Corps , was given specific authority by the chief of staff to grant exceptions as he saw fit , provided they were unpublicized and he notified the War Department well in advance .
= = = Subsequent history of the participants = = =
Andrews was not reappointed as commander of General Headquarters Air Force when his term expired on 1 March 1939 . Exactly as happened with Billy Mitchell , he was returned in rank to colonel ( his permanent establishment rank ) and assigned as air officer of the Eighth Corps Area in San Antonio , Texas . His " exile " in San Antonio was brief , however . In August , prospective Army Chief of Staff Marshall had Andrews promoted over the objections of Secretary Woodring and General Craig , beginning a climb to higher command for Andrews that culminated in promotion to lieutenant general and appointment as commander of the European Theater of Operations . Many senior airmen believed he was possibly being groomed to command the Normandy invasion . However , Andrews was killed in the crash of a B @-@ 24 Liberator long @-@ range bomber in Iceland in May 1943 while returning to Washington , D.C.
Capt. Archibald Y. Smith was promoted to colonel during World War II , commanded the 452nd Bomb Group ( B @-@ 17 ) in the U.K. , and became a prisoner of war in July 1944 . Continuing his career after the war in the United States Air Force , he died in the crash of his B @-@ 26 in Oregon in April 1949 . Cousland also became a colonel and commanded the first B @-@ 17 group in England , the 97th BG , although he was relieved of command by Col. Frank A. Armstrong just before it was to go into combat . Cousland finished the war commanding the 21st Bombardment Wing , a processing unit for personnel returning from overseas .
Seven of the participants became general officers . Hull was recalled to active duty to be an intelligence officer in World War II , then remained in the Air Force as a career . He retired as a brigadier general in 1964 . Meloy served as a brigadier general in the Air Transport Command and retired in 1946 . Goddard was recognized as the principal aerial photography expert of the USAF and retired in 1953 as a brigadier general . Caleb V. Haynes and his crew won the MacKay Trophy in 1939 flying an earthquake relief mission to Chile in the XB @-@ 15 , and delivered the first B @-@ 24 Liberator overseas in early 1942 . Assigned initially to the Tenth Air Force , he was the first commander of the Assam @-@ Burma @-@ China Ferry Command , the airlift operation flying supplies over the Hump to China . Haynes went on to command the bombers of the China Air Task Force under Maj. Gen. Claire Chennault , became a brigadier general , commanded the India Air Task Force , and retired from the USAF as a major general in 1953 .
Olds ( whose son , Brig. Gen. Robin Olds , became a fighter pilot icon ) , was promoted to major general and commanded the Second Air Force , but died of a heart @-@ related condition in April 1943 at the age of 46 .
Eaker and LeMay had important roles as commanders in the strategic bombing campaigns of World War II . Eaker took command of the Eighth Air Force in 1942 , and the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces in 1944 . He retired in 1947 as a lieutenant general , but was promoted on the retired list to 4 @-@ star general in 1985 in recognition of his accomplishments . In the autumn of 1942 , LeMay led the 305th Bomb Group , one of the four " pioneer " B @-@ 17 groups of the Eighth Air Force . He advanced to higher commands in the Eighth Air Force before holding a series of B @-@ 29 Superfortress commands in the Pacific in 1944 – 45 , culminating in command of the Twentieth Air Force . LeMay commanded and reorganized the Strategic Air Command into an instrument of national policy and became the fifth Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in 1961 .
Laid up in Trieste harbor , Italy , by the war , the Rex was seized by Nazi Germany when Italy surrendered in 1943 . On September 8 , 1944 , she was attacked twice by Royal Air Force and South African Air Force Beaufighters . She was set on fire , then rolled over and sank after being struck by numerous rockets and cannon shells . The purpose of the attack was to prevent her from being used to block the harbor entrance . The wreck was partially scrapped in the 1950s , but around one @-@ third of it still remains .
The YB @-@ 17s quickly became obsolete and were transferred in October 1940 to the 19th Bomb Group at March Field , California , when the 2d BG acquired newer models . During World War II they operated again at Langley Field until mid @-@ 1942 . The Air Corps belatedly put the B @-@ 17 into mass production beginning in July 1940 , but at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor still had only 198 in service . However , 12 @,@ 000 were produced during the war , became the backbone of the air war against Germany , and were an iconic symbol of the AAF .
The 2nd Bomb Group received newer B @-@ 17s and served in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations with both the Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Forces . GHQ Air Force assumed its designated wartime role in November 1940 , was renamed Air Force Combat Command in June 1941 , but went out of existence in March 1942 in a major reorganization of the United States Army Air Forces .
= = = Operation Rex Redux = = =
On 24 August 2007 , three B @-@ 52 Stratofortresses of the 2nd Bomb Wing , successor to the 2nd BG , conducted " Operation Rex Redux " , a training mission commemorating the interception of the Rex . Flying from Barksdale Air Force Base , Louisiana , and using the radio call signs Rex 51 , Rex 52 , and Rex 53 , the B @-@ 52s intercepted the Military Sealift Command ship MV 2nd Lt. John P. Bobo east of Bermuda to test the capabilities of a new targeting system .
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= Brian Halligan =
Brian Halligan is an American executive and author . He is a CEO and co @-@ founder of HubSpot , an Internet marketing company based in Cambridge , Massachusetts , and is also a senior lecturer at MIT . Halligan uses the term inbound marketing to describe the type of marketing he advocates .
He has co @-@ authored two books on marketing : Inbound Marketing : Get Found Using Google , Social Media , and Blogs with HubSpot co @-@ founder Dharmesh Shah and Marketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead : What Every Business Can Learn from the Most Iconic Band in History with David Meerman Scott .
= = Early life , education and career = =
Halligan was born in Westwood , Massachusetts , and grew up and attended public schools in Westwood , Massachusetts . He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Electronic Engineering from the University of Vermont and an MBA from MIT Sloan School of Management in 2005 .
His career began at Parametric Technology Corporation in several roles leading up to senior vice president of the Pacific Rim . Wanting to work in a smaller company , he joined Groove Networks as vice president of sales , where he worked from 2001 to 2005 before it was acquired by Microsoft and rebranded as Microsoft SharePoint Workspace .
After a period as a venture partner at Longworth Ventures he co @-@ founded HubSpot in June 2006 . In 2012 , Inc. magazine reported that the company has $ 28 @.@ 5 million in revenue and has 304 employees . He credits the company 's success , in part , to innovations like the " Alpha , Beta , Version One " policy , in which employees begin proving their ideas might profit the company " nights and weekends " ( the alpha phase ) before receiving additional resources ( the beta and version one phases ) .
Halligan also serves on the board of directors of House of Possibilities , a community service organization and the Massachusetts Innovation and Technology Exchange ( MITX ) .
= = Publications , speeches , and awards = =
Halligan 's first book , Inbound Marketing , was co @-@ authored with HubSpot co @-@ founder Dharmesh Shah . The thesis of the book is that people now block marketing that interrupts them , such as advertisements and spam , that instead companies need to provide information that is useful to prospects , who will then self @-@ identify . Reviewing the book , Meryl Evans said that it contains " elementary stuff ... " but it " does a good job for those who don ’ t have a clue about how to use social media for business . " It was also reviewed in The Boston Globe . As of July 2011 , the book was in its seventh printing , had sold 40 @,@ 000 copies , and had been translated into nine languages . The book was revised and updated in 2014 in a second edition .
His second book , Marketing Lessons , was co @-@ authored with David Meerman Scott . It uses the marketing activities of the rock band The Grateful Dead as an example of this . Scott Kirsner , reviewing this book in The Boston Globe , mentions that the authors say that they were inspired , in part , by an article in The Atlantic by Joshua Green .
Halligan speaks on marketing and business topics , including at the TEDx . He was an entrepreneur in residence at MIT and is a senior lecturer , teaching " Entrepreneurial Product Development and Marketing " with Elaine Chen . He is also an occasional lecturer at Sloan on the science of selling and marketing .
= = Ethics scandal = =
Halligan was forced to pay financial penalties by the HubSpot board of directors because he failed to promptly alert the board after he discovered that staff members at HubSpot attempted to obtain a draft copy of of Disrupted : My Misadventure in the Start @-@ Up Bubble , by Daniel Lyons . The book is a satirical look at HubSpot , its company culture , and its business practices . " There was definitely some fishiness . But I didn ’ t report it . That was my bad , " Halligan said about the incident .
Materials obtained under the Freedom of Information Act showed that that certain Hubspot executives considered the book " a financial threat to HubSpot , its share price , and the company ’ s future potential . " The FBI report discusses " tactics such as email hacking and extortion " in the attempt to prevent the book from being published .
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= Andrés Torres =
Andrés Yungo Torres Feliciano , Jr . , ( born January 26 , 1978 ) is an American former professional baseball center fielder . He stands 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) tall and weighs 195 pounds ( 88 kg ) and is a switch @-@ hitter . Torres played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Detroit Tigers , Texas Rangers , New York Mets and San Francisco Giants .
Born in New Jersey , Torres grew up in Puerto Rico before returning to the United States to attend Miami @-@ Dade Community College . He was a track star at Miami @-@ Dade and did not begin playing baseball until later . In 1998 , he was drafted by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball draft . Torres played in their minor leagues until 2002 , when he made his major league debut . In 2003 , he got a chance to be the everyday center fielder for the Tigers , but after 23 games they chose to replace him . He played only three games for them in 2004 before he was outrighted to the minors and released upon request . In 2005 , Torres resurfaced with the Texas Rangers but only appeared in eight games . He spent the next three years in the minor leagues .
Torres returned to the majors in 2009 , as a reserve outfielder for the San Francisco Giants . In 2010 , he became their everyday center fielder and leadoff hitter , winning the Willie Mac Award and helping the team win its first World Series since 1954 . After the 2011 season ( in which Torres battled injuries and lost playing time in September ) , he was traded to the New York Mets . He spent one season with the Mets , starting in center field for the most part except for a stretch in which he platooned with Kirk Nieuwenhuis , before re @-@ signing with the Giants in 2013 . He was used in a platoon split with Gregor Blanco in 2013 before suffering a season @-@ ending Achilles injury in August . After going unsigned to begin 2014 , Torres signed a minor league deal with the Boston Red Sox in June , but opted out of his contract in late July after not getting called up .
= = Early life = =
Torres was born in Paterson , New Jersey , and moved to Aguada , Puerto Rico with his family when he was one year old . He played very little baseball as a child in Puerto Rico , and did not become serious about becoming a professional baseball player until he was 18 . He attended Dr. Carlos Gonzalez High School and Miami @-@ Dade Community College . At Miami @-@ Dade , he was a track and field star , running the 100 meters in 10 @.@ 37 seconds . In 1997 , the Florida Marlins drafted him in the 23rd round of the Major League Baseball Draft , but he chose not to sign . He was then drafted by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball draft , and that time he signed .
= = Career = =
= = = Detroit Tigers ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
Torres failed to bat higher than .236 his first two years in the minors , but he did steal several bases . However , in 2000 , while playing for the Single @-@ A advanced Lakeland Tigers of the Florida State League , Torres posted what was arguably the best minor league season in his career . With Lakeland , he batted .296 while leading the league with 65 stolen bases . During that season , he was promoted to the Double @-@ A Jacksonville Suns of the Southern League for a short period of time ; however , he struggled with Jacksonville , batting just .148 . Detroit switched their Double @-@ A affiliate to the Erie SeaWolves of the Eastern League in 2001 ; Torres spent the season with them but was limited to 64 games because of shoulder surgery . He batted .294 with 74 hits and 19 stolen bases .
= = = = 2002 = = = =
Torres was considered Detroit 's " leadoff hitter of the future " in 2002 , according to Jason Beck of MLB.com. He began the season with the Triple @-@ A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League but was soon called up by the Detroit Tigers on April 7 . He made his major league debut that same day and notched his first hit , a triple against CC Sabathia in a 5 – 1 loss to the Cleveland Indians . He batted .211 and was sent back to Toledo on April 26 after he had no hits in 12 at bats during a series against the Kansas City Royals . In 115 games for Toledo , Torres batted .266 , tying Nick Punto for the league lead with 42 stolen bases , tying Omar Infante for fourth in the league in triples ( eight ) , and finishing fourth in the league with 80 runs scored . The Tigers initially chose not to call up Torres in September when rosters expanded ; he did not rejoin them until September 20 following injuries to Bobby Higginson and Hiram Bocachica . In 19 games ( 70 at bats ) with the Tigers , Torres batted .200 with 14 hits , three runs batted in ( RBI ) , and two stolen bases .
= = = = 2003 = = = =
The next season , Torres failed to make the Tigers out of spring training , but he split the season between Detroit and Toledo . He was called up on April 29 to play centerfield and bat leadoff for the Tigers . After he batted .224 in 23 games , the Tigers traded for Alex Sánchez on May 27 to replace Torres in centerfield and sent Torres to Toledo to make room for Sánchez . He was recalled on June 18 to be a reserve outfielder when Ernie Young was designated for assignment . On this stint , Torres tried to improve his hitting by batting exclusively right @-@ handed , saying , " I feel better from the right side . " He batted .208 in 23 games on this stint before being sent back to Toledo on August 2 to make room for A. J. Hinch to return from the disabled list . Torres was recalled one final time , in September . On September 14 , Torres hit his first home run , a solo shot off of Jimmy Gobble of the Royals in a 7 – 2 loss . In 59 games ( 168 at bats ) with the Tigers , he batted .220 with 37 hits , one home run , and five stolen bases . Despite playing only 70 games in Toledo , Torres finished fifth in the International League with 27 stolen bases .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
Torres was initially sent to the minors to begin 2004 but was recalled on April 7 without playing a game for Toledo when Dmitri Young broke his leg . He only appeared in three games ( and didn 't even have a plate appearance ) before the Tigers attempted to outright him to the minors . Instead of going to the minors , Torres requested his release . He was granted free agency on April 22 .
= = = Chicago White Sox organization ( 2004 ) = = =
Just four days after getting released by the Tigers , Torres signed with the Chicago White Sox . He spent the rest of the 2004 season with the International League Charlotte Knights ( outside a six @-@ game rehab stint ) , batting .295 with 95 hits in 87 games and tying with Jason Tyner for eighth in the league in stolen bases , with 23 . After the season he filed for free agency .
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2005 ) = = =
On November 16 , 2004 , Torres was signed by the Texas Rangers . He started 2005 with the Triple @-@ A Oklahoma RedHawks of the Pacific Coast League , but he only played in 15 games ( due to a sprained right shoulder ) before getting called up by the Rangers on May 15 when Gary Matthews , Jr . , went on the disabled list . However , the Rangers designated him for assignment on June 12 and outrighted him to Oklahoma City on June 17 after he batted .158 in eight games with them . Torres suffered a right abdominal strain a week later which ended his season .
= = = Minnesota Twins organization ( 2006 ) = = =
Torres signed with the Minnesota Twins on December 25 , 2005 . He spent the entire 2006 season with the Triple @-@ A Rochester Red Wings of the International League , batting .236 with them in 116 games and tying for second in the league with nine triples ( tied with Joe Thurston behind Wayne Lindon 's 12 ) . He became a free agent after the season .
= = = Detroit Tigers organization ( 2007 ) = = =
Unsigned through February in 2007 , Torres called the Detroit Tigers and asked for a job . The Tigers signed him on March 2 and assigned him assigned to Erie , where he was named the Eastern League Player of the Week for April 30 through May 6 after he batted .550 . He batted .292 with 17 stolen bases in 85 games before being promoted to Toledo . His 11 triples led the Eastern League despite the fact that he only appeared in 85 games . At Toledo , Torres also batted .292 in 42 games . He was caught stealing bases ( six ) more times than he stole successfully ( five ) , but in only 42 games , he managed to tie for second in the league with nine triples ( tied again with Thurston behind Brian Bixler 's 10 ) . Following the year , he again filed for free agency .
= = = Chicago Cubs organization ( 2008 ) = = =
On November 20 , 2007 , Torres signed with the Chicago Cubs . In 2008 , he engaged a private hitting instructor named Chris O 'Leary to help him out . He began trying to model his swing after Albert Pujols , instead of merely trying to put the ball on the ground and run to first base , which is what he had been doing . He spent the entire season with the Iowa Cubs of the Pacific Coast League , batting .306 in 118 games with 11 home runs . He finished fifth in the league with 91 runs scored , tied for second in the league with 10 triples ( tied with Trent Oeltjen and Nate Schierholtz behind Tim Raines , Jr . ' s 13 ) , and led the league with 29 stolen bases . However , the Cubs did not re @-@ sign him and he once again filed for free agency following the season .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2009 – 2011 ; first stint ) = = =
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Torres signed with the San Francisco Giants on January 9 , 2009 . After a strong spring training , he was named to the Giants ' Opening Day roster as a reserve outfielder . Except for a minor league rehab assignment , he spent the entire year in the majors . He was placed on the disabled list on April 27 with a strained left hamstring . After a rehab assignment , he was activated on May 26 . On June , 15 he hit the 48th " Splash Hit " home run at AT & T Park , against John Lackey in a 9 – 7 loss to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . He was again placed on the disabled list on July 31 with the same injury he suffered earlier in the year ; he was out until September 1 . On September 20 , he hit two home runs against Randy Wolf in a 6 – 2 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers . He finished the year with a career high .270 batting average and tied for eighth ( along with Craig Counsell , Gerardo Parra , Everth Cabrera , and Juan Pierre ) in the National League ( NL ) with eight triples despite only playing 75 games .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
In 2010 , Torres began the season as a backup outfielder again . On April 25 , he replaced Eugenio Vélez ( who had been filling in for the injured Aaron Rowand ) as the Giants ' center fielder , playing six games until Rowand 's return on May 1 . Upon Rowand 's return , Torres returned to a reserve role until May 9 , when he became a starting outfielder for the rest of the season after Mark DeRosa hurt his wrist . On May 30 , he had a game @-@ ending RBI single in the 10th inning against Carlos Rosa to give the Giants a 6 – 5 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks . By midseason , he had replaced Rowand as the Giants ' everyday center fielder and leadoff hitter . After the Giants blew a 9 – 2 lead over the Florida Marlins on July 28 , Torres had a game @-@ ending single in the 10th inning against Clay Hensley to give the Giants a 10 – 9 win . After the Giants blew a 7 – 3 lead on August 12 , Torres had a game @-@ ending RBI single against Andrew Cashner in the ninth inning to give the Giants an 8 – 7 victory over the Chicago Cubs . On the morning of September 12 , Torres woke up with severe stomach pain and was diagnosed with appendicitis . He underwent an appendectomy the same day . He returned to the lineup roughly two weeks later , and on October 1 it was announced that he had won the 2010 Willie Mac Award . Torres said upon receiving the award , " It 's the best . It 's an honor for me from my teammates . I 've been blessed and I 'm happy and just thank God for everything , putting me here and these guys treating me like a family . " In 139 games ( 507 at bats ) , Torres hit .268 with 84 runs scored , 136 hits , 16 home runs , and 63 RBI . He ranked fourth in the NL in doubles ( 43 , behind Jayson Werth 's 46 and Matt Holliday 's and Ryan Braun 's 45 ) and ranked seventh in the NL in triples ( eight ) . He finished the year having led the Giants in stolen bases with 26 .
Torres batted .115 in his first seven playoff games before batting .406 over the last eight . In the first four games of the 2010 World Series against the Texas Rangers , he had extra @-@ base hits , tying a Giants ' playoff record for most consecutive games with an extra @-@ base hit . He had a home run off Colby Lewis in Game 3 of the World Series ; however , the Giants lost that game 4 – 2 . In Game 4 , he doubled twice , driving in a run and scoring another as the Giants won 4 – 0 . Torres also had two stolen bases but was caught thrice in the postseason . He won his first World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
After injuring his left Achilles tendon on April 9 , Torres spent time on the disabled list from April 15 to May 10 . On May 30 , Torres hit his first career grand slam against Kyle McClellan in a 7 – 3 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . Three days later , he scored three runs in a 12 – 7 victory over St. Louis . On July 15 , Torres had three hits , scored three runs , drove in two runs , stole a base , and slammed into the wall while making a nice catch to rob Kyle Phillips of a two @-@ RBI double in a 6 – 1 victory over the San Diego Padres . He went on the disabled list a second time , from August 13 through August 28 , with a bruised right leg . After Torres batted just .228 through the beginning of September , he lost quite a bit of playing time to Cody Ross and Justin Christian for the remainder of the year . In 112 games ( 348 at bats ) , Torres hit .221 with 77 hits , 24 doubles , four home runs , and 19 RBI . He led the Giants in stolen bases once again , with 19 .
= = = New York Mets ( 2012 ) = = =
On December 7 , 2011 , the Giants traded Torres and Ramón Ramírez to the New York Mets for Ángel Pagán . The Mets and Torres settled their case of arbitration on January 17 , 2012 , with Torres earning $ 2 @.@ 7 million for the 2012 season .
On Opening Day ( April 5 ) 2012 , Torres re @-@ injured his left calf — which he had previously hurt during 2012 spring training — and spent much of April on the disabled list . He was activated on April 30 . However , though he would receive most of the starts in center field , he began to platoon with Kirk Nieuwenhuis , who had filled in for him when he was on the disabled list . This continued until July 29 , when Nieuwenhuis was returned to the minor leagues , enabling Torres to be the full @-@ time starter for the rest of the season . Torres endured a career @-@ worst 0 for 18 streak that he finally snapped with a hit against Rafael Betancourt on August 20 in a 3 – 1 loss to the Colorado Rockies . In 132 games ( 374 at bats ) , he hit .230 with 86 hits , 17 doubles , seven triples , three home runs , 35 RBI , and 13 stolen bases ( in 18 attempts ) . As a right @-@ handed hitter , he batted .286 . He joined José Reyes as the only players in Mets ' history to have two games in a season with a triple and home run . Following the season , he filed for free agency .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2013 ; second stint ) = = =
On December 13 , 2012 , Torres agreed to a one @-@ year non @-@ conditional contract to return to the San Francisco Giants . He began 2013 platooning with Gregor Blanco in left field . On May 8 , he had a game @-@ winning RBI single against Antonio Bastardo in the 10th inning of a 4 – 3 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies . From May 20 through June 30 , he batted .298 with 11 doubles and 14 RBI in 35 games . He had a game @-@ tying RBI double against Rex Brothers on May 25 in an eventual 10 @-@ inning , 6 – 5 win over Colorado . On July 13 , he began platooning with Blanco in center field after Jeff Francoeur was called up . His season came to an end on August 1 , when he was placed on the disabled list with a left Achilles strain , an injury which he acknowledged prevented him from hitting for power in 2013 . In 103 games ( 272 at bats ) , Torres hit .250 with 68 hits , two home runs , and 21 RBI while only managing four stolen bases . He fared better from the right side at the plate , batting .291 as opposed to batting .206 left @-@ handed . After the season , Torres filed for free agency .
= = = Boston Red Sox organization ( 2014 ) = = =
On June 11 , 2014 , Torres signed a minor @-@ league deal with the Boston Red Sox . He played five games with the Lowell Spinners of the Single @-@ A ( short season ) New York – Penn League and 18 games with the Pawtucket Red Sox of the International League . He batted .292 with Pawtucket . On July 28 , 2014 , Torres opted out of his contract with the Boston Red Sox by exercising an out clause in his contract .
= = Personal life = =
Torres is married to Soannie Mendoza . The couple has one son , Diego ( born June 19 , 2004 ) .
In 2002 , Torres was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) ; however , he did not begin taking medication to treat it until 2007 . His medication has been helpful to him , and he is currently a spokesperson for ADHD . In 2012 , Plan A Films produced a feature @-@ length documentary about Torres titled Gigante , discussing his ADHD . The film was directed by Chusy Haney @-@ Jardine . Though a screening for the movie was shown at the NYU Langone Medical Center on May 31 , 2012 , the movie was never released .
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= Shon the Piper =
Shon the Piper is a 1913 American silent short historical romantic drama film directed by Otis Turner and starring Robert Z. Leonard . The film follows a Scottish Duke who disguises himself as a piper and falls in love with a woman by the name of Madge . The woman 's father , refuses to let the two marry because he wants his daughter to marry the Laird of the Isla . At the wedding , Shon steals Madge away and a battle ensues between the clans . The film was produced the 101 Bison Film Company and released on September 30 , 1913 . The film saw a widespread national release and garnered some positive attention . It was claimed that Lon Chaney appeared in this film , but this has been disputed . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The synopsis of the film was provided in Moving Picture News as : " The action is laid in the latter part of the eighteenth century while the story revolves about a young Scotch duke who , determined not to marry one seeking his money , searches for adventure in the Highlands , disguised as a piper . He meets , during his wanderings , Madge , the daughter of Donald Maclvor . They fall in love at sight . Unaware of Shon 's real identity , the old father refuses to sanction the match . He prefers to give his daughter to the wealthy Laird of the Isla . When the girl carries this news to her lover he tells her to " Be of good cheer , my bonny lass ; I 'll pipe them a tune of another class . " The wedding day is fixed and the Laird leads his melancholy fiancee forth . Shon visits the feast in the garb of a harpist . He amuses the guests for a while and then , throwing off his disguise , escapes with Madge from a window . But previous to this , Shon has called his clan together and when speeding away to his mansion , they cover his retreat . What follows is a remarkably thrilling and fresh piece of business ; a battle between two kilted Scotch clans . And then the title of the youth is discovered and all ends well . "
= = Cast = =
Robert Z. Leonard as Shon the Piper
Margarita Fischer as Madge of the Hills
Joseph Singleton as The Laird of the Isla
Lon Chaney as a member of the Scottish clans ( Disputed )
= = Production = =
The film was produced the 101 Bison Film Company . On August 23 , 1910 , the New York Clipper announced that J. W. Kerrigan had joined Universal Studios and would star in a new series of films directed by Allan Dwan . The first film listed was titled " A Restless Spirit " ( The Restless Spirit ) and the second film would be Shon the Piper . It is unknown if there was some change in Shon the Piper 's production or if the Clipper was mistaken because neither Kerrigan or Dwan are credited . Instead , Otis Turner would direct the film and the film would star Robert Z. Leonard and Margarita Fischer . Prior to his motion picture debut , Leonard previously had a noted stage career in the California Opera Company in a variety of roles and sung in over a hundred light operas . Joseph Singleton played The Laird of the Isla and would be credited through and answer column in The Photo @-@ play Journal . The cast of the film was not billed or credited in the production . Michael Blake credits Lon Chaney in a role in this film in his book , The Films of Lon Chaney . Jon C. Mirsalis states that he cannot confirm or deny an appearance by Lon Chaney , but notes that the surviving film still does not show Lon Chaney .
= = Release and reception = =
The two reel film was released on September 30 , 1913 . The Leavenworth Times gave a review prior to its release , stating " This is one of those bright sunny pictures that cannot fail to please everybody . The action is laid in the latter part of the eighteenth century and Margaret Fischer as the daughter of the rich Laird of the Isla takes part some of the most enchanting pictures ever shown on a screen . " The The Huntington Herald said the film was a " remarkably fresh and interesting subject " and it described the film as a Scottish ballad .
The film had viewings in Kansas , Indiana , Texas , Chicago , Illinois , Missouri , Lincoln , Nebraska , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin . Other showings include the " Indian Territory " of Oklahoma , Seattle , Washington , Arizona , Vermont , Oregon , and Utah . One of the last advertisements for the film was on December 19 , 1913 announcing a showing at the Airdome in Durham , North Carolina .
The film is now considered lost . It is unknown when the film was lost , but if it was in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .
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= Fearful Symmetry ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Fearful Symmetry " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 24 , 1995 . It was written by Steve De Jarnatt and directed by James Whitmore , Jr . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Fearful Symmetry " received a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 and was watched by 9 @.@ 6 million households . The episode received mixed reviews from critics but later won an EMA Award .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the death of a federal construction worker and the destruction of various property that can only be tied to an escaped elephant . Unfortunately , the only witnesses claim to have seen no animals which might have caused the turmoil . Soon , Mulder and Scully discover the local zoo whose claim to fame is that they 've never had a successful animal birth .
" Fearful Symmetry " takes its title from a line in the William Blake poem " The Tyger " . Filming for the episode faced several hurdles . Live elephants and tigers were used . Co @-@ Producer J.P. Finn claimed that the hardest part of filming the episode was getting an elephant . The biggest hurdle when filming scenes with the tiger were keeping it " calm and warm " , due to the cool nature of Vancouver . Due to anti @-@ exploitation laws , several scenes had to be filmed in the country .
= = Plot = =
In Fairfield , Idaho , two janitors witness an invisible force storm down a city street ; a road worker is later killed by the force on the highway . The next day , an elephant suddenly materializes in front of an oncoming big rig . The driver manages to stop in time , but the elephant soon collapses and dies , over forty miles away from where it disappeared the night before at the Fairfield Zoo .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) survey the damage in the city , which appears to have been caused by an elephant even though none was seen . Ed Meecham , an animal handler at the zoo , recounts how he came to the elephant 's locked cage to find it empty . His boss , Willa Ambrose , tells the agents that the zoo is in danger of closing due to other animal disappearances . She blames the zoo 's decline on an animal rights group which is known to free captive animals . The group 's leader , Kyle Lang , denies any involvement in the elephant 's release . Lang tells them that Ambrose is being sued by the Malawi government over a lowland gorilla she took from their country ten years prior .
Mulder contacts Frohike and Byers , who say that Fairfield is known for its animal disappearances and UFO sightings . They also mention Ambrose 's gorilla , who is known to communicate using American Sign Language . Meanwhile , Scully follows one of Lang 's activists as he sneaks into the zoo , running into Meecham inside . The activist attempts to free a tiger , but after a flash of light , the tiger seemingly disappears . The activist is promptly mauled to death , with the killing captured on his night vision camera . When questioned , Lang denies any responsibility for the death . Ambrose introduces the agents to the gorilla , Sophie , who has been cowering in her cage and expresses an apparent fear of light .
Scully performs a necropsy on the elephant , revealing it to be pregnant — which is impossible , since no animal at the zoo has ever brought a pregnancy to term . The tiger reappears at a Boise construction site , and is shot dead by Meecham when it charges at Ambrose ; the zoo is shut down the next day over the incident . Mulder tells Ambrose that the tiger was also pregnant , and explains his theory that extraterrestrial aliens are impregnating endangered animals as part of " their own Noah 's Ark . " Mulder thinks that Sophie is pregnant and afraid of her baby 's abduction . Sophie confirms Mulder 's suspicions when she makes signs for " baby go flying light " .
Sheriff 's deputies order Ambrose to release Sophie into protective custody , presumably to be sent back to Malawi . Ambrose unsuccessfully seeks help from Lang , her former boyfriend , but he advises to let Sophie return to the wild . Lang later goes to see Ambrose at the warehouse where Sophie is being prepped for shipping , but finds her cage empty . He is then mysteriously killed by a falling crate . Scully finds that Lang was struck with a cattle prod and suspects Ambrose of killing him , but she claims that Meecham is responsible . Mulder goes to arrest Meecham , who is keeping an angered Sophie at another warehouse near Boise . Meecham suddenly locks Mulder in Sophie 's room , where the enraged gorilla attacks and injures him .
A bright light appears and causes Sophie to vanish , but not before she gives Mulder a final message in sign language . When Mulder gives the message to Ambrose the next day , she says it means " man save man . " Ambrose and the agents are then called to the highway , where Sophie has been struck by a car and killed . Ambrose and Meecham are charged with manslaughter for Lang 's death . As the agents leave Idaho , Mulder says through narration that he believes alien conservationists were behind the events in Fairfield .
= = Production = =
" Fearful Symmetry " was written by Steve De Jarnatt and directed by James Whitmore , Jr . Co @-@ Producer J.P. Finn claimed that the hardest part of filming the episode was getting an elephant ; this action required a permit for the animal to pass the border into Vancouver . Finn later revealed that the elephant used for the episode , named " Bubbles " , was fantastic to work with . There was initially concern from the producers that the elephant would not run towards the truck for the episode 's teaser . Instead , however , the elephant thoroughly enjoyed the truck and the producers had difficulty getting the creature away from it .
The producers for the show ran into issues with the legality of a circus animal in public streets . Several laws had been passed in British Columbia that prohibited the " use or appearance " of these animals as a way to protect them from abuse or exploitation . In order to circumvent these rules , scenes filmed with Bubbles took place " on a quiet country road " in South Surrey , where these laws were not in effect . A live tiger was also used for the episode . The biggest hurdle when filming was keeping the tiger " calm and warm " , due to the cool nature of Vancouver . The episode 's title comes from a line in the William Blake poem " The Tyger " . The fictional construction site where the tiger appears , " Blake Towers " , is named after the poet . The elephant 's name , " Ganesha " is named after the Hindu God .
Parts of the Zoo featured in " Fearful Symmetry " were shot on location at the Vancouver Aquarium located in Stanley Park , Vancouver .
= = Reception = =
" Fearful Symmetry " was first broadcast in the United States on February 24 , 1995 , on the Fox network . In its original broadcast , it was watched by 9 @.@ 6 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 10 @.@ 1 rating / 17 share among viewers meaning that 10 @.@ 1 percent of all households in the United States , and 17 percent of all people watching television at the time , viewed the episode . The episode later won an EMA Award for its environmental message .
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a C , writing , " Aside from a well @-@ executed invisible @-@ elephant rampage , this one 's pretty much on automatic pilot " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club also graded it as a C , calling it " forgettable , and under @-@ baked ; not terrible enough to be a complete failure , but forgettable enough " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a moderately negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode felt more like a statement by the writer regarding animal rights than an episode of [ The X @-@ Files ] . The plot doesn ’ t seem to know which direction it wants to explore , and ultimately , elements of the episode contradict each other . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two wrote that , despite the episode having " rare anger " and a " genuine passion behind " its conservation message , the entry was not " a very good story " . Shearman and Pearson called the plot " so confusing that all that impact [ of the teaser ] soon dissipates . "
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= Briarcliff Lodge =
The Briarcliff Lodge was a luxury resort in the village of Briarcliff Manor , New York . It was a notable example of Tudor Revival architecture , and was one of the largest wooden structures in the United States . It was also the first hotel in Westchester County . Walter William Law had it built on his estate , and the Law family owned it until 1937 . When the lodge opened in 1902 , it was one of the largest resort hotels in the world . The lodge hosted presidents , royalty , and celebrities , and was the scene of numerous memorable occasions for visitors and local residents who attended weddings , receptions , and dances in the ballroom and dining room . For a long time , the lodge was situated among other businesses of Walter Law , including the Briarcliff Farms and Briarcliff Table Water Company .
In 1933 , the lodge ended year @-@ round service and housed a " health @-@ diet sanitarium " until the Edgewood Park School for Girls began operation there from 1937 to 1954 . From 1936 to 1939 , the lodge was run again as a hotel in the summer months while the school was closed . From 1955 to 1994 , The King 's College used the lodge building and built dormitories and academic buildings . Abandoned and unmaintained after 1994 , the Briarcliff Lodge was destroyed between 2003 and 2004 .
= = History = =
= = = Hotel = = =
Walter Law hired Pennsylvania architect Guy King to construct the Briarcliff Lodge on the highest point of Law 's estate . At its June 26 , 1902 opening , the Tudor Revival @-@ style building was a premier resort hotel with 93 rooms . The Olmsted Brothers , sons of the eminent landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted , designed the lodge 's surrounding grounds , including a large hillside landscape garden with shady walks , winding drives , green lawns , and flowers . In 1903 , the lodge additionally began being used by Mary Elizabeth Dow as Mrs. Dow 's School . Walter Law gave Dow a 35 @-@ acre ( 14 ha ) property on Elm Road ( later the site of Briarcliff College and then a Pace University campus ) .
In 1907 , John Clark Udall oversaw construction of a north wing , increasing the number of rooms to 150 . In 1909 , Udall oversaw a 72 @-@ room seven @-@ story west wing , further increasing the rooms to 221 . In Germany , it was advertised in January 1909 that the management of the Briarcliff Lodge and its architect Guy King planned to construct the platform to launch and dock airships , to cost $ 100 @,@ 000 . The platform would extend over the whole roof , and the tracks for the airship launch would be on an incline 105 meters long . The plans also included the purchase of a searchlight to guide the airships . A mooring mast for docking airships was constructed on top of the west wing , however no record exists of it having been used . The mooring mast nonetheless was the first built for docking airships .
There were two sets of greenhouses near the property ; one set behind Law 's home produced decorations for Law 's Briarcliff Farms , his house , the lodge , and workers ' houses . The other set , the Pierson Greenhouses , were used for growing the American Beauty rose and rare carnations , producing between 5 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 per week . Foreman George Romaine first propagated the Briarcliff rose there . The lodge also ran an annual American Beauty carnival , with events including a golf tournament , water sports , moonlight bathing and night diving , a dinner dance , cinema program , and a concert . During the lodge 's service , carriage transportation was provided for guests from the Scarborough and Briarcliff Manor train stations to the lodge .
The lodge had a large Roman @-@ style pool ; when it was built in 1912 , it was the largest outdoor pool in the world and was used for the 1924 Olympic trials . The Briarcliff Lodge was noted for its cuisine ( including Briarcliff dairy and table water ) , a golf course , fifteen tennis courts , a music room , theater , indoor swimming pool ( measuring 30 by 70 feet , with a depth of 4 to 10 feet ) , casino , library , stable , repair shops and a fleet of Fiat automobiles . The water tower at the property was constructed by the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company . The grounds were decorated with Japanese lanterns that Law had obtained from missionaries . The lodge had elevator service and electric lighting . The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace held its National Conference on International Problems and Relations at the Briarcliff Lodge from May 10 – 14 , 1926 .
In 1923 , a year before Walter Law 's death , the Law family leased the lodge to Chauncey Depew Steele for 20 years . Under Steele 's management , the lodge reached its prominence . The lodge also was opened to a wider variety of clientele , but continued to be known as a resort for the wealthy and famous . A 6 @,@ 500 @-@ yard ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) 18 @-@ hole golf course was completed in 1923 , designed by Devereux Emmet . In May 1925 , The New York Times reported that the Briarcliff Lodge installed the first artificial spa ; using radioactive mineral torbernite to affect the water , believed to counter ailments associated with old age . United States Senators Chauncey Depew , James Wolcott Wadsworth , Jr . , and Royal S. Copeland were to each place a bag containing the minerals into the lodge 's swimming pool . In June of that year , the newspaper mentioned in its report of an upcoming Briarcliff Lodge performance that the swimming pool was popular in the summer heat and that " the cool spring radioactive water gave considerable relief to several hundred guests " .
= = = Decline and lease = = =
The hotel declined during the 1930s . Walter Law 's son Henry ( also village mayor from 1918 to 1938 ) attributed the decline to the 1920 @-@ 1933 prohibition of alcohol . Another factor was the increasing usage of automobiles , as guests would be less inclined to stay throughout the summer . Steele ended up surrendering his lease in 1933 ; at the time the building was valued at $ 750 @,@ 000 ( $ 13 @.@ 7 million in 2015 ) . The lodge remained in use , housing a " health @-@ diet sanitarium " until the Edgewood Park School for Girls , a nonsectarian Christian college- and occupational @-@ preparatory school , leased the property in 1936 , and purchased it a year later ; at the time the lodge was valued at $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 16 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) . The lodge was run as a hotel in the summer months while the school was closed until 1939 . The Edgewood Park School operated there until 1954 .
In September 1955 , The New York Times reported that the lodge was being reopened as a 225 @-@ room resort ; after being purchased by a partnership led by Emanuel Shapiro , counsel for then @-@ New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey . It was assessed at $ 400 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 53 million in 2015 ) at the time .
= = = College use , demolition , and current plans = = =
From 1955 to 1994 , The King 's College , a strictly Fundamentalist coeducational liberal arts college , relocated to the Briarcliff Lodge property . The school used the lodge building and built dormitories and academic buildings . During that time , in 1985 , the Lodge and the Briarcliff library were among 60 sites given historical markers by Westchester County Tricentennial Commission . The New York State Board of Regents closed the school in 1994 due to financial difficulties and a deficiency of qualified faculty . The original 1902 Briarcliff Lodge building burned to the ground on September 20 , 2003 shortly before its scheduled demolition , and contemporary portions of the lodge and other campus buildings were later demolished .
The site will be developed as the Club at Briarcliff Manor , what The New York Times has described as " a super @-@ luxury retirement community " , with up to $ 2 million entrance fees . The Club was scheduled to open in 2013 and include tennis courts , a health spa , a Tudor @-@ style clubhouse , gardens , a surround @-@ sound theater , hiking trails , an indoor pool , a business center , a cocktail lounge , and multiple restaurants . As of 2010 , 65 people have put down deposits , although the Club is planned to include 325 residences , including thirteen houses , 24 townhouses , and 288 apartments . Briarcliff Manor 's village government took about five years to grant zoning changes , and several more years to approve the site plan .
The King 's College football and soccer field was replaced ( with a cost of $ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 0000 ) and transferred to the village government around 2013 . The water tower will be replaced with a hydro @-@ pneumatic pump station ( with a cost of $ 850 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Main building = = =
The Briarcliff Lodge was located on a 184 @-@ acre ( 74 ha ) site on the highest point of Law 's estate . The original wing was designed by Pennsylvania architect Guy King , on the highest point of Walter Law 's estate , which was about 600 feet above sea level and 29 miles ( 47 km ) north of New York City . The building 's first floor exterior walls were constructed of stones from nearby forests , and Indiana limestone was used for trimmings. the second floor exterior walls were decorated with richly colored half timber and pebbledash . The roof had red shingles and tall red brick chimneys . The main facade of the building was two stories high , while the third and fourth floor had many gables and dormer windows present on the roof . The overall design of the building was in the Tudor Revival @-@ style , and was described to be in " the fashion of the old English inns " . The building was 307 feet ( 94 m ) long and had 93 rooms . Each room had Colonial mahogany furniture , a long @-@ distance telephone , concealed fire escape , electric lights , and suction ventilators . As well , each room had an exterior wall with a window .
In 1902 , the hotel 's first floor held its reception rooms , parlors , dining rooms , library , and a lounge area called the Dutch kitchen , which had decorations and furnishings from Holland . Furniture was purchased from Law 's former employer W. & J. Sloane . Art and decorations throughout the building were largely were sourced from markets in Europe and Asia , and included expensive paintings , bronzes , marble sculptures , rare books , and carved antique furniture . The hotel also had a Chinese tea room and a dark room for amateur photographers . The kitchen was kept clean ( such that it was proposed to serve lunches in the kitchen ) . It was reported to be of elegant design , utilizing white tile and marble . The kitchen equipment was of white porcelain and aluminum , and included numerous glass @-@ lined refrigerators . It sourced its milk , butter , eggs , and vegetables from Briarcliff Farms . The kitchen 's trash was frozen to prevent odors before its eventual removal ; the lodge also had an ice @-@ producing plant that used sterilized well water .
John Clark Udall oversaw construction of the north wing in 1907 , increasing the number of rooms to 150 . In 1909 , Udall oversaw a 72 @-@ room seven @-@ story west wing , further increasing the rooms to 221 .
= = = Garage = = =
In its first operating year , a stable was built for the lodge , at the lodge 's south driveway about 100 yards from Scarborough Road . In 1909 an addition was built ( of 62 by 126 feet ) and the entire structure became used for an automobile garage . The interior of the old stable was replaced . The east end held a commercial kitchen , dining room , and a billiard and smoking room . The west end held a repair shop . The front of the building held supply rooms , closets , and an office . The upstairs held bedrooms and bathrooms for the chauffeurs .
= = = Other buildings = = =
Nearby the lodge was the amusement building , with a dance hall , swimming pool , bowling alley , squash court , and billiard room .
= = Notable guests = =
Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt were guests at the Briarcliff Lodge . In the early 1930s , Eleanor spoke there several times on behalf of the Women 's Democratic Club of Mount Pleasant ; her daughter Anna Roosevelt Halsted was chairwoman of the club at the time . In 1930 , Franklin spoke there as New York Governor to the Westchester County Bankers Association .
John W. Davis , US Representative and nominee for President against Calvin Coolidge , visited the lodge in 1924 . US Senator Chauncey Depew visited in 1924 and 1927 . Composer and pianist Percy Grainger gave a recital at the ballroom of the lodge in 1925 .
The final German emperor Wilhelm II 's son Crown Prince Wilhelm was a guest at the Lodge for the 1909 Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . He led a Prussian regiment in a parade of fifty floats held in honor of the celebration in New York .
Other notable guests have included Thomas Edison , Tallulah Bankhead , Sarah Bernhardt , Boris Bakhmeteff , Johnny Weissmuller , Jimmy Walker , Babe Ruth , Edward S. Curtis , George B. Cortelyou , Mary Pickford , F. W. Woolworth , J. P. Morgan , Warner Baxter , Vincent Richards , and Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink . Elihu Root , Al Smith , and a king of Siam were guests at the lodge in the 1920s , and John Campbell frequently hosted parties there .
= = Influences = =
In 1906 , Walter Law replaced the Briarcliff Manor railroad station and moved the original building to serve as Millwood 's station . The new Briarcliff station , now part of the village library , was modeled in the style of his Briarcliff Lodge , and had Mission style furniture , rugs , and flowers decorating the interior . Central Briarcliff West is a neighborhood which has a number of mansions built by 20th @-@ century millionaires who stayed at the Briarcliff Lodge and later built estates in the area . The Seven Sisters , a 1915 production , was filmed at the Briarcliff Lodge .
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= Cold @-@ core low =
A cold @-@ core low , also known as an upper level low or cold @-@ core cyclone , is a cyclone aloft which has an associated cold pool of air residing at high altitude within the Earth 's troposphere . It is a low pressure system which strengthens with height in accordance with the thermal wind relationship . These systems can be referred to as upper level lows . If a weak surface circulation forms in response to such a feature at subtropical latitudes of the eastern north Pacific or north Indian oceans , it is called a subtropical cyclone . Cloud cover and rainfall mainly occurs with these systems during the day . Severe weather , such as tornadoes , can occur near the center of cold @-@ core lows . Cold lows can help spawn cyclones with significant weather impacts , such as polar lows , and Von Karman Vortices . In regard to tropical cyclones , cold lows can lead directly to their development due to their associated cold pool of air aloft or by acting as additional outflow channels to aid in further development .
= = Characteristics = =
Cold cyclones are stronger aloft than at the Earth 's surface , or stronger in areas of the troposphere with lower pressures , per the thermal wind relationship and the hypsometric equation . The hypsometric equation dictates that colder atmospheres have less room between pressure surfaces , which corresponds to the concept of lower atmospheric thickness , and the thermal wind relation indicates that in this situation , the wind increases with height . It also means that an isolated pool of cold air aloft is associated with the feature . Because of its cold center , the center shows an area of thickness minimum . Since the temperature at any given radius is similar and parallel to the orientation of the pressure gradient , and therefore the wind , it is barotropic in nature . The movement of cold @-@ core cyclones can be erratic since they are separated from the main belt of the Westerlies , which would otherwise steer them progressively to the east .
Most cloud cover and precipitation in association with cold lows occurs during the daylight hours as sunlight warms the Earth 's surface , destabilizing the atmosphere and causing upward vertical motion . The development of severe weather , particularly tornadoes , can occur near the center of these systems over land during any season of the year . During winter , when cold @-@ core lows with temperatures in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere reach − 45 ° C ( − 49 ° F ) move over open waters , deep convection forms which allows polar low development to become possible .
= = Importance to cyclones within the subtropics and mid @-@ latitudes = =
Kona lows , most extratropical cyclones , and tropical upper tropospheric cyclones are cold core lows . In the eastern half of the north Pacific ocean and north Indian ocean , the formation of a weak circulation underneath a mid to upper @-@ tropospheric low which has cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the cold season ( winter ) is called a subtropical cyclone . In the case of the north Indian ocean , the formation of this type of vortex leads to the onset of monsoon rains during the wet season .
East coast lows form near and east of where a cold core low interacts with a sea surface temperature ( SST ) gradient along the east coast of continents , such as Asia , North America , southern Africa , and Australia within a pre @-@ existing area of high pressure . Those offshore the East Coast of the United States , which normally form in the months between October and April , are termed nor 'easters . Not initially associated with weather fronts , they form in tandem with blocking anticyclones at higher latitudes , which leads to a slow poleward movement up the SST gradient . East coast lows can persist for up to a week . Some East coast lows develop rapidly , becoming meteorological bombs . There is a 4 @.@ 5 year cycle in the formation of East coast lows near Australia , in years in transition between warm ( El Niño ) and cold ( La Niña ) ENSO years . These systems can develop strong wind , heavy rains , waves over 10 metres ( 33 ft ) in height , and eye features on weather satellite imagery .
= = Importance to tropical cyclones = =
The summer tropical upper tropospheric trough in the Southern Hemisphere lies over the trade wind region of the east central Pacific and can cause tropical cyclogenesis offshore Central America . In the western Pacific , tropical upper tropospheric lows are the main cause for the few tropical cyclones which develop north of the 20th parallel north and east of the 160th meridian east during La Niña events .
Trailing upper cyclones and upper troughs can cause additional outflow channels and aid in the intensification process of tropical cyclones . Developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet stream emanating from the developing tropical disturbance / cyclone . In the western North Pacific , there are strong reciprocal relationships between the areas of formative tropical cyclones and that of the lower tropospheric monsoon troughs and the tropical upper tropospheric trough . Tropical cyclone movement can also be influenced by TUTT cells within 1 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) of their position , which can lead to non @-@ climatological tracks , such as eastward movement within the tropics or westward movement in an area where the Westerlies normally dominate .
Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres ( 160 ft ) is one of the six requirements needed to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . Cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude ( e.g. , at the 500 hPa level , or 5 @.@ 9 km ) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures than normal , as a certain lapse rate is required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection . In a moist atmosphere , this lapse rate is 6 @.@ 5 ° C / km ( 19 ° F / mi ) , while in an atmosphere with less than 100 % relative humidity , the required lapse rate is 9 @.@ 8 ° C / km ( 29 ° F / mi ) . A recent example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Alex of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season , which became a hurricane over waters at only 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) .
At the 500 hPa level , the air temperature averages -7 ° C ( 18 ° F ) within the tropics , but air in the tropics is normally dry at this level , giving the air room to wet @-@ bulb , or cool as it moistens , to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection . A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of − 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 8 @.@ 2 ° F ) is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) , and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 ° C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 ° C change at 500 hpa . Under a cold cyclone , 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) , which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres . This also explains why moisture in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , roughly at the 500 hPa level , is normally a requirement for development . However , when dry air is found at the same height , temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres . At heights near the tropopause , the 30 @-@ year average temperature ( as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990 ) was -77 ° C ( -132 ° F ) .
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= Southcote , Berkshire =
Southcote ( / ˈsaʊθkət / ) is a suburb of Reading in the English county of Berkshire . Located to the south @-@ west of Reading town centre , Southcote has a population of about 8 @,@ 500 ( as of 2011 ) . The settlement lies primarily between the London @-@ to @-@ Bath road and the River Kennet .
The area was sparsely populated until after the Second World War , though excavations have revealed evidence of Paleolithic and Iron Age activity in Southcote , as well as Roman and Saxon habitation . By the time William the Conqueror undertook the Domesday Survey in 1086 , Southcote was sufficiently established to warrant a Lord of the Manor , who at that time was William de Braose . From the 16th century onwards , Southcote Manor was owned by the Blagrave family , who sold the manor house in the 1920s . The area was subsequently developed into housing : much of the land changed from agricultural to residential . A large proportion of the land in Southcote not used for housing is classified as flood @-@ meadow , providing flood plains between urbanisation and the River Kennet .
Southcote forms an electoral ward in Reading . The area is seen as a safe seat for Labour , as the Conservatives have not held a seat on the council since the 1980s .
Residents of Southcote generally self @-@ classify as Christian . The male life expectancy in the area is lower than the national estimate , although the female expectancy is slightly higher . Claimants of out @-@ of @-@ work benefits ( such as Jobseeker 's Allowance ) are more prevalent in Southcote than in surrounding areas . Attainment in education in Southcote is lower than the Reading average , as is residents ' self @-@ evaluation of health .
Near to the settlement is Southcote Junction , where two branches from the Great Western Main Line diverge : the Reading to Taunton line and the Reading to Basingstoke line . The railways were preceded by the Kennet and Avon Canal , which passes south of the settlement . Southcote lends its name to the 104th lock on the canal .
= = History = =
= = = Toponomy = = =
Recorded in the Domesday Book as Sudcote , Southcote has also been referred to as Sutcot , Sudcot , Sukote , Suthcot , Suthcote , Suthcotes , and Southcoat , with the present spelling entering usage in the 15th century . Alternative spellings of Southcot and Southcott have also been used .
The name " Southcote " , comparable to that of neighbouring Norcot , originates from the Old English " suth cote " , meaning " south [ ern ] cottage " . It is likely that Circuit Lane , one of the primary roads into Southcote , derives its name from " Circourt Lane " , a corruption of " Southcote Lane " . A similar development of names occurred at Circourt Manor near Denchworth , Oxfordshire .
= = = Early history = = =
Lower Paleolithic and Palaeolithic materials have been recovered in various excavations in the Southcote area . An Iron Age occupation was located when houses were constructed in the 20th century . A Saxon urn was found in Southcote in 1924 . The urn contained ashes and bone fragments , and was given to the Museum of Reading . A polished stone celt was also found in Southcote in 1926 . An excavation of Southcote Manor in the 1960s uncovered many Roman , Romano @-@ British and medieval artefacts such as sherds and pottery ; a sample of the latter was discovered to have originated in Oxford in the 2nd century . Similarly , a Pannonian brooch and samian ware have been found in the area , and Roman pottery was found in the vicinity of the clay pits at Prospect Park Brick Works . Later inhabitation of Southcote was discovered at Anslow 's Cottages south of the Kennet , where excavation suggests that a Bronze Age waterfront was made on a branch of the river . A 1991 report by the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England — now known as English Heritage — detailed the discovery of fragments of twined basketry at Anslow 's Cottages , showing that eel or fish traps were used on the river near Southcote . Archaeological findings of timber structures adjacent to the trap suggest that it dated from the eight or ninth century . Later discoveries , made in the 1980s during gravel extraction in the area , also uncovered evidence of a landing stage or jetty on the river channel .
= = = 11th – 15th century = = =
The settlement of Southcote grew largely around the medieval house at Southcote Manor . Before the Norman Conquest , Southcote was held by Brictward — a Saxon landowner and priest — under Edward the Confessor . The settlement was documented in the Domesday Book as Sudcote with a total population of 13 households , consisting of five villagers and eight smallholders , though a manor house is not mentioned . At this time Southcote was mostly ploughlands , but had a mill and a fishery , and was valued at £ 5 . The Lord of the Manor at the time was William de Braose , 1st Lord of Bramber . In the early 1200s a house was built and Southcote was owned by Henry Belet . This house had two moats , supplied with water by a channel from the nearby Holy Brook . Upon Henry 's death the estate was inherited by his son Michael , who was cup @-@ bearer to Henry II . In 1337 , a grant of free warren was made to the Belet family for the manor . In 1365 the manor and 13th @-@ century moated house passed into the Restwold family , and it passed through marriage to the Drew family of Seagry , Wiltshire , then the Sambourne family . Margaret Sambourne , the heir to the manor , died in 1494 and an inquisition the following year suggested that she held the manor ( then valued at £ 20 ) as a trustee on behalf of Hugh Kenepy . Around this time a brick house was built to replace the earlier dwelling . After the death of Sambourne 's son , Drew , an inquisition reported in contradiction that the manor was held by the Abbot of Reading ; in their work on the Berkshire section of Victoria County History , Peter Ditchfield and William Henry Page write that at this point " the correct tenure had evidently been lost " . Through Drew Sambourne 's granddaughter , Margaret , the manor passed through marriage to William Windsor , 2nd Baron Windsor . William 's grandson , Henry ( 5th Baron Windsor ) , sold the manor to Anthony Blagrave by the early 16th century .
= = = 16th century – 19th century = = =
The Blagrave family were wealthy landowners around Reading , and the manor passed down through the family ( which included mathematician John Blagrave , who built a new house at Southcote ) ; a lease document dated from 1596 suggests that the manor was divided between three Blagrave brothers . Daniel Blagrave , a cousin of John , inherited the manor on the latter 's death in 1611 . At the time of the English Civil War , during the Siege of Reading in 1643 , the Blagraves allowed Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex to use the manor as his headquarters . The Blagrave family , who were sympathetic to the Roundheads , are said to have hosted Oliver Cromwell , John Hampden and Robert Blake for a council of war in one of the house 's oak panelled rooms . In January 1649 , Daniel was one of the signatories of Charles I 's death warrant .
In 1665 Elias Ashmole wrote to Mervyn Tuchet , 4th Earl of Castlehaven at " Southcote neere Redding " . At some point that century the manor house was largely rebuilt and modernised ; the existing 15th century guardhouse and vaulted well were retained . Come the Restoration in 1660 after the end of the war , Daniel fled from England and died in Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle in 1668 . Southcote saw development with the opening of the Kennet Navigation in the 1720s , where the River Kennet was made navigable by vessels as far upstream as Newbury ; industrialisation along the canal continued for the next century .
Throughout the 18th century the manor continued to pass through the Blagrave family , including John Blagrave MP . In 1778 , Frances Blagrave married John Blagrave of Watchfield ( Ditchfield and Page suggest that the couple were not related before marriage ) . In 1813 , Daniel and Samuel Lysons wrote that the manor and mansion house were unoccupied but remained the property of the Blagrave family , who at that point resided at nearby Calcot Park . The same year , Calvespit House ( near Calvespit Farm to the west of Southcote Manor ) was renamed Southcott Lodge and incorporated into the estate . Between 1828 and 1850 the house was let to Charles and Frances Lutyens , whose son Charles was born at the house and who later fathered the architect Sir Edwin Lutyens .
Southcote was mentioned in Samuel Lewis 's 1835 Topographical Dictionary of England . It was described as a tything within the parish of St Mary 's , Reading , and had a population of 84 .
In 1847 , the Reading to Taunton branch of the Great Western Main Line was built through Southcote . The following year the Reading to Basingstoke line opened to the east of Southcote ; the railways diverging at Southcote Junction . Two years later , in 1850 , a water pumping station was built alongside the Kennet and Avon Canal at to Southcote Lock . The facility , owned by the Reading Corporation , was connected to the Bath Road Reservoir ( 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) north @-@ east ) and provided Reading with a source of water that originated upstream of any pollutants from the town .
In 1860 the occupant was Louisa Mundy , widow of Lieutenant Governor of Jersey Godfrey Mundy . Louisa was the niece of Henry Herbert , 2nd Earl of Carnarvon , and lived at Southcote with her sons Herbert and Cyril . By this time , Southcote had expanded to a population of 87 , with 14 houses . In his Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales , John Marius Wilson stated that the real property of Southcote was valued at £ 608 .
After the Mundys ' tenure , Southcote Manor was let to the Brisco ( or Briscoe ) family , who had made their money in slave trading and plantation ownership . The family were relatives of Hastings MP Musgrave Brisco and inheritors of the Pryce baronetcy . Along with one of his labourers , Wastel Brisco was taken to court in Reading in 1874 , charged with the " assualt with intent to ravish " a 13 @-@ year @-@ old servant girl . During the trial , the Reading Observer reported that " several rumours were in circulation that a person connected with the case had committed suicide " . Brisco supposedly used his wealth and social status to dissuade witnesses from testifying and the case was apparently abandoned .
Brisco was eccentric and wealthy , and added a ballroom to the building in 1891 , replacing a timber chapel . He also began construction of the house 's distinctive tower the same year but died before it was complete and building work was abandoned .
= = = 20th century = = =
The manor of Southcote remained in the Blagrave family until the early 20th century , when it was owned by Henry Barry Blagrave . Henry died in 1927 , though the manor house was demolished in 1921 after lying empty following the death of Wastel Brisco and his wife Sarah in 1891 and 1901 respectively . In 1920 the house had been purchased by a contractor with intentions to demolish the site , though the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings organised a committee to attempt to raise money to save the house . The Sphere reported that the bricks and oak panelling were in demand and were likely removed for re @-@ use before the building 's demolition .
In 1908 Reading Central Goods railway station was opened on the Coley Branch Line diverting at Southcote Junction . During the first few decades of the 20th century , however , most of Southcote remained rural and undeveloped . An Ordnance Survey map of 1914 shows the majority of land as agricultural ( farms and nurseries ) with a number of gravel pits and smithies . The 1930s saw the construction of the Southcote Park Estate , a housing estate built on land inherited after the death of William Berkeley Monck of Coley Park . An Ordnance Survey map of 1938 shows greater provision for the population ( as opposed to industry ) ; some of the gravel pits no longer existed and Presentation College , a boys ' school , had opened in two large Victorian buildings — Rotherfield Grange and Oakland Hall , the latter a suburban villa built in the 1870s . By the advent of World War II , Southcote had begun to experience urban sprawl from Reading and the land bordering the Great Western Railway had begun to be used for housing . Following the war , Denton 's Field on the Bath Road in Southcote was used for celebratory events ; Battle of Britain commemorative fêtes were held in September 1949 and 1950 , and featured a performance by three Alsatians — Rocky , Lindy and Irma — to recognise their work in the war . Denton 's Field gained reputation as a location for outdoor community events , and was comparable to places such as Caversham Park and Palmer Park .
In the 1950s , a huge building project centred around Coronation Square ( named for the 1953 Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II ) with hundreds of council houses built to satisfy post @-@ war demand . The residents of many of these had moved from houses in central and east Reading that fell short of sanitation requirements of the Public Health Act 1875 , were compulsorily purchased and later demolished .
The gatehouse at Southcote Manor stood until the 1960s , when a fire broke out . It was demolished by 1964 to make way for housing . Reading Central Goods station was closed in 1983 , and with it the branch line from Southcote ceased to operate . Two years later the track bed and sleepers were removed .
The same decade a campaign was started to raise £ 1 million to save the decaying mansion in Prospect Park ; in 1986 the building was described as " crumbling " and " likely to be demolished " , though plans existed to convert the building into offices . In the 1990s , however , the building was renovated and re @-@ opened as a restaurant .
In 2004 , Presentation College went into administration . It was taken over by the Society of Licensed Victuallers and renamed The Elvian School . The school closed in 2010 . Following its closure , Taylor Wimpey applied to build 193 new homes on the site , competing with a proposal by a community group ( the West Reading Education Network ) to reopen the site as a free school known as the WREN . The housing plan was rejected , but Taylor Wimpey then appealed to Reading Borough Council and submitted a revised plan for 120 homes , which left room for the school . The appeal was taken to the High Court , which ruled that the site should be used solely for education ; the school opened for Year Seven pupils on 7 September 2015 .
= = Government = =
= = = Local elections = = =
Southcote forms an electoral ward of the Reading West constituency , and has three seats on Reading Borough Council . It is seen as a safe seat for the Labour Party ; the Conservative Party last won a council seat in Southcote in 1987 . The current three councillors are Debs Edwards , John Ellis and Matt Lawrence . The most recent election was held in 2016 , which saw Edwards re @-@ elected . The ward has seen three by @-@ elections : in 2006 , in 2014 when Lawrence was elected following Pete Ruhemann 's death , and in 2016 when Lawrence resigned from councillorship . The seat , which was contested by candidates from Labour , the Liberal Democrats , the Green Party and the Conservatives. was held by the Labour party who gained 63 @.@ 7 % of votes .
Like all wards in Reading , the boundaries of Southcote ward were redrawn in 2004 . The ward holds elections by thirds — three seats are available , and in three years in every four , one seat comes up for election .
= = = = Elected councillors = = = =
Incumbent councillors are listed in bold .
= = = Community government = = =
Southcote has a number of action groups , including the Southcote Residents ' Association ( for general residents ' interests ) , the Southcote Neighbourhood Action Group ( for a police and council relations ) , and Southcote Globe ( for environmental issues ) . Southcote Park Estate , a large area of semi @-@ detached housing on unadopted roads built in 1933 , has an elected volunteer committee .
= = Geography = =
Southcote , as a ward , is bounded to the north by Norcot , to the north @-@ east by Battle , to the east by Minster and to the south @-@ east by Whitley . To the south , south @-@ west and west Southcote forms the boundary between the Reading and West Berkshire . The boundaries of Southcote are formed by Calcot Park to the north @-@ west , the northern edge of Prospect Park to the north , the Reading to Basingstoke railway line to the east and by channels of the River Kennet to the south . The western boundary runs through housing in the Fords Farm area . Beyond the south @-@ west and western boundaries , in West Berkshire , are the wards of Burghfield and Calcot .
Less formally , Southcote is bordered by the settlements of Horncastle and Fords Farm to the west , Tilehurst to the north , West Reading to the north east , Coley to the east , Whitley to the south @-@ east and Pingewood to the south .
= = = Topography = = =
Southcote is bordered to the south by the Holy Brook and the River Kennet ; as such much of the land in the south of the area is floodplain . The proximity of Southcote to the river has led to flooding of roads and residences , particularly during the 2013 – 2014 United Kingdom winter floods . Flooding is exacerbated by the routes of the Holy Brook and railway line ; the railway crosses the stream by bridges and culverts and in some locations the embankment acts as a bund , inhibiting the dissipation of floodwater . Similarly , a report by West Berkshire Council found that during the 2013 – 14 floods the single track road between the Holy Brook and the Kennet at Southcote Mill " acted as a barrier until the rising waters backing up in the flood plain fields finally breached " . Network Rail 's plans for electrification of the Great Western Main Line include provision for flood defences where the line is in proximity to the Holy Brook .
The elevation of Southcote ranges from almost 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in the north @-@ west extreme of the ward ( SRTM data records this as 94 metres ( 308 ft ) , Ordnance Survey as 92 metres ( 302 ft ) ) to approximately 37 metres ( 121 ft ) in the floodplains north and south of the Kennet .
= = = Geology = = =
The geology of Southcote includes the Reading Formation — rock strata in the Lambeth Group consisting of clay , silt and sand formed in the Palaeogene period . Bedrock in Southcote is also formed of chalk , with geological surveys also finding flint samples . A map produced by the Geological Survey of Great Britain in 1860 identifies the area as being predominantly Plastic Clay ( now known as the Lambeth Group ) and chalk north of the river , with flint and gravel samples typical of the Bagshot Formation south of the Kennet . More specifically , the 2000 survey showed different types of gravel , including Winter Hill ( variably clayey and sandy ) , Lynch Hill ( sand and gravel with lenses of silt , clay or peat ) , and head ( a polymict deposit usually formed by periglacial solifluction or gelifluction ) . The survey also identified that much of the land south of the Kennet is " infilled " or " worked " ground ; this area was formerly gravel pits and now used for leisure . The British Geological Survey defines infilled ground as " areas where the ground has been cut away then wholly or partially backfilled " and worked ground as " areas where the ground has been cut away such as quarries and road cuttings " .
= = = Built environment = = =
The settlement is concentrated to the south of the Bath Road ( A4 ) . Southcote consists substantially of planned post @-@ war housing , much of which is Wates @-@ constructed prefabricated housing . The majority of dwellings are semi @-@ detached , which account for 37 @.@ 7 % of all residences . 29 @.@ 1 % of dwellings are flats , and 23 @.@ 5 % are terraces . Reading 's first high @-@ rise dwellings — three eight @-@ storey tower blocks — were built in Southcote in the late 1950s . Home ownership in Southcote is 58 @.@ 3 % , which is average for the Reading area . Use of social housing is above the local average at 29 @.@ 2 % .
Southcote 's main thoroughfare is Southcote Lane which runs east – west through the area , connecting Southcote to Fords Farm ( to the west ) and Coley ( to the east ) . Southcote is centred around Coronation Square , an area of open grassland surrounded by community facilities and commercial premises . To the north of the Bath Road is Prospect Park , a large urban park surrounding the Mansion House . Development to the south of Southcote is restricted by the Holy Brook and the Great Western Main Line , and although the land is used for recreation , proposals are occasionally put forward to build housing on the floodplains . The land south of the railway line is subject to a Tree Preservation Order ( TPO ) . This land is defined by Reading Borough Council as Southcote Meadows , and stretches from the Burghfield Road ( near to the western boundary of Southcote ) to Milkmaid 's Bridge at the foot of Southcote Lock . Other parts of Southcote are subject to similar restrictions , including areas adjacent to ( but north of ) the railway embankment , trees lining the Kennet and Avon Canal west of Southcote Lock , and various individual sites .
= = = Parks and open spaces = = =
Prospect Park , one of the largest open spaces in Reading , is in Southcote Ward . Smaller parks such as Linear Park and Southcote Farm Lane playground are in the community . Coronation Square is a designated green space in the centre of Southcote .
Bordering Prospect Park is Devil 's Dip , a former gravel and clay pit . The site is recognised by Reading Borough Council as an area of wildlife and historical interest , and examples of elm , walnut , ash , horse chestnut and sycamore trees grow there . Other flora found at the site include nettle , bramble and elder , with flowers such as lesser celandine , bluebells and Queen Anne 's lace appearing in the spring . Peacock butterflies and various species of woodland bird are prevalent in the area .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2011 , the population of the Southcote area was 8 @,@ 548 , of which 48 % were male and 52 % female . This is an increase of 58 residents compared to the 2001 census . Censuses before this cannot be compared , as the ward boundaries ( and therefore population ) changed after the 1991 census .
The majority of residents of Southcote Ward ( 58 @.@ 6 % ) identify as Christian , with people specifying " no religion " counting for 24 @.@ 9 % of the population . The second most prevalent religion in Southcote is Islam , with 6 % of people identifying as Muslim . The vast majority of Southcote residents ( 73 @.@ 4 % ) are White British ; the Reading average is 65 % . Almost one in twenty ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) of residents identify as Black African , 4 % of mixed heritage , 3 % Pakistani , 3 % Indian and 2 % Black Caribbean . 82 @.@ 9 % of the population in Southcote were born in the UK , and 91 @.@ 3 % speak English as their first language . 1 @.@ 5 % of residents do not speak English well .
The life expectancy in Southcote is 77 @.@ 5 years for males — lower than the national estimate of 78 @.@ 3 — and the expectancy for females ( 82 @.@ 6 years ) is slightly higher than the national estimate ( 82 @.@ 3 years ) .
The census counted Southcote in Reading 's labour market , where 75 @.@ 6 % of the population is deemed as economically active . 71 @.@ 9 % of the population are engaged in employment , and 6 @.@ 5 % are classified as unemployed . Out @-@ of @-@ work benefit payments ( such as Jobseeker 's Allowance , incapacity , lone parent , disability and carer benefits ) in Southcote are higher than the Reading average .
80 @.@ 2 % of Southcote 's residence evaluate their health as " good " , although this is lower than the Reading average of 85 @.@ 5 % .
= = Economy = =
Historically the land at Southcote was used for farming and gravel extraction . Farms such as Calvespit Farm ( SU683716 ) , Honey End Farm ( SU684725 ) , Southcote Manor Farm ( SU691718 ) , and Southcote Farm ( SU695719 ) were in the area . The 1888 Kelly 's Directory lists some residents of Southcote Lane as being employed as coachmen , butlers , gardeners , labourers , florists , dairy farmers , thatchers and carters . One resident was a member of the county police , and Major @-@ General C J Addington resided at Southcote Lodge . An Ordnance Survey map surveyed in the 1870s also identifies a vinery and kennels .
The farming and gravel industries declined with the expansion of Reading after the Second World War , though the existence of the anti @-@ extraction groups " Save Southcote Meadows " and " Residents Against Gravel Extraction " ( RAGE ) in the 1980s suggests the demand for such industry in the area remained . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the Tarmac Group reportedly owned land near the site of Southcote Manor with the intent of extracting gravel there .
There are two primary centres of economical activity in Southcote — Coronation Square and Southcote Farm Lane . Coronation Square is home to a number of commercial and community premises , including a post office , takeaway food outlets , newsagents , healthcare businesses and a pet shop ; as well as a community centre and library . The square also featured a public house until its demolition in 2011 ; the land was subsequently used for affordable housing . Southcote Farm Lane has a small parade of shops and businesses including a convenience store and hairdressers . On the border of Southcote and Tilehurst is the Meadway Precinct , which includes an Asda supermarket and a Boots pharmacy , as well as other smaller shops . The precinct opened in 1967 , and a survey in 2012 revealed that the public thought the site had become run @-@ down and required modernisation . In 2015 a planning application was submitted to Reading Borough Council by a developer who plans to renovate the site .
Branches of Beefeater and Harvester @-@ owned public houses are in Southcote ; the latter in the former Prospect Park mansion . A third pub , The George and Dragon , is located at the westernmost extreme of Southcote , and is owned by Greene King and operated as a Hungry Horse outlet .
The Southcote Service Station is an Esso petrol filling station and Tesco Express convenience store , adjacent to which is a Nissan dealership .
= = Culture and community = =
In the years following the Second World War , Southcote hosted a number of community events on Denton 's Field . Many of these fêtes included grasstrack motorcycle racing events , which were held in 1947 , 1948 and 1949 . Speedway stars Bill Kitchen and George Wilks raced at Southcote in 1949 for a Conservative Party fête . The field was also used in 1949 for a gymkhana and a church fundraising fête .
Southcote holds an annual May fayre in Coronation Square ; the 2015 event was organised by community groups from local churches and community centres . The event focuses on cuisine , live music and children 's entertainment .
The Reading branch of the Kennet and Avon Canal Trust meet at Southcote for talks and meetings , and undertake maintenance work on the canal through the Southcote area .
= = = Public services = = =
Southcote is within Thames Valley Police 's catchment , and is grouped as a neighbourhood with Norcot . Residents identified nuisance and illegal parking and excessive speed as of concern in the area , as well as the antisocial use of mini motos , quad bikes and motorcycles on the Kennet towpath . Measures to alleviate nuisance parking were introduced in early 2015 with a ban on parking on the road verge . In June 2015 , signs were installed on the lane to Southcote Mill to warn motorcycle users of their prohibition on that right of way .
The majority of reported crime in Southcote is categorised as either violent or sexual attacks , where 46 incidents of this nature were reported in June 2015 within a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) radius of Coronation Square . The highest concentration of crime occurs near the service station on the A4 road . Neighbourhood liaison sessions ( known as " Have Your Say " meetings ) are held in Coronation Square .
A surgery , operated by the Berkshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust , is located at the junction of Circuit Lane and Southcote Lane . In late 2014 the practice was the subject of significant local media coverage when all five of the surgery 's general practitioners resigned . Other NHS facilities in Southcote include Prospect Park Hospital ( catering for in @-@ patient mental health and psychiatric intensive care ) and the Dutchess of Kent Hospice , which is also part of the Sue Ryder group . The NHS 's North and West Reading Clinical Commissioning Group 's headquarters is located in Southcote on the Bath Road .
Southcote has a number of council @-@ funded community facilities , including a library , a community centre , and a children 's centre . A number of community organisations , such as an elderly residents ' social club , litter picking groups , and allotments are in existence in the area . Reading 's RESCUE ( Rivers and Environmental Spaces Clean @-@ Up Event ) , a rural litter @-@ picking initiative , operates periodically in the parks and along the tracks and towpaths in Southcote .
= = Transport = =
Southcote is situated north of the M4 Motorway , approximately halfway between junctions 11 ( Reading central ) and 12 ( Reading west ) .
The Reading to Taunton branch of the Great Western Mainline railway bisects Southcote laterally . At the eastern boundary of the settlement is Southcote Junction , where the Reading to Taunton and Reading to Basingstoke Lines diverge . A third line — the Coley Branch Line — ran from the junction until its closure in the 1980s . There are a number of Brunel @-@ designed brick arch bridges along the Reading to Taunton line through Southcote , two of which have been described as " notably well preserved examples " and are designated " heritage assets " by Network Rail . A third bridge , which carries the main Burghfield to Reading road , may have originally been timber before being replaced with a steel deck by the Great Western Railway company .
Southcote is linked to Reading by a number of Reading Buses services along the A4 Bath Road , with some services stopping within Southcote itself . One service , named " Jet Black " , links Reading to Newbury via Southcote .
The Kennet and Avon Canal at Southcote is still used for pleasure boating ; moorings for narrowboats are located between Southcote Lock and Burghfield Bridge . The canal is accessible from footpaths near Burghfield Bridge , Southcote Mill and Fobney Lock , and the towpath through Southcote is a designated portion of National Cycle Route 4 .
During the First World War , an aerodrome was established near to Southcote at Coley Park . Aviator Henri Salmet based himself at Woodley Aerodrome , from which he gave " joyrides " in his Blériot Aéronautique aeroplane , but also gave flights in a Blériot XI from the Kennet meadows in Southcote . In 1915 a Farman aeroplane crash @-@ landed at Southcote Farm next to Southcote Junction . The pilot was able to jump from the plane before it crashed , and ran alongside it until it collided with a hedge near the railway embankment .
= = Education = =
Three primary schools are situated in Southcote — Manor Primary School , Holy Brook Special Educational Needs School , and Southcote Primary School . In each of their most recent Ofsted inspections , the schools achieved a " good " rating .
Three secondary schools are in operation in Southcote . Prospect School is a specialist sport and ICT school run under the academy system . In its latest Ofsted report , the school was judged to require improvement . The other secondary school in Southcote is The Blessed Hugh Faringdon Catholic School , a Catholic school named after the Reading abbot Hugh Cook alias Faringdon . The school was deemed to be " good " in its latest Ofsted inspection . In September 2015 , the third school — The Wren School — opened on the site of the former Elvian School . This operates as afree school , and was envisaged by a volunteer network after Reading Borough Council identified a shortfall in school capacity in 2012 .
Educational attainment in Southcote is lower than the Reading and national average . 47 % of students at GCSE ( or equivalent ) attain five or more A * to C passes , compared to the Reading figure of 57 % and 61 % nationally . The number of students achieving Level 2 writing at Key Stage 1 is 83 % — the same as in the wider Reading area — though the national percentage is higher at 85 % . Overall , the proportion of Southcote residents with no qualifications is higher than Reading .
Based at Stoneham Court , within the grounds of Prospect School , is the headquarters ( and central Berkshire base ) of the Berkshire Maestros music school .
= = Religious sites = =
Southcote is in the Reading Deanery of the Diocese of Oxford . Southcote 's Anglican church is dedicated to St Matthew . A United Reformed Church was built in 1958 , shortly after the Southcote housing estate became occupied , and a Christian Mission was established in Southcote in 1965 . The Catholic Church of English Martyrs is situated adjacent to Prospect Park at the northernmost boundary of Southcote ward . The Kennet Valley Free Church is just beyond the Southcote — Fords Farm boundary .
Provision for other faiths is found closer to Reading town centre and in East Reading .
= = Sport = =
Southcote 's main football club is Southcote Colts . The under @-@ 13 team won the 2014 – 15 East Berkshire Third Division without being beaten . The under @-@ 14 and under @-@ 16 teams both currently play in their respective Premier Division of the Peter Houseman Youth League . The under @-@ 15 team is currently in the " A " league of the Oxford Mail Youth Football League .
= = Notable people = =
The Blagrave family :
John Blagrave ( c.1561 – 1611 ) , mathematician
Daniel Blagrave ( 1603 – 1668 ) , Member of Parliament and signatory of Charles I 's death warrant
John Blagrave ( 1630 – 1704 ) , Member of Parliament
Derek Watkins ( 1945 – 2013 ) , trumpeter who appeared on every James Bond film soundtrack until his death after Skyfall .
Michael Bond ( born 1926 ) , author and creator of Paddington Bear
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= Design B @-@ 65 cruiser =
Design B @-@ 65 was a class of Super Type A cruisers planned by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) before and during World War II . As envisioned by the IJN , the cruisers were to play a key role in the Night Battle Force portion of the " Decisive battle " strategy which Japan hoped , in the event of war , to employ against the United States Navy .
Begun in 1939 , plans were far enough along that tests were conducted with the main armament and against the underwater protection . Even though the ships were approved for construction under a 1942 fleet replenishment program , the prioritizing of aircraft carriers and smaller ships due to the war , followed by Japan 's defeat , killed any chance of the B @-@ 65 's construction .
= = Mission and plan = =
The Japanese navy 's experience in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 @-@ 1905 , especially the Battle of Tsushima , strongly influenced the creation of the IJN 's " Decisive Battle " doctrine , which guided the development and deployment of the IJN 's battle fleet into World War II . The Decisive Battle concept was the IJN 's primary strategy for defeating the navies of the major Western powers , such as Great Britain or the United States , in the event of war . The strategy consisted of four main components : a decisive surface fleet engagement determined by big guns , attrition tactics against a numerically superior enemy , a reliance on quality over quantity in naval weaponry , and the employment of nighttime torpedo attacks .
After the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , each of which placed restrictions on the size of the IJN 's fleet in comparison with the fleets of the western powers , notably the United States , the decisive battle strategy received increased emphasis within the IJN . In 1936 , the IJN formed the Night Battle Force ( Yasen Butai ) . As designed , the night battle force was to attack the hypothetical enemy 's , usually envisioned by the Japanese to be the US Pacific Fleet , outer defense ring of cruisers and destroyers at night . After cracking the outer defense ring , IJN cruisers and destroyers were to launch torpedo attacks on the enemy 's battleships . What remained of the enemy fleet was then to be finished @-@ off by the IJN 's main battleship line the following day .
The IJN assigned one division of fast battleships or battlecruisers to give additional firepower to the nocturnal attacks . The Kongō @-@ class battlecruiser were initially assigned to this role and were upgraded to fast battleships over a seven @-@ year period from 1933 @-@ 1940 . The IJN planned to eventually replace the four Kongō battleships with four heavy , " super " cruisers . As envisioned by the IJN in 1936 , these ships , the B @-@ 65 cruisers , would mount 12 @-@ inch guns , carry armor designed to withstand hits from 8 @-@ inch shells , and be capable of speeds up to 40 knots . They would be designated as " super @-@ A @-@ class cruisers " to signify their greater status than the A @-@ class ships ( heavy cruisers ) .
The plan for the cruiser class was finalized as part of the IJN 's Circle Five and Circle Six warship construction plans of 7 January 1941 . The plan called for six B @-@ 65s to be built in two increments , with the first two to be constructed in Circle 5 with the remainder in Circle 6 . By this time , Japanese intelligence had learned the specifications for the United States Navy 's Alaska @-@ class large cruisers , which had been authorized for creation by the passage of the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act and ordered on 5 September 1940 . The Japanese believed that these ships would form part of the American battle fleet 's screen in times of war . Thus , the B @-@ 65s were now intended to counter the threat posed by the Alaska @-@ class cruisers .
= = Design = =
Design work on the B @-@ 65s began in 1939 . Preliminary plans for the new class were finished by September 1940 , and they were far enough along that tests of the lower protection — the armor intended to counter any shell that fell short but still hit the ship ( albeit underwater ) and torpedoes — and main armament were conducted from 1940 to 1941 .
These plans called for ships that bore a striking resemblance to the Yamato @-@ class battleships , with the same " clipper bow , flush @-@ deck construction , and a generally similar superstructure " , albeit at a reduced size . Primary weapons were to be nine 310 mm ( 12 @.@ 2 in ) / 50 caliber guns in three triple turrets and eight 610 mm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes firing the excellent Type 93 " Long Lance " torpedo . Secondary weapons included sixteen 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) / 65 caliber Type 98 dual @-@ purpose guns in dual mounts on either side of the superstructure , twelve paired Type 95 25 mm ( 1 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , and four 13.2mm Hotchkiss machine guns . The weight of the main battery turrets was to be around 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 short tons ; 1 @,@ 000 t ) , with 350 long tons ( 390 short tons ; 360 t ) of that devoted to armor ; however , no plans of how this latter figure was to have been distributed has survived .
The cruisers were to be protected by 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) belt armor sloped at 20 ° and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) deck armor . Four geared turbine sets would have generated about 42 @,@ 500 shp each ; for a total of about 167 @,@ 674 shp , enough to power the ships through the water at 34 kn ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) , faster than the " fundamental design requirement " of 33 kn ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) .
In an attempt to counter the Alaska @-@ class cruisers ' 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , a proposal to increase both the main battery to six 356 mm ( 14 in ) and armor protection to resist against the same was put forth . However , the increase in displacement ( to almost 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 45 @,@ 000 short tons ; 41 @,@ 000 t ) ) and reduction in performance this entailed meant that nothing came of the proposed changes .
= = Final plans and cancellation = =
As war with the United States loomed in 1941 , the navy found that it had a more pressing need for aircraft carriers and auxiliary vessels . This need , plus a desire to complete the ongoing Circle Three and Four construction programs , delayed initiation of the Circle Five plan .
Following the Japanese navy 's defeat at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 , the Circle Five plan was significantly revised and Circle Six was postponed indefinitely . The new plan still called for the construction of two ships of Design B @-@ 65 , which were given the hull numbers 795 and 796 with projected commissioning dates of 1945 and 1946 , respectively . As the war progressed , however , strategic requirements further delayed the plans for the two cruisers . In the end , the B @-@ 65s ' plans were never finalized and no contracts for their construction were ever placed .
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= Carrick , Tasmania =
Carrick is a small historic village 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) west of Launceston , Tasmania , Australia , on the banks of the Liffey River . The Meander Valley Highway passes through the town 's centre ; this road was formerly the main road from Launceston to Deloraine and Devonport . Carrick has a well @-@ preserved 19th @-@ century heritage ; fifteen of its colonial buildings are listed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register including Carrick House ( 1840 ) , St Andrew 's Church ( 1848 ) , the Old Watch house ( 1837 ) , Monds Roller Mill ( 1846 ) and the Carrick Hotel ( 1833 ) .
The first land grant at Carrick was in 1818 and a decade later William Bryan was building a wooden mill on the river 's bank . The town was formed in consequence of this mill 's construction and town plots sold in 1838 . Carrick Post Office opened on 5 November 1841 . Carrick never grew large — the population varied from around 200 to 439 — and today it is largely a residential settlement for those who work in Launceston and the rural areas surrounding the town . During much of its history growth has been limited by lack of organised water supply and sewerage , though reticulated services for both are now connected . Volunteer labour enabled piped water supply , from the Liffey , from 1961 and a sewerage plant was built in the mid @-@ 1970s on the towns outskirts . The local councils ' strategic plan aims for the town to stay small with only infill development .
The 1846 stone building known as " Monds Roller Mill " is the town 's most prominent feature . The operation of this mill — and the preceding wooden mill — was the foundation of the town 's prosperity during the 19th century . The mill operated until 1924 , for most of this time by Thomas Monds and his family company , and was the last water powered flour mill in Tasmania . Since a 1984 renovation it has intermittently been a restaurant , wedding venue and meeting venue . Near the mill is Archer 's Folly , an imposing and now ruined , but never completed , grand colonial house . The folly was started in 1847 , sold incomplete in 1867 and burned to a roofless shell in 1978 . Significant people associated with Carrick include : Thomas Reibey , once Premier of Tasmania ; Thomas Monds who founded an extensive milling company ; and Sammy Cox whose claims would make him the earliest European settler in Tasmania .
The Anglican Church St Andrews has held services since the 1840s . For some time the town also had a Wesleyan Chapel . A private school opened in 1843 and a government one in the 1870s . By the late 1930s both schools had closed . Carrick hosts Agfest , the state 's largest single event and one of Australia 's largest agricultural field days . The 1848 Anglican church , 1833 hotel and a few other establishments serve the townspeople . A brewery , steam and water mill , butcher , schools and other hotels are all long since closed . Carrick has a long association with horse racing , starting prior to the race course 's formation in 1848 . For a time the town held the oldest horse race in Australia . Today regular harness racing , speedway racing and cycling events have replaced this .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to foundation = = =
Carrick 's area is within the traditional grounds of the Northern Midlands group of Tasmanian Aborigines . Records held by Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania have no reference , as recently as 2010 , of any aboriginal heritage or artifacts in the area . The first land grant at Carrick was made in 1818 to Thomas Haydock Reibey , father of Thomas Reibey ( later Premier of Tasmania ) . The grant was for 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) taking in the area of the later town . Early land use was for agriculture and by 1823 , at least , there were only a few widely scattered settlers .
Captain William Thomas Lyttleton was granted over 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) near Carrick in late 1825 when he lived at nearby Hagley in Hagley House . What was then just a locality became known as Lyttleton after the Captain . The river that passed from the Great Western Tiers to nearby Meander River was then known as The Pennyroyal Creek , after a plant that grew profusely on its banks . William Bryan arrived at Hobart , from Ireland , in May 1824 . He received land grants of 1 @,@ 077 acres ( 436 ha ) in the Meander Valley and later purchased 500 acres ( 200 ha ) at Carrick , including 30 acres ( 10 ha ) on the creek . Bryan began building a mill on his Carrick grant in 1826 , on the same site as the later Monds Roller Mills . His business interests prospered and he purchased large amounts of land , including more at Carrick . By 1828 the first bridge over the river had been built , a simple log structure . Bryan 's mill was the impetus for foundation of the town . Van Diemen 's Land 's Land Commissioners recommended in early 1828 : " Mr W Bryan is building a mill a short way up the stream and we beg to recommend reserving 100 acres each side for the various purposes of a village which we called Lyttleton . "
Over the next few years Bryan used his influence to rename , in memory of his homeland , both the town and the river , much to the disgust of Lyttleton . It was reported in 1831 newspapers that the road from Launceston to Carrick had been opened . The path of the road was announced in April 1831 , and it was opened for public traffic in June . The State Government sold town allotments in late 1838 , obtaining what was noted as a high price of £ 45 ( A $ 8 @,@ 100 in 2005 ) per acre .
= = = 19th century = = =
Samuel Pratt Winter was sent to Tasmania by his father , at Bryan 's request , to act as an overseer of the mill . He managed the mill from 1834 , when Bryan went to London in the midst of a dispute with Governor Arthur , and leased it from 1837 onwards . A post office opened in November 1841 , and at the end of the year the village had also four dwellings , a blacksmith shop , a police station , the flour mill and an adobe hotel built by John Archer . While passing through the town Louisa Anne Meredith took note of the buildings . In her guidebook , published in 1843 , she referred to the " crazy weather board mill " . At the time the mill 's motive power came from an overshot water wheel supplied with water from the Liffey River via a long wooden trough . St Andrew 's church was built in 1843 by Thomas Reibey as a school . The initial church grounds of 14 acres ( 6 ha ) were donated by Thomas Reibey . Winter was living at the mill cottage in 1846 , when he arranged for the old wooden mill to be removed and , with John Kinder Archer , began building the blue @-@ stone mill . The town greatly expanded in the late 1850s , fueled by the efforts of those returning from the Victorian gold fields . Over time many cottages in Carrick were built for workers on the Reibey 's Entally House outside nearby Hadspen .
By 1859 the town had two mills — one steam and one water wheel powered — that processed approximately 4000 bushels per week . There was a steam @-@ powered brewery , opposite St Andrew 's church , whose produce won first prize at the 1859 Launceston show ( by 1947 the brewery was scant ruins ) . During its operation the brewery had supplied all of the town 's hotels . Four inns were open and the town had an agricultural machinery manufacturing business . A public library was established in 1860 . The mill was sold to Thomas Monds , an experienced miller , in 1867 . At the time it was reported that its machinery was in poor repair , but the building was sound . When a nearby rail line was built in 1869 traffic through Carrick greatly diminished and trade in the town suffered , though the nearest station was Bishopbourne over 5 miles ( 8 km ) away .
A government school was established in the 1870s and grew to 65 students by 1901 . Mond 's business expanded throughout the latter part of the 19th century and the prosperity of the town did likewise . He built a large grain store opposite the mill and opened offices and a depot in Launceston . Westbury Municipal Council built a public hall on the main road in 1883 . The current weatherboard town hall dates from c1900 and the old hall is presumed to have been destroyed prior to this . At the town 's height in the 19th century , just after the return of men from the Victorian gold fields , the town had four public houses and a population of approximately 400 . It had four public houses operating two of which , Prince of Wales and the Carrick Hotel , remained open in 1901 . As of 1883 it was reported that the inns were kept open by the Carrick Races and fortnightly livestock sales . Carrick 's livestock sales were held at the Carrick Hotel and were the main fat stock sales for Launceston . At the turn of the century the town had no reticulated water . It relied on wells , rainwater and the inconstant river .
= = = Transportation = = =
The Liffey River — then called Pennyroyal Creek — was first bridged at Carrick in 1828 with a simple log structure . This was replaced in the 1830s with a more substantial bridge , though still wooden . As of 1834 the areas ' roads were poor and vehicles frequently became bogged on the road to Westbury . A bridge over the South Esk , at what is now Hadspen , was built in 1843 . It replaced a frequently impassable ford and more reliably connected Carrick to Launceston . Liffey bridge was repaired and raised in the mid @-@ 1860s , keeping the original foundations . In May 1875 water sufficiently eroded these foundations to lead to the bridge 's collapse , when one of the two supporting piles ( logs ) gave way . All of the Liffey bridges , and the connecting parts of the road , were subject to inundation when the river flooded ; the 1929 Tasmanian Floods carried the bridge away . In the 1950s the road was reconstructed and the bridge again replaced . To reduce the incidence and impact of flooding both were raised substantially leaving the mill 's ground floor far below the road level .
A rail line was built nearby in 1869 . With the advent of rail , traffic through Carrick was greatly diminished and trade in the town suffered . A rail siding was built at " The Oaks " , over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town 's edge and a station at Bishopbourne over 5 miles ( 8 km ) away . The passenger rail service had ceased before 1978 , a time when all Tasmanian passenger rail services ceased .
By 1877 there was a twice daily mail and passenger cart connecting Carrick to the railway station at Bishopbourne and " Blair 's Bus " ran thrice weekly to Launceston . The Bass Highway , which passed through Carrick , had been designated a National Highway as part of the Federal National Highway Act 1974 . The structure of this type of road required that the centre of Carrick be bypassed . The road through Carrick is now known as the Meander Valley Highway . Bass Highway , which connects Launceston , Burnie and Devonport , passes south of the town . As of 2011 Redline Coaches , runs a daily school bus service that passes through Carrick to many of the Schools in and around Launceston and regular services connecting Carrick to Burnie , Launceston , Hobart and towns in between .
= = Sports = =
Carrick has long been associated with horse racing . The Reverend Thomas Reibey and the Fields Family were instrumental in founding both a racing club and racecourse . Racing first begun on " The Moat " , a property on the east edge of Carrick . Reibey gifted a racecourse somewhat south of " The Moat " ; the course was originally 1 mile , 57 links long . The Carrick Racing Club was formed in 1848 and the course was well regarded ; it was called " the best in Tasmania " by author Hugh Munro Hull in 1859 . The Carrick Plate — a name now used for a race held in Launceston — was held at the new racecourse , without interruption , annually from 1849 to 1913 ; this made it the oldest race in Australia .
The track 's use changed from racing to trotting at this time . The Carrick Trotting club was formed in early 1914 and had its first meeting in February of the same year . The Carrick Trotting Club and Westbury Trotting Club combined in 1976 to form the Carrick Park Trotting Club , later to renamed Carrick Park Pacing Club . As of 2012 Carrick has a 1013m trotting track hosting 3 race meetings a year and up to 27 trial sessions . Next to the trotting track , on grounds owned by the club , is a speedway . Construction of the speedway began in 1967 and the first races were in September 1968 . The track has been in use since opening and crowds of over 10 @,@ 000 have been reported .
The town is frequent host to cycling events that are recorded as far back as 1897 , and continue to the present day . The Liffey is fished for brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) during the August to April fishing season . Trout were released into the Liffey River by the fisheries commission in 1940 , and by 1949 specimens of up to 11 pounds ( 5 kg ) had been caught in the river 's upper reaches .
= = Water and sewerage = =
Organised water supply in the town began at least by 1883 when it was reported being carted from the millrace . The river 's water was used as wells in the town were deemed too brackish . Five years later Thomas Monds installed hydraulic rams and began pumping water from the river to three iron tanks in the town . He on @-@ sold the water to townspeople , though the mill had priority over river water ; this was a particular problem during droughts when the Liffey slowed to a trickle . Westbury Council — local government of the time — called for tenders for Carrick 's water supply in 1889 . This water supply system was completed in 1890 . Water was again pumped from the river near the mill , again by hydraulic rams , to a tank near the centre of the town which supplied another tank on the main road and some houses on the same road . Both tanks had troughs and hoses for public use .
A typhoid outbreak in the early 20th Century was blamed on the water supplied from these tanks . Subsequent to this the pumps were shut down and the town again relied on rainwater tanks , wells and water carted from the river . The Westbury council 's " Carrick Water Supply " was not self @-@ funding and was abandoned in 1928 . The mill 's dam was washed away in the 1929 floods and has not been rebuilt , losing the town its water storage .
In 1961 a residents progress association was formed . A prime goal was the building of a reservoir — supplied from the river — on Armidale hill overlooking the town . To defray costs and gain council acceptance , a large part of the work was performed by volunteers . This scheme began supplying the town on 17 February 1961 . Up to the 1970s , Carrick 's growth was limited by the lack of town sewerage — which restricted the minimum allotment size — and reluctance of landowner 's to subdivide property . A 1977 planning study found that the land structure allowed most of the town to be served by a gravity fed system and recommended construction . As of 2008 the majority of the town was connected to reticulated water and sewerage .
From the mid @-@ 1970s sewerage was processed at a plant near the town , which also handles sewerage from nearby Hadspen . Treated waste @-@ water from there is discharged into a tributary of the Liffey River . As of 2003 the reticulated water supply in the town was untreated and both were operated by the Meander Valley council . By 2011 Carrick 's water was supplied from the Mount Leslie Water Treatment Plant . This plant was built in 1996 and supplies treated water from the Trevallyn Dam .
= = Education = =
Thomas Monds was instrumental in formation of the first school . This private school was built in 1843 , though Thomas Reibey converted it into St Andrews church in 1845 , and the school moved elsewhere in the town . A Government school was built in 1873 , next to the current recreation ground , and both schools were open as of 1883 . The private school closed late in the 19th Century , but the Government school still had 65 students on the 1901 roll . The latter was a weatherboard building . It was extensively renovated in 1920 and was in use until the mid @-@ 1930s when the last school in Carrick closed . The building was relocated to nearby Hagley in 1938 , though it was later demolished . In the same year the government began funding regular school transport from Carrick to the school at nearby Hagley , accompanying children from Hadspen whose school had also been closed . Since that time there has been no school in Carrick and a 1976 planning report stated the population was likely to remain insufficient to require one .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Since European settlement the area has been subdivided , settled and farmed . A traveller in 1855 noted that the area was highly cultivated . The endangered Growling Grass Frog ( Litoria raniformis ) has been sighted , though there is only a single record . In some undisturbed areas there is Poa labillardierei ( silver tussock ) grassland and Themeda triandra ( kangaroo grass ) . Glycine latrobeana ( clover glycine ) was recorded south of the town in 1984 . Discaria pubescens ( Hairy Anchor Plant or Australian Anchor Plant ) , which appears on the states endangered species list , was recorded north @-@ east in 2001 on the South Esk River 's floodplain . Apart from introduced brown trout the Liffey River is home to platypus ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus ) . Platypus in the river have , in common with in other rivers nearby , been found with the potentially lethal fungal infection Mucor amphiborum .
= = Religion = =
Carrick has one extant church , St Andrew 's , an Anglican church in the parish of Quamby . Until 1992 it was in the former Anglican Parish of Carrick . Church of England — now known as the Anglican Church of Australia — services were first held c1843 in a blacksmith 's shop and subsequently in a schoolhouse , whose building was later transformed into St Andrew 's . Thomas Reibey had the schoolhouse converted by 1845 , though the tower was a later addition . The church 's burial ground was consecrated in April 1845 , and the church itself , by Tasmania 's first Church Of England Bishop Francis Russell Nixon , on 25 November 1845 . Though not yet ordained , Reibey received dispensation to begin holding services , first in the blacksmith 's shop , prior to his ordination . He was later the first clergyman ordained by Bishop Nixon and was made an archdeacon in 1857 . Thomas Reibey was the first minister of St Andrew 's , and was succeeded by his brother James , for whom the church 's rectory was built .
A Wesleyan chapel was built in 1865 ; a small weatherboard building with an attached Sunday School . The Church eventually fell out of use and became a private home . It was demolished during the 1930s . There has not been a Roman Catholic church in Carrick — the nearest church is Westbury — but some Catholics are recorded as attending the Anglican Church .
= = Geography = =
The town is 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Launceston on the Meander valley Highway ( B54 ) between the towns of Hadspen and Hagley . The Liffey river crosses the town 's western end , after flowing from the Great Western Tiers , over the Liffey falls , through Bracknell and Bishopbourne . Shortly after passing through the town the river joins the Meander River .
= = Demographics and people = =
Carrick 's population has never been large . There were 430 residents in 1836 and near to 400 for most of the rest of the 19th Century . By late 1976 the population had shrunk to around 200 living in 70 buildings — of which sixteen were classified as " Significantly contributing to the heritage of Australia " by the National Trust . A recovery in the late 20th Century saw 317 residents recorded in the 2001 census and 439 in the 2006 census . Carrick 's role in 1976 was as : a residential area for those working in Launceston ; a retirement village ; and a service centre for farming and stock breeding enterprises . The population in 2006 was largely Australian @-@ born ( 87 % compared to an average for all of Australia of 70 @.@ 9 % ) and English @-@ speaking at home ( 92 @.@ 7 % compared to an Australian average of 78 @.@ 5 % ) .
Sammy Cox ( aka Samuel Emanuel Jervis ) ( c1773 – 1891 ) is a significant former resident . He claimed to have been born Samuel Emanuel Jervis in England and spent time on his uncle 's ship after his father died , then jumped ship in 1789 near Tamar heads and subsequently lived with the local aboriginals for twenty @-@ six years . This would have him resident in Tasmania years before the first recorded settlement , in 1803 on the Derwent River , and before even the existence of Bass Strait was proved by George Bass and Matthew Flinders . In 1814 he met and was befriended by the Cox family , residents near Hadspen , and took the family 's surname . He ended up working as a gardener and spent about 50 years living in a cottage on the " Little Moat " property on the Launceston side of Carrick . Cox died in the Launceston insane asylum in 1891 claiming to be 117 years old , though 115 is a more credible figure ( von Stieglitz in 1946 credited his age as 118 ) . His story has been widely reported ; the dining room of the Carrick Hotel is named after him on the basis of it . It has been called into doubt , though , with historian Dr Andrew Piper describing the story as a tall tale constructed by Cox . While writing about Cox , Thomas Monds , who had befriended and assisted him , also expressed doubt as to the story 's veracity .
Thomas Reibey has been written of as the Father of Carrick . Reibey was instrumental in construction of the Church , the racecourse and other , now heritage listed , buildings in the town . He donated over 10 @,@ 000 pounds for the construction of the town 's Anglican church , a very large sum for the time , and was appointed as the Archdeacon of Launceston in 1858 . Reibey was elected to the House of Assembly seat of Westbury in 1874 . He held the seat for 30 years and was the Premier of Tasmania from 20 July 1876 until 9 August 1877 . Reibey was an avid horse trainer . His horse " Stockwell " won the 1882 Launceston Cup , the Carrick Plate in 1881 and came second in the Melbourne Cup .
Thomas Wilkes Monds was a successful miller and builder before moving to Carrick . He bought the stone mill in Carrick in 1867 and a steam mill in the town the following year . The successful operation of the mills by Monds brought wealth to him and prosperity to the town . Monds built the Gothic house " Hawthorn " in 1875 and worked the nearby 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 490 ha ) farm called " Hattondale " , as well as the mills . Before he left Carrick for Launceston in 1888 his holdings in Carrick included the mill , the steam mill , Archer 's Folly and some houses and acreages within the town and " Hattondale " . Monds was chairman and treasurer of the Carrick Road Trust from 1870 to 1904 and spent nine years on the area 's local council .
= = Today 's town = =
Carrick is a small historic village that is primarily a residential settlement for those who work in Launceston and the rural areas surrounding the town . Development has been slow and has not changed the town 's original 19th century character . The local council 's development plan aims to restrict development along Meander Valley road and prevent the merging of Carrick and Hadspen , keeping them as distinct centres . Construction is only planned within the town 's boundary , where up to sixty homes could potentially be built under the strategic plan that runs until 2016 . The town 's development boundary is dictated by the span of sewerage connection . There are few businesses in the town and little incentive for business growth due to the town 's small population . The town is in the Meander Valley Council local government area , the Federal Division of Lyons , and the State Division of Lyons .
Carrick has a roadhouse , a post office , a hotel , a copper and metal gallery and some accommodation . After Thomas Monds merged his business into Monds and Affleck , the company built a milling operation on Oaks Road , just south of the now re @-@ aligned Bass Highway . As of 2010 the mill owner claimed it is " Tasmania 's only large @-@ scale commercial feed milling operation " . The town plays host to a number of events including the Agfest field days , trotting races , speedway racing and cycling events . Next door to the ruins of Archer 's Folly is the Tasmanian Copper and Metal Art Gallery . From here the Marik family makes , displays and sells handcrafted copper artworks . The lack of development over time has left the town with a significant number of colonial buildings and mature trees . The 1846 stone " Monds Roller Mill " is the town 's most prominent feature . It was closed but being renovated as of 2008 . Other heritage listed buildings are the ruin of Archer 's Folly ( begun 1847 ) , St Andrews Church ( 1845 ) , Balmoral ( 1851 ) , The Old Watchhouse ( 1837 ) , the Carrick Hotel ( 1833 ) .
= = = Agfest = = =
Agfest is an annual agricultural field day , held each May on a rural property in Carrick . It is the state 's , and one of the country 's , largest agricultural field days . Agfest is run by the Rural Youth Organisation of Tasmania with profits assisting Tasmanian Rural Counselling . It was first held at Symmons Plains , near Perth , Tasmania , in 1982 but the organising committee soon recognised the need for a larger site and in 1986 they purchased land on Oaks Road , Carrick from the Peterson family . This piece of land had originally been part of " Oaks Estate " belonging to Thomas Haydock Reibey , father to once Premier of Tasmania Thomas Reibey . They named it " Quercus Rural Youth Park " — Quercus is the genus name for oak — and held the first Agfest on the new site from 7 – 9 May 1987 . Agfest has grown to the state 's largest single event and attracts up to 70 @,@ 000 visitors during the three days in May each year at the 200 @-@ acre ( 80 ha ) site .
= = Heritage properties = =
Carrick has a large number of well @-@ preserved 19th @-@ century buildings . Fifteen properties in and around Carrick are listed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register . The listings recognised their historic cultural heritage significance to all Tasmania . Some of the properties are also listed on the Register of the National Estate .
Pensioner 's Row is a pair of co @-@ joined brick cottages built by Thomas Reibey , originally for the blacksmith and saddler for " Entally Estate " in Hadspen . A heritage @-@ listed cottage close by on Meander Valley road was formerly called " Ivy Cottage " due to prolific growth of the plant and was used as a private school . The former police watch @-@ house was built opposite the Carrick Inn in 1837 using convict labour . The Prince of Wales Hotel was built in 1840 and was licensed for many years , but is now a private home . By 1869 it was a two @-@ storey brick building with sixteen rooms , a cellar and a separate stone stable . " Sillwood " is the remains of an original farm building , built on a grant that was 4 @,@ 560 acres ( 1 @,@ 845 ha ) in 1835 . The original home was partly demolished to make way for an extension to an adjacent building in the late 20th century . The main farmhouse , said to be an " Outstanding Indian @-@ influence house " , has been demolished . Carrick House , on East Street was built around 1840 by Roderic O 'Conner and was extended in the 19th century . Until the 1980s the house was associated with horse racing ; its stables were used as a training base . It is a two @-@ storey brick house with an iron roof and twelve @-@ pane windows . Behind the stone mill is a single @-@ storey brick cottage that was built around 1840 as a four @-@ roomed , single @-@ story brick building . After he purchased the mill , Monds expanded the cottage with a pantry , three more rooms and a dairy .
The Carrick Hotel is a two @-@ storey brick building with an iron hip roof built in 1833 . It is the only licensed premises in Carrick and has been operated as a hotel for the entire of its history . The hotel has been sold and the licence transferred numerous times , including the first instance from John Taylor to Thomas Archer on 12 August 1839 , and was called the Hotel Marella from November 1945 to December 1952.John Rudge built the Plough Inn in 1841 , though it was referred to in an 1842 survey map as the Carrick Inn . It is a two @-@ story brick building with an iron roof and 12 @-@ panel windows . John Archer was the Inn 's first licensee , but by 1863 it was no longer operating and the building was offered for lease . The last licensee was John Jordan in 1873 ; over time it has been used as a bakery , art gallery , hotel and private home .
= = = Monds Roller Mills = = =
Monds Roller Mills building is a four @-@ level , three @-@ story , bluestone building with an iron gabled roof built c1846 by John Kinder Archer . The mill , and its associated storage and transportation needs , was the main employer in Carrick for many years . It was the last mill in Tasmania to be powered by water .
The first mill was built of timber and powered by a water wheel fed from a dam on the Liffey , all constructed by William Bryan in 1826 . Samuel Pratt Winter was sent to Tasmania by his father , at Byran 's request , as an overseer for the mill . He managed this mill from 1834 , when Bryan went to London in the midst of a dispute with Governor Arthur . From 1837 he leased the mill from Bryan and continued to operate it . He was living at the mill cottage in 1846 , and still leasing the mill , when he arranged for the old wooden mill to be removed and , with John Kinder Archer , began building the current stone structure . As built this new mill had a water wheel powering three pairs of French burrs . Thomas Wilkes Monds was born in Launceston in 1829 and spent his early life gaining experience in numerous milling operations . In early 1841 , on Monds ' first visit to the town , he recorded it as having only four houses , a wooden flour mill , a blacksmith 's shop and a pub constructed of mud and straw . Thomas Monds purchased the mill , including 13 acres ( 5 ha ) of attached land , at Auction in 1867 for 2 @,@ 100 pounds . He then took ownership of the " Carrick Mills " and in early 1868 Monds , his wife and six children moved into the small cottage behind the mill . This cottage had four rooms that Monds later expanded with a pantry , three more rooms and a dairy . When he purchased it , and for some time afterwards , the mill was not financially successful . Monds blamed this state of affairs on the " speculative " operation of a steam @-@ powered mill , just a short distance uphill . The steam mill owners eventually became insolvent and Monds acquired the operation and building .
Over time the mill 's machinery was updated : in 1868 the existing wire machine was replaced with a silk dressing machine ; a corn screen was installed in 1871 ; an oatmeal plant was added in 1880 ; the water wheel was replaced with an American @-@ built water @-@ powered " Victor " turbine in 1887 ; and in 1889 the plant was converted from millstones to roller milling , making it one of the earliest conversions in Tasmania . This last change , to roller milling , was recorded by Monds as driven by public demand for the whiter flour that process produced . Monds ' oldest son took over office management of the mill in 1882 and Monds moved to Launceston in 1888 leaving the mill 's management to his sons . The mill was the scene of the town 's first telephones when they were installed at it and adjacent Hawthorn Villa in 1893 .
The mill remained in the hands of TW Monds & Sons until their 1918 merger with T Affleck & Son — which owned the Newry mill at Longford — creating the company Monds & Affleck . Monds & Affleck only operated the mill until 1924 , and never reopened it . By 1931 it was reported as having ceased operations years ago . Monds & Affleck sold the mill in 1947 , though it is not known when the mill 's machinery was removed . By this time the mill was descending into Ruin and had long been vacant . The mill was renovated in 1984 and opened as a restaurant , though four years later it had closed and was being sold . After this it was reopened as a wedding and meeting venue . It had closed again by 2008 , but was being renovated with the intention of reopening .
= = = St. Andrew 's Church = = =
St. Andrew 's Church is an actively used Anglican Church . The building is made from stuccoed brick with a crenelated tower and sits on 14 acres ( 6 ha ) — that includes a cemetery and a rectory — abutting the Liffey River . The building was begun in 1843 by Thomas Reibey as a school for the town . He had the building converted to a church in 1845 ; Reibey donated the church 's land and funded the building of the rectory and later purchase of the church 's organ . The cemetery was consecrated in April 1845 and the church itself in November of the same year . The current structure was not complete until the tower was added in 1863 . St. Andrew 's was renovated c1900 , the roof surface was replaced and new Cathedral glass installed .
A bell hangs in the tower , made in England from iron and steel and lined with silver . Early in the church 's history , the Archdeacon of Chichester ( later Cardinal Henry Edward Manning ) provided communion vessels copied from a 12th @-@ century coffin of the Bishop of Chichester , a fact recorded in inscriptions on the cups . St Andrew 's east window commemorates James , Charlotte and Thomas Reibey ( Archdeacon of Launceston for a time ) . The church features an organ , originally housed in the crypt of St Paul 's Cathedral , London . It was built by London organ builder J. C. Bishop around 1839 , probably for a private owner . This dating is based partly on the organ 's dedication plate 's claim that Bishop was " Organ Builder to her Majesty " Queen Victoria , a claim that Bishop did not make until around this time . The organ 's case is English oak with turned pillars at the front corners . It has a mechanical action with one manual and five speaking stops . A thorough restoration was completed in 1987 and the organ remains in use .
= = = Archer 's Folly = = =
John Kinder Archer , son of Carrick 's first Inn 's builder , began building a large mansion on Bishopbourne Road in 1847 . It was built as a substantial , brick quoin and rubble walled , two @-@ story structure with a triple @-@ gabled roof . It was designed to have large rooms ( 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) ) and a domed driveway through the house 's centre . When only four rooms were completed , the ship " The City of Launceston " sank off Adelaide with much of the supplies to complete the building . After this setback , exacerbated by the lack of insurance , Archer abandoned the building . Thomas Monds bought it in 1867 and used it for storing grain . Archer 's building work created only a shell that became known as Archer 's Folly . The folly was recorded by The Mercury in 1883 as both unfinished and ugly . By 1946 the Folly remained uncompleted and was used as a barn . In the late 20th century it was owned by Mirek Marik , local copper @-@ work artist , who partly restored it . A fire broke out on 5 April 1978 and the conflagration left just a roofless shell . Marik Metal Art later built a replacement studio and workshop adjacent to the now grand ruin .
= = = Hawthorne Villa = = =
Hawthorne Villa is a Gothic @-@ revival two @-@ storey red @-@ brick building at 1 Church Street . It was built by Thomas Monds in 1875 and is surrounded by English @-@ style gardens that contain two large Californian Redwoods . The Villa was built on the site of Carrick 's first hotel — an Adobe Inn built in the 1830s by John Archer — using some brickwork from the former building . This former building had been vacant since 1867 and was in a poor state . " The Stables " is a tourist property , set in the Villa 's gardens , that is used for self @-@ contained accommodation .
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= Frozen ( 2013 film ) =
Frozen is a 2013 American 3D computer @-@ animated musical fantasy comedy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It is the 53rd animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series . Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen 's fairy tale The Snow Queen , the film tells the story of a fearless princess who sets off on an epic journey alongside a rugged iceman , his loyal pet reindeer , and a naïve snowman to find her estranged sister , whose icy powers have inadvertently trapped the kingdom in eternal winter .
Frozen underwent several story treatments for years before being commissioned in 2011 , with a screenplay written by Jennifer Lee , and both Chris Buck and Lee serving as directors . It features the voices of Kristen Bell , Idina Menzel , Jonathan Groff , Josh Gad and Santino Fontana . Christophe Beck , who had worked on Disney 's award @-@ winning short Paperman , was hired to compose the film 's orchestral score , while husband @-@ and @-@ wife songwriting team Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez wrote the songs .
Frozen premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California , on November 19 , 2013 , and went into general theatrical release on November 27 . It was met with strongly positive reviews from critics and audiences , with some film critics considering Frozen to be the best Disney animated feature film since the studio 's renaissance era . The film was also a massive commercial success ; it accumulated nearly $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in worldwide box office revenue , $ 400 million of which was earned in the United States and Canada and $ 247 million of which was earned in Japan . It ranks as the highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time , the third highest @-@ grossing original film of all time , the ninth highest @-@ grossing film of all time , the highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 , and the third highest @-@ grossing film in Japan . With over 18 million home media sales in 2014 , it became the best @-@ selling film of the year in the United States . By January 2015 , Frozen had become the all @-@ time best @-@ selling Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United States .
Frozen won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ( " Let It Go " ) , the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film , the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film , five Annie Awards ( including Best Animated Feature ) , two Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and Best Song Written for Visual Media ( " Let It Go " ) , and two Critics ' Choice Movie Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ( " Let It Go " ) .
An animated short sequel , Frozen Fever , premiered on March 13 , 2015 , with Disney 's Cinderella . On March 12 , 2015 , a feature @-@ length sequel was announced , with Buck and Lee returning as directors and Peter Del Vecho returning as producer . A release date has not been disclosed .
= = Plot = =
The beginning of the movie shows icemen harvesting ice . A young boy named Kristoff and his pet reindeer , Sven , is among them ( " Frozen Heart " ) . Elsa , Princess of Arendelle , possesses cryokinetic powers , with which she is able to produce or manipulate ice , frost and snow at will . One night while playing , she accidentally injures her younger sister , Anna . Their shocked parents , the king and queen , seek help from the troll king , who heals Anna and removes her memories of Elsa 's magic . The royal couple isolate the sisters in the castle until Elsa learns to control her magical powers . Afraid of hurting Anna again , and with her ability to control her powers deteriorating , Elsa spends most of her time alone in her room , refusing even to speak to Anna and a rift develops between the sisters as they grow up ; when the girls are teenagers , their parents die at sea during a storm ( " Do You Want to Build a Snowman ? " ) .
When Elsa comes of age , the kingdom prepares for her coronation ( " For the First Time in Forever " ) . Among the guests is the Duke of Weselton , who seeks to exploit Arendelle for profit . Excited to be allowed out of the castle again , Princess Anna explores the town and meets Prince Hans of the Southern Isles ; the two quickly develop a mutual attraction . Despite Elsa 's fears , her coronation takes place without incident . During the reception , Hans proposes to Anna , who hastily accepts ( " Love Is An Open Door " ) . However , Elsa refuses to grant her blessing and forbids their sudden marriage . The sisters argue , culminating in the exposure of Elsa 's abilities in an emotional outburst .
Declared a monster by the Duke , a panicking Elsa flees the castle , while inadvertently unleashing an eternal winter on the kingdom . High in the nearby mountains , she abandons her restraint , vowing to never return and building herself a solitary ice palace ( " Let It Go " ) . Meanwhile , Anna leaves Hans in charge of Arendelle and sets out in search of her sister , determined to return her to Arendelle , end the winter and mend their relationship . While obtaining supplies from ' Wandering Oaken 's Trading Post and Sauna ' , Anna meets Kristoff and Sven ( " Reindeers Are Better Than People " ) . She convinces Kristoff to guide her up the North Mountain . On their journey , the group encounters Olaf , Anna and Elsa 's childhood snowman whom the latter recreated and unknowingly brought to life . Olaf dreams of seeing and experiencing summer for the first time ( " In Summer " ) . He then leads them to Elsa 's hideaway .
Anna and Elsa reunite , but Elsa still fears hurting her sister . When Anna insists that Elsa return , she becomes agitated and her powers lash out , accidentally striking Anna in the heart ( " For the First Time In Forever ( Reprise ) " ) . Horrified , Elsa forces Anna , Kristoff and Olaf to leave by creating a giant snow creature named Marshmallow that chases them away from her palace . As they flee , Kristoff notices Anna 's hair turning white and deduces that something is very wrong . He seeks help from the trolls , his adoptive family , who explain that Anna 's heart has been frozen by Elsa ( " Fixer Upper " ) . Unless it can be thawed by an " act of true love " , she will become frozen solid forever . Believing that only Hans can save her with a true love 's kiss , Kristoff races back with her to Arendelle .
Meanwhile , Hans , who is leading a search for Anna , reaches Elsa 's palace . In the ensuing battle against the duke 's men , Elsa is knocked unconscious by a falling chandelier and imprisoned in Arendelle . There , Hans pleads with her to undo the winter , but Elsa confesses that she has no idea how . When Anna reunites with Hans and begs him to kiss her to break the curse , Hans refuses and reveals that his true intention in marrying her is to seize control of Arendelle 's throne . Leaving Anna to die , he charges Elsa with treason for her younger sister 's apparent death .
Elsa escapes and heads out into the blizzard on the fjord . Olaf comes across Anna and reveals Kristoff is in love with her ; they then escape onto the fjord to find him . Hans confronts Elsa , telling her Anna is dead because of her . In Elsa 's despair , the storm suddenly ceases , giving Kristoff and Anna the chance to locate each other . Nevertheless , Anna , seeing that Hans is about to kill Elsa , throws herself between the two just as she freezes solid , blocking Hans ' attack .
As Elsa grieves for her sister , Anna begins to thaw , since her decision to sacrifice herself to save her sister constitutes an " act of true love " . Realizing love is the key to controlling her powers , Elsa thaws the kingdom and gives Olaf his own personal flurry so he can survive in summer . Hans is deported to the Southern Isles to face punishment for his crimes against the royal family of Arendelle , while Elsa cuts off trade with Weselton . The two sisters reconcile and Elsa promises never to shut the castle gates again .
= = Voice cast = =
Kristen Bell as Anna , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Princess of Arendelle and Elsa 's younger sisterLivvy Stubenrauch as 5 @-@ year @-@ old Anna
Katie Lopez as 5 @-@ year @-@ old Anna ( singing )
Agatha Lee Monn as 9 @-@ year @-@ old Anna
Idina Menzel as Elsa , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Snow Queen of Arendelle and Anna 's elder sisterEva Bella as 8 @-@ year @-@ old Elsa
Spencer Lacey Ganus as 12 @-@ year @-@ old Elsa
Jonathan Groff as Kristoff , an iceman who is accompanied by a reindeer named SvenTyree Brown as 8 @-@ year @-@ old Kristoff
Josh Gad as Olaf , a comic @-@ relief snowman that Elsa and Anna created as children , who dreams of experiencing summer
Santino Fontana as Hans , a prince from the Southern Isles
Alan Tudyk as the Duke of Weselton
Ciarán Hinds as Grand Pabbie , the Troll King
Chris Williams as Oaken , the owner of Wandering Oaken 's Trading Post and Sauna
Maia Wilson as Bulda , a troll and Kristoff 's adoptive mother
Paul Briggs as Marshmallow , a giant snow monster who guards Elsa 's palace
Maurice LaMarche as the King of Arendelle , Anna and Elsa 's father
Jennifer Lee as the Queen of Arendelle , Anna and Elsa 's mother
Non @-@ speaking characters include Kristoff 's reindeer companion Sven , horses and wolves .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
= = = = Origins = = = =
Walt Disney Productions first began exploring a possible live action / animation biography film of author and poet Hans Christian Andersen sometime in late 1937 before the December premiere of its film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , the first feature @-@ length hand @-@ drawn animated film ever made . In March 1940 , Walt Disney suggested a co @-@ production to film producer Samuel Goldwyn , where Goldwyn 's studio would shoot the live @-@ action sequences of Andersen 's life and Disney 's studio would animate Andersen 's fairy tales . The animated sequences would be based on some of Andersen 's best known works , such as The Little Mermaid , The Little Match Girl , The Steadfast Tin Soldier , The Snow Queen , Thumbelina , The Ugly Duckling , The Red Shoes , and The Emperor 's New Clothes . However , the studio encountered difficulty with The Snow Queen , as it could not find a way to adapt and relate the Snow Queen character to modern audiences . Even as far back as the 1930s and 1940s , it was clear that the source material contained great cinematic possibilities , but the Snow Queen character proved to be too problematic . After the United States entered World War II , the studio began to focus on making wartime propaganda , which caused development on the Disney – Goldwyn project to grind to a halt in 1942 . Goldwyn went on to produce his own live @-@ action film version in 1952 , entitled Hans Christian Andersen , with Danny Kaye as Andersen , Charles Vidor directing , Moss Hart writing , and Frank Loesser penning the songs . All of Andersen 's fairy tales were , instead , told in song and ballet in live @-@ action , like the rest of the film . It went on to receive six Academy Award nominations the following year . Back at Disney , The Snow Queen , along with other Andersen fairy tales ( including The Little Mermaid ) , were shelved .
= = = = Later efforts = = = =
In the late 1990s , Walt Disney Feature Animation started developing a new adaptation of The Snow Queen after the tremendous success of their recent films during the Disney Renaissance era ( 1989 - 1999 ) , but the project was scrapped completely in late 2002 , when Glen Keane reportedly quit the project and went on to work on another project which became Tangled ( 2010 ) . Even before then , Harvey Fierstein pitched his version of the story to Disney 's executives , but was turned down . Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi , Dick Zondag and Dave Goetz reportedly all tried their hand at it , but failed . After a number of unsuccessful attempts from 2000 to 2002 , Disney shelved the project again . During one of those attempts , Michael Eisner , then @-@ chairman and chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company , offered his support to the project and suggested doing it with Oscar @-@ winning director John Lasseter at Pixar Animation Studios after the then @-@ expected renewal of Pixar 's contract with Disney . But negotiations between Pixar and Disney collapsed in January 2004 and that contract was never renewed . Instead , Eisner 's successor Bob Iger negotiated Disney 's purchase of Pixar in January 2006 for $ 7 @.@ 4 billion , and Lasseter was promoted to chief creative officer of both Pixar and Disney Animation .
The next attempt started in 2008 , when Lasseter was able to convince Chris Buck ( who co @-@ directed the 1999 film Tarzan for the studio ) to return to Walt Disney Feature Animation from Sony Pictures Animation ( where he had recently co @-@ directed the Oscar @-@ nominated 2007 film Surf 's Up ) ; that September , Buck pitched several ideas to Lasseter , one of which was The Snow Queen . Buck later revealed that his initial inspiration for The Snow Queen was not the Andersen fairy tale itself , but that he wanted " to do something different on the definition of true love . " " Disney had already done the ' kissed by a prince ' thing , so [ I ] thought it was time for something new , " he recalled . It turned out Lasseter had been interested in The Snow Queen for a long time ; back when Pixar was working with Disney on Toy Story in the 1990s , he saw and was " blown away " by some of the pre @-@ production art from Disney 's prior attempts . Development began under the title Anna and the Snow Queen , which was planned to be traditionally animated . According to Josh Gad , he first became involved with the film at that early stage , when the plot was still relatively close to the original Andersen fairy tale and Megan Mullally was going to play Elsa . By early 2010 , the project entered development hell once again , when the studio again failed to find a way to make the story and the Snow Queen character work .
= = = = Revitalization = = = =
On December 22 , 2011 , following the success of Tangled , Disney announced a new title for the film , Frozen , and a release date of November 27 , 2013 . A month later , it was confirmed that the film would be a computer @-@ animated feature in stereoscopic 3D , instead of the originally intended hand @-@ drawn animation . Anderson @-@ Lopez and Lopez joined the project and started writing songs for Frozen in January 2012 . On March 5 , 2012 , it was announced that Buck would be directing , with Lasseter and Peter Del Vecho producing .
After Disney decided to advance The Snow Queen into development again , one of the main challenges Buck and Del Vecho faced was the character of the Snow Queen , who was then a villain in their drafts . The studio has a tradition of screening animated films in development every twelve weeks , then holding lengthy " notes sessions " in which its directors and screenwriters from different projects provide extensive " notes " on each other 's work .
Buck and Del Vecho presented their storyboards to Lasseter , and the entire production team adjourned to a conference to hear his thoughts on the project . Art director Michael Giaimo later acknowledged Lasseter as the " game changer " of the film : " I remember John saying that the latest version of The Snow Queen story that Chris Buck and his team had come up with was fun , very light @-@ hearted . But the characters didn 't resonate . They aren 't multi @-@ faceted . Which is why John felt that audiences wouldn 't really be able to connect with them . "
The production team then addressed the film 's problems , drafting several variations on The Snow Queen story until the characters and story felt relevant . At that stage , the first major breakthrough was the decision to rewrite the film 's protagonist , Anna ( who was based on the Gerda character from The Snow Queen ) , as the younger sibling of Elsa , thereby effectively establishing a family dynamic between the characters . This was unusual in that relationships between sisters are rarely used as a major plot element in American animated films , with the notable exception of Disney 's Lilo & Stitch ( 2002 ) . To fully explore the unique dynamics of such relationships , Disney Animation convened a " Sister Summit , " at which women from all over the studio who grew up with sisters were asked to discuss their relationships with their sisters .
= = = = Writing = = = =
In March 2012 , Jennifer Lee , one of the screenwriters of Wreck @-@ It Ralph , was brought in as the film 's screenwriter by Del Vecho . Lee later explained that as Wreck @-@ It Ralph was wrapping up , she was giving notes on other projects , and " we kind of really connected with what we were thinking . "
According to Lee , several core concepts were already in place from Buck and Del Vecho 's early work , such as the film 's " frozen heart " hook : " That was a concept and the phrase ... an act of true love will thaw a frozen heart . " They already knew the ending involved true love in the sense of the emotional bond between siblings , not romance , in that " Anna was going to save Elsa . We didn ’ t know how or why . " Lee said Edwin Catmull , president of Disney Animation , told her early on about the film 's ending : " First and foremost , no matter what you have to do to the story , do it . But you have to earn that ending . If you do [ , ] it will be great . If you don 't , it will suck . "
Before Lee was brought on board , another screenwriter had made a first pass at a script , and Anderson @-@ Lopez and Lopez tried to write songs for that script but none worked and all were cut . Then " the whole script imploded , " which gave the songwriters the opportunity " to put a lot of [ their ] DNA " into the new script that Lee was writing . The production team " essentially started over and ... had 17 months , " which resulted in a very " intense schedule " and implied " a lot of choices had to be made fast . "
The earlier versions differed sharply from the final version . In the original script the songwriters first saw , Elsa was evil from the start ; she kidnapped Anna from her own wedding to intentionally freeze her heart , then later descended upon the town with an army of snowmen with the objective of recapturing Anna to freeze her heart properly . By the time Lee came in , the first act included Elsa deliberately striking Anna in the heart with her freezing powers ; then " the whole second act was about Anna trying to get to Hans and to kiss him and then Elsa trying to stop her . " Buck revealed that the original plot attempted to make Anna sympathetic by focusing on her frustration as being perceived as the " spare " in relation to the " heir , " Elsa . The original plot also had different pacing , in that it was " much more of an action adventure " than a musical or a comedy .
One major breakthrough was the composition of the song " Let It Go " by songwriters Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez , which forced the production team to reconceptualize and rewrite Elsa as a far more complex , vulnerable , and sympathetic character . In The Daily Telegraph 's words , instead of the villain envisioned by the producers , the songwriters saw Elsa as " a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift . " Lee recalled : " Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like [ to be Elsa ] . Forget villain . Just what it would feel like . And this concept of letting out who she is [ , ] that she 's kept to herself for so long [ , ] and she 's alone and free , but then the sadness of the fact [ sic ] that the last moment is she 's alone . It ’ s not a perfect thing , but it 's powerful . " Del Vecho explained that " Let It Go " changed Elsa into a person " ruled by fear and Anna was ruled by her own love of other people and her own drive , " which in turn caused Lee to " rewrite the first act and then that rippled through the entire movie . So that was when we really found the movie and who these characters were . "
Another major breakthrough was developing the plot twist that Prince Hans would be revealed as the film 's true villain only near the end . Hans was not even in the earliest drafts , then at first was not a villain , and after becoming one , was revealed to be evil much earlier in the plot . Del Vecho said , " We realized [ what ] was most important [ was ] if we were going to make the ending so surprising [ , ] you had to believe at one point that Hans was the answer ... [ when ] he 's not the answer , it 's Kristoff ... [ I ] f you can get the audience to leap ahead and think they have figured it out [ , ] you can surprise them by turning it the other way . " Lee acknowledged that Hans was written as " sociopathic " and " twisted " throughout the final version . For example , Hans mirrors the behavior of the other characters : " He mirrors [ Anna ] and he 's goofy with her ... [ T ] he Duke [ of Weselton ] is a jerk , so he 's a jerk back . And with Elsa he 's a hero . " It was difficult to lay the foundation for Anna 's belated turn to Kristoff without also making Hans ' betrayal of Anna too predictable , in that the audience had to " feel ... her feeling something but not quite understanding it ... Because the minute it is [ understood , ] it deflated . " At one point , Anna openly flirted with Kristoff upon first meeting him , but that was changed after Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn pointed out that it would confuse and annoy viewers since Anna was already engaged to Hans .
Lee had to work through the issue of how to write Anna 's personality , in that some of her colleagues felt Anna should be more dysfunctional and co @-@ dependent , like Vanellope von Schweetz in Wreck @-@ It Ralph . Lee disagreed with that position , but it took her almost a year to figure out how to convincingly articulate " this is what Anna 's journey is . No more than that . No less than that . " In the end , Lee successfully argued Anna 's journey should be presented as a simple coming @-@ of @-@ age story , " where she goes from having a naive view of life and love – because she 's lonely – to the most sophisticated and mature view of love , where she 's capable of the ultimate love , which is sacrifice . " Lee also had to let go of some ideas that she liked , such as a scene portraying Anna and Elsa 's relationship as teenagers , which did not work because they needed to maintain the separation between Anna and Elsa .
To construct Anna and Elsa 's relationship as sisters , Lee found inspiration in her own relationship with her older sister . Lee said her older sister was " a big inspiration for Elsa , " called her " my Elsa " in an op @-@ ed in the Los Angeles Times , and walked the red carpet with her at the 86th Academy Awards . Lee explained , " [ h ] aving to ... lose each other and then rediscover each other as adults , that was a big part of my life . "
The production team also turned Olaf from Elsa 's obnoxious sidekick into Anna 's comically innocent sidekick . Lee 's initial response to the original " mean " version of Olaf had been , " Kill the f @-@ ing snowman , " and she found Olaf by far " the hardest character to deal with . "
The problem of how exactly Anna would save Elsa at the film 's climax was solved by story artist John Ripa . At the story meeting where Ripa pitched his take on the story , the response was silence until Lasseter said , " I 've never seen anything like that before , " which was followed by a standing ovation .
Along the way , the production team went through drafts where the first act included far more detail than what ended up in the final version , such as a troll with a Brooklyn accent who would have explained the backstory behind Elsa 's magical powers , and a regent for whom Lee was hoping to cast comedian Louis C.K. After all those details were thoroughly " over @-@ analyzed " , they were excised because they amounted to a " much more complex story than really we felt like we could fit in this 90 @-@ minute film . " As Del Vecho put it , " the more we tried to explain things at the beginning , the more complicated it got . "
Following Lee 's extensive involvement in Frozen 's development process and her close work with director Buck and songwriters Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez , studio heads Lasseter and Catmull promoted her to director of the film alongside Buck in August 2012 . Her promotion was officially announced on November 29 , 2012 , making Lee the first woman to direct a full @-@ length animated motion picture produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios . She primarily worked on story while Buck focused on animation . Lee later stated that she was " really moved by a lot of what Chris had done " and that they " shared a vision " of the story , having " very similar sensibilities " .
By November 2012 , the production team thought they had finally " cracked " the puzzle of how to make the film 's story work , but according to Del Vecho , in late February 2013 , it was realized that the film still " wasn 't working " , which necessitated even more rewriting of scenes and songs from February through June 2013 . He explained , " we rewrote songs , we took out characters and changed everything , and suddenly the movie gelled . But that was close . In hindsight , piece of cake , but during , it was a big struggle . " Looking back , Anderson @-@ Lopez joked she and Lopez thought at the time they could end up working as " birthday party clown [ s ] " if the final product " pull [ ed ] ... down " their careers and recalled that " we were really writing up until the last minute . " In June ( five months before the already @-@ announced release date ) , the songwriters finally got the film working when they composed the song " For the First Time in Forever " , which , in Lopez 's words , " became the linchpin of the whole movie . "
That month , Disney conducted test screenings of the half @-@ completed film with two audiences ( one made up of families and the other made up of adults ) in Phoenix , Arizona , at which Lasseter and Catmull were personally present . Lee recalled that it was the moment when they realized they " had something , because the reaction was huge . " Catmull , who had instructed Lee at the outset to " earn that ending , " told her afterwards , " you did it " .
= = = = Casting = = = =
Actress Kristen Bell was cast as the voice of Anna on March 5 , 2012 . Lee admitted that Bell 's casting selection was influenced after the filmmakers listened to a series of vocal tracks Bell had recorded when she was young , where the actress performed several songs from The Little Mermaid , including " Part of Your World " . Bell completed her recording sessions while she was pregnant , and subsequently re @-@ recorded some of her character 's lines after her pregnancy , as her voice had deepened . Bell was called in to re @-@ record dialogue for the film " probably 20 times , " which is normal for lead roles in Disney animated films whose scripts are still evolving . As for her approach to the role of Anna , Bell enthused that she had " dreamed of being in a Disney animated film " since she was four years old , saying , " I always loved Disney animation , but there was something about the females that was unattainable to me . Their posture was too good and they were too well @-@ spoken , and I feel like I really made this girl much more relatable and weirder and scrappier and more excitable and awkward . I 'm really proud of that . "
Idina Menzel , a Broadway veteran , was cast as Elsa . Menzel had formerly auditioned for Tangled , but did not get the part . However , Tangled 's casting director , Jamie Sparer Roberts , preserved a recording of Menzel 's performance on her iPhone , and on the basis of that , asked her to audition along with Bell for Frozen . Before they were officially cast , Menzel and Bell deeply impressed the directors and producers at an early table read ; after reading the entire script out loud , they sang " Wind Beneath My Wings " together as a duet , since no music had been composed yet . Bell had suggested that idea when she visited Menzel at her California home to prepare together for the table read . The songwriters were also present for the table read ; Anderson @-@ Lopez said " Lasseter was in heaven " upon hearing Menzel and Bell sing in harmony , and from that moment forward , he insisted , " Kristen Bell and Idina Menzel have to be in the movie ! " Lee said , " They sung [ sic ] it like sisters and what you mean to me [ , ] [ a ] nd there wasn 't a dry eye in the house after they sang . " Between December 2012 and June 2013 , the casting of additional roles was announced , including Jonathan Groff as Kristoff , Alan Tudyk as the Duke of Weselton , Santino Fontana as Prince Hans , and Josh Gad as Olaf .
= = = Animation = = =
Similar to Tangled , Frozen employed a unique artistic style by blending together features of both computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) and traditional hand @-@ drawn animation . From the beginning , Buck knew Giaimo was the best candidate to develop the style he had in mind – which would draw from the best Disney hand @-@ drawn classics of the 1950s , the Disney Little Golden Books , and mid @-@ century modern design – and persuaded him to come back to Disney to serve as the art director for Frozen . Buck , Lasseter , and Giaimo were all old friends who had first met at the California Institute of the Arts , and Giaimo had previously served as the art director for Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) , which Buck had worked on as a supervising animator .
To create the look of Frozen , Giaimo began pre @-@ production research by reading extensively about the entire region of Scandinavia and visiting the Danish @-@ themed city of Solvang near Los Angeles , but eventually zeroed in on Norway in particular because " 80 percent " of the visuals that appealed to him were from Norway . Disney eventually sponsored three research field trips . Animators and special effects specialists were dispatched to Jackson Hole , Wyoming , to experience walking , running , and falling in deep snow in a variety of types of attire , including long skirts ( which both female and male personnel tried on ) ; while lighting and arts teams visited an Ice Hotel in Quebec City , Quebec to study how light reflects and refracts on snow and ice . Finally , Giaimo and several artists traveled to Norway to draw inspiration from its mountains , fjords , architecture , and culture . " We had a very short time schedule for this film , so our main focus was really to get the story right but we knew that John Lasseter is keen on truth in the material and creating a believable world , and again that doesn 't mean it 's a realistic world – but a believable one . It was important to see the scope and scale of Norway , and important for our animators to know what it 's like , " Del Vecho said . " There is a real feeling of Lawrence of Arabia scope and scale to this , " he finished .
During 2012 , while Giaimo and the animators and artists conducted preparatory research and developed the film 's overall look , the production team was still struggling to develop a compelling script , as explained above . That problem was not adequately solved until November 2012 , and the script would later require even more significant revisions after that point . As a result , the single " most daunting " challenge facing the animation team was a short schedule of less than 12 months to turn Lee 's still @-@ evolving shooting script into an actual film . Other films like Pixar 's Toy Story 2 had been successfully completed on even shorter schedules , but a short schedule necessarily meant " late nights , overtime , and stress . " Lee estimated the total size of the entire team on Frozen to be around 600 to 650 people , " including around 70 lighting people [ , ] 70 @-@ plus animators , " and 15 to 20 storyboard artists .
Del Vecho explained how the film 's animation team was organized : " On this movie we do have character leads , supervising animators on specific characters . The animators themselves may work on multiple characters but it 's always under one lead . I think it was different on Tangled , for example , but we chose to do it this way as we wanted one person to fully understand and develop their own character and then be able to impart that to the crew . Hyrum Osmond , the animator on Olaf , is quiet but he has a funny , wacky personality so we knew he 'd bring a lot of comedy to it ; Anna 's animator , Becky Bresee , it 's her first time leading a character and we wanted her to lead Anna . " Acting coach Warner Loughlin was brought in to help the film 's animators understand the characters they were creating . In order to get the general feeling of each scene , some animators did their own acting . " I actually film myself acting the scene out , which I find very helpful , " said animation supervisor Rebecca Wilson Bresee . This helped her discover elements that made the scene feel real and believable . Elsa 's supervising animator was Wayne Unten , who asked for that role because he was fascinated by the complexity of the character . Unten carefully developed Elsa 's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna 's fearlessness . He also studied videos from Menzel 's recording sessions and animated Elsa 's breathing to match Menzel 's breathing . Head of Animation , Lino DiSalvo , said , " The goal for the film was to animate the most believable CG characters you 've ever seen . "
Regarding the look and nature of the film 's cinematography , Giaimo was greatly influenced by Jack Cardiff 's work in Black Narcissus . According to him , it lent a hyper @-@ reality to the film : " Because this is a movie with such scale and we have the Norwegian fjords to draw from , I really wanted to explore the depth . From a design perspective , since I was stressing the horizontal and vertical aspects , and what the fjords provide , it was perfect . We encased the sibling story in scale . " Ted D. McCord 's work in The Sound of Music was another major influence for Giaimo . It was also Giaimo 's idea that Frozen should be filmed in the CinemaScope aspect ratio , which was approved by Lasseter . Giaimo also wanted to ensure that Norway 's fjords , architecture and rosemaling folk art , were critical factors in designing the environment of Arendelle . Giaimo , whose background is in traditional animation , said that the art design environment represents a unity of character and environment and that he originally wanted to incorporate saturated colors , which is typically ill @-@ advised in computer animation . For further authenticity , a live reindeer named Sage was brought into the studio for animators to study its movements and mannerisms for the character Sven .
Another important issue Giaimo insisted on addressing was costumes , in that he " knew from the start " it would be a " costume film . " To realize that vision , he brought in character designer Jean Gillmore to act as a dedicated " costume designer " . While traditional animation simply integrates costume design with character design and treats clothing as merely part of the characters , computer @-@ generated animation regards costume as almost a separate entity with its own properties and behaviors – and Frozen required a level of as @-@ yet untried detail , down to minutiae like fabrics , buttons , trim , and stitching . Gillmore explained that her " general approach was to meld the historic silhouettes of 1840 Western Europe ( give or take ) , with the shapes and garment relationships and details of folk costume in early Norway , circa 19th century . " This meant using primarily wool fabric with accents of velvet , linen , and silk . During production , Giaimo and Gillmore " ran around " supplying various departments with real @-@ world samples to use as references ; they were able to draw upon both the studio 's own in @-@ house library of fabric samples and the resources of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts ' costume division in Fullerton , California . The film 's " look development artists " ( the Disney job title for texture artists ) created the digitally painted simulation of the appearance of surfaces , while other departments dealt with movement , rigging and weight , thickness and lighting of textile animation .
During production , the film 's English title was changed from The Snow Queen to Frozen , a decision that drew comparisons to another Disney film , Tangled . Peter Del Vecho explained that " the title Frozen came up independently of the title Tangled . It 's because , to us , it represents the movie . Frozen plays on the level of ice and snow but also the frozen relationship , the frozen heart that has to be thawed . We don 't think of comparisons between Tangled and Frozen , though . " He also mentioned that the film will still retain its original title , The Snow Queen , in some countries : " because that just resonated stronger in some countries than Frozen . Maybe there 's a richness to The Snow Queen in the country 's heritage and they just wanted to emphasize that . "
= = = Technology development = = =
The studio also developed several new tools to generate realistic and believable shots , particularly the heavy and deep snow and its interactions with the characters . Disney wanted an " all @-@ encompassing " and organic tool to provide snow effects but not require switching between different methods . As noted above , several Disney artists and special effects personnel traveled to Wyoming to experience walking through deep snow . Dr. Kenneth Libbrecht , a professor from the California Institute of Technology , was invited to give lectures to the effects group on how snow and ice form , and why snowflakes are unique . Using this knowledge , the effects group created a snowflake generator that allowed them to randomly create 2 @,@ 000 unique snowflake shapes for the film .
Another challenge that the studio had to face was to deliver shots of heavy and deep snow that both interacted believably with characters and had a realistic sticky quality . According to principal software engineer Andrew Selle , " [ Snow ] ' s not really a fluid . It ’ s not really a solid . It breaks apart . It can be compressed into snowballs . All of these different effects are very difficult to capture simultaneously . " In order to achieve this , software engineers used advanced mathematics ( the material point method ) and physics , with assistance from mathematics researchers at the University of California , Los Angeles to create a snow simulator software application called Matterhorn . The tool was capable of depicting realistic snow in a virtual environment and was used in at least 43 scenes in the film , including several key sequences . Software engineer Alexey Stomakhin referred to snow as " an important character in the film , " therefore it attracted special attention from the filmmakers . " When you stretch it , snow will break into chunks . Since snow doesn 't have any connections , it doesn 't have a mesh , it can break very easily . So that was an important property we took advantage of , " explained Selle . " There you see [ Kristoff ] walking through and see his footprints breaking the snow into little pieces and chunk up and you see [ Anna ] being pulled out and the snow having packed together and broken into pieces . It 's very organic how that happens . You don 't see that they 're pieces already – you see the snow as one thing and then breaking up . " The tool also proved to be particularly useful in scenes involving characters walking through deep snow , as it ensured that the snow reacted naturally to each step .
Other tools designed to help artists complete complicated effects included Spaces , which allowed Olaf 's deconstructible parts to be moved around and rebuilt , Flourish , which allowed extra movement such as leaves and twigs to be art @-@ directed ; Snow Batcher , which helped preview the final look of the snow , especially when characters were interacting with an area of snow by walking through a volume , and Tonic , which enabled artists to sculpt their characters ' hair as procedural volumes . Tonic also aided in animating fur and hair elements such as Elsa 's hair , which contains 420 @,@ 000 computer @-@ generated strands , while the average number for a real human being is only 100 @,@ 000 . The number of character rigs in Frozen is 312 and the number of simulated costumes also reached 245 cloth rigs , which were far beyond all other Disney films to date . Fifty effects artists and lighting artists worked together on the technology to create " one single shot " in which Elsa builds her ice palace . Its complexity required 30 hours to render each frame , with 4 @,@ 000 computers rendering one frame at a time .
Besides 3D effects , the filmmakers also used 2D artwork and drawings for specific elements and sequences in the film , including Elsa 's magic and snow sculptures , as well as freezing fountains and floors . The effects group created a " capture stage " where the entire world of Frozen gets displayed on monitors , which can be " filmed " on special cameras to operate a three @-@ dimensional scene . " We can take this virtual set that 's mimicking all of my actions and put it into any one of our scenes in the film , " said technology manager Evan Goldberg .
= = = Scandinavian and Sámi inspiration = = =
The setting was principally based on Norway , and the cultural influences in the film come from Scandinavian culture . Several landmarks in Norway appear in the film , including the Akershus Fortress in Oslo , the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim , and Bryggen in Bergen . Numerous other typical cultural Scandinavian elements are also included in the film , such as stave churches , trolls , Viking ships , a hot spring , Fjord horses , clothes , and food such as lutefisk . A maypole is also present in the film , as well as the brief appearance of runes in a book that Anna and Elsa 's father opens to figure out where the trolls live . A scene where two men argue over whether to stack firewood bark up or bark down is a reference to the perennial Norwegian debate over how to stack firewood properly . The film also contains several elements specifically drawn from Sámi culture , such as the usage of reindeer for transportation and the equipment used to control these , clothing styles ( the outfits of the ice cutters ) , and parts of the musical score . Decorations , such as those on the castle pillars and Kristoff 's sled , are also in styles inspired by Sámi duodji decorations . During their field work in Norway , Disney 's team , for inspiration , visited Rørosrein , a Sámi family @-@ owned company in the village Plassje that produces reindeer meat and arranges tourist events . Arendelle was inspired by Nærøyfjord , a branch of Norway 's longest fjord Sognefjorden , which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ; while a castle in Oslo with beautiful hand @-@ painted patterns on all four walls served as the inspiration for the kingdom 's royal castle interior .
The filmmakers ' trip to Norway provided essential knowledge for the animators to come up with the design aesthetic for the film in terms of color , light , and atmosphere . According to Giaimo , there were three important factors that they had acquired from the Norway research trip : the fjords , which are the massive vertical rock formations , and serve as the setting for the secluded kingdom of Arendelle ; the medieval stave churches , whose rustic triangular rooflines and shingles inspired the castle compound ; and the rosemaling folk art , whose distinctive paneling and grid patterns informed the architecture , decor , and costumes .
= = = Music and sound design = = =
The songs for Frozen were written and composed by the husband @-@ and @-@ wife songwriting team of Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez , both of whom had previously worked with Disney Animation on Winnie the Pooh ( 2011 ) ( also produced by Del Vecho , who then hired them for Frozen ) and before that , with Disney Parks on Finding Nemo – The Musical ( 2007 ) . Lopez first heard Disney Animation 's pitch while in Los Angeles working on The Book of Mormon , but Disney was so eager to get both of them on board that the production team traveled to New York City to also pitch the film in person to Anderson @-@ Lopez ( who was busy raising the couple 's two young daughters ) . Lopez believes Disney was particularly interested in his wife 's strong story talent . The decision , of course , was easy : " Whenever Disney asks if you want to do a fairy tale musical , you say yes . "
About 23 minutes of the film are dedicated to their musical numbers . Because they live in New York City , collaborating closely with the production team in Burbank required two @-@ hour @-@ long transcontinental videoconferences nearly every weekday for about 14 months . For each song they composed , they recorded a demo in their home studio ( with both of them singing the lyrics and Lopez accompanying on piano ) , then emailed it to Burbank for discussion at the next videoconference . Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez were aware of the fact that their work would be compared to that of Alan Menken and Howard Ashman from the Disney Renaissance era , and whenever they felt lost , they asked " What would Ashman do ? " In the end , they wrote 25 songs for the film , of which eight made it into the final version . One song ( " For the First Time in Forever " ) had a reprise and the other ( " Let It Go " ) was covered by Demi Lovato over the final credits , for a total of ten songs . Seven of the 17 that did not make it were later released on the deluxe edition soundtrack .
In February 2013 , Christophe Beck was hired to score the film , following his work on Paperman , a Disney animated short film released the year prior to Frozen . It was revealed on September 14 , 2013 , that Sámi musician Frode Fjellheim 's Eatnemen Vuelie would be the film 's opening song , as it contains elements of the traditional Sámi singing style joik . The music producers recruited a Norwegian linguist to assist with the lyrics for an Old Norse song written for Elsa 's coronation and traveled to Trondheim , Norway , to record the all @-@ female choir Cantus , for a piece inspired by traditional Sámi music .
Under the supervision of sound engineer David Boucher , the lead cast members began recording the film 's vocal tracks in October 2012 at the Sunset Sound recording studio in Hollywood before the songs had been orchestrated , meaning they heard only Lopez 's demo piano track in their headphones as they sang . Most of the dialogue was recorded at the Roy E. Disney Animation Building in Burbank under the supervision of original dialogue mixer Gabriel Guy , who also mixed the film 's sound effects . Some dialogue was recorded after recording songs at both Sunset Sound and Capitol Studios ; for scenes involving Anna and Elsa , both studios offered vocal isolation booths where Menzel and Bell could read dialogue with line @-@ of @-@ sight with one another , while avoiding " bleedthrough " between their respective tracks . Additional dialogue was recorded at an ADR facility on the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank ( across the street from the Disney Animation building ) and at the Soundtrack Group 's New York studio , since the production team had to work around the busy schedules of the film 's New York @-@ based cast members like Fontana .
Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez 's piano @-@ vocal scores for the songs along with the vocal tracks were sent to Salem , Oregon @-@ based Dave Metzger for arrangement and orchestration ; Metzger also orchestrated a significant portion of Beck 's score .
For the orchestral film score , Beck paid homage to the Norway- and Sápmi @-@ inspired setting by employing regional instruments , such as the bukkehorn , and traditional vocal techniques , such as kulning . Beck worked with Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez on incorporating their songs into arrangements in the score . The trio 's goal " was to create a cohesive musical journey from beginning to end . " Similarly , Beck 's scoring mixer , Casey Stone ( who also supervised the recording of the score ) , worked with Boucher to align their microphone setups to ensure the transitions between the songs and score were seamless , even though they were separately recorded on different dates . The final orchestrations of both the songs and score were all recorded at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank by an 80 @-@ piece orchestra , featuring 32 vocalists , including native Norwegian Christine Hals . Boucher supervised the recording of Anderson @-@ Lopez and Lopez 's songs from July 22 to 24 , 2013 , then Stone supervised the recording of Beck 's score from September 3 to 6 and 9 to 10 . Boucher mixed the songs at the Eastwood stage , while Stone mixed the score at Beck 's personal studio in Santa Monica , California .
Regarding the sound of Frozen , director Jennifer Lee stated that sound played a huge part in making the film " visceral " and " transported " ; she explained , " [ i ] n letting it tell the story emotionally , the sound of the ice when it 's at its most dangerous just makes you shudder . " The complete silence at the climax of the film right after Anna freezes was Lasseter 's idea , one he " really wanted " . In that scene , even the ambient sound that would normally be there was taken out in order to make it feel unusual . Lee explained " that was a moment where we wanted everything to feel suspended . "
To obtain certain snow and ice sound effects , sound designer Odin Benitez traveled to Mammoth Mountain , California , to record them at a frozen lake . However , the foley work for the film was recorded on the foley stage on the Warner Bros. lot by a Warner Bros. crew . The foley artists received daily deliveries of 50 pounds ( 22 @.@ 6 kg ) of snow ice while working , to help them record all the necessary snow and ice sounds for the film . Because the film 's visuals were finalized so late , five separate versions of nearly every footstep on snow were recorded ( corresponding to five different types of snow ) , then one was later selected during mixing to match the snow as rendered in the final version of each scene . One issue that the production team was " particular " about was the sound of Elsa 's footsteps in the ice palace , which required eight attempts , including wine glasses on ice and metal knives on ice ; they ended up using a mix of three sounds .
Although the vocals , music , sound effects , and almost all the dialogue were all recorded elsewhere , the final re @-@ recording mix to Dolby Atmos format was performed at the Disney lot by Casey E. Fluhr of Disney Digital Studio Services .
= = = Localization = = =
Like other Disney media products which are often localized through Disney Character Voices International , Frozen was translated and dubbed into 41 languages ( compared with only 15 for The Lion King ) . A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and three @-@ octave vocal range in their native languages . Rick Dempsey , the unit 's senior executive , regarded the process of translating the film as " exceptionally challenging " ; he explained , " It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music . And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync ! [ It ] ... requires a lot of patience and precision . " Lopez explained that they were told by Disney to remove complex wordplay and puns from their songs , to ensure the film was easily translatable and had globally appealing lyrics . For the casting of dubbed versions , Disney required native speakers in order to " ensure that the film feels ' local ' . " They used Bell and Menzel 's voices as their " blueprint " in casting , and tried to match the voices " as much as possible , " meaning that they auditioned approximately 200 singers to fill the 41 slots for Elsa alone . For nearly 15 dubbed versions , they cast Elsa 's singing and speaking parts separately , since not all vocalists could act the part they were singing . After casting all the other roles for all 41 languages , the international cast ended up including more than 900 people , who voiced their roles through approximately 1 @,@ 300 recording sessions .
= = Release = =
Frozen was released theatrically in the United States on November 27 , 2013 , and it was accompanied by the new Mickey Mouse animated short film , Get a Horse ! The film 's premiere was at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California , on November 19 , 2013 , and had a five @-@ day limited release there , starting from November 22 , before going into wide release .
Prior to the film 's release , Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez 's " Let It Go " and " In Summer " were previewed at the 2013 D23 Expo ; Idina Menzel performed the former live on stage . A teaser trailer was released on June 18 , 2013 , followed by the release of the official trailer on September 26 , 2013 . Frozen was also promoted heavily at several Disney theme parks including Disneyland 's Fantasyland , Disney California Adventure 's World of Color , Epcot 's Norway pavilion , and Disneyland Paris ' Disney Dreams ! show ; Disneyland and Epcot both offered meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions involving the film 's two main characters , Anna and Elsa . On November 6 , 2013 , Disney Consumer Products began releasing a line of toys and other merchandise relating to the film in Disney Store and other retailers .
On January 31 , 2014 , a sing @-@ along version of Frozen was released in 2 @,@ 057 theaters in the United States . It featured on @-@ screen lyrics , and viewers were invited to follow the bouncing snowflake and sing along with the songs from the film . After its wide release in Japan on March 14 , 2014 , a similar sing @-@ along version of Frozen was released in the country in select theaters on April 26 . In Japanese @-@ dubbed versions , Japanese lyrics of the songs appeared on screen for audiences to sing along with the characters . A sing @-@ along version of the film was released in United Kingdom on November 28 , 2014 .
= = = Home media = = =
Frozen was released for digital download on February 25 , 2014 , on Google Play , the iTunes Store , and Amazon Video . It was subsequently released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on March 18 , 2014 . Bonus features for the Blu @-@ ray release include " The Making of Frozen " , a three @-@ minute musical production about how the film was made , " D 'frosted " , an inside look at how Disney tried to adapt the original fairy tale into an animated feature , four deleted scenes with introduction by the directors , the original theatrical short Get a Horse ! , the film 's teaser trailer , and " Let It Go " ( End Credit Version ) music videos by Demi Lovato , Martina Stoessel , and Marsha Milan Londoh ; while the DVD release only includes the Get a Horse ! theatrical short , " Let It Go " musical videos and the film 's teaser trailer .
On its first day of release on Blu @-@ ray and DVD , Frozen sold 3 @.@ 2 million units , becoming one of the biggest home video sellers in the last decade , as well as Amazon 's best @-@ selling children 's disc of all time . The digital download release of the film also set a record as the fastest @-@ selling digital release of all time . Frozen finished its first week at No. 1 in unit sales in the United States , selling more than three times as many units as other 19 titles in the charts combined , according to the Nielsen 's sales chart . The film sold 3 @,@ 969 @,@ 270 Blu @-@ ray units ( the equivalent of $ 79 @,@ 266 @,@ 322 ) during its first week , which accounted for 50 percent of its opening home media sales . It topped the U.S. home video sales charts for six non @-@ consecutive weeks out of seven weeks of release , as of May 4 , 2014 . In the United Kingdom , Frozen debuted at No. 1 in Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales on the Official Video Chart . According to Official Charts Company , more than 500 @,@ 000 copies of the film were sold in its two @-@ day opening ( March 31 – April 1 , 2014 ) . During its three first weeks of release in the United Kingdom , Frozen sold more than 1 @.@ 45 million units , becoming the biggest selling video title of 2014 so far in the country . Frozen has sold 2 @,@ 025 @,@ 000 Blu @-@ ray Disc / DVD combo sets in Japan in 4 weeks , becoming the fastest @-@ selling home video to sell 2 million copies , beating the previous record of 11 weeks by Spirited Away . Frozen also holds the records for highest number of home video units sold on the first official day of sales and in the first official week of sales in Japan . As of the end of 2014 , the film earned $ 308 @,@ 026 @,@ 545 in total US home media sales . It is one of the best @-@ selling home media releases , having moved over 18 million units as of March 2015 .
Following an announcement on August 12 , 2014 , a sing @-@ along reissue of Frozen was released via DVD and digital download on November 18 , 2014 .
= = = Trademark infringement lawsuit = = =
In late December 2013 , The Walt Disney Company filed a trademark infringement lawsuit in California federal court seeking an injunction against the continued distribution of the Canadian film The Legend of Sarila produced by 10th Ave Productions and CarpeDiem Film & TV and distributed by Phase 4 Films , which had been retitled Frozen Land . Disney alleged that less than three weeks prior to the release of Frozen , Phase 4 theatrically released The Legend of Sarila , which garnered " minimal box office revenues and received no significant attention " ; and to trade off the success of Disney 's animated film , Phase 4 had " redesigned the artwork , packaging , logo , and other promotional materials for its newly ( and intentionally misleadingly ) retitled film to mimic those used by [ Disney ] for Frozen and related merchandise " . While film titles cannot be trademarked by law , Disney cited a number of alleged similarities between the new Phase 4 's Frozen logo and Disney 's original one . By late January 2014 , the two companies had settled the case ; the settlement stated that the distribution and promotion of The Legend of Sarila and related merchandise must use its original title and Phase 4 must not use trademarks , logos or other designs confusingly similar to Disney 's animated release . Phase 4 was also required to pay Disney $ 100 @,@ 000 before January 27 , 2014 , and make " all practicable efforts " to remove copies of Frozen Land from stores and online distributors before March 3 , 2014 .
= = = File sharing = = =
According to copyright infringement @-@ tracking site Excipio , Frozen was the second most @-@ infringed film of 2014 ( behind The Wolf of Wall Street ) , with over 29 @.@ 9 million illegal downloads via torrent sites .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Frozen earned $ 400 @.@ 7 million in North America , and an estimated $ 873 @.@ 5 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @.@ 274 billion . Calculating in all expenses , Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of over $ 400 million . It is the ninth highest @-@ grossing film ( and was the fifth highest at its peak ) , the highest @-@ grossing animated film , the highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , the highest @-@ grossing Walt Disney Pictures release , and the fourth highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney . The film earned $ 110 @.@ 6 million worldwide in its opening weekend . On March 2 , 2014 , its 101st day of release , it surpassed the $ 1 billion mark , becoming the eighteenth film in cinematic history , the seventh Disney @-@ distributed film , the fifth non @-@ sequel film , the second Disney @-@ distributed film in 2013 ( after Iron Man 3 ) , and the first animated film since Toy Story 3 to do so .
Bloomberg Business reported in March 2014 that outside analysts had projected the film 's total cost at somewhere around $ 323 million to $ 350 million for production , marketing , and distribution , and had also projected that the film would generate $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in revenue from box office ticket sales , digital downloads , discs , and television rights .
= = = = North America = = = =
Frozen became Fandango 's top advance ticket seller among original animated films , ahead of previous record @-@ holder Brave , and became the top @-@ selling animated film in the company 's history in late January 2014 . The sing @-@ along version of the film later topped the best @-@ selling list of the movie ticketing service again for three days . Frozen opened on Friday , November 22 , 2013 , exclusively at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood for a five @-@ day limited release and earned $ 342 @,@ 839 before its wide opening on Wednesday , November 27 , 2013 . During the three @-@ day weekend it earned $ 243 @,@ 390 , scoring the seventh largest per @-@ theater average . On the opening day of its wide release , the film earned $ 15 @.@ 2 million , including $ 1 @.@ 2 million from Tuesday late @-@ night shows , and set a record for the highest pre @-@ Thanksgiving Wednesday opening , ahead of Tangled ( $ 11 @.@ 9 million ) . It was also the second largest pre @-@ Thanksgiving Wednesday among all films , behind Catching Fire ( $ 20 @.@ 8 million ) . The film finished in second place over the traditional three @-@ day weekend ( Friday @-@ to @-@ Sunday ) with $ 67 @.@ 4 million , setting an opening weekend record among Walt Disney Animation Studios films . It also scored the second largest opening weekend among films that did not debut at # 1 . Female audiences accounted for 57 % of Frozen 's total audiences on the first weekend , while family audiences held a proportion of 81 % . Among films that opened during Thanksgiving , it set new records ; three @-@ day ( $ 67 @.@ 4 million from Friday to Sunday ) and five @-@ day ( $ 93 @.@ 6 million from Wednesday to Sunday ) . It also achieved the second largest three @-@ day and five @-@ day Thanksgiving gross among all films , behind Catching Fire .
During its second weekend of wide release , Frozen declined 53 % to $ 31 @.@ 6 million , but jumped to first place , setting a record for the largest post @-@ Thanksgiving weekend , ahead of Toy Story 2 ( $ 27 @.@ 8 million ) . Frozen became the first film since Avatar to reach first place in its sixth weekend of wide release . It remained in the top 10 at the box office for sixteen consecutive weekends ( the longest run by any film since 2002 ) and achieved large weekend grosses from its fifth to its twelfth weekend ( of wide release ) , compared to other films in their respective weekends . On April 25 , 2014 , Frozen became the nineteenth film to gross $ 400 million in North America and the fifteenth to do so without a major re @-@ release .
In North America , Frozen is the twenty @-@ fourth highest @-@ grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the highest @-@ grossing 2013 animated film , the tenth highest @-@ grossing 3 @-@ D film , and the second highest @-@ grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film . Excluding re @-@ releases , it has the highest @-@ grossing initial run among non @-@ sequel animated films ( a record previously held by Finding Nemo ) and among Walt Disney Animation Studios films ( a record previously held by The Lion King ) . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Frozen is the ninth highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing animated film , and the highest @-@ grossing 2013 film . It is the highest @-@ grossing animated film in South Korea , Denmark , and Venezuela . It is also the highest @-@ grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film in more than 45 territories , including the Latin America region ( specifically in Mexico and Brazil ) , the UK , Ireland , and Malta , Russia and the CIS , Ukraine , Norway , Malaysia , Singapore , Australia and China .
The film made its debut outside North America on the same weekend as its wide North American release and earned $ 16 @.@ 7 million from sixteen markets . It topped the box office outside North America for two weekends in 2014 ; January 10 – 12 ( $ 27 @.@ 8 million ) and February 7 – 9 ( $ 24 million ) . Overall , its largest opening weekends occurred in China ( five @-@ day opening of $ 14 @.@ 3 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 11 @.@ 9 million , including previews from previous weekend ) , where the film set an opening weekend record among Disney animated films ( ahead of Tangled ) , and Japan ( three @-@ day opening of $ 9 @.@ 73 million ) . It set an opening weekend record among animated films in Sweden . In total earnings , the film 's top market after North America is Japan ( $ 247 @.@ 6 million ) , followed by South Korea ( $ 76 @.@ 6 million ) and the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 65 @.@ 7 million ) . In South Korea , Frozen is the second largest foreign film both in terms of attendance and gross , the largest Disney release and the first animated film to earn more than ten million admissions . In Japan , it is the third highest @-@ grossing film of all time , the second highest grossing imported film ( behind Titanic ) and the highest @-@ grossing Disney film . It topped the country 's box office for sixteen consecutive weekends until being surpassed by another Disney release , Maleficent .
= = = = Commercial analysis = = = =
Ray Subers , writing for Box Office Mojo , compared the film to Disney 's 2010 animated feature Tangled by saying that the film 's story was not as " immediately interesting " and its marketing was aimed at boys ( similar to that of Tangled ) . Noting that the 2013 holiday season ( Thanksgiving and Christmas ) lacked compelling content for families , Subers predicted that the film would " play well all the way through Christmas " and end up grossing $ 185 million in North America ( similar to Wreck @-@ It Ralph ) . Boxoffice noted the success of previous Disney 's animated films released during the holiday season ( Tangled and Wreck @-@ It Ralph ) , but argued that the cast might not attract audiences due to the lack of major stars . They issued a $ 170 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 North America box office forecast for the film . Chris Agar from ScreenRant expressed a similar opinion ; he cited a string of recent box office successes of the studio , and thought that Frozen would fill a void of kid @-@ friendly films in the marketplace , but did not expect it to surpass Catching Fire in terms of box office gross .
Clayton Dillard of Slant Magazine commented that while the trailers made the film seem " pallid , " positive critical reviews could attract interest from both " core demographics " and adult audiences , and therefore he believed Frozen stood a good chance of surpassing Tangled 's Thanksgiving three @-@ day opening record . Brad Brevet of Ropeofsilicon.com described the film 's marketing as a " severely hit and miss " campaign , which could affect its box office performance . After Frozen finished its first weekend with a record $ 93 @.@ 6 million during Thanksgiving , most box @-@ office watchers predicted that it would end up grossing between $ 250 and $ 300 million in North America . Breitbart suggested that with " strong buzz " and " huge family audience support , " Frozen would " easily break the $ 130 million " mark in North America . At the time , Box Office Mojo reissued a $ 250 million box office gross prediction for North America . Box Office Mojo noted that it would be " the exclusive choice for family audiences " and attributed its successful opening to strong word @-@ of @-@ mouth and the studio 's marketing , which highlighted the connection between Frozen and Disney 's previous successful releases like Tangled and Wreck @-@ It Ralph , as well as the elements of humor . In an interview conducted in early December 2013 , Disney 's distribution executive Dave Hollis praised the efforts of the filmmakers and the studio 's marketing team : " For a company whose foundation is built on animation , an opening like this is really great . " He further commented that audiences could be " very targeted with a message " , and that Frozen aimed at a general audience instead of any one particular audience segment .
When Frozen became a box office success , Bilge Ebiri of Vulture analyzed the film 's elements and suggested eight factors that might have led to its success . He thought Frozen managed to capture the classic Disney spirit of the Disney Renaissance films and early classics such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella . He also wrote that the film has Olaf , a " wisecracking , irreverent " sidekick with mild humor which is " a requirement of modern animated kids ' movies , " and its " witty , catchy " songs were " pretty good . " Furthermore , Ebiri noted that Frozen was a " revisionist " film that didn 't " have a typical villain " ; Elsa , the person who should be the villain didn 't turn out to be a villain , but " a girl who 's having trouble . " She was the one who " [ created ] most of the challenges [ for ] the film 's more typical heroes – Princess Anna . " The story of two sisters who were separated as they grew up held real @-@ life overtones for many audience members who had siblings , and the struggle of Elsa to overcome the shame and fear of her powers was also relatable . Finally , he identified several factors which he believed attracted female audiences : two strong female characters ; a twist on the usual romantic subplot , when the traditional " Prince Charming " – Hans – turned out to be a gold @-@ digging villain ; and the " act of true love " which saved Anna was her own sacrifice in saving Elsa .
Scott Davis of Forbes credited the film 's commercial success to its marketing aimed at both sexes , and to the success of its soundtrack .
The commercial success of Frozen in Japan was considered to be a " phenomenon " which received widespread media coverage . Released in that market as Anna and the Snow Queen , the film increased its gross each week in its three first weeks of release , and only started to drop in the fourth ; while other films usually peak in the opening week and decline in the latter ones . Frozen has received over 7 million admissions in Japan as of April 16 , and nearly 18 @.@ 7 million admissions as of June 23 . Many cinemagoers were reported to have watched both the original and the Japanese @-@ dubbed version . Japan Today also reported that the local dubbed version was " particularly popular " in the country . Gavin J. Blair of The Hollywood Reporter commented on the film 's earnings in Japan : " Even after its $ 9 @.@ 6 million ( ￥ 986 @.@ 4 million ) three @-@ day opening , a record bow for a Disney animation in Japan , few would have predicted the kind of numbers Frozen has now racked up . " Disney 's head of distribution Dave Hollis said in an interview that " It 's become very clear that the themes and emotions of Frozen transcend geography , but what 's going on in Japan is extraordinary . "
" Frozen 's success doesn 't benefit from a general appetite for American films in Japan " ( as reported by the International Business Times ) , but according to Akira Lippit of the USC School of Cinematic Arts , there were several factors that constituted this phenomenon : besides the fact that animated films " are held in great regard in Japan , and the Disney brand name with all of its heritage is extremely valuable " , " the biggest reason is the primary audience ... 13- to 17 @-@ year @-@ old teenage girls . " He further explained that audiences of this age range have a vital role in shaping Japanese pop culture and " Frozen has so many elements that appeal to them , with its story of a young girl with power and mystique , who finds her own sort of good in herself . " He compared the film 's current situation with a similar phenomenon which occurred with Titanic in 1997 , " when millions of Japanese teen girls turned out to watch Leonard [ o ] DiCaprio go under – several times , " and thought the same would happen with Frozen . Another reason that contributed to the film 's success in the market was that Disney took great care in choosing " high quality " voice actors for the Japanese @-@ dubbed version , since Japan 's pop music scene had an important role particularly with teenage audiences . Orika Hiromura , Disney Japan 's marketing project leader for Frozen , said in an interview with The Wall Street Journal : " We really put effort into finding actors who could not only play the role but also belt out the tunes as well . We found the perfect match in Takako Matsu and Sayaka Kanda , and they really added a whole new dimension to the storytelling . "
When asked about the success of Frozen , director Chris Buck stated : " We never expected anything like this . We just hoped to make a movie that did as well as Tangled ! I hoped the audience would embrace it and respond to it , but there 's no way we could have predicted this . " He cited a number of reasons for the film 's popularity : " There are characters that people relate to ; the songs are so strong and memorable . We also have some flawed characters , which is what Jen [ nifer Lee ] and I like to do – we essentially create two imperfect princesses . " He also said that what people could infer from the film had " blow [ n ] [ him ] away . " As Frozen approached the first anniversary of its release , Menzel mentioned the film 's continuing popularity in an October 2014 interview : " It ’ s just a remarkable thing . Usually you do a project and it has its moment . This just feels like it keeps going . "
= = = Critical response = = =
Frozen opened to highly positive reviews , with several critics comparing it favorably to the films of the Disney Renaissance , particularly The Little Mermaid , Beauty and the Beast , Aladdin , and The Lion King . Some journalists felt that the film 's success marked a second Disney Renaissance . The film was praised for its visuals , themes , musical numbers , screenplay , and voice acting , especially that of Kristen Bell , Idina Menzel , and Josh Gad . The " Let It Go " musical sequence was also particularly praised by critics . The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 89 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on 216 reviews , with the site 's consensus being : " Beautifully animated , smartly written , and stocked with singalong songs , Frozen adds another worthy entry to the Disney canon . " Metacritic , which determines a normalized rating out of 100 from the reviews of mainstream critics , calculated a score of 74 based on 43 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews . " CinemaScore gave Frozen an " A + " on an A + to F scale , based on polls conducted during the opening weekend . Surveys conducted by Fandango among 1 @,@ 000 ticket buyers revealed that 75 % of purchasers had seen the film at least once , and 52 % had seen it twice . It was also pointed out that 55 % of audiences identified " Let It Go " as their favorite song , while " Do You Want to Build a Snowman ? " and " For the First Time in Forever " held proportions of 21 % and 9 % , respectively . Frozen was named the seventh best film of 2013 by Richard Corliss of Time and Kyle Smith of the New York Post .
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap wrote that the film is " the best animated musical to come out of Disney since the tragic death of lyricist Howard Ashman , whose work on The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast helped build the studio 's modern animated division into what it is today . " He also said that " while it lags the tiniest bit on its way to the conclusion , the script ... really delivers ; it offers characters to care about , along with some nifty twists and surprises along the way . " Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter observed Frozen as a true musical and wrote , " You can practically see the Broadway musical Frozen is destined to become while watching Disney 's 3D animated princess tale . " McCarthy described the film as " energetic , humorous and not too cloying , as well as the first Hollywood film in many years to warn of global cooling rather than warming , this tuneful toon upgrades what has been a lackluster year for big studio animated fare and , beginning with its Thanksgiving opening , should live up to box office expectations as one of the studio 's hoped @-@ for holiday @-@ spanning blockbusters . " Kyle Smith of the New York Post awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars and praised the film as " a great big snowy pleasure with an emotionally gripping core , brilliant Broadway @-@ style songs and a crafty plot . Its first and third acts are better than the jokey middle , but this is the rare example of a Walt Disney Animation Studios effort that reaches as deep as a Pixar film . " Scott Mendelson of Forbes wrote , " Frozen is both a declaration of Disney 's renewed cultural relevance and a reaffirmation of Disney coming to terms with its own legacy and its own identity . It 's also a just plain terrific bit of family entertainment . "
The Los Angeles Times extolled the film 's ensemble voice talent and elaborate musical sequences , and declared Frozen was " a welcome return to greatness for Walt Disney Animation Studios . " Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman gave the film a " B + " grade and labeled it as a " squarely enchanting fairy tale that shows you how the definition of what 's fresh in animation can shift . " Richard Corliss of Time stated that : " It 's great to see Disney returning to its roots and blooming anew : creating superior musical entertainment that draws on the Walt [ Disney ] tradition of animation splendor and the verve of Broadway present . " Richard Roeper wrote that the film was an " absolute delight from start to finish . " Both Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune and Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the film 's characters and musical sequences , which also drew comparisons to the theatrics found in Wicked . Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy awarded the film five out of five stars and called the film " a new Disney classic " and " an exhilarating , joyous , human story that 's as frequently laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funny as it is startling and daring and poignant . Hot on the heels of the 90th anniversary , it 's impossible to imagine a more perfect celebration of everything Disney is at its best . " Frozen was also praised in Norwegian Sámi media as showcasing Sámi culture to a broad audience in a good way . Composer Frode Fjellheim was lauded by Norwegian Sámi President Aili Keskitalo for his contributions to the film , during the President 's 2014 New Year 's speech .
Scott Foundas of Variety was less impressed with the film , describing it as " formulaic " , though he praised its voice acting and technical artistry : " The tactile , snow @-@ capped Arendelle landscape , including Elsa 's ice @-@ castle retreat is Frozen 's other true marvel , enhanced by 3D and the decision to shoot in widescreen – a nod to the CinemaScope richness of Sleeping Beauty and Lady and the Tramp ... That 's almost but not quite enough to make up for the somewhat slack plotting and the generic nature of the main characters . Neither princess here is a patch on Tangled 's babe @-@ in @-@ the @-@ woods Rapunzel , while both Hans and Kristoff are cut from pretty standard @-@ issue hero cloth until a reasonably surprising third @-@ act twist somewhat ups the ante . Only Olaf is unimpeachable : Get this snowman a spinoff feature to call his own . " The Seattle Times gave the film two out of four stars , stating that " While it is an often gorgeous film with computer @-@ generated fjords and ice sculptures and castle interiors , the important thing that glues all this stuff together – story – is sadly lacking . " Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch also criticized the story as the film 's weakest point . Writing on Roger Ebert 's website , Christy Lemire gave a mixed review in which she awarded two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Lemire praised the visuals and the performance of " Let It Go , " as well as the positive messages Frozen sends . However , she referred to the film as " cynical " and criticized it as an " attempt to shake things up without shaking them up too much . " She also noted the similarity between Elsa and another well @-@ known fictional female who unleashes paranormal powers when agitated , Carrie White .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Portrayal of emotions = = = =
Allegations of sexism occurred following a statement by Lino DiSalvo , the film 's head of animation , who said to Fan Voice 's Jenna Busch : " Historically speaking , animating female characters are really , really difficult , because they have to go through these range of emotions , but you have to keep them pretty . " However , a Disney spokesperson later told Time that DiSalvo 's quote was widely misinterpreted , stating that he was " describing some technical aspects of CG animation and not making a general comment on animating females versus males or other characters . " Director Lee also said that DiSalvo 's words were recklessly taken out of context , and that he was talking in very technical terms about CG animation . " It is hard no matter what the gender is . I felt horrible for him , " she said . In an August 2014 interview , DiSalvo re @-@ emphasized what he had been trying to explain all along when his statements were taken out of context – the difficulty with turning any kind of animated character from a series of sketches on a 2D emotion model sheet into a properly rigged 3D character model : " Translating that emotional range onto a CG character is one of the most difficult parts of the process . Male . Female . Snowman . Animal . " He added , " The really sad thing is people took that ... catchy headline and they just repopulated it everywhere . People didn 't get back to me for comments and the sad thing is that 's the way the internet works . They don 't want the truth . "
= = = = Perceived LGBT parallels = = = =
Several viewers outside the film industry , such as evangelical pastors and commentators , argued that Frozen promotes normalization of homosexuality , while others believed that the main character , Elsa , represents a positive image of LGBT youth , viewing the film and the song " Let It Go " as a metaphor for coming out . These claims were met with mixed reactions from both audiences and the LGBT community . When asked about perceptions of a homosexual undertone in the film , Lee said , " We know what we made . But at the same time I feel like once we hand the film over , it belongs to the world , so I don 't like to say anything , and let the fans talk . I think it 's up to them . " She also mentioned that Disney films were made in different eras and were all celebrated for different reasons , but a 2013 film would have a " 2013 point of view " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Frozen was nominated for various awards and won a number of them , including several for Best Animated Feature . The song " Let It Go " was particularly praised . The film was nominated for two Golden Globes at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and won for Best Animated Feature , becoming the first Walt Disney Animation Studios film to win in this category . It also won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ( " Let It Go " ) , the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film at the British Academy Film Awards ( BAFTA ) , five Annie Awards ( including Best Animated Feature ) , and two Critics ' Choice Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ( " Let It Go " ) . It received other similar nominations at the Satellite Awards , and various critics ' groups and circles . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , the Frozen soundtrack won the Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack For Visual Media and was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media ( with credits going to Christophe Beck as composer ) ; the song " Let It Go " won the award for Best Song Written For Visual Media , with credits going to Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez and Robert Lopez as songwriters and Idina Menzel as performer .
= = Cultural impact = =
During the spring and summer of 2014 , several journalists observed that Frozen was unusually catchy in comparison to the vast majority of films , in that many children in both the U.S. and the UK were watching Frozen so many times that they now knew all the songs by heart and kept singing them again and again at every opportunity , to the distress of their hapless parents , teachers , and classmates . Among the celebrities who have disclosed that they are the parent of a Frozen @-@ obsessed child are UK prime minister David Cameron as well as actors Amy Adams , Ben Affleck , Kevin Costner and Vince Vaughn . When Terry Gross brought up this phenomenon with songwriters Lopez and Anderson @-@ Lopez in an April 2014 interview on NPR , they explained there was simply no way they could have known how popular their work on Frozen would become . They were " just trying to tell a story that resonated " and " that didn 't suck . "
In May , columnist Joel Stein of Time magazine wrote about his young son Laszlo 's frustration with the inescapable " cultural assault " of Frozen at preschool and all social and extracurricular activities , and how he had arranged for a Skype call with lead actress Bell after Laszlo began asking why the film was made . When Laszlo asked whether Bell knew when she made Frozen that it would take over kids ' lives , she replied : " I did not know that people would not let it go . No pun intended . " In a December 2014 interview with The Hollywood Reporter , Lee acknowledged that she had transitioned from thanking people when they expressed their appreciation for Frozen to having to apologize when they said " we 're still listening to those songs " ( with their children ) . Lee also said that she used the film and its strong female characters to inspire her own daughter , who had experienced bullying at school , and admitted that she herself as a child was bullied as well ; thus , they had managed to be true to themselves like Anna and Elsa .
In a 2014 mid @-@ year report of the 100 most @-@ used baby names conducted by BabyCenter , Elsa was ranked 88 ; it was the first time the name had appeared on the site 's chart . Sarah Barrett , managing director of the site , explained that while the film 's popular heroine is called Anna , " Elsa offers a more unique name and is also a strong female role model . " Many parents revealed that their choices of name were " heavily influenced " by the siblings . Vice president of Disney UK Anna Hill later commented that " We 're delighted that Elsa is a popular name for babies and it 's lovely to hear that for many families , it is actually their siblings who have chosen it , " and that " Elsa 's fight to overcome her fears and the powerful strength of the family bond " were relatable to many families . On 2014 year @-@ end lists issued by Google , Frozen was the most searched movie of 2014 . On the Google Play Store , Frozen and its soundtrack album were also named Movie of the Year and Album of the Year respectively , i.e. the best @-@ selling title in their respective areas . Frozen was also the second most illegally downloaded film title of 2014 via BitTorrent file sharing protocol , with around 30 million downloads . Elsa has become very popular in the cosplaying community . One of the best cosplayers currently , Anna Faith , is well known for cosplaying as Elsa at charities , comic @-@ cons , and other events .
After Disney announced in March 2015 that a feature @-@ length sequel was in development , Agence France @-@ Presse and the Toronto Star both published stories gently mocking the horror of parents everywhere at the news that another Frozen " sensory and financial assault " was in the pipeline .
= = Franchise = =
In January 2014 , Iger announced that Frozen would be adapted into a Broadway stage musical . In the space of a single business quarter , Iger went from speaking of Frozen 's " franchise potential " ( in February 2014 ) to saying that it was " probably " one of Disney 's " top five franchises " ( in May 2014 ) . The film 's massive popularity resulted in an unusually severe merchandise shortage in the United States and several other industrialized countries in April 2014 , which caused resale prices for higher @-@ quality limited @-@ edition Frozen dolls and costumes to skyrocket past $ 1 @,@ 000 on eBay . By the time the merchandise shortage was finally resolved in early November 2014 ( nearly a year after the film 's release ) , Disney had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone . Wait times for the meet @-@ and @-@ greets at Disney Parks soon regularly exceeded four hours and forced management in February 2014 to indefinitely extend what was originally intended as a temporary film promotion . Disney Parks later put on a temporary event ( Frozen Summer Fun ) at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , then announced on September 12 , 2014 , that the Maelstrom ride at Epcot 's Norway pavilion would be closed and replaced with a Frozen @-@ based attraction , which opened in early 2016 . By August 2014 , the publisher Random House had sold over 8 million Frozen @-@ related books . Tour operators , including Adventures by Disney , added more Norway tours in response to rising demand during 2014 .
Meanwhile , the producers of Once Upon a Time ( made by Disney @-@ owned ABC Studios ) independently conceived of and obtained authorization from both ABC and Disney for a Frozen @-@ inspired crossover story arc in the show 's fourth season , which was first revealed at the end of the show 's third season in May 2014 , which was broadcast in fall 2014 . On September 2 , 2014 , ABC broadcast The Story of Frozen : Making a Disney Animated Classic , a one @-@ hour " making of " television special . At the end of the special , Lasseter announced that the production team would be reuniting to make Frozen Fever , a short film which debuted in theaters with Disney 's Cinderella on March 13 , 2015 . On September 4 , 2014 , Feld Entertainment 's Disney on Ice presented the world premiere of a touring ice skating show based on the film at Amway Center in Orlando , Florida .
= = Sequel = =
In November 2014 , Menzel claimed that a feature @-@ length sequel was in development . However , on December 1 , when the subject came up again during an interview on Today , she said , " You know , I have no idea . I just assumed that because it 's so successful that 's what they 're up to ! " On March 12 , 2015 , Disney officially announced that a feature @-@ length sequel to Frozen was in development with Buck and Lee returning as directors , and Del Vecho returning as producer . In a May 2015 interview , Buck said , " We have lots of things to figure out but at least we know where we are going . " In March 2016 , Bell stated that voice recording for the film was due to start later in the month .
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= The Boat Race 2005 =
The 151st Boat Race took place on 27 March 2005 . Oxford won the race by two lengths in a time of 16 minutes 41 seconds . The race , umpired by the six @-@ time Boat Race winner Boris Rankov , featured seven Olympic rowers . It was the first time the event was broadcast in the United Kingdom on ITV .
In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis and Cambridge won the Women 's race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual rowing eight competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2004 race by six lengths , and led overall with 78 victories to Oxford 's 71 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the first time , and it was the first year the event was televised in the United Kingdom by ITV , following a £ 1 @.@ 75 million pound five @-@ year deal .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) was the heaviest in Boat Race history , with over a 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) per crew member over the Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . Both crews had an average age of 25 . The Oxford crew featured five Britons , three Americans and a Canadian while the Cambridge crew consisted of four Germans , three Britons , an American and an Australian . Seven of the rowers had represented their countries at the Olympic Games . In the Cambridge crew , Heidicker rowed for Germany at both the Sydney games and Athens , Briton Tom James , German Sebastian Schulte and American Luke Walton also rowed in Athens . Oxford 's Olympians included Britons Andy Triggs Hodge and Robin Bourne @-@ Taylor , and Canadian Barney Williams , all of whom competed in Athens . According to the BBC , the former Oxford coach Dan Topolski rated both crews as good enough to make an Olympic final .
= = Race description = =
Cambridge won the coin toss and elected to start from the northern bank ( the " Middlesex side " ) of the Thames . At race time , conditions were cloudy and cool , with rain falling midway through . The race umpire was Boris Rankov , a six @-@ time successful Oxford Blue .
Cambridge made a poor start allowing Oxford to take the early lead , but warnings from umpire Rankov forced the Oxford cox Acer Nethercott to steer out of the racing line and relinquish the advantage . As they approached Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford out @-@ rated Cambridge and held a half @-@ a @-@ length lead . Taking a clear @-@ water advantage before reaching Barnes Bridge , Oxford passed the finishing post two lengths ahead , with a time of 16 minutes , 41 seconds . It was their third victory in the previous four years and brought the overall result to 78 – 72 in Cambridge 's favour . At the finish , following tradition , the Oxford crew threw their cox , Nethercott , into the water in celebration .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis . Earlier , Cambridge won the 60th Women 's Boat Race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ third lengths .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's number two , Williams , had lost out on gold in the Athens Olympics by two inches , he said " I knew how much it was going to hurt to lose so half of me is just so glad we didn 't lose " . The departing Cambridge coach Robin Williams said of his crew " They fought like tigers and should be proud of themselves " . Cambridge 's stroke Heidicker admitted " It was a bad start ... we never really established our own rhythm . Maybe we weren 't cool enough in that situation . "
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= Magnetic Rag =
" Magnetic Rag " is a 1914 ragtime piano composition by American composer Scott Joplin . It is significant for being the last rag which Joplin published in his lifetime , three years before his death in 1917 . It is also unique in form and in some of the musical techniques employed in the composition .
= = Background = =
" Magnetic Rag " was written by an ailing Joplin near the end of his career , when interest in ragtime was waning . He was suffering from the latter stages of syphilis , the disease from which he died only three years later . Possibly as a result of Joplin 's mood at this time , the piece expresses a melancholy almost entirely unheard in his earlier works .
= = Form = =
While many of Joplin 's piano rags fit the classic rag scheme , " Magnetic Rag " is unique in its form of AABBCCDDAA . Due to its novelty at the time , the form has been described as " progressive " . It has been suggested that Joplin was trying to merge ragtime elements with the classical sonata form . The form is cyclic : that is , the opening melody is revisited at the end of the piece . Cyclic form is rare among Joplin 's rags .
Joplin 's usage of Italian tempo indications in " Magnetic Rag " has been interpreted as his intention to give the piece a serious aspect in a similar manner to Treemonisha and " Scott Joplin 's New Rag " . " Magnetic Rag " begins with the instruction " Allegretto ma non troppo " ( moderately fast , but not too much ) and continues in the D strain with " Tempo l 'istesso " ( tempo remains the same ) , a warning against slowing down for the minor @-@ mode section . As well , Joplin employed in " Magnetic Rag " the classic " common time " 4 / 4 time signature instead of the more usual 2 / 4 time of rag tunes . Simultaneously , Joplin doubled all the note values , effectively making the unusual 4 / 4 time signature have no practical effect on the way the piece sounded or the way it was performed . His publishing it in 4 / 4 was simply a way to connect the rag with classical and popular piano works of prior fame . Since Joplin published " Magnetic Rag " himself , it has been suggested that the composition fully reflected his wishes and contained no compromises .
Joplin produced " Magnetic Rag " during what several musicologists consider to be his experimental period . It was at this time that Joplin attempted to write rags that were not confined to the standard " oom @-@ pah " left @-@ hand beat and that incorporated several other novelties .
Like the classic rag , " Magnetic Rag " begins with a four @-@ bar introduction . Since it is featured at both the beginning and end of the piece , the melody of the A strain is possibly the most recognizable melody in the piece . Much of this melody is in the mode of B @-@ flat major , the main key of the entire piece ; however , during bars 11 and 12 , the mode shifts to G minor . This shift demonstrates one of Joplin 's late @-@ life techniques : establishing a foreign key within the framework of a strain .
The second , third , and fourth strains are what made " Magnetic Rag " unique among Joplin 's rags . The B strain is written entirely in G minor . The darkening tone generated by the minor scale stands out among Joplin 's rags , and is revisited in the D strain . In contrast to the minor themes in the B strain , the third section is upbeat but with bittersweet harmonies , returning once again to the scale of B @-@ flat major . Here , for the first time , the piece departs from the standard left @-@ hand pattern that characterizes most ragtime . This section of the piece has been compared to the style of twelve bar blues . The C strain also represents the only known time when Joplin departs from the standard sixteen @-@ bar form , being instead 24 bars in length with an uneven 14- and 10 @-@ bar division . Its first 12 measures parallel the 12 @-@ bar blues form and the next two measures extend the subdominant as a transition into the last ten bars .
Of all the strains in the piece , the final D strain is perhaps the most interesting . It is written in B @-@ flat minor . When Joplin used minor keys in the previous sections , he used the relative key of G minor ( i.e. , relative to the main key of B @-@ flat major ) . However , in this fourth section , he instead used the parallel key . This strain also features sections where the right hand and left hand play notes in unison , and in which the standard 2 / 4 time left @-@ hand beat is noticeably absent . Most of Joplin 's rags end with the last strain , but " Magnetic Rag " ends with a coda . This " smiling little coda " expresses some of the tonalities and rhythms heard throughout the piece .
= = Legacy = =
" Magnetic Rag " is widely understood to present a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind combination of moods , especially for ragtime , and has been described as a melancholic and " haunting " rag .
With the Brahmsian darkness of . . . " Magnetic Rag , " the last piece he completed , Joplin had pushed the music far beyond the boisterous beerhall ambience that characterized , for many listeners and players , the rag idiom . This was music on a large scale that was now being squeezed into the narrow confines of rag form — so much so , that the music often burst at the seams .
Some music historians evaluate " Magnetic Rag " , as well as other works from Joplin 's late period , as being indicative of his unstable mental condition which resulted from the effects of syphilis . One of these is Martin Williams :
Joplin 's " last period " is a strange collection of contradictions . Some of his rags reach more toward concert music than did any Jazz up to Lennie Tristano 's , while others seem to revert to his 1900 style . Profoundly ambitious passages lie side by side with meaningless , mechanical ditties . It is not hard to find in these compositions a reflection of approaching derangement — he lost his mind in 1916 .
In This Is Ragtime , Terry Waldo criticizes this view :
To see Joplin 's late rags as a " strange collection of contradictions " . . . misses the point . . . . " Magnetic Rag " does indeed include parts reminiscent of Joplin 's 1900 style , but they serve to set up the " profound " parts . Here is a terrifying mixture of the familiar and the agonizing unknown . It is in fact more profound for being able to bring these opposites into focus . The music is heavy with the weight of Joplin 's approaching schizoid nightmare — but that is not a weakness .
In his biography of Scott Joplin , James Haskins writes :
Early in 1914 he completed what many consider his finest rag , " Magnetic Rag , " which he published himself that same year . It has about it a gentle quality like " The Entertainer , " and its distinctive form and range of moods suggest to some musicologists a breakthrough to a Chopinesque form of ragtime , albeit a breakthrough that came too late .
Near the end of his life , Scott Joplin was taking ragtime in a new direction by adding emphasis on form and tonality , and attempting to combine the characteristics of classical Western music and traditional ragtime . This is an entirely different direction than the one that jazz would take .
Jazz , seeking one theme as a center for improvisation , tended to weaken the sense of form that it inherited from ragtime . . . . Joplin 's efforts obviously strengthen this sense of form . One has only to hear the blazing return of the first theme of Magnetic Rag — the restoration of major tonality , the momentum of the renewed beat — to recognize the power of recapitulation in ragtime .
In the album notes to Scott Joplin : Piano Rags , Joshua Rifkin describes the " Magnetic Rag " as a " valedictory work " with Joplin paying " tribute " to a " transplanted Middle @-@ European dance music " and the European masters whom he tried to emulate . Rifkin speculates that the composition 's short coda also " seems like a farewell , as if he knew how brief and bleak was the time still alloted him . " In 1979 Alan Rich in the New York Magazine wrote that by giving artists like Rifkin the opportunity to put Joplin 's music on record Nonesuch Records " created , almost alone , the Scott Joplin revival . "
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= How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria ? =
How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria ? is an English reality television talent show that documented the search for an undiscovered musical theatre performer to play the role of Maria von Trapp in the 2006 Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Ian stage production of The Sound of Music .
The series was originally devised by the then ' in house ' development team at BBC Entertainment Events and was announced by the BBC in April 2006 . BBC One broadcast the programme , which was hosted by Graham Norton , on Saturday evenings from 29 July through 16 September 2006 .
The title derives from the refrain of " Maria " , a song from the first act of The Sound of Music .
= = Format = =
= = = Creation = = =
The lead role of Maria von Trapp in the new West End production of The Sound of Music , to be staged by Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Ian , was to be played by American actress Scarlett Johansson . Negotiations fell through , and after a four @-@ year search for an actress to fill the role , it was revealed in November 2005 that Lloyd Webber had approached the BBC to allow the public to cast the role through a Popstars @-@ style talent search , the first time that such a format had been used .
This was the first programme to allow the public to cast a leading role in a West End show , and it was initially criticised . However , it won International Emmy and Royal Television Society awards and became the first of a series of collaborations between the BBC and Lloyd Webber , including Any Dream Will Do , I 'd Do Anything , and Over the Rainbow . The series also led to versions and similar series abroad .
= = = Expert panel = = =
To assess and train the potential Marias and judge them during the live shows , an expert panel was chosen . The panel comprised :
Andrew Lloyd Webber – musical theatre composer and producer , co @-@ producer of the new stage production
David Ian – theatre producer , co @-@ producer of the new stage production
John Barrowman – musical performer , dancer , singer and actor
Zoe Tyler – voice coach , singer and performer , vocal coach to the finalists
Lloyd Webber also asked Denise van Outen to participate in the series , but she turned him down , saying that she " felt uncomfortable about being on the panel and giving my criticism " . She later became a judge on follow @-@ up series , Any Dream Will Do .
= = = Auditions = = =
Open auditions were held around the UK in April and May 2006 , open to both professionals and amateurs over the age of 17 . The top 200 made it through to the London callbacks where they performed for Ian , Barrowman and Tyler to secure one of 50 places at Lloyd Webber 's " Maria School " , where over four days they would receive vocal and drama training from the expert panel .
Several additional performers were selected over this fifty contestant limit ; one being Briony , who had been rejected initially due to nerves hampering her performance , but who returned for a second chance and was allowed in by Ian . A further four , whom the panel had rejected , were contacted by Lloyd Webber himself as he personally believed them to be potential Marias .
During " Maria School " , contestants were eliminated to leave twenty , who were then taken to Lloyd Webber 's house , where they performed for fifty people from the entertainment business . Ten finalists were then chosen by the panel and taken through to the live studio finals .
The series started on Saturday 29 July 2006 , and the first two programmes followed the audition stages of the competition before revealing the final ten at the end of the second programme .
= = = Live finals = = =
The final ten contestants then competed in the live studio finals held on Saturday nights over six weeks . Each week the contestants sang and performed during the live show , receiving comments from the judges following their performance . The public then got a chance to vote for their favourite Maria , and the two contestants with the fewest votes performed a sing @-@ off in front of Lloyd Webber , who then decided which Maria to keep in the contest . This was repeated with the top ten , the top nine and the top eight . With the top seven and top five , two were voted off in the program , and there were two different sing @-@ offs .
Lloyd Webber had no say in the final casting decision , when in the concluding edition of the series it was left to the public to choose who should play Maria out of the final two contenders , Connie Fisher and Helena Blackman . After more than 2 million votes were cast , the winning entrant was revealed as Fisher , who won a six @-@ month contract to play Maria in the West End production , performing six out of the eight weekly shows .
The profits from the telephone votes went to a bursary for young performers . Lloyd Webber also donated his fee to the bursary .
= = Finalists = =
Ten potential Marias were selected as finalists who would appear on the live shows . Abi Finley and Aoife Mulholland auditioned together having known each other from college , and both made it to the finals . One of the original 10 finalists , Emilie Alford , withdrew from the competition after deciding it was not for her . She was replaced by Siobhan Dillon , who lost a place in the final ten following a sing @-@ off against Alford and Laura Sicurello in front of Lloyd Webber . This earned her the nickname " Second Chance Maria " .
* As of start of series
= = = Results summary = = =
Colour key
= = Live shows = =
The live shows saw the finalists eliminated one by one following both individual and group performances . Once eliminated , the leaving contestant ended the programme by leading a performance of " So Long , Farewell " from The Sound of Music with the remaining contestants .
= = = Week 1 = = =
Following the first week of competition . The show performances were :
Group performances :
" How Do You Solve A Problem Like Maria ? " ( from The Sound of Music )
" I Have Confidence " ( from The Sound of Music )
Sing @-@ off :
Helena Blackman and Laura Sicurello received the least number of viewer votes and were in the sing @-@ off , and performed " No Matter What " from the musical Whistle Down the Wind .
Andrew Lloyd Webber chose to save Helena and bid farewell to Laura .
= = = Week 2 = = =
As the mission for this week , the potential Marias performed a scene from the musical with an actor as Captain Von Trapp .
The show performances were :
Group performances :
" My Favorite Things " ( from The Sound of Music )
" Don 't Rain on My Parade " ( Barbra Streisand from Funny Girl )
Guest performance : " You Can 't Stop a River " ( Duncan James )
Sing @-@ off :
Belinda Evans and Meliz Serman were in the sing @-@ off , and performed " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " from Evita .
Andrew Lloyd Webber chose to save Meliz and bid farewell to Belinda .
= = = Week 3 = = =
During the week , David Ian talked to the girls about fitness and stamina , and Claire Sweeney advised the singers on looking after themselves and their voices . The mission was a fitness test , with Olympic athlete Iwan Thomas , requiring the Marias to complete an assault course . The Marias also attended the première of the film You , Me and Dupree in Leicester Square .
The show performances were :
Group performances :
" The Lonely Goatherd " ( from The Sound of Music )
" Don 't Stop Me Now " ( Queen )
Sing @-@ off :
Helena Blackman and Meliz Serman were in the sing @-@ off , and performed " Take That Look Off Your Face " from Tell Me on a Sunday .
Lloyd Webber chose to save Helena and bid farewell to Meliz .
= = = Week 4 = = =
Ahead of Saturday night , Lloyd Webber made a surprise visit to the contestants and worked with each to improve their performance . Llyod Webber also watched them on how well they interact with kids .
The show performances were :
Group performances :
" Do @-@ Re @-@ Mi " ( from The Sound of Music )
First sing @-@ off :
Helena Blackman and Simona Armstrong were in the first sing @-@ off , and performed " Memory " from Cats .
Lloyd Webber chose to save Helena and bid farewell to Simona .
Performance with children : Siobhan Truly Scrumptious ( song ) from Chitty Chitty Bang Bang
Second sing @-@ off :
Helena Blackman and Leanne Dobinson were in the second sing @-@ off , and performed " I Don 't Know How to Love Him " from Jesus Christ Superstar .
Lloyd Webber chose to save Helena and bid farewell to Leanne .
= = = Week 5 = = =
This week , the mission was a chemistry test with John Barrowman , which involved his giving the Marias a surprise kiss .
The show performances were :
Group performances :
" I Have Confidence " ( from The Sound of Music )
With John Barrowman : " Have You Met Miss Jones ? " ( from I 'd Rather Be Right )
First sing @-@ off :
Abi Finley and Aoife Mulholland were in the first sing @-@ off , and performed " Any Dream Will Do " from Joseph and the Amazing Technicolour Dreamcoat .
Andrew Lloyd Webber chose to save Aoife and bid farewell to Abi .
Second sing @-@ off :
Siobhan Dillon and Aoife Mulholland were in the second sing @-@ off , and performed " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " from Evita .
Lloyd Webber chose to save Siobhan and bid farewell to Aoife .
= = = Week 6 = = =
In the run @-@ up to the final , the three finalists and Lloyd Webber visited Salzburg to visit some of the locations made famous by The Sound of Music , including Leopoldskron Palace and Nonnberg Abbey , to give the finalists a chance to understand the real Maria von Trapp .
Group performance :
Finalists and former Marias : " How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria ? " ( from The Sound of Music )
Connie and Helena : " The Sound of Music " ( from The Sound of Music )
Former Marias : " Edelweiss " ( from The Sound of Music )
After being announced as the series winner , Connie concluded the series with a performance of " The Sound of Music " .
= = Winner = =
Following a public telephone vote , 23 @-@ year @-@ old Connie Fisher was chosen as Maria and performed the role in the West End from November 2006 to February 2008 . The series also helped the careers of the other finalists , some of whom later took leading roles in West End shows . Semi @-@ finalist Aoife Mulholland also took up the role of Maria in April 2007 for two shows a week , after Fisher was advised to reduce her performances to six per week .
= = After the series = =
Following the final , Lloyd Webber was criticised after it was revealed that actress Emma Williams had been hired to perform the two performances per week that Fisher would not . Prior to The Sound of Music opening Williams " withdrew her services " , reportedly because her role had been downgraded from four shows per week to two , leaving Fisher to perform all eight shows unless indisposed .
With £ 10 million in advance ticket sales , the £ 4 million production opened at the London Palladium on 15 November 2006 to positive reviews , leading to a £ 1 @.@ 1 million increase in ticket sales in one day . In January 2007 , Fisher was chosen by the London Critics ' Circle to win their award for best newcomer , sharing the prize with Andrew Garfield . Reducing her performances to six per week in March 2007 following an order to rest her voice , her run in the show was extended until 23 February 2008 , when actress Summer Strallen took over the role following a tie @-@ in with the Channel 4 soap Hollyoaks . Fisher has also made numerous appearances on stage and on television , released two albums , and performed the lead role in the ITV1 drama Caught in a Trap on 26 December 2008 . She reprised her role as Maria in a UK tour of the production in July 2009 .
Several of the other final ten contestants have taken on leading roles in musicals following the series . Aoife Mulholland was cast in December 2006 as Roxie Hart in the West End musical Chicago , and took on the role of Maria in the West End production for two shows per week in April 2007 after Fisher 's reduction in performances . In July 2007 Siobhan Dillon started in the role of Patty Simcox in the musical Grease and later went on to play the lead role of Sandy in January 2010 . Fellow finalist Helena Blackman played Nellie Forbush in a UK tour of South Pacific . Mulholland originated the role of Brooke Wyndham in the West End production of Legally Blonde , and Dillon took over the role of Vivienne Kensington in October 2010 .
A follow @-@ up programme How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria ? – Connie 's Story aired on 27 December 2006 and followed Fisher during rehearsals for her new role up to and including the opening night . Fisher and several other finalists appeared in a special programme on 24 December 2007 with the winner and finalists from Any Dream Will Do titled When Joseph Met Maria .
= = Reception = =
Lloyd Webber was initially criticised for wanting to cast the role through a television talent search , and he and the BBC were also criticised by the actors union Equity . They stated that they believed their members would find the series " demeaning to their profession " and that it was not a " proper way " to choose a performer .
The series opened to mostly negative reviews from the press , with the Daily Mail stating that the series was a " trainwreck " . In response to the criticism , Lloyd Webber told The Times :
" This programme is providing a platform for musical theatre that it has never had before . The only people upset with Maria are a few precious luvvies who think things should be done a certain way . "
Lloyd Webber and the BBC were also criticised for giving the production " 11 hours of free publicity on prime @-@ time television " and that the series could be " considered commercial advertising " . The BBC Trust 's Editorial Standards Committee disagreed , saying that the corporation retained " editorial control of the programme " and avoided " disproportionate prominence for Lloyd Webber and the production " .
The first programme attracted 5 @.@ 1 million viewers with a 32 % audience share , with 4 @.@ 9 million viewers ( 30 % share ) watching the first of the live finals , and 4 @.@ 7 million ( 23 % share ) viewing the results programme . The series dropped to a low of 4 @.@ 4 million viewers ( 24 % share ) against the third series of The X Factor on ITV1 , which started the week before . The X Factor continued to gain higher viewing figures as the weeks progressed , with the final of Maria ? attracting 5 @.@ 5 million viewers ( 28 % share ) for the main show and 7 @.@ 7 million ( 35 % share ) for the results show .
Following the conclusion of the series on a ratings high and positive reviews for Fisher following her opening night , the series was followed by a number of similar series from both the BBC and other broadcasters in the UK and abroad . It was credited with helping London theatres reach record ticket sales and attendances in 2007 and , according to The Independent , for " persuading a new , younger audience to see the shows in the flesh " .
The series was shown on BBC America in the United States from June 2009 . It was described as being " refreshing in its simplicity " in a " landscape that lately seems dominated by audition @-@ heavy musical competitions " by LA Times critic Mary McNamara , but Brian Lowry of Variety didn 't feel that it would be successful in the U.S.
= = = Awards = = =
The series won three awards , and received nominations for another two :
2007 International Emmy Awards : winner – non @-@ scripted entertainment
2006 Royal Television Society Awards : winner – best entertainment programme
2007 Broadcast Awards : winner – best entertainment programme
2007 British Academy Television Awards : nominated – best entertainment programme
2007 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards : nominated – best comedy / entertainment
= = Follow @-@ up and international series = =
The success of the series led to its becoming the first in a series of West End themed talent contests produced by the BBC in collaboration with Lloyd Webber . 2007 saw Any Dream Will Do search for a new male lead to play Joseph for a production of Lloyd Webber 's and Tim Rice 's Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat . This was followed in 2008 by I 'd Do Anything , which sought a lead to play Nancy and three young performers to play the lead in a production of the musical Oliver ! . In 2010 , Over the Rainbow cast Dorothy and a dog to play Toto in the forthcoming stage production of the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . The BBC also collaborated with Lloyd Webber to find a performer for Britain 's entry into the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 through Eurovision : Your Country Needs You .
On 20 August 2006 , it was reported that Lloyd Webber had taken legal action against David Ian . Lloyd Webber reportedly wanted to take the format to the United States to cast a Broadway theatre production of Grease . Lloyd Webber discovered that Ian had already brought the idea to NBC , who announced they will look for unknowns to play Sandy Dumbrowski and Danny Zuko , via reality TV show Grease : You 're the One that I Want ! with Ian and BBC Worldwide , leaving Lloyd Webber furious . Ian said " I don 't understand the problem . Andrew has no connection with the stage show Grease , which I have successfully produced in the UK . There is a new production of Grease on Broadway in the spring of 2007 , that 's why I 've been asked to judge on You 're The One That We Want . " This was followed in the UK with the ITV1 series Grease Is the Word , with Ian as a judge . It aired against Any Dream Will Do in 2007 .
Op zoek naar Evita ( Looking for Evita ) was produced in the Netherlands in 2007 , followed by Op zoek naar Joseph ( Looking for Joseph ) in 2008 , Op zoek naar Mary Poppins ( Looking for Mary Poppins ) in 2009 and Op zoek naar Zorro ( Looking for Zorro ) in 2011 and even Op zoek naar Annie ( Looking for Annie ) in 2012 .
In 2008 a Canadian version of the show with the same title , searched for a Maria for an upcoming Toronto production of The Sound of Music ; this show was initiated by Lloyd Webber , and was aired on CBC Television .
In 2009 Vtm aired a Flemish version titled Op zoek naar Maria ( Looking for Maria ) .
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= Operation Perch =
Operation Perch was a British offensive of the Second World War which took place from 7 – 14 June 1944 , during the early stages of the Battle of Normandy . The operation was intended to encircle and seize the German occupied city of Caen , which was a D @-@ Day objective for the British 3rd Infantry Division in the early phases of Operation Overlord . Operation Perch was to begin immediately after the British beach landings with an advance to the south @-@ east of Caen by XXX Corps . Three days after the invasion the city was still in German hands and the operation was amended . The operation was expanded to include I Corps for a pincer attack on Caen .
Next day XXX Corps in the west , pushed south to Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles but then encountered the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division and the village changed hands several times . I Corps began the eastern thrust two days later from the Orne bridgehead , which had been secured in Operation Tonga by elements of the British 6th Airborne Division on D @-@ Day . I Corps was also delayed by constant counter @-@ attacks of the 21st Panzer Division . With mounting casualties and no sign of an imminent German collapse , the offensive east of Caen was suspended on 13 June .
Further west in the U.S. First Army area , American attacks forced a gap in the German defences . The British 7th Armoured Division was diverted from Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles , to advance through the gap in a flanking manoeuvre and force the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division to fall back , to avoid encirclement . On 14 June , after two days of battle including the Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage , the 7th Armoured Division was ordered to withdraw towards Caumont . Plans were made to resume the offensive once the 7th Armoured Division had been reinforced but these were postponed , when a storm in the English Channel seriously delayed the Allied landing of supplies and reinforcements .
The battle is controversial because historians and writers generally agree that failures by British divisional and corps commanders squandered an opportunity to capture Caen . To resist the offensive , the Germans had committed their most powerful armoured reserves , which deprived them of the fighting power for a counter @-@ offensive and forfeited the initiative to the Allies .
= = Background = =
= = = Operation Overlord = = =
The Norman town of Caen was a D @-@ Day objective for the British 3rd Infantry Division , which landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 . Caen 's early capture , while " ambitious " , has been described by historian L F Ellis as the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to Lieutenant @-@ General John T. Crocker 's I Corps . Operation Overlord called for Lieutenant @-@ General Dempsey 's Second Army to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen , acquiring airfields and protecting the left flank of the U.S. First Army while it moved on Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give the Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River . The terrain between Caen and Vimont was especially promising , being open , dry and conducive to swift offensive operations — the Allies greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units , and transforming the battle into a more fluid engagement would be to their advantage .
= = = Operation Perch = = =
Operation Perch was intended to create the threat of a British breakout to the south @-@ east of Caen by XXX Corps . The 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division landed on Gold Beach on 6 June and was rapidly to move inland and capture Bayeux and the road to Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . The 7th Armoured Division and the 8th Armoured Brigade would then take over from the 50th Northumbrian Division and advance from Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles to Mont Pinçon . XXX Corps landed on Gold Beach at 07 : 30 on 6 June , cleared seven exits off the beach and advanced 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) inland . German resistance at Le Hamel delayed the division and prevented the achievement of all of the D @-@ Day objectives before dark . Patrols had reached Bayeux and made contact with the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division , which had landed on Juno Beach to the east . The 47 Royal Marine Commando advanced eastwards along the coast , to link up with the American forces moving inland from Omaha Beach but fell short of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin @-@ Huppain by 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
During the afternoon , the German LXXXIV Corps ordered its reserve , Kampfgruppe Meyer to strike into the flank of the 50th Division north of Bayeux . While advancing to the attack , a battalion was ordered towards Omaha beach , weakening the counter @-@ attack , which was a costly failure . On 7 June , the bulk of the 7th Armoured Division landed on schedule and XXX Corps secured its remaining D @-@ Day objectives , including Bayeux and Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin @-@ Huppain . The LXXXIV Corps sent its last reserve unit , Mobile Brigade 30 , towards Gold Beach to repeat the counter @-@ attack , which also failed , and the brigade was destroyed north of Bayeux . The survivors of the two counter @-@ attacks were driven into a pocket north of the city by the Anglo @-@ American advance , although the Americans did not discover that this had happened . From Sword Beach , the 3rd Infantry Division of I Corps had advanced towards Caen but diverted units to capture German positions along the 9 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) route , which reduced the strength of the infantry attack and the 27th Armoured Brigade was delayed by congestion in the beachhead . The division was stopped short of Caen by the 21st Panzer Division .
= = = Operation Wild Oats = = =
On 9 June the Allied ground forces commander , General Bernard Montgomery ( Monty ) , met Lieutenant @-@ Generals Miles Dempsey and Omar Bradley , the British Second and First U.S. army commanders and it was decided that Caen would be taken by a pincer movement , Operation Wild Oats . From the east the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade of I Corps , would cross east into the 6th Airborne Division bridgehead over the Orne and attack towards Cagny , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south @-@ east of Caen . XXX Corps to the west would send the 7th Armoured Division across the Odon River to take Évrecy and Hill 112 . The 1st Airborne Division would then drop between the pincers but Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory , the Allied air commander rejected the airborne plan , which was dropped .
= = Prelude = =
= = = German defensive preparations = = =
Late on 7 June , the I SS @-@ Panzer Corps was transferred from the command of the Seventh Army to Panzer Group West . Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt the supreme commander in the west ( OB West ) , ordered Panzergruppe West under General Geyr von Schweppenburg to plan a counter @-@ attack for 10 June but this was cancelled by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel the commander of Army Group B , due to lack of troops . German units were rushed from staging areas to Normandy to contain the invasion . The I SS @-@ Panzer Corps consisted of the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division which was one of the strongest divisions in the German army , the " fanatical teenagers " of the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and the 21st Panzer Division .
The leading elements of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division arrived during the night of 9 June at the Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles , having lost up to 200 vehicles to aerial attacks during its 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) drive from Chartres , having been diverted from I Corps because of the success of the 50th Northumbrian Division . Parts of the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division , the 21st Panzer Division and the remains of the 716th Static Infantry Division were moved to Caen , facing I Corps . Several attacks were launched against the Anglo @-@ Canadian beachhead north of Caen . In the early hours of 9 June the survivors of Kampfgruppe Meyer and Mobile Brigade 30 broke out of the pocket north of Bayeux . Later in the day XXX Corps established a land link to the Americans while the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division reached the northeast outskirts of Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles and first encountered the tanks of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division . During the evening Panzer @-@ Lehr and the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division counter @-@ attacked and overran a British infantry company before being repulsed the following morning .
= = Battle = =
= = = XXX Corps = = =
On 10 June the 7th Armoured Division took over parts of 50th Northumbrian Division front and the 56th Infantry Brigade was detached to the 7th Armoured Division . By nightfall the division had reached the north @-@ western fringe of Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles and next day elements entered the village and secured the central crossroads . The Panzer @-@ Lehr Division made several counter @-@ attacks , which forced a British withdrawal . Further attacks by the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division bogged down in the bocage , unable to overcome the resistance of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division . Army Group B planned to begin a relief from 11 June of the armoured divisions facing the Second Army , with infantry divisions , to concentrate the tanks in the Carentan area and avert the danger to Cherbourg . Attacks by the Second Army and Adolf Hitler ’ s opposition forced Rommel to cancel the move ; next day Rommel was ordered by Hitler not to retreat and instead roll up the Allied beachhead , from east to west starting with the Orne bridgehead .
= = = I Corps = = =
While XXX Corps attacked Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles , the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade were delayed and their attack was postponed until 12 June . On 10 June German tanks and infantry made several attacks on the 6th Airborne Division in the Orne bridgehead , forestalling the British attack . The German attacks were repulsed with the help of naval gunfire and counter @-@ attacked . A captured German officer remarked that his " battalion had been virtually wiped out " during twelve hours of fighting . In the evening German attack on Ranville was repulsed with many German casualties . The vanguard of the 51st Highland Division arrived during the evening and attacked Bréville at dawn , which was also a costly failure ; other elements of the division quickly secured Touffreville .
During the afternoon of the 11 June , The Queen 's Own Rifles of Canada and 1st Hussars attacked Le Mesnil @-@ Patry to assist the advance of the 69th Brigade of the 50th Northumbrian Division but the Battle of Le Mesnil @-@ Patry was a costly failure . On 12 June further German attacks were launched from the Bréville area against the Orne bridgehead . Fighting lasted all day and casualties were severe on both sides , but during the evening the Germans pulled back . To close the gap in the British perimeter the decision was made to secure Bréville . A successful attack was launched by the 12th Battalion the Parachute Regiment that by midnight had captured the village , but of the 160 men that began the attack 141 casualties were sustained . However , 51st Highland was facing stiff resistance from the 21st Panzer Division in its efforts to push south to Saint Honorine and with the Highlanders unable to make progress , the offensive east of Caen was called off on 13 June .
= = = Caumont Gap = = =
Although the attempt to envelop Caen had been repulsed , on the right flank of XXX Corps , at the junction of the British Second and First U.S. armies , the possibility for a flanking manoeuvre had developed . Since D @-@ Day the British and Americans in the area had destroyed five German battle groups , including the reserves of LXXXIV Corps , leaving only remnants of the 352nd Infantry Division in the Trévières – Agy sector . The 352nd Division had been in action since its defence of Omaha on 6 June and had received few replacements . The 1st U.S. Infantry Division and the 2nd U.S. Infantry Division had forced the collapse of the left flank of the 352nd Division . On the night of 9 / 10 June , the division received permission to retire to Saint @-@ Lô . The withdrawal created a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) gap in the German lines near Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé . Only the reconnaissance battalion of the 17th SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Division , which had been detached when the division was moved west ready for a counter @-@ offensive at Carentan , remained in the area .
The Germans planned to use the 2nd Panzer Division to plug the gap but on 10 June , the bulk of the 2nd Panzer Division was strung out between Amiens and Alençon and not expected to arrive in strength for another three days . General Hans Freiherr von Funck of XLVII Panzer Corps rushed the divisional reconnaissance battalion to Caumont , with orders to hold the high ground . The I SS @-@ Panzer Corps commander Sepp Dietrich , ordered his only reserve Schwere SS @-@ Panzer @-@ Abteilung 101 , to move behind the Panzer @-@ Lehr and 12th SS @-@ Panzer divisions , to cover the open left flank . The 2nd Company , schwere SS @-@ Panzer Battalion 101 , under the command of Michael Wittmann and with five operational Tiger tanks , was ordered to a position south of Point 213 on the Villers @-@ Bocage ridge and arrived on 12 June , after a five @-@ day drive from Beauvais .
On 12 June , Dempsey met with Lieutenant @-@ General Gerard Bucknall , commander of XXX Corps and Major @-@ General George Erskine , commander of the 7th Armoured Division and ordered Erskine to disengage his armour from the fighting around Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . The division was to exploit the gap to seize the Villers @-@ Bocage and advance behind the left flank of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division to a ridge about 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) east of the town . It was believed that the appearance of British tanks behind the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division on high ground astride the German supply @-@ lines would compel the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division to withdraw or be trapped . To support of the 7th Armoured Division flanking move , the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division was to continue the attack against the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division around Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . The V U.S. Corps would push forward at the same time , the 1st U.S. Infantry Division to capture Caumont and the high ground nearby and the 2nd U.S. Infantry Division towards Saint @-@ Lô .
The 7th Armoured Division was slow to redeploy and spent the morning of 12 June continuing the attack on Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles , according to its original orders . At 12 : 00 Erskine ordered Brigadier Hinde , commander of the 22nd Armoured Brigade to move through the gap at once . With the 131st Infantry Brigade ready for action , the 56th Infantry Brigade was returned to the control of the 50th Northumbrian Division . The 7th Armoured Division armoured reconnaissance regiment , the 8th King 's Royal Irish Hussars began to reconnoitre the route and the rest of the division departed from Trungy at around 16 : 00 . Four hours later , the main body approached Livry after an unopposed advance of 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) , the last 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of which were though German @-@ held territory .
North of Livry , the leading 8th Hussar Cromwell tanks were knocked out by an anti @-@ tank gun of the Panzer Lehr Division Escort Company ; infantry and tanks were brought forward and cleared the position after two hours . On reaching the vicinity of La Mulotiere , Hinde halted for the night to disguise the objective as the 8th Hussar | Cromwells and 11th ( Prince Albert 's Own ) Hussar armoured car regiment , reconnoitred the flanks . The 11th Hussars found no resistance on the right and linked with the 1st U.S. Infantry Division near Caumont and on the left flank , the 8th Hussars located elements of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division just under 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away .
= = = Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage = = =
The British advance resumed at 05 : 30 and at about 08 : 30 , the vanguard of the 22nd Armoured Brigade group entered the west end of Villers @-@ Bocage . A squadron of the 4th County of London Yeomanry ( Sharpshooters ) , moved through the town and occupied Point 213 , an area of high ground to the east on the Caen road . The regimental headquarters and a company of infantry occupied the eastern end of the town along the main road .
At about 09 : 00 the foremost British tanks were engaged by 3 – 5 Tiger tanks of the 2nd Company , schwere SS @-@ Panzer Battalion 101 . A Tiger under the command of Michael Wittmann , entered Villers @-@ Bocage and destroyed several tanks of the 4th County of London Yeomanry regimental headquarters and reconnaissance troop , then attacked British tanks entering the town from the west , before attempting to withdraw . The Tiger was immobilised by British return fire and was abandoned by the crew who fled towards Château Orbois , to report to the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division . In fewer than 15 minutes , 13 – 14 tanks , two anti @-@ tank guns and 13 – 15 transport vehicles had been destroyed , many by Wittmann .
During the rest of the morning , an infantry battalion from the 22nd Armoured Brigade group , took up defensive positions in the town ; the troops at Point 213 had been off and a force was assembled to extricate them . The relief force was unable to advance on the ridge and when more German forces arrived between 11 : 00 – 13 : 00 , the trapped squadron surrendered . More German troops had arrived and engaged the 22nd Armoured Brigade group along the road back to Livry .
Tanks of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division arrived to seal off the north and west exits from Villers @-@ Bocage but were ambushed by British anti @-@ tank guns and several were disabled , before the British position was silenced and schwere SS @-@ Panzer Battalion 101 was ambushed in the town centre . Several Tigers and a Panzer IV were knocked out by anti @-@ tank guns , a Sherman Firefly and British infantry . The disabled tanks were later set on fire and British and German infantry clashed throughout the afternoon . The British positions were bombarded by heavy artillery and several German attacks were repulsed by British field artillery firing over open sights . A British company was overrun , a platoon taken prisoner and the battalion headquarters came under fire . Hinde decided that the brigade group should withdraw until morning to Point 174 , an area of high ground to the west of Villers @-@ Bocage near Amayé @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . At 20 : 00 the withdrawal began under cover of an artillery bombardment and was accomplished largely unmolested .
= = = 14 June = = =
On the morning of 14 June , Montgomery abandoned the pincer attack on Caen , because he lacked " sufficient strength to act offensively on both flanks " and ordered XXX Corps to continue in a " concentrated single blow " while in the I Corps area to the east , the 51st ( Highland ) Division was " piped down " . The 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division had continued the attack southwards , to pin down German forces and on 14 June , supported by its entire divisional artillery and the Royal Air Force , the division attacked with two brigades towards la Senaudière , la Belle Epine , Lingèvres and Verrières . If the attack succeeded , it would be exploited to capture Hottot @-@ les @-@ Bagues . A reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force was conducted the evening before and the panzergrenadiers of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division , inflicted many casualties . Losses in the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division are unknown , although one tank was destroyed .
The attack began at 10 : 15 the next morning , when the 151st ( Durham ) Infantry Brigade and tanks of the 4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards , advanced towards Lingèvres and Verrières . The German defenders held their fire until the British were less than 150 yards ( 140 m ) distant and the battle lasted for five hours , until the 6th Durham Light Infantry ( 6th DLI ) with a huge amount of artillery support , captured the German positions . Two companies advanced to Verrières which was empty but further advances were checked by infantry and tanks . The 9th DLI were also caught in German machine @-@ gun fire and needed their reserve companies to break through the German front line . At about 13 : 30 , the battalion captured Lingèvres and moved anti @-@ tank guns into the village , although most of these were put out of action by the first German counter @-@ attack .
Two Panthers were spotted approaching the village by Sergeant Wilfred Harris , commander of a Sherman Firefly and engaged at 400 yards ( 370 m ) , destroying the first and disabling the second Panther . While Harris moved , a tank @-@ hunting party led by Major John Mogg the acting battalion commander , finished off the damaged Panther . Other tank @-@ hunting parties drove off a Panther , a British M4 Sherman was destroyed and a third Panther was knocked out by a Sherman . Three more Panthers moved towards the village and Harris destroyed the lead vehicle outside the village and the other two inside , one in the centre of Lingèvres . The 231st Infantry Brigade reached its objectives by nightfall and linked with the 151st Infantry Brigade . A 6th DLI officer , said that the attack was the best by the battalion during the campaign ; nine German tanks were knocked out but the division had been unable to break through the Panzer @-@ Lehr defences and the DLI had c . 353 casualties .
= = = Battle of the Island = = =
On 14 June , with the withdrawal from Villers @-@ Bocage complete , the brigade group formed a " brigade box " for all @-@ round defence near Hill 174 . The battle became known as " The Battle of the island " , or " Island Position " as named in the 22nd Armoured Brigade after action report . Other names given to the action are " The Battle of the Brigade Box " and " The Battle of Amayé @-@ sur @-@ Seulles " . Forty and Taylor wrote that the box was less than 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) in area .
The Panzer @-@ Lehr Division had manoeuvred to defend against the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division and to counter @-@ attack the 7th Armoured Division penetration , with the support of the 1st Company , schwere SS @-@ Panzer Battalion 101 . The 2nd Panzer Division reconnaissance battalion and other small infantry units also faced the brigade box but the divisional panzer regiment had not arrived . The British 131st Infantry Brigade , an infantry battalion and an armoured regiment , had moved up to Livry . During the morning , the 131st Brigade kept the road from the brigade box to the Livry – Briquessard area open and Typhoon fighter bombers attacked German positions near the box .
German infantry were spotted advancing towards the brigade box and bombarded by heavy artillery , which repulsed the attack but around 09 : 00 , more infantry attacked the box and came too close for artillery fire . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting began and a British platoon was overrun , before a tank @-@ infantry counter @-@ attack repulsed the German infantry and restored the position . The Germans resorted to harassing fire , sniping , mortar bombardments and heavy artillery fire . After a long artillery bombardment , simultaneous attacks by tanks and infantry were made at 19 : 00 , from the north and south , which broke into the box and closed on the brigade headquarters , before being driven back around 22 : 30 .
The 7th Armoured Division command was confident that the box was secure but the failure of the 50th Northumbrian Division to break through the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division and reach the 7th Armoured Division , led to orders for the brigade group to retire to straighten the front line and Operation Aniseed began just after midnight . Decoy raids by Bomber Command on Aunay @-@ sur @-@ Odon and Evrecy , caused 29 casualties , destroyed a Tiger tank and damaged three more . Artillery harassing fire was maintained north and south of the withdrawal route but the Germans did little to intervene . The Germans had lost 700 – 800 casualties and 8 – 20 tanks , including several Tigers . British casualties were light and only three tanks were lost . Reynolds called the German casualty figures " exaggerated " and in his report , Hinde wrote " It is questionable whether the expenditure of artillery and small arms ammunition was justified by the scale of the enemy 's efforts " .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
The failure of the operation led Dempsey to write that there was
no chance now of a snap operation with airborne troops either to seize Caen or to deepen the bridgehead on XXX Corps front . It is clear now that Caen can be taken only by set @-@ piece assault and we do not have the men or ammunition for that at this time .
After the war he wrote that the attack by the 7th Armoured Division should have succeeded and that his doubts about Bucknall and Erskine increased and that they might have to go . Dempsey called the handling of the battle a disgrace and said that the decision to withdraw [ from Villers @-@ Bocage ] was made by the corps commander and Erskine . " D 'Este called Dempsey 's comments " excessively harsh " but historians generally support them , suggesting that a great opportunity to swiftly capture Caen had been squandered by Bucknall . Buckley wrote that Bucknall was not ready to support the attack once problems developed and that Erskine was not capable of mastering the situation . Ellis wrote that the result was " disappointing " but that the fighting power of the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division and with the unexpected arrival of the 2nd Panzer Division , the 7th Armoured Division " could hardly have achieved full success " . Reynolds wrote that the 2nd Panzer Division tanks were nowhere near Villers @-@ Bocage .
Meyer wrote that Operation Perch failed because the 50th Northumbrian Division and its armoured brigade could not overcome the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division , the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division attack in the east of the bridgehead failed and because of the rapid counter @-@ attack by advanced elements of the 2nd Panzer Division . The allocation of insufficient infantry to the offensive has been criticised , Reynolds wrote that two infantry battalions and most of the 1st Battalion the Rifle Brigade of the 7th Armoured Division were available on 13 June , as were three infantry brigades and that Bucknall was at fault for failing to concentrate his forces . D 'Este wrote the same , although Bucknall had defended his decision claiming " 49 [ Division ] ... [ had ] no recent battle experience and it was important to launch them nicely into their first fighting in a properly coordinated battle , and not bundle them helter @-@ skelter into hot armoured scrapping like that around V [ illers ] -B [ ocage ] and Amaye . " Buckley wrote that the operation was a failure of command . Copp wrote that Dempsey continued to underestimate the German defence of ground and Melvin wrote that Dempsey and the Second Army handled subordinate formations poorly , by not giving subordinates definite tasks , clear intentions and allowing discretion in the implementation of orders .
Wilmot called Operation Perch a strategic success
By the premature commitment of his armour , Rommel had delayed the British advance , but in the process he had played into Montgomery 's hands for , once the panzer divisions were locked into battle with Second Army , they could not be used for their proper offensive task . "
and Badsey wrote that Montgomery ’ s message to Bradley , " Caen is the key to Cherbourg " was true . The risk of a breakout past Caen , immobilised the German armoured divisions at the east end of front , unable mount a counter @-@ offensive against the First U.S. Army . Hitler ’ s interference saved Rommel 's military reputation because the unsuitability of the Cotentin for armoured operations , the difficulties involved in moving and supplying deployment in the area and the strength of the Anglo @-@ Canadian force , would have led to a more rapid and complete defeat of the German army in Normandy . Hitler ’ s order of 12 June made the rest of the campaign a battle of attrition .
= = = Casualties = = =
By the end of June the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division had suffered 2 @,@ 972 casualties and reported the loss of 51 tanks and assault guns , 82 halftracks and 294 other vehicles . By 16 June , the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division had reported 1 @,@ 417 casualties and by 26 June the division had lost 41 tanks . By 16 June , the 21st Panzer Division suffered 1 @,@ 864 casualties . Before the invasion the division had 112 tanks and by 16 June , the division reported 85 operational tanks . During Operation Perch schwere SS @-@ Panzer Abteiling 101 suffered 27 casualties and by 16 June the battalion had only 15 operational tanks , nine tanks having been destroyed and 21 damaged . By the end of June the 7th Armoured Division had suffered 1 @,@ 149 casualties and lost at least 38 tanks during Operation Perch . By the end of the month 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , which was nearly twice the size of a normal infantry division , had suffered 4 @,@ 476 casualties .
= = = Battle honours = = =
The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognised participation in the expansion of the bridgehead during the period of Operation Perch in 1956 , 1957 and in 1958 . One unit was awarded the honour Port En Bessin , one formation the honour Sully , four units the honour Breville , and 11 regiments the honour Villers @-@ Bocage . Additionally for participating in the expansion of the bridgehead between 14 – 19 June ten units were awarded the honour Tilly Sur Seulles .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
The battle between 50th Northumbrian Division and Panzer @-@ Lehr Division continued for several days and by 15 June , XXX Corps claimed to have destroyed at least 70 German tanks . On 18 June the British entered Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles again and consolidated the village next day against light opposition ; it had changed hands 23 times . An attack was launched by the British towards Hottot @-@ les @-@ Bagues against the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division and gained a foothold in the village , until forced out by German counter @-@ attacks by tanks and infantry . The British retook the village and then withdrew during the night . The 7th Armoured Division was withdrawn to be reinforced by the 33rd Armoured Brigade which was landing in the beachhead . The reinforced division was intended to attack again but on 19 June a storm descended upon the English Channel , which delayed the landing of supplies and further British attacks were postponed .
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= Croatia =
Croatia ( / kroʊˈeɪʃə / kroh @-@ AY @-@ shə ; Croatian : Hrvatska [ xř ̩ ʋaːtskaː ] ) , officially the Republic of Croatia ( Croatian : Republika Hrvatska , listen ) , is a sovereign state at the crossroads of Central Europe , Southeast Europe , and the Mediterranean . Its capital city is Zagreb , which forms one of the country 's primary subdivisions , along with its twenty counties . Croatia covers 56 @,@ 594 square kilometres ( 21 @,@ 851 square miles ) and has diverse , mostly continental and Mediterranean climates . Croatia 's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands . The country 's population is 4 @.@ 28 million , most of whom are Croats , with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism .
The Croats arrived in the area of present @-@ day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD . They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century . Tomislav became the first king by 925 , elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom . The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries , reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir . Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102 . In 1527 , faced with Ottoman conquest , the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne . In 1918 , after World War I , Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria @-@ Hungary and merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The fascist Croatian puppet state backed by the Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II . After the war , Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , a constitutionally socialist state . On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence , which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year . The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration .
A unitary state , Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system . The International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy , and the World Bank identified it as a high @-@ income economy . Croatia is a member of the European Union ( EU ) , United Nations ( UN ) , the Council of Europe , NATO , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) and a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean . As an active participant in the UN peacekeeping forces , Croatia has contributed troops to the NATO @-@ led mission in Afghanistan and took a non @-@ permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2008 – 2009 term .
The service sector dominates Croatia 's economy , followed by the industrial sector and agriculture . Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer , with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world . The state controls a part of the economy , with substantial government expenditure . The European Union is Croatia 's most important trading partner . Since 2000 , the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure , especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan @-@ European corridors . Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia ; the rest is imported . Croatia provides a universal health care system and free primary and secondary education , while supporting culture through numerous public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Croatia derives from Medieval Latin Croātia – compare DUX CRUATORVM [ sic ] ( " Duke of the Croats " ) attested in the Branimir inscription – itself a derivation of North @-@ West Slavic * Xrovat- , by liquid metathesis from proposed Common Slavic period * Xorvat- , from proposed Proto @-@ Slavic * Xarwāt- ( * Xъrvatъ ) or * Xŭrvatŭ ( * xъrvatъ ) .
The origin of the name is uncertain , but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo @-@ Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe . The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym * xъrvatъ is of variable stem , attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ( " Zvonimir , Croatian king " ) .
The first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852 . The original is lost , and just a 1568 copy is preserved — leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim . The oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th @-@ century Branimir Inscription ( found near Benkovac ) , where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm . The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately , but is likely to be from during the period of 879 @-@ 892 , during Branimir 's rule .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory and antiquity = = =
The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period . Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Palaeolithic period have been unearthed in northern Croatia , with the most famous and the best presented site in Krapina . Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of the country . The largest proportion of the sites is in the northern Croatia river valleys , and the most significant cultures whose presence was discovered include Starčevo , Vučedol and Baden cultures . The Iron Age left traces of the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture .
= = = Greek and Roman rule = = =
Much later , the region was settled by Liburnians and Illyrians , while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Korčula , Hvar and Vis . In 9 AD the territory of today 's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire . Emperor Diocletian built a large palace in Split when he retired in AD 305 .
During the 5th century , one of the last Emperors of the Western Roman Empire , Julius Nepos , ruled his small empire from the palace . The period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the first half of the 7th century and destruction of almost all Roman towns . Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast , islands and mountains . The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum .
The ethnogenesis of Croats is uncertain and there are several competing theories , Slavic and Iranian being the most frequently put forward . The most widely accepted of these , the Slavic theory , proposes migration of White Croats from the territory of White Croatia during the Migration Period . Conversely , the Iranian theory proposes Iranian origin , based on Tanais Tablets containing Greek inscription of given names Χορούαθ [ ος ] , Χοροάθος and Χορόαθος ( Khoroúathos , Khoroáthos , and Khoróathos ) and their interpretation as anthroponyms of Croatian people .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by the 10th @-@ century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII , the Croats had arrived in what is today Croatia in the early 7th century , however that claim is disputed and competing hypotheses date the event between the 6th and the 9th centuries . Eventually two dukedoms were formed — Duchy of Pannonia and Duchy of Croatia , ruled by Liudewit and Borna , as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818 . The record represents the first document of Croatian realms , vassal states of Francia at the time .
The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav two decades later . According to the Constantine VII Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century , but the claim is disputed and generally Christianization is associated with the 9th century . The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was Duke Branimir , who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879 .
Tomislav was the first ruler of Croatia who was styled a king in a letter from the Pope John X , dating kingdom of Croatia to year 925 . Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions , spreading the influence of Croatian kings . The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV ( 1058 – 1074 ) and Dmitar Zvonimir ( 1075 – 1089 ) . When Stjepan II died in 1091 ending the Trpimirović dynasty , Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown in name of his sister Helena , wife of King Dmitar Zvonimir . Opposition to the claim led to a war and personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102 , ruled by Coloman .
For the next four centuries , the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor ( parliament ) and a Ban ( viceroy ) appointed by the king . The period saw increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas . The Venetians gained control over most of Dalmatia by 1428 , with exception of the city @-@ state of Dubrovnik which became independent . Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories . King Louis II died at Mohács , and in 1527 , the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as new ruler of Croatia , under the condition that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights . This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Zrinski families to prominence and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families .
= = = Habsburg Monarchy and Austria @-@ Hungary ( 1538 – 1918 ) = = =
Following the decisive Ottoman victories , Croatia was split into civilian and military territories , with the partition formed in 1538 . The military territories would become known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were under direct Imperial control . Ottoman advances in the Croatian territory continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak , the first decisive Ottoman defeat , and stabilisation of borders .
During the Great Turkish War ( 1667 – 1698 ) , Slavonia was regained but western Bosnia , which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest , remained outside Croatian control . The present @-@ day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome . Dalmatia , the southern part of the border , was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman – Venetian Wars .
The Ottoman wars instigated great demographic changes . Croats migrated towards Austria and the present @-@ day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers . To replace the fleeing population , the Habsburgs encouraged the Christian populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier . Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737 – 39 .
The Croatian Parliament supported Emperor Charles 's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712 . Subsequently , the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of Kingdom of Croatia and the empress Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian matters .
Between 1797 and 1809 the First French Empire gradually occupied the entire eastern Adriatic coastline and a substantial part of its hinterland , ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics , establishing the Illyrian Provinces . In response the Royal Navy started the blockade of the Adriatic Sea leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811 . The Illyrian Provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 , and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815 . This led to formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia , now both under the same crown . The 1830s and 1840s saw romantic nationalism inspire the Croatian National Revival , a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of all South Slavs in the empire . Its primary focus was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian , along with the promotion of Croatian literature and culture . During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians , Ban Josip Jelačić helping defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849 , and ushering a period of Germanization policy .
By the 1860s , failure of the policy became apparent , leading to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The treaty left the issue of Croatia 's status to Hungary , and the status was resolved by the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , when kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united . The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control , while Rijeka retained the status of Corpus separatum introduced in 1779 .
After Austria @-@ Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Croatian Military Frontier was abolished and the territory returned to Croatia in 1881 , pursuant to provisions of the Croatian @-@ Hungarian settlement . Renewed efforts to reform Austria @-@ Hungary , entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit , were stopped by advent of World War I.
= = = Yugoslavia ( 1918 – 1991 ) = = =
On 29 October 1918 the Croatian Parliament ( Sabor ) declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats , and Slovenes . The Croatian Parliament never ratified a decision to unite with Serbia and Montenegro . The 1921 constitution defining the country as a unitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy . The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party — the Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) led by Stjepan Radić .
The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly in 1928 , leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929 . The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitarian constitution , and changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia . The HSS , now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate federalisation of Yugoslavia , resulting in the Cvetković – Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence , internal security , foreign affairs , trade , and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown @-@ appointed Ban .
In April 1941 , Yugoslavia was occupied by Germany and Italy . Following the invasion the territory , parts of Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) , a Nazi @-@ backed puppet state . Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy and the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje were annexed by Hungary . The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše . The regime introduced anti @-@ semitic laws and conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Serb and Roma inhabitants of the NDH , exemplified by the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška concentration camps .
It is estimated that out of 39 @,@ 000 Jews in the country only 9 @,@ 000 survived ; the rest were either killed or deported to Germany , both by the local authorities and the German Army itself . Croatian and Serbian sources disagree on the exact figures .
Furthermore , a significant number of Serbs were killed by the Ustaše on the territory of the NDH during the war . According to Midlarsky , the number of Serbs killed by the regime was at least half a million , but the figure is contradicted by Bogoljub Kočović and Vladimir Žerjavić . Kočović estimated total number of Serbs killed throughout Yugoslav territory in various circumstances at 487 @,@ 000 , while Žerjavić put the figure at 530 @,@ 000 . Žerjavić indicated that 320 @,@ 000 Serbs were killed in the NDH , including 82 @,@ 000 killed among the Yugoslav Partisans , 23 @,@ 000 killed as Axis collaborators , 25 @,@ 000 victims of typhoid epidemic , 45 @,@ 000 killed by Germans and 15 @,@ 000 by Italians . Kočović 's and Žerjavić 's total Yugoslav losses are in agreement with estimates made by Mayers and Campbell of the United States Census Bureau . The number of Croats killed in the NDH is estimated to be approximately 200 @,@ 000 , either by the Croatian fascist regime , as members of the armed resistance , or as Axis collaborators . Several thousand of these were killed by the Chetniks ; most Croatian historians place the number of Croats killed by the Chetniks on the territory of modern @-@ day Croatia at between 3 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 500 . Croatian estimates for the number of Croats killed by Chetniks in the whole of Yugoslavia range from 18 @,@ 000 to 32 @,@ 000 ( both combatants and civilians ) .
A resistance movement soon emerged . On 22 June 1941 , the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak , as the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe . This sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement , a communist multi @-@ ethnic anti @-@ fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito . The movement grew rapidly and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943 the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies .
With Allied support in logistics , equipment , training and air power , and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive , the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945 , during which thousands of members of the Ustaše , as well as Croat refugees , were killed by the Yugoslav Partisans .
The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti @-@ fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia , which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament of Croatia in 1945 , and AVNOJ — its counterpart at the Yugoslav level .
After World War II , Croatia became a single @-@ party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia , ruled by the Communists , but enjoying a degree of autonomy within the federation . In 1967 , Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding greater autonomy for Croatian language . The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy , culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971 , suppressed by Yugoslav leadership . Still , the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units , basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring , and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents .
Following the death of Yugoslav ruler Josip Broz Tito in 1980 , the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated , with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina , Kosovo and Montenegro . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines , with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation . In the same year , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win raising nationalist tensions further . Some of Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina , intent on achieving independence from Croatia .
= = = Independence ( 1991 – present ) = = =
As tensions rose , Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991 ; however the full implementation of declaration only came into effect on 8 October 1991 . In the meantime , tensions escalated into overt war when the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia . By the end of 1991 , a high @-@ intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia to control of only about two @-@ thirds of its territory . The various Serb paramilitary groups then began pursuing a campaign of killing , terror and expulsion against the non @-@ Serb population in the rebel territories , killing hundreds of Croat civilians and forcing a further 170 @,@ 000 from their homes .
On 15 January 1992 , Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community members , and subsequently the United Nations . The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia . This was accompanied by the exodus of about 200 @,@ 000 Serbs from the rebel territories , whose lands were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina . The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995 , with the process concluded in January 1998 . Croatia became a World Trade Organization ( WTO ) member on 30 November 2000 . The country signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement ( SAA ) with the European Union in October 2001 . Croatia became a member of NATO on 1 April 2009 , and joined the European Union on 1 July 2013 .
= = Geography = =
Croatia is located in Central and Southeast Europe , bordering Hungary to the northeast , Serbia to the east , Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast , Montenegro to the southeast , the Adriatic Sea to the southwest and Slovenia to the northwest . It lies mostly between latitudes 42 ° and 47 ° N and longitudes 13 ° and 20 ° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters , but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum .
The territory covers 56 @,@ 594 square kilometres ( 21 @,@ 851 square miles ) , consisting of 56 @,@ 414 square kilometres ( 21 @,@ 782 square miles ) of land and 128 square kilometres ( 49 square miles ) of water . It is the 127th largest country in the world . Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1 @,@ 831 metres ( 6 @,@ 007 feet ) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border . Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size , 48 of which are permanently inhabited . The largest islands are Cres and Krk , each of them having an area of around 405 square kilometres ( 156 square miles ) .
The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east ( which is part of the Pannonian Basin ) are traversed by major rivers such as Sava , Drava , Kupa and Danube . The Danube , Europe 's second longest river , runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Serbia . The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands . Natural resources found in the country in quantities significant enough for production include oil , coal , bauxite , low @-@ grade iron ore , calcium , gypsum , natural asphalt , silica , mica , clays , salt and hydropower .
Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps . There are a number of deep caves in Croatia , 49 of which are deeper than 250 m ( 820 @.@ 21 ft ) , 14 of them deeper than 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 42 ft ) and three deeper than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 280 @.@ 84 ft ) . Croatia 's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes , a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades . The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours , ranging from turquoise to mint green , grey or blue .
= = = Climate = = =
Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification . Mean monthly temperature ranges between − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) ( in January ) and 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) ( in July ) . The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where snowy forested climate is found at elevations above 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 feet ) . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by the Mediterranean climate , as the temperature highs are moderated by the sea . Consequently , temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas — the lowest temperature of − 35 @.@ 5 ° C ( − 31 @.@ 9 ° F ) was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec , and the highest temperature of 42 @.@ 4 ° C ( 108 @.@ 3 ° F ) was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Karlovac .
Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres ( 24 inches ) and 3 @,@ 500 millimetres ( 140 inches ) depending on geographic region and prevailing climate type . The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands ( Vis , Lastovo , Biševo , Svetac ) and in the eastern parts of Slavonia , however in the latter case , it is mostly occurring during the growing season . The maximum precipitation levels are observed on the Dinara mountain range and in Gorski kotar .
Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest , and in the coastal area prevailing winds are determined by local area features . Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast , generally as bura or less frequently as sirocco . The sunniest parts of the country are the outer islands , Hvar and Korčula , where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year , followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general and northern Adriatic coast , all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
Croatia can be subdivided between a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology . The country is consequently one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity . There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia — Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland , Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar , Pannonian along Drava and Danube , and continental in the remaining areas . One of the most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst , such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers , as well as underground habitats .
The karst geology harbours approximately 7 @,@ 000 caves and pits , some of which are habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate — the olm . Forests are also significantly present in the country , as they cover 2 @,@ 490 @,@ 000 hectares ( 6 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 acres ) representing 44 % of Croatian land surface . Other habitat types include wetlands , grasslands , bogs , fens , scrub habitats , coastal and marine habitats . In terms of phytogeography , Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region . The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions — Pannonian mixed forests , Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests .
There are 37 @,@ 000 known species in Croatia , but their actual number is estimated to be between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 . The claim is supported by nearly 400 new taxa of invertebrates discovered in Croatia in the first half of the 2000s ( decade ) alone . There are more than a thousand endemic species , especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains , Adriatic islands and karst rivers . Legislation protects 1 @,@ 131 species . The most serious threat to species is loss and degradation of habitats . A further problem is presented by invasive alien species , especially Caulerpa taxifolia algae .
The invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protect the benthic habitat . Indigenous sorts of cultivated plants and breeds of domesticated animals are also numerous . Those include five breeds of horses , five breeds of cattle , eight breeds of sheep , two breeds of pigs and a poultry breed . Even the indigenous breeds include nine endangered or critically endangered ones . There are 444 protected areas of Croatia , encompassing 9 % of the country . Those include eight national parks , two strict reserves , and ten nature parks . The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is the Plitvice Lakes National Park , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme . The strict and special reserves , as well as the national and nature parks , are managed and protected by the central government , while other protected areas are managed by counties . In 2005 , the National Ecological Network was set up , as the first step in preparation of the EU accession and joining of the Natura 2000 network .
= = Politics = =
The Republic of Croatia is a unitary state using a parliamentary system of governance . With the collapse of the ruling communist party in SFR Yugoslavia , Croatia organized its first multi @-@ party elections and adopted its present constitution in 1990 . It declared independence on 8 October 1991 leading to the break @-@ up of Yugoslavia and the country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992 . Under its 1990 constitution , Croatia operated a semi @-@ presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system . Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative , executive and judiciary powers . The legal system of Croatia is civil law , strongly influenced , as is the institutional framework , by the legal heritage of Austria @-@ Hungary . By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010 , Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis .
The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) is the head of state , directly elected to a five @-@ year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms . In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces , the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the parliament , and has some influence on foreign policy . The most recent presidential elections were held on 11 January 2015 , when Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović won . She took the oath of office on 15 February 2015 .
The government is headed by the prime minister , who has four deputy prime ministers and 17 ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity . As the executive branch , it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the foreign and internal policies of the republic . The government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb . Since 22 January 2016 , the prime minister of the government is Tihomir Orešković .
The parliament ( Sabor ) is a unicameral legislative body . A second chamber , the House of Counties , set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution , was abolished in 2001 . The number of Sabor members can vary from 100 to 160 ; they are all elected by popular vote to serve four @-@ year terms . The sessions of the Sabor take place from 15 January to 15 July , and from 15 September to 15 December . The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia .
Croatia has a three @-@ tiered judicial system , made up of the Supreme Court , County courts , and Municipal courts . The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution . In addition there are misdemeanour courts , commercial courts and administrative courts . Law enforcement in Croatia is the responsibility of the Croatian police force , which is under the control of the Ministry of the Interior . In recent years , the force has been undergoing a reform with assistance from international agencies , including the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) since its mission to Croatia began on 18 April 1996 .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Croatia was first subdivided into counties in the Middle Ages . The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory , changes of political status of Dalmatia , Dubrovnik and Istria . Traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes and subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively .
Communist @-@ ruled Croatia , as a constituent part of post @-@ WWII Yugoslavia , abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities , subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities . Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation , significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre @-@ 1920s subdivisions : In 1918 , the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Požega , Vukovar , Varaždin , Osijek and Zagreb , and the 1992 legislation established 14 counties in the same territory .
Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time . Borders of the counties changed in some instances since , with the latest revision taking place in 2006 . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities . Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics ( NUTS ) division of Croatia is performed in several tiers . NUTS 1 level places the entire country in a single unit , while there are three NUTS 2 regions . Those are Northwest Croatia , Central and Eastern ( Pannonian ) Croatia and Adriatic Croatia . The latter encompasses all the counties along the Adriatic coast . The Northwest Croatia includes the city of Zagreb , Zagreb , Krapina @-@ Zagorje , Varaždin , Koprivnica @-@ Križevci and Međimurje counties , and the Central and Eastern ( Pannonian ) Croatia includes the remaining areas — Bjelovar @-@ Bilogora , Virovitica @-@ Podravina , Požega @-@ Slavonia , Brod @-@ Posavina , Osijek @-@ Baranja , Vukovar @-@ Syrmia , Karlovac and Sisak @-@ Moslavina counties . Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia . The NUTS Local administrative unit divisions are two @-@ tiered . LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units , while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to the cities and municipalities of Croatia .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 174 countries . As of 2009 , Croatia maintains a network of 51 embassies , 24 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions abroad . Furthermore , there are 52 foreign embassies and 69 consulates in the Republic of Croatia in addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development , International Organization for Migration , OSCE , World Bank , World Health Organization ( WHO ) , International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , United Nations Development Programme , United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and UNICEF . In 2009 , the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1 @,@ 381 personnel and expended 648 @.@ 2 million kuna ( € 86 @.@ 4 million ) . Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries , developing international co @-@ operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself .
Since 2003 , Croatian foreign policy has focused on achieving the strategic goal of becoming a member state of the European Union ( EU ) . In December 2011 , Croatia completed the EU accession negotiations and signed an EU accession treaty on 9 December 2011 . Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013 marking the end of a process started in 2001 by signing of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement and Croatian application for the EU membership in 2003 . A recurring obstacle to the negotiations was Croatia 's ICTY co @-@ operation record and Slovenian blocking of the negotiations because of Croatia – Slovenia border disputes . The latter was resolved through an Arbitration Agreement of 4 November 2009 , approved by national parliaments and a referendum in Slovenia .
Another strategic Croatian foreign policy goal for the 2000s was NATO membership . Croatia was included in the Partnership for Peace in 2000 , invited to NATO membership in 2008 and formally joined the alliance on 1 April 2009 . Croatia became a member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2008 – 2009 term , assuming presidency in December 2008 . The country is preparing to join the Schengen Area by 2015 .
= = = Military = = =
The Croatian Armed Forces ( CAF ) consist of the Army , Navy and Air Force branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command . The CAF is headed by the General Staff , which reports to the Defence Minister , who in turn reports to the President of Croatia . According to the constitution , the President is commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces and in case of immediate threat during wartime he issues orders directly to the General Staff .
Following the 1991 – 95 war defence spending and CAF size have been in constant decline . As of 2005 military spending was an estimated 2 @.@ 39 % of the country 's GDP , which placed Croatia 64th in a ranking of all countries . Since 2005 the budget was kept below 2 % of GDP , down from the record high of 11 @.@ 1 % in 1994 . Traditionally relying on a large number of conscripts , CAF also went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing , restructuring and professionalisation in the years prior to Croatia 's accession to NATO in April 2009 . According to a presidential decree issued in 2006 the CAF is set to employ 18 @,@ 100 active duty military personnel , 3 @,@ 000 civilians and 2 @,@ 000 voluntary conscripts between the ages of 18 and 30 in peacetime .
Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008 . Until 2008 military service was compulsory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six @-@ month tours of duty , reduced in 2001 from the earlier scheme of nine @-@ month conscription tours . Conscientious objectors could instead opt for an eight @-@ month civilian service . As of April 2011 the Croatian military had 120 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations @-@ led international peacekeeping forces , including 95 serving as part of the UNDOF in the Golan Heights . As of 2011 an additional 350 troops serve as part of the NATO @-@ led ISAF force in Afghanistan and another 20 with the KFOR in Kosovo .
Croatia also has a significant military industry sector which exported around US $ 120 million worth of military equipment and armament in 2010 . Croatian @-@ made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M @-@ 84D battle tank designed by the Đuro Đaković factory . Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are also locally produced and successfully marketed to other countries .
= = Economy = =
Croatia has a high @-@ income economy . International Monetary Fund data projects that Croatian nominal GDP stands at $ 52 billion , or $ 12 @,@ 405 per capita for year 2017 , while purchasing power parity GDP stands at $ 97 billion , or $ 23 @,@ 171 per capita . According to Eurostat data , Croatian PPS GDP per capita stood at 61 % of the EU average in 2012 .
Real GDP growth in 2007 was 6 @.@ 0 per cent . The average net salary of a Croatian worker in February 2016 was 5 @,@ 652 HRK per month , and the average gross salary was 7 @,@ 735 HRK per month . As of March 2016 , registered unemployment rate in Croatia was 17 @.@ 2 % .
In 2010 , economic output was dominated by the service sector which accounted for 66 % of GDP , followed by the industrial sector with 27 @.@ 2 % and agriculture accounting for 6 @.@ 8 % of GDP . According to 2004 data , 2 @.@ 7 % of the workforce were employed in agriculture , 32 @.@ 8 % by industry and 64 @.@ 5 % in services . The industrial sector is dominated by shipbuilding , food processing , pharmaceuticals , information technology , biochemical and timber industry . In 2010 , Croatian exports were valued at 64 @.@ 9 billion kuna ( € 8 @.@ 65 billion ) with 110 @.@ 3 billion kuna ( € 14 @.@ 7 billion ) worth of imports . The largest trading partner is rest of the European Union . More than half of Croatia 's trade is with other European Union member states .
Privatization and the drive toward a market economy had barely begun under the new Croatian Government when war broke out in 1991 . As a result of the war , the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage , particularly the revenue @-@ rich tourism industry . From 1989 to 1993 , the GDP fell 40 @.@ 5 % . The Croatian state still controls a significant part of the economy , with government expenditures accounting for as much as 40 % of GDP . A backlogged judiciary system , combined with inefficient public administration , especially on issues of land ownership and corruption , are particular concerns . In 2011 the country has been ranked 66th by Transparency International with a Corruption Perceptions Index of 4 @.@ 0 . In June 2013 , the national debt stood at 59 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's GDP .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20 % of Croatian GDP . Annual tourist industry income for 2014 was estimated at € 7 @.@ 4 billion . Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail business , processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment . The industry is considered an export business , because it significantly reduces the country 's external trade imbalance . Since the conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence , the tourist industry has grown rapidly , recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers , with more than 11 million tourists each year . The most numerous are tourists from Germany , Slovenia , Austria , Italy and the Czech Republic as well as Croatia itself . Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averages 4 @.@ 9 days .
The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast . Opatija was the first holiday resort since the middle of the 19th century . By the 1890s , it became one of the most significant European health resorts . Later a number of resorts sprang up along the coast and islands , offering services ranging from mass tourism to catering and various niche markets , the most significant being nautical tourism , as there are numerous marinas with more than 16 thousand berths , cultural tourism relying on appeal of medieval coastal cities and numerous cultural events taking place during the summer . Inland areas offer mountain resorts , agrotourism and spas . Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination , rivalling major coastal cities and resorts .
Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches . Croatia is ranked as the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world . About 15 % of these visitors ( over one million per year ) are involved with naturism , an industry for which Croatia is world famous . It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
The highlight of Croatia 's recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly developed motorway network , largely built in the late 1990s and especially in the 2000s ( decade ) . By September 2011 , Croatia had completed more than 1 @,@ 100 kilometres ( 680 miles ) of motorways , connecting Zagreb to most other regions and following various European routes and four Pan @-@ European corridors . The busiest motorways are the A1 , connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3 , passing east – west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia . A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting all major settlements in the country . The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by several EuroTAP and EuroTest programs .
Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning 2 @,@ 722 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 691 miles ) , including 984 kilometres ( 611 miles ) of electrified railways and 254 kilometres ( 158 miles ) of double track railways . The most significant railways in Croatia are found within the Pan @-@ European transport corridors Vb and X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade , both via Zagreb . All rail services are operated by Croatian Railways .
There are international airports in Zagreb , Zadar , Split , Dubrovnik , Rijeka , Osijek and Pula . The largest and busiest is Franjo Tuđman Airport . As of January 2011 , Croatia complies with International Civil Aviation Organization aviation safety standards and the Federal Aviation Administration upgraded it to Category 1 rating .
The busiest cargo seaport in Croatia is the Port of Rijeka and the busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar . In addition to those , a large number of minor ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Italy . The largest river port is Vukovar , located on the Danube , representing the nation 's outlet to the Pan @-@ European transport corridor VII .
There are 610 kilometres ( 380 miles ) of crude oil pipelines in Croatia , connecting the Port of Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak , as well as several transhipment terminals . The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year . The natural gas transportation system comprises 2 @,@ 113 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 313 miles ) of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines , and more than 300 associated structures , connecting production rigs , the Okoli natural gas storage facility , 27 end @-@ users and 37 distribution systems .
Croatian production of energy sources covers 85 % of nationwide natural gas demand and 19 % of oil demand . In 2008 , 47 @.@ 6 % of Croatia 's primary energy production structure comprised use of natural gas ( 47 @.@ 7 % ) , crude oil ( 18 @.@ 0 % ) , fuel wood ( 8 @.@ 4 % ) , hydro power ( 25 @.@ 4 % ) and other renewable energy sources ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) . In 2009 , net total electrical power production in Croatia reached 12 @,@ 725 GWh and Croatia imported 28 @.@ 5 % of its electric power energy needs . The bulk of Croatian imports are supplied by the Krško Nuclear Power Plant , 50 % owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda , providing 15 % of Croatia 's electricity .
= = Demographics = =
With its population of 4 @.@ 28 million in 2011 , Croatia ranks 125th by population in the world . Its population density stands at 75 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square kilometre . The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 78 years in 2012 . The total fertility rate of 1 @.@ 5 children per mother , is one of the lowest in the world . Since 1991 , Croatia 's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate . Since the late 1990s , there has been a positive net migration into Croatia , reaching a level of more than 7 @,@ 000 net immigrants in 2006 . According to the 2013 United Nations report , 17 @.@ 6 % of Croatia 's population were foreign @-@ born immigrants .
The Croatian Bureau of Statistics forecast that the population may shrink to 3 @.@ 1 million by 2051 , depending on actual birth rate and the level of net migration . The population of Croatia rose steadily from 2 @.@ 1 million in 1857 until 1991 , when it peaked at 4 @.@ 7 million , with exception of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948 , i.e. following two world wars . The natural growth rate of the population is currently negative with the demographic transition completed in the 1970s . In recent years , the Croatian government has been pressured each year to add 40 % to work permit quotas for foreign workers . In accordance with its immigration policy , Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return .
The population decrease was also a result of the Croatian War of Independence . During the war , large sections of the population were displaced and emigration increased . In 1991 , in predominantly Serb areas , more than 400 @,@ 000 Croats and other non @-@ Serbs were either removed from their homes by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence . During the final days of the war in 1995 , more than 120 @,@ 000 Serbs , and perhaps as many as 200 @,@ 000 , fled the country before arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm . Within a decade following the end of the war , only 117 @,@ 000 Serb refugees returned out of 300 @,@ 000 displaced during the entire war . Most of Croatia 's remaining Serbs never lived in areas occupied in the Croatian War of Independence . Serbs have been only partially re @-@ settled in the regions they previously inhabited while some of the settlements previously inhabited by Serbs were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , mostly from Republika Srpska .
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats ( 90 @.@ 4 % ) and is ethnically the most homogeneous of the six countries of former Yugoslavia . Minority groups include Serbs ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Bosniaks , Hungarians , Italians , Slovenes , Germans , Czechs , Romani people and others ( 5 @.@ 9 % ) .
= = = Religion = = =
Croatia has no official religion and Freedom of religion is a right defined by the Constitution of Croatia , which also defines all religious communities as equal in front of the law and separate from the state .
The most predominant religion in Croatia is Christianity and a large majority of the Croatian population declares themselves as members of the Roman Catholic Church . The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism 86 @.@ 28 % , Eastern Orthodoxy 4 @.@ 44 % , Protestantism 0 @.@ 34 % , other Christianity 0 @.@ 30 % , and Islam 1 @.@ 47 % .
= = = Languages = = =
Croatian is the official language of Croatia , and became the 24th official language of the European Union upon its accession in 2013 . Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of population consists of national minorities or where local legislation defines so . Those languages are Czech , Hungarian , Italian , Ruthenian , Serbian and Slovakian .
According to the 2011 Census , 95 @.@ 6 % of citizens of Croatia declared Croatian as their native language , 1 @.@ 2 % declared Serbian as their native language , while no other language is represented in Croatia by more than 0 @.@ 5 % of native speakers among population of Croatia . Croatian is a South Slavic language . Most Croatian vocabulary is derived from the Slavic branch of the Indo @-@ European language family . Croatian is written using the Latin alphabet . Croatian has three major dialects , with Shtokavian dialect used as the standard Croatian and Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects distinguished by their lexicon , phonology , and syntax .
From 1961 to 1991 , the official language was Serbo @-@ Croatian . Even during socialist rule , Croats often referred to their language as Croato @-@ Serbian ( instead of Serbo @-@ Croatian ) or as Croatian . Croatian and Serbian variants of the language were not officially recognised as different at the time , but referred to as the west and east version , and had different alphabets : the Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic . Croatians are protective of their Croatian language from foreign influences , as the language was under constant change and threats imposed by previous rulers ( i.e. Austrian German , Hungarian , Italian and Turkish words were changed and altered to " Slavic " looking / sounding ones ) . Efforts made to impose policies to alter Croatian into " Serbo @-@ Croatian " or " South Slavic " language , met resistance from Croats in form of Croatian linguistic purism . Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century .
A 2011 survey revealed that 78 % of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language . According to a survey ordered by the European Commission in 2005 , 49 % of Croatians speak English as the second language , 34 % speak German , and 14 % speak Italian . French and Russian are spoken by 4 % each , and 2 % of Croatians speak Spanish . A substantial proportion of Slovenes ( 59 % ) have a certain level of knowledge of Croatian .
= = = Education = = =
Literacy in Croatia stands at 99 @.@ 2 per cent . A worldwide study about the quality of living in different countries published by Newsweek in August 2010 ranked the Croatian education system at 22nd , to share the position with Austria . Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades . In 2007 a law was passed to increase free , noncompulsory education until 18 years of age . Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school . Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools . As of 2010 , there are 2 @,@ 131 elementary schools and 713 schools providing various forms of secondary education . Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia , where classes are held in Czech , Hungarian , Italian , Serbian and German languages .
There are 84 elementary level and 47 secondary level music and art schools , as well as 92 schools for disabled children and youth and 74 schools for adults . Nationwide leaving exams ( Croatian : državna matura ) were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009 – 2010 . It comprises three compulsory subjects ( Croatian language , mathematics , and a foreign language ) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education .
Croatia has eight universities , the University of Zagreb , University of Split , University of Rijeka , University of Osijek , University of Zadar , University of Dubrovnik , University of Pula and Dubrovnik International University . The University of Zadar , the first university in Croatia , was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807 , when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002 . The University of Zagreb , founded in 1669 , is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe . There are also 11 polytechnics and 23 higher education institutions , of which 19 are private . In total , there are 132 institutions of higher education in Croatia , attended by more than 145 thousand students .
There are 205 companies , government or education system institutions and non @-@ profit organisations in Croatia pursuing scientific research and development of technology . Combined , they spent more than 3 billion kuna ( € 400 million ) and employed 10 @,@ 191 full @-@ time research staff in 2008 . Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia , the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb . The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language , culture , arts and science from its inception in 1866 . Croatia has also produced inventors and two Croatians received the Nobel Prize .
= = = Health = = =
Croatia has a universal health care system , whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian @-@ Croatian Parliament Act of 1891 , providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen . The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance . In 2012 , annual healthcare related expenditures reached 21 @.@ 0 billion kuna ( € 2 @.@ 8 billion ) . Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0 @.@ 6 % of private health insurance and public spending . In 2010 , Croatia spent 6 @.@ 9 % of its GDP on healthcare .
Croatia ranked around the 40th in the world in life expectancy with 74 years for men and 81 years for women , and it had a low infant mortality rate of 5 per 1 @,@ 000 live births .
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia , including 79 hospitals and clinics with 23 @,@ 967 beds . The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 5 @,@ 205 medical doctors , including 3 @,@ 929 specialists . There are 6 @,@ 379 private practice offices , and a total of 41 @,@ 271 health workers in the country . There are 63 emergency medical service units , responding to more than a million calls . The principal cause of death in 2008 was cardiovascular disease at 43 @.@ 5 % for men and 57 @.@ 2 % for women , followed by tumours , at 29 @.@ 4 % for men and 21 @.@ 4 % for women . In 2009 only 13 Croatians had been infected with HIV / AIDS and 6 had died from the disease . In 2008 it was estimated by the WHO that 27 @.@ 4 % of Croatians over age of 15 are smokers . According to 2003 WHO data , 22 % of the Croatian adult population is obese .
= = Culture = =
Because of its geographic position , Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres . It has been a crossroad of influences of the western culture and the east — ever since division of the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire — as well as of the Mitteleuropa and the Mediterranean culture . The Illyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history , as the 19th @-@ century period proved crucial in emancipation of the Croatian language and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture , giving rise to a number of historical figures .
The Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia is tasked with preserving the nation 's cultural and natural heritage and overseeing its development . Further activities supporting development of culture are undertaken at local government level . The UNESCO inscribed seven sites in Croatia on the World Heritage List . The country is also rich with Intangible culture and holds ten of UNESCO 's World 's intangible culture masterpieces , surpassing all countries in Europe except Spain which possesses an equal number of the listed items . A global cultural contribution from Croatia is the necktie , derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th @-@ century Croatian mercenaries in France .
As of 2012 , Croatia has 60 professional theatres , 17 professional children 's theatres and 60 amateur theatres visited by more than 1 @.@ 8 million viewers per year . The professional theatres employ 1 @,@ 121 artists . There are 23 professional orchestras , ensembles and choirs in the country , attracting an annual attendance of 294 thousand . There are 162 cinemas with attendance exceeding 4 million . Croatia has 175 museums , visited by nearly 2 @.@ 2 million people in 2009 . Furthermore , there are 1 @,@ 731 libraries in the country , containing 24 @.@ 5 million volumes , and 18 archives .
In 2009 , more than 7 @,@ 200 books and brochures were published , along with 2 @,@ 678 magazines and 314 newspapers . There are also 146 radio stations and 21 TV stations operating in the country . In past five years , film production in Croatia produced up to five feature films and 10 to 51 short films , with an additional 76 to 112 TV films . As of 2009 , there are 784 amateur cultural and artistic associations and more than 10 thousand cultural , educational and artistic events held annually . The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry 's centrepiece event — Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair .
Croatia has established a high level of human development and gender equality in terms of the Human Development Index . It promotes disability rights . Recognition of same @-@ sex unions in Croatia has gradually improved over the past decade , culminating in registered civil unions in July 2014 , granting same @-@ sex couples equal inheritance rights , tax deductions and limited adoption rights . However , in December 2013 Croatians voted in favour of a constitutional referendum , backed by conservative groups , defining marriage as a " life union of woman and man " .
= = = Arts and literature = = =
Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations . Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and in the central regions , architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence . Large squares named after culture heroes , well @-@ groomed parks , and pedestrian @-@ only zones , are features of these orderly towns and cities , especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place , for instance in Osijek ( Tvrđa ) , Varaždin and Karlovac . Subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture . Along the coast , the architecture is Mediterranean with a strong Venetian and Renaissance influence in major urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da Sebenico and Niccolò Fiorentino such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik . The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th @-@ century churches , with the largest and the most representative among them being Donatus of Zadar .
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks in Croatia , there is a long history of artists in Croatia reaching to the Middle Ages . In that period the stone portal of the Trogir Cathedral was made by Radovan , representing the most important monument of Romanesque sculpture from Medieval Croatia . The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder of Croatia was embroiled in the Hundred Years ' Croatian – Ottoman War . With the waning of the Ottoman Empire , art flourished during the Baroque and Rococo . The 19th and the 20th centuries brought about affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans , helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer . Croatian artists of the period achieving worldwide renown were Vlaho Bukovac and Ivan Meštrović .
The Baška tablet , a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to 1100 , is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian . The beginning of more vigorous development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić . Besides Marulić , Renaissance playwright Marin Držić , Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić , Croatian national revival poet Ivan Mažuranić , novelist , playwright and poet August Šenoa , poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš , poet Antun Branko Šimić , expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža , poet Tin Ujević and novelist and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian literature .
= = = Media = = =
The freedom of the press and the freedom of speech are guaranteed by the constitution of Croatia . Croatia ranked 62nd in the 2010 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders . The state @-@ owned news agency HINA runs a wire service in Croatian and English on politics , economics , society and culture .
Nevertheless , despite the provisions fixed in the constitution , freedoms of press and speech in Croatia have been classified as partly free since 2000 by Freedom House , the independent nongovernmental organisation that monitors press freedom worldwide . Namely the country has been ranked 85th ( of 196 countries ) , and the 2011 Freedom House report noted improvement of applicable legislation reflecting Croatia 's accession to the EU , yet pointed out instances of politicians ' attempts to hinder investigative journalism and influence news reports contents , difficulties regarding public access to information , and that most of print media market is controlled by German @-@ owned Europapress Holding and Austrian @-@ owned Styria Media Group . Amnesty International reports that in 2009 in Croatia there was an increase in the number of physical attacks and murders of journalists . The incidents were mainly perpetrated against journalists investigating war crimes and organised crime .
As of October 2011 , there are nine nationwide free @-@ to @-@ air DVB @-@ T television channels , with Croatian Radiotelevision ( HRT ) , Nova TV and RTL Televizija operating two of the channels each , and the remaining three operated by the Croatian Olympic Committee , Kapital Net d.o.o. and Author d.o.o. companies . In addition there are 21 regional or local DVB @-@ T television channels . The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel . In 2012 , there were 146 radio stations and 25 TV stations in Croatia . Cable television and IPTV networks are gaining ground in the country , as the cable TV networks already serve 450 thousand people , 10 % of the total population of the country .
There are 314 newspapers and 2 @,@ 678 magazines published in Croatia . The print media market is dominated by Europapress Holding and Styria Media Group who publish their flagship dailies Jutarnji list , Večernji list and 24sata . Other influential newspapers are Novi list and Slobodna Dalmacija . In 2013 , 24sata was the most widely circulated daily newspaper , followed by Večernji list and Jutarnji list .
Croatia 's film industry is small and heavily subsidised by the government , mainly through grants approved by the Ministry of Culture with films often being co @-@ produced by HRT . Pula Film Festival , the national film awards event held annually in Pula , is the most prestigious film event featuring national and international productions . The greatest accomplishment by Croatian filmmakers was achieved by Dušan Vukotić when he won the 1961 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Ersatz ( Croatian : Surogat ) .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another . Dalmatia and Istria draw upon culinary influences of Italian and other Mediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood , cooked vegetables and pasta , as well as condiments such as olive oil and garlic . The continental cuisine is heavily influenced by Hungarian , Austrian and Turkish culinary styles . In that area , meats , freshwater fish and vegetable dishes are predominant .
There are two distinct wine @-@ producing regions in Croatia . The continental region in the north @-@ east of the country , especially Slavonia is capable of producing premium wines , particularly whites . Along the north coast , Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those produced in neighbouring Italy , while further south in Dalmatia , Mediterranean @-@ style red wines are the norm . Annual production of wine exceeds 140 million litres . Croatia was almost exclusively a wine @-@ consuming country up until the late 18th century when a more massive production and consumption of beer started , the annual consumption of beer in 2008 was 83 @.@ 3 litres per capita which placed Croatia on a relatively high 15th place among the world 's countries .
= = = Sports = = =
There are more than 400 @,@ 000 active sportspeople in Croatia . Out of that number , 277 @,@ 000 are members of sports associations and nearly 4 @,@ 000 are members of chess and contract bridge associations . Association football is the most popular sport . The Croatian Football Federation ( Croatian : Hrvatski nogometni savez ) , with more than 118 @,@ 000 registered players , is the largest sporting association in the country . The Prva HNL football league attracts the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the country . In season 2010 – 11 , it attracted 458 @,@ 746 spectators .
Croatian athletes competing at international events since Croatian independence in 1991 won 34 Olympic medals , including ten gold medals — at the 2012 Summer Olympics in discus throw , trap shooting , and water polo ; at the 1996 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics in handball , at the 2000 Summer Olympics in weightlifting and four gold medals in alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics and the 2006 Winter Olympics . In addition , Croatian athletes won 13 gold medals at world championships , including two in athletics at the World Championships in Athletics held in 2007 and 2009 , one in handball at the 2003 World Men 's Handball Championship , one in water polo at the 2007 World Aquatics Championships , one in rowing at the 2010 World Rowing Championships , six in alpine skiing at the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships held in 2003 and 2005 and two at the World Taekwondo Championships in 2011 and 2007 . Croatian athletes also won the 2005 Davis Cup .
Croatia hosted several major sport competitions , including the 2009 World Men 's Handball Championship , the 2007 World Table Tennis Championships , the 2000 World Rowing Championships , the 1987 Summer Universiade , the 1979 Mediterranean Games and several European Championships . The governing sports authority in the country is the Croatian Olympic Committee ( Croatian : Hrvatski olimpijski odbor ) , founded on 10 September 1991 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee since 17 January 1992 , in time to permit the Croatian athletes to appear at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville , France representing the newly independent nation for the first time at the Olympic Games .
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= Minnesota Golden Gophers men 's basketball =
The Minnesota Golden Gophers men 's basketball team represents the University of Minnesota Twin Cities campus . The Golden Gophers have played in the Big Ten since the conference began sponsoring basketball in 1905 and play their home games in Williams Arena . The Gophers also have a huge rivalry with Wisconsin Badgers .
The Gophers had great success in the early years of basketball , but have been largely overshadowed by other programs since the end of World War I. In total , the Gophers have won nine Big Ten championships , but only four since 1919 . College basketball research organizations have retroactively awarded Minnesota national championships in 1902 , 1903 , and 1919 .
The team has also had several instances of NCAA sanctions on the program that have affected performance and recruiting . In the 1970s , the Gophers were in a violent brawl with the Ohio State Buckeyes and were barred from post @-@ season appearances for two seasons after an incident involving the illegal resale of tickets . Still more severe was the mid @-@ 1990s academic scandal under then @-@ coach Clem Haskins that resulted in the forfeit of a Final Four appearance .
= = Coaches = =
Initially , the Gophers team formed without any organized coach . L. J. Cooke took over the team in 1897 . Cooke was put on the University payroll on a part @-@ time basis in early 1897 and full @-@ time by the fall ; this made him one of the earliest professional coaches .
Cooke remained the coach of the Gophers for 28 seasons , and his .649 winning percentage is the second highest in school history . Dave MacMillan , who coached the team from 1927 to 1942 and 1945 to 1948 , had the second longest tenure as coach at 18 seasons . John Wooden almost succeeded McMillan as Gophers head coach ; Wooden claims that a dispute over retaining McMillan as an assistant coach and a delayed phone call led him to accept the job at UCLA instead .
The Gophers have had several NBA coaches grace the sidelines . John Kundla took over as Gophers head coach after the Minneapolis Lakers departed for Los Angeles . Bill Fitch and Bill Musselman both coached the team for a couple seasons before departing for the NBA and ABA respectively , where each had success and coached for many years .
The program has had a fair degree of stability with their coaching staff . Tubby Smith became the 16th head coach in Gopher basketball history when hired in 2007 ; this total includes interim coaches Jim Molinari and Jimmy Williams . Five coaches led the team for more than 10 seasons : Cooke , McMillan , O. B. Cowles , Jim Dutcher , and Clem Haskins . On March 25 , 2013 , Tubby Smith was fired after failing to reach the Sweet Sixteen again . The Gophers hired Richard Pitino on April 3 , 2013 .
= = Players = =
The Golden Gophers have had many successful players come through the program throughout its history . In the early years of basketball , when the Gophers had success , they recruited some of the best players in the country . George Tuck was a dominant center , and the first All @-@ America for the Gophers in 1905 . Frank Lawler was another early star : he led the Big Ten in scoring in 1911 and was also named to the All @-@ America team , and helped the Gophers to a contested conference title .
In 1950 , Lawler was named the greatest player in Gopher basketball history , but the subsequent decades of Gopher basketball have largely forgotten his legacy . Hall of Fame coach John Kundla was also a Gophers star and helped lead the team to its 1937 Big Ten Championship .
With the decline of the stature of the Gophers program , fewer elite players have joined the team . The diminished reputation has not , however , prevented some superior athletes from coming to the Minneapolis campus . Lou Hudson played thirteen years in the NBA and had his number retired . Baseball Hall of Famer Dave Winfield played for the Gophers in the early 1970s , and he played at the same time as star post player Jim Brewer . Mychal Thompson was a Gophers star and was the first overall pick in the 1978 NBA Draft . Among Thompson 's teammates were former Minnesota Timberwolves , Detroit Pistons and Washington Wizards head coach Flip Saunders , as well as basketball hall of fame forward Kevin McHale . Trent Tucker led the 1982 squad to the Big Ten Championship . Voshon Lenard was a key player for the Gophers in the early 1990s and went on to play more than a decade in the NBA . Willie Burton once scored 53 points in an NBA game with the Philadelphia 76ers . Other former Gophers with long NBA careers include Randy Breuer , Mark Olberding , Archie Clark , and Ray Williams . Five players from the 1997 Final Four team played in the NBA : Bobby Jackson , Sam Jacobson , Quincy Lewis , John Thomas , and Trevor Winter . Currently several former Gophers play in the NBA , including Joel Przybilla and Kris Humphries . Jamal Abu @-@ Shamala , a Jordanian @-@ American , plays internationally for the Jordan national basketball team .
= = = Current roster = = =
This roster is current for the 2015 – 16 men 's basketball season .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
= = History = =
= = = Program establishment ( 1895 – 1927 ) = = =
The precise founding of the Gophers men 's basketball program at the University of Minnesota is somewhat nebulous . Unlike many other universities with later foundations , the team did not form as a conscious act of the campus administration . The University 's student newspaper at the time , the Ariel , reported on basketball throughout 1895 as the sport was introduced to the campus from a rival school , Minnesota A & M in St. Paul , later incorporated into the larger University of Minnesota Twin Cities . In 1896 , a team from the school began to participate in a league with the Agriculture school , YMCA teams , and other local associations . The establishment of the Armory on @-@ campus gave the team a new place to play . In February 1897 , L. J. Cooke , a director of the Minneapolis YMCA , was hired on a part @-@ time basis to coach the basketball program , and became the full @-@ time coach and director of physical education by the fall of that year . Cooke was one of the first full @-@ time professional coaches in all of college basketball and would remain at the program for 28 seasons .
Cooke began to improve the team significantly and was responsible for shifts in the Gophers ' scheduling that foreshadowed other changes to come . The team never played a YMCA team after the 1903 – 04 season , and beginning in 1900 , began to schedule large neighboring universities that would join Minnesota in Big Ten competition . This shift to playing similar competition helped the Gophers to become one of the premier programs in the nation . From the 1899 – 00 to 1903 – 04 seasons , the Gophers had a 59 – 6 record . The 1901 – 02 squad has been retroactively named the national champions by both the Helms Foundation and the Premo @-@ Porretta Power Poll ; the Premo @-@ Porretta poll also names the 1902 – 03 Gophers as national champions . When the Big Ten established basketball in 1905 , the Gophers won the first two conference titles .
After 1907 , Cooke 's dominance of the national basketball scene was greatly reduced . He led the team to two more conference titles ( 1916 – 17 , 1918 – 19 ) , and one consensus retroactive national championship for the 1918 – 19 season , but the team was never the consistent winner that it was in the first decade under Cooke . He retired after the 1923 – 1924 season . His successor , Harold Taylor , was Cooke 's assistant coach in his final season and had previously a successful high school coach ; however , he had little success with the Gophers and was fired after never finishing higher than sixth in the conference in three forgettable seasons .
= = = Dave MacMillan and beyond ( 1927 – 1959 ) = = =
Following the firing of Harold Taylor as coach , the program underwent a national search for a successor . Many of the candidates for the job were high profile coaches of other conference foes . The team opted , however , to hire Dave MacMillan , who had been coaching the University of Idaho for the previous seven seasons and had previously played for the Original Celtics during the 1910s . McMillan would dominate the program for the next thirty years , coaching the team from 1927 to 1942 and again from 1945 to 1948 .
McMillan 's teams in 1928 began to play in the University of Minnesota Field House , a new on @-@ campus arena . Basketball had been off @-@ campus for several seasons when the team moved downtown . McMillan 's teams had middling success . His 1930 – 31 and 1931 – 32 teams competed near the top of the Big Ten , but his teams dropped off again until 1936 . John Kundla joined the team for the 1936 – 1937 season and helped the team to the Big Ten Championship , which was ended up being its last until 1972 . McMillan 's squad also competed in a tournament in 1936 to represent the United States in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin ; the team advanced several rounds before being ousted by DePaul . Many Gophers players in this era were recruited from Minneapolis public high schools , and in some seasons this even constituted a majority of the roster . McMillan resigned in 1942 , but returned in 1945 after three poor seasons for the Gophers in the interim . When he resigned for the second time in 1948 , he was replaced by O. B. Cowles .
Cowles was known for playing slower tempo basketball like was most common in the 1920s and 1930s and was known as a defensive @-@ minded coach , especially early in his career . His squads were led by two @-@ time All @-@ American Jim McIntyre and three @-@ time NBA Champion Whitey Skoog for the early years of his career and Big Ten MVP Chuck Mencel for the middle ones . Another notable Gophers star from the era was Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Bud Grant . Cowles squads were consistent winners , and he had a .612 winning percentage at the school . The Gophers were unable to win a Big Ten title , however , despite a solid nucleus in Cowles ' early seasons . The team finished fourth or better in the conference seven times in Cowles ' eleven seasons as Gophers head coach .
= = = Kundla and Fitch ( 1959 – 1971 ) = = =
In 1959 , John Kundla stayed behind in Minneapolis as the Lakers prepared to leave town and succeeded O. B. Cowles as head coach of the Golden Gophers . Kundla remained head coach until 1968 . In 1963 , he broke the color barrier in the Minnesota program and recruited three African @-@ American players to come to the school . One of these first three players was Lou Hudson , who played in the NBA and was the first Gopher to have his number retired by the school . The other two players recruited by Kundla , Archie Clark and Don Yates , also were both drafted by NBA teams . That trio helped the Gophers to a third place Big Ten finish in 1963 – 64 and a second @-@ place finish in 1964 – 65 , but those were the high points for Kundla 's collegiate career . Kundla 's personal assessment of his Gophers career was that his personal weaknesses in recruiting were marring the team by the end of his tenure .
Kundla was succeeded by Bowling Green head coach Bill Fitch . Fitch remained with the Gophers for two seasons before being hired by the Cleveland Cavaliers as their first head coach in 1970 to make the leap to the NBA , where he later won an NBA title as coach of the Boston Celtics . Fitch did recruit Jim Brewer before he left , laying the first seed for the 1972 Big Ten title . George Hanson , a longtime assistant coach at the school , was hired as his replacement , but resigned after only one season .
= = = Musselman and NCAA sanctions ( 1971 – 1975 ) = = =
The Gophers under Athletics Director Marsh Ryman hired Cal Luther away from Murray State to coach the team in 1971 , but he changed his mind and turned the team down after accepting the position . Instead , Bill Musselman took over the program . Musselman was a defensive minded coach and designed his team around Brewer , recruiting several junior college players . University of Minnesota baseball star Dave Winfield walked on as the sixth man after the Ohio State incident . The starters on the 1971 – 72 squad after Ohio State became known as the " Iron Five . " Musselman 's strategy succeeded , and the team took the Big Ten title , the first since 1937 . The other Big Ten coaches did not approve of Musselman 's recruiting posture as they all had gathered and agreed not to recruit Ron Behagen into the Big Ten because he was known as a troublemaker . Musselman had not been named Head Coach of Minnesota at that time and therefore was unaware of the internal agreement and therefore recruited what he thought were the best players available .
In 1973 , former player Greg Olson accused Musselman of having attempted to strike him in a practice . It was also revealed that Olson had sold complimentary season tickets to a booster named Harvey Mackay , which prompted NCAA investigations . Musselman 's coaching style also brought about significant transfers away from the Minnesota program to other schools . In 1975 , Musselman resigned and was named the head coach of the San Diego Sails of the ABA . After his resignation , Musselman admitted to giving money to players for rent and transportation . These charges , coupled with the earlier ticket selling scandal and other transgressions regarding payments and aid revolving around Harvey Mackay , resulted in a list from the NCAA of more than 100 rule violations in Musselman 's four seasons at the school . The extent of the consequences would not be known until early in Jim Dutcher 's eleven season tenure as Gophers head coach .
= = = Success , and scandal , under Haskins ( 1986 – 1999 ) = = =
Clem Haskins was hired as the Gopher basketball coach in 1986 , expected to clean up and rebuild the Gopher program which had been torn apart by the Madison sexual assault allegations ( of which the players were later acquitted ) during the final year of coach Jim Dutcher . Though wins did not come easily in the first couple years of Haskins regime , by the 1988 – 89 season he had the Gophers in the NCAA tournament as a # 11 seed , and directed a Cinderella run into the Sweet 16 . In the 1989 – 90 season Haskins led the Gophers to the Elite Eight , and the team came within a basket of reaching their first ever Final Four . Though Haskins led the Gophers to post @-@ season success in his first three seasons , the 1990 Elite Eight appearance would be the last time under Haskins the Gophers would " officially " appear in the NCAA tournament .
= = = = Academic fraud scandal = = = =
On March 10 , 1999 , the day before the # 7 seed Gophers were to open the NCAA tournament against # 10 Gonzaga , the St. Paul Pioneer Press ran a story detailing allegations of massive academic fraud in the men 's basketball program . Former basketball office manager Jan Gangelhoff had gone to the newspaper claiming she had written over 400 papers for at least 20 Gopher men 's basketball players over a period of several years , ending in 1998 . When the Gophers played Gonzaga on March 11 , the University suspended players Antoine Broxsie , Kevin Clark , Jason Stanford , and Miles Tarver since they allegedly had papers written for them by Ganglehoff in previous seasons . With their roster depleted , the Gophers lost to Gonzaga , the season came to an end , and an internal investigation at the University began .
By June 1999 and in the midst of their investigation , the university had negotiated a buyout of the remainder of Haskins ' contract , worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million over three years . It also withdrew from postseason consideration in the 1999 @-@ 2000 season and docked itself 11 scholarships over four years . In the summer of 2000 , Haskins came forward and admitted that he had paid Gangelhoff $ 3 @,@ 000 for her services ; this revelation came to light after Haskins turned his financial records over to the NCAA . In addition , more details were emerging in which Haskins was also accused of mail fraud in an incident regarding a recruit 's transcript , giving players cash , dismissing sexual harassment concerns against his players , as well as his staff trying to persuade professors to give his players inflated grades they had not earned .
After the details of Haskins ' ever @-@ growing involvement became more clear , the University initiated legal action to recover the buyout money . A judge ultimately ruled that Haskins must return just over half of the original $ 1 @.@ 5 million buyout .
During this time an NCAA investigation was also underway . Ultimately , it revealed that Minnesota was guilty of massive violations under Haskins ' watch . The NCAA stripped the Gophers of all postseason awards , titles , personal records , and statistics dating back to the 1993 – 94 season citing a " lack of institutional control . " Haskins was also slapped with a seven @-@ year " show @-@ cause " order , which effectively banned him from coaching at any level in the NCAA until 2007 . Besides lying about the $ 3 @,@ 000 payment , he had also told several of his players to lie to the NCAA . Later , the Big Ten forced the Gophers to vacate their 1997 conference title , as well as all regular season games dating to 1993 – 94 . As a result , Minnesota 's official record from 1993 – 94 to 1998 – 99 is 0 – 0 . If not for the vacated games , Haskins would be the second @-@ winningest coach in school history .
In addition , the NCAA docked the Gophers an additional five scholarships over the following three seasons , and also imposed recruiting limitations and department @-@ wide probation lasting four years .
In addition to Haskins , Athletic Director Mark Dienhart , Vice President for Athletics , Student Development McKinley Boston , Associate Athletics Director Jeff Schemmel and academic counselor Alonzo Newby also resigned . The University also agreed to return 90 % ( approximately $ 350 @,@ 000 ) of the profits earned by the basketball program during their appearances in the NCAA tournament , including the 1997 Final Four run .
= = = The Monson era ( 1999 – 2006 ) = = =
Following Haskins ' departure , the University hired Gonzaga 's Dan Monson to be their next head coach , who coincidentally had just beaten the Gophers in the NCAA Tournament the previous March . Monson was the coach for part of eight seasons . However , during his tenure the scholarship reductions took their full effect , making it difficult for him to recruit on the same level as the rest of the Big Ten . His Gopher teams only made the NCAA tournament once , in 2004 @-@ 05 . Monson almost left the Minnesota program for the University of Washington following the 2001 – 02 season , but was thought of highly by the athletics department under Tom Moe and was persuaded to stay despite limited success . These trends did not reverse after he remained at the program .
During his final full season the Gophers were 5 – 11 in Big Ten play , and after a 2 – 5 start to open the 2006 – 07 season , Monson and Athletics Director Joel Maturi announced Monson 's resignation on November 30 , 2006 . Despite Monson 's inability to field a consistent winner , he was lauded by University officials for bringing integrity and cleanliness back to the program . Assistant coach Jim Molinari was named head coach on an interim basis and , after a 3 – 13 Big Ten record to finish the season , was not retained as head coach . Maturi began an extensive search for a new permanent head coach at season 's end .
= = = The Tubby era ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = =
On March 23 , 2007 , Maturi made a move that surprised many when he hired Tubby Smith after he resigned from the University of Kentucky to be the next head Gopher basketball coach . Smith 's name recognition and winning reputation gave the program a new optimism , something it badly needed to counter its dwindling fan interest .
Smith 's coaching had an immediate impact on the previously unsuccessful Gophers squad . The team went from 8 – 22 in 2006 – 07 to 20 – 13 in 2007 – 08 . Smith also led the Golden Gophers to the Big Ten Tournament semi @-@ finals after defeating 2nd seeded Indiana . Coach Smith also signed a top 25 recruiting class , the best in years for the program . Smith returned Minnesota to the NCAA tournament for the first time since 2005 in the 2008 @-@ 09 season . Smith 's team struggled throughout the 2009 @-@ 10 season with off @-@ court issues , but advanced to the championship game in the Big Ten Tournament for the first time in school history ( losing to regular season co @-@ champion Ohio State ) and made the NCAA tournament for the second consecutive season .
On March 25 , 2013 , Smith was relieved of his coaching duties at Minnesota .
= = = The Richard Pitino Era ( 2013 – Present ) = = =
On April 3 , 2013 , Richard Pitino , son of Louisville coach Rick Pitino , verbally agreed to coach the Golden Gophers . On April 3 , after missing out on the NCAA tournament , the Gophers responded by winning the 2014 NIT championship trophy by defeating SMU . As a result , Pitino claimed his first championship with the team . Following the success of an NIT championship , the Gophers hoped to qualify for the NCAA tournament the following year . However , the team struggled and finished with only six wins in the conference and did not qualify for any major tournament . The 2016 season was a disaster for the Gophers as they only managed to win two conference games . The lone bright spot came during a late season upset against ranked Maryland to give the Gophers their first conference win on the season . Despite the lack of success on the court , the Gophers were able to get Amir Coffey , a highly ranked player from Hopkins to commit to the men 's basketball program .
= = = Awards = = =
Big Ten MVP
Chuck Mencel – 1955
Jim Brewer – 1972
Mychal Thompson – 1978
Bobby Jackson – 1997 ( later revoked due the academic fraud scandal )
Big Ten Coach of the Year
Jim Dutcher – 1982
Clem Haskins – 1997 ( later revoked due to the academic fraud scandal )
Henry Iba Award ( National Coach of the Year )
Clem Haskins – 1997
Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year
Bobby Jackson – 1997 ( later revoked due the academic fraud scandal )
Travarus Bennett – 2002
Big Ten Freshman of the Year
Rick Rickert – 2002
Kris Humphries – 2004
Consensus All @-@ Americans
Jim McIntyre – 1948
Dick Garmaker – 1955
Mychal Thompson – 1978
Academic All @-@ American
Blake Hoffarber - 2011 ( 2nd Team )
= = = Post @-@ season = = =
The Gophers enjoyed fairly regular post season appearances under former coach Clem Haskins , making the post season in 10 of his 13 seasons as coach ( 6 NCAA tournament , 4 NIT ) , including all of his last 8 seasons . The team advanced to one Final 4 , one Elite 8 , one Sweet 16 , one second round appearance , and suffered two first round losses . However , after the academic fraud scandal in 1999 , the last 6 years of post season records were wiped out . So officially , the Gophers made 2 NCAA Tournament and 2 NIT appearances in the 13 years Haskins was coach . They advanced to the Elite 8 in 1990 , the Sweet 16 in 1989 , and were NIT champions in 1993 .
The Gophers saw some moderate success in the early 1980s , appearing in the 1980 , 1981 , and 1983 NITs and the 1982 NCAA Tournament , where they advanced to the Sweet 16 .
Multiple problems plagued the Gophers during the 1976 – 1977 season , Jim Dutcher 's 2nd as head coach . Heading into the season the team knew they would not be eligible for the post season because of sanctions from the Bill Musselman era . Even so , this turned out to be one of the best teams in Gopher history , with the team finishing at 24 – 3 . But if not being post @-@ season eligible was not punishment enough , it was later found out that Mychal Thompson had sold two complimentary tickets to Gopher home games . When it was discovered , the profits were donated to University of Minnesota scholarship funds . The school and several prominent supporters , including Senator Wendell Anderson attempted to back Thompson and the team . Nevertheless , when the NCAA discovered Thompson 's act , Minnesota 's record for the season was forfeited and the accomplishments of that season are considered unofficial and not included in NCAA records .
= = = NCAA tournament results = = =
The Golden Gophers have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 12 times . Their combined record is 13 – 12 . However , their tournament appearances from 1994 – 1999 have been vacated making their official record 8 – 8 .
* Vacated by the NCAA
= = = NIT results = = =
The Golden Gophers have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament ( NIT ) fifteen times . Their combined record is 33 – 12 . They were NIT Champions in 1993 , 1998 and 2014 . However , their tournament appearances in 1996 and 1998 have been vacated , including their 1998 title , making their official record 27 – 11 .
* Vacated by the NCAA
= = Facilities = =
When the Gophers first organized , they played games in the on campus YMCA . In 1896 , the team moved into the campus Armory , a large building with gymnasium space for the team to use , even if basketball was not its primary purpose . They remained in the Armory for almost thirty years . Halfway through the 1924 – 25 season , coach Harold Taylor moved the team from the University Armory to the Kenwood Armory in downtown Minneapolis . This significantly increased the attendance ; capacity at the University Armory was 2 @,@ 000 , and it was 6 @,@ 500 at Kenwood . The team only played at Kenwood for a few seasons , however , as the University of Minnesota Field House — later known as Williams Arena — opened partway through the 1927 – 1928 season . The team moved in on January 31 , 1928 .
The Field House increased attendance capacity further , to 9 @,@ 500 . It was named after Henry L. Williams , the former Minnesota Golden Gophers football coach in 1950 , and was named after him when it was remodeled and expanded in 1950 , bringing the arena to a capacity of 18 @,@ 025 , which was the largest in the country for twenty years and significantly larger than the capacity of Williams Arena today . Gophers fans refer to Williams Arena as the Barn . Consequently , the student section is known as The Barn . Williams Arena was remodeled in 1993 again , to create a new facility for the women 's team to use . The team continues to play there to this day , making it one of the longest used arenas of any college basketball team and the oldest arena in the Big 10 . Williams Arena is also one of the few remaining arenas with a raised court , in which players have to go up stairs to reach the playing surface .
= = Rivals = =
In the early years of the program , the Gophers had several rivalries that have not extended into the modern era . Among them was a rivalry with Hamline University , now a Division III school in St. Paul . Hamline had one of the earliest college basketball programs in the country and it was several years before Minnesota competed on equal footing with them ; they played as late as 1935 . The greatest rival of the early years of the program was the Minnesota Aggies , representing the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Mining , which has since been incorporated into the University of Minnesota Twin Cities as the St. Paul campus . Minnesota A & M dominated the Gophers , winning ten consecutive games ; Minnesota did not get its first win against the Aggies until 1899 . This rivalry expired especially early , and the two teams did not meet after 1901 . The University of Minnesota is currently the only Division I basketball school in the state of Minnesota , so there are no intense intra @-@ border rivalries as there are in most states .
The Gophers were also an active participant in the early rivalry between Eastern schools and Midwestern schools for basketball preeminence . Minnesota broke up a stretch of Ivy League dominance from 1901 to 1906 with their successful 1902 season . The Eastern teams - Yale , Columbia , and Dartmouth were early powers - played with a more physical approach , while Midwestern teams used a different method . Wisconsin coach Walter Meanwell used the motion offense and " stress [ ed ] finesse . " W.C. Hyatt , who played for Yale , claimed that " The Minnesota and Wisconsin men played in the style prevalent among most of the girl colleges in the East , that is , the ' no contact ' game . "
In the modern era of the program , as is the case with most Big Ten sports , Minnesota 's primary rivals are the Iowa Hawkeyes and Wisconsin Badgers . In recent years , the rivalry with Wisconsin has become more intense than that with Iowa , primarily due to Wisconsin 's recent successes on the court . Minnesota and Wisconsin 's games together count towards the Border Battle , an annual trophy given to the points winner of several sports played between the two schools throughout the year .
The Gophers also have a less heralded rivalry with Ohio State . The two teams have very little history together , outside of the 1972 brawl between the teams at Williams Arena . That incident still lingers in the hearts of many long @-@ time Buckeye fans .
= = Results by season = =
Records unofficial due to academic scandal
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= Clarke MacArthur =
Clarke MacArthur ( born April 6 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger currently playing for the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . MacArthur has previously played in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres , Atlanta Thrashers and Toronto Maple Leafs . He was originally selected by Buffalo in the third round , 74th overall , at the 2003 NHL Entry Draft .
Prior to turning professional , MacArthur spent three seasons playing for the Medicine Hat Tigers in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . While playing major junior hockey , he was named to the 2004 Memorial Cup All @-@ Star and 2005 WHL Eastern Conference All @-@ Star Teams . MacArthur was also a member of Canada 's gold medal @-@ winning squad at the 2005 World Junior Championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
MacArthur played minor hockey in his hometown of Lloydminster , Alberta . He went unselected in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft when he was eligible , due in part to his short stature . While playing bantam hockey in Alberta , MacArthur put up impressive statistics , despite standing only 5 ' 4 " . He recorded 99 points in 38 games during the 2000 – 01 season with the Strathcona Warriors . After the season , he was named his club 's most valuable player .
With the numbers MacArthur put up in bantam hockey , he was able to secure a tryout with the Medicine Hat Tigers , but was the club 's final cut heading into the 2001 – 02 season . As a result , MacArthur played in the Alberta Junior Hockey League ( AJHL ) for the Drayton Valley Thunder . In his only season in the AJHL , MacArthur recorded 62 points in 62 games , and helped the Thunder capture a League championship . During the season , he grew seven inches and Medicine Hat was again interested in obtaining his services . He subsequently joined the club for the 2002 – 03 season , putting up 75 points in 70 games as a rookie . During the summer , MacArthur was then drafted by the Buffalo Sabres in the third round , 75th overall , of the 2003 NHL Entry Draft .
During his sophomore season in the WHL , 2003 – 04 , MacArthur helped lead the Tigers to the Ed Chynoweth Cup as League champions and a berth in the 2004 Memorial Cup . MacArthur was the fourth @-@ leading scorer in the tournament with one goal and four assists and was named to the Memorial Cup All @-@ Star Team . The Tigers , however , lost in the semifinal of the tournament to the Kelowna Rockets . MacArthur played in 58 games during the 2004 – 05 season with the Tigers and recorded 74 points , while serving as one of the club 's alternate captains . After the season , he was named to the WHL 's Eastern Conference First All @-@ Star Team . MacArthur was remarkably consistent during his WHL career , scoring 75 , 75 and 74 points in his three WHL seasons .
= = = Professional = = =
MacArthur began his professional career with the Rochester Americans of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , the Buffalo Sabres ' top minor league affiliate , for the team 's ruin in the 2005 playoffs , appearing in three games and recording an assist for his first professional point . He remained with Rochester in 2005 – 06 , recording 53 points over 69 games in his first full professional season .
After starting the 2006 – 07 season in Rochester for a second year , MacArthur made his NHL debut for Buffalo on December 19 , 2006 , against the Montreal Canadiens . He split time between the Americans and Sabres for the rest of the season , finishing with 63 points over 51 games in the AHL and seven points over 19 games in the NHL . He recorded his first NHL point , an assist , on February 20 , 2007 , against the Philadelphia Flyers and scored his first career goal against the Ottawa Senators on February 22 .
During the 2007 – 08 season , MacArthur again spent time with the Americans and Sabres . At the NHL level , he scored eight goals and added seven assists in 37 games , while recording 42 points in 43 games with the Americans . After the season , MacArthur became a restricted free agent before re @-@ signing to a one @-@ year deal with the Sabres .
MacArthur spent his first full season at the NHL level in 2008 – 09 , playing in 71 games with the Sabres and recording 31 points . After the season , the Sabres tendered MacArthur a qualifying offer to retain his rights ; he subsequently signed a two @-@ year deal with the club in July 2009 . MacArthur played in 60 games for the Sabres , scoring 13 goals and adding 13 assists , before being traded to the Atlanta Thrashers in exchange for two draft picks at the NHL trade deadline . He finished the season with the Thrashers recording nine points in 21 games .
After the 2009 – 10 season , MacArthur filed for salary arbitration . After the hearing , he was awarded a one @-@ year contract worth $ 2 @.@ 4 million , a significant raise over his previous salary of $ 1 @.@ 4 million . The Thrashers chose not to accept the arbitration award , however , and MacArthur subsequently became an unrestricted free agent .
MacArthur signed a one @-@ year deal for $ 1 @.@ 1 million with the Toronto Maple Leafs on August 28 , 2010 , ahead of the 2010 – 11 season . When asked later about his decision to sign in Toronto , MacArthur said , " It was nice to come back to a hockey community . " He later added , " It 's the most fun I 've had since junior . " Maple Leafs captain Dion Phaneuf , one of MacArthur 's teammates at the 2005 World Junior Championships , was influential in the decision to sign with Toronto . MacArthur scored goals in each of his first four games with the club , becoming the first player in team history to do so . On November 16 , he tied a club record by recording three assists in a period against the Nashville Predators . The following month , he tied his personal career @-@ best when he scored two goals against the Pittsburgh Penguins on October 13 . At the end of his first season with the Maple Leafs , he signed a two @-@ year contract extension at $ 3 @.@ 25 million per annum on July 5 , 2011 , thereby avoiding salary arbitration with the club .
On July 5 , 2013 , after his contract had expired with the Maple Leafs , MacArthur signed a two @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 5 million deal with Toronto 's Ontario rivals , the Ottawa Senators . On August 19 , 2014 , the Senators announced they had given signed MacArthur to a five @-@ year contract extension worth a total of $ 23 @.@ 25 million — carrying a $ 4 @.@ 65 million annual average value — set to start in the 2015 – 16 season .
On February 16 , 2015 , MacArthur collided with goalie Robin Lehner , resulting in both players being diagnosed with concussions . On October 20 , 2015 , Senators general manager Brian Murray announced that MacArthur suffered another concussion during a game against the Columbus Blue Jackets on October 14 and that MacArthur would not be playing in the near future . MacArthur would play only the first four games of the 2015 @-@ 16 season due to his concussion , although he passed a " baseline test " and was announced to be " medically cleared to play " in late March 2016 .
= = International play = =
MacArthur made his international debut playing for Team West at the 2002 World Under @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge , which was held in Manitoba . Two years later , he was invited to attend Canada 's junior team Summer Development Camp in August 2004 . He was ultimately chosen to the squad in December to compete in the 2005 World Junior Championships . During the tournament , MacArthur scored four goals in six games , tied for tenth in tournament scoring . One of the players he tied with was former teammate Phil Kessel , who was playing for the United States . In Canada 's first game of the tournament against Slovakia , MacArthur scored two goals . Canada eventually captured gold at the tournament after routing Russia 6 – 1 in the final .
= = Personal life = =
MacArthur 's parents are named Dean and Deborah , and he has one sister , Kristin . As a child , his favorite hockey team was the Edmonton Oilers and his favorite player was current Los Angeles Kings forward Vincent Lecavalier . Clarke also has an uncle Ken MacArthur who was selected by the Minnesota North Stars the eighth round ( 148th overall ) of the 1988 NHL Entry Draft .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Junior and professional statistics source
= = = International = = =
International statistics source
= = Awards = =
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= American Life =
American Life is the ninth studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was first released on April 21 , 2003 , by Maverick Records and Warner Bros. Records . The album , produced in its entirety by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï , features references to many parts of American culture . The album is a concept album , with recurring themes of the American Dream and materialism . These themes reject the reputation Madonna held in the 1980s , earned by songs such as her worldwide hit " Material Girl " ( 1985 ) . The album contains rock , folk and electronica music , as well as influences of acoustic music on many tracks .
American Life received mixed reviews from music critics , with responses noting its consistency , but general responses called the record " about Madonna " and found it confusing . The album peaked at number one in fourteen countries . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) both certified it platinum in recognition of one million shipments in the United States , and 300 @,@ 000 shipments in the United Kingdom , respectively . The album became the 32nd @-@ best @-@ selling album of 2003 and has sold five million copies to date . American Life garnered two nominations at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 .
Four singles were released from the album . The first , the title track , was released to a generally negative critical reception , with Blender naming it the ninth worst song of all time . It charted at number 37 in the US while it entered the top ten in most countries , peaking at number two in the United Kingdom . A controversial music video was pulled after scenes of war and violence were criticized which led to an edited version being released . Its following single , " Hollywood " , became her first single not to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 since 1983 . " Nothing Fails " and " Love Profusion " , the third and fourth singles respectively , featured a lack of promotion resulting in a poor commercial performance . Despite it , both peaked at number one in Spain .
Madonna promoted the album during a small promotional tour for the album in April and May 2003 . At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , she performed alongside Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera and Missy Elliott a medley of " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " and engaged in open @-@ mouth kissing with Aguilera and Spears gaining great controversy and publicity . American Life was supported by Madonna 's sixth concert tour , the Re @-@ Invention World Tour , which was the highest grossing tour of 2004 earning $ 125 million . The tour was chronicled in a documentary titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret , which led to Madonna 's first live album of the same name .
= = Background and development = =
During the early 1990s , Madonna had focused on a number of provocative releases , like the erotic pictorial Sex book , the sadomasochist inspired album Erotica , and the erotic thriller , Body of Evidence , all of which she deduced was due to " a lot of rage and anger " within herself " . However , by the beginning of the new millennium , Madonna was living a calmer , more introspective and wholesome life with her husband Guy Ritchie and their children Lourdes and Rocco . According to biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , the presence of Ritchie in Madonna 's life had a calming effect on the singer , making her more matured and easing her temper . Concentrating on her music career , Madonna was busy throughout of 2001 on her Drowned World Tour . On September 11 , 2001 , suicide bombers hijacked two jet airliners and crashed into the World Trade Center , resulting in the death of nearly 3 @,@ 000 people . The event had a profound effect on American society , with the cultural mood being bleak and paranoia . People , including Madonna , started asking questions about their culture and the American Dream , which had been a long @-@ lasting ideal for many . When Madonna started working on her ninth studio album , American Life , she wanted answers to her queries and an appropriate response to the 9 / 11 disaster and the ensuing Iraq war of 2003 . She believed that the ensuing months with the war would lead to a politically charged atmosphere throughout the country , and wanted to express that in the record .
Like her 2000 studio album , Music , Madonna enlisted the help of French DJ and producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï . Always interested in adapting herself and her music to the contemporary compositions , Madonna was inspired by the new Massive Attack and Lemon Jelly albums . " We set out to put the two worlds of acoustic and electronic music together , " said Madonna . " It is another step on , but I 've never wanted to repeat myself . I don 't ever want to repeat myself or make the same record twice . " American Life became Madonna 's final studio album with Maverick Records , and marked the end of an eleven @-@ year recording history with the label . In an interview with VH1 titled Madonna Speaks , the singer discussed her 20 years in the music industry , and revealed her motivations behind American Life , about " material things " being unimportant . " I have lots of ' material ' things and I 've had lots of beliefs about things and what 's important , and I look back at the 20 years behind me and I realized that a lot of things that I 'd valued weren 't important " , she concluded . Discussing her thoughts on the conception of the album , she told Q magazine that through her 20 years of being in the entertainment industry , she would have a correct opinion on fame and fortune and its perils , which would be the base of the album .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
When Madonna started writing the songs on the album , she was inspired by different situations , like having guitar lessons and getting an idea , or sometimes Ahmadzaï would send over a rough demo to her without the basic chord progression . The songs on American Life and their lyrics were developed like that . Explaining her writing process , Madonna told Q magazine that the " The music has to jar my brain in terms of lyrics . Sometimes I write free verse . I have a journal and I note down ideas I get from newspapers and books " . Madonna also remembered Ahmadzaï 's downbeat existentialism regarding the condition of society around them , and the long discussions they had into the night , which ultimately reflected into the songwriting as anxiety they felt in their heart . American Life was deemed by some as a concept album featuring political themes based around the United States , with Madonna explaining that she felt " like America has changed over the years and that a lot of our values seem to be materially oriented and so superficial . And we all seem to be obsessed with fame just for the sake of fame , no matter what — sell your soul to the devil if that 's what it takes . And we 're also completely obsessed with the way we look . " Madonna recalled that even she had been through such trials and those musings came out in the writing of the first three songs , the title track , " Hollywood " and " I 'm So Stupid " . John Norris from MTV described them as a trilogy , and an indicator of Madonna 's reassessment of her life while discussing things she wishes to put behind her . Madonna partly agreed , saying that the tracks are extensions of one another , and portray her desire of giving importance to less noteworthy things , and how she could come out of that " illusion " . Madonna discussed the materialistic themes of the record and her personal encounters which have led to the composition with MTV saying :
" Who better to say those things don 't matter than somebody who 's experienced them ? [ People may say ] , ' How can you say they don 't matter ? How can you say that money won 't bring you happiness if you don 't have a lot of money ? How can you say that fame and fortune are not a guarantee for happiness and joy and fulfillment in your life ? ' You have to have that experience to know . ' Cause you have all those things , I 've had all those things , and I 've had nothing but chaos around me . So I 'm just sharing what I know with the world . ' Cause I do think that we 've become completely consumed with being rich and famous , our society has . And I just want to tell people , take it from me , I have all those things and none of them ever brought me one minute of happiness . "
The glamorous world of Hollywood also reflected in her writing , especially in the second track of the same name . Describing it as a metaphor , Madonna said that " in Hollywood you can lose your memory and your vision of the future . You can lose everything because you can lose yourself . " The beginning of the album cleared away what was not important for her , so Madonna could concentrate on the things that did matter . So , in contrast to the first three tracks , the later songs on American Life also deal with issues close to the singer 's heart , like talking about her relationship with her parents on the track " Mother and Father " . When Madonna was five , her mother died of breast cancer and the track was " a way of letting go of the sadness and moving on . " According to Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , another concept of American Life was about " nothingness " . This was evident in the titles of the songs like " Nobody Knows Me " , usage of " no " in " Love Profusion " , as well as " Nothing Fails " . Usage of the negative tone led Madonna to be sarcastic on people 's assumptions about her and emphasize about her knowledge of romantic love . But " Nothing Fails " , along with tracks " Intervention " and " X @-@ Static Process , " became the centerpiece of the album as a triptych of love songs for Ritchie . Beginning as a humble track that musician @-@ producer Guy Sigsworth wrote for his wife , " Nothing Fails " also has lyrics by singer Jem Archer , who was asked to collaborate with Sigsworth and Madonna during the first collaborative sessions of American Life . The track is followed by the folk @-@ inspired " Intervention " and " X @-@ Static Process , " both being reflective and emotional . Her reflective mood continued with the last track " Easy Ride , " which was inspired by the imagery of a full @-@ circle and symbolized life for the singer .
= = Recording and mixing = =
The album was mostly composed and entirely produced by Madonna and Ahmadzaï . Both had previously collaborated on Madonna 's studio album Music ( 2000 ) . The recording sessions for American Life started at late 2001 , then was put on hold as Madonna filmed Swept Away in Malta and starred in the West End play Up for Grabs . She returned to the Olympic Recording Studios and Sarm West Studios in late 2002 and finished off the sessions in London and Los Angeles in early 2003 . For the instrumentation featured in some of the song , Ahmadzaï played the guitars , and Stuart Price played the piano . Tom Hannen and Simon Changer , both of them worked as assistant engineer during the recording .
Unlike Music , Madonna had enlisted Ahmadzaï also as a songwriter on American Life hence what transpired was Madonna 's wholesale adaptation of the producers style and sound . He explained that there are some influences from his work , but Madonna mostly wanted a minimalist structure for the album . This was beneficial for him since he did not like working with a lot of people , and hence it became a close collaboration . Since electronic music was already popular , Ahmadzaï felt that it was necessary to go back to its underground roots and focus on the songwriting , rather than the technical aspects of recording and mixing . Describing it as modified songwriting , he said that although the concept " might sound simple at first , even rough . But when you pay attention , there is a lot of technology underneath " . This approach was an imperative for American Life . Recorded at three different studios using Ahmadzaï 's own gear along with the studio 's SSL mixing consoles , the album 's recording process was often laborious but was sparse in the musical arrangements of the songs . About the musical composition , Ahmadzaï told to Remix magazine that they " tried to under @-@ produce many tracks to make them sound rougher than the average international pop production . We wanted to do something totally modern and futuristic but not very apparent . You have to be very minimalist and choose every sound very carefully . Some tracks were composed in the big studio ; that can be very dangerous because you can lose perspective . But all initial directions of the tracks were made in my home studio . "
American Life is suffused with Ahmadzaï 's characteristic production techniques , like stuttering instruments and vocals , oscillating loop tones recalling 1950s Sonar pulses , morphing vocals consisting of grunts and squeals and treatments that make the music freeze in between rhythms . The producer hoped that using stuttering would become a rage in the future world of recording . He believed that people think it is not natural to skip and stutter the music . But he used it to create a new groove . With the help of Pro Tools , he froze the audio at any point he wanted to change the rhythm of the tracks . Madonna discussed the recording of the title track stating that Ahmadzaï had encouraged her to rap spontaneously , about all the materialistic objects that she herself had been using and doing . They had an instrumental breakdown in " American Life " , where the producer encouraged Madonna to add a rap about her everyday life . " Because I was always drinking soy lattes in the studio , and I drive my Mini Cooper to the studio , I was just like , ' OK , let me just talk about the things that I like ' . So I went and it was just total improv [ sic ] and obviously it was sloppy at first , but I got out all my thoughts and then I wrote everything down that I said and then I perfected the timing of it . So it was totally spontaneous , " she added .
For " Hollywood " , he used a drum kit and percussion from an E @-@ mu Emulator and also added extra drum sounds to give the song an old , disco vibe . Wanting to have a loud bass synth sound , , Ahmadzaï used a Nord Lead synthesizer with lot of filtering manipulations . But he faced problems with it , so he used a Yamaha O2R mixer . He did not want " Hollywood " to sound like the music being played at the nightclubs , so he recorded Madonna 's vocals with heavy compression in her headphones . Two machines were used for the vocal editing in " Hollywood " . Madonna preferred the Antares Auto @-@ Tune plug in , while Ahmadzaï chose an AMS pitch shifter . Madonna wanted Auto @-@ Tune because she wanted " Hollywood " to have a more dance @-@ like feel to it , although Ahmadzaï was against it . The track " I 'm So Stupid " had gentle vocals , then the singing was frozen using a Roland VP @-@ 9000 . When Madonna sings " Aaaaaahhhhhh " , the vocals freeze and the process sounds natural , but in reality is not . When it came to adding the beats , he experimented by programming the drums in Logic Pro and changing the timing of the beats . The producer combines different samples of songs from his own collections and keeps on trying until something new is developed . The mixing for the tracks was done by Mark " Spike " Stent at the Westlake Recording Studios at West Hollywood , California , while Tim Young did the mastering of the songs at Metropolis Studios in London . Michael Colombier did the string arrangement with Geoff Foster acting as the strings engineer , conducting at AIR Studios .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani stated that " Madonna couldn 't possibly have intended to make a pop album . American Life is a folk album in the purest definition of the term — and it 's reflected right in the title . " Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune called the record an " electro @-@ folk album " with electronic beats and synthetic burps . " American Life " , the title track , is the first song on the record . Starting with Madonna 's multi @-@ tracked voice questioning , " Am I gonna be a star " , " should I change my name " , the lyrics then develop into what Rikky Rooksby of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna states as a complaint about modern @-@ day life . The lyrics accompany a " punchy octave synth figure " synchronized with a drum and bass beat . After three minutes of the song , Madonna performs a rap naming the people who were working for her . The second track and single " Hollywood " is introduced with sounds of tweeting birds , before an acoustic guitar starts with a four chord sequence that has been compared to songs by the band Red Hot Chili Peppers . The texture grows with addition of drums and synths , until after a minute the instrumental is pulled out , leaving just Madonna 's vocals and the acoustic guitar accompaniment . During the final sequence , Madonna raps , as is featured in the first song , with the repeated phrase " Push the button " . Lyrically , like the first track , it discusses American culture and greed focusing on Hollywood , California , as a place of stars and illusory dreams .
The next track " I 'm So Stupid " features an introduction with a two @-@ chord electric guitar which leads to a minor drum beat , with the guitar later changing to a three @-@ chord . The composition throughout is generally minor , but at the 2 : 15 mark , different pitched synths change manically , and towards the end the synths become less prominent as the guitars become the main focus . Lyrically , the song expresses disillusionment with Madonna singing " I used to live in a fuzzy dream " and " It was just greed " , also proclaiming that once she was " stupider than stupid " before stating " Everybody 's stupid " towards the end of the song . The fourth track " Love Profusion " starts with another acoustic guitar introduction , with rhythm being produced by a bass drum with synth @-@ strings added later in the song . Vocally , the line " I got you under my skin " is repeated , while a male voice acts as the backing for the track as the final words , " feel good " , are performed with no backing instrumental . " Nobody Knows Me " is the fifth track , featuring vocoder treated vocals . The song is accompanied by bleeping synths and a heavy drum part . The title is repeated throughout the song as she references " social disease " which is also repeated . A recurring theme of American Life is the acoustic guitar introduction to the songs , and is yet again featured in the sixth track " Nothing Fails " . The guitar is accompanied by a " light " drum section and low @-@ pitched vocals from Madonna . The song also features a cello in the first part , and a church choir in the second part . Lyrically , the song discusses a lover who is the one , and how their meeting was not just chance . A reference to the " tree of life " is made during the song as Madonna states " I 'm not religious " but she wishes to pray .
Acoustic guitars introduces the seventh track , " Intervention " . It starts with a three chord minor sequence which changes to a four chord one during the chorus section and a bass section starts at the end of the track . Lyrically , the song is an optimistic track about how a relationship will last as Madonna says " the road looks lonely but that 's just Satan 's game " . " X @-@ Static Process " , the eighth track , starts once again with acoustic guitars and throughout there are vocal harmony lines in addition to an organ part . Lyrically , like the title track , it questions modern life as Madonna sings " Jesus Christ will you look at me , don 't know who I 'm supposed to be " . " Mother and Father " is the album 's ninth track , with a drum and bass beat paired with an electric guitar present in the instrumental . Lyrically , the song reflects on Madonna 's childhood including her mother 's death and her father 's reaction , and the effect on their relationship . The tenth track is " Die Another Day " , the theme to the James Bond film of the same name which featured dominating string and synth parts . The eleventh and final track on the album , " Easy Ride " , is a heavily string @-@ oriented song . It addresses Madonna 's feelings towards old age , wanting to live forever , and coming full circle to a point in her life where she could be comfortable .
= = Artwork and release = =
By 2003 , Madonna suggested that she was in a revolutionary mood , which led to journalistic discussions that another image makeover would take place for her . Still recovering from the commercial disappointment of Swept Away , Madonna changed her image completely to resemble that of a fighter , with inspirations from pictures of Argentinian guerrilla leader Che Guevara . French design team M / M Paris ( Michael Amzalag and Mathias Augustyniak ) were responsible for the artwork of American Life . The duo are best known for their collaborations with musicians and Madonna hired the duo after discussing the concept for just six minutes . The photo shoot for the album was done by photographer Craig McDean in January 2003 at Los Angeles , and cost a reported $ 415 @,@ 000 . McDean had already worked with Madonna for the cover of Vanity Fair magazine in October 2002 ; this shoot had a military theme , with Madonna posing in dark green and black clothes , combat boots , and guns .
As with 1989 's album Like a Prayer , Madonna 's hair was dyed dark brown to signify " seriousness " , and on the cover of the album Madonna wore a beret while resurrecting the famous Guerrillero Heroico image of Guevara . In an interview with Veja magazine , she described Guevara as " an icon instantaneously identified with an revolution spirit . That goes for the whole album : the current moment , I feel a revolutionary state of mind " . Author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández wrote in his book , Madonna 's Drowned Worlds : New Approaches to Her Subcultural Transformations , that the inclusion of Guevara as an inspiration for the cover was one of the many instances of Madonna incorporating Hispanic identity and the Latino subculture in her work . Because of the paramilitary theme , the dyed hair and the artistic composition , was compared with an infamous seventies photo of kidnapped newspaper heiress , Patty Hearst . The cover also had military styled stenciled lettering . The word " American Life " is written in blood red color and has a punk @-@ rock style . Inside the CD booklet , she wielded an Uzi submachine gun , her body in various martial art poses , spelling out her name . By late 2003 , she had wiped out the military image completely , and followed with another subtle toned @-@ down image of that of a writer and philanthropist .
In an interview with Larry King in October 2002 , she said that she wanted to give the album a Hebrew name . Madonna then considered Ein Sof , which means endlessness , as a possible title for the album . However , as the months went on and the album became more of a meditation on the difficulty of leading a spiritual life in the glamour industry , the title was changed to Hollywood with Madonna saying that it was " a reflection of my state of mind and a view of the world right now " . Still , she was not satisfied with the name , and finalized on American Life .
American Life is Madonna 's second album to bear a " Parental Advisory " label after Erotica ( 1992 ) , due the profanity used in the title song . The album was released in the United States on April 22 , 2003 and eight months later , Warner Music France released a box set version containing both the album and the remix collection , Remixed & Revisited , in a cardboard sleeve entitled Édition Spéciale 2CDs : American Life + Remixed & Revisited . To counter illegal downloads of the album 's songs before and after the release , Madonna 's associates created a number of false MP3 files of similar length and size . Some of these files delivered a brief message from Madonna saying " What the fuck do you think you 're doing ? " followed by minutes of silence . Madonna 's website was hacked and the hacker added a message appearing on the main page , saying " This is what the fuck I think I 'm doing ... " followed by download links for each of the album 's songs . The Madonna.com website was closed after the attack for about 15 hours . Liz Rosenberg , Madonna 's spokesperson , told The Smoking Gun that the defacement was indeed a hack , and not a marketing ploy . The defacement was linked to Phrack , an online hacker magazine whose representatives clarified that they did not " have [ any ] link with this [ hacker ] guy in any way , and we don 't even know his identity . " The hacked page also contained a derogatory reference to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) , the federal law aimed at cracking down on digital and online piracy . In addition , the defaced page included an impromptu marriage proposal to Morgan Webb , the host of a daily technology show called The Screen Savers .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Live performances = = =
To start marketing the album , Madonna embarked on a promotional tour across the United States and Europe . One of these performances , presented at the Total Request Live studios in New York , was shown by MTV in a special named Madonna on Stage & on the Record . Hosted by Carson Daly , she sang songs from the album and answered questions from the audience . Madonna also performed at HMV store in Oxford , United Kingdom to 500 people . While in the United Kingdom , she performed " American Life " and " Hollywood " at BBC One 's Friday Night with Jonathan Ross and Top of the Pops . Another performance on Tower 's Fourth Street in Manhattan was presented to around 400 people . A stage was built in preparation for the performances with long dark drapes and large speakers , and according to Billboard was so that over one thousand fans nearby could hear the performance . She also performed a private concert in Paris , France , at restaurant Cantine du Faubourg to people who won tickets on a promotion hosted by NRJ Radio , and also some of her French friends including designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier , director Luc Besson and producer Ahmadzaï .
On August 27 , 2003 , Madonna opened the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards with American recording artists Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera , performing a medley of " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " . American rapper Missy Elliott also performed her song " Work It " halfway through the performance . After " Hollywood " was performed by Madonna , she engaged in kissing with both Spears and Aguilera becoming an infamous moment for all three acts and in television history . In 2003 , Madonna planned to release a special commemorative box set to celebrate her 20th anniversary in the music business and the release of her first studio album , Madonna , in 1983 . The plan for the box set was eventually cancelled and Remixed & Revisited was released in its place . The compilation contains remixed versions of four songs from American Life and a previously unreleased song called " Your Honesty " .
= = = Singles = = =
Preceding the album release , " Die Another Day " was released as a single to promote the twentieth James Bond film of the same name . The song peaked at number eight in the United States , and number three in the United Kingdom . The production costs for the music video were over six million dollars , making it the second most expensive music video ever made , after " Scream " by Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson . " American Life " was released as the lead single from the album on April 8 , 2003 in the United States and on April 14 , 2003 in Europe . Blender magazine listed the song as the ninth worst song ever . There are two music videos . The first version is based on a fashion runway , with extra 's including Children dressed in provocative war inspired outfits . The scene descends into violence and fighting to which the audience find amusement . At the end of the music video , then @-@ President of the United States , George W. Bush is portrayed by a lookalike lighting a cigar . The anti @-@ war content of its music video was interpreted as being unpatriotic , making Madonna withdraw its release from American music channels . She also released a statement saying she did so because she believed it was not appropriate to air it at that time , and that she did not want to risk offending anyone who could misinterpret its meaning . A second video was produced , showing Madonna donning military clothing and singing in front of the various flags of the world . The song debuted at number ninety on the Billboard Hot 100 , and peaked at number thirty @-@ seven on the chart , becoming Madonna 's 45th Top 40 hit in the chart . The song also peaked at number two in the UK , seven in Austria and Australia , and ten in France and Germany .
The second single , " Hollywood " , released on July 3 , 2003 in Europe and July 8 , 2003 in the US , failed to chart in the Hot 100 , becoming Madonna 's first single in twenty years not to do so since " Burning Up " ( 1983 ) . The song was a top five hit in Canada , Italy and the United Kingdom . " Nothing Fails " was released in October 26 , 2003 as the third single . It was a minor chart success , but did not match the success of previous singles from American Life , charting outside the top twenty in some countries . It peaked in the top ten in Canada and Spain . In late 2003 , " Nothing Fails " was remixed as " Nothing Fails ( Nevins Mix ) " for Madonna 's remix EP Remixed & Revisited . The remix peaked at number seven in Italy . " Love Profusion " , was the fourth and final single from the album , released on December 8 , 2003 . It peaked in the top ten only in Greece , Italy and Canada , her fifth top ten Canadian hit from the album and thirteenth top ten in @-@ a @-@ row . Also , it debuted and peaked at eleven on UK Singles Chart , becoming Madonna sixth single , of eight , in lost the top ten on the chart , after " One More Chance " ( 1996 ) . The promotional releases , " Nobody Knows Me " and " Mother and Father " , became very successful in American clubs , peaking at number four and number nine , respectively , on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart . American Life became the first album to achieve seven top ten songs on this chart .
= = = Tour = = =
In 2003 , Madonna collaborated with photographer Steven Klein for an art installation project called X @-@ Static Process . The installation portrayed Madonna in different incarnations of her spiritual practices – from yogi , prophet , queen to freak and pole dancer . The publication was a worldwide success , leading to a number of exhibitions in New York , London , Paris , Düsseldorf , Berlin and Florence . After the exhibition was over , Madonna was inspired by the images from the exhibitions and decided to incorporate them into her then unplanned tour and asked Klein to help her with the task . She then began developing her sixth concert tour called Re @-@ Invention World Tour . The poster released for the tour used one of the images from the installation project . It featured Madonna in a seventeenth @-@ century @-@ style dress , crawling on all fours towards the camera . The central theme of the show was unity versus violence . It was divided into five acts with different themes : French Baroque @-@ Marie Antionette Revival , Military @-@ Army , Circus @-@ Cabaret , Acoustic and Scottish @-@ Tribal segments . During the Q Awards , Elton John accused Madonna for lip @-@ synching in her shows which gained great controversy but was denied by Madonna 's representatives . Although musician Prince 's Musicology Live 2004ever tour was initially projected to be the highest grossing tour of 2004 , Billboard Boxscore published that the Re @-@ Invention Tour had sold 55 out of the 56 shows and grossed $ 125 million . At the 2004 Billboard Touring Awards , Re @-@ Invention Tour received the Top Tour while Madonna 's tour manager Caresse Henry was awarded the Top Manager award . A documentary , titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret , which chronicled the tour , was released in 2005 .
= = Critical reception = =
American Life received mixed reviews from music critics , holding a score of 60 / 100 on music review website Metacritic , based on 17 professional reviews . Billboard 's Michael Paoletta noted the lyrical differences from past albums such as Ray of Light positively , saying " American Life relies less on spiritual introspection and more on woman @-@ in @-@ the @-@ mirror confrontation . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker generally responded well , saying that at its best , the album offers blunt , questing and decisive music but the weakest point was Madonna sounding like a girl who 's grown content with her husband and kids and the ability to hire help to do her bidding . Dimitri Ebrlich of Vibe magazine gave a positive review for American Life , saying that Madonna " stayed still " in the album , and commenting that " This may be the first time Madonna hasn 't pushed herself to explore new ground , but at least she 's chosen a good place to rest . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the album a mixed review , stating that American Life is not a " masterpiece " compared to her 1992 studio album , Erotica . " It 's frequently self @-@ indulgent , misguided , unpleasant , difficult to listen to , silly and humorless , but it 's also consistent , uncompromising and unapologetic , " Cinquemani opined , ending with the deduction that American Life stood for the last time Madonna made music without the primary objective of making a hit . In an earlier review , Cinquemani concluded that after years between subgenres and finally finding a comfortable niche in electronica , now showing promise as a folk @-@ rock songstress , the only thing for Madonna to do is make a full @-@ blown rock album .
Giving the album three out of five stars , Ben Ratliff from Rolling Stone summarized that the messages on the album are dour , but complimented Madonna for talking about the then @-@ current situation of the nation . Johny Davis from NME gave the album a rating of seven out of ten , saying that technically the album sounds good , but overall it felt like an unnecessary sequel to Madonna 's previous endeavors like Ray of Light and Music . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine stated that American Life is better for what it promises than what it delivers , and that it is better in theory than practice . Kelefa Sanneh from Blender awarded the album three stars out of five . " Just as disjointed as Music and much more severe ... Without a compelling back story , her songs seem diminished " . Dorian Lynskey from Q magazine also rated it three out of five , stating " ' Nothing Fails ' , the album 's centerpiece , is as good a showstopper as ' Live to Tell ' ... [ but ] it 's no wonder that a record about feeling confused ends up sounding confused " .
Jon Pareles from The New York Times felt that Madonna tried to be honest with the concept of American Dream in the album , but ended up producing songs akin to the " folkie psychobabble " of songwriters like Jewel . James Hannaham from Spin compared the album 's introspective themes to her previous albums Ray of Light and Music and also noted Madonna spends much of American Life bemoaning the emptiness of celebrity culture . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian responded well to parts of the record saying " American Life 's best tracks make a mockery of virtually all other current pop music " however his conclusive point in the review was that there was not enough of good songs . The Village Voice 's Jessica Winter called Madonna 's voice " redundant " and commented that " she ironizes ' the American dream ' only to pitch woo at her English husband and articulate a vague yet fiery frustration with her outrageously privileged station in the world " . Ed Howard from Stylus Magazine gave the album a negative review calling the album " about Madonna " instead of American culture explaining , " it 's Madonna who , surprisingly , has simply run out of things to say " . BBC 's Ian Young also gave a negative review , saying that " the tunes are bland and weak , the lyrics are uninspired and self @-@ absorbed and the semi @-@ Ibiza backing music is bare and recycled — and we are convinced that she has lost it . "
American Life also achieved award nominations . In 2004 , American Life was nominated at the 46th Grammy Awards in two categories " Best Short Form Music Video " and " Best Dance Recording " , both for the song " Die Another Day . " It was also nominated for " Best Video from a Film " at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . At the Hungarian Music Awards of 2004 and 2005 , the album was nominated both times in the category of " International Pop Album of the Year " , but failed to win . Another nomination was for a similar category at the NRJ Music Awards of 2004 .
= = Commercial performance = =
After its release , American Life debuted at number one on the United States Billboard 200 chart with 241 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The sales were less than Madonna 's previous studio album , Music , which debuted with 420 @,@ 000 copies in 2000 , but was the only one that week to sell over 200 @,@ 000 copies . It was Madonna 's second consecutive number one debut , and her fifth number one album overall in the US . The next week , sales dropped by 62 % to 91 @,@ 000 copies , and the album slid from the top of the chart to number eight . It continued to decrease in sales down the chart and fell off the Billboard 200 . In September 2003 , following Madonna 's performance at the MTV Video Music Awards , the album saw a sales gain of 19 % , but did not chart back . On July 7 , 2003 , just months after the release , it was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipment of one million copies in the US alone . However , it became the third lowest selling studio album by Madonna behind her 2012 release MDNA and her 2015 release Rebel Heart , with sales of 680 @,@ 000 copies as of October 2012 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It ranked at number 125 on the year @-@ end ranking of the albums by Billboard . In Canada , the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of 18 @,@ 000 copies on May 10 , 2003 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the sum was considerably less than her previous studio efforts , Ray of Light ( 1998 ) and Music ( 2000 ) , which debuted with 59 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 copies respectively . It gained a Platinum certification one month later from the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies of the album .
In the United Kingdom , American Life debuted atop the UK Albums Chart , with sales of 65 @,@ 013 copies , much less than the opening sum of 2000 's Music , which debuted with sales of 151 @,@ 891 copies . The next week , it was pushed down to the third position , by Justin Timberlake 's album , Justified , and The White Stripes album , Elephant . It continued its downward movement , falling to number five in its third week on the chart and was out of the top ten by its fifth week . It was present for a total of 19 weeks on the chart , ranking at number 52 on the UK year @-@ end tally . American Life sold 335 @,@ 115 copies by July 2008 and earned a platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . In European countries , the album topped the charts in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Denmark , France , Italy , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) awarded American Life Platinum certification , signifying sales of over one million copies across Europe . The album also gained Platinum certifications in countries such as France , Russia , and Switzerland , and Gold certifications in Brazil , Greece , and the Netherlands .
In Japan , the album peaked at number four on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart remaining there for 13 weeks , and went on to gain a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) that same year , for shipping 100 @,@ 000 copies of the release . In Australia the album peaked at number three , before descending rapidly down the ARIA Albums Chart . Nevertheless , it gained a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping 70 @,@ 000 copies . Overall , American Life became the 32nd bestselling album of 2003 , with five million copies sold worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Northern pintail =
The pintail or northern pintail ( Anas acuta ) is a duck with wide geographic distribution that breeds in the northern areas of Europe , Asia and North America . It is migratory and winters south of its breeding range to the equator . Unusually for a bird with such a large range , it has no geographical subspecies if the possibly conspecific duck Eaton 's pintail is considered to be a separate species .
This is a large duck , and the male 's long central tail feathers give rise to the species ' English and scientific names . Both sexes have blue @-@ grey bills and grey legs and feet . The drake is more striking , having a thin white stripe running from the back of its chocolate @-@ coloured head down its neck to its mostly white undercarriage . The drake also has attractive grey , brown , and black patterning on its back and sides . The hen 's plumage is more subtle and subdued , with drab brown feathers similar to those of other female dabbling ducks . Hens make a coarse quack and the drakes a flute @-@ like whistle .
The northern pintail is a bird of open wetlands which nests on the ground , often some distance from water . It feeds by dabbling for plant food and adds small invertebrates to its diet during the nesting season . It is highly gregarious when not breeding , forming large mixed flocks with other species of duck . This duck 's population is affected by predators , parasites and avian diseases . Human activities , such as agriculture , hunting and fishing , have also had a significant impact on numbers . Nevertheless , owed to the huge range and large population of this species , it is not threatened globally .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Anas acuta . The scientific name comes from two Latin words : anas , meaning " duck " , and acuta , which comes from the verb acuere , " to sharpen " ; the species term , like the English name , refers to the pointed tail of the male in breeding plumage . Within the large dabbling duck genus Anas , the northern pintail 's closest relatives are other pintails , such as the yellow @-@ billed pintail ( A. georgica ) and Eaton 's pintail ( A. eatoni ) . The pintails are sometimes separated in the genus Dafila ( described by Stephens , 1824 ) , an arrangement supported by morphological , molecular and behavioural data . The famous British ornithologist Sir Peter Scott gave this name to his daughter , the artist Dafila Scott .
Eaton 's pintail has two subspecies , A. e. eatoni ( the Kerguelen pintail ) of Kerguelen Islands , and A. e. drygalskyi ( the Crozet pintail ) of Crozet Islands , and was formerly considered conspecific with the northern hemisphere 's northern pintail . Sexual dimorphism is much less marked in the southern pintails , with the male 's breeding appearance being similar to the female plumage . Unusually for a species with such a large range , northern pintail has no geographical subspecies if Eaton 's pintail is treated as a separate species . A claimed extinct subspecies from Manra Island , Tristram 's pintail , A. a. modesta , appears to be indistinguishable from the nominate form .
= = Description = =
The northern pintail is a fairly large duck with a wing chord of 23 @.@ 6 – 28 @.@ 2 cm ( 9 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 1 in ) and wingspan of 80 – 95 cm ( 31 – 37 in ) . The male is 59 – 76 cm ( 23 – 30 in ) in length and weighs 450 – 1 @,@ 360 g ( 0 @.@ 99 – 3 @.@ 00 lb ) , and therefore is considerably larger than the female , which is 51 – 64 cm ( 20 – 25 in ) long and weighs 454 – 1 @,@ 135 g ( 1 @.@ 001 – 2 @.@ 502 lb ) . The northern pintail broadly overlaps in size with the similarly @-@ widespread mallard , but is more slender , elongated and gracile , with a relatively longer neck and ( in males ) a longer tail . The unmistakable breeding plumaged male has a chocolate @-@ brown head and white breast with a white stripe extending up the side of the neck . Its upperparts and sides are grey , but elongated grey feathers with black central stripes are draped across the back from the shoulder area . The vent area is yellow , contrasting with the black underside of the tail , which has the central feathers elongated to as much as 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The bill is bluish and the legs are blue @-@ grey .
The adult female is mainly scalloped and mottled in light brown with a more uniformly grey @-@ brown head , and its pointed tail is shorter than the male 's ; it is still easily identified by its shape , long neck , and long grey bill . In non @-@ breeding ( eclipse ) plumage , the drake pintail looks similar to the female , but retains the male upperwing pattern and long grey shoulder feathers . Juvenile birds resemble the female , but are less neatly scalloped and have a duller brown speculum with a narrower trailing edge .
The pintail walks well on land , and swims well . It has a very fast flight , with its wings slightly swept @-@ back , rather than straight out from the body like other ducks . In flight , the male shows a black speculum bordered white at the rear and pale rufous at the front , whereas the female 's speculum is dark brown bordered with white , narrowly at the front edge but very prominently at the rear , being visible at a distance of 1 @,@ 600 m ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) .
The male 's call is a soft proop @-@ proop whistle , similar to that of the common teal , whereas the female has a mallard @-@ like descending quack , and a low croak when flushed .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This dabbling duck breeds across northern areas of Eurasia south to about Poland and Mongolia , and in Canada , Alaska and the Midwestern United States . It winters mainly south of its breeding range , reaching almost to the equator in Panama , northern sub @-@ Saharan Africa and tropical South Asia . Small numbers migrate to Pacific islands , particularly Hawaii , where a few hundred birds winter on the main islands in shallow wetlands and flooded agricultural habitats . Transoceanic journeys also occur : a bird that was caught and ringed in Labrador , Canada , was shot by a hunter in England nine days later , and Japanese @-@ ringed birds have been recovered from six US states east to Utah and Mississippi . In parts of the range , such as Great Britain and the northwestern United States , the pintail may be present all year .
The northern pintail 's breeding habitat is open unwooded wetlands , such as wet grassland , lakesides or tundra . In winter , it will utilise a wider range of open habitats , such as sheltered estuaries , brackish marshes and coastal lagoons . It is highly gregarious outside the breeding season and forms very large mixed flocks with other ducks .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Both sexes reach sexual maturity at one year of age . The male mates with the female by swimming close to her with his head lowered and tail raised , continually whistling . If there is a group of males , they will chase the female in flight until only one drake is left . The female prepares for copulation , which takes place in the water , by lowering her body ; the male then bobs his head up and down and mounts the female , taking the feathers on the back of her head in his mouth . After mating , he raises his head and back and whistles .
Breeding takes place between April and June , with the nest being constructed on the ground and hidden amongst vegetation in a dry location , often some distance from water . It is a shallow scrape on the ground lined with plant material and down . The female lays seven to nine cream @-@ coloured eggs at the rate of one per day ; the eggs are 55 mm × 38 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) in size and weigh 45 g ( 1 @.@ 6 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . If predators destroy the first clutch , the female can produce a replacement clutch as late as the end of July . The hen alone incubates the eggs for 22 to 24 days before they hatch . The precocial downy chicks are then led by the female to the nearest body of water , where they feed on dead insects on the water surface . The chicks fledge in 46 to 47 days after hatching , but stay with the female until she has completed moulting .
Around three @-@ quarters of chicks live long enough to fledge , but not more than half of those survive long enough to reproduce . The maximum recorded age is 27 years and 5 months for a Dutch bird .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pintail feeds by dabbling and upending in shallow water for plant food mainly in the evening or at night , and therefore spends much of the day resting . Its long neck enables it to take food items from the bottom of water bodies up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , which are beyond the reach of other dabbling ducks like the Mallard .
The winter diet is mainly plant material including seeds and rhizomes of aquatic plants , but the pintail sometimes feeds on roots , grain and other seeds in fields , though less frequently than other Anas ducks . During the nesting season , this bird eats mainly invertebrate animals , including aquatic insects , molluscs and crustaceans .
= = Health = =
Pintail nests and chicks are vulnerable to predation by mammals , such as foxes and badgers , and birds like gulls , crows and magpies . The adults can take flight to escape terrestrial predators , but nesting females in particular may be surprised by large carnivores such as bobcats . Large birds of prey , such as northern goshawks , will take ducks from the ground , and some falcons , including the gyrfalcon , have the speed and power to catch flying birds .
It is susceptible to a range of parasites including Cryptosporidium , Giardia , tapeworms , blood parasites and external feather lice , and is also affected by other avian diseases . It is often the dominant species in major mortality events from avian botulism and avian cholera , and can also contract avian influenza , the H5N1 strain of which is highly pathogenic and occasionally infects humans .
The northern pintail is a popular species for game shooting because of its speed , agility , and excellent eating qualities , and is hunted across its range . Although one of the world 's most numerous ducks , the combination of hunting with other factors has led to population declines , and local restrictions on hunting have been introduced at times to help conserve numbers .
This species ' preferred habitat of shallow water is naturally susceptible to problems such as drought or the encroachment of vegetation , but this duck 's habitat might be increasingly threatened by climate change . Populations are also affected by the conversion of wetlands and grassland to arable crops , depriving the duck of feeding and nesting areas . Spring planting means that many nests of this early breeding duck are destroyed by farming activities , and a Canadian study showed that more than half of the surveyed nests were destroyed by agricultural work such as ploughing and harrowing .
Hunting with lead shot , along with the use of lead sinkers in angling , has been identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl , which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands where the shot collects . A Spanish study showed that northern pintail and common pochard were the species with the highest levels of lead shot ingestion , higher than in northern countries of the western Palearctic flyway , where lead shot has been banned . In the United States , Canada , and many western European countries , all shot used for waterfowl must now be non @-@ toxic , and therefore may not contain any lead .
= = Status = =
The northern pintail has a large range , estimated at 28 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and a population estimated at 5 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 4 million individuals . It is therefore not believed to meet the IUCN Red List threshold criterion of a population decline of more than 30 % in ten years or three generations , and is evaluated as Least Concern .
In the Palaearctic , breeding populations are declining in much of the range , including its stronghold in Russia . In other regions , populations are stable or fluctuating .
Pintails in North America at least have been badly affected by avian diseases , with the breeding population falling from more than 10 million in 1957 to 3 @.@ 5 million by 1964 . Although the species has recovered from that low point , the breeding population in 1999 was 30 % below the long @-@ term average , despite years of major efforts focused on restoring the species . In 1997 , an estimated 1 @.@ 5 million water birds , the majority being northern pintails , died from avian botulism during two outbreaks in Canada and Utah .
The northern pintail is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies , but it has no special status under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , which regulates international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants .
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= Eldridge Recasner =
Eldridge David Recasner ( born December 14 , 1967 ) is a retired American professional basketball player . In college , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 Conference guard for the Washington Huskies men 's basketball team . After college , he played in a variety of professional leagues such as the Continental Basketball Association ( CBA ) and Europe before entering the NBA . He subsequently played for several National Basketball Association 's ( NBA ) teams including the Denver Nuggets , Houston Rockets , Atlanta Hawks , Charlotte Hornets and Los Angeles Clippers .
In the 1994 – 95 season , his fifth season after college , he earned the CBA MVP award while leading the Yakima Sun Kings to the league championship . After that CBA season was completed , he signed to play in the NBA at the end of the 1994 – 95 NBA season for the Nuggets . The following season , he earned a spot on the roster of the two @-@ time defending champion Rockets . He played in the NBA for seven more seasons . He had a career 41 % three @-@ point shot field goal percentage and 89 % free throw percentage in eight NBA seasons . In each of his first four full seasons in the NBA , he shot at least 40 % from the three @-@ point line , but he suffered injuries as a passenger during an accident in an automobile driven by Derrick Coleman before the 1999 – 2000 season and never achieved the same level of success after the accident . He later became an assistant coach for the Sioux Falls Skyforce .
= = Amateur career = =
Born in New Orleans , Louisiana , Recasner was introduced to basketball in fifth grade by his uncles . His first organized game was in junior high school . During the first game , Recasner scored on the wrong basket because he had learned the game on a half @-@ court one @-@ basket basketball court . While growing up , he admired Dr. J , George Gervin , and Marques Johnson . He attended Alfred Lawless High School in New Orleans and was a high school team mate with Robert Pack . Recasner was a senior when Pack was a sophomore . Recasner was a better professional prospect than Pack and outscored Gary Payton five of nine times when the two point guards opposed each other in college .
Recasner attended University of Washington where he played for the Huskies . He redshirted during his freshman 1985 – 86 season . Recasner was a member of the 1990 class at Washington , and he was a three @-@ time All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 guard who was selected to the Washington Huskies all @-@ 20th @-@ century team . He was the first three @-@ time captain of the Huskies . Recasner was an architecture major at Washington by his own account , but another account claims he was a black history major . Recasner once scored 29 points against the undefeated and number one ranked Arizona Wildcats men 's basketball team while guarding Sean Elliott . The Wildcats won the game while scoring the most points the Huskies had ever given up ( 109 ) .
= = Professional career = =
Recasner , a 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) , 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) guard , was never selected in the NBA Draft . However , after spending the 1990 – 91 season with TTL Bamberg in Germany , he played in the Global Basketball Association in 1991 – 92 . Then , he returned to Washington to play in the Continental Basketball Association ( CBA ) during the 1992 – 93 and 1994 – 95 seasons . He played in the CBA for the franchise located in Yakima , Washington , which was near to the Seattle metropolitan area where the University of Washington was located . He played in Turkey in 1993 – 94 . After leading the Yakima Sun Kings to the CBA championships as the league MVP , he signed to a 10 @-@ day contract with the Denver Nuggets on March 3 , 1995 and played in three games . For the 1995 – 96 NBA season he signed as a free agent with the Houston Rockets . He signed as a free agent with the Atlanta Hawks for the 1996 – 97 and 1997 – 98 seasons . He then signed with the Charlotte Hornets in January of the 1998 – 99 season where he stayed for parts of four seasons . He ended his career with two 10 @-@ day contracts for the L.A. Clippers in January 2002 after having been waived by the team .
Recasner himself considers being signed by the two @-@ time defending NBA Champions Houston Rockets the highlight of his career . At that point he had gone from playing in the CBA to the best team in the NBA . Recasner earned the starting point guard spot over Kenny Smith and Sam Cassell . In one of his first games as a starter , he went five for six from the three @-@ point line in the fourth quarter against the Detroit Pistons . Unfortunately , by the end of the season the Rockets had several players injured and several CBA players on their roster .
His most productive seasons were the two seasons with Atlanta where he totaled over 250 rebounds , 200 assists and nearly 1000 points in 130 games . He played in four post @-@ seasons with three teams . Three of the four teams advanced to the second round of the NBA playoffs . Recasner posted a career 41 % ( 239 – 584 ) three @-@ point shot field goal percentage and ranked in the league 's top 10 during the 1997 – 98 season with a 62 – 148 ( .419 ) shooting percentage . His 1995 – 96 season three point statistics were better at 81 – 191 ( .424 ) , but he did not rank in the top 10 that season . He also posted an 89 % ( 235 – 265 ) career free throw percentage .
In a 1997 NBA Playoff game against the Chicago Bulls he got hot and scored 11 quick points in the third quarter to nearly help the Hawks comeback in the game to even the second @-@ round playoff series at two games apiece . At one point after a hot shooting streak , the Bulls assigned Michael Jordan to defend Recasner and the Bulls then stopped the comeback . Recasner 's defense also pressured Jordan into a travelling violation in the final minute of the game . However , efforts by Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen saved the day for the Bulls .
Recasner was such a good free throw shooter that once in 1998 during the midst of a 36 consecutive successful free throw streak he was fouled in a two @-@ shot foul situation with his team down by three points and 2 @.@ 3 seconds left . His team needed him to make the first and miss the second , but he was unable to miss .
On October 27 , 1999 he was hospitalized in an automobile driven by Derrick Coleman . Coleman had been driving an Sport utility vehicle and had collided with a tractor trailer and was charged with drunk driving . Coleman was eventually acquitted of the charges and found guilty of " unsafe movement " . Recasner endured a fractured right shoulder , partially collapsed lung and other injuries , and a female passenger was also hospitalized . He missed 52 games due to the accident and when he returned to the lineup he only played in seven games . Recasner was very upset with Coleman who did not even check in on whether Recasner was O.K. for over a week after the accident . On Christmas Eve 1999 during his time on the injured reserve , Recasner dragged a Continental Airlines clerk across a table by his necktie in frustration while attempting to book a flight to Texas to visit his sister , who was involved in a serious car accident . Recasner was uncertain whether his sister would survive . He pleaded guilty to misdemeanor fourth @-@ degree assault and was sentenced to a 24 @-@ month deferred sentence , 45 hours of community service and ordered to pay $ 200 in court costs .
In 2004 he was named assistant coach of the Bellevue Blackhawks of the American Basketball Association .
= = Personal = =
Recasner lives in Bellevue , Washington , during the off @-@ season . He and his wife Karen have four children : Sydney , Erin , Lauren , and Eldridge III . Recasner had wed on August 14 , 1993 . During his NBA career his mother , Joyce , and sister , Schwuan , lived in New Orleans , but he lived in Bellevue .
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= Megalomys audreyae =
Megalomys audreyae , known as the Barbudan ( ? ) Muskrat or the Barbuda giant rice @-@ rat , is an extinct oryzomyine rodent from Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . Described on the basis of a single mandible ( lower jaw ) with the first molar missing and an isolated upper incisor , both of uncertain but Quaternary age , it is one of the smaller members of the genus Megalomys . Little is known about the animal , and its provenance and distinction from " Ekbletomys hypenemus " , an even larger extinct oryzomyine that also occurred on Barbuda , have been called into question . The toothrow in the lower jaw has a length of 8 @.@ 7 mm at the alveoli . The third molar is relatively narrow and both the second and third molars have a wide valley between their outer cusps .
= = History = =
Remains of Megalomys audreyae were found by John Walter Gregory among cave breccia on Barbuda around 1900 . The exact locality is unknown . In his 1901 description of Oryzomys luciae , Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major mentioned the Barbuda animal as another member of the Megalomys group , but he never published a description of the latter . Édouard Louis Trouessart gave the name Oryzomys ( Megalomys ) majori to it in his Catalogus Mammalium , but he did not describe it and therefore the name is a nomen nudum . In 1926 , Arthur Hopwood finally described it and named it Megalomys audreyae after Gregory 's wife Audrey , following Major 's intention .
The oryzomyines of the Caribbean were revised in 1962 by Clayton Ray , who examined the specimens Gregory had found and redescribed them . He suggested that M. audreyae may in fact have come from Barbados instead of similarly named Barbuda , citing the occurrence of a different oryzomyine ( " Ekbletomys hypenemus " ) in other cave deposits on Barbuda , circumstantial evidence for the occurrence of a native rodent on Barbados , uncertainty whether Gregory ever visited Barbuda , and biogeographical considerations .
In the subsequent literature , M. audreyae has seldom been mentioned and never been further described . In a 1999 review of recent extinctions in mammals , Ross MacPhee and C. Flemming reported that M. audreyae had been recovered from a locality on Barbuda known as Darby Sink , which had been radiocarbon dated to around 1200 CE . They also stated that M. audreyae and " Ekbletomys " may in fact be identical . However , in 2009 Samuel Turvey suggested that two different rice rats were in fact present in material from Barbuda , which would imply that M. audreyae is a valid species .
= = Description = =
The only remains of Megalomys audreyae that have been described in the literature are the original two specimens Gregory found , a left upper incisor and a left mandible ( lower jaw ) . The upper incisor is not grooved and its diameter has a length of 2 @.@ 6 mm and width of 1 @.@ 5 mm , but exhibits no other significant characters .
The mandible , which is severely damaged and lacks the condyloid , coronoid , and angular processes at the back of the bone , contains the second and third molar and part of the lower incisor , but the first molar is missing . The capsular process of the lower incisor , a slight raising of the mandibular bone at the back end of the incisor , is small . The preserved alveoli , the impressions left by the roots , show that the first molar was supported by large roots at the front and back and a smaller root in between these . The second molar is about square and shows the four main cusps commonly present in rodents : the protoconid , metaconid , hypoconid , and entoconid . A strongly developed mesolophid ( a crest ) is also present , as in most oryzomyines . The main valley between the cusps , the hypoflexid , is broad and V @-@ shaped . The third molar is as long as the second , but it is narrower and the entoconid is poorly developed . Again , the hypoflexid is broad and V @-@ shaped . The length of the toothrow at the alveoli is 8 @.@ 7 mm . The length of the second molar is 2 @.@ 5 mm and the width is 2 @.@ 2 mm . The third molar has a length of 2 @.@ 5 mm and width of 1 @.@ 8 mm .
When Clayton Ray described " Ekbletomys hypenemus " on the basis of abundant skeletal remains from both Barbuda and Antigua , he carefully distinguished it from M. audreyae , the only other native rodent recorded from those islands . M. audreyae is much smaller than " Ekbletomys " ; for example , 72 specimens of the latter had the alveolar length of the lower molars ranging from 10 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 6 mm ( mean 11 @.@ 6 mm , standard deviation 0 @.@ 49 mm ; compare 8 @.@ 7 mm for M. audreyae ) . In addition , the V @-@ shaped hypoflexids and narrow third molar of M. audreyae contrast with the narrow , parallel @-@ sided hypoflexids and broad third molar of " Ekbletomys " . These characters , and others observable in species of Megalomys represented by more complete material , convinced Ray that M. audreyae and " Ekbletomys " are not only distinct species , but indeed share no close relationship . Instead , he proposed that the combination of large size , occurrence in the Lesser Antilles , and similarity in molar morphology indicated a relationship between M. audreyae and other species of Megalomys , and he suggested that the similarly sized M. curazensis from Curaçao , off Venezuela , may be most closely related to M. audreyae .
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= Paulinus of York =
Paulinus ( died 10 October 644 ) was a Roman missionary and the first Bishop of York . A member of the Gregorian mission sent in 601 by Pope Gregory I to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism , Paulinus arrived in England by 604 with the second missionary group . Little is known of Paulinus ' activities in the following two decades .
After some years spent in Kent , perhaps in 625 , Paulinus was consecrated a bishop . He accompanied Æthelburg of Kent , sister of King Eadbald of Kent , on her journey to Northumbria to marry King Edwin of Northumbria , and eventually succeeded in converting Edwin to Christianity . Paulinus also converted many of Edwin 's subjects and built some churches . One of the women Paulinus baptised was a future saint , Hilda of Whitby . Following Edwin 's death in 633 , Paulinus and Æthelburg fled Northumbria , leaving behind a member of Paulinus ' clergy , James the Deacon . Paulinus returned to Kent , where he became Bishop of Rochester . He received a pallium from the pope , symbolizing his appointment as Archbishop of York , but too late to be effective . After his death in 644 , Paulinus was canonized as a saint and is now venerated in the Eastern Orthodox , Roman Catholic , and Anglican Churches .
= = Early life = =
Paulinus was a monk from Rome sent to the Kingdom of Kent by Pope Gregory I in 601 , along with Mellitus and others , as part of the second group of missionaries sent to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity . He was probably an Italian by birth . The second group of missionaries arrived in Kent by 604 , but little is known of Paulinus ' further activities until he went to Northumbria .
Paulinus remained in Kent until 625 , when he was consecrated as bishop by Justus , the Archbishop of Canterbury , on 21 July . He then accompanied Æthelburg , the sister of King Eadbald , to Northumbria where she was to marry King Edwin . A condition of the marriage was that Edwin had promised that he would allow Æthelburg to remain a Christian and worship as she chose . Bede , writing in the early 8th century , reports that Paulinus wished to convert the Northumbrians , as well as provide religious services to the new queen .
There is some difficulty with Bede 's chronology on the date of Æthelburg 's marriage , as surviving papal letters to Edwin urging him to convert imply that Eadbald only recently had become a Christian , which conflicts with Bede 's chronology . The historian D. P. Kirby argues that Paulinus and Æthelburg must therefore have gone to Northumbria earlier than 624 , and that Paulinus went north , not as a bishop , but as a priest , returning later to be consecrated . The historian Henry Mayr @-@ Harting agrees with Kirby 's reasoning . Another historian , Peter Hunter Blair , argues that Æthelburg and Edwin were married before 625 , but that she did not go to Northumbria until 625 . If Kirby 's arguments are accepted , then the date of Paulinus ' consecration needs to be changed by a year , to 21 July 626 .
Bede describes Paulinus as " a man tall of stature , a little stooping , with black hair and a thin face , a hooked and thin nose , his aspect both venerable and awe @-@ inspiring " .
= = Bishop of York = =
Bede relates that Paulinus told Edwin that the birth of his and Æthelburg 's daughter at Easter 626 was because of Paulinus ' prayers . The birth coincided with a foiled assassination attempt on the king by a group of West Saxons from Wessex . Edwin promised to convert to Christianity and allow his new daughter Eanflæd to be baptised if he won a victory over Wessex . He did not fulfill his promise immediately after his subsequent military success against the West Saxons however , only converting after Paulinus had revealed the details of a dream the king had before he took the throne , during his exile at the court of King Rædwald of East Anglia . In this dream , according to Bede , a stranger told Edwin that power would be his in the future when someone laid a hand on his head . As Paulinus was revealing the dream to Edwin , he laid his hand on the king 's head , which was the proof Edwin needed . A late seventh @-@ century hagiography of Pope Gregory I claims that Paulinus was the stranger in the vision ; if true , it might suggest that Paulinus spent some time at Rædwald 's court , although Bede does not mention any such visit .
It is unlikely that it was supernatural affairs and Paulinus ' persuasion alone that caused Edwin to convert . The Northumbrian nobles seem to have been willing and the king also received letters from Pope Boniface V urging his conversion . Eventually convinced , Edwin and many of his followers were baptised at York in 627 . One story relates that during a stay with Edwin and Æthelburg at their palace in Yeavering , Paulinus spent 36 days baptising new converts . Paulinus also was an active missionary in Lindsey , and his missionary activities help show the limits of Edwin 's royal authority .
Pope Gregory 's plan had been that York would be England 's second metropolitan see , so Paulinus established his church there . Although built of stone , no trace of it has been found . Paulinus also built a number of churches on royal estates . His church in Lincoln has been identified with the earliest building phase of the church of St Paul in the Bail .
Among those consecrated by Paulinus were Hilda , later the founding abbess of Whitby Abbey , and Hilda 's successor , Eanflæd , Edwin 's daughter . As the only Roman bishop in England , Paulinus also consecrated another Gregorian missionary , Honorius , as Archbishop of Canterbury after Justus ' death , some time between 628 and 631 .
= = Bishop of Rochester = =
Edwin was defeated by the Welsh and died at the Battle of Hatfield Chase , on a date traditionally given as 12 October 633 . One problem with the dating of the battle is that Pope Honorius I wrote in June 634 to Paulinus and Archbishop Honorius saying that he was sending a pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority , to each of them . The pope 's letter shows no hint that news of Edwin 's death had reached Rome , almost nine months after the supposed date of the battle . The historian D. P. Kirby argues that this lack of awareness makes it more likely that the battle occurred in 634 .
Edwin 's defeat and death caused his kingdom to fragment into at least two parts . It also led to a sharp decline in Christianity in Northumbria when Edwin 's immediate successors reverted to paganism . Although Paulinus ' deacon , James , remained in the north and struggled to rebuild the Roman mission , Edwin 's widow decided to return to Kent . Paulinus went with her , taking Edwin and Æthelburg 's son and daughter , as well as one of Edwin 's grandsons . The two boys went to the continent for safety , to the court of King Dagobert I. Æthelburg , Eanflæd , and Paulinus remained in Kent , where Paulinus was offered the see , or bishopric , of Rochester , which he held until his death . Because the pallium did not reach Paulinus until after he had left York , it was of no use to him .
= = Death and veneration = =
Paulinus died on 10 October 644 at Rochester , where he was buried in the sacristy of the church . His successor at Rochester was Ithamar , the first Englishman consecrated to a Gregorian missionary see . After Paulinus ' death , Paulinus was revered as a saint , with a feast day on 10 October . When a new church was constructed at Rochester in the 1080s his relics , or remains , were translated ( ritually moved ) to a new shrine . There also were shrines to Paulinus at Canterbury , and at least five churches were dedicated to him . Although Rochester held some of Paulinus ' relics , the promotion of his cult there appears to have occurred after the Norman Conquest . He is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church , the Anglican Communion , and the Orthodox Church .
Paulinus ' missionary efforts are difficult to evaluate . Bede implies that the mission in Northumbria was successful , but there is little supporting evidence , and it is more likely that Paulinus ' missionary efforts there were relatively ineffectual . Although Osric , one of Edwin 's successors , was converted to Christianity by Paulinus , he returned to paganism after Edwin 's death . Hilda , however , remained a Christian , and eventually went on to become abbess of the influential Whitby Abbey . Northumbria 's conversion to Christianity was mainly achieved by Irish missionaries brought into the region by Edwin 's eventual successor , Oswald .
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= Iowa Highway 160 =
Iowa Highway 160 ( Iowa 160 ) is a short state highway that runs east and west in central Iowa . Its begins at Iowa 415 in Ankeny and ends at exit 90 of Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) in Ankeny . Originally ending at a Y intersection , south of the current intersection with Iowa 415 , the route has been straightened to run west and east . Iowa 160 passes Des Moines Area Community College near its intersection with U.S. Route 69 ( US 69 ) .
= = Route description = =
Iowa Highway 160 begins at a stoplight intersection with Iowa 415 on the southwestern edge of Ankeny . Iowa 415 comes from the south and leaves to the west , Iowa 160 begins to the east , and Ankeny 's State Street continues north . Iowa 160 , known locally as Oralabor Road , meets DMACC Boulevard just 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) from its western end and forms the southern border of the Des Moines Area Community College ( DMACC ) campus . Iowa 160 passes businesses to the south and the DMACC campus landscape to the north before intersecting US 69 , known locally as Ankeny Boulevard .
East of US 69 , the highway separates the commercial area to the south from the residential areas to the north . A single @-@ track Union Pacific Railroad line serves as another dividing line as Iowa 160 enters a purely commercial area for the remainder of its length . Just 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 480 m ) from its eastern end , it intersects Delaware Avenue , a north – south street which diverts retail traffic exiting from I @-@ 35 just to the east . Iowa 160 ends on an overpass of I @-@ 35 , at exit 90 .
= = History = =
Iowa Highway 160 was designated in 1947 as a diagonal connector route from Iowa Highway 60 , now Iowa Highway 415 , to U.S. Route 69 . Iowa 160 's original west end was a Y intersection , with Iowa 60 coming from the south and heading northwest and Iowa 160 heading northeast . In 1980 , Iowa 160 was extended 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from US 69 to I @-@ 35 . By 1986 , the intersection with Iowa 415 was moved north and became a T intersection .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ankeny , Polk County .
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= Tourette syndrome =
Tourette syndrome ( also called Tourette 's syndrome , Tourette 's disorder , Gilles de la Tourette syndrome , GTS or , more commonly , simply Tourette 's or TS ) is an inherited neuropsychiatric disorder with onset in childhood , characterized by multiple physical ( motor ) tics and at least one vocal ( phonic ) tic . These tics characteristically wax and wane , can be suppressed temporarily , and are preceded by a premonitory urge . Tourette 's is defined as part of a spectrum of tic disorders , which includes provisional , transient and persistent ( chronic ) tics .
Tourette 's was once considered a rare and bizarre syndrome , most often associated with the exclamation of obscene words or socially inappropriate and derogatory remarks ( coprolalia ) , but this symptom is present in only a small minority of people with Tourette 's . Tourette 's is no longer considered a rare condition , but it is not always correctly identified because most cases are mild and the severity of tics decreases for most children as they pass through adolescence . Between 0 @.@ 4 % and 3 @.@ 8 % of children and adolescents ages 5 to 18 may have Tourette 's ; the prevalence of other tic disorders in school @-@ age children is higher , with the more common tics of eye blinking , coughing , throat clearing , sniffing , and facial movements . Extreme Tourette 's in adulthood is a rarity , and Tourette 's does not adversely affect intelligence or life expectancy .
Genetic and environmental factors play a role in the etiology of Tourette 's , but the exact causes are unknown . In most cases , medication is unnecessary . There is no effective treatment for every case of tics , but certain medications and therapies can help when their use is warranted . Education is an important part of any treatment plan , and explanation and reassurance alone are often sufficient treatment . Comorbid conditions ( co @-@ occurring diagnoses other than Tourette 's ) such as attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) are present in many patients seen in tertiary specialty clinics . These other conditions often cause more functional impairment to the individual than the tics that are the hallmark of Tourette 's ; hence , it is important to correctly identify comorbid conditions and treat them .
The eponym was bestowed by Jean @-@ Martin Charcot ( 1825 – 1893 ) on behalf of his resident , Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette ( 1857 – 1904 ) , a French physician and neurologist , who published an account of nine patients with Tourette 's in 1885 .
= = Classification = =
Tics are sudden , repetitive , nonrhythmic movements ( motor tics ) and utterances ( phonic tics ) that involve discrete muscle groups . Motor tics are movement @-@ based tics , while phonic tics are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose , mouth , or throat .
Tourette 's was classified by the fourth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) as one of several tic disorders " usually first diagnosed in infancy , childhood , or adolescence " according to type ( motor or phonic tics ) and duration ( transient or chronic ) . Transient tic disorders consisted of multiple motor tics , phonic tics or both , with a duration between four weeks and twelve months . Chronic tic disorder was either single or multiple , motor or phonic tics ( but not both ) , which were present for more than a year . Tourette 's is diagnosed when multiple motor tics , and at least one phonic tic , are present for more than a year . The fifth version of the DSM ( DSM @-@ 5 ) , published in May 2013 , reclassified Tourette 's and tic disorders as motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category , and replaced transient tic disorder with provisional tic disorder , but made few other significant changes .
Tic disorders are defined only slightly differently by the World Health Organization International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems , ICD @-@ 10 ; code F95.2 is for combined vocal and multiple motor tic disorder [ de la Tourette ] .
Although Tourette 's is the more severe expression of the spectrum of tic disorders , most cases are mild . The severity of symptoms varies widely among people with Tourette 's , and mild cases may be undetected .
= = Characteristics = =
Tics are movements or sounds " that occur intermittently and unpredictably out of a background of normal motor activity " , having the appearance of " normal behaviors gone wrong " . The tics associated with Tourette 's change in number , frequency , severity and anatomical location . Waxing and waning — the ongoing increase and decrease in severity and frequency of tics — occurs differently in each individual . Tics also occur in " bouts of bouts " , which vary for each person .
Coprolalia ( the spontaneous utterance of socially objectionable or taboo words or phrases ) is the most publicized symptom of Tourette 's , but it is not required for a diagnosis of Tourette 's and only about 10 % of Tourette 's patients exhibit it . Echolalia ( repeating the words of others ) and palilalia ( repeating one 's own words ) occur in a minority of cases , while the most common initial motor and vocal tics are , respectively , eye blinking and throat clearing .
In contrast to the abnormal movements of other movement disorders ( for example , choreas , dystonias , myoclonus , and dyskinesias ) , the tics of Tourette 's are temporarily suppressible , nonrhythmic , and often preceded by an unwanted premonitory urge . Immediately preceding tic onset , most individuals with Tourette 's are aware of an urge , similar to the need to sneeze or scratch an itch . Individuals describe the need to tic as a buildup of tension , pressure , or energy which they consciously choose to release , as if they " had to do it " to relieve the sensation or until it feels " just right " . Examples of the premonitory urge are the feeling of having something in one 's throat , or a localized discomfort in the shoulders , leading to the need to clear one 's throat or shrug the shoulders . The actual tic may be felt as relieving this tension or sensation , similar to scratching an itch . Another example is blinking to relieve an uncomfortable sensation in the eye . These urges and sensations , preceding the expression of the movement or vocalization as a tic , are referred to as " premonitory sensory phenomena " or premonitory urges . Because of the urges that precede them , tics are described as semi @-@ voluntary or " unvoluntary " , rather than specifically involuntary ; they may be experienced as a voluntary , suppressible response to the unwanted premonitory urge . Published descriptions of the tics of Tourette 's identify sensory phenomena as the core symptom of the syndrome , even though they are not included in the diagnostic criteria .
While individuals with tics are sometimes able to suppress their tics for limited periods of time , doing so often results in tension or mental exhaustion . People with Tourette 's may seek a secluded spot to release their symptoms , or there may be a marked increase in tics after a period of suppression at school or at work . Some people with Tourette 's may not be aware of the premonitory urge . Children may be less aware of the premonitory urge associated with tics than are adults , but their awareness tends to increase with maturity . They may have tics for several years before becoming aware of premonitory urges . Children may suppress tics while in the doctor 's office , so they may need to be observed while they are not aware they are being watched . The ability to suppress tics varies among individuals , and may be more developed in adults than children .
Although there is no such thing as a " typical " case of Tourette syndrome , the condition follows a fairly reliable course in terms of the age of onset and the history of the severity of symptoms . Tics may appear up to the age of eighteen , but the most typical age of onset is from five to seven . A 1998 study published by Leckman and colleagues from the Yale Child Study Center showed that the ages of highest tic severity are eight to twelve ( average ten ) , with tics steadily declining for most patients as they pass through adolescence . The most common , first @-@ presenting tics are eye blinking , facial movements , sniffing and throat clearing . Initial tics present most frequently in midline body regions where there are many muscles , usually the head , neck and facial region . This can be contrasted with the stereotyped movements of other disorders ( such as stims and stereotypies of the autism spectrum disorders ) , which typically have an earlier age of onset , are more symmetrical , rhythmical and bilateral , and involve the extremities ( e.g. , flapping the hands ) . Tics that appear early in the course of the condition are frequently confused with other conditions , such as allergies , asthma , and vision problems : pediatricians , allergists and ophthalmologists are typically the first to see a child with tics .
Among patients whose symptoms are severe enough to warrant referral to clinics , obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) and attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) are often associated with Tourette 's . Compulsions resembling tics are present in some individuals with OCD ; " tic @-@ related OCD " is hypothesized to be a subgroup of OCD , distinguished from non @-@ tic related OCD by the type and nature of obsessions and compulsions . Not all persons with Tourette 's have ADHD or OCD or other comorbid conditions , although in clinical populations , a high percentage of patients presenting for care do have ADHD . One author reports that a ten @-@ year overview of patient records revealed about 40 % of patients with Tourette 's have " TS @-@ only " or " pure TS " , referring to Tourette syndrome in the absence of ADHD , OCD and other disorders . Another author reports that 57 % of 656 patients presenting with tic disorders had uncomplicated tics , while 43 % had tics plus comorbid conditions . People with " full @-@ blown Tourette 's " have significant comorbid conditions in addition to tics .
= = Causes = =
The exact cause of Tourette 's is unknown , but it is well established that both genetic and environmental factors are involved . Genetic epidemiology studies have shown that the overwhelming majority of cases of Tourette 's are inherited , although the exact mode of inheritance is not yet known and no gene has been identified . In other cases , tics are associated with disorders other than Tourette 's , a phenomenon known as tourettism .
A person with Tourette 's has about a 50 % chance of passing the gene ( s ) to one of his or her children , but Tourette 's is a condition of variable expression and incomplete penetrance . Thus , not everyone who inherits the genetic vulnerability will show symptoms ; even close family members may show different severities of symptoms , or no symptoms at all . The gene ( s ) may express as Tourette 's , as a milder tic disorder ( provisional or chronic tics ) , or as obsessive – compulsive symptoms without tics . Only a minority of the children who inherit the gene ( s ) have symptoms severe enough to require medical attention . Gender appears to have a role in the expression of the genetic vulnerability : males are more likely than females to express tics .
Non @-@ genetic , environmental , post @-@ infectious , or psychosocial factors — while not causing Tourette 's — can influence its severity . Autoimmune processes may affect tic onset and exacerbation in some cases . In 1998 , a team at the US National Institute of Mental Health proposed a hypothesis based on observation of 50 children that both obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) and tic disorders may arise in a subset of children as a result of a poststreptococcal autoimmune process . Children who meet five diagnostic criteria are classified , according to the hypothesis , as having Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections ( PANDAS ) . This contentious hypothesis is the focus of clinical and laboratory research , but remains unproven .
Some forms of OCD may be genetically linked to Tourette 's . A subset of OCD is thought to be etiologically related to Tourette 's and may be a different expression of the same factors that are important for the expression of tics . The genetic relationship of ADHD to Tourette syndrome , however , has not been fully established .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The exact mechanism affecting the inherited vulnerability to Tourette 's has not been established , and the precise etiology is unknown . Tics are believed to result from dysfunction in cortical and subcortical regions , the thalamus , basal ganglia and frontal cortex . Neuroanatomic models implicate failures in circuits connecting the brain 's cortex and subcortex , and imaging techniques implicate the basal ganglia and frontal cortex .
= = Diagnosis = =
According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ 5 ) , Tourette ’ s may be diagnosed when a person exhibits both multiple motor and one or more vocal tics over the period of a year ; the motor and vocal tics need not be concurrent . The onset must have occurred before the age of 18 , and cannot be attributed to the effects of another condition or substance ( such as cocaine ) . Hence , other medical conditions that include tics or tic @-@ like movements — such as autism or other causes of tourettism — must be ruled out before conferring a Tourette 's diagnosis . Since 2000 , the DSM has recognized that clinicians see patients who meet all the other criteria for Tourette 's , but do not have distress or impairment .
There are no specific medical or screening tests that can be used in diagnosing Tourette 's ; it is frequently misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed , partly because of the wide expression of severity , ranging from mild ( the majority of cases ) or moderate , to severe ( the rare , but more widely recognized and publicized cases ) . Coughing , eye blinking , and tics that mimic unrelated conditions such as asthma are commonly misdiagnosed .
The diagnosis is made based on observation of the individual 's symptoms and family history , and after ruling out secondary causes of tic disorders . In patients with a typical onset and a family history of tics or obsessive – compulsive disorder , a basic physical and neurological examination may be sufficient .
There is no requirement that other comorbid conditions ( such as ADHD or OCD ) be present , but if a physician believes that there may be another condition present that could explain tics , tests may be ordered as necessary to rule out that condition . An example of this is when diagnostic confusion between tics and seizure activity exists , which would call for an EEG , or if there are symptoms that indicate an MRI to rule out brain abnormalities . TSH levels can be measured to rule out hypothyroidism , which can be a cause of tics . Brain imaging studies are not usually warranted . In teenagers and adults presenting with a sudden onset of tics and other behavioral symptoms , a urine drug screen for cocaine and stimulants might be necessary . If a family history of liver disease is present , serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels can rule out Wilson 's disease . Most cases are diagnosed by merely observing a history of tics .
Secondary causes of tics ( not related to inherited Tourette syndrome ) are commonly referred to as tourettism . Dystonias , choreas , other genetic conditions , and secondary causes of tics should be ruled out in the differential diagnosis for Tourette syndrome . Other conditions that may manifest tics or stereotyped movements include developmental disorders , autism spectrum disorders , and stereotypic movement disorder ; Sydenham 's chorea ; idiopathic dystonia ; and genetic conditions such as Huntington 's disease , neuroacanthocytosis , Hallervorden @-@ Spatz syndrome , Duchenne muscular dystrophy , Wilson 's disease , and tuberous sclerosis . Other possibilities include chromosomal disorders such as Down syndrome , Klinefelter syndrome , XYY syndrome and fragile X syndrome . Acquired causes of tics include drug @-@ induced tics , head trauma , encephalitis , stroke , and carbon monoxide poisoning . The symptoms of Lesch @-@ Nyhan syndrome may also be confused with Tourette syndrome . Most of these conditions are rarer than tic disorders , and a thorough history and examination may be enough to rule them out , without medical or screening tests .
= = Screening = =
Although not all people with Tourette 's have comorbid conditions , most Tourette 's patients presenting for clinical care at specialty referral centers may exhibit symptoms of other conditions along with their motor and phonic tics . Associated conditions include attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADD or ADHD ) , obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , learning disabilities and sleep disorders . Disruptive behaviors , impaired functioning , or cognitive impairment in patients with comorbid Tourette 's and ADHD may be accounted for by the comorbid ADHD , highlighting the importance of identifying and treating comorbid conditions . Disruption from tics is commonly overshadowed by comorbid conditions that present greater interference to the child . Tic disorders in the absence of ADHD do not appear to be associated with disruptive behavior or functional impairment , while impairment in school , family , or peer relations is greater in patients who have more comorbid conditions and often determines whether therapy is needed .
Because comorbid conditions such as OCD and ADHD can be more impairing than tics , these conditions are included in an evaluation of patients presenting with tics . " It is critical to note that the comorbid conditions may determine functional status more strongly than the tic disorder , " according to Samuel Zinner , MD . The initial assessment of a patient referred for a tic disorder should include a thorough evaluation , including a family history of tics , ADHD , obsessive – compulsive symptoms , and other chronic medical , psychiatric and neurological conditions . Children and adolescents with TS who have learning difficulties are candidates for psychoeducational testing , particularly if the child also has ADHD . Undiagnosed comorbid conditions may result in functional impairment , and it is necessary to identify and treat these conditions to improve functioning . Complications may include depression , sleep problems , social discomfort and self @-@ injury .
= = Management = =
The treatment of Tourette 's focuses on identifying and helping the individual manage the most troubling or impairing symptoms . Most cases of Tourette 's are mild , and do not require pharmacological treatment ; instead , psychobehavioral therapy , education , and reassurance may be sufficient . Treatments , where warranted , can be divided into those that target tics and comorbid conditions , which , when present , are often a larger source of impairment than the tics themselves . Not all people with tics have comorbid conditions , but when those conditions are present , they often take treatment priority .
There is no cure for Tourette 's and no medication that works universally for all individuals without significant adverse effects . Knowledge , education and understanding are uppermost in management plans for tic disorders . The management of the symptoms of Tourette 's may include pharmacological , behavioral and psychological therapies . While pharmacological intervention is reserved for more severe symptoms , other treatments ( such as supportive psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy ) may help to avoid or ameliorate depression and social isolation , and to improve family support . Educating a patient , family , and surrounding community ( such as friends , school , and church ) is a key treatment strategy , and may be all that is required in mild cases .
Medication is available to help when symptoms interfere with functioning . The classes of medication with the most proven efficacy in treating tics — typical and atypical neuroleptics including risperidone ( trade name Risperdal ) , ziprasidone ( Geodon ) , haloperidol ( Haldol ) , pimozide ( Orap ) and fluphenazine ( Prolixin ) — can have long @-@ term and short @-@ term adverse effects . The antihypertensive agents clonidine ( trade name Catapres ) and guanfacine ( Tenex ) are also used to treat tics ; studies show variable efficacy , but a lower side effect profile than the neuroleptics . Stimulants and other medications may be useful in treating ADHD when it co @-@ occurs with tic disorders . Drugs from several other classes of medications can be used when stimulant trials fail , including guanfacine ( trade name Tenex ) , atomoxetine ( Strattera ) and tricyclic antidepressants . Clomipramine ( Anafranil ) , a tricyclic , and SSRIs — a class of antidepressants including fluoxetine ( Prozac ) , sertraline ( Zoloft ) , and fluvoxamine ( Luvox ) — may be prescribed when a Tourette 's patient also has symptoms of obsessive – compulsive disorder . Several other medications have been tried , but evidence to support their use is unconvincing .
Because children with tics often present to physicians when their tics are most severe , and because of the waxing and waning nature of tics , it is recommended that medication not be started immediately or changed often . Frequently , the tics subside with explanation , reassurance , understanding of the condition and a supportive environment . When medication is used , the goal is not to eliminate symptoms : it should be used at the lowest possible dose that manages symptoms without adverse effects , given that these may be more disturbing than the symptoms for which they were prescribed .
Cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) is a useful treatment when OCD is present , and there is increasing evidence supporting the use of habit reversal ( HRT ) in the treatment of tics . There is evidence that HRT reduces tic severity , but there are methodological limitations in the studies , and a need for more trained specialists and better large @-@ scale studies .
Relaxation techniques , such as exercise , yoga or meditation , may be useful in relieving the stress that may aggravate tics , but the majority of behavioral interventions ( such as relaxation training and biofeedback , with the exception of habit reversal ) have not been systematically evaluated and are not empirically supported therapies for Tourette 's . Deep brain stimulation has been used to treat adults with severe Tourette 's that does not respond to conventional treatment , but it is regarded as an invasive , experimental procedure that is unlikely to become widespread .
= = Prognosis = =
Tourette syndrome is a spectrum disorder — its severity ranges over a spectrum from mild to severe . The majority of cases are mild and require no treatment . In these cases , the impact of symptoms on the individual may be mild , to the extent that casual observers might not know of their condition . The overall prognosis is positive , but a minority of children with Tourette syndrome have severe symptoms that persist into adulthood . A study of 46 subjects at 19 years of age found that the symptoms of 80 % had minimum to mild impact on their overall functioning , and that the other 20 % experienced at least a moderate impact on their overall functioning . The rare minority of severe cases can inhibit or prevent individuals from holding a job or having a fulfilling social life . In a follow @-@ up study of thirty @-@ one adults with Tourette 's , all patients completed high school , 52 % finished at least two years of college , and 71 % were full @-@ time employed or were pursuing higher education .
Regardless of symptom severity , individuals with Tourette 's have a normal life span . Although the symptoms may be lifelong and chronic for some , the condition is not degenerative or life @-@ threatening . Intelligence is normal in those with Tourette 's , although there may be learning disabilities . Severity of tics early in life does not predict tic severity in later life , and prognosis is generally favorable , although there is no reliable means of predicting the outcome for a particular individual . The gene or genes associated with Tourette 's have not been identified , and there is no potential " cure " . A higher rate of migraines than the general population and sleep disturbances are reported .
Several studies have demonstrated that the condition in most children improves with maturity . Tics may be at their highest severity at the time that they are diagnosed , and often improve with understanding of the condition by individuals and their families and friends . The statistical age of highest tic severity is typically between eight and twelve , with most individuals experiencing steadily declining tic severity as they pass through adolescence . One study showed no correlation with tic severity and the onset of puberty , in contrast with the popular belief that tics increase at puberty . In many cases , a complete remission of tic symptoms occurs after adolescence . However , a study using videotape to record tics in adults found that , although tics diminished in comparison with childhood , and all measures of tic severity improved by adulthood , 90 % of adults still had tics . Half of the adults who considered themselves tic @-@ free still displayed evidence of tics .
Many people with TS may not realize they have tics ; because tics are more commonly expressed in private , TS may go unrecognized or undetected . It is not uncommon for the parents of affected children to be unaware that they , too , may have had tics as children . Because Tourette 's tends to subside with maturity , and because milder cases of Tourette 's are now more likely to be recognized , the first realization that a parent had tics as a child may not come until their offspring is diagnosed . It is not uncommon for several members of a family to be diagnosed together , as parents bringing children to a physician for an evaluation of tics become aware that they , too , had tics as a child .
Children with Tourette 's may suffer socially if their tics are viewed as " bizarre " . If a child has disabling tics , or tics that interfere with social or academic functioning , supportive psychotherapy or school accommodations can be helpful . Because comorbid conditions ( such as ADHD or OCD ) can cause greater impact on overall functioning than tics , a thorough evaluation for comorbidity is called for when symptoms and impairment warrant .
A supportive environment and family generally gives those with Tourette 's the skills to manage the disorder . People with Tourette 's may learn to camouflage socially inappropriate tics or to channel the energy of their tics into a functional endeavor . Accomplished musicians , athletes , public speakers , and professionals from all walks of life are found among people with Tourette 's . Outcomes in adulthood are associated more with the perceived significance of having severe tics as a child than with the actual severity of the tics . A person who was misunderstood , punished , or teased at home or at school will fare worse than children who enjoyed an understanding and supportive environment .
= = Epidemiology = =
The tics of Tourette syndrome begin in childhood and tend to remit or subside with maturity ; thus , a diagnosis may no longer be warranted for many adults , and observed prevalence rates are higher among children than adults . As children pass through adolescence , about one @-@ quarter become tic @-@ free , almost one @-@ half see their tics diminish to a minimal or mild level , and less than one @-@ quarter have persistent tics . Only 5 to 14 % of adults experience worse tics in adulthood than in childhood .
Tourette syndrome is found among all social , racial and ethnic groups and has been reported in all parts of the world ; it is three to four times more frequent among males than among females . The reported prevalence of TS varies " according to the source , age , and sex of the sample ; the ascertainment procedures ; and diagnostic system " from a low of .05 % in a 1993 study to a high of 2 @.@ 9 % in a 1998 study .
Up to 1 % of the overall population experiences tic disorders , including chronic tics and transient tics of childhood . Chronic tics affect 5 % of children , and transient tics affect up to 20 % . Robertson ( 2011 ) suggests that the prevalence of Tourette syndrome alone in the general population is also 1 % , with a range reported between .4 % and 3 @.@ 8 % for children ages 5 to 18 . Singer ( 2011 ) states the prevalence of TS in the overall population at any time is .1 % for impairing cases and .6 % for all cases , while Bloch and colleagues ( 2011 ) state the overall prevalence as between .3 and 1 % . According to Lombroso and Scahill ( 2008 ) , the emerging consensus is that .1 to 1 % of children have Tourette 's , with several studies supporting a tighter range of .6 to .8 % . Bloch and Leckman ( 2009 ) and Swain ( 2007 ) report a range of prevalence in children of .4 to .6 % , Knight et al . ( 2012 ) estimate .77 % in children , and Du et al . ( 2010 ) report that 1 to 3 % of Western school @-@ age children have Tourette 's . Prevalence rates in special education populations are higher . Using year 2000 census data , a prevalence range of .1 to 1 % yields an estimate of 53 @,@ 000 – 530 @,@ 000 school @-@ age children with Tourette 's in the US , and a prevalence estimate of .1 % means that in 2001 about 553 @,@ 000 people in the UK age 5 or older would have Tourette 's . Most cases would be mild and almost unrecognizable in older individuals .
Tourette syndrome was once thought to be rare : in 1972 , the US National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) believed there were fewer than 100 cases in the United States , and a 1973 registry reported only 485 cases worldwide . However , multiple studies published since 2000 have consistently demonstrated that the prevalence is much higher than previously thought . Discrepancies across current and prior prevalence estimates come from several factors : ascertainment bias in earlier samples drawn from clinically referred cases , assessment methods that may fail to detect milder cases , and differences in diagnostic criteria and thresholds . There were few broad @-@ based community studies published before 2000 and until the 1980s , most epidemiological studies of Tourette syndrome were based on individuals referred to tertiary care or specialty clinics . Individuals with mild symptoms may not seek treatment and physicians may not confer an official diagnosis of TS on children out of concern for stigmatization ; children with milder symptoms are unlikely to be referred to specialty clinics , so prevalence studies have an inherent bias towards more severe cases . Studies of Tourette syndrome are vulnerable to error because tics vary in intensity and expression , are often intermittent , and are not always recognized by clinicians , patients , family members , friends or teachers ; approximately 20 % of persons with Tourette syndrome do not recognize that they have tics . Newer studies — recognizing that tics may often be undiagnosed and hard to detect — use direct classroom observation and multiple informants ( parent , teacher , and trained observers ) , and therefore record more cases than older studies relying on referrals . As the diagnostic threshold and assessment methodology have moved towards recognition of milder cases , the result is an increase in estimated prevalence .
Tourette 's is associated with several comorbid conditions , or co @-@ occurring diagnoses , which are often the major source of impairment for an affected child . Most individuals with tics do not seek medical attention , so epidemiological studies of TS " reflect a strong ascertainment bias " , but among those who do warrant medical attention , the majority have other conditions , and up to 50 % have ADHD or OCD . One author reports that a ten @-@ year overview of patient records revealed about 40 % of patients with Tourette 's have " TS @-@ only " or " pure TS " , referring to Tourette syndrome in the absence of ADHD , OCD and other disorders . In children with tics , the additional presence of ADHD is associated with functional impairment , disruptive behavior , and tic severity . Other comorbid conditions include self @-@ injurious behaviors ( SIB ) , anxiety , depression , personality disorders , oppositional defiant disorder , and conduct disorders .
= = History and research directions = =
The first presentation of Tourette syndrome is thought to be in the book , Malleus Maleficarum ( " Witch 's hammer " ) by Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Kraemer , published in the late 15th century and describing a priest whose tics were " believed to be related to possession by the devil " . A French doctor , Jean Marc Gaspard Itard , reported the first case of Tourette syndrome in 1825 , describing Marquise de Dampierre , an important woman of nobility in her time . Jean @-@ Martin Charcot , an influential French physician , assigned his resident Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette , a French physician and neurologist , to study patients at the Salpêtrière Hospital , with the goal of defining an illness distinct from hysteria and from chorea .
In 1885 , Gilles de la Tourette published an account in Study of a Nervous Affliction describing nine persons with " convulsive tic disorder " , concluding that a new clinical category should be defined . The eponym was later bestowed by Charcot after and on behalf of Gilles de la Tourette .
Little progress was made over the next century in explaining or treating tics , and a psychogenic view prevailed well into the 20th century . The possibility that movement disorders , including Tourette syndrome , might have an organic origin was raised when an encephalitis epidemic from 1918 – 1926 led to a subsequent epidemic of tic disorders .
During the 1960s and 1970s , as the beneficial effects of haloperidol ( Haldol ) on tics became known , the psychoanalytic approach to Tourette syndrome was questioned . The turning point came in 1965 , when Arthur K. Shapiro — described as " the father of modern tic disorder research " — treated a Tourette ’ s patient with haloperidol , and published a paper criticizing the psychoanalytic approach .
Since the 1990s , a more neutral view of Tourette 's has emerged , in which biological vulnerability and adverse environmental events are seen to interact . In 2000 , the American Psychiatric Association published the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR , revising the text of DSM @-@ IV to no longer require that symptoms of tic disorders cause distress or impair functioning , recognizing that clinicians often see patients who meet all the other criteria for Tourette 's , but do not have distress or impairment .
Findings since 1999 have advanced TS science in the areas of genetics , neuroimaging , neurophysiology , and neuropathology . Questions remain regarding how best to classify Tourette syndrome , and how closely Tourette 's is related to other movement disorders or psychiatric disorders . Good epidemiologic data is still lacking , and available treatments are not risk free and not always well tolerated . High @-@ profile media coverage focuses on treatments that do not have established safety or efficacy , such as deep brain stimulation , and alternative therapies involving unstudied efficacy and side effects are pursued by many parents .
= = Society and culture = =
Not everyone with Tourette 's wants treatment or a " cure " , especially if that means they may " lose " something else in the process . Researchers Leckman and Cohen , and former US Tourette Syndrome Association ( TSA ) national board member Kathryn Taubert , believe that there may be latent advantages associated with an individual 's genetic vulnerability to developing Tourette syndrome , such as a heightened awareness and increased attention to detail and surroundings that may have adaptive value . There is evidence to support the clinical lore that children with " TS @-@ only " ( Tourette 's in the absence of comorbid conditions ) are unusually gifted : neuropsychological studies have identified advantages in children with TS @-@ only . Children with TS @-@ only are faster than the average for their age group on timed tests of motor coordination .
Notable individuals with Tourette syndrome are found in all walks of life , including musicians , athletes , media figures , teachers , physicians and authors . The best @-@ known example of a person who may have used obsessive – compulsive traits to advantage is Samuel Johnson , the 18th @-@ century English man of letters , who likely had Tourette syndrome as evidenced by the writings of James Boswell . Johnson wrote A Dictionary of the English Language in 1747 , and was a prolific writer , poet , and critic . Tim Howard , described by the Chicago Tribune as the " rarest of creatures – an American soccer hero " and by the TSA as the " most notable individual with Tourette Syndrome around the world " says that his neurological makeup gave him an enhanced perception and an ability to hyper @-@ focus that contributed to his success on the field .
Although it has been speculated that Mozart had Tourette 's , no Tourette 's expert or organization has presented credible evidence to support such a conclusion , and there are problems with the arguments supporting the diagnosis : tics are not transferred to the written form , as is supposed with Mozart 's scatological writings ; the medical history in retrospect is not thorough ; side effects due to other conditions may be misinterpreted ; " it is not proven whether written documents can account for the existence of a vocal tic " and " the evidence of motor tics in Mozart 's life is doubtful " . Mozart :
Kammer T. " Mozart in the neurological department — who has the tic ? " ( PDF ) . Front Neurol Neurosci . 2007 ; 22 : 184 – 92 . PMID 17495512 doi : 10 @.@ 1159 / 0000102880 Retrieved on February 7 , 2012 .
Ashoori A , Jankovic J. " Mozart 's movements and behaviour : a case of Tourette 's syndrome ? " J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 2007 Nov ; 78 ( 11 ) : 1171 – 5 doi : 10 @.@ 1136 / jnnp.2007.114520 PMID 17940168 .
Sacks O. " Tourette 's syndrome and creativity " . BMJ . 1992 Dec 19 – 26 ; 305 ( 6868 ) : 1515 – 6 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1136 / bmj.305.6868.1515 PMID 1286364
Pre @-@ dating Gilles de la Tourette 's 1885 publication , likely portrayals of TS or tic disorders in fictional literature are Mr. Pancks in Little Dorritt by Charles Dickens and Nikolai Levin in Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy . The entertainment industry has been criticized for depicting those with Tourette syndrome as social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia , which has furthered stigmatization and the public 's misunderstanding of those with Tourette 's . The coprolalic symptoms of Tourette 's are also fodder for radio and television talk shows in the US and in the British media .
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= Robert Falcon Scott =
Captain Robert Falcon Scott CVO RN ( 6 June 1868 – 29 March 1912 ) was a British Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions : the Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 1904 , and the ill @-@ fated Terra Nova Expedition , 1910 – 1913 . On the first expedition , he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82 ° S and discovered the Polar Plateau , on which the South Pole is located . During the second venture , Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912 after Roald Amundsen 's Norwegian expedition . On their return journey , Scott 's party discovered plant fossils , proving Antarctica was once forested and joined to other continents . A planned meeting with supporting dog teams from the base camp failed , although Scott had ordered his team to do so , and at a distance of 150 miles from their base camp and 11 miles from the next depot , Scott and his companions died from a combination of exhaustion , starvation and extreme cold .
Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition , Scott had followed the conventional career of a naval officer in the Royal Navy . In 1899 , he had a chance encounter with Sir Clements Markham , the president of the Royal Geographical Society , thus learning of a planned Antarctic expedition , and soon volunteered to lead this expedition . Having taken this step , his name became inseparably associated with the Antarctic , the field of work to which he remained committed during the final twelve years of his life .
Following the news of his death , Scott became a celebrated hero , a status reflected by the many permanent memorials erected across the nation . In the closing decades of the 20th century , Scott became a figure of controversy , with questions raised about his competence and character . Commentators in the 21st century have on the whole regarded Scott more positively , noting errors made by his team members , but attributing the expedition 's fate primarily to misfortune .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Scott was born on 6 June 1868 , the third child out of six and elder son of John Edward and Hannah ( née Cuming ) Scott of Stoke Damerel , near Devonport . Although Scott 's father was a brewer and magistrate , there were naval and military traditions in the family , Scott 's grandfather and four uncles all having served in the army or navy . John Scott 's prosperity came from the ownership of a small Plymouth brewery which he inherited from his father and subsequently sold . His early childhood years were spent in comfort , but In later years , when Scott was establishing his naval career , the family would suffer serious financial misfortune .
In accordance with the family 's tradition , Robert and his younger brother Archie were predestined for careers in the armed services . Robert spent four years at a local day school before being sent to Stubbington House School in Hampshire , a cramming establishment preparing candidates for the entrance examinations to the naval training ship HMS Britannia at Dartmouth . Having passed these exams Scott , began his naval career in 1881 , as a cadet , aged only 13 years old .
= = = Early naval career = = =
In July 1883 , Scott passed out of Britannia as a midshipman , seventh overall in a class of 26 . By October , he was en route to South Africa to join HMS Boadicea , the flagship of the Cape squadron , the first of several ships on which he served during his midshipman years . While stationed in St Kitts , West Indies , on HMS Rover , he had his first encounter with Clements Markham , then Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society , who would loom large in Scott 's later career . On this occasion , 1 March 1887 , Markham observed Midshipman Scott 's cutter winning that morning 's race across the bay . Markham 's habit was to " collect " likely young naval officers with a view to their undertaking polar exploration work in the future . He was impressed by Scott 's intelligence , enthusiasm and charm , and the 18 @-@ year @-@ old midshipman was duly noted .
In March 1888 Scott passed his examinations for sub @-@ lieutenant , with four first class certificates out of five . His career progressed smoothly , with service on various ships and promotion to lieutenant in 1889 . In 1891 , after a long spell in foreign waters , he applied for the two @-@ year torpedo training course on HMS Vernon , an important career step . He graduated with first class certificates in both the theory and practical examinations . A small blot occurred in the summer of 1893 when , while commanding a torpedo boat , Scott ran it aground , a mishap which earned him a mild rebuke .
During the research for his dual biography of Scott and Roald Amundsen , polar historian Roland Huntford investigated a possible scandal in Scott 's early naval career , related to the period 1889 – 90 when Scott was a lieutenant on HMS Amphion . According to Huntford , Scott " disappears from naval records " for eight months , from mid @-@ August 1889 until 26 March 1890 . Huntford hints at involvement with a married American woman , a cover @-@ up , and protection by senior officers . Biographer David Crane reduces the missing period to eleven weeks , but is unable to clarify further . He rejects the notion of protection by senior officers on the grounds that Scott was not important or well @-@ connected enough to warrant this . Documents that may have offered explanations are missing from Admiralty records .
In 1894 , while serving as torpedo officer on the depot ship HMS Vulcan , Scott learned of the financial calamity that had overtaken his family . John Scott , having sold the brewery and invested the proceeds unwisely , had lost all his capital and was now virtually bankrupt . At the age of 63 , and in poor health , he was forced to take a job as a brewery manager and move his family to Shepton Mallet , Somerset . Three years later , while Robert was serving with the Channel squadron flagship HMS Majestic , John Scott died of heart disease , creating a fresh family crisis . Hannah Scott and her two unmarried daughters now relied entirely on the service pay of Scott and the salary of younger brother Archie , who had left the army for a higher @-@ paid post in the colonial service . Archie 's own death in the autumn of 1898 , after contracting typhoid fever , meant that the whole financial responsibility for the family rested on Scott .
Promotion , and the extra income this would bring , now became a matter of considerable concern to Scott . In the Royal Navy however , opportunities for career advancement were both limited and keenly sought after by ambitious officers . Early in June 1899 , while home on leave , he had a chance encounter in a London street with Clements Markham , who was now knighted and President of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , and learned for the first time of an impending Antarctic expedition with the Discovery , under the auspices of the RGS . It was the opportunity for early command and a chance to distinguish himself , rather than any predilection for polar exploration which motivated Scott , according to Crane . What passed between them on this occasion is not recorded , but a few days later , on 11 June , Scott appeared at the Markham residence and volunteered to lead the expedition .
= = Discovery Expedition 1901 – 1904 = =
The British National Antarctic Expedition , later known as the Discovery Expedition , was a joint enterprise of the RGS and the Royal Society . A long @-@ cherished dream of Markham 's , it required all of his skills and cunning to bring the expedition to fruition , under naval command and largely staffed by naval personnel . Scott may not have been Markham 's first choice as leader but , having decided on him , the older man 's support remained constant . There were committee battles over the scope of Scott 's responsibilities , with the Royal Society pressing to put a scientist in charge of the expedition 's programme while Scott merely commanded the ship . Eventually , however , Markham 's view prevailed ; Scott was given overall command , and was promoted to the rank of commander before Discovery sailed for the Antarctic on 6 August 1901 . King Edward VII , who showed a keen interest in the expedition , visited the Discovery the day before the ship left British shores in August 1901 , and during the visit appointed Scott a Member of the Royal Victorian Order ( MVO ) , his personal gift .
Experience of Antarctic or Arctic waters was almost entirely lacking within the 50 @-@ strong party and there was very little special training in equipment or techniques before the ship set sail . Dogs were taken , as were skis , but the dogs succumbed to disease in the first season . Nevertheless , the dogs ' performance impressed Scott , and , despite moral qualms , he implemented the principle of slaughtering dogs for dog @-@ food to increase their range . During an early attempt at ice travel , a blizzard trapped expedition members in their tent and their decision to leave it resulted in the death of George Vince , who slipped over a precipice on 11 March 1902 .
The expedition had both scientific and exploration objectives ; the latter included a long journey south , in the direction of the South Pole . This march , undertaken by Scott , Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson , took them to a latitude of 82 ° 17 ′ S , about 530 miles ( 850 km ) from the pole . A harrowing return journey brought about Shackleton 's physical collapse and his early departure from the expedition . The second year showed improvements in technique and achievement , culminating in Scott 's western journey which led to the discovery of the Polar Plateau . This has been described by one writer as " one of the great polar journeys " . The scientific results of the expedition included important biological , zoological and geological findings . Some of the meteorological and magnetic readings , however , were later criticised as amateurish and inaccurate .
At the end of the expedition it took the combined efforts of two relief ships and the use of explosives to free Discovery from the ice . His insistence during the expedition on Royal Navy formalities had made for uneasy relations with the merchant navy contingent , many of whom departed for home with the first relief ship in March 1903 . Second @-@ in @-@ command Albert Armitage , a merchant officer , was offered the chance to go home on compassionate grounds , but chose to interpret the offer as a personal slight , and refused . Armitage also promoted the idea that the decision to send Shackleton home on the relief ship arose from Scott 's animosity rather than Shackleton 's physical breakdown . Although there were later tensions between Scott and Shackleton , when their polar ambitions directly clashed , in public mutual civilities were preserved ; Scott joined in the official receptions that greeted Shackleton on his return in 1909 after the Nimrod Expedition , and the two were exchanging polite letters about their respective ambitions in 1909 – 10 .
= = Between expeditions = =
= = = Popular hero = = =
Discovery returned to Britain in September 1904 . The expedition had caught the public imagination , and Scott became a popular hero . He was awarded a cluster of honours and medals , including many from overseas , and was promoted to the rank of captain . He was invited to Balmoral Castle , where King Edward VII promoted him a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) .
Scott 's next few years were crowded . For more than a year he was occupied with public receptions , lectures and the writing of the expedition record , The Voyage of the Discovery . In January 1906 , he resumed his full @-@ time naval career , first as an Assistant Director of Naval Intelligence at the Admiralty and , in August , as flag @-@ captain to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir George Egerton on HMS Victorious . He was now moving in ever more exalted social circles — a telegram to Markham in February 1907 refers to meetings with the Queen and Crown Prince of Portugal , and a later letter home reports lunching with the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Fleet and Prince Heinrich of Prussia . HMS Albemarle , a battleship commanded by Scott , collided with the battleship HMS Commonwealth on 11 February 1907 , suffering minor bow damage .
= = = Dispute with Shackleton = = =
By early 1906 , Scott had sounded out the RGS about the possible funding of a future Antarctic expedition . It was therefore unwelcome news to him that Ernest Shackleton had announced his own plans to travel to Discovery 's old McMurdo Sound base and launch a bid for the South Pole from there . Scott claimed , in the first of a series of letters to Shackleton , that the area around McMurdo was his own " field of work " to which he had prior rights until he chose to give them up , and that Shackleton should therefore work from an entirely different area . In this , he was strongly supported by Discovery 's former zoologist , Edward Wilson , who asserted that Scott 's rights extended to the entire Ross Sea sector . This Shackleton refused to concede .
Finally , to end the impasse , Shackleton agreed , in a letter to Scott dated 17 May 1907 , to work to the east of the 170 ° W meridian and therefore to avoid all the familiar Discovery ground . In the end it was a promise that he was unable to keep after his search for alternative landing grounds proved fruitless . With his only other option being to return home , he set up his headquarters at Cape Royds , close to the old Discovery base . For this he was roundly condemned by the British polar establishment at the time .
Among modern polar writers , Ranulph Fiennes regards Shackleton 's actions as a technical breach of honour , but adds : " My personal belief is that Shackleton was basically honest but circumstances forced his McMurdo landing , much to his distress . " The polar historian Beau Riffenburgh states that the promise to Scott " should never ethically have been demanded " , and compares Scott 's intransigence on this matter unfavourably with the generous attitudes of the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen , who gave freely of his advice and expertise to all , whether they were potential rivals or not .
= = = Marriage = = =
Scott , who because of his Discovery fame had entered Edwardian society , first met Kathleen Bruce early in 1907 at a private luncheon party . She was a sculptress , socialite and cosmopolitan who had studied under Auguste Rodin and whose circle included Isadora Duncan , Pablo Picasso and Aleister Crowley . Her initial meeting with Scott was brief , but when they met again later that year , the mutual attraction was obvious . A stormy courtship followed ; Scott was not her only suitor — his main rival was would @-@ be novelist Gilbert Cannan — and his absences at sea did not assist his cause . However , Scott 's persistence was rewarded and , on 2 September 1908 , at the Chapel Royal , Hampton Court Palace , the wedding took place . Their only child , Peter Markham Scott , born 14 September 1909 , was to found the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) .
= = Terra Nova Expedition 1910 – 1912 = =
= = = Preparation = = =
Shackleton returned from the Antarctic having narrowly failed to reach the Pole , and this gave Scott the impetus to proceed with plans for his second Antarctic expedition . On 24 March 1909 , he had taken the Admiralty @-@ based appointment of naval assistant to the Second Sea Lord which placed him conveniently in London . In December he was released on half @-@ pay , to take up the full @-@ time command of the British Antarctic Expedition 1910 , to be known as the Terra Nova Expedition from its ship , Terra Nova .
It was the expressed hope of the RGS that this expedition would be " scientific primarily , with exploration and the Pole as secondary objects " but , unlike the Discovery Expedition , neither they nor the Royal Society were in charge this time . In his expedition prospectus , Scott stated that its main objective was " to reach the South Pole , and to secure for the British Empire the honour of this achievement " . Scott had , as Markham observed , been " bitten by the Pole mania " .
In a memorandum of 1908 , Scott presented his view that man @-@ hauling to the South Pole was impossible and that motor traction was needed . Snow vehicles did not yet exist however , and so his engineer Reginald Skelton developed the idea of a caterpillar track for snow surfaces . In the middle of 1909 Scott realised that motors were unlikely to get him all the way to the Pole , and decided additionally to take horses ( based on Shackleton 's near success in attaining the Pole , using ponies ) , and dogs and skis after consultation with Nansen during trials of the motors in Norway in March 1910 . Man @-@ hauling would still be needed on the Polar Plateau , on the assumption that motors and animals could not ascend the crevassed Beardmore Glacier .
Dog expert Cecil Meares was going to Siberia to select the dogs , and Scott ordered that , while he was there , he should deal with the purchase of Manchurian ponies . Meares was not an experienced horse @-@ dealer , and the ponies he chose proved mostly of poor quality , and ill @-@ suited to prolonged Antarctic work . Meanwhile , Scott also recruited Bernard Day , from Shackleton 's expedition , as his motor expert .
= = = First season = = =
On 15 June 1910 , Scott 's ship Terra Nova , an old converted whaler , set sail from Cardiff , south Wales . Scott meanwhile was fundraising in Britain and joined the ship later in South Africa . Arriving in Melbourne , Australia in October 1910 , Scott received a telegram from Amundsen stating : " Beg leave to inform you Fram proceeding Antarctic Amundsen " , possibly indicating that Scott faced a race to the pole .
The expedition suffered a series of early misfortunes which hampered the first season 's work and impaired preparations for the main polar march . On its journey from New Zealand to the Antarctic , Terra Nova nearly sank in a storm and was then trapped in pack ice for 20 days , far longer than other ships had experienced , which meant a late @-@ season arrival and less time for preparatory work before the Antarctic winter . At Cape Evans , Antarctica , one of the motor sledges was lost during its unloading from the ship , breaking through the sea ice and sinking . Deteriorating weather conditions and weak , unacclimatised ponies affected the initial depot @-@ laying journey , so that the expedition 's main supply point , One Ton Depot , was laid 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of its planned location at 80 ° S. Lawrence Oates , in charge of the ponies , advised Scott to kill ponies for food and advance the depot to 80 ° S , which Scott refused to do . Oates is reported as saying to Scott , " Sir , I 'm afraid you 'll come to regret not taking my advice . " Four ponies died during this journey either from the cold or because they slowed the team down so they were shot .
On its return to base , the expedition learned of the presence of Amundsen , camped with his crew and a large contingent of dogs in the Bay of Whales , 200 miles ( 320 km ) to their east . Scott conceded that his ponies would not be able to start early enough in the season to compete with Amundsen 's cold @-@ tolerant dog teams for the pole , and also acknowledged that the Norwegian 's base was closer to the pole by 60 miles . Wilson was more hopeful , whereas Gran shared Scott 's concern . Shortly afterwards , the death toll among the ponies increased to six , three drowning when sea @-@ ice unexpectedly disintegrated , casting in doubt the possibility of reaching the pole at all . However , during the 1911 winter Scott 's confidence increased ; on 2 August , after the return of a three @-@ man party from their winter journey to Cape Crozier , Scott wrote , " I feel sure we are as near perfection as experience can direct " .
= = = Journey to the Pole = = =
Scott outlined his plans for the southern journey to the entire shore party , leaving open who would form the final polar team , according to their performance during the polar travel . Eleven days before Scott 's teams set off towards the pole , Scott gave the dog driver Meares the following written orders at Cape Evans dated 20 October 1911 to secure Scott 's speedy return from the pole using dogs :
About the first week of February I should like you to start your third journey to the South , the object being to hasten the return of the third Southern unit [ the polar party ] and give it a chance to catch the ship . The date of your departure must depend on news received from returning units , the extent of the depot of dog food you have been able to leave at One Ton Camp , the state of the dogs , etc ... It looks at present as though you should aim at meeting the returning party about March 1 in Latitude 82 or 82 @.@ 30
The march south began on 1 November 1911 , a caravan of mixed transport groups ( motors , dogs , horses ) , with loaded sledges , travelling at different rates , all designed to support a final group of four men who would make a dash for the Pole . The southbound party steadily reduced in size as successive support teams turned back . Scott reminded the returning Atkinson of the order " to take the two dog @-@ teams south in the event of Meares having to return home , as seemed likely " . By 4 January 1912 , the last two four @-@ man groups had reached 87 ° 34 ′ S. Scott announced his decision : five men ( Scott , Edward Wilson , Henry Bowers , Lawrence Oates and Edgar Evans ) would go forward , the other three ( Teddy Evans , William Lashly and Tom Crean ) would return . The chosen group marched on , reaching the Pole on 17 January 1912 , only to find that Amundsen had preceded them by five weeks . Scott 's anguish is indicated in his diary : " The worst has happened " ; " All the day dreams must go " ; " Great God ! This is an awful place " .
= = = Last march = = =
The deflated party began the 800 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) return journey on 19 January . " I 'm afraid the return journey is going to be dreadfully tiring and monotonous " , wrote Scott on that day . However , the party made good progress despite poor weather , and had completed the Polar Plateau stage of their journey , approximately 300 miles ( 500 km ) , by 7 February . In the following days , as the party made the 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) descent of the Beardmore Glacier , the physical condition of Edgar Evans , which Scott had noted with concern as early as 23 January , declined sharply . A fall on 4 February had left Evans " dull and incapable " , and on 17 February , after another fall , he died near the glacier foot .
Meanwhile , back at Cape Evans , the Terra Nova arrived at the beginning of February , and Atkinson decided to unload the supplies from the ship with his own men rather than set out south with the dogs to meet Scott as ordered . When Atkinson finally did leave south for the planned rendezvous with Scott , he encountered the scurvy @-@ ridden Edward ( " Teddy " ) Evans who needed his urgent medical attention . Atkinson therefore tried to send the experienced navigator Wright south to meet Scott , but chief meteorologist Simpson declared he needed Wright for scientific work . Atkinson then decided to send the short @-@ sighted Cherry @-@ Garrard on 25 February , who was not able to navigate , only as far as One Ton depot ( which is within sight of Mount Erebus ) , effectively cancelling Scott 's orders for meeting him at latitude 82 or 82 @.@ 30 on 1 March .
On the return journey from the Pole , Scott reached the 82 @.@ 30 ° S meeting point for the dog teams , three days ahead of schedule , noting in his diary for 27 February 1912 " We are naturally always discussing possibility of meeting dogs , where and when , etc . It is a critical position . We may find ourselves in safety at the next depot , but there is a horrid element of doubt . " By 10 March the temperature had dropped unexpectedly to below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) , and it became evident the dog teams were not coming : " The dogs which would have been our salvation have evidently failed . Meares [ the dog @-@ driver ] had a bad trip home I suppose . It 's a miserable jumble . " With 400 miles ( 670 km ) still to travel across the Ross Ice Shelf , Scott 's party 's prospects steadily worsened as , with deteriorating weather , a puzzling lack of fuel in the depots , hunger and exhaustion , they struggled northward . In a farewell letter to Sir Edgar Speyer , dated 16 March , Scott wondered whether he had overshot the meeting point and fought the growing suspicion that he had in fact been abandoned by the dog teams : " We very nearly came through , and it 's a pity to have missed it , but lately I have felt that we have overshot our mark . No @-@ one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we had lacked support . " On the same day , Oates , whose toes had become frostbitten , voluntarily left the tent and walked to his death . Scott wrote that Oates ' last words were " I am just going outside and may be some time " .
After walking 20 miles farther despite Scott 's toes now becoming frostbitten , the three remaining men made their final camp on 19 March , 11 miles ( 18 km ) short of One Ton Depot . The next day a fierce blizzard prevented their making any progress . During the next nine days , as their supplies ran out , and with storms still raging outside the tent , Scott and his companions wrote their farewell letters . Scott gave up his diary after 23 March , save for a final entry on 29 March , with its concluding words : " Last entry . For God 's sake look after our people " . He left letters to Wilson 's mother , Bowers ' mother , a string of notables including his former commander Sir George Egerton , his own mother and his wife . He also wrote his " Message To The Public " , primarily a vindication of the expedition 's organisation and conduct in which the party 's failure is attributed to weather and other misfortunes , but ending on an inspirational note , with these words :
We took risks , we knew we took them ; things have come out against us , and therefore we have no cause for complaint , but bow to the will of Providence , determined still to do our best to the last ... Had we lived , I should have had a tale to tell of the hardihood , endurance , and courage of my companions which would have stirred the heart of every Englishman . These rough notes and our dead bodies must tell the tale , but surely , surely , a great rich country like ours will see that those who are dependent on us are properly provided for .
Scott is presumed to have died on 29 March 1912 , or possibly one day later . The positions of the bodies in the tent when it was discovered eight months later suggested that Scott was the last of the three to die .
The bodies of Scott and his companions were discovered by a search party on 12 November 1912 and their records retrieved . Their final camp became their tomb ; a high cairn of snow was erected over it , topped by a roughly fashioned cross . In January 1913 , before Terra Nova left for home , a large wooden cross was made by the ship 's carpenters , inscribed with the names of the lost party and Tennyson 's line from his poem Ulysses : " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " , and was erected as a permanent memorial on Observation Hill , overlooking Hut Point .
A century of storms and snow have covered the cairn and tent , which are now encased in the Ross Ice Shelf as it inches towards the Ross Sea . In 2001 glaciologist Charles R. Bentley estimated that the tent with the bodies was under about 75 feet ( 23 m ) of ice and about 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the point where they died ; he speculated that in about 275 years the bodies would reach the Ross Sea , and perhaps float away inside an iceberg .
= = Reputation = =
= = = Glorification = = =
The world was informed of the tragedy when Terra Nova reached Oamaru , New Zealand , on 10 February 1913 . Within days , Scott became a national icon . A nationalistic spirit was aroused ; the London Evening News called for the story to be read to schoolchildren throughout the land , to coincide with the memorial service at St Paul 's Cathedral on 14 February . Robert Baden @-@ Powell , founder of the Boy Scouts Association , asked : " Are Britons going downhill ? No ! ... There is plenty of pluck and spirit left in the British after all . Captain Scott and Captain Oates have shown us that " . Eleven @-@ year @-@ old Mary Steel wrote a poem which ended :
Though naught but a simple cross
Now marks those heroes ' grave ,
Their names will live forever !
Oh England , Land of the Brave !
The survivors of the expedition were suitably honoured on their return , with polar medals and promotions for the naval personnel . In place of the knighthood that might have been her husband 's had he survived , Kathleen Scott was granted the rank and precedence of a widow of a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . In 1922 , she married Edward Hilton Young , later Lord Kennet ( she becoming Lady Kennet ) , and remained a doughty defender of Scott 's reputation until her death , aged 69 , in 1947 .
An article in The Times , reporting on the glowing tributes paid to Scott in the New York press , claimed that both Amundsen and Shackleton were " [ amazed ] to hear that such a disaster could overtake a well @-@ organized expedition " . On learning the details of Scott 's death , Amundsen is reported as saying , " I would gladly forgo any honour or money if thereby I could have saved Scott his terrible death " . Scott was much the better wordsmith of the two , and the story that spread throughout the world was largely that told by him , with Amundsen 's victory reduced in the eyes of many to an unsporting stratagem .
The response to Scott 's final plea on behalf of the dependents of the dead was enormous by the standards of the day . The Mansion House Scott Memorial Fund closed at £ 75 @,@ 000 ( 2009 approximation £ 5 @.@ 5 million ) . This was not equally distributed ; Scott 's widow , son , mother and sisters received a total of £ 18 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 3 million ) . Wilson 's widow got £ 8 @,@ 500 ( £ 600 @,@ 000 ) and Bowers 's mother £ 4 @,@ 500 ( £ 330 @,@ 000 ) . Edgar Evans 's widow , children and mother received £ 1 @,@ 500 ( £ 109 @,@ 000 ) between them .
In the dozen years following the disaster , more than 30 monuments and memorials were set up in Britain alone . These ranged from simple relics ( Scott 's sledging flag in Exeter Cathedral ) to the foundation of the Scott Polar Research Institute at Cambridge . Many more were established in other parts of the world , including a statue crafted by his widow for his New Zealand base in Christchurch .
= = = Modern reaction = = =
Scott 's reputation survived the period after World War II , beyond the 50th anniversary of his death . In 1948 , the film Scott of the Antarctic was released in cinemas and was the third most popular film in Britain the following year . It portrays the team spirit of the expedition and the harsh Antarctic environment , but also includes critical scenes such as Scott regarding his broken down motors and ruefully remembering Nansen 's advice to take only dogs . Evans and Cherry @-@ Garrard were the only surviving expedition members to refuse participation in the film , but both re @-@ published their respective books in its wake .
In 1966 , Reginald Pound , the first biographer given access to Scott 's original sledging journal , revealed personal failings which cast a new light on Scott , although Pound continued to endorse his heroism , writing of " a splendid sanity that would not be subdued " . Within the following decade , further books appeared , each of which to some degree challenged the prevailing public perception . The most critical of these was David Thomson 's Scott 's Men ( 1977 ) ; in Thomson 's view , Scott was not a great man , " at least , not until near the end " ; his planning is described as " haphazard " and " flawed " , his leadership characterised by lack of foresight . Thus by the late 1970s , in Jones 's words , " Scott 's complex personality had been revealed and his methods questioned " .
In 1979 came the most sustained attack on Scott , from Roland Huntford 's dual biography Scott and Amundsen in which Scott is depicted as a " heroic bungler " . Huntford 's thesis had an immediate impact , becoming the contemporary orthodoxy . Even Scott 's heroism in the face of death was challenged ; Huntford sees Scott 's Message to the Public as a deceitful self @-@ justification from a man who had led his comrades to their deaths . After Huntford 's book , several other mostly negative books about Captain Scott were published ; Francis Spufford , in a 1996 history not wholly antagonistic to Scott , refers to " devastating evidence of bungling " , concluding that " Scott doomed his companions , then covered his tracks with rhetoric " . Travel writer Paul Theroux summarised Scott as " confused and demoralised ... an enigma to his men , unprepared and a bungler " . This decline in Scott 's reputation was accompanied by a corresponding rise in that of his erstwhile rival Shackleton , at first in the United States but eventually in Britain as well . A 2002 nationwide poll in the United Kingdom to discover the " 100 Greatest Britons " showed Shackleton in eleventh place , Scott well down the list at 54th .
The 21st century has seen a shift of opinion in Scott 's favour , in what cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski calls " a revision of the revisionist view " . Meteorologist Susan Solomon 's 2001 account The Coldest March ties the fate of Scott 's party to the extraordinarily adverse Barrier weather conditions of February and March 1912 rather than to personal or organisational failings , although Solomon accepts the validity of some of the criticisms of Scott .
In 2004 polar explorer Sir Ranulph Fiennes published a biography which was a strong defence of Scott and an equally forthright rebuttal of Huntford ; the book is dedicated " To the Families of the Defamed Dead " . Fiennes was later criticised by the reviewer of another book for the personal nature of his attacks on Huntford , and for his apparent assumption that his own experiences as a polar explorer gave him unique authority .
In 2005 David Crane published a new Scott biography which , according to Barczewski , goes some way towards an assessment of Scott " free from the baggage of earlier interpretations " . What has happened to Scott 's reputation , Crane argues , derives from the way the world has changed since the heroic myth was formed : " It is not that we see him differently from the way they [ his contemporaries ] did , but that we see him the same , and instinctively do not like it . " Crane 's main achievement , according to Barczewski , is the restoration of Scott 's humanity , " far more effectively than either Fiennes 's stridency or Solomon 's scientific data . " Daily Telegraph columnist Jasper Rees , likening the changes in explorers ' reputations to climatic variations , suggests that " in the current Antarctic weather report , Scott is enjoying his first spell in the sun for twenty @-@ five years " . The New York Times Book Review was more critical , pointing out Crane 's support for Scott 's discredited claims regarding the circumstances of the freeing of the Discovery from the pack ice , and concluded " For all the many attractions of his book , David Crane offers no answers that convincingly exonerate Scott from a significant share of responsibility for his own demise . "
In 2012 , Karen May published her discovery that Scott had issued written orders , before his march to the Pole , for Meares to meet the returning party with dog @-@ teams , in contrast to Huntford 's assertion in 1979 that Scott issued those vital instructions only as a casual oral order to Evans during the march to the Pole . According to May , " Huntford 's scenario was pure invention based on an error ; it has led a number of polar historians down a regrettable false trail " .
Scott 's journals provide the basis for a book of blank verse sonnets by Kim Roberts , Fortune 's Favor : Scott In Antarctica ( Poetry Mutual , 2015 ) .
= = = Books = = =
Amundsen , Roald ( 1976 ) [ 1912 ] . The South Pole . London : C. Hurst & Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 903983 @-@ 47 @-@ 1 .
Barczewski , Stephanie ( 2007 ) . Antarctic Destinies : Scott , Shackleton and the Changing Face of Heroism . London : Hembledon Continuum . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84725 @-@ 192 @-@ 3 .
Cherry @-@ Garrard , Apsley ( 1970 ) . The Worst Journey in the World : Antarctic 1910 – 13 ( 1965 ed . ) . Harmondsworth , Middlesex ( UK ) : Penguin Travel Library . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 009501 @-@ 2 . OCLC 16589938 .
Crane , David ( 2005 ) . Scott of the Antarctic : A Life of Courage , and Tragedy in the Extreme South . London : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 715068 @-@ 7 . OCLC 60793758 .
Evans , Edward R.G.R. ( 1949 ) . South with Scott . London : Collins .
Fiennes , Ranulph ( 2003 ) . Captain Scott . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 82697 @-@ 3 . OCLC 52695234 .
Huntford , Roland ( 1985 ) . The Last Place on Earth . London : Pan Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 330 @-@ 28816 @-@ 3 . OCLC 12976972 .
Huntford , Roland ( 1985 ) . Shackleton . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 25007 @-@ 5 . OCLC 13108800 .
Huxley , Leonard , ed . ( 1913 ) . Scott 's Last Expedition , Volume I : Being the Journals of Captain R.F. Scott , R.N. , C.V.O. London : Smith , Elder & Co . OCLC 1522514 .
Huxley , Leonard , ed . ( 1913 ) . Scott 's Last Expedition , Volume II : Being the reports of the journeys and the scientific work undertaken by Dr. E.A. Wilson and the surviving members of the expedition . London : Smith , Elder & Co . OCLC 1522514 .
Jones , Max ( 2003 ) . The Last Great Quest : Captain Scott 's Antarctic Sacrifice . Oxford ( UK ) : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 280483 @-@ 9 . OCLC 59303598 .
Pound , Reginald ( 1966 ) . Scott of the Antarctic . London : Cassell & Company .
Preston , Diana ( 1999 ) . A First Rate Tragedy : Captain Scott 's Antarctic Expeditions ( paperback ed . ) . London : Constable . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 479530 @-@ 3 . OCLC 59395617 .
Riffenburgh , Beau ( 2005 ) . Nimrod : Ernest Shackleton and the Extraordinary Story of the 1907 – 09 British Antarctic Expedition ( paperback ed . ) . London : Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7475 @-@ 7253 @-@ 4 . OCLC 56659120 .
Scott , Robert Falcon ( 1905 ) . The Voyage of the Discovery . London : Nelson .
Solomon , Susan ( 2001 ) . The Coldest March : Scott 's Fatal Antarctic Expedition . London : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 08967 @-@ 7 . OCLC 45661501 .
Spufford , Francis ( 1997 ) . I May Be Some Time : Ice and the English Imagination ( paperback ed . ) . London : Faber & Faber . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 17951 @-@ 0 . OCLC 41314703 .
Thomson , David ( 1977 ) . Scott 's Men . London : Allen Lane . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7139 @-@ 1034 @-@ 6 .
= = = Online = = =
Dore , Jonathan ( 3 December 2006 ) . " Crucible of Ice " . The New York Times . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
May , Karen ( January 2013 ) . " Could Captain Scott have been saved ? Revisiting Scott 's last expedition " . Polar Record 49 ( 1 ) : 72 – 90 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0032247411000751 . Retrieved 6 July 2014 .
" Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount , 1830 to Present " . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
Mustain , Andrea ( 17 August 2012 ) . " Wreckage of Doomed Explorer 's Famed Ship Terra Nova Located " . NBC News . Retrieved 27 September 2012 .
" Captain Scott – Antarctic Explorer , covered in snow once more " . Portsmouth Historic Dockyard . 25 January 2010 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 .
Rees , Jasper ( 19 December 2004 ) . " Ice in our Hearts " . Daily Telegraph ( London ) . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
" Captain Scott Memorial " . New Zealand Historic Places Trust . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
Williams , Jack ( 16 January 2001 ) . " Heroic age still lives in Antarctica " . USA Today . Retrieved 24 February 2011 .
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= George Madison =
George Madison ( June 1763 – October 14 , 1816 ) was the sixth Governor of Kentucky . He was the first governor of Kentucky to die in office , serving only a few weeks in 1816 . Little is known of Madison 's early life . He was a member of the influential Madison family of Virginia , and was a second cousin to President James Madison . He served with distinction in three wars – the Revolutionary War , Northwest Indian War , and War of 1812 . He was twice wounded in the Northwest Indian War , and in the War of 1812 he was taken prisoner following the Battle of Frenchtown in Michigan .
Madison 's political experience before becoming governor consisted of a twenty @-@ year tenure as state auditor . Although his military service made him extremely popular in Kentucky , he sought no higher office until the citizens insisted he run for governor in 1816 . James Johnson , his only challenger in the race , dropped out early due to Madison 's overwhelming popularity , and Madison was elected without opposition . A few weeks later , he became the first Kentucky governor to die in office . Opponents of his lieutenant governor , Gabriel Slaughter , mounted a popular but unsuccessful challenge to Slaughter 's succeeding Madison in office .
= = Early life = =
George Madison was born in June 1763 in the portion of Augusta County , Virginia that eventually became Rockingham County . [ a ] His parents were John and Agatha ( Strother ) Madison . His brother James became the Episcopal bishop of Virginia and the president of the College of William & Mary . Another brother was Captain Thomas Madison . They were second cousins to President James Madison .
Madison was educated in the local schools and also received instruction at home . Before he was legally old enough to enlist , he entered the Continental Army as a private during the Revolutionary War .
It is not known when Madison moved to Kentucky , but land records in Lincoln County indicate he and his brother Gabriel were there by at least 1784 . He married Jane Smith and they had four children – Agatha , William , Myra , and George . [ b ] Jane Smith @-@ Madison died in 1811 .
= = Service in the Northwest Indian War = =
Madison served with the Kentucky militia during the Northwest Indian War . He was a subaltern in Arthur St. Clair 's army in the American defeat at the Battle of the Wabash on November 4 , 1791 . During the retreat , a soldier named William Kennan found Madison sitting on a log . Kennan was being pursued by Indians and admonished Madison to run , but Madison , who was already known to be of frail constitution , stood to reveal that he had been badly wounded and was bleeding profusely . Kennan quickly retrieved an abandoned horse he had seen ; he helped Madison astride the horse , and they both escaped .
Later in the war , Madison served under Major John Adair . On November 5 , 1792 , Adair 's men were encamped near Fort St. Clair when they were ambushed by an Indian force under the command of Little Turtle . Adair ordered a retreat , then rallied his men and divided them into three groups . He ordered those under Madison to turn the enemy 's flank , but they failed and Madison was wounded again in this battle . Following this , Adair withdrew to Fort St. Clair . In Adair 's report to Brigadier General James Wilkinson , he wrote : " Madison 's bravery and conduct need no comment ; they are well @-@ known . "
= = Political career = =
Governor Isaac Shelby appointed Madison as Auditor of Public Accounts on March 7 , 1796 . He served in this capacity in state government for twenty years . He never sought a higher office but 19th @-@ century historian Lewis Collins said that " there was no office within the gift of the people which he could not have easily attained , without the slightest solicitation . " In 1800 , Madison was appointed as a trustee of the Kentucky Seminary in Franklin County . On December 5 , 1806 , he served on a grand jury in the case of Aaron Burr 's conduct ; they did not find grounds for treason charges . Madison was appointed director of the Bank of Kentucky later that year .
During the War of 1812 , Governor Shelby called for volunteers to serve in the Army of the Northwest . Colonel John Allen raised a regiment , and Madison was commissioned as his second @-@ in @-@ command . The regiment , known as the 1st Rifle Regiment of Kentucky Volunteers , fought under James Winchester at the Battle of Frenchtown . Winchester was captured by General Henry Procter , but about four hundred men under Madison repelled several charges by the British . Madison 's men believed they had won the victory when they observed a white flag in the midst of the British force , but the flag was being waved by Winchester as an order for Madison 's force to surrender .
When Madison discovered that Winchester was waving the flag , he refused the order to surrender on grounds that , as a prisoner , Winchester had no authority to issue it . Proctor demanded Madison 's unconditional surrender , but Madison insisted that the terms of surrender include Proctor 's protection of the American prisoners from the Indian allies of the British . Proctor initially balked at anything but an unconditional surrender , but after Madison 's promise that the Americans would " sell their lives as dearly as possible " , Proctor acquiesced .
Proctor had taken as many prisoners as he had soldiers , and had little power to enforce the terms he had agreed to . The American non @-@ commissioned officers were paroled to return home . Madison and the other officers were taken to Fort Malden , then on to a prison in Quebec . The American wounded who could not march were left under the care of American physicians . Shortly after the battle , the Indians looted the American provisions , which included a large quantity of whiskey . Drunk and violent , they slaughtered many of the American wounded in what became known as the Massacre of the River Raisin .
Madison was freed from prison a year after his capture , as part of a prisoner exchange . He returned to Kentucky following his release and was honored at a public dinner on September 6 , 1814 . In 1816 , he resigned as auditor of public accounts due to failing health . But , submitting to public demand , he became a candidate for governor later that year . James Johnson , the other candidate for office , withdrew from the race due to Madison 's popularity , thus the latter was elected without opposition .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Madison traveled to Blue Lick Springs for his health soon after the election , but was too weak to return to Frankfort for the inauguration . A Bourbon County justice of the peace administered the oath of office on September 5 , 1816 at the springs . Madison 's only official act of office was the appointment of Colonel Charles S. Todd as secretary of state . He died on October 14 , 1816 , just weeks into his term , the first governor of the state to die in office . He is buried in Frankfort Cemetery .
Opponents of his lieutenant governor , Gabriel Slaughter , immediately challenged his ascendancy to the governorship . They claimed that a governor should not be allowed to serve without having been elected to that office by the people . A measure calling for a special gubernatorial election easily passed the state House of Representatives , but failed in the senate by a vote of 18 – 14 . Slaughter was allowed to exercise the powers of the governor , but many government officials and citizens of the state refused to call him by that title , opting for " acting governor " or " lieutenant governor " instead .
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= Beside the Dying Fire =
" Beside the Dying Fire " is the thirteenth episode and second season finale of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead ; it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on March 18 , 2012 . The episode was written by creator Robert Kirkman and showrunner Glen Mazzara and directed by series regular Ernest Dickerson . In the episode , a huge horde of walkers invades the Greene farm , chasing Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and Hershel 's groups off the premises . Meanwhile , Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) is separated from the group , leaving her to fight off the same walkers that attacked Hershel 's farm .
Such themes as romance , death , and survival are prevalent throughout " Beside the Dying Fire " . It is seen as a turning point for the development of several characters on the show , and flashbacks to various previous revelations in the series . " Beside the Dying Fire " features the debut of protagonist Michonne , a character that has been prominently featured in the comics of the same name , and it introduces the Prison . Production for the episode transpired over approximately eight days .
" Beside the Dying Fire " attracted 9 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode amassed record ratings , thus becoming the highest @-@ rated cable program demographically of all time , an accolade that was previously held by " Nebraska . " " Beside the Dying Fire " became the most @-@ viewed cable telecast of the day , as well as the highest @-@ rated cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
Following the trail of a helicopter overhead , a massive herd of walkers begins to form and migrates from the city to the countryside . They come to rest in the woods outside Hershel 's farm . The herd follows the sound of a gunshot and discover the survivors ' location .
Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and his son Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) return to the Greene farm , where Carl asks his father about the death of Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) , but before Rick is able to answer , he spots the large horde of walkers and the two flee to the barn . Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) and Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) report the death and reanimation of Randall ( Michael Zegen ) but also that he turned without being bit . Lori Grimes ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) begs Daryl to go out and search for Rick and Shane — before he can however , the group spots the invading herd and are forced to mobilize .
The group rations their weapons and their vehicles with the objective to kill as many of the herd as they can , Hershel ( Scott Wilson ) intends to defend his land at the risk of his own life . Rick and Carl corral the walkers in the barn and set it ablaze . After spotting the fire , Jimmy ( James Allen McCune ) drives the RV near the barn and allows Rick and Carl to safely escape the burning barn , but he is killed when the walkers overrun the RV . Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) and Theodore " T @-@ Dog " Douglas ( IronE Singleton ) realize that their plan is not working , and decide to flee instead of fight . Lori and the other women flee the house , without Hershel who can 't be budged to leave his property . Along the way , Patricia ( Jane McNeill ) is killed and Carol Peletier ( Melissa McBride ) is cornered by the walkers . Lori and Beth Greene ( Emily Kinney ) are picked up by T @-@ Dog while Andrea leaves to help Carol escape her predicament . Rick escapes with Carl and convinces Hershel to abandon his land . Glenn and Maggie Greene ( Lauren Cohan ) flee the scene and Carol is ultimately rescued by Daryl . In the chaos , Andrea is the only survivor left behind , but she manages to escape the farm on foot . Fleeing to the woods , Andrea defends herself against the walkers until she runs out of ammunition . Exhausted and defenseless , she is miraculously saved by a mysterious hooded figure who has two armless walker pets and wields a katana .
The survivors eventually regroup and report their casualties ( Shane , Patricia , Jimmy witnessed as dead , and Andrea who is deemed to be a lost cause ) . They press on , avoiding the main roads , until one of the vehicles runs out of gas . Rick assures the group that they can start anew elsewhere . When Daryl questions why Randall turned even though he wasn 't bitten , Rick reveals what Dr. Edwin Jenner ( Noah Emmerich ) whispered in his ear : they are all infected carriers of the walker pathogen . Rick 's held secret is met with apprehension from the group . Rick also confesses to Lori about the true events surrounding Shane 's death including Carl shooting the reanimated Shane . His lack of remorse in claiming he wanted Shane dead and that Carl shot his reanimated body leaves Lori visibly disturbed . Over time , the group 's faith in Rick dwindles with the exception of Daryl and Hershel who trust Rick 's judgment . A noise echoing in the distance places the group on high alert , but Rick does not allow anyone to investigate . Carol urges Rick to take action , causing Rick to snap , saying that he never asked that he be put in charge , and blurting out that he had killed Shane for their sake causing Carl to be upset . He dares anyone to leave the safety of the camp . When nobody leaves he issues a final warning : " If you 're staying , this isn 't a democracy anymore , " establishing his position as leader of the group . Afterwards it is shown that the group is unknowingly camped near a prison center .
= = Production = =
" Beside the Dying Fire " was directed by Ernest Dickerson and written by creator Robert Kirkman and showrunner Glen Mazzara . Mazzara teased the episode in a conference call with various journalists : " We 're proud of this finale , we 've been building to it all season , and we can 't wait for you to see it . [ ... ] There 's more bloodshed coming . They thought they were safe on this farm , they were wrong . [ ... ] We 're on a killing spree here . [ ... ] There are answers about the nature of the virus in the finale . [ ... ] I will guarantee people will watch this finale and want to know what comes next . People will have a lot of questions , but in a good way . "
The episode filmed for eight days . In one sequence , Carl Grimes sparks up a cigarette lighter and drops it onto a horde of walkers after Rick creates a diversion to distract the walkers . Greg Nicotero , the special effect director for The Walking Dead , used black panels to capture the elements of the fire ; this enabled them to edit the flames onto the walkers . To reduce the chances of getting burned , the stuntmen put on several layers of flame retardant suits . The first layer consisted of a dry Nomex undergarment ; this was followed by several layers of Nomex clothing that were gelled . Since the sequence was conducted on multiple occasions , the stuntmen were coated with gel containing cationic polymers . The last layer was a raincoat , which would separate the gel from the stuntmen 's clothing and allowed them to be engulfed in flames for several seconds without injury .
" Beside the Dying Fire " features the deaths of Patricia and Jimmy , who were both consumed by walkers . Alongside the deaths of the aforementioned characters , the episode 's script initially called for the deaths of Hershel , as well as Shane Walsh and Randall , both of whom had died in the previous installment . Since Kirkman felt that there was a lot of potential development in Hershel , his death was scrapped from the script . Although plans to write off the character commenced earlier in the season , Mazzara opined that his hypothetical death would have carried no emotional resonance . " The plan was always to whack Hershel , and I actually told Scott Wilson , ' Thanks for everything you 've done , but in the next script we 're going to kill off your character . ' We started writing that and it felt like Hershel 's death was playing as a plot device and we were getting no emotional resonance . It was just playing as a gratuitous death . This was one of those examples where we won 't play a shocking death for the sense of death ; we have to get something out of it . We got nothing out of it . If you look at the shot of Hershel looking back and seeing that barn burning and his farm completely lost to the zombies , that shot was well worth it because we see the farm was really a character and you can only see that through Hershel 's eyes . So it was the right call to keep him alive . "
The night on which " Beside the Dying Fire " was so cold , the editors had to digitally remove vapor expelled by the walkers .
This episode introduces the character Michonne , a protagonist in the comic series of the same name who is portrayed by Danai Gurira . Gurira was cast as part of the series a week before the broadcasting of " Beside the Dying Fire , " although rumors of introducing Michonne circulated months prior to the season finale . Kirkman admitted that he was a fan of her work in the HBO drama series Treme . Rutina Wesley , who played Tara Thornton in True Blood , was rumored to be considered for the role of Michonne , although Kirkman stated that she was never involved in the auditioning process . " It was a lot of actresses . The True Blood actress , I don 't know that she was even available ; I think she 's still on True Blood . I don 't know where that rumor came from , but to my knowledge , she was never involved . "
In the conclusion of " Beside the Dying Fire , " a large prison is seen in the background hovering over the survivors ' temporary settlement . Bear McCreary composed a score for the sequence , which he thought would lay the groundworks for a future theme for the location . " There ’ s something really powerful there that could become , sort of like a heartbeat @-@ like theme for this location , which is kind of similar to what I had in mind when I read the comics years ago when I first got there , " he asserted . " I had been thinking about it , there ’ s so many great prison shows and movies and there are certain sounds you kind of associate with it , and I don ’ t want to do that . But , we ’ ll see . I mean it really depends on where they take the show . It ’ s a little early to think about it , but I ’ m definitely thinking about it anyway . "
= = Themes = =
" Beside the Dying Fire " is seen as a transitional stage for several characters in the series . The transformation of Rick Grimes to a dark character continues in the episode . He has changed from the person who wanted to save Merle ( in Season 1 ) and find Sophia ( first half of season 2 ) , to the person who is willing to abandon any hope of finding Andrea . Furthermore , Rick yells at his group for being unappreciative of his sacrifices as a leader . This backlash and hostility has been interpreted as a foreshadowing event for future development for The Walking Dead . " Rick is clearly in a much darker place now than he was at the start of the season , " concluded Entertainment Weekly writer Darren Franich . In a similar fashion , Lori Grimes is furious at Rick after he admits that he killed Shane Walsh . According to Kirkman , " it looks pretty clear that he has lost [ Lori and Carl ] by doing this " at the end of " Beside the Dying Fire . " In response to the interactions between Rick and Lori , he opined : " I think he feels that he has sacrificed for this group , and that sacrifice hasn ’ t really been appreciated . His confession to Lori did not get the reaction that he had hoped . He thought she would be supportive . Instead , she reacts in a particular way that he feels is hatred and disgust . I think that ’ s really affecting him . Let 's not forget : This is taking place hours after he murdered his best friend . So he is still reeling . He ’ s trying to keep that a secret . He opens his heart to his wife , and it doesn ’ t go well . So I think that he ’ s just done with these people . I think he doesn ’ t want to be the leader . As he says : If they don ’ t like it , they ’ re free to leave . "
The episode flashbacks to the previous developments of several storylines throughout the season , including the love triangle between Rick , Shane , and Lori . Mazzara iterated that upon hearing of her husband 's revelations , Lori was conflicted with several issues . " All of that is going through Lori 's mind . Rick murdered Shane and she did confess she had feelings for Shane . Her son was a part of it . They 're all infected . Is her baby infected ? We 're out on the road , where is she going to give birth ? What happens if the baby dies ? What happens if she dies ? All of these questions are going through her head . The thing that affects her most is that she played a role in Shane 's death . She put those two men at odds , she whispered in Rick 's ear and then she talked to Shane at the windmill . She realizes that this has been over her , and in a sense she has been an active participant in Shane 's death . So she can blame Rick for that , but she 's horrified by her own culpability . "
" Beside the Dying Fire " reminiscences to the first season finale , " TS @-@ 19 , " in which Rick reveals that everyone in the group is infected with the virus . Although Kirkman described his actions as " exhibiting good leadership skills , " Mazzara said that the group began to question Rick 's capabilities as a leader . " He presents them with a very pragmatic option : If you don 't like it , get the hell out and there are no takers . At the end of the finale , the true horror is Rick when he says , ' It ain 't a democracy anymore . ' That 's the true horror . "
Themes of social darwinism and survival are prevalent throughout " Beside the Dying Fire . " In the episode , Andrea is separated from the group and is forced to fend herself against the horde of walkers that invaded Hershel 's farm . Mazzara felt that separating Andrea from her group would be essential in exploring her character in @-@ depth , as he stated that she was viewed in the light of other characters on The Walking Dead .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Beside the Dying Fire " was originally broadcast on March 18 , 2012 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode attained 9 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 8 household rating , indicating that 5 @.@ 8 % of all households who watched television viewed the episode . The episode attained a 4 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , denoting 6 million viewers , while simultaneously acquiring 3 @.@ 2 million viewers in the 18 – 34 demographic and 5 million in the 25 – 54 demographic . " Beside the Dying Fire " subsequently became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of all time demographically , amassing record ratings among adults and men between 18 and 54 ; this accolade was previously held by the second season episode " Nebraska . " Similarly , it outperformed all cable programming of the day as well as the week dated March 25 , obtaining significantly higher ratings than Swamp People on History and Jersey Shore on MTV . Total viewership and ratings for " Beside the Dying Fire " increased dramatically from the previous episode , " Better Angels , " which attracted 6 @.@ 89 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 6 rating amongst key adults in the 18 – 49 group .
= = = Critical response = = =
Rob Salem of Toronto Star said that " fans who have been complaining about this season ’ s relative complacency [ ... ] finally got their gore and more when the farm was overrun by suddenly , strangely single @-@ minded walkers . " Pamela Mitchell of Houston Chronicle commented that " Beside the Dying Fire " was the most eventful episode of the season , while Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery thought that " every single major character gets their moment to shine " ; " Epic , action @-@ packed , emotional — ' Beside the Dying Fire ' is great television , " she concluded . TV Guide television critic Michael Logan affirmed that the season finale " was so scary and shock @-@ a @-@ minute outrageous that it nearly made our heads explode . " In his A – review , Zach Handlen of The A.V. Club said that " Beside the Dying Fire " adequately accomplished what he was hoping for . He wrote , " We 're finally off Hershel 's farm , in about the most definitive way imaginable : The barn has been burned , and the house itself is overrun by a herd of ' walkers ' . " New York 's Starlee Kine adulated the installment , and asserted that it was comparable to episodes of The Walking Dead 's first season . " It ’ s just amazing how much smoother the plot holes go down when something is actually happening on this show . For the first time since last season , I felt engrossed enough to not be consumed with all the small things this show gets wrong . Up until this episode , the majority of this season has consisted exclusively of small things : petty dramas , misdirected stakes , so much stalling . I ’ m not sure I can go so far as to say that it got everything right with this one , but at least it was entertaining and the nonstop action felt like content instead of just bookends . " Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald wrote that it was the closest the program " ever resembled the climax of a George Romero film . " Time journalist Nate Rawlings felt that " Beside the Dying Fire " sufficiently encompassed a climax for its storylines , adding that it left the audience anticipating for future installments of the series .
Last night ’ s The Walking Dead season finale did that wonderfully , wrapping up several loose threads before pointing the compass directly at the heart of Season 3 . In a closing shot similar to that of this season ’ s penultimate episode , the producers literally glanced over the horizon at a giant prison , which I ’ m willing to bet elicited one of two reactions . If you ’ ve read the graphic novels , you probably said , “ It ’ s about damn time ! , ” whereas if you ’ re a TWD novice , your take was probably some variation on “ What the f — was that ? ” This is the balance the producers wanted to strike , and they did it brilliantly .
Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times said that the program delivered what she described as a " blood bath , " and Aaron Rutzkoff of The Wall Street Journal further analyzed that the episode followed a dark and frenetic convention " with flare . " The Washington Post commentator Jen Chaney opined that " Beside the Dying Fire " evoked elements of various films of George Romero , as well as the historical epic film Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) . Writing for Paste , Josh Jackson issued the episode an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 rating , signifying a " commendable " rating . " ' Beside the Dying Fire ' wasted no time getting straight to the action , assuming a season ’ s worth of character development was more than enough . " The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan echoed synonymous sentiments , ultimately declaring that the telecast was the best since the series ' pilot episode , " Days Gone Bye . " Ryan summated : " The first two acts of The Walking Dead Season 2 finale were full of excitement , honest to God suspense and characters who came up with pretty decent plans on the fly . When the braaaains finally hit the fan at Hershel Greene 's farm , my pulse quickened and I found myself wondering and even caring about the survival of characters who 'd done little more than irritate me for weeks . " Julia Rhodes from California Literary Review uttered that the show returned to form in " Beside the Dying Fire , " while Buddy TV writer Megan Cole summed up the episode as " intense . "
The character development of Andrea produced uniform praise among critics . Jackson felt that it served as the episode 's highlight , and further assessed that she emulated actress Linda Hamilton . " After a season of whining , there had to have been at least a few fans pulling for the walkers in her early scenes , but she quickly became Linda Hamilton @-@ badass , braining zombies with her foot , " he said . Likewise , Kine asserted that " the badass she has tried so hard to convince us all she is finally came across . " Ryan thought that Andrea 's struggle to survive was a strong way to build up the exodus of the group . She spoke of her scene with Michonne : " She 'd fought so hard to live that I wanted Andrea to fend off that final batch of walkers successfully . When it appeared she might not live , I was , quite rightly , on the edge of my seat . And the appearance of the caped figure — towing two armless walkers , no less — was as dramatic as could be . "
The gradual alteration of Rick was frequently mentioned in the critiques . Dan Hopper of Best Week Ever theorized that such a drastic transition was attributed by the death of his friend Shane . Halden proclaimed that the progression established a strong sense of direction for the character . " This is a definite direction . I ’ m not sure if the show ’ s going to make Rick an out @-@ and @-@ out monster , or if this is setting up some sort of redemptive arc for him in season three , but it ’ s a strong choice . The Walking Dead has tried to make us value this group of people , as if together , they mean more than they do alone . That hasn ’ t worked , so now it appears we ’ re going to try trial by fire . " By the end of " Beside the Dying Fire , " Ryan concluded that " Rick is becoming the leader he should have been from the start , and he 's being clear and upfront about his goals and leadership style . "
Commentators were divided with the interactions between Rick and his wife Lori . Although Ryan reacted positively to Lincoln 's performance , she affirmed that the contradictory nature of Lori almost ruined the scene . Similarly , Kine criticized Callies ' facial expressions during the sequence . Jackson wrote , " If that was a challenge from the writers , though , Sarah Wayne Callies has to feel like they 're just messing with her at this point . Her character , Lori , basically tells Rick that Shane needs to be put down , and then treats him like a monster when he ’ s forced to follow through with it . "
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= F @-@ Zero X =
F @-@ Zero X is a futuristic racing video game for the Nintendo 64 ( N64 ) console . Developed by Nintendo 's EAD division , it was released in Japan , North America , and Europe in 1998 . In 2000 , an expansion pack was exclusively released in Japan providing numerous extra features not in the original game . F @-@ Zero X was ported in 2004 to the iQue Player in China . The game was re @-@ released on the Wii Virtual Console in Japan , Europe and in North America , in 2007 . To honor the 100th Virtual Console release in Europe , it became available on June 15 .
It was a sequel to the original 1990 F @-@ Zero game , and is the first F @-@ Zero installment to have featured 3D graphics . The game has a steep learning curve and its gameplay experience is similar to that of the original F @-@ Zero game . F @-@ Zero X introduced a " death race " mode and a random track generator called the " X Cup " . In the death race , the player 's objective is to annihilate the 29 other racers as speedily as possible , while the X @-@ Cup " creates " a different set of tracks each time played .
Critics generally praised F @-@ Zero X for its fast gameplay , abundance of courses and vehicles , track design , and maintaining a high framerate . However , the game has been widely criticized for its lack of graphical detail .
= = Gameplay = =
F @-@ Zero X is a fast @-@ paced futuristic racing video game where thirty competitors race on high @-@ altitude circuits inside plasma @-@ powered hovercars in an intergalactic Grand Prix . Taking place after the original tournament was discontinued for several years due to the extreme danger of the sport , F @-@ Zero X begins after the Grand Prix is brought back with the rules and regulations revised under the same name as the video game . The tracks in the game include hills , loops , tunnels , corkscrews , and pipes . Players can drift into turns without losing momentum by using the control stick and trigger button . The game introduces 26 new vehicles , and reprises the 4 from the original F @-@ Zero game . Each has its own performance abilities affected by its size and weight , and a grip , boost , and durability trait graded on an A to E ( best to worst ) scale . Before a race , players are able to adjust a vehicle 's balance between maximum acceleration and maximum top speed .
Each machine has an energy meter , which serves two purposes . Firstly , it is a measurement of the machine 's health and is decreased , for example , when the machine hits another racer or the side of the track . The game introduces the ability to attack other racers by either utilizing a side or spin attack . Secondly , it is a boost meter used for manually boosting , usually starting with the second lap of a race . Energy can be replenished by driving over recharge strips , called " Pit Areas " , located at various points around the track . The amount of time spent in these areas is relative to amount of energy regenerated . There are also dash plates around the track that give a speed boost without using up any energy .
= = = Race modes = = =
F @-@ Zero X has five different gameplay modes : GP ( Grand Prix ) Race , Practice , Time Attack , Death Race , and VS Battle . In GP Race , the player races against 29 opponents through 3 laps of each track in a cup . Players get a certain number of points for finishing a track depending on where they placed , and the winner of the cup is the character who receives the most total points . If the player has a " spare machine " — the equivalent of an extra life — then falls off a track or runs out of energy , the race can be restarted . Each cup has four selectable difficulty levels : Novice , Standard , Expert , and Master . The higher the difficulty level selected , the tougher the opponents , and less spare machines the player starts with . Furthermore , the three cups initially available are ordered by increasing difficulty ( Jack , Queen and King respectively ) and have 6 tracks each . Eventually , the player can unlock the Joker Cup with its set of 6 tracks , followed by the X Cup . The X Cup is a set of 6 randomly generated tracks every time played . The randomized track elements lack loops and can be simplistic , but others are intricate .
There is a Practice mode which allows the player to practice any track with opponents . Time Attack lets the player choose a track and complete a 3 @-@ lap race in the shortest time possible . Transparent re @-@ enactments of Time Attack performances , or ghost data , from the player or game developer can be raced against . Up to 3 player @-@ contributed ghosts can be raced against simultaneously , but only one can be saved per track . Death Race has the player annihilating the 29 other racers as speedily as possible on a specialized course . There is no selectable difficulty level , or set amount of laps , but the boost is immediately available . Vs . Battle is the multiplayer mode where 2 to 4 players compete in a 3 @-@ lap race , and slots not in use by players can be operated by the artificial intelligence . A slot machine for those out of the race early will appear if the option is enabled . Players can adversely affect the energy levels of those still competing by matching symbols .
= = Development = =
Initially titled " F @-@ Zero 64 " , Famitsu magazine revealed the project in mid @-@ 1997 . Tadashi Sugiyama and Shigeru Miyamoto served as director and producer , respectively . Taro Bando and Hajime Wakai served as composers . Several key Wave Race 64 programmers including the lead programmer made up the in @-@ house development team . Developed by Nintendo EAD , it is a sequel to the original 1990 F @-@ Zero game , and was the first F @-@ Zero installment to feature 3D graphics . The game made its debut at the Nintendo Space World event on November 20 , 1997 where the public was able to play it for the first time . Soon after , IGN reported F @-@ Zero X consistently ran at 60 frames per second . Consequently , background detail and textures were lacking as well as polygon count on vehicles which lessen more so as they pass the player . They noted that " [ tracks ] hide most of the limited backgrounds with their girth and undulating nature which block out almost everything else . " Fogging effects are used to hide background shortcomings such as where the sky and ground meet .
F @-@ Zero X features remixed music from its predecessor . Due to compression , the game features monaural music tracks , but ambient effects are generated with stereo sound effects .
= = Release = =
Two soundtracks were released featuring music from this game onto CD . The F @-@ Zero X Original Soundtrack was released on September 18 , 1998 . The F @-@ Zero X Guitar Arrange Edition , which was released on January 27 , 1999 , contains ten guitar arranged musical tracks from the game . The game was released in Japan on July 14 , 1998 , but its North American release suffered from a three @-@ month delay due to Nintendo 's policy of spacing the release of first @-@ party games out evenly . It was eventually released on October 26 , followed by Europe on November 6 . It was released on the Wii Virtual Console in 2007 , and as the 100th Virtual Console game in Europe .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , critical reception of F @-@ Zero X was positive ; the game has an aggregate average of 86 @.@ 93 % based on 15 reviews at Game Rankings , and a metascore of 85 at Metacritic . Critics generally praised F @-@ Zero X for its fast gameplay , abundance of courses and vehicles , keeping a high framerate with up to thirty racers on screen at the same time , and track design . However , the game has been widely criticized for its lack of graphical detail . Peer Schneider of IGN described the gameplay as " god @-@ like " , " hair @-@ splitting " speed ; and he considered the game to rival its predecessor Wave Race 64 with its " perfectly fine @-@ tuned controls and a fresh approach to racing " . The title received the Game of the Month award for November 1998 from Electronic Gaming Monthly . An editor stated " the graphics may be simple , but they 're smooth and the action is fast " .
Allgame called F @-@ Zero X as " certainly not up to Nintendo 's usual standards " in terms of detail and texture quality . GameSpot also criticized the game 's graphical detail , calling the low polygon count on the vehicles " particularly uninspiring " and saying that the " track detail is also very limited , giving the track a spartan feel to it " . Although the optimizations are strict , critics exalted the game for managing a steady rate of 60 frames per second , which some thought made up for the lack of graphical detail with little room for improvement . The Electric Playground found the framerate to give " the game a major boost in the feel department " making it " seem like your vehicle is bursting through the sound barrier " . According to GameSpot , F @-@ Zero X became the first racing game to run at 60 frames per second with up to 30 vehicles on screen at the same time , but in order to keep the frame rate , polygon counts on the vehicles , textures and track detail are sacrificed .
In regard to the music , EGM considered it " really good with some excellent remixes of the old F @-@ Zero tunes " , while CVG called the music dreadful . The Electric Playground thought it goes hand @-@ in @-@ hand to the simulation of speed in the game , but the reviewer commented " I wouldn 't in a million years buy music like this to listen to " . In GameSpot 's retrospective review , they gave it a 6 @.@ 5 / 10 calling it " the black sheep of the series " when compared with the other F @-@ Zero games in " visual style and technical flair " . IGN described F @-@ Zero X as an exceptional update to the original game that " only suffers under its generic look " . Peer Schneider believed that unlike the first game , F @-@ Zero X " is not about showing off graphics or sound capabilities -- it 's all about gameplay " .
Nintendo sold 383 @,@ 642 units of F @-@ Zero X in North America and 97 @,@ 684 units in Japan . In its first week of sale in Japan , 56 @,@ 457 copies were sold , but only about one fifth of that in the following week reportedly due to the Nintendo 64 having had a small dedicated fanbase there .
= = Expansion Kit = =
F @-@ Zero X Expansion Kit , released in Japan on April 21 , 2000 , is the first expansion disk for the 64DD , Nintendo 's disk drive peripheral for the Nintendo 64 . F @-@ Zero X was programmed with " 64DD hooks " , which allow it to detect whether the 64DD is connected and compatible expansion software is loaded . This allows the cartridge @-@ based game to be compatible with expansion disks such as track editors or course updates ; however , none of these were utilized outside Japan due to the 64DD 's commercial failure . Expansion Kit will only operate in conjunction with the cartridge of the original game . However , all of F @-@ Zero X 's regular features are accessible in addition to twelve new tracks , a car editor and a track creator . As the Expansion Kit benefits from a larger amount of storage on disk when compared to the original cartridge version , it includes new soundtracks in stereophonic sound as well as the entire collection of monaural audio tracks from the original game .
In addition to the two new cups , it is also possible to create custom cups . The disk can save up to a hundred tracks and up to three ghost racers per course . IGN singled out the track creator as the F @-@ Zero X Expansion Kit 's strongest feature since it is virtually the same tool the designers of F @-@ Zero X used for themselves to create the original circuits . The Car Editor offers a variety of options when creating a vehicle . Using a set of pre @-@ existing parts , the player must balance their creations ' settings and performance abilities before the machine is finished and named . The Track Editor is a detailed track creator that allows the player to design their own racing circuits . Using a cursor , the player can determine the basic layout of the track and also add points to it to create track elements such as curves and hills . Furthermore , numerous different properties like half pipes and cylinders , as well as numerous road surfaces , such as slip zones , can be added . The player can test the creation at any time and run practice laps .
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= Planet B =
Planet B is a science fiction drama series first broadcast on BBC Radio 7 on 2 March 2009 as part of BBC Radio 's science fiction season between February and March 2009 . Planet B is set in a virtual world called " Planet B " in which people play as life @-@ size avatars . The first series follows John Armstrong who attempts to find girlfriend Lioba Fielding who is dead in the real world but alive in Planet B. As he travels between various worlds he becomes entangled in an array of strange scenarios , teleporting from each adventure to the next with his companion Medley , a " rogue avatar " who has no human controller . All the while , John and Medley are being watched by a dog @-@ like antivirus programme called Cerberus who , along with the Planet B Corporation , considers the rogues to be a computer virus that need to be wiped out . In the second series , Lioba is on the run from Planet B and travels the virtual world with computer games expert Kip Berenger after they are attacked by Cerberus .
The series was created by Sam Hoyle , Jessica Dromgoole and Matthew Broughton with James Robinson . The first series ran for ten episodes and was BBC Radio 7 's biggest ever commission for an original drama series . A second series of five episodes was broadcast from 29 November 2009 to 27 December . A third series started on 30 January 2011 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
Lioba Fielding is one of the people behind " Planet B " , a virtual world which advertises itself as : " Where you can be whatever you want to be . " Planet B allows its users to download themselves onto it and play as a life @-@ size avatar in a 3D world designed to be as realistic as possible . Planet B contains various environments , including schools , the Wild West , and Ancient Rome .
Lioba commits suicide in the real world by throwing herself off a cliff , to the distress and horror of her boyfriend John Armstrong . John then downloads himself into Planet B and enters a section called " Golden Moments " which allows him to play the best moments of his life , but a technical fault results in him being forced to constantly watch Lioba 's funeral . John , along with his virtual hostess and guide Medley , discover that the problem revolves around Lioba . John then begins to see memories that are not his but Lioba 's . He therefore begins to believe that Lioba is still alive somewhere in Planet B. John and Medley decide to search Planet B in an attempt to find her by jumping into a rift in the system , taking part in the various games and worlds in the system as they go along . However , when they exit the rift , John is no longer his avatar , but himself with his DNA digitised . As a result , he feels everything in Planet B for real , and if he is killed in a game , he will really die .
Unknown to them , Lioba is indeed alive in Planet B. She is currently trying to rid the network of viruses . She does this with the help of Cerberus , a vicious antivirus programme designed to look like a cerberus who destroys viruses by ripping them to shreds .
John discovers that Medley is in fact a " Rogue avatar " - an advanced form of computer virus that can think for itself . Medley makes it her mission to become more human , to protect the other rogues and to make them as equal as humans . She learns that she is to lead the rogues to freedom from the corporation behind Planet B. Cerberus however , views Medley and the other rogues as viruses that must be deleted before they destroy Planet B and wants to hunt them down . In an attempt to track them , Lioba gets rid of her " Weaker " emotions to track the rogues , as rogues use them to feel emotion themselves . John gains access to them , but when he meets the colder , crueler Lioba , he wants to kill himself . However , John and Medley always teleport to safety before he goes through with it .
Lioba 's emotionless state causes her to act less rationally and as a result the corporation stop her . It is deemed that she has to be deleted . Before this happens , John manages to find her and give her back her emotions . They agree to leave Planet B and meet up in real life . However , after they do , Lioba becomes ill and goes into a hospital , where John discovers that Medley is one of the staff . John discovers that not only is he still in Planet B , but Lioba has no physical body so she cannot leave . Lioba 's illness comes from a patch designed to delete the rogues . John and Medley help to cure Lioba , and they unite in order to prevent more rogues from being destroyed . Cerberus then confronts them and battles with Medley , while John and Lioba flee to safety .
= = = Series 2 = = =
The second series takes place some time after the events of series one . It is mentioned that John , Medley and Lioba help lead an uprising of the rogue avatars which resulted in Planet B declaring all rogues to be outlaws . Lioba has changed her appearance and voice and is currently on the run from the Planet B corporation . The whereabouts of John are unknown , and it is implied that Medley has been killed by Cerberus , who has since lost his job and is now killing both rogue and human controlled avatars as he sees fit .
A new character called Kip Berenger ( Joseph Cohen @-@ Cole ) is introduced , a computer games expert who followed the uprising and is a fan of Lioba . While on a dating website in Planet B , he comes into contact with Lioba and offers his help . She is at first reluctant , but when they are both attacked by Cerberus they flee together . Kip later reveals that like Lioba he is dead in the real world .
As they travel from world to world , Lioba and Kip learn that the people behind Planet B appear to be killing people in real life for an unknown reason . There are also more people who have died in real life but still exist in Planet B , known as " Have Nots " , as opposed to those who are still alive , known as " Haves " . What is more the real world is in chaos for several unexplained reasons .
Kip and Lioba enter a site called " The Underworld " which is akin to Greek mythology . While there Lioba turns into a Gorgon and the only way for them to escape is for Kip to turn Lioba into stone . The end of the series see Kip crying at the realisation that he has committed murder and that he is now master of Cerberus .
= = = Series 3 = = =
In the third series , Mark Schwartz , the head of Planet B , announces that the original Planet B is to shut down and replaced by a new service , Planet B Platinum . He claims it is to provide a new service , but it is really designed to kill all the rogues in the old site .
Kip is currently in a site which simulates the Black Forest where he encounters a voice , which turns out to be Medley , who was able to come back from the dead because when rogues die their code becomes part of Planet B. Kip and Medley travel between worlds in an attempt to find a code which allow them access to the " reset button " which will restore Planet B to its original state . However , they are being pursued by Cerberus who has been upgraded and become even more violent .
Kip manages to learn the code but is seemingly too late . Planet B shuts down , with the virtual world slowly being destroyed . However , they discover the reset button and attempt to enter the code . As they reach it , Schwartz appears and attempts to stop them , but he in turn is stopped by Cerberus . Cerberus helps Kip and Medly , having learned that he too is a rogue and had false memories implanted by the corporation to make him believe that he had a life outside Planet B. The code is activated and the button is pressed , resetting the whole of Planet B.
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Planet B is the largest ever original drama commission for BBC Radio 7 , with the first series being ten episodes long . It was broadcast as part of a science fiction season on BBC Radio . Broughton acts as the head writer for the show . Dromgoole , the series producer , describes the character of John as being , " a real character trapped in a sci @-@ fi . So in a sense , he is our guide into it . He 's very skeptical about it and he 's innocent about everything he encounters there . "
James Robinson , the script editor for Planet B said that one of the main advantages of a series such as this is that it can be set anywhere saying , " One week it 's westerns , one week it 's full @-@ on sci @-@ fi space operas , and that 's one of the nice things about the best sci @-@ fi concepts . I think , you know , the Doctor Who 's and the Quantum Leap 's , you kind of get a different show each week . "
The cast for Planet B comes from the Radio Drama Company , a repertory radio company . This is because they cost nothing to use and the budget for the show is small . The cast of the Radio Drama Company changes around every six months , which means that cast of Planet B changes every series .
All episodes have been available download as a podcast . Nearly 25 @,@ 000 people downloaded the first series .
The second series was promoted using an online binaural advert . It is also being used to launch a pilot scheme of a " Series catch @-@ up " on the BBC iPlayer , in which the episodes will be on the iPlayer for longer than seven days so that people can catch up with the entire series .
= = Reception = =
The series received mostly positive reviews . Phil Daoust from The Guardian selected Planet B as his pick of the day when the show was first broadcast . He wrote that it , " is likely to be one of those love @-@ it @-@ or @-@ hate @-@ it experiences . " On 6 March 2009 Scott Matthewman from The Stage wrote : " I am shame @-@ faced , in that I missed this intense drama serial off last week ’ s preview . Matthew Broughton 's tale of a malfunctioning virtual world is engrossing . "
Ian Dunn from One Giant Leap also wrote positively : " The series has been amazingly gripping . The situation of the show allows it to be set just about anywhere , much like Doctor Who . The plot is enticing and you really care about the characters . " He also commented : " One intriguing thing about the series so far is that some of the scenarios have been rather adult for a show broadcast at 6pm . One episode , set in a Roman world featured a scene in a sex dungeon . Another featured Cerberus doing what all dogs do ( no matter how many heads they have ) and urinate on a motorbike – well , half man @-@ half motorbike . "
= = Merchandise = =
Other than the podcast , the first two series of Planet B have been made available as a purchasable download from Audible.com between the 6 – 7 June 2011 .
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= Townsend F. Dodd =
Townsend Foster Dodd ( 6 March 1886 – 5 October 1919 ) was the first commissioned US Army aviator . As a University of Illinois graduate with a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering , he joined the Coast Artillery Corps and shortly thereafter became an aviator in the US Army Air Service . Dodd sat on many boards of review during the service 's infancy and was one of the members who condemned pusher planes in favor of tractors . He served with General John Pershing on the Mexican Border where he set records for endurance flying . During World War I he was first assigned as the Aviation Officer of the American Expeditionary Force in 1917 . He was later replaced by Colonel Billy Mitchell and was reassigned to the Bolling Mission .
He was the first US pilot to receive the Distinguished Service Medal during World War I. Dodd was promoted to colonel on 14 August 1918 and at the end of the war he was appointed the Chief of Staff , Material under Mitchell . Dodd was then posted to Fort Sam Houston at San Antonio . With the completion of the war he reverted to his pre @-@ war rank of captain and became the commander of Langley Field , Hampton , Virginia . After returning home from the war he competed in endurance flight competitions and during one such contest he crashed and died . Nine years after his death Dodd Army Airfield was named in his honor .
= = Biography = =
Dodd was born on 6 March 1886 to Zachary Taylor Dodd and Ruth Anna Dodd ( née McLean ) in Illinois . Dodd attended the University of Illinois , from where he graduated in 1907 with a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering degree . Ruth Dodd was one of the Charter Members of the Order of the Eastern Star of Illinois . He was married to St Clair Dodd with whom he had no children . In 1914 Dodd won the Mackay Trophy . He died in 1919 in an air crash .
= = Military career = =
= = = Pre @-@ World War I = = =
On 25 September 1909 , Dodd was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Coast Artillery Corps . He was transferred to the Aviation Section , Signal Corps in 1912 . While there he became a fully qualified military aviator . In the War Department General Order # 39 , dated 27 May 1913 , Dodd was listed as one of the " original military aviators " . On 13 February 1913 , he established a non @-@ stop duration of flight record , by flying 244 @.@ 18 miles in 4 hours , 43 minutes in aircraft SC 26 ( a Burgess Model H ) . Promoted to the rank of first lieutenant , Dodd was ordered to join the 1st Aero Squadron at Texas City , Texas , on 9 March 1913 . In June Dodd , along with his squadron , transferred to the San Diego Signal Corps Aviation School ( now known as Rockwell Field ) . There he participated in various flight experiments and sat on boards to establish training requirements and aircraft specifications . Dodd qualified as a military aviator on 30 December 1913 .
The Aeronautical Department experienced a spate of fatal accidents between 1912 and 1913 , most involving the Wright Model C airplane . A board of aviators , including Dodd , was convened to investigate safety concerns and make recommendations . Dodd , along with Captain Benjamin Foulois and Lieutenants Walter R. Taliaferro , Carleton G. Chapman , and Joseph E. Carberry , condemned not just the Wright C but all " pusher " aircraft as unsafe on 16 February 1914 , and those remaining in the Army inventory were ordered to be immediately grounded . The following month , the board drew up specifications for a tractor @-@ configured training airplane . Dodd was involved in the aftermath of a major incident in 1914 , which became known as the Goodier Court Martial . The commanding officer of the 1st Aero Squadron 's 2nd Company at San Diego , Capt. Lewis E. Goodier , was seriously injured in a demonstration accident on 5 November 1914 . Goodier was flying with Glenn L. Martin in a new aircraft when they stalled during a required competitive slow speed test and , when Martin over corrected with too much throttle , went into what was described as the first tailspin . Goodier suffered a nearly severed nose , two broken legs , a re @-@ opened skull fracture , and a severe puncture of his knee from the drive shaft . After a cursory review of the crashes , school commandant Capt. Arthur S. Cowan , dismissed the pilots as " nothing but amateurs " . While recuperating , Goodier assisted Dodd and 1st Lt. Walter Taliaferro in an attempt to prefer charges against Cowan for fraudulently collecting flight pay when he was neither certified to fly nor on flying duty . These charges were dismissed as being laid out of malice .
Dodd went with the 1st Aero to Galveston during the Vera Cruz incident in 1914 , then to Fort Sill . Following a promotion to captain , Dodd and his observer , Lieutenant S. W. Fitzgerald , won the third annual contest for the Mackay aviation trophy when he descended at North Island after a trip of three hours and three minutes . The contest for the Mackay trophy involved serial reconnaissance of troops maneuvering in the vicinity of San Diego and reports of their numbers and disposition . Accidents eliminated all machines but theirs and the trophy would not have been awarded that year if Fitzgerald had not provided a comprehensive and accurate report of the composition and location of the troops .
On 12 March 1916 , Dodd was appointed as a pilot to the 1st Aero Squadron , under General John Pershing 's 8th Brigade , which was positioned on the Mexican border . As the pilot of Airplane # 44 , he and his observer , Captain Foulois , made the first reconnaissance flight into Mexico on 15 March 1916 . Throughout the rest of March and early April they would fly deep into Mexico to observe troop movements and fly dispatches to other bases . Upon the completion of his work in Mexico he remained with the 1st Aero Squadron and was promoted to major in May 1917 .
= = = World War I = = =
While serving under Pershing , Dodd gained experience and was appointed to a staff position as the Aviation Officer within the American Expeditionary Force ( AEF ) , when it was raised for overseas service during World War I. Before sailing to France , on 27 May 1917 , Dodd sent his assistant , Lt. Birdseye B. Lewis , to New York with instructions to round @-@ up qualified candidates for the aviation staff . Among the applicants was auto race car driver , Edward V. Rickenbacker , who was promptly enlisted as a sergeant first class , chauffeur . Upon his arrival in Europe in late 1917 , Dodd was appointed lieutenant colonel in the Signal Corps .
As an Aviation Officer it was Dodd 's job to liaise with , and understand , the Allies ' needs , requirements , and recommendations . To do so he spent several days in London where he spoke to the US Military Attaché , Colonel William Lassiter , and various British officials . Dodd submitted his report to the AEF on 20 June 1917 with a recommendation on what needed to be done . Dodd first used the term " Air Service " in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917 . The term also appeared on 5 July 1917 , in AEF General Order No. 8 , in tables detailing staff organization and duties . The Air Service , American Expeditionary Forces was formally created on 3 September 1917 when General Order 31 was published , and remained in being until demobilized in 1919 . Dodd , however , had been superseded as Aviation Officer by Colonel William Mitchell , who outranked him . Mitchell replaced Dodd on 30 June 1917 , with the position renamed " Chief of Air Service " and its duties changed and rewritten .
The Bolling Commission ( also known as the Bolling Mission and named after Colonel Raynal Bolling , the head of the mission ) was an aeronautical commission sent to Europe on behalf of the Aircraft Production Board of the Council of National Defense . Dodd was assigned to the mission , after being replaced as Aviation Officer . His assignment was to evaluate aircraft for use by the AEF , specifically for reconnaissance purposes . Dodd evaluated French aircraft and favored adopting the Salmson two @-@ seater for reconnaissance work . Eventually 705 Salmsons were purchased for the Air Service ; of these 557 saw front @-@ line service .
Along with several other graduates of the Aviation Section 's winter 1916 " Field Officers Course " , Dodd was given a temporary wartime promotion to colonel and under the command of General William L. Kenly , Dodd was named Director of Air Service Instruction ( DAI ) . An artillery officer , Kenly had been the Executive Officer of the Aviation School in San Diego before the outbreak of war and instructed Dodd , Bolling and Mitchell . Bolling and Mitchell were also promoted , with Bolling being appointed to the role of Director of Air Service Supply ( DASS ) to administer the " Zone of the Line of Communications " ( sic ) , later called the Service of Supply . Kenly proved to be only an interim commander , though , and on 27 November 1917 he was replaced by Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois who arrived in France with a large but untrained staff of non @-@ aviators . This resulted in considerable resentment from Mitchell 's smaller , established , staff , many of whom , including Bolling and Dodd , were immediately displaced . Dodd , Bolling , and Mitchell resented their being replaced by non @-@ aviators and after leaving the theater of operations all continued to further the Air Service in their own ways .
= = = = Distinguished Service Medal = = = =
During Dodd 's service in World War I he was the first US pilot to receive the Distinguished Service Medal . His citation reads :
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Colonel ( Air Service ) Townsend F. Dodd , United States Army Air Service , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Colonel Dodd organized the Aviation Training School at Issoudun and successfully conducted the negotiations for the first purchase of aeroplanes from allied governments for the use of the American Expeditionary Forces . He later served with distinction as Chief of the Supply Section , Air Service , American Expeditionary Forces , and as Technical Advisor and Information Officer of the Chief of the Air Service , 1st Army .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
Having been promoted to the rank of colonel on 14 August 1918 , by the end of the war Dodd was appointed Chief of Staff , Material under Brigadier General Billy Mitchell . Dodd was then posted to Fort Sam Houston at San Antonio where he served as Chief of Materiel and Assistant Chief of Supply , Air Service , and then as G @-@ 2 , Air Service , First Army . With the completion of the war he reverted to his pre @-@ war rank of captain and became the commander of Langley Field , Hampton , Virginia .
= = Death and legacy = =
While Dodd was the commander of Langley Field he was killed in an air crash . The crash occurred on 5 October 1919 at Bustleton Field , Philadelphia , during the New York to Los Angeles transcontinental air race . On 1 May 1928 Remount Station # 1 was named Dodd Army Airfield , the nation 's first dedicated military airfield . Dodd Army Airfield was an airfield located within the current boundaries of Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas . Dodd Field includes the area bounded on the north by Rittiman Road , on the west by Harry Wurzbach Memorial Highway , on the south by Winans ( formerly Dashiell ) Road and on the east by the Fort Sam Houston Reservation boundary . Dodd Field was designated in War Department General Order Number 5 . Prior to deployment to Europe for World War I Dodd had served at the remount station and had been Commander of the Aviation Post when the 3rd Aero Squadron was stationed there . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery with a simple gravestone located at Plot : Section 3 , Site Lot 4062 . Active flight operations were terminated in October 1931 , although the official date of closure of Dodd Field as an aviation facility has not been determined .
= = = Bibliographical notes = = =
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= Barack Obama =
Barack Hussein Obama II ( US / bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə / ; born August 4 , 1961 ) is the 44th and current President of the United States . He is the first African American to hold the office and the first president born outside of the continental United States . Born in Honolulu , Hawaii , Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School , where he served as president of the Harvard Law Review . He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree . He worked as a civil rights attorney and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School between 1992 and 2004 . While serving three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004 , he ran unsuccessfully in the Democratic primary for the United States House of Representatives in 2000 against incumbent Bobby Rush .
In 2004 , Obama received national attention during his campaign to represent Illinois in the United States Senate with his victory in the March Democratic Party primary , his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July , and his election to the Senate in November . He began his presidential campaign in 2007 and , after a close primary campaign against Hillary Clinton in 2008 , he won sufficient delegates in the Democratic Party primaries to receive the presidential nomination . He then defeated Republican nominee John McCain in the general election , and was inaugurated as president on January 20 , 2009 . Nine months after his inauguration , Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate .
During his first two years in office , Obama signed into law economic stimulus legislation in response to the Great Recession in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 . Other major domestic initiatives in his first term included the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , often referred to as " Obamacare " ; the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act ; and the Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 . In foreign policy , Obama ended U.S. military involvement in the Iraq War , increased U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan , signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia , ordered U.S. military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi , and ordered the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden . In January 2011 , the Republicans regained control of the House of Representatives as the Democratic Party lost a total of 63 seats ; and , after a lengthy debate over federal spending and whether or not to raise the nation 's debt limit , Obama signed the Budget Control Act of 2011 and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 .
Obama was reelected president in November 2012 , defeating Republican nominee Mitt Romney , and was sworn in for a second term on January 20 , 2013 . During his second term , Obama has promoted domestic policies related to gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , and has called for greater inclusiveness for LGBT Americans , while his administration has filed briefs which urged the Supreme Court to strike down part of the federal Defense of Marriage Act and state level same @-@ sex marriage bans as unconstitutional . In foreign policy , Obama ordered U.S. military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq , continued the process of ending U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan , promoted discussions that led to the 2015 Paris Agreement on global climate change , brokered a nuclear deal with Iran , and normalized U.S. relations with Cuba .
= = Early life and career = =
Obama was born on August 4 , 1961 , at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital ( now Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children ) in Honolulu , Hawaii ; he is the first President to have been born in Hawaii . His mother , Stanley Ann Dunham , born in Wichita , Kansas , was of mostly English ancestry . His father , Barack Obama Sr. , was a Luo from Nyang 'oma Kogelo , Kenya . Obama 's parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa , where his father was a foreign student on scholarship . The couple married in Wailuku on Maui on February 2 , 1961 , and separated when , in late August 1961 , Obama 's mother moved with their newborn son to attend the University of Washington in Seattle for a year . During that time , Obama Sr. completed his undergraduate economics degree in Hawaii in June 1962 , then left to attend graduate school at Harvard University on a scholarship . Obama 's parents divorced in March 1964 . Obama Sr. returned to Kenya in 1964 where he remarried ; he visited Barack in Hawaii only once , in 1971 . He died in an automobile accident in 1982 , his son being 21 years old at that time .
In 1963 , Dunham met Lolo Soetoro , an Indonesian East – West Center graduate student in geography at the University of Hawaii , and the couple were married on Molokai on March 15 , 1965 . After two one @-@ year extensions of his J @-@ 1 visa , Lolo returned to Indonesia in 1966 , followed sixteen months later by his wife and stepson in 1967 , with the family initially living in a Menteng Dalam neighborhood in the Tebet subdistrict of south Jakarta , then from 1970 in a wealthier neighborhood in the Menteng subdistrict of central Jakarta . From ages six to ten , Obama attended local Indonesian @-@ language schools : Santo Fransiskus Asisi ( St. Francis of Assisi ) Catholic School for two years and Besuki Public School for one and a half years , supplemented by English @-@ language Calvert School homeschooling by his mother .
Obama returned to Honolulu in 1971 to live with his maternal grandparents , Madelyn and Stanley Dunham , and with the aid of a scholarship attended Punahou School , a private college preparatory school , from fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979 . In his youth , Obama went by the nickname Barry . Obama lived with his mother and sister in Hawaii for three years from 1972 to 1975 while his mother was a graduate student in anthropology at the University of Hawaii . Obama chose to stay in Hawaii with his grandparents for high school at Punahou when his mother and sister returned to Indonesia in 1975 so his mother could begin anthropology field work . His mother spent most of the next two decades in Indonesia , divorcing Lolo in 1980 and earning a PhD degree in 1992 , before dying in 1995 in Hawaii following treatment for ovarian cancer and uterine cancer .
Of his early childhood , Obama recalled , " That my father looked nothing like the people around me – that he was black as pitch , my mother white as milk – barely registered in my mind . " He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage . Reflecting later on his years in Honolulu , Obama wrote : " The opportunity that Hawaii offered – to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect – became an integral part of my world view , and a basis for the values that I hold most dear . " Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol , marijuana , and cocaine during his teenage years to " push questions of who I was out of my mind " . Obama was also a member of the " choom gang " , a self @-@ named group of friends that spent time together and occasionally smoked marijuana .
After high school , Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College . In February 1981 , Obama made his first public speech , calling for Occidental to participate in the disinvestment from South Africa in response to that nation 's policy of apartheid . In mid @-@ 1981 , Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and half @-@ sister Maya , and visited the families of college friends in Pakistan and India for three weeks . Later in 1981 , he transferred as a junior to Columbia College , Columbia University , in New York City , where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations and lived off @-@ campus on West 109th Street . He graduated with a BA degree in 1983 and worked for a year at the Business International Corporation , then at the New York Public Interest Research Group . In 1985 , Obama was among the leaders of May Day efforts to bring attention to the New York City Subway system , which was in a bad condition at the time . Obama traveled to several subway stations to get people to sign letters addressed to local officials and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority , and was photographed at the City College subway station holding a sign protesting against the system 's condition .
= = = Community organizer and Harvard Law School = = =
Two years after graduating , Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project , a church @-@ based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Roseland , West Pullman , and Riverdale on Chicago 's South Side . He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988 . He helped set up a job training program , a college preparatory tutoring program , and a tenants ' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens . Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation , a community organizing institute . In mid @-@ 1988 , he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya , where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time .
Obama entered Harvard Law School in the fall of 1988 , living in nearby Somerville , Massachusetts . He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year , president of the journal in his second year , and research assistant to the constitutional scholar Laurence Tribe while at Harvard for two years . During his summers , he returned to Chicago , where he worked as an associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990 . After graduating with a JD degree magna cum laude from Harvard in 1991 , he returned to Chicago . Obama 's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations , which evolved into a personal memoir . The manuscript was published in mid @-@ 1995 as Dreams from My Father .
= = = Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney = = =
In 1991 , Obama accepted a two @-@ year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book . He then taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years , first as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996 , and then as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004 .
From April to October 1992 , Obama directed Illinois 's Project Vote , a voter registration campaign with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars ; it achieved its goal of registering 150 @,@ 000 of 400 @,@ 000 unregistered African Americans in the state , leading Crain 's Chicago Business to name Obama to its 1993 list of " 40 under Forty " powers to be .
He joined Davis , Miner , Barnhill & Galland , a 13 @-@ attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development , where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996 , then of counsel from 1996 to 2004 . In 1994 , he was listed as one of the lawyers in Buycks @-@ Roberson v. Citibank Fed . Sav . Bank , 94 C 4094 ( N.D. Ill . ) . This class action lawsuit was filed in 1994 with Selma Buycks @-@ Roberson as lead plaintiff and alleged that Citibank Federal Savings Bank had engaged in practices forbidden under the Equal Credit Opportunity Act and the Fair Housing Act . The case was settled out of court . Final Judgment was issued on May 13 , 1998 with Citibank Federal Savings Bank agreeing to pay attorney fees . His law license became inactive in 2007 .
From 1994 to 2002 , Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago , which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project , and of the Joyce Foundation . He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002 , as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999 .
= = Legislative career = =
= = = Illinois State Senator ( from 1997 ) = = =
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996 , succeeding Democratic State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois 's 13th District , which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn . Once elected , Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws . He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low @-@ income workers , negotiated welfare reform , and promoted increased subsidies for childcare . In 2001 , as co @-@ chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules , Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan 's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures .
He was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998 , defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election , and was reelected again in 2002 . In 2000 , he lost a Democratic primary race for Illinois 's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives to four @-@ term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one .
In January 2003 , Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate 's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats , after a decade in the minority , regained a majority . He sponsored and led unanimous , bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained , and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations . During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate , police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms . Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate .
= = = 2004 U.S. Senate campaign = = =
In May 2002 , Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race . He created a campaign committee , began raising funds , and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002 . Obama formally announced his candidacy in January 2003 .
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration 's 2003 invasion of Iraq . On October 2 , 2002 , the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War , Obama addressed the first high @-@ profile Chicago anti @-@ Iraq War rally , and spoke out against the war . He addressed another anti @-@ war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that " it 's not too late " to stop the war .
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide @-@ open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates . In the March 2004 primary election , Obama won in an unexpected landslide — which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party , started speculation about a presidential future , and led to the reissue of his memoir , Dreams from My Father . In July 2004 , Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention , seen by 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party .
Obama 's expected opponent in the general election , Republican primary winner Jack Ryan , withdrew from the race in June 2004 . Six weeks later , Alan Keyes accepted the Republican nomination to replace Ryan . In the November 2004 general election , Obama won with 70 percent of the vote .
= = = U.S. Senator from Illinois ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 3 , 2005 , becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus . CQ Weekly characterized him as a " loyal Democrat " based on analysis of all Senate votes from 2005 to 2007 . Obama announced on November 13 , 2008 , that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16 , 2008 , before the start of the lame @-@ duck session , to focus on his transition period for the presidency .
= = = = Legislation = = = =
Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act . He introduced two initiatives that bore his name : Lugar – Obama , which expanded the Nunn – Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction concept to conventional weapons ; and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 , which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov , a web search engine on federal spending . On June 3 , 2008 , Senator Obama — along with Senators Tom Carper , Tom Coburn , and John McCain — introduced follow @-@ up legislation : Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008 .
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks , but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee . Regarding tort reform , Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 , which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations .
In December 2006 , President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief , Security , and Democracy Promotion Act , marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor . In January 2007 , Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act , which was signed into law in September 2007 . Obama also introduced two unsuccessful bills : the Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections , and the Iraq War De @-@ Escalation Act of 2007 .
Later in 2007 , Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act to add safeguards for personality @-@ disorder military discharges . This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008 . He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran 's oil and gas industry , which has not passed committee ; and co @-@ sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism . Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children 's Health Insurance Program , providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat @-@ related injuries .
= = = = Committees = = = =
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations , Environment and Public Works and Veterans ' Affairs through December 2006 . In January 2007 , he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health , Education , Labor and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs . He also became Chairman of the Senate 's subcommittee on European Affairs . As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe , the Middle East , Central Asia and Africa . He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian National Authority , and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi in which he condemned corruption within the Kenyan government .
= = Presidential campaigns = =
= = = 2008 presidential campaign = = =
On February 10 , 2007 , Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield , Illinois . The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic " House Divided " speech in 1858 . Obama emphasized issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War , increasing energy independence , and reforming the health care system , in a campaign that projected themes of hope and change .
Numerous candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries . The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Clinton after early contests , with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long @-@ range planning , superior fundraising , dominant organizing in caucus states , and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules . On June 7 , 2008 , Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama .
On August 23 , Obama announced his selection of Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate . Obama selected Biden from a field speculated to include former Indiana Governor and Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine . At the Democratic National Convention in Denver , Colorado , Hillary Clinton called for her supporters to endorse Obama , and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in his support . Obama delivered his acceptance speech , not at the center where the Democratic National Convention was held , but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75 @,@ 000 ; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide .
During both the primary process and the general election , Obama 's campaign set numerous fundraising records , particularly in the quantity of small donations . On June 19 , 2008 , Obama became the first major @-@ party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976 .
John McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate , and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008 . On November 4 , Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain . Obama won 52 @.@ 9 percent of the popular vote to McCain 's 45 @.@ 7 percent . He became the first African American to be elected president . Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago 's Grant Park .
= = = 2012 presidential campaign = = =
On April 4 , 2011 , Obama announced his reelection campaign for 2012 in a video titled " It Begins with Us " that he posted on his website and filed election papers with the Federal Election Commission . As the incumbent president he ran virtually unopposed in the Democratic Party presidential primaries , and on April 3 , 2012 , Obama had secured the 2778 convention delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination .
At the Democratic National Convention in Charlotte , North Carolina , Obama and Joe Biden were formally nominated by former President Bill Clinton , as the Democratic Party candidates for president and vice president in the general election . Their main opponents were Republicans Mitt Romney , the former governor of Massachusetts , and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin .
On November 6 , 2012 , Obama won 332 electoral votes , exceeding the 270 required for him to be reelected as president . With 51 @.@ 1 percent of the popular vote , Obama became the first Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to twice win the majority of the popular vote . President Obama addressed supporters and volunteers at Chicago 's McCormick Place after his reelection and said : " Tonight you voted for action , not politics as usual . You elected us to focus on your jobs , not ours . And in the coming weeks and months , I am looking forward to reaching out and working with leaders of both parties . "
= = Presidency ( since 2009 ) = =
= = = First days = = =
The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President took place on January 20 , 2009 . In his first few days in office , Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq . He ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , but Congress prevented the closure by refusing to appropriate the required funds and preventing moving any Guantanamo detainee into the U.S. or to other countries . Obama reduced the secrecy given to presidential records . He also revoked President George W. Bush 's restoration of President Ronald Reagan 's Mexico City Policy prohibiting federal aid to international family planning organizations that perform or provide counseling about abortion .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 , relaxing the statute of limitations for equal @-@ pay lawsuits . Five days later , he signed the reauthorization of the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) to cover an additional 4 million uninsured children . In March 2009 , Obama reversed a Bush @-@ era policy which had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research and pledged to develop " strict guidelines " on the research .
Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his Presidency . Sonia Sotomayor , nominated by Obama on May 26 , 2009 , to replace retiring Associate Justice David Souter , was confirmed on August 6 , 2009 , becoming the first Hispanic Supreme Court Justice . Elena Kagan , nominated by Obama on May 10 , 2010 , to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens , was confirmed on August 5 , 2010 , bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three , for the first time in American history .
On March 30 , 2010 , Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act , a reconciliation bill which ends the process of the federal government giving subsidies to private banks to give out federally insured loans , increases the Pell Grant scholarship award , and makes changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act .
In a major space policy speech in April 2010 , Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA , the U.S. space agency . He ended plans for a return of human spaceflight to the moon and development of the Ares I rocket , Ares V rocket and Constellation program , in favor of funding Earth science projects , a new rocket type , and research and development for an eventual manned mission to Mars , and ongoing missions to the International Space Station .
President Obama 's 2011 State of the Union Address focused on themes of education and innovation , stressing the importance of innovation economics to make the United States more competitive globally . He spoke of a five @-@ year freeze in domestic spending , eliminating tax breaks for oil companies and reversing tax cuts for the wealthiest Americans , banning congressional earmarks , and reducing healthcare costs . He promised that the United States would have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015 and would be 80 percent reliant on " clean " electricity .
= = = = LGBT rights = = = =
On October 8 , 2009 , Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr . Hate Crimes Prevention Act , a measure that expands the 1969 United States federal hate @-@ crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim 's actual or perceived gender , sexual orientation , gender identity , or disability .
On December 22 , 2010 , Obama signed the Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 , fulfilling a key promise made in the 2008 presidential campaign to end the Don 't ask , don 't tell policy of 1993 that had prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces .
In 1996 , as a candidate for the Illinois state senate , Obama had said that he favored legalizing same @-@ sex marriage ; but by the time of his Senate run in 2004 , he said that while he supported civil unions and domestic partnerships for same @-@ sex partners , for strategic reasons he opposed same @-@ sex marriages . On May 9 , 2012 , shortly after the official launch of his campaign for reelection as president , Obama said his views had evolved , and he publicly affirmed his personal support for the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage , becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so .
During his second inaugural address on January 21 , 2013 , Obama became the first president to call for full equality for gay Americans : " Our journey is not complete until our gay brothers and sisters are treated like anyone else under the law – for if we are truly created equal , then surely the love we commit to one another must be equal as well . " This was the first time that a president mentioned gay rights or the word " gay " in an inaugural address . In 2013 , the Obama administration filed briefs urging the Supreme Court to rule in favor of same @-@ sex couples in the cases of Hollingsworth v. Perry ( regarding same @-@ sex marriage ) and United States v. Windsor ( regarding the Defense of Marriage Act ) . Then , following the Supreme Court 's 2015 decision in Obergefell v. Hodges ( ruling same @-@ sex marriage to be a fundamental right ) , Obama asserted that , " This decision affirms what millions of Americans already believe in their hearts : When all Americans are treated as equal we are all more free . "
= = = = White House advisory and oversight groups = = = =
On March 11 , 2009 , Obama created the White House Council on Women and Girls , which forms part of the Office of Intergovernmental Affairs , having been established by Executive Order 13506 with a broad mandate to advise him on issues relating to the welfare of American women and girls . The Council is currently chaired by Senior Advisor to the President Valerie Jarrett . Obama also established the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault through an official United States government memorandum on January 22 , 2014 with a broad mandate to advise him on issues relating to sexual assault on college and university campuses throughout the United States . The current co @-@ chairs of the Task Force are Vice President Joe Biden and Jarrett . The Task Force has been a development out of the White House Council on Women and Girls and Office of the Vice President of the United States , and prior to that , the 1994 Violence Against Women Act that was first @-@ drafted by Biden .
= = = = Economic policy = = = =
On February 17 , 2009 , Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , a $ 787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession . The act includes increased federal spending for health care , infrastructure , education , various tax breaks and incentives , and direct assistance to individuals .
In March , Obama 's Treasury Secretary , Timothy Geithner , took further steps to manage the financial crisis , including introducing the Public @-@ Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets , which contains provisions for buying up to two trillion dollars in depreciated real estate assets . Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry in March 2009 , renewing loans for General Motors and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing . Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms ' bankruptcies , including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60 percent equity stake in the company , with the Canadian government taking a 12 percent stake . In June 2009 , dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus , Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment . He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System , known colloquially as " Cash for Clunkers " , that temporarily boosted the economy .
Spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department authorized by the Bush and Obama administrations totaled about $ 11 @.@ 5 trillion , but only $ 3 trillion was spent by the end of November 2009 . Obama and the Congressional Budget Office predicted the 2010 budget deficit would be $ 1 @.@ 5 trillion or 10 @.@ 6 percent of the nation 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) compared to the 2009 deficit of $ 1 @.@ 4 trillion or 9 @.@ 9 percent of GDP . For 2011 , the administration predicted the deficit will shrink to $ 1 @.@ 34 trillion , and the 10 @-@ year deficit will increase to $ 8 @.@ 53 trillion or 90 percent of GDP . The most recent increase in the U.S. debt ceiling to $ 17 @.@ 2 trillion took effect in February 2014 . On August 2 , 2011 , after a lengthy congressional debate over whether to raise the nation 's debt limit , Obama signed the bipartisan Budget Control Act of 2011 . The legislation enforces limits on discretionary spending until 2021 , establishes a procedure to increase the debt limit , creates a Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further deficit reduction with a stated goal of achieving at least $ 1 @.@ 5 trillion in budgetary savings over 10 years , and establishes automatic procedures for reducing spending by as much as $ 1 @.@ 2 trillion if legislation originating with the new joint select committee does not achieve such savings . By passing the legislation , Congress was able to prevent a U.S. government default on its obligations .
As it did throughout 2008 , the unemployment rate rose in 2009 , reaching a peak in October at 10 @.@ 0 percent and averaging 10 @.@ 0 percent in the fourth quarter . Following a decrease to 9 @.@ 7 percent in the first quarter of 2010 , the unemployment rate fell to 9 @.@ 6 percent in the second quarter , where it remained for the rest of the year . Between February and December 2010 , employment rose by 0 @.@ 8 percent , which was less than the average of 1 @.@ 9 percent experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries . By November 2012 , the unemployment rate fell to 7 @.@ 7 percent , decreasing to 6 @.@ 7 percent in the last month of 2013 . During 2014 , the unemployment rate continued to decline , falling to 6 @.@ 3 percent in the first quarter . GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009 , expanding at a rate of 1 @.@ 6 percent , followed by a 5 @.@ 0 percent increase in the fourth quarter . Growth continued in 2010 , posting an increase of 3 @.@ 7 percent in the first quarter , with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year . In July 2010 , the Federal Reserve noted that economic activity continued to increase , but its pace had slowed , and chairman Ben Bernanke said the economic outlook was " unusually uncertain " . Overall , the economy expanded at a rate of 2 @.@ 9 percent in 2010 .
The Congressional Budget Office and a broad range of economists credit Obama 's stimulus plan for economic growth . The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1 – 2 @.@ 1 million , while conceding that " It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package . " Although an April 2010 survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation ( over a similar January survey ) for the first time in two years , 73 percent of 68 respondents believed that the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment . The economy of the United States has grown faster than the other original NATO members by a wider margin under President Obama than it has anytime since the end of World War II . The OECD credits the much faster growth in the United States to the stimulus in the United States and the austerity measures in the European Union .
Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections , Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary , two @-@ year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates , a one @-@ year payroll tax reduction , continuation of unemployment benefits , and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes . The compromise overcame opposition from some in both parties , and the resulting $ 858 billion Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17 , 2010 .
In December 2013 , Obama declared that growing income inequality is a " defining challenge of our time " and called on Congress to bolster the safety net and raise wages . This came on the heels of the nationwide strikes of fast @-@ food workers and Pope Francis ' criticism of inequality and trickle @-@ down economics .
= = = = Environmental policy = = = =
On September 30 , 2009 , the Obama administration proposed new regulations on power plants , factories , and oil refineries in an attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to curb global warming .
On April 20 , 2010 , an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico , causing a major sustained oil leak . Obama visited the Gulf , announced a federal investigation , and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards , after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings . He then announced a six @-@ month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases , pending regulatory review . As multiple efforts by BP failed , some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident , and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government .
In July 2013 , Obama expressed reservations and stated he " would reject the Keystone XL pipeline if it increased carbon pollution " or " greenhouse emissions " . Obama 's advisers called for a halt to petroleum exploration in the Arctic in January 2013 . On February 24 , 2015 , Obama vetoed a bill that would authorize the pipeline . It was the third veto of Obama 's presidency and his first major veto .
= = = = Health care reform = = = =
Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States , a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal . He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured , to cap premium increases , and to allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs . His proposal was to spend $ 900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan , also known as the public option , to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care . It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre @-@ existing conditions , and require every American to carry health coverage . The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans .
On July 14 , 2009 , House Democratic leaders introduced a 1 @,@ 017 @-@ page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system , which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009 . After much public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009 , Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over the proposals . In March 2009 , Obama lifted a ban on using federal funds for stem cell research .
On November 7 , 2009 , a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House . On December 24 , 2009 , the Senate passed its own bill — without a public option — on a party @-@ line vote of 60 – 39 . On March 21 , 2010 , the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212 . Obama signed the bill into law on March 23 , 2010 .
The ACA includes health @-@ related provisions to take effect over four years , including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level ( FPL ) starting in 2014 , subsidizing insurance premiums for people making up to 400 percent of the FPL ( $ 88 @,@ 000 for family of four in 2010 ) so their maximum " out @-@ of @-@ pocket " payment for annual premiums will be from 2 to 9 @.@ 5 percent of income , providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits , prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre @-@ existing conditions , establishing health insurance exchanges , prohibiting annual coverage caps , and support for medical research . According to White House and Congressional Budget Office figures , the maximum share of income that enrollees would have to pay would vary depending on their income relative to the federal poverty level .
The costs of these provisions are offset by taxes , fees , and cost @-@ saving measures , such as new Medicare taxes for those in high @-@ income brackets , taxes on indoor tanning , cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare , and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies ; there is also a tax penalty for those who do not obtain health insurance , unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons . In March 2010 , the Congressional Budget Office estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $ 143 billion over the first decade .
The law faced several legal challenges , primarily based on the argument that an individual mandate requiring Americans to buy health insurance was unconstitutional . On June 28 , 2012 , the Supreme Court ruled by a 5 – 4 vote in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that the mandate was constitutional under the U.S. Congress 's taxing authority . In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Court ruled that " closely @-@ held " for @-@ profit corporations could be exempt on religious grounds under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act from regulations adopted under the ACA that would have required them to pay for insurance that covered certain contraceptives . In June 2015 , the Court ruled 6 – 3 in King v. Burwell that subsidies to help individuals and families purchase health insurance were authorized for those doing so on both the federal exchange and state exchanges , not only those purchasing plans " established by the State , " as the statute reads .
= = = = Energy policy = = = =
Prior to June 2014 , Obama offered substantial support for a broadly based " All of the above " approach to domestic energy policy which Obama has maintained since his first term and which he last confirmed at his State of the Union speech in January 2014 to a mixed reception by both parties . In June 2014 , Obama made indications that his administration would consider a shift towards an energy policy more closely tuned to the manufacturing industry and its impact on the domestic economy . Obama 's approach of selectively combining regulation and incentive to various issues in the domestic energy policy such as coal mining and oil fracking has received mixed commentary for not being as responsive to the needs of the domestic manufacturing sector as needed , following claims that the domestic manufacturing sector utilizes as much as a third of nation 's available energy resources .
= = = = Gun control = = = =
On January 16 , 2013 , one month after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , President Obama signed 23 executive orders and outlined a series of sweeping proposals regarding gun control . He urged Congress to reintroduce an expired ban on military @-@ style assault weapons , such as those used in several recent mass shootings , impose limits on ammunition magazines to 10 rounds , introduce background checks on all gun sales , pass a ban on possession and sale of armor @-@ piercing bullets , introduce harsher penalties for gun @-@ traffickers , especially unlicensed dealers who buy arms for criminals and approving the appointment of the head of the federal Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives for the first time since 2006 . On January 5 , 2016 , Obama announced new executive actions extending background check requirements to more gun sellers . In a 2016 editorial in the New York Times , Obama compared the struggle for what he termed " common @-@ sense gun reform " to women 's suffrage and other civil rights movements in American history .
= = = = 2010 midterm elections = = = =
Obama called the November 2 , 2010 election , where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in , and control of , the House of Representatives , " humbling " and a " shellacking " . He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery .
= = = = Cybersecurity and Internet policy = = = =
On November 10 , 2014 , President Obama recommended the Federal Communications Commission reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality . On February 12 , 2013 , President Obama signed Executive Order 13636 , " Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity " .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
In February and March 2009 , Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a " new era " in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe , using the terms " break " and " reset " to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration . Obama attempted to reach out to Arab leaders by granting his first interview to an Arab cable TV network , Al Arabiya .
On March 19 , Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world , releasing a New Year 's video message to the people and government of Iran . In April , Obama gave a speech in Ankara , Turkey , which was well received by many Arab governments . On June 4 , 2009 , Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for " A New Beginning " in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace .
On June 26 , 2009 , in response to the Iranian government 's actions towards protesters following Iran 's 2009 presidential election , Obama said : " The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous . We see it and we condemn it . " On July 7 , while in Moscow , he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying : " We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East . "
On September 24 , 2009 , Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council .
In March 2010 , Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem . During the same month , an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long @-@ range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about one @-@ third . Obama and Medvedev signed the New START treaty in April 2010 , and the U.S. Senate ratified it in December 2010 .
In December 2011 , Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries . He criticized Russia 's law discriminating against gays in August 2013 , stopping short of advocating a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics held in Sochi , Russia .
In December 2014 , Obama announced that he intended to normalize relationships between Cuba and the United States . The countries ' respective " interests sections " in one another 's capitals were upgraded to embassies on July 20 , 2015 .
In March 2015 , Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen , establishing a " Joint Planning Cell " with Saudi Arabia .
= = = = War in Iraq = = = =
On February 27 , 2009 , Obama announced that combat operations in Iraq would end within 18 months . His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to Afghanistan . Obama said , " Let me say this as plainly as I can : by August 31 , 2010 , our combat mission in Iraq will end . " The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010 , decreasing troop 's levels from 142 @,@ 000 while leaving a transitional force of about 50 @,@ 000 in Iraq until the end of 2011 . On August 19 , 2010 , the last U.S. combat brigade exited Iraq . Remaining troops transitioned from combat operations to counter @-@ terrorism and the training , equipping , and advising of Iraqi security forces . On August 31 , 2010 , Obama announced that the United States combat mission in Iraq was over . On October 21 , 2011 President Obama announced that all U.S. troops would leave Iraq in time to be " home for the holidays " .
In June 2014 , following the capture of Mosul by Daesh , Obama sent 275 troops to provide support and security for U.S. personnel and the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad . Daesh continued to gain ground and to commit widespread massacres and ethnic cleansing .
In August 2014 , during the Sinjar massacre , Obama ordered a campaign of U.S. airstrikes against Daesh .
By the end of 2014 , 3 @,@ 100 American ground troops were committed to the conflict and 16 @,@ 000 sorties were flown over the battlefield , primarily by U.S. Air Force and Navy pilots .
In the Spring of 2015 , with the addition of the " Panther Brigade " of the 82nd Airborne Division the number of U.S. ground troops in Iraq surged to 4 @,@ 400 , and by July American @-@ led coalition air forces counted 44 @,@ 000 sorties over the battlefield .
= = = = War in Afghanistan = = = =
Early in his presidency , Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan . He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of 17 @,@ 000 in February 2009 to " stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan " , an area he said had not received the " strategic attention , direction and resources it urgently requires " . He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan , General David D. McKiernan , with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009 , indicating that McChrystal 's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war . On December 1 , 2009 , Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30 @,@ 000 military personnel to Afghanistan and proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date ; this took place in July 2011 . David Petraeus replaced McChrystal in June 2010 , after McChrystal 's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article . In February 2013 , Obama said the U.S. military would reduce the troop level in Afghanistan from 68 @,@ 000 to 34 @,@ 000 U.S. troops by February 2014 .
In October 2015 , in light of the deteriorating security situation , the White House announced a plan to keep U.S. Forces in Afghanistan indefinitely .
= = = = Israel = = = =
In 2011 , the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements , with the United States being the only nation to do so . Obama supports the two @-@ state solution to the Arab – Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps .
In June 2012 , Obama said that the bond between the United States and Israel is " unbreakable . " During the initial years of the Obama administration , the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel , including increased military aid , re @-@ establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group , and an increase in visits among high @-@ level military officials of both countries . The Obama administration asked Congress to allocate money toward funding the Iron Dome program in response to the waves of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel .
In 2013 , Jeffrey Goldberg reported that , in Obama 's view , " with each new settlement announcement , Netanyahu is moving his country down a path toward near @-@ total isolation . "
In 2014 , President Obama likened the Zionist movement to the Civil Rights Movement in the United States . He said that both movements seek to bring justice and equal rights to historically persecuted peoples . He explained , " To me , being pro @-@ Israel and pro @-@ Jewish is part and parcel with the values that I 've been fighting for since I was politically conscious and started getting involved in politics . "
= = = = Libya = = = =
In February 2011 , protests in Libya began against long @-@ time dictator Muammar Gaddafi as part of the Arab Spring . They soon turned violent . In March , as forces loyal to Gaddafi advanced on rebels across Libya , calls for a no @-@ fly zone came from around the world , including Europe , the Arab League , and a resolution passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate . In response to the unanimous passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on March 17 , Gaddafi — who had previously vowed to " show no mercy " to the rebels of Benghazi — announced an immediate cessation of military activities , yet reports came in that his forces continued shelling Misrata . The next day , on Obama 's orders , the U.S. military took part in air strikes to destroy the Libyan government 's air defense capabilities to protect civilians and enforce a no @-@ fly @-@ zone , including the use of Tomahawk missiles , B @-@ 2 Spirits , and fighter jets . Six days later , on March 25 , by unanimous vote of all of its 28 members , NATO took over leadership of the effort , dubbed Operation Unified Protector . Some Representatives questioned whether Obama had the constitutional authority to order military action in addition to questioning its cost , structure and aftermath .
= = = = Syrian Civil War = = = =
On October 18 , 2011 , during the early stages of the Syrian Civil War , Obama said that " Assad must go " , saying that this was for the sake of the Syrian people . He reaffirmed that belief on November 19 , 2015 . To that end , Obama authorized an effort to train anti @-@ Assad rebels . The program achieved minimal results , and the Obama Administration abandoned it in 2015 . In the wake of a chemical weapons attack in Syria in 2013 widely blamed on the Assad regime , Obama insisted that Assad must give up his chemical weapons . This led to an agreement which resulted in Assad giving up many such weapons , but attacks with chlorine gas continued . In 2014 , Obama authorized an air campaign aimed primarily at Daesh , but repeatedly promised that the U.S. would put " no boots on the ground " in Syria .
= = = = Osama bin Laden = = = =
Starting with information received in July 2010 , intelligence developed by the CIA over the next several months determined what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a large compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan , a suburban area 35 miles from Islamabad . CIA head Leon Panetta reported this intelligence to President Obama in March 2011 . Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks , Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound , and authorized a " surgical raid " to be conducted by United States Navy SEALs . The operation took place on May 1 , 2011 , resulting in the death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers , computer drives and disks from the compound . DNA testing identified bin Laden 's body , which was buried at sea several hours later . Within minutes of the President 's announcement from Washington , DC , late in the evening on May 1 , there were spontaneous celebrations around the country as crowds gathered outside the White House , and at New York City 's Ground Zero and Times Square . Reaction to the announcement was positive across party lines , including from former presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush , and from many countries around the world .
= = = = Iran nuclear talks = = = =
In November 2013 , Obama 's administration opened negotiations with Iran to prevent it from acquiring nuclear weapons , which included an interim agreement . Negotiations took two years with numerous delays , with a deal being announced July 14 , 2015 . The deal , titled Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , saw the removal of sanctions in exchange for measures that would prevent Iran from producing nuclear weapons . While Obama hailed the agreement as being a step towards a more hopeful world , the deal drew strong criticism from Republican and conservative quarters , and from Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu .
= = = = Relations with Cuba = = = =
Since the spring of 2013 , secret meetings were conducted between the United States and Cuba in the neutral locations of Canada and Vatican City . The Vatican first became involved in 2013 when Pope Francis advised the U.S. and Cuba to exchange prisoners as a gesture of goodwill . On December 10 , 2013 , Cuban President Raúl Castro , in a significant public moment , greeted and shook hands with Obama at the Nelson Mandela memorial service in Johannesburg .
In December 2014 , after the secret meetings , it was announced that Obama , with Pope Francis as an intermediary , had negotiated a restoration of relations with Cuba , after nearly sixty years of détente . Popularly dubbed the Cuban Thaw , The New Republic deemed the Cuban Thaw to be " Obama 's finest foreign policy achievement . " On July 1 , 2015 , President Barack Obama announced that formal diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States would resume , and embassies would be opened in Washington and Havana . The countries ' respective " interests sections " in one another 's capitals were upgraded to embassies on July 20 and August 13 , 2015 , respectively .
Obama has visited Havana , Cuba for two days in March 2016 , becoming the first sitting U.S. President to arrive since Calvin Coolidge in 1928 .
= = = = Africa = = = =
Obama spoke in front of the African Union in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , on July 29 , 2015 , the first sitting U.S. president to do so . He gave a speech encouraging the world to increase economic ties via investments and trade with the continent , and lauded the progresses made in education , infrastructure , and economy . He also criticized the lack of democracy and leaders who refuse to step aside , discrimination against minorities ( LGBT people , religious groups and ethnicities ) , and corruption . He suggested an intensified democratization and free trade , to significantly improve the quality of life for Africans . During his July 2015 trip , Obama also was the first U.S. president ever to visit Kenya , which is the homeland of his father .
= = = = Japan = = = =
On May 27 , 2016 , the 71st anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima by America , Obama became the first sitting American president to visit Hiroshima , Japan . Accompanied by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe , Obama paid tribute to the victims of the bombing at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum .
= = Cultural and political image = =
Obama 's family history , upbringing , and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African @-@ American politicians who launched their careers in the 1960s through participation in the civil rights movement . Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is " black enough " , Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that " we 're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong . " Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech , saying : " I wouldn 't be here if , time and again , the torch had not been passed to a new generation . "
Obama is frequently referred to as an exceptional orator . During his pre @-@ inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency , Obama has delivered a series of weekly Internet video addresses . Former presidential campaign surrogate and Georgetown professor , Michael Eric Dyson , is both critical and sympathetic of President Obama 's leadership in race relations indicating that speeches and action on racial disparity and justice have been somewhat reactive and reluctant when in the later part of his second term , racial violence demanded immediate presidential action and conversation .
According to the Gallup Organization , Obama began his presidency with a 68 percent approval rating before gradually declining for the rest of the year , and eventually bottoming out at 41 percent in August 2010 , a trend similar to Ronald Reagan 's and Bill Clinton 's first years in office . He experienced a small poll bounce shortly after the death of Osama bin Laden on May 2 , 2011 . This bounce lasted until around June 2011 , when his approval numbers dropped back to where they were previously . His approval ratings rebounded around the same time as his reelection in 2012 , with polls showing an average job approval of 52 percent shortly after his second inauguration . Despite him dropping to 39 percent in his approval ratings in late @-@ 2013 due to the ACA roll @-@ out , he has climbed to 50 percent in late January 2015 according to Gallup . Polls show strong support for Obama in other countries , and before being elected President he met with prominent foreign figures including former British Prime Minister Tony Blair , Italy 's Democratic Party leader and Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni , and French President Nicolas Sarkozy .
In a February 2009 poll conducted in Western Europe and the U.S. by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune , Obama was rated as the most respected world leader , as well as the most powerful . In a similar poll conducted by Harris in May 2009 , Obama was rated as the most popular world leader , as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn .
Obama won Best Spoken Word Album Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008 . His concession speech after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent artists as the music video " Yes We Can " , which was viewed 10 million times on YouTube in its first month and received a Daytime Emmy Award . In December 2008 and in 2012 , Time magazine named Obama as its Person of the Year . The 2008 awarding was for his historic candidacy and election , which Time described as " the steady march of seemingly impossible accomplishments " . On May 25 , 2011 , Obama became the first President of the United States to address both houses of the UK Parliament in Westminster Hall , London . This was only the 5th occurrence since the start of the 20th century , of a head of state being extended this invitation , following Charles de Gaulle in 1960 , Nelson Mandela in 1996 , Queen Elizabeth II in 2002 and Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 .
On October 9 , 2009 , the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize " for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples " . Obama accepted this award in Oslo , Norway on December 10 , 2009 , with " deep gratitude and great humility . " The award drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures . Obama 's peace prize was called a " stunning surprise " by The New York Times . Obama is the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office . Obama 's Nobel Prize has been viewed skeptically in subsequent years , especially after the director of the Nobel Institute , Geir Lundestad , said Obama 's Peace Prize did not have the desired effect .
= = Family and personal life = =
In a 2006 interview , Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family : " It 's like a little mini @-@ United Nations " , he said . " I 've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac , and I 've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher . " Obama has a half @-@ sister with whom he was raised ( Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng , the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband ) and seven half @-@ siblings from his Kenyan father 's family — six of them living . Obama 's mother was survived by her Kansas @-@ born mother , Madelyn Dunham , until her death on November 2 , 2008 , two days before his election to the Presidency . Obama also has roots in Ireland ; he met with his Irish cousins in Moneygall in May 2011 . In Dreams from My Father , Obama ties his mother 's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis , President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War .
Besides his native English , Obama speaks some basic Indonesian , having learned the language during his four childhood years in Jakarta . He plays basketball , a sport he participated in as a member of his high school 's varsity team ; he is left @-@ handed .
Obama is a supporter of the Chicago White Sox , and he threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator . In 2009 , he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the All @-@ Star Game while wearing a White Sox jacket . He is also primarily a Chicago Bears football fan in the NFL , but in his childhood and adolescence was a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers , and rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after he took office as President . In 2011 , Obama invited the 1985 Chicago Bears to the White House ; the team had not visited the White House after their Super Bowl win in 1986 due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster .
In June 1989 , Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm of Sidley Austin . Assigned for three months as Obama 's adviser at the firm , Robinson joined him at several group social functions , but declined his initial requests to date . They began dating later that summer , became engaged in 1991 , and were married on October 3 , 1992 . The couple 's first daughter , Malia Ann , was born on July 4 , 1998 , followed by a second daughter , Natasha ( " Sasha " ) , on June 10 , 2001 . The Obama daughters attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools . When they moved to Washington , D.C. , in January 2009 , the girls started at the private Sidwell Friends School . The Obamas have two Portuguese Water Dogs , the first , a male named Bo , a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy . In August 2013 , Bo was joined by Sunny , a female .
Applying the proceeds of a book deal , the family moved in 2005 from a Hyde Park , Chicago condominium to a $ 1 @.@ 6 million house in neighboring Kenwood , Chicago . The purchase of an adjacent lot — and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer , campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko — attracted media attention because of Rezko 's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama .
In December 2007 , Money estimated the Obama family 's net worth at $ 1 @.@ 3 million . Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $ 5 @.@ 5 million — up from about $ 4 @.@ 2 million in 2007 and $ 1 @.@ 6 million in 2005 — mostly from sales of his books . On his 2010 income of $ 1 @.@ 7 million , he gave 14 percent to non @-@ profit organizations , including $ 131 @,@ 000 to Fisher House Foundation , a charity assisting wounded veterans ' families , allowing them to reside near where the veteran is receiving medical treatments . As per his 2012 financial disclosure , Obama may be worth as much as $ 10 million .
Obama tried to quit smoking several times , sometimes using nicotine replacement therapy , and , in early 2010 , Michelle Obama said that he had successfully quit smoking .
= = = Religious views = = =
Obama is a Protestant Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life . He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he " was not raised in a religious household " . He described his mother , raised by non @-@ religious parents , as being detached from religion , yet " in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I have ever known . " He described his father as a " confirmed atheist " by the time his parents met , and his stepfather as " a man who saw religion as not particularly useful . " Obama explained how , through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties , he came to understand " the power of the African @-@ American religious tradition to spur social change . "
In January 2008 , Obama told Christianity Today : " I am a Christian , and I am a devout Christian . I believe in the redemptive death and resurrection of Jesus Christ . I believe that faith gives me a path to be cleansed of sin and have eternal life . " On September 27 , 2010 , Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views saying " I 'm a Christian by choice . My family didn 't – frankly , they weren 't folks who went to church every week . And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew , but she didn 't raise me in the church . So I came to my Christian faith later in life , and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead – being my brothers ' and sisters ' keeper , treating others as they would treat me . "
Obama met Trinity United Church of Christ pastor Rev. Jeremiah Wright in October 1987 , and became a member of Trinity in 1992 . He resigned from Trinity in May 2008 during his first presidential campaign after some of Wright 's statements were criticized . The Obama family has attended several Protestant churches since moving to Washington , D.C. in 2009 , including Shiloh Baptist Church and St. John 's Episcopal Church . After a prolonged effort to find a church to attend regularly in Washington , Obama announced in June 2009 that his primary place of worship would be the Evergreen Chapel at Camp David .
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= Leicester City F.C. =
Leicester City Football Club ( / ˌlɛstər ˈsɪti / ) , also known as the Foxes , is an English professional football club based at the King Power Stadium in Leicester . They play in the Premier League , having been promoted as champions of the Football League Championship in 2013 – 14 , signalling a return to the top flight of English football after a decade away . Their home stadium , the King Power Stadium , is the 20th largest football ground in England , with a capacity of 32 @,@ 312 .
The club was founded in 1884 as Leicester Fosse F.C. , playing on a field near Fosse Road . They moved to Filbert Street in 1891 , were elected to the Football League in 1894 and adopted the name Leicester City in 1919 . They moved to the nearby Walkers Stadium in 2002 , which was renamed the King Power Stadium after a change of ownership in 2011 .
Leicester won the 2015 – 16 Premier League , their first top @-@ level football championship . By some measures it was the greatest sporting upset ever : multiple bookmakers had never paid out at such long odds for any sport . Prior to this , their highest ever finish was second place in the top flight , in Division One in 1928 – 29 . Throughout Leicester 's history , they have spent all but one season within the top two tiers of English football . The club holds a joint @-@ highest seven second @-@ tier titles ( six Second Division and one Championship ) . City have several promotions to their name , as well as one League One title .
In 1971 , they won the FA Community Shield . They have also won the League Cup three times , were runners up in 1999 , and have been FA Cup finalists four times , a tournament record for the most defeats in the final without having won the competition . Leicester will feature in the 2016 @-@ 17 UEFA Champions League as their fourth time playing European football . They will also play in the 2016 International Champions Cup , as a pre season tournament .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Formed in 1884 by a group of old boys of Wyggeston School as " Leicester Fosse " , the club joined the Football Association in 1890 . Before moving to Filbert Street in 1891 , the club played at five different grounds , including Victoria Park south @-@ east of the city centre and the Belgrave Road Cricket and Bicycle Grounds . The club also joined the Midland League in 1891 , and were elected to Division Two of the Football League in 1894 after finishing second . Leicester 's first ever Football League game was a 4 – 3 defeat at Grimsby Town , with a first League win the following week , against Rotherham United at Filbert Street . The same season also saw the club 's largest win to date , a 13 – 0 victory over Notts Olympic in an FA Cup qualifying game . In 1907 – 08 the club finished as Second Division runners @-@ up , gaining promotion to the First Division , the highest level of English football . However , the club were relegated after a single season which included the club 's record defeat , a 12 – 0 loss against Nottingham Forest .
In 1919 , when League football resumed after World War I , Leicester Fosse ceased trading due to financial difficulties of which little is known . The club was reformed as " Leicester City Football Club " , particularly appropriate as the borough of Leicester had recently been given city status . Following the name change , the club enjoyed moderate success in the 1920s ; under the management of Peter Hodge , who left in May 1926 to be replaced two months later by Willie Orr , and with record goalscorer Arthur Chandler in the side , they won the Division Two title in 1924 – 25 and recorded their second @-@ highest league finish in 1928 – 29 as runners @-@ up by a single point to Sheffield Wednesday . However the 1930s saw a downturn in fortunes , with the club relegated in 1934 – 35 and , after promotion in 1936 – 37 , another relegation in 1938 – 39 would see them finish the decade in Division Two .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
City reached the FA Cup final for the first time in their history in 1949 , losing 3 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . However , the club was celebrating a week later when a draw on the last day of the season ensured survival in Division Two . Leicester won the Division Two championship in 1954 , with the help of Arthur Rowley , one of the club 's most prolific strikers . Although they were relegated from Division One the next season , under Dave Halliday they returned in 1957 , with Rowley scoring a club record 44 goals in one season . Leicester remained in Division One until 1969 , their longest period ever in the top flight .
Under the management of Matt Gillies and his assistant Bert Johnson , Leicester reached the FA Cup final on another two occasions , but lost in both 1961 and 1963 . As they lost to double winners Tottenham in 1961 , they were England 's representatives in the 1961 – 62 European Cup Winners ' Cup . In the 1962 – 63 season , the club led the First Division during the winter , thanks to a sensational run of form on icy and frozen pitches the club became nicknamed the " Ice Kings " eventually placed fourth , the club 's best post @-@ war finish . Gillies guided Leicester to their first piece of silverware in 1964 , when Leicester beat Stoke 4 – 3 on aggregate to win the League Cup for the first time . Leicester also reached the League Cup final the following year , but lost 3 – 2 on aggregate to Chelsea . Gillies and Johnson received praise for their version of the " whirl " and the " switch " system , a system that had previously been used by the Austrian and Hungarian national teams . After a bad start to the season , Matt Gillies resigned in November 1968 . His successor , Frank O 'Farrell was unable to prevent relegation , but the club reached the FA Cup final in 1969 for the last time to date , losing to Manchester City 1 – 0 .
In 1971 , Leicester were promoted back to Division One , and won the Charity Shield for the only time . Unusually , due to Double ( association football ) winners Arsenal 's commitments in European competition , Division Two winners Leicester were invited to play FA Cup runners up Liverpool , beating them 1 – 0 . Jimmy Bloomfield was appointed for the new season , and his team remained in the First Division for his tenure . No period since Bloomfield has seen the club remain in the top division for so long . Leicester reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final in 1973 – 74 .
Frank McLintock , a noted player for seven years for Leicester in a successful period from the late Fifties to the mid Sixties , succeeded Jimmy Bloomfield in 1977 . City were relegated at the end of the 1977 – 78 season and McLintock resigned . Jock Wallace resumed the tradition of successful Scottish managers ( after Peter Hodge and Matt Gillies ) by steering Leicester to the Division Two championship in 1980 . Unfortunately , Wallace was unable to keep Leicester in Division One , but they reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final in 1982 . Under Wallace , one of City 's most famous home @-@ grown players , Gary Lineker , emerged into the first team squad . Leicester 's next manager was Gordon Milne , who achieved promotion in 1983 . Lineker helped Leicester maintain their place in the First Division but was sold to Everton in 1985 and two years later Leicester were relegated , having failed to find a suitable replacement to partner Alan Smith , who was sold to Arsenal after Leicester went down .
Milne left in 1986 and was replaced in 1987 by David Pleat , who was sacked in January 1991 with Leicester in danger of relegation to the Third Division . Gordon Lee was put in charge of the club until the end of the season . Leicester won their final game of the season , which guided them clear of relegation to the third tier of the football league .
Brian Little took over in 1991 and by the end of the 1991 – 92 season Leicester had reached the playoff final for a place in the new FA Premier League , but lost to Blackburn Rovers and a penalty from former Leicester striker Mike Newell . The club also reached the playoff final the following year , losing 4 – 3 to Swindon Town , having come back from 3 – 0 down . In 1993 – 94 City were promoted from the playoffs , beating Derby County 2 – 1 in the final . Little quit as Leicester manager the following November to take charge at Aston Villa , and his successor Mark McGhee was unable to save Leicester from finishing second from bottom in the 1994 – 95 season .
McGhee left the club unexpectedly in December 1995 whilst Leicester were top of the First Division to take charge of Wolverhampton Wanderers . McGhee was replaced by Martin O 'Neill . Under O 'Neill , Leicester qualified for the 1996 Football League play @-@ offs and beat Crystal Palace 2 – 1 in the final through a 120th minute Steve Claridge goal to gain promotion to the Premier League . Following promotion , Leicester established themselves in the Premier League with four successive top ten finishes . O 'Neill ended Leicester 's 33 @-@ year wait for a major trophy , winning the League Cup twice , in 1997 and 2000 , and Leicester were runners @-@ up in 1999 . Thus the club qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1997 – 98 and 2000 – 01 , the club 's first European competition since 1961 . In June 2000 , O 'Neill left Leicester City to take over as manager of Celtic .
= = = Decline in the early 21st Century = = =
O 'Neill was replaced by former England U @-@ 21 coach Peter Taylor . During this time , one of Leicester 's European appearances ended in a 3 – 1 defeat to Red Star Belgrade on 28 September 2000 in the 2001 UEFA Cup . Leicester began well under Taylor 's management , topping the Premier League for two weeks in the autumn and remaining in contention for a European place for most of the campaign , before a late season collapse dragged them down to a 13th @-@ place finish .
Taylor was sacked after a terrible start to the 2001 – 02 season , and his successor Dave Bassett lasted just six months before being succeeded by his assistant Micky Adams , the change of management being announced just before relegation was confirmed . Leicester won just five league games all season .
Leicester moved into the new 32 @,@ 500 @-@ seat Walkers Stadium at the start of the 2002 – 03 season , ending 111 years at Filbert Street . Walkers , the Leicestershire @-@ based crisp manufacturers , acquired the naming rights for a ten @-@ year period . In October 2002 , the club went into administration with debts of £ 30 million . Some of the reasons were the loss of TV money ( ITV Digital , itself in administration , had promised money to First Division clubs for TV rights ) , the large wage bill , lower than expected fees for players transferred to other clubs and the £ 37 million cost of the new stadium . Adams was banned from the transfer market for most of the season , even after the club was rescued with a takeover by a consortium led by Gary Lineker . Adams guided Leicester to runners @-@ up spot in Division One and automatic promotion back to the Premiership with more than 90 points . Leicester only lasted one season in the top flight and were relegated to the newly labelled Championship , previously known as Division One .
When Adams resigned as manager in October 2004 Craig Levein was appointed boss . This would prove to be an unsuccessful period and after 15 months in charge Levein was sacked , having failed to get the Foxes anywhere near the promotion places . Assistant manager Rob Kelly , took over as caretaker manager , and after winning three out of four games was appointed to see out the rest of the season . Kelly steered Leicester to safety and in April 2006 was given the manager 's job on a permanent basis .
In October 2006 , ex @-@ Portsmouth chairman Milan Mandarić was quoted as saying he was interested in buying the club , reportedly at a price of around £ 6 million with the current playing squad valued at roughly £ 4 @.@ 2 million . The takeover was formally announced on 13 February 2007 . On 11 April 2007 , Rob Kelly was sacked as manager and Nigel Worthington appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season . Worthington saved the club from relegation , but was not offered the job on a permanent basis . On 25 May 2007 the club announced former MK Dons manager Martin Allen as their new manager with a three @-@ year contract . Allen 's relationship with Mandarić became tense and after only four games Allen left by mutual consent on 29 August 2007 . On 13 September 2007 , Mandarić announced Gary Megson as the new manager of the club , citing Megson 's " wealth of experience " as a deciding factor in the appointment . However , Megson left on 24 October 2007 after only six weeks in charge , following an approach made for his services by Bolton Wanderers . Mandarić placed Frank Burrows and Gerry Taggart in the shared position as caretaker managers until a professional manager was appointed .
On 22 November , Ian Holloway was appointed manager , and he became the first Leicester manager in over 50 years to win his first league game in charge , beating Bristol City 2 – 0 . This initial success did not last , and Leicester were relegated from the Championship at the end of the 2007 – 08 season .
= = = 2009 – 2016 : Third tier to English Champions = = =
2008 – 09 was Leicester 's first ever season outside the top two levels of English football , but the appointment of Nigel Pearson to replace Holloway , who left by mutual consent a few weeks after relegation was confirmed , sparked a rebuilding of the club that would culminate in the fastest rise to the peak of the English football league system since Ipswich Town F.C. in 1962 . Leicester returned to the Championship league at the first attempt , finishing as champions of League One after a 2 – 0 win at Southend United , with two games in hand . The 2009 – 2010 season saw Leicester 's revival under Pearson continue , as the club finished fifth and reached the Championship play @-@ offs in their first season back in the second tier . Though coming from 2 – 0 down on aggregate , away to Cardiff City , to briefly lead 3 – 2 , they eventually lost to a penalty shoot @-@ out in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . At the end of the season Pearson left Leicester to become the manager of Hull City , claiming that he felt that the club seemed reluctant to keep him , and that Paulo Sousa had been the club 's guest at both play @-@ off games , hinting at a possible replacement . On Wednesday 7 July 2010 , Sousa was confirmed as Pearson 's replacement .
In August 2010 , following agreement on a three @-@ year shirt sponsorship deal with duty @-@ free retailers the King Power Group , Mandarić sold the club to Thai @-@ led consortium Asian Football Investments ( AFI ) fronted by King Power Group 's Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha . Mandarić , an investor in AFI , was retained as club chairman . On 1 October 2010 , after a poor start that saw Leicester bottom of the Championship with only one win out of the first 9 league games , Paulo Sousa was sacked by the club with immediate effect . Two days later , Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson , who had been approached by the club after the 6 – 1 loss to then bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ table Portsmouth two weeks earlier , was appointed as his replacement , signing a two @-@ year contract with the club . On 10 February 2011 , Vichai Raksriaksorn , part of the Thai @-@ based Asia Football Investments consortium , was appointed new chairman of the club after Mandarić left in November to take over Sheffield Wednesday .
Leicester were viewed as one of the favourites for promotion in the 2011 – 12 season , but on 24 October 2011 , following an inconsistent start with the Foxes winning just 5 out of their first 13 games , Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson left the club by mutual consent . Three weeks later Nigel Pearson returned to the club as Eriksson 's successor . Pearson would go on to lead The Foxes to a 6th @-@ place finish in the 2012 – 2013 season , ensuring Leicester City were in the Championship play offs . Leicester lost the playoff semifinal 3 – 2 on aggregate to Watford after Anthony Knockaert missed a late penalty and Troy Deeney scored right at the end after a swift counterattack from a Manuel Almunia double save .
In 2014 , Leicester 's march up the league system hit a breakthrough . Their 2 – 1 win over Sheffield Wednesday , combined with losses by Queens Park Rangers and Derby County , allowed Leicester City to clinch a promotion to the Premier League after a 10 @-@ year absence . Later that month , a win at Bolton saw Leicester become the champions of the 2013 – 14 Football League Championship – the seventh time they had been champions of England 's second tier . 5th May 2014 saw 35 @,@ 000 fans in Leicester line the streets for a parade , in celebration of the team 's success .
= = = = Return to Premier League = = = =
Leicester started their first season in the Premier League since 2004 with a good run of results in their first five league games , starting with a 2 – 2 draw on the opening day against Everton . The Foxes then claimed their first Premier League win since May 2004 , with a 1 – 0 win at Stoke City . On 21 September 2014 , Leicester went on to produce one of the greatest comebacks in Premier League history to beat Manchester United 5 – 3 at the King Power Stadium after coming back from 3 – 1 down with 30 minutes left to score four goals . They also made Premier League history by becoming the first team to beat United from a two @-@ goal deficit since the league 's launch in 1992 .
During the 2014 – 15 season , a dismal run of form saw the team slip to the bottom of the league table with only 19 points from 29 games . By 3 April 2015 they were 7 points adrift from safety . This could have brought a sudden end to Leicester 's seven @-@ year rise , but seven wins from their final nine league games meant that the Foxes finished the season in 14th place with 41 points . They finished the season with a 5 – 1 thrashing of relegated Queens Park Rangers . Their upturn in results was described as one of the Premier League 's greatest ever escapes from relegation . They also became only the third team in Premier League history to survive after being bottom at Christmas ( the others were West Brom in 2005 and Sunderland in 2014 ) , and no team with fewer than 20 points from 29 games had previously stayed up .
= = = = 2015 – 16 Premier League champions = = = =
On 30 June 2015 , however , Pearson was sacked , with the club stating that " the working relationship between Nigel and the Board is no longer viable . " The sacking was linked to a number of PR issues involving Pearson throughout the season , with the final straw involving his son James ' role in a racist sex tape made by three Leicester City reserve players in Thailand during a post @-@ season goodwill tour . Leicester City reacted by appointing former Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri as their new manager for the new 2015 – 16 Premier League season . Under Ranieri , the club made an exceptional start to the season . Striker Jamie Vardy scored 13 goals over 11 consecutive games from August to November , breaking Ruud van Nistelrooy 's Premier League record of scoring in 10 consecutive games . On 19 December , Leicester defeated Everton 3 – 2 at Goodison Park to top the Premier League on Christmas Day , having been bottom exactly 12 months earlier . A 2 – 0 victory at Sunderland on 10 April , coupled with Tottenham 's 3 – 0 win over Manchester United , ensured Leicester 's qualification for the Champions League for the first time in their history .
Leicester won the Premier League on 2 May 2016 , after Tottenham Hotspur failed to secure a win against Chelsea after only drawing the match 2 – 2 . This completed the fastest seven @-@ year rise to the title except for Ipswich Town in 1962 , and Leicester faced a far more unequal top tier than Ipswich did back then . Nottingham Forest also won the title in 1978 in their first season after promotion . Bookmakers thought Leicester 's victory was so unlikely that Ladbrokes and William Hill offered odds of 5 @,@ 000 @-@ 1 for it at the start of the season . Neither bookmaker had ever paid out such long odds , and the trophy resulted in the largest payout in British sporting history with total winnings of £ 25 million . The scale of the surprise attracted global attention for the club and the city of Leicester . The Economist declared it would be ' pored over for management lessons ' . Several commentators have viewed it as an inspiration to other clubs and as fundamentally transforming the expectations similar sized clubs face in English football . The Executive Chairman of the Premier League , Richard Scudamore , pointed out , ' if this was a once in every 5 @,@ 000 year event , then we 've effectively got another 5 @,@ 000 years of hope ahead of us ' . A film has even been planned of the story , centred on Jamie Vardy .
On 16 May 2016 , over 240 @,@ 000 Leicester City fans turned out on the streets of Leicester and Victoria Park to celebrate their team 's historic achievement .
= = Colours , crest and traditions = =
The club 's home colours of royal blue and white have been used for the team 's kits throughout most of its history . The first sponsorship logo to appear on a Leicester shirt was that of Ind Coope in 1983 . British snack food manufacturer Walkers Crisps held a long association with the club , sponsoring them from 1987 to 2001 .
An image of a fox was first incorporated into the club crest in 1948 , as Leicestershire is known for foxes and fox hunting . This is the origin of the nickname " The Foxes " . The club mascot is a character called " Filbert Fox " . There are also secondary characters " Vickie Vixen " and " Cousin Dennis " . On 11 June 2016 , the club announced they were looking for young supporters to design a new mascot , to be alongside " Filbert Fox " at home games . The current shirt badge has been used since 1992 and features a fox 's head overlaid onto a Cinquefoil , the Cinquefoil is similar to the one used on the coat of arms of Leicester . In the 2009 – 10 season which was the 125th anniversary the home kit featured no sponsor and a new central crest with " 125 Years " below . The crest was slightly changed , this change included the fox in the crest to have a white area under its nose . The circles in the crest were also moved around .
In homage to Leicestershire 's tradition of hunting , the club adopted the playing of the Post Horn Galop in 1941 prior to home matches . It was played over the PA system as the teams came out of the tunnel at all home games . The club since replaced it with a modern version , which is now played as teams emerge for the second half . For the first half , the post horn has been played live on pitch by Paul Hing since 2009 . ' Foxes Never Quit ' is the club 's motto , which is placed above the tunnel entrance as the teams head out onto the pitch .
8th July 2016 saw the club launch their new 3rd away kit for the 2016 @-@ 17 Premier League season . It will feature in their 2016 @-@ 17 UEFA Champions League campaign , and will also be in use for Leicester 's debut match in the competition . The design took inspiration from the 1983 / 84 kit , and boasts a clean white design with thin blue pinstripes on the shirt , as well as a textured form stripe design across both the shirt and shorts .
= = = Kit manufacturers and sponsors = = =
Since 2012 Leicester City 's kit has been manufactured by Puma . Previous manufacturers have included Bukta ( 1962 – 64 , 1990 – 92 ) , Admiral ( 1976 – 79 , 1983 – 88 ) , Umbro ( 1979 – 83 ) , Scoreline ( 1988 – 90 ) , Fox Leisure ( 1992 – 2000 ) , Le Coq Sportif ( 2000 – 05 ) , JJB ( 2005 – 07 ) , Jako ( 2007 – 09 ) , Joma ( 2009 – 10 ) , and Burrda ( 2010 – 12 ) . The current shirt sponsors are King Power , a company also owned by the club 's owners . The first sponsorship logo to appear on a Leicester shirt was that of Ind Coope in 1983 . British snack food manufacturer Walkers Crisps held a long association with the club , sponsoring them from 1987 to 2001 . Other sponsors have included John Bull ( 1986 – 87 ) , LG ( 2001 – 03 ) , Alliance & Leicester ( 2003 – 07 ) , Topps Tiles ( 2007 – 09 ) , Jessops ( 2009 – 10 ) , and Loros ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Stadium = =
In their early years , Leicester played at numerous grounds , but have only played at two since they joined the Football League . When first starting out they played on a field by the Fosse Road , hence the original name Leicester Fosse . They moved from there to Victoria Park , and subsequently to Belgrave Road . Upon turning professional the club moved to Mill Lane . After eviction from Mill Lane the club played at the County Cricket ground while seeking a new ground . The club secured the use of an area of ground by Filbert Street , and moved there in 1891 .
Some improvements by noted football architect Archibald Leitch occurred in the Edwardian era , and in 1927 a new two tier stand was built , named the Double Decker , a name it would keep till the ground 's closure in 2002 . The ground wasn 't developed any further , apart from compulsory seating being added , till 1993 when work began on the new Carling Stand . The stand was impressive while the rest of the ground was untouched since at least the 1920s ; this led manager Martin O 'Neill to say he used to " lead new signings out backwards " so they only saw the Carling Stand .
The club moved away from Filbert Street in 2002 to a new 32 @,@ 500 all @-@ seater stadium . The stadium was originally named Walkers Stadium in a deal with food manufacturers Walkers , whose brand logo used to be found at various points around the outside of the stadium . The first match the Walkers hosted was a friendly against Athletic Bilbao , the game was drawn 1 – 1 with Tiko of Bilbao being the first scorer at the stadium and Jordan Stewart being the first City player to score , and the first competitive match was a 2 – 0 victory against Watford . The stadium has since hosted an England international against Serbia and Montenegro which finished 2 – 1 to England , as well as internationals between Brazil and Jamaica , and Jamaica and Ghana . More recently the stadium has been used to host the Heineken Cup European Rugby semi finals for the Leicester Tigers rugby club , itself based within a mile of the Walkers Stadium ( now King Power Stadium ) .
On 19 August 2010 , it emerged that the new owners King Power wanted to rename the stadium The King Power Stadium , and had plans to increase the capacity to 42 @,@ 000 should Leicester secure promotion . On 7 July 2011 , Leicester City confirmed that the Walkers Stadium would now be known as the King Power Stadium .
The King Power Stadium has also honoured past greats of the club , by naming suites and lounges inside the stadium after the club 's former players Gordon Banks , Adam Black , Arthur Chandler , Gary Lineker , Arthur Rowley , Sep Smith , Keith Weller and former manager Jimmy Bloomfield .
= = Support = =
The club 's anthem is When You 're Smiling , and supporters are often referred to as the Blue Army . Fans travel in numbers to watch the club home and away . According to Football League attendance statistics , the 2009 @-@ 10 season showed Leicester to have the 3rd best home & away support . Two seasons later in the 2011 @-@ 12 campaign , Leicester had the 3rd best home support , and the 4th best away support . The 2013 @-@ 14 season also supports the same attendance figures as 2011 @-@ 12 . At home matches , Leicester have gained notability for their passionate crowd & vocal atmosphere . Since 2010 , their biggest away following was at an FA Cup match against Nottingham Forest at the City Ground in 2012 . 8 @,@ 000 travelling Foxes fans went to the match , with the scoreline finishing 0 – 0 . Since City moved to their new stadium in 2002 following the exit of Filbert Street , average home gates have never dropped below 20 @,@ 000 , even when they were relegated to League 1 in 2008 for the first time in the club 's history .
The club have several supporter groups in England , and alongside the support in the UK , Leicester City also have fans around the world . Since being bought by the King Power group in 2011 , Leicester have developed a following in Thailand , the home of their owners , and in Algeria , the nation of 2015 – 16 title winner Riyad Mahrez . In Thailand , Singha Corporation is an Official Club Partner . Leicester also have a good following in New York , USA . So much so , that there is a dedicated supporter group called The New York Foxes , where fans of the club can gather together to support the team for both home and away matches . The group were established in 2011 , and have been featured on UK media .
= = Rival clubs = =
Main articles : Leicester City F.C. and Nottingham Forest F.C. rivalry , Derby County F.C. and Leicester City F.C. rivalry , M69 derby
Leicester fans consider the double European Cup Winners Nottingham Forest to be their main rivals . The club 's other rivals are Derby County . An East Midlands Derby is any match involving two of these three clubs .
Leicester also have a rivalry with Coventry City , 24 miles away . The game between the two clubs has become known as the M69 derby after the motorway connecting the two cities .
= = European record = =
Leicester score first , to the left . Opposition score to the right .
Notes
PR : Preliminary round
1R : First round
GS : Group stage
= = Honours = =
= = = Domestic competitions = = =
Cups won throughout Leicester City 's history .
= = = = League = = = =
Premier League
Champions ( 1 ) : 2015 – 16
Football League Championship
Champions ( 7 ) : 1924 – 25 , 1936 – 37 , 1953 – 54 , 1956 – 57 , 1970 – 71 , 1979 – 80 , 2013 – 14
Play @-@ off winners ( 2 ) : 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96
Football League One
Champions ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
= = = = Cup = = = =
Football League Cup
Winners ( 3 ) : 1963 – 64 , 1996 – 97 , 1999 – 2000
FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield
Winners ( 1 ) : 1971
= = = Regional competitions = = =
War League South
Champions ( 1 ) : 1942
Football League War Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1941
= = Managerial history = =
Up until Peter Hodge was hired after World War I , the club had no official manager . A nominal role of secretary / manager was employed , though the board and the selection committee took control of most team affairs . It was Hodge who instated a system at the club for the manager having complete control over player and staff recruitment , team selection and tactics . Though Hodge was originally also titled " secretary / manager " he has retrospectively been named as the club 's first official " manager " .
Leicester have had a total of 9 permanent secretary / managers and 34 permanent managers ( not including caretakers ) . Nigel Pearson and Peter Hodge have both had two separate spells in charge the club . Dave Bassett also had a second spell as caretaker manager after his spell as permanent manager . Listed below is Leicester 's complete managerial history ( permanent managers and secretary / managers only , caretakers are not included ) .
= = = Managers = = =
( Note : During the 1986 – 87 season both Gordon Milne and Bryan Hamilton shared managerial duties with Milne assuming the title " General Manager " and Hamilton assuming the title " Team Manager " )
= = Records and statistics = =
Graham Cross holds the record for the most Leicester appearances , with the defender playing 599 games between 1960 – 1976 , although Adam Black holds the record for the most appearances in the league with 528 between 1920 – 1935 .
Striker Arthur Chandler is currently the club 's all @-@ time record goal scorer , netting 273 in his 12 years at the club ; he also found the net in 8 consecutive matches in the 1924 – 25 season . The most goals managed in a single season for the club is 44 by Arthur Rowley , in the 1956 – 57 season . The fastest goal in the club 's history was scored by Matty Fryatt , when he netted after just nine seconds against Preston North End in April 2006 . Jamie Vardy broke the Premier League record for most consecutive league games with a goal ( 11 games ) in the 2015 / 16 season .
The record transfer fee paid by Leicester City for a player was around £ 16 million for CSKA Moscow striker Ahmed Musa with second highest being that for Nampalys Mendy , a midfielder , from OGC Nice for a fee of around £ 13 million . The highest transfer fee received for a Leicester City player was approximately £ 30 million from Chelsea for midfielder N 'Golo Kanté .
The club 's record attendance is 47 @,@ 298 against Tottenham Hotspur at Filbert Street , in a fifth round FA Cup clash in 1928 . The highest league record at their current home , the King Power Stadium , was 32 @,@ 242 for a competitive match against Sunderland on 8 August 2015 . The highest ever attendance for a non @-@ competitive game of 32 @,@ 188 , was seen at a pre @-@ season friendly against Spanish giants Real Madrid on 30 July 2011 .
Leicester 's highest ever league finish is 1st in the Premier League in 2015 – 16 . Their lowest ever league finish was 1st in Football League One in 2008 – 09 . Leicester City are joint equal with Manchester City for having won the most English second tier titles ( 7 ) . The club has reached four FA Cup finals , yet lost them all . This is the record for the most FA Cup final appearances without winning the trophy .
Leicester 's longest ever unbeaten run in the league was between 1 November 2008 and 7 March 2009 , to which they remained unbeaten for 23 games on their way to the League One title . ( This was their only ever season in the third tier of English football ) . Their longest run of consecutive victories in the league is 9 , which they achieved between 21 December 2013 and 1 February 2014 ( in The Championship ) .
= = League history = =
Since their election to the football league in 1894 Leicester have spent much of their history yo @-@ yoing between the top two tiers in English football . Leicester have played outside the top two tiers only once in their history to date : during the 2008 – 09 season they played in League One , the third tier of English football , after relegation from the Championship the season prior , but were promptly promoted back as champions . Leicester have never played lower than the third tier of English football .
L1 |
= Level 1 of the football league system ; L2 =
Level 2 of the football league system ; L3 = Level 3 of the football league system .
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 48
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 62
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 1
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0
( up to and including 2015 – 16 )
= = Players = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 16 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Academy = = =
= = = Past players = = =
= = Club staff = =
As of 8 August 2015
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Captains = = =
= = = Player of the Year = = =
Leicester City 's Player of the Year award is voted for by the club 's supporters at the end of every season .
= = = English Hall of Fame members = = =
The following have played for Leicester and have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame :
Gordon Banks 2002 ( Inaugural Inductee )
Peter Shilton 2002 ( Inaugural Inductee )
Gary Lineker 2003
Don Revie 2004 ( Inducted as a manager )
Frank McLintock 2009
= = = Football League 100 Legends = = =
The Football League 100 Legends is a list of " 100 legendary football players " produced by The Football League in 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football . It also included Premier League players , and the following former Leicester City players were included :
Arthur Rowley
Gordon Banks
Frank McLintock
Peter Shilton
Gary Lineker
= = = World Cup players = = =
The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals , while playing for Leicester .
John Anderson ( 1954 )
Willie Cunningham ( 1958 )
Ken Leek ( 1958 )
Gordon Banks ( 1966 ) – Won the 1966 World Cup while at Leicester
John O 'Neill ( 1982 , 1986 )
Paul Ramsey ( 1986 )
Gary McAllister ( 1990 )
David Kelly ( 1990 )
Matt Elliott ( 1998 )
Kasey Keller ( 1998 )
Muzzy Izzet ( 2002 )
Riyad Mahrez ( 2014 )
= = = Players with over 300 appearances for Leicester = = =
Includes competitive appearances only . Current players in bold .
= = = Players with 50 or more goals for Leicester = = =
Includes competitive appearances only . Current players in bold .
= = Personnel honours and awards = =
= = = European Footballer of the Year nominee = = =
The following players have been nominated for the Ballon d 'Or award for European footballer of the year ( World footballer of the year since 1995 ) while playing for Leicester :
Gordon Banks ( 1966 )
= = = PFA Player of the Year = = =
The following players have been named the PFA Player of the Year whilst playing for Leicester :
2016 - Riyad Mahrez
= = = FWA Footballer of the Year = = =
The following players have been named the FWA Footballer of the Year whilst playing for Leicester :
2016 - Jamie Vardy
= = = English Golden Boot = = =
The following players have won the English Golden Boot for being the country 's top goalscorer , while at Leicester ( Note : This applies only to players playing in the top tier of English football ) :
Gary Lineker ( 1984 – 85 ) ( joint winner )
= = = English Second Division Golden Boot = = =
The following players have won the golden boot for being the top goalscorer in the second tier of English football while at Leicester :
David Skea ( 1894 – 95 )
Arthur Chandler ( 1924 – 25 )
Jack Bowers ( 1936 – 37 )
Arthur Rowley ( 1952 – 53 ) , ( 1956 – 57 )
Willie Gardiner ( 1955 – 56 )
Gary Lineker ( 1982 – 83 )
= = = Football League Awards Player of the Year = = =
The following players have been named the best player in their division in the Football League Awards while at Leicester :
Matty Fryatt ( League One , 2009 )
= = = LMA Manager of the Year = = =
The following managers have been named the LMA Manager of the Year or won their division award while at Leicester :
Nigel Pearson ( Championship , 2014 )
Claudio Ranieri ( Overall , 2016 ; Premier League , 2016 )
= = = PFA Team of the Year = = =
The following players have been named the PFA Team of the Year while at Leicester :
1979 – Second Division – Mark Wallington
1982 – Second Division – Mark Wallington
1989 – Second Division – Gary McAllister
1990 – Second Division – Gary McAllister
1996 – First Division – Garry Parker , Steve Claridge
2003 – First Division – Muzzy Izzet , Paul Dickov
2009 – League One – Jack Hobbs , Matt Oakley , Matty Fryatt
2011 – Championship – Kyle Naughton , Andy King
2013 – Championship – Kasper Schmeichel , Wes Morgan
2014 – Championship – Kasper Schmeichel , Wes Morgan , Danny Drinkwater
2016 – Premier League – Wes Morgan , N 'Golo Kanté , Riyad Mahrez , Jamie Vardy
|
= Swift fox =
The swift fox ( Vulpes velox ) is a small light orange @-@ tan fox around the size of a domestic cat found in the western grasslands of North America , such as Montana , Colorado , New Mexico , Oklahoma and Texas . It also lives in Manitoba , Saskatchewan and Alberta in Canada , where it was previously extirpated . It is closely related to the kit fox and the two species are sometimes known as subspecies of Vulpes velox because hybrids of the two species occur naturally where their ranges overlap .
The swift fox lives primarily in short @-@ grass prairies and deserts . It became nearly extinct in the 1930s as a result of predator control programs , but was successfully reintroduced later . Currently , the conservation status of the species is considered by the IUCN as Least Concern owing to stable populations elsewhere .
Like most canids , the swift fox is an omnivore , and its diet includes grasses and fruits as well as small mammals , carrion , and insects . In the wild , its lifespan is three to six years , and it breeds once annually , from late December to March , depending on the geographic region . Pups are born anywhere from March to mid @-@ May , and are weaned at six to seven weeks old .
The swift fox is closely related genetically to the kit fox ( Vulpes macrotis ) , but occupies a different geographical range . The two have historically been regarded as different species for reasons basically related to size : the kit fox is slightly smaller than the swift fox , and the former has a narrower snout . However , hybrids between the two occur naturally where their ranges overlap , and some mammalogists classify the two as subspecies of a single species , usually treated as Vulpes velox ( with the swift fox being described as V. velox velox and the kit fox as V. velox macrotis ) . The molecular genetics evidence is not conclusive however , and some of those who have used it continue to treat the swift fox and kit fox as separate species .
= = Description = =
The swift fox has a dark , grayish , tan coloration that extends to a yellowish tan color across its sides and legs . The throat , chest , and belly range from pale yellow to white in color . Its tail is black @-@ tipped , and it has black patches on its muzzle . Its ears are noticeably large . It is about 12 inches ( 30 cm ) in height , and 31 inches ( 79 cm ) long , measuring from the head to the tip of the tail , or about the size of a domestic cat . Its weight ranges from around five to seven pounds . Males and females are similar in appearance , although males are slightly larger .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The swift fox resides primarily in deserts and short @-@ grass prairies . They form their dens in sandy soil on open prairies , in plowed fields , or along fences . It is native to the Great Plains region of North America , and its range extends north to the central part of Alberta , Canada , and south to Texas . It reaches from western Iowa to Colorado , Kansas , Wyoming , Nebraska , and Montana .
= = Conservation status = =
The swift fox was once a severely endangered species , due to predator control programs in the 1930s that were aimed mostly at the gray wolf and the coyote . The species was extirpated from Canada by 1938 , but a reintroduction program started in 1983 has been successful in establishing small populations in southeast Alberta and southwest Saskatchewan , despite the fact that many reintroduced individuals do not survive their first year . In May 1999 , the Species at Risk Act listed the swift fox as an endangered species in Canada .
Exact population numbers of the swift fox are unknown , but it is known that they currently inhabit only 40 % of their historic range . In addition to its populations in Canada , there are also swift fox populations in the United States , ranging from South Dakota to Texas . In 1995 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that the fox warranted an endangered listing , but other higher priority species precluded its listing . This prompted state wildlife agencies within the fox 's range to create the Swift Fox Conservation Team , which worked to implement better swift fox management and monitoring programs . Populations in the United States are stable in the central part of its range , and it is not considered endangered in the United States . The IUCN Red List characterizes it as of Least Concern .
= = Behavior = =
In the wild , the swift fox usually lives 3 – 6 years , but may live up to 14 years in captivity . It is primarily nocturnal , spending only evenings and nighttime above ground in the summer . Daytime activities are usually confined to the den , but it has been known to spend the warm midday period above ground during the winter . The swift fox is more heavily dependent on its den than most North American canids , using them as shelter from predators . These dens are usually underground burrows that are two to four meters in length . It has been known to run very fast , at speeds of over 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . or up to 60 km / h ( 40 mph ) The coyote is the swift fox 's main predator , but often chooses not to consume the swift fox . Other predators include the badger , golden eagle , and bobcat . It is also vulnerable to trapping and poisoning , as well as death on highways .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The adult swift fox 's breeding season varies with region . In the southern United States , it mates between December and February with pups born in March and early April , while in Canada , the breeding season begins in March , and pups are born in mid @-@ May . The male swift fox matures and may mate at one year , while the female usually waits until her second year before breeding . Adults live in pairs , and although some individuals mate for life , others choose different partners each year . Gestation takes around 51 days , and four to five kits are born .
The swift fox only has one litter annually , but may occupy up to thirteen dens in one year , moving because prey is scarce or because skin parasites build up inside the den . Sometimes it makes other burrows from other bigger animals , even though it is completely capable of digging one on its own . Pups are born in the den and typically remain there for approximately one month . A newborn pup 's eyes and ears remain closed for ten to fifteen days , leaving it dependent on the mother for food and protection during this time . It is usually weaned around six or seven weeks old and remains with its parents until fall . Recent research has shown that social organization in the swift fox is unusual among canids , since it is based on the females . Females maintain territories at all times , but males emigrate if the resident female is killed or removed .
= = = Diet = = =
Like most canids , the swift fox is an omnivore . Rabbits , mice , ground squirrels , birds , insects and lizards are staples . Grasses and fruits round out its diet . However , like any efficient forager , the swift fox takes advantage of seasonal foods . During the summer , adults eat large amounts of insects , including beetles and grasshoppers , and feed their young with larger prey items . Deer and other carrion killed by other animals may also be important food sources .
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= Whiplash ( Selena Gomez & the Scene song ) =
" Whiplash " is a song by American band Selena Gomez & the Scene , from their third studio album When the Sun Goes Down ( 2011 ) . The song was originally written by Britney Spears ; after she started working on her sixth studio album Circus ( 2008 ) , Spears contacted Nicole Morier to write songs with her . Together , they wrote " Mmm Papi " , " Rock Me In " and " Whiplash " . The latter , which was produced by co @-@ writer Greg Kurstin , failed to make the album . In 2011 , Selena Gomez recorded the song with her band for When the Sun Goes Down .
" Whiplash " is a dance song with influences of electro , relying heavily on the usage of synthesizers . The pre @-@ chorus has a sing @-@ rap section in which Gomez delivers the lyrics in a thick British accent . " Whiplash " is musically different and much more aggressive than the rest of the album , and its lyrics speak of a blossoming romance ; it has been compared to the work of Spears . " Whiplash " received mixed to positive reviews . While some critics called it one of the standout tracks of When the Sun Goes Down , others dismissed its rap sections and lyrics . Selena Gomez & the Scene performed the song at shows while on the We Own the Night Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background = =
" Whiplash " was written and produced by Greg Kurstin , with additional writing by Nicole Morier and Britney Spears . The latter had recorded " Heaven on Earth " , written by Morier and songwriting team Freescha , for her fifth studio album Blackout ( 2007 ) . During an interview with On Air with Ryan Seacrest , Spears named the song her favorite from the album . When she started recording her sixth studio album Circus ( 2008 ) , she contacted Morier to write songs with her . When the two were in the studio , they asked Kurstin to give them tracks . Among the songs they worked on were " Mmm Papi " , " Rock Me In " and " Whiplash " . Both wanted to do something that Spears had not done before . " Mmm Papi " and " Rock Me In " were included in Circus ; however , " Whiplash " failed to make the cut . Morier explained , " There ’ s a couple songs we started that were great ideas but just incomplete . Maybe we ’ ll hear them with fresh ears someday and put them out , but I usually just like to start anew . "
On April 11 , 2011 , it was reported by MTV News that " Whiplash " would be recorded by Selena Gomez & the Scene for their third studio album When the Sun Goes Down . Lead singer Selena Gomez is a Spears fan , and after Kurstin played her the track for the first time , she " fell in love with it " , unaware of Spears 's contribution to the song . Gomez explained , " I came and sang and saw that she had co @-@ written it , so I was very excited . [ ... ] It was an honor and I 'm completely stoked . " The song leaked online in early June 2011 , several weeks prior to the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
" Whiplash " is a dance song with influences of electro . It features a heavy usage of synthesizers , which were compared to those in Christina Aguilera 's " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . During the pre @-@ chorus , there is a sing @-@ rap section in which Gomez delivers several phrases in a thick British accent , before the pulsating chorus begins . " Whiplash " has a much more aggressive vibe than the typical teen pop sound . According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , it is written in the key of D minor . The song runs through a shuffle beat and maintains a tempo of 138 beat per minute . Gomez 's vocal range spans from the high @-@ tone of A3 to the lower register of B ♭ 4 . It is also musically different and a departure from other songs in When the Sun Goes Down which are more straightforward pop , such as " Who Says " and " Bang Bang Bang " .
Several critics compared the song to the works of Spears . James Dinh of MTV News said that " Gomez , who has gushed to us about her Spears fandom , shows off her best impersonation " in the song . While reviewing the We Own the Night Tour , Kevin C. Johnson of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch said the song " sound [ s ] as if it was ripped directly from Spears ' catalog . " Blair Kelly of musicOMH compared it to the music of Circus , and more specifically to " Womanizer " ( 2008 ) . It was also compared by Tim Sendra of Allmusic to the " electro glam " sound of Goldfrapp . The lyrics of " Whiplash " speak of a blossoming romance . Gomez sings in the chorus , " Come on and take me to the other side / I 'm blown away , when I look into your eyes / I 'm so in love , I think I 'm going to crash / And get whiplash , whiplash , whiplash . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Whiplash " has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Tim Sendra of Allmusic selected it as one of the ' track picks ' of When the Sun Goes Down , calling it a " stomping jam " and one of the surprises of the album . He stated that the song " adds some welcome weirdness to an otherwise straightforward record . " In a positive review , Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post suggested that " Whiplash " was better than at least five songs from Spears 's seventh studio album Femme Fatale ( 2011 ) , saying " what I can 't figure out is why in the world would [ Spears ] give up this hot track " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly commented that " the top @-@ shelf collaborators don 't hurt — see : the grinding ' Whiplash , ' co @-@ penned by one Britney Spears . " Scott Shetler of PopCrush gave the song four stars out of five , explaining that it " possesses a hook that will send people running for the dance floor " , although " Gomez 's vocal is pretty flat [ ... ] but then again , this isn 't the kind of song to show off any sort of vocal gymnastics . "
Blair Kelly of musicOMH was divided in his review of " Whiplash " , calling it one of the best uptempo tracks from the album , although dismissing its " horrendous rap sections " , elaborating that " Selena Gomez should never be allowed to rap again , especially if she ’ s going to break into a horrific Queen 's English accent midway through . " Some reviews of the song were negative , with Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone stating that Gomez " brings nothing in the way of personality to her songs " , adding that " the swaggering ' sex ' song ' Whiplash ' would be comical if it wasn 't so tedious . " In another broadly negative review , PopMatters writer John Bergstrom suggested that Spears did not write any songs on Femme Fatale " to avoid the embarrassment of overwrought , fake @-@ British @-@ accent @-@ flaunting would @-@ be come @-@ ons like ' Whiplash ' .
= = Live performances = =
Selena Gomez & the Scene performed " Whiplash " on shows at the We Own the Night Tour ( 2011 ) . The band performed the song after a medley of Britney Spears covers , including versions of " ... Baby One More Time " , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " Toxic " , " Hold It Against Me " , " Till the World Ends " , and " I Wanna Go " . After " Whiplash " , the band continued with a performance of Gomez 's " Tell Me Something I Don 't Know " ( 2008 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Selena Gomez – lead vocals
Greg Kurstin – songwriter , producer , audio engineering , instrumentation , audio mixing at Echo Studios in Los Angeles , California
Nicole Morier – songwriter , background vocals
Britney Spears – songwriter
Jesse Shatkin – audio engineering
Credits adapted from When The Sun Goes Down album liner notes .
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= Gilles Villeneuve =
Joseph Gilles Henri Villeneuve ( French pronunciation : [ ʒil vilnœv ] ; January 18 , 1950 – May 8 , 1982 ) , known as Gilles Villeneuve , was a Canadian racing driver . Villeneuve spent six years in Grand Prix racing with Ferrari , winning six races and widespread acclaim for his performances .
An enthusiast of cars and fast driving from an early age , Villeneuve started his professional career in snowmobile racing in his native province of Quebec . He moved into single seaters , winning the US and Canadian Formula Atlantic championships in 1976 , before being offered a drive in Formula One with the McLaren team at the 1977 British Grand Prix . He was taken on by reigning world champions Ferrari for the end of the season and from 1978 to his death in 1982 drove for the Italian team . He won six Grand Prix races in a short career at the highest level . In 1979 , he finished second by four points in the championship to teammate Jody Scheckter .
Villeneuve died in a 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) crash caused by a collision with the March of Jochen Mass during qualifying for the 1982 Belgian Grand Prix at Zolder . The accident came less than two weeks after an intense argument with his teammate , Didier Pironi , over Pironi 's move to pass Villeneuve at the preceding San Marino Grand Prix . At the time of his death , Villeneuve was extremely popular with fans and has since become an iconic figure in the history of the sport . His son , Jacques Villeneuve , became Formula One world champion in 1997 and , to date , the only Canadian to win the Formula One World Championship .
= = Personal and early life = =
Villeneuve was born in Richelieu , a small town just outside Montreal , in the largely French @-@ speaking province of Quebec in Canada and grew up in Berthierville . In 1970 , he married Joann Barthe , with whom he had two children , Jacques and Mélanie . During his early career Villeneuve took his family on the road with him in a motorhome during the racing season , a habit which he continued to some extent during his Formula One career . He often claimed to have been born in 1952 . By the time he got his break in Formula One , he was already 27 years old and took two years off his age to avoid being considered too old to make it at the highest level of motorsports .
Niki Lauda said of him : " He was the craziest devil I ever came across in Formula 1 ... The fact that , for all this , he was a sensitive and lovable character rather than an out @-@ and @-@ out hell @-@ raiser made him such a unique human being " .
His younger brother Jacques also had a successful racing career in Formula Atlantic , Can Am and CART . Gilles ' son , also named Jacques , won the Indianapolis 500 and CART championships in 1995 and became Formula One World Champion in 1997 .
= = Early career = =
Villeneuve started competitive driving in local drag @-@ racing events , entering his road car , a modified 1967 Ford Mustang . He was soon bored by this and entered the Jim Russell Racing School at Le Circuit Mont Tremblant to gain a racing licence . He then had a very successful season in Quebec regional Formula Ford , running his own two @-@ year @-@ old car and winning seven of the ten races he entered . The next year he progressed to Formula Atlantic , competing there for four years , running his own car again for one of those seasons . He won his first Atlantic race in 1975 at Gimli Motosport Park in heavy rain . In 1976 , teamed with Chris Harrison 's Ecurie Canada and factory March race engineer Ray Wardell , he dominated the season by winning all but one of the races and taking the US and Canadian titles . He won the Canadian championship again in 1977 .
Money was very tight in Villeneuve 's early career . He was a professional racing driver from his late teens , with no other income . In the first few years the bulk of his income actually came from snowmobile racing , where he was extremely successful . He could demand appearance money as well as race money , especially after winning the 1974 World Championship Snowmobile Derby . His second season in Formula Atlantic was part @-@ sponsored by his snowmobile manufacturer , Skiroule . He credited some of his success to his snowmobiling days : " Every winter , you would reckon on three or four big spills — and I 'm talking about being thrown on to the ice at 100 miles per hour . Those things used to slide a lot , which taught me a great deal about control . And the visibility was terrible ! Unless you were leading , you could see nothing , with all the snow blowing about . Good for the reactions — and it stopped me having any worries about racing in the rain . "
= = Formula One career = =
After Villeneuve impressed James Hunt by beating him and several other Grand Prix stars in a non @-@ championship Formula Atlantic race at Trois @-@ Rivières in 1976 , Hunt 's McLaren team offered Villeneuve a Formula One deal for up to five races in a third car during the 1977 season . Villeneuve made his debut at the 1977 British Grand Prix , where he qualified 9th in McLaren 's old M23 , splitting the regular drivers Hunt and Jochen Mass who were driving newer M26s . In the race he set fifth fastest lap and finished 11th after being delayed for two laps by a faulty temperature gauge . The British press coverage of Villeneuve 's performance was generally complimentary , including John Blunsden 's comment in The Times that " Anyone seeking a future World Champion need look no further than this quietly assured young man . "
Despite this , shortly after the British race McLaren 's experienced team manager Teddy Mayer decided not to continue with Villeneuve for the following year . His explanation was that Villeneuve " was looking as though he might be a bit expensive " and that Patrick Tambay , the team 's eventual choice for 1978 , was showing similar promise . Villeneuve was left with no solid options for 1978 , although Canadian Walter Wolf , for whom Villeneuve had driven in Can @-@ Am racing , considered giving him a drive at Wolf Racing and also recommended him to the Ferrari team 's founder , Enzo Ferrari . Rumours circulated that Villeneuve was one of several drivers in whom the Italian team was interested , and in August 1977 he flew to Italy to meet Ferrari , who was immediately reminded of the pre @-@ war European champion Tazio Nuvolari : " When they presented me with this ' piccolo Canadese ' ( little Canadian ) , this minuscule bundle of nerves , I immediately recognised in him the physique of Nuvolari and said to myself , let 's give him a try . " Ferrari was satisfied with Villeneuve 's promise after a session at Ferrari 's Fiorano test track , despite the Canadian making many mistakes and setting relatively slow times , and Villeneuve signed to drive for Ferrari in the last two races of the 1977 season and the 1978 season . Villeneuve later remarked that : " If someone said to me that you can have three wishes , my first would have been to get into racing , my second to be in Formula 1 , my third to drive for Ferrari ... "
Villeneuve 's arrival was prompted by Ferrari driver Niki Lauda quitting the team at the penultimate race of the 1977 season , the Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park near Toronto , having already clinched his second championship with the Italian team . Villeneuve retired from his home race after sliding off the track on another competitor 's oil . He also raced in the last race of that season , the Japanese Grand Prix at the Fuji Speedway near Tokyo but retired on lap five when he tried to outbrake the Tyrrell P34 of Ronnie Peterson . The pair banged wheels causing Villeneuve 's Ferrari to become airborne . It landed on a group of spectators watching the race from a prohibited area , killing one spectator and a race marshal and injuring ten people . After an investigation into the incident no blame was apportioned and , although he was " terribly sad " at the deaths , Villeneuve did not feel responsible for them .
The 1978 season saw a succession of retirements for Villeneuve , often after problems with the new Michelin radial tyres . Early in the season , he started on the front row at the United States Grand Prix West , but crashed out of the lead on lap 39 . Despite calls in the Italian press for him to be replaced , Ferrari persisted with him . Towards the end of the season , Villeneuve 's results improved . He finished second on the road at the Italian Grand Prix , although he was penalised a minute for jumping the start , and ran second at the United States Grand Prix before his engine failed . Finally at the season @-@ ending Canadian Grand Prix , this time at the Circuit Île Notre @-@ Dame in Montreal ( a circuit that was eventually named after him ) Villeneuve scored his first Grand Prix win after Jean @-@ Pierre Jarier 's Lotus stopped with engine trouble . To date , he remains the only Canadian to win his home race .
Villeneuve was joined by Jody Scheckter in 1979 after Carlos Reutemann moved to Lotus . Villeneuve won three races during the year . The 1979 French Grand Prix is remembered for Villeneuve 's wheel @-@ banging duel with René Arnoux in the last laps of the race . Arnoux passed Villeneuve for second place with three laps to go , but Villeneuve re @-@ passed him on the next lap . On the final lap Arnoux attempted to pass Villeneuve again , and the pair ran side @-@ by @-@ side through the first few corners of the lap , making contact several times . Arnoux took the position but Villeneuve attempted an outside pass one corner later . The cars bumped hard , Villeneuve slid wide but then passed Arnoux on the inside at a hairpin turn and held him off for the last half of the lap to secure second place . Villeneuve commented afterwards , " I tell you , that was really fun ! I thought for sure we were going to get on our heads , you know , because when you start interlocking wheels it 's very easy for one car to climb over another . " At the Dutch Grand Prix a slow puncture collapsed Villeneuve 's left rear tyre and put him off the track . He returned to the circuit and limped back to the pits on three wheels , losing the damaged wheel on the way . On his return to the pits Villeneuve insisted that the team replace the missing wheel , and had to be persuaded that the car was beyond repair . Villeneuve might have won the World Championship by ignoring team orders to beat Scheckter at the Italian Grand Prix , but chose to finish behind him , ending his own championship challenge . The pair finished first and second in the championship , with Scheckter beating Villeneuve by just four points . During the extremely wet Friday practice session for the season @-@ ending United States Grand Prix , Villeneuve set a time variously reported to be either 9 or 11 seconds faster than any other driver . His teammate Jody Scheckter , who was second fastest , recalled that " I scared myself rigid that day . I thought I had to be quickest . Then I saw Gilles 's time and — I still don 't really understand how it was possible . Eleven seconds ! "
The 1980 season was a complete disaster for Ferrari . Villeneuve had been considered favourite for the drivers championship by UK bookmakers , but only scored six points in the whole campaign in the 312T5 which had only partial ground effects . Scheckter scored only two points and retired at the end of the season .
For the 1981 season , Ferrari introduced their first turbo engined F1 car , the 126C , which produced tremendous power but was let down by its poor handling . Villeneuve was partnered with Didier Pironi who noted that Villeneuve " had a little family [ at Ferrari ] but he made me welcome and made me feel at home overnight ... [ He ] treated me as an equal in every way . " Villeneuve won two races during the season . At the Spanish Grand Prix Villeneuve kept five quicker cars behind him for most of the race using the superior straight @-@ line speed of his car . After an hour and 46 minutes of racing Villeneuve led second @-@ placed Jacques Laffite by only 0 @.@ 22 seconds . Fifth @-@ placed Elio de Angelis was only just over a second further back . Harvey Postlethwaite , who was hired by Ferrari to design the follow @-@ on and much more successful 126C2 that won the Constructors ' Championship in 1982 , later commented on the 126C : " That car ... had literally one quarter of the downforce that , say Williams or Brabham had . It had a power advantage over the Cosworths for sure , but it also had massive throttle lag at that time . In terms of sheer ability I think Gilles was on a different plane to the other drivers . To win those races , the 1981 GPs at Monaco and Jarama — on tight circuits — was quite out of this world . I know how bad that car was . " At the 1981 Canadian Grand Prix Villeneuve damaged the front wing of his Ferrari and drove for most of the race in heavy rain with the wing obscuring his view ahead . There was a risk of being black flagged but eventually the wing became detached and Villeneuve drove on to finish third with the nose section of his car missing .
The first few races of the 1982 season were promising . Villeneuve led in Brazil in the new 126C2 , before spinning into retirement , and finished third at the United States Grand Prix West although he was later disqualified for a technical infringement . The Ferraris were handed an unexpected advantage at the San Marino Grand Prix as an escalation of the FISA @-@ FOCA war saw the FOCA teams boycott the race , effectively leaving Renault as Ferrari 's only serious opposition . With Renault driver Prost retiring from fourth place on lap 7 followed by his teammate Arnoux on the 44th lap Ferrari seemed to have the win guaranteed . In order to conserve fuel and ensure the cars finished the Ferrari team ordered both drivers to slow down . Villeneuve believed that the order also meant that the drivers were to maintain position but Pironi passed Villeneuve . A few laps later Villeneuve re @-@ passed Pironi and slowed down again , believing that Pironi was simply trying to entertain the Italian crowd . On the last lap Pironi passed and aggressively chopped across the front of Gilles in Villeneuve corner and took the win . Villeneuve was irate as he believed that Pironi had disobeyed the order to hold position . Meanwhile , Pironi claimed that he had done nothing wrong as the team had only ordered the cars to slow down , not maintain position . Villeneuve stated after the race " I think it is well known that if I want someone to stay behind me and I am faster , then he stays behind me . " Feeling betrayed and angry Villeneuve vowed never to speak to Pironi again .
In 2007 , former Marlboro marketer John Hogan disputed the claim that Pironi had gone back on a prior arrangement with Villeneuve . He said : " Neither of them would ever have agreed to what effectively was throwing a race . I think Gilles was stunned somebody had out @-@ driven him and that it just caught him so much by surprise . " Hogan 's company sponsored Pironi while he was at Ferrari . A comparison of the lap times of the two drivers showed that Villeneuve lapped far slower when he was in the lead , suggesting that he had indeed been trying to save fuel .
= = Death = =
On May 8 , 1982 , Villeneuve died after an accident during the final qualifying session for the Belgian Grand Prix at Zolder . At the time of the crash , Pironi had set a time 0.1s faster than Villeneuve for sixth place . Villeneuve was using his final set of qualifying tyres ; some say he was attempting to improve his time on his final lap , while others suggest he was specifically aiming to beat Pironi . However , Villeneuve 's biographer Gerald Donaldson quotes Ferrari race engineer Mauro Forghieri as saying that the Canadian , although pressing on in his usual fashion , was returning to the pits when the accident occurred . If so , he would not have set a time on that lap .
With eight minutes of the session left , Villeneuve came over the rise after the first chicane and caught Jochen Mass travelling much more slowly through Butte , the left @-@ handed bend before the Terlamenbocht double right @-@ hand section . Mass saw Villeneuve approaching at high speed and moved to the right to let him through on the racing line . At the same instant Villeneuve also moved right to pass the slower car . The Ferrari hit the back of Mass ' car and was launched into the air at a speed estimated at 200 – 225 km / h ( 120 – 140 mph ) . It was airborne for more than 100 m before nosediving into the ground and disintegrating as it somersaulted along the edge of the track . Villeneuve , still strapped to his seat , but without his helmet , was thrown a further 50 m from the wreckage into the catch fencing on the outside edge of the Terlamenbocht corner .
Several drivers stopped and rushed to the scene . John Watson and Derek Warwick pulled Villeneuve , his face blue , from the catch fence . The first doctor arrived within 35 seconds to find that Villeneuve was not breathing , although his pulse continued ; he was intubated and ventilated before being transferred to the circuit medical centre and then by helicopter to University St Raphael Hospital where a fatal fracture of the neck was diagnosed . Villeneuve was kept alive on life support while his wife travelled to the hospital and the doctors consulted specialists worldwide . He died at 21 : 12 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) .
= = Legacy = =
At the funeral in Berthierville former teammate Jody Scheckter delivered a simple eulogy : " I will miss Gilles for two reasons . First , he was the most genuine man I have ever known . Second , he was the fastest driver in the history of motor racing . But he has not gone . The memory of what he has done , what he achieved , will always be there . "
Villeneuve is still remembered at Grand Prix races , especially those in Italy . At the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari , the venue of the San Marino Grand Prix , a corner was named after him and a Canadian flag is painted on the third slot on the starting grid , from which he started his last race . There is also a bronze bust of him at the entrance to the Ferrari test track at Fiorano . At Zolder the corner where Villeneuve died has been turned into a chicane and named after him .
The racetrack on Île Notre @-@ Dame , Montreal , host to the Formula One Canadian Grand Prix , was named Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in his honour at the Canadian Grand Prix of 1982 . His homeland has continued to honour him : In Berthierville a museum was opened in 1992 and a lifelike statue stands in a nearby park which was also named in his honour . Villeneuve was inducted into the Canadian Motorsport Hall of Fame at their inaugural induction ceremony at the Four Seasons Hotel , Toronto , Ontario on August 19 , 1993 . He was also inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 1983 . In June 1997 Canada issued a postage stamp in his honour .
There is still a huge demand for Villeneuve memorabilia at the race @-@ track shops and several books have been written about him . The number 27 , the number of his Ferrari in 1981 and 1982 , is still closely associated with him by fans . Jean Alesi , whose aggression and speed in the wet were compared to Villeneuve 's , also used the number at Ferrari . Villeneuve 's son , Jacques , drove the # 27 during his IndyCar and Indianapolis 500 winning season with Barry Green and has also used the number for occasional drives in NASCAR and the Speedcar Series . Canadian driver and 2011 IndyCar Rookie of the Year James Hinchcliffe adopted the number 27 for the 2012 season .
A film based on the biography by Gerald Donaldson was announced in 2005 , intended for release in 2007 , but as of 2014 has not emerged .
= = In popular culture = =
The popular French comics series Michel Vaillant by Jean Graton is set in the world of motor racing and , although largely fictional , often includes real @-@ life figures including drivers , officials and journalists . Villeneuve appears in a number of stories , and in Steve Warson contre Michel Vaillant ( fr : " Steve Warson versus Michel Vaillant " ) becomes the 1980 World Champion ( though in the 1981 season , covered in Rififi en F1 ( " F1 in Chaos " ) , Graton acknowledges Alan Jones as the real Champion ) and Quebec prog @-@ rock / pop group The Box based their 1984 song " Live on TV " inspired by Villeneuve 's televised death .
= = Helmet = =
Villeneuve 's helmet carried a stylised ' V ' in red on either side — an effect he devised with his wife Joann . The base colour was black . His son , Jacques , used the same basic design , but like his contemporary , Christian Fittipaldi , he has changed the colours . British driver Perry McCarthy also used this design and color scheme on his helmet , but with the design in reverse .
= = Complete Formula One World Championship results = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Books = = =
Donaldson , Gerald ( 2003 ) . Gilles Villeneuve : The Life of the Legendary Racing Driver . London : Virgin . ISBN 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0747 @-@ 1 .
Bamsey , Ian ( 1983 ) . Automobile Sport 82 @-@ 83 . City : Haynes Manuals . ISBN 0 @-@ 946321 @-@ 01 @-@ 9 .
Lang , Mike ( 1992 ) . Grand Prix ! vol.4. Sparkford : Foulis . ISBN 0 @-@ 85429 @-@ 733 @-@ 2 .
Roebuck , Nigel ( 1986 ) . Grand Prix Greats . Cambridge : P. Stephens . ISBN 0 @-@ 85059 @-@ 792 @-@ 7 .
Roebuck , Nigel ( 1999 ) . Chasing the Title . City : Haynes Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 85960 @-@ 604 @-@ 0 .
Watkins , Sid ( 1997 ) . Life at the Limit : Triumph and Tragedy in Formula One . City : Pan Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 330 @-@ 35139 @-@ 7 .
Villeneuve 1982 - Allan de la Plante Villeneuve a Racing Legend 1995 - Allan de la Plante
= = = Magazines = = =
Fearnley , Paul ( August 2006 ) . " Profile : Ferrari 312T3 " . Motor Sport ( Haymarket ) . pp. 52 – 61 .
Fearnley , Paul ( May 2007 ) . " It 's war . Absolutely war . " . Motor Sport ( Haymarket ) . pp. 52 – 61 .
Jenkinson , Denis ( June 1982 ) . " Grote Prijs van Belgie " . Motor Sport ( Motor Sport Magazine Ltd . ) . pp. 708 – 712 .
Walker , Rob ( January 1980 ) . " US GP Report " . Road & Track. pp. 104 – 107 .
All Formula One race and championship results are taken from :
Official Formula 1 website . Archive : Results for 1977 — 1982 seasons www.formula1.com Retrieved 6 February 2009
All Pre @-@ Formula One race and championship results are taken from :
Donaldson ( 2003 ) pp. 310 – 315
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= Series 8 , Episode 1 ( Spooks ) =
The series eight premiere is the first episode in the eighth series of the British espionage television series Spooks , and the 65th episode in total . It was originally broadcast on BBC One on 4 November 2009 . The episode was written by Ben Richards and directed by Alrick Riley . It continues from the seventh series finale , where Sir Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) is willingly captured by Viktor Sarkisiian ( Peter Sullivan ) . In this episode , Harry is taken by Amish Mani ( Ace Bhatti ) , a former Indian intelligence officer , who wants Harry to reveal the location of a secret uranium shipment he knows the location of , in order to build nuclear weapons .
The episode marks the return of Nicola Walker as Ruth Evershed , who departed in the fifth series . Although there was media coverage on her return months before the broadcast of the episode , the producers were confident that only the " die hard " fans would be aware of this . It also marked the last appearance of Hugh Simon as Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones . The episode was filmed in April 2009 and was partially shot on location in Deià , Majorca . The episode was seen by over six million viewers in the United Kingdom , a quarter of the television audience during its time slot . Critics praised Ruth 's return , though reactions towards the overall episode were mixed .
= = Plot = =
Following his abduction , Viktor Sarkisiian sells Harry to Amish Mani in order to start a new life outside the FSB . However , Mani does not hold his end of the deal and kills Sarkisiian and his team . His men then pose as members of extremist group , the Sacred Army for Righteous Vengeance , and supposedly execute him . When MI5 later intercepts the footage of his execution from the Internet , the team are divided between those who believe it is genuine , and those who believe it is faked . Malcolm later discovers that one of the " terrorists " said a curse word in Malayalam , the language of the Indian state of Kerala . Because there is no history with SARV from that particular region , the team question whether or not the terrorists are from SARV . Furthermore , when they find the house where the execution was filmed , forensics find several traces of blood , none of which match Harry 's DNA , indicating he is still alive .
Meanwhile in Polis , Cyprus , Ruth is living at peace with husband George ( Daniel Rabib ) and stepson Nico ( Luke Tzortzis ) . When she notices men are out to capture her , she and her family flee to London . Upon returning to the Grid , Ruth believes Harry was kidnapped because of a secret operation in which he , MI6 officer Stephen Hillier ( Andrew Scarborough ) , former CIA liaison Libby McCall ( Paul Birchard ) and Mani intend to vindicate the Iraq War by planting weapons @-@ grade uranium in Baghdad and later " discover " it , though Harry would later pull the operation and safeguard the shipment at a secret location only he and Ruth know ; those who kidnapped Harry wish to acquire the uranium to create nuclear weapons . Soon , while being transferred to a safe house , Ruth is captured and brought to Harry , while George and Nico are taken to the safe house unaware of what is happening . To save them , Ruth reveals the uranium is at a base in Norfolk , however Mani reveals he searched the base and it is no longer there , and hence orders George 's execution .
Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) confronts Hillier , but the latter is assassinated by McCall before he can divulge the location of the safe house . Malcolm finds the safe house and arrives there , offering himself in exchange for Nico . Meanwhile , Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) persuaded McCall 's replacement , Sarah Caufield ( Genevieve O 'Reilly ) , to have a tracker implanted on McCall . The team follow him to the warehouse and arrest him . Witnessing this , Mani tells his man to kill Nico , though Malcolm is able to talk him out of it . As Mani prepares to kill Ruth , Lucas arrives in time to kill him . In the end , Malcolm wishes to retire , telling Harry he is " dog tired " ; Harry allows it .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
The episode marks the return of Ruth Evershed since her departure halfway through series five . Actress Nicola Walker left the series to raise her baby . When Walker was asked to return , she took " about half a second to say yes . " Upon returning , she noticed that the Grid set changed since her initial departure . Because there was media coverage reporting Walker 's return , the producers believed that the shock of her return would be hindered somewhat , but also believed only the " die hard " fans of the series would be aware of it . Ace Bhatti , who portrayed the episode 's primary antagonist Amish Mani , was cast because the producers were impressed by his highly convincing and relaxed acting style , which they felt would establish his role in the episode .
Paul Birchard was cast as Libby McCall because the producers believed he acted like a " dinosaur " from the former Bush administration . Child actor Luke Tzortzis was cast as Nico since they were impressed with his intelligence and the fact he is a " strong " actor ; children are often hard to work with in the series , but in Tzortzis ' case , he would ask the production crew several questions between takes in order to do understand what he is to do in the episode . It was also Tzortzis ' first performance as an actor , having no past experiences .
Ben Richards wrote the episode . The main focus for the first ten minutes of the episode was the debate of whether Harry would be dead or alive . The producers decided to tease the audience by showing Harry alive , but then show him apparently executed before the main title sequence , which would make them question whether or not he survived . The producers also wanted to reflect this to the characters , and divide them between if the execution was real or fake . This development was not originally included in the script , and filming was already completed at the time . However , according to director Alrick Riley , Richards was quickly able to write those new scenes " seamlessly " into the rest of the episode , which is usually a difficult task to perform . Richards also added hints in the script that Malcolm would be leaving by the end . The primary plot of the episode were hard to do , but producer Chris Fry noted that Richards was able to execute the plot very well . Elsewhere , the episode would show Ruth living happily in Cyprus and then be quickly drawn back into the world of MI5 back at a " dark " and " grim " London . The conversations between Malcolm and Ruth were all automated dialogue replacement . Following the writing , Walker and Peter Firth were highly looking forward to play their scenes together again .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
Filming took place throughout April 2009 . Before it began , production designer Anthony Ainsworth partly reconstructed the Grid set to give it more of a concrete , underground bunker , feel . Though more television series in the UK are adopting high @-@ definition cameras , the Spooks producers decided to continue using hand held standard @-@ definition ones , which were more compact and flexible ; the producers felt that using high @-@ definition cameras would sacrifice the filming style of the series . For instance , a hand held camera would allow the crew to film one long take following cast members through tight spaces , like an average London flat . High @-@ definition cameras would lose that ability .
Two days were dedicated towards shooting the pre @-@ title sequence . It was filmed on location at Hedsor House in Buckinghamshire . The helicopter scenes took place inside an actual helicopter taking flight with some cast members on board , which would make the sequence more genuine as opposed to having the cast members sitting inside next to a green screen . The fight sequences between Sarkisiian 's and Mani 's men were orchestrated and performed by stunt coordinator Chrispin Leyfield and his stunt team , as there was very little time to train conventional actors . Director Alrick Riley wanted the fight sequences to be performed in the same style as in the Jason Bourne films . The abandoned warehouse used to hold Harry and Ruth were filmed in an abandoned leather factory near London Bridge . One of the meetings between Lucas and Sarah Caufield were originally intended to be shot on the London Eye , a location the producers had never used before . However , due to restrictions the filming crew felt they could not follow , it was shot in South Bank , opposite the Houses of Parliament , instead .
The scenes set in Cyprus were filmed on location in Deià , a coastal village in the island of Majorca . Previously working on a film using the same location , producer Chris Fry chose the village because he felt it was the closest to the UK the crew can get to mimic the hot , Mediterranean feel of Cyprus . Because filming abroad tend to be costly for a BBC budget , the producers kept costs down as much as possible by using a limited crew with some local help . Much of the original script was to take place inside a house , but because there were no gaffers responsible for lighting , and that the weather was decent , filming took place primarily outside because of the natural sunlight . The filming crew spent four days at the end of April shooting in Majorca .
Jamie Pearson was responsible for editing the episode . The sequence where Lucas rescues Harry and Ruth near the end were made in slow motion , because the producers felt it would add to the tension . The incidental music was composed by Paul Leonard @-@ Morgan . The computer graphics on the episode were designed by Mark Doman . The producers ended up being receptive of both Morgan and Doman 's work , because of their ability to help interpret the story via the music , and computers , respectively .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The episode was originally broadcast on BBC One , during the 9 pm to 10 pm time slot on Wednesday , 4 November 2009 , and later repeated on BBC Three at 12 : 15 am on 5 November . Upon its original broadcast , the episode received unofficial overnight viewing figures of 6 million and an audience share of 25 per cent . Spooks won its time slot against ITV1 's UEFA Champions League game , which attracted 5 @.@ 1 million viewers . According to the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board , the episode received final figures of 6 @.@ 549 million viewers , placing Spooks the sixth most seen programme on BBC One the week it aired . The repeat on BBC Three attracted 602 @,@ 000 viewers . In addition , 446 @,@ 900 viewed the episode from BBC iPlayer , an Internet television service ; as a result the episode became the seventeenth best performed iPlayer broadcast of 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Gerard O 'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph lamented the eleven months that passed since the series seven cliffhanger , and stated that " for all its square @-@ jawed silliness and bonkers conspiracies , Spooks still delivers high @-@ class escapism at its slickest , most glamorous and entertaining . " Adam Sweeting of The Arts Desk felt that the episode 's plot was " mere background noise , " and that the series " is about hilariously artificial encounters between the characters , clumsily manufactured dramatic tension , and a denouement involving someone being prevented in the nick of time from detonating something / killing somebody / triggering a global economic collapse . " Andrea Mullaney of The Scotsman said that the plot was " all gibberish , " but cited the episode was really about the return of Ruth , a development Mullaney praised , stating Ruth " has been much missed since she was framed and sent into faked @-@ death exile . " Mullaney also praised the performance of the cast , including " Walker 's gulping hysteria when Ruth 's husband was executed , " which was " perfectly done , " and Malcolm 's " doughty attempts to comfort a small boy in danger were touching . "
Robert McLaughlin of Den of Geek believed that it is " equivalent to 24 , " " far more engaging than the last James Bond movie , " and that it is " good to see [ Ruth Evershed ] again , " seeing how " the re @-@ introduction of an old character will work with the new additions . " While also reviewing Channel 4 's The Family , Tom Sutcliff of The Independent stated that family values were " relevant in Spooks too , " citing Ruth being " on the rack , " after having her see her husband killed and adoptive son threatened . Though Sutcliff did not see the series with " great diligence recently , " he though the intelligence " is not the quality you would attribute to some of the strategies employed " in the episode . Vicky Frost of The Guardian was overly critical of the episode , criticising it for the reunion between Ruth and Harry , which she stated " wasn 't quite the romantic occasion [ I would have ] liked , " and Malcolm 's method to convince a " trained killer not to shoot Nico . " Overall , Frost thought the episode was " medium " and rated it five out of ten on the " ridiculous @-@ o @-@ meter " .
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= 1999 – 2000 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 1999 – 2000 season was the 102nd season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club ended the campaign second in the league , 18 points behind Manchester United . Arsenal exited both domestic cup competitions on penalties , being eliminated by Leicester City in a FA Cup fourth round replay and by Middlesbrough at the same stage of the Football League Cup . For the second consecutive season Arsenal failed to progress past the group stage of the UEFA Champions League ; a third @-@ place finish however earnt them a consolation place in the UEFA Cup . Arsenal eventually reached the final to play Galatasaray in Copenhagen – the match was overshadowed by altercations between both sets of supporters . The team lost 4 – 1 on penalties after a goalless draw .
A number of signings were made by Arsenal in the summer transfer window , namely defenders Sylvinho and Oleg Luzhny , and striker Thierry Henry , who joined from Juventus on a club record fee . Davor Šuker departed Real Madrid to sign for Arsenal , following Nicolas Anelka 's move in the opposite direction . Steve Bould left Arsenal to play for Sunderland , while Stephen Hughes signed for Everton in the spring .
Inconsistent performances in the league , particularly away from home , meant Arsenal never posed a serious threat to Manchester United , the reigning champions . Midfielder Patrick Vieira was suspended from playing for much of late autumn after a confrontation with West Ham United player Neil Ruddock . In October , Arsenal notably staged a comeback against Chelsea , with Nwankwo Kanu scoring a hat @-@ trick in the final 15 minutes of the game . A run of eight straight wins between March and May propelled Arsenal from fifth to second and the team finished on 73 points .
= = Background = =
Arsenal ended the previous season as runners @-@ up to Manchester United in the Premier League . The club made an indifferent start to the campaign as reigning league champions and failed to progress past the group stages of the UEFA Champions League . After defeat to Aston Villa in December 1998 , Arsenal embarked on a 19 match unbeaten run ( 21 in all competitions ) to climb up the league table . The run in all competitions ended against Manchester United in a FA Cup semi @-@ final replay . In April Arsenal moved to the top of the Premier League after beating Middlesbrough 6 – 1 , albeit having played a match more than Manchester United . A 3 – 1 away win against Tottenham Hotspur put Arsenal three points clear as United lost to Liverpool on the same night . Going into the final two matches of the season both clubs were on the same points , but Arsenal 's defeat to Leeds United all but ended their chances of retaining the title .
At the start of the 1999 – 2000 season , Arsenal ended its long @-@ standing kit sponsorship with JVC . The club signed a three @-@ year deal with SEGA as replacement , worth £ 10 million . The SEGA Dreamcast name was carried on the home kit , while SEGA was embroidered on the new yellow away kit .
= = = Transfers = = =
Frenchman Rémi Garde retired from career football at the end of the 1998 – 99 season . Kaba Diawara left Arsenal six months after joining to sign for Olympique de Marseille . Defender Steve Bould moved to Sunderland for an estimated fee of £ 500 @,@ 000 , which ended his 11 @-@ year association with Arsenal . The player felt it was the " right decision " as he wanted first @-@ team football .
In May 1999 , Nicolas Anelka stated his desire to leave Arsenal and cited the English media as a reason for wanting to leave the club as they caused him " enormous problems on a personal level . " S.S. Lazio was interested in signing the player , but the Italian club refused to pay Arsenal 's asking price of £ 23 million . After Real Madrid reopened negotiations with Arsenal and Anelka , a deal was finally reached on 1 August 1999 and the player signed for the club , the next day . Arsenal sought to strengthen the squad 's attacking options first by signing Davor Šuker from Real Madrid ; the player was prepared to take a pay cut to join the club . The club then signed Juventus forward Thierry Henry for a club record fee of £ 11 million . Wenger , who served as the player 's protégé at Monaco believed his best position was as a goalscorer : " He was the top scorer in the Under @-@ 17s for France when I first had him and I think that , as well as having the qualities of youth , pace and power , he is a good finisher . That is something he has not worked on enough in the last two years because he has played more wide , but I think he can become a central striker again . That is what we will try to develop together . "
Other additions to the squad included Sylvinho and Oleg Luzhny . Striker Luís Boa Morte moved to Southampton in August 1999 , while midfielder Stephen Hughes completed his transfer to Everton in March 2000 .
= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = = = Loan out = = = =
= = Pre @-@ season and friendles = =
In preparation for the forthcoming season , Arsenal played a series of friendles . The club also staged a testimonial for defender Lee Dixon once the season commenced against Real Madrid .
= = FA Charity Shield = =
The 1999 edition of the FA Charity Shield was contested between Manchester United and Arsenal . The game took place at Wembley Stadium on 1 August . Manchester United went ahead seven minutes before the end of the first half , but late goals from Kanu and Ray Parlour gave Arsenal victory in the match . Wenger believed the result showed that his team were " ready for the season " and thought it was " ... psychologically important to beat United , especially after the great run they have had " .
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began the league season with a home fixture against Leicester City . Henry started the match on the substitutes ' bench along with Overmars and Upson , while Šuker was absent as he was unfit . After a quiet first half , Leicester scored the opening goal when Neil Lennon 's intervention prompted striker Tony Cottee to " gleefully pounce from inside the six @-@ yard box " . Dennis Bergkamp equalised for Arsenal in the 65th minute and with time running out , the home team scored the winner in unexpected circumstances . Defender Frank Sinclair headed the ball into the back of his team 's goal net , after Leicester failed to deal with a corner . Three days later , Emmanuel Petit and Bergkamp scored in Arsenal 's win against Derby County ; the team 's performance was described by Wenger as " more resilient than brilliant " . Arsenal drew 0 – 0 with newly promoted Sunderland on 14 August 1999 , in a match where Petit and Bergkamp both suffered injuries . A week after the team faced Manchester United at Highbury . It was billed as " the world 's first live interactive match " , allowing viewers of Sky Digital access to statistics and alternative camera angles . United midfielder Roy Keane scored twice to overturn Arsenal 's 41st @-@ minute lead and inflict the home team 's first defeat since December 1997 . Arsenal recovered three days later to defeat Bradford City by two goals to nil , but lost to Liverpool at Anfield in their final game of August .
September saw Arsenal win all of their league matches . At home to Aston Villa , Šuker scored his first goals for the club and earnt the praise of his manager Wenger : “ He is just obsessed by goals . You feel when he is inside the box he hits the target . ” Away to Southampton , it was the other signing Henry who scored his first goal for Arsenal . The player , on as a substitute , received the ball from Tony Adams and with his back to goal " some 20 yards out " , turned and curled it past goalkeeper Paul Jones . Henry later admitted his failure to score for Arsenal before then was getting him down : “ My goal today was very important for me . I have missed at least 14 or 15 chances for Arsenal and my confidence was low . ” Kanu scored the only goal of the match against Watford , which moved Arsenal in third position , two points behind leaders Manchester United .
Arsenal faced West Ham United in the first weekend of October . Dixon , Nigel Winterburn and Overmars were rested for the match , replaced by Luzhny , Slyvinho and Šuker . In spite of general dominance from Arsenal , West Ham striker Paolo di Canio scored in each half to win his team the match . Patrick Vieira was dismissed during play for a foul on Di Canio . A confrontation soon after occurred between the player and Neil Ruddock . Vieira was subsequently charged , banned for six matches and fined a record £ 45 @,@ 000 by The Football Association . Šuker scored twice against Everton at Highbury on 16 October 1999 . Arsenal then travelled to Stamford Bridge to face Chelsea . Goals from Tore André Flo and Dan Petrescu seemed to have given the home side victory , before Kanu scored a hat @-@ trick in the space of 15 minutes . His first involved extending his legs and stabbing the ball past goalkeeper Ed de Goey , once it fell kindly in his direction . The equaliser came in the 83rd minute : Kanu received the ball from Overmars , which took him away from goal but hit the ball to the left of De Goey ’ s dive . In injury time Kanu , in the downpour , chased down the ball and dribbled past the stranded Chelsea goalkeeper on the byline , before curling the ball over Frank Leboeuf and into the far corner of the goal net . Kanu 's teammate Šuker described the third goal as " beautiful " , while Bergkamp added : " The skills he has got , the moves he makes , are something you like to watch and learn from . I watch him in training and it is a joy . " The month ended with a goalless draw at home to Newcastle United , which left Arsenal fourth , three points behind league leaders Leeds United .
= = = November – February = = =
Arsenal 's first fixture of November was the North London derby against Tottenham Hotspur . After 20 minutes , Tottenham were 2 – 0 up after goals from Steffen Iversen and Tim Sherwood . Vieira scored for Arsenal from a header , but there were no further goals in the game . In the second half Ljungberg was sent off , as was Keown in stoppage time , to reduce Arsenal to nine men . The team responded with a 5 – 1 win against Middlesbrough , in which Overmars scored three goals . Arsenal then came from behind to beat Derby County on 28 November 1999 ; they ended the month in third , three points behind Leeds United in first .
Gilles Grimandi , Dixon and Overmars scored a goal apiece in Arsenal 's victory at Leicester City in early December . Matthew Upson was forced to come off the pitch before the half @-@ hour mark , after suffering a knee injury . Arsenal only managed a draw against Wimbledon on 18 December 1999 ; Henry 's second half goal cancelled out Wimbledon 's opener – a cross by Marcus Gayle met Carl Cort , whose shot hit goalkeeper Alex Manninger 's left leg and went in . The poor form over Christmas continued : Arsenal lost 3 – 2 to Coventry City on Boxing Day . Rob Hughes of The Times noted his concerns about Arsenal 's defence , which : " ... conceded 17 goals last season but now , at the halfway stage , [ ... ] have already let in 20 " , but did go on to add " there was nothing lacking in the tenacity of Arsenal . " Vieira made his return for the match against league leaders Leeds United , who were eight points in front of Arsenal . Wenger reshuffled the defence , dropping Dixon and Winterburn for Luzhny and Sylvinho , while Grimandi replaced Keown who was injured . Ljungberg and Henry scored for Arsenal in their 2 – 0 win to put the team third at the end of 1999 . Adams suggested after the Leeds match that his opponents ' inexperience and thin squad would jeopardise their chances of winning the league : “ They are still involved in the UEFA Cup and the FA Cup as well . So come February time they will start to feel that pressure – and you don 't know what it is like until you have been through it . "
On 3 January 2000 , Arsenal played Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough and were held to a 1 – 1 draw . Two concerns for Arsenal were Overmars ' ankle injury sustained during the match and the absence of Kanu , who left to represent his country in the African Nations Cup . Arsenal recorded a 4 – 1 win against Sunderland to move level on points with Manchester United in second , though the champions had three games in hand . The first was against Arsenal at Old Trafford on 24 January 2000 . Wenger selected five midfielders in his starting team , as injuries limited his forward options . Arsenal began the match the better of the two teams and led 1 – 0 after 11 minutes , after good play from Ljungberg . United as the game went on looked " fresher " , with substitute Teddy Sheringham equalising in the second half .
February saw Arsenal 's title challenge take a turn for the worse , with consecutive defeats . The first came at Valley Parade , away to Bradford City . Striker Dean Saunders scored the match winner in the 57th minute , which marked Arsenal 's fifth defeat in a dozen away league games . The team then lost to Liverpool at home a week later , who moved into third place . Wenger said it " had been a very bad week " for Arsenal , and noted " qualification for third place [ was ] not over … it 's still possible if we get our players back in the right shape " . The month ended with a 3 – 1 win against Southampton , in which Bergkamp and Kanu returned to the starting line @-@ up .
= = = March – May = = =
Dixon 's late goal earnt Arsenal a point against Aston Villa on 5 March 2000 . The team , without Adams , Keown and Overmars , lost to Middlesbrough a week later . Wenger conceded afterwards his team were paying for their participation in the UEFA Cup , as “ … the recovery time is too short . We only had two and a half days , which is not enough , especially when you are travelling " . Arsenal beat their rivals Tottenham a week later . Henry , Grimandi and Kanu each scored in Arsenal 's 3 – 0 victory against Coventry City . After 30 games , Arsenal were in fourth position , two points behind Liverpool in third and 13 away from leaders Manchester United .
In spite of playing the second half against Wimbledon with ten men after the dismissal of Luzhny , Arsenal defeated their London rivals by three goals to one . Before the game away to Leeds United on 16 April 2000 , both clubs observed a minute 's silence to honour the two Leeds fans who were murdered in Istanbul . Wenger and his players then presented bouquets of flowers to their counterparts . Arsenal went ahead in the 21st minute – Henry beat defender Jonathan Woodgate for pace and scored his 20th goal of the season . Further goals by Keown , Kanu and Overmars resulted in a 4 – 0 win and lifted Arsenal above Leeds into third , with a better goal difference . Arsenal beat Watford and continued their strong finish to the season with a 1 – 0 win at Everton to move into second place . Wenger believed Manchester United , who retained their status as champions in April , had benefited from the league being " organised " in their favour : " They had a winter break . They didn 't play in the FA Cup . It was all wrong from the start . The break was good for them because at the same time we dropped points and so did the other teams . So when they came back they had the psychological advantage . "
Petit scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for Arsenal against West Ham United and a further win against Chelsea ensured Arsenal finished second , as Leeds and Liverpool failed to win their respective matches . Arsenal played out a 3 – 3 draw against Sheffield Wednesday , which relegated their opponents in the process . Arsenal ended their league campaign against Newcastle United at St James ' Park . Wenger rested several first @-@ team players to prioritise the 2000 UEFA Cup Final the following week . Arsenal lost 4 – 2 , with Newcastle striker Alan Shearer notably scoring the 300th goal of his career .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A |
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D |
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W |
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the competition in the third round , by virtue of their Premier League status . Their opening match was a 3 – 1 win against Second Division Blackpool , where Grimandi , Adams and Overmars got themselves on the scoresheet . In the fourth round , Arsenal faced Leicester City at Highbury . The match ended goalless , meaning a replay was staged at Filbert Street . With neither side able to score in the 90 minutes and extra time , the game was settled on penalties . Leicester goalkeeper Pegguy Arphexad blocked Dixon and Grimandi 's spot @-@ kicks to help his side win . Wenger said he was " upset " with the loss , adding " the most important thing is the championship and we have to concentrate on it . "
= = Football League Cup = =
Together with the other clubs playing in European competitions , Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round . The team were drawn to face First Division Preston North End , on the week of 11 October 1999 . Kanu and Stefan Malz scored a goal apiece to ensure Arsenal progressed into the fourth round , where they played Middlesbrough away . The team exited the competition on penalties , after a score draw .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Finishing second in Premier League the previous season ensured Arsenal 's qualification into the UEFA Champions League . For the second season running , Arsenal played their home matches at Wembley Stadium . The club were drawn in Group B , along with Italian club Fiorentina , Barcelona of Spain and Sweden 's AIK . In the opening match against Fiorentina , Arsenal dominated possession and created the better chances of the game , but earnt no more than a point after Kanu 's late penalty miss . The team defeated AIK at Wembley a week after and drew with Barcelona at the Camp Nou . In the reverse fixture , Barcelona defeated Arsenal 4 – 2 and Wenger rued afterwards : " The defence did not have a good day . They were exposed and didn 't get any protection . " Arsenal progressed no further in competition after the team were beaten by Fiorentina ; Gabriel Batistuta scored the only goal of the match . Overmars scored twice in Arsenal 's final group game away to AIK .
= = UEFA Cup = =
As Arsenal finished third in their Champions League group , they entered the UEFA Cup . Wenger said he intended to take the competition seriously given the team 's poor UEFA coefficient . Arsenal played their home games at Highbury instead of Wembley .
= = = Knockout stages = = =
Third round
Arsenal faced French club Nantes and won the first leg 3 – 0 ; Winterburn scored the pick of the three – " a rare but brilliantly struck goal “ . The team drew the second leg 3 – 3 , though it was enough to see them progress on aggregate score .
Fourth round
At home to Deportivo La Coruña , Arsenal opened the scoring in the fifth minute through Dixon and further goals from Henry , Kanu and Bergkamp ensured it was the club 's first victory over Spanish opposition in Europe . Although the team were defeated in the second leg , Arsenal won 6 – 3 on aggregate .
Quarter @-@ finals
Against Werder Bremen , Arsenal won the first leg 2 – 0 with goals from Henry and Ljungberg . Parlour scored a hat @-@ trick in the return leg – the first of his career .
Semi @-@ finals
Arsenal faced French club Lens in the final four and won the first leg by a solitary goal , scored by Bergkamp in the second minute . Victory in the second leg ensured passage to the final . Wenger commented afterwards : “ People say we should not have come into this competition , but we have not got the final the easy way – we have played 14 games to get this far . ”
= = = Final = = =
In the lead up to the final against Galatasaray in Copenhagen , scuffles took place between British and Turkish supporters at City Hall Square after an Arsenal fan was stabbed . The incident , dubbed the " Battle of Copenhagen " by the media led to 19 civilians injured and 60 arrests . The match itself was a lacklustre affair ; neither side scored after 90 minutes and in extra time Gheorghe Hagi was sent off . It was decided on penalties and Arsenal lost after Šuker and Patrick Vieira missed their spot @-@ kicks . Wenger was disappointed with the manner of the defeat and criticised Spanish referee Antonio López Nieto for not tossing a coin to decide where the shoot @-@ out would take place like UEFA promised him .
= = Player statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 32 players during the 1999 – 2000 season and there were 15 different goalscorers . There were also six squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . Kanu featured in 50 matches whereas Vieira started the most games for Arsenal – 47 in total .
The team scored a total of 106 goals in all competitions . The highest goalscorer was Henry , with 26 goals , followed by Kanu who scored 17 goals . Six Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Vieira , Keown , Henry , Grimandi ( twice ) and Luzhny .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= = Reserves = =
The following players were contracted to Arsenal , but did not make a competitive appearance during the season .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
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= Ancestry of the Godwins =
Very little is known for certain of the ancestry of the Godwins , the family of the last Anglo @-@ Saxon King of England , Harold II . When King Edward the Confessor died in January 1066 his closest relative was his great @-@ nephew , Edgar the Ætheling , but he was young and lacked powerful supporters . Harold was the head of the most powerful family in England and Edward 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , and he became king . In September 1066 Harold defeated and killed King Harald Hardrada of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge , and Harold was himself defeated and killed the following month by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings .
The family is named after Harold 's father , Earl Godwin , who had risen to a position of wealth and influence in the 1020s under Danish King Cnut the Great . In 1045 Godwin 's daughter , Edith , married King Edward the Confessor , and by the mid @-@ 1050s Harold and his brothers had become dominant , almost monopolising the English earldoms . Godwin 's origin is obscure . He was probably the son of Wulfnoth Cild , a South Saxon thegn , but Wulfnoth 's ancestry is disputed . A few genealogists and historians argue that he was descended from Alfred the Great 's elder brother , King Æthelred I ( 865 – 71 ) , but almost all historians of Anglo @-@ Saxon England reject this theory .
= = Background = =
Earl Godwin is probably first recorded in 1014 , when Godwin , son of Wulfnoth , was left land at a place called Compton in the will of King Æthelred the Unready 's son Æthelstan Ætheling . As Earl Godwin was later recorded as holding land at Compton in Sussex it is likely that he was the Godwin mentioned in Æthelstan Ætheling 's will . Historians think that he was probably the son of the outlawed Saxon thegn Wulfnoth Cild . In 1009 Wulfnoth was accused of unknown crimes at a muster of King Æthelred 's fleet , and fled with twenty ships ; a force sent in pursuit was destroyed in a storm .
According to the twelfth @-@ century chronicler John of Worcester , Godwin was the son of a Wulfnoth who was the son of Æthelmær , brother of Eadric Streona , both sons of an otherwise unknown Æthelric , but in the view of the historian Ann Williams this is chronologically impossible . If the relationship were true , the pedigree would result in a significant generational displacement , with two children of Æthelred the Unready marrying the son and great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Æthelric . Æthelred 's daughter Eadgyth married Æthelric 's son Eadric Streona , while Eadgyth 's half @-@ brother Edward the Confessor married Godwin 's daughter Edith . If Godwin was Æthelric 's great @-@ grandson , then Edith was his great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter . David Kelley , however , argues that Edward , being a child of a later marriage , could have been almost a generation younger than his sister , and if both he and Eadric married much younger wives and if Eadric was among the youngest brothers of Æthelmær , this could close up the chronological differences . John of Worcester also stated that Wulfnoth 's rebellion was provoked by unjust charges brought by Eadric Streona 's brother , Brihtric .
The Life of Edward the Confessor , commissioned by his widow Edith , who was Harold 's sister , is silent on her family 's origin . In a section designed to eulogise her family , Godwin is described as " blessed in his ancestral stock " , but nothing further is said of this stock . In the view of the historian Frank Barlow : " There is massive evasion here . " Historians generally discount a later medieval tradition that he was the son of a churl or a farmer . In her Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( ODNB ) article on Godwin 's son , King Harold Godwinson , Robin Fleming says of Godwin : " The origins of this parvenu are extremely obscure . " He was " the quintessential new man " . However , Williams says that the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle 's reference to " Wulfnoth cild the South Saxon " implies a man of rank ( cild means child , young man , warrior ) ; his ability to detach twenty ships from the royal fleet suggests a man of at least local importance . Frank Barlow goes further , arguing that Godwin must have been of aristocratic origin , and that the family 's massive land holdings in Sussex are indisputable evidence that the Wulfnoth who was Godwin 's father was the Saxon thegn .
= = Æthelred I theory = =
A few scholars have claimed that the Godwins were descended from Alfred the Great 's elder brother , King Æthelred I of Wessex , and that King Harold therefore had a hereditary claim to the English throne . The theory was first put forward by the historian Alfred Anscombe in 1913 , and advocated by the genealogist Lundie W. Barlow in 1957 and the Mayanist scholar and genealogist David H. Kelley in 1989 .
The theory depends on tracing the ownership of certain estates , especially Compton in West Sussex , which was probably the Compton which was left to Æthelred 's son Æthelhelm in Alfred the Great 's will . It was later in the possession of Wulfnoth , presumably confiscated after his rebellion , and left to his son Godwin in 1014 in Æthelstan Ætheling 's will . Immediately before the bequest to Godwin is one to an " Ælfmær " . Anscombe identifies Ælfmær as Ealdorman Æthelmær the Stout , in his view the father of Wulfnoth Cild . However , according to Williams , although it is true that there was confusion between the names Ælfmær and Æthelmær , this did not occur until after the Norman Conquest . Ealdorman Æthelmær was the son of Æthelweard the Historian , whose own writings record that he was descended from Æthelred I , although the exact nature of this descent has been debated . Frank Barlow cites Lundie Barlow as suggesting that Wulfnoth may have been descended from Æthelred I through his mother .
In his 2002 book The Godwins , Frank Barlow sympathetically examined the arguments put forward by Anscombe and Lundie Barlow . He included a family tree based on their work , showing Godwin 's descent from Æthelred I , and at one point described Wulfnoth Cild as the son of Æthelmær the Stout . Elsewhere he was more cautious , describing Wulfnoth as the probable son of Æthelmær , and questioning whether a family which had used names for seven generations almost all starting with Æthel or Ælf would suddenly have thrown up a Wulfnoth , particularly as Æthelmær the Stout 's known sons continued the tradition . He stated nevertheless that " This pedigree , even if mistaken , is of the right type . "
Frank Barlow is almost alone among modern scholars in taking the theory seriously . Hubert Grills in his life of Godwin sceptically examines the arguments put forward by Anscombe and Lundie Barlow , although he concludes that it is just possible that the theory could have some value . Peter Rex , in his biography of Harold , describes Godwin as one of Cnut 's new men , and dismisses claims that the family had aristocratic ancestry . Emma Mason , in her history of the Godwin family , describes Wulfnoth as a mystery man who was probably a minor figure at court in the late tenth century , and Ian Walker in his biography of Harold gives a similar description of Wulfnoth as " a relatively minor figure who attended court only infrequently " . Williams in her ODNB article on Godwin , and Robin Fleming in her ODNB article on Harold , do not mention the theory when discussing Godwin 's ancestry , and according to Stenton : " Of his origin nothing can be said with any assurance . "
= = Succession to the throne = =
Even if Harold was descended from Æthelred I , it would not have given him a hereditary claim to the throne according to the rules of royal succession in later Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Eligibility was confined to æthelings , that is throneworthy princes of the royal house . In earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon times , eligibility depended on descent from the fifth- or sixth @-@ century founder of each kingdom , but it later became more restricted . According to David Dumville : " The Anglo @-@ Saxon ætheling in the period from the ninth @-@ century Scandinavian settlements to the Norman Conquest was a prince of the royal house . He shared with the reigning king descent from a common grandfather at least " . All known West Saxon æthelings after 900 were the sons of kings except for Harold 's rival for the throne in 1066 , Edgar the Ætheling , who was the grandson of King Edmund Ironside . Edgar was thus an ætheling according to Dumville 's definition , but in the view of Pauline Stafford , only the son of a present or former king could be an ætheling , and when Edward the Confessor gave this designation to his great @-@ nephew Edgar , it was a form of adoption without known recent precedent , because for the first time since the beginning of the ninth century there was no living ætheling in the strict sense of a son of a king .
= = Danish ancestry = =
Godwin 's wife , and the mother of his children including Harold and Edith , was Gytha Thorkelsdóttir . Her father was Thorgils Sprakaleg , a Dane whose origin is unknown , although he was probably a Dane from Scania , which was then in Denmark but is now part of Sweden . Gytha was very well connected as her brother Ulf married King Cnut 's sister Estrith . Cnut probably arranged the marriage between Godwin and Gytha in about 1022 .
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= Action of 9 July 1806 =
The Action of 9 July 1806 was a minor engagement between a French privateer frigate and British forces off Southern Ceylon during the Napoleonic Wars . French privateers operating from the Indian Ocean islands of Île Bonaparte and Île de France were a serious threat to British trade across the Indian Ocean during the Wars , and the British deployed numerous methods of intercepting them , including disguising warships as merchant vessels to lure privateers into unequal engagements with more powerful warships . Cruising near the Little Basses Reef on the Southern coast of Ceylon , the 34 @-@ gun privateer Bellone was sighted by the 16 @-@ gun British brig HMS Rattlesnake , which began chasing the larger French vessel . At 15 : 15 , a third ship was sighted to the south , which proved to be the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Powerful , disguised as an East Indiaman .
Although Bellone would normally be much faster than the large British warship , the light winds and Rattlesnake 's determined pursuit prevented the privateer from escaping and at 17 : 00 , Powerful was close enough to open fire . Despite the uneven nature of the combat , Bellone unexpectedly resisted the British attack for another hour and 45 minutes , causing more damage to Powerful than she received herself . The privateer was later taken into British service as a sixth rate frigate and prize money was paid for the captured vessels , but the action prompted questions in subsequent histories about the lack of efficiency in British gunnery .
= = Background = =
During the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars that followed them , British dominance in the Indian Ocean was repeatedly challenged by the depredations of French vessels sailing from the isolated and well protected French colonies of Réunion ( later Île Bonaparte ) and Île de France . Although French Navy cruisers were periodically stationed on the islands , the majority of ships that preyed on British commerce from the islands were privateers , independently funded armed ships issued with letters of marque giving them permission to attack military and civilian ships belonging to the enemies of France . French naval strategy in the Indian Ocean was so reliant on privateers that entire squadrons developed , including a powerful force under the wealthy privateer captain Robert Surcouf . Although most privateers were small , carrying only a few cannon , some could be very large , rivalling professional warships in size . One such ship was the Bellone , which carried 34 @-@ guns , a crew of nearly 200 men and was commanded by Captain Jacques François Perroud , a notorious privateer who had caused significant damage to British trade in the Indian Ocean . In 1803 , Perroud had gained significant notoriety with the capture of the valuable East Indiaman Lord Nelson on 14 August 1803 .
The principal target of the privateers were the East Indiamen , huge and well @-@ armed merchant vessels operated by the Honourable East India Company , which controlled British mercantile operations to the east of Africa . These ships often weighed over 1 @,@ 000 tons and carried as many as 30 cannon , although their crews were not military men and they could not usually resist a determined attack by a well @-@ trained warship . Despite the size and power of these vessels , they were a primary target for French ships operating in the Indian Ocean as they often carried goods worth thousands of pounds : the annual convoy from China alone was worth over $ 8 million in 1804 . To combat these ships , the British naval authorities at Madras tried a number of solutions , including blockades of the French island colonies which failed due to the huge distances involved , armed military convoys escorting the most valuable ships and small fast cruisers patrolling the most dangerous trade routes . One solution tried in 1806 was to disguise Royal Navy warships as the East Indiamen they superficially resembled in the hope of luring French ships into attacking them , unaware of their true identity .
In December 1805 , two French squadrons departed Brest under orders to disrupt British trade in the Atlantic Ocean , beginning the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . Several British squadrons were despatched in pursuit , including one under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth originally assigned to blockade Cadiz . On 25 December , Duckworth discovered one of the French squadrons , under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , in the mid @-@ Atlantic and gave chase . For the next two days the squadrons sailed westwards across the Atlantic , until Duckworth abandoned the pursuit , believing that his dispersed squadron was in danger of piecemeal defeat by Willaumez 's force . In the aftermath of the pursuit , Willaumez turned towards the South Atlantic while Duckworth , in urgent need of supplies , turned northwest towards the British West Indies . Duckworth was concerned that Willaumez might attempt to pass the Cape of Good Hope and operate in the Indian Ocean , and so despatched one of his ships to augment Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew 's small squadron at Madras . This ship was HMS Powerful , a 74 @-@ gun ship of the line commanded by Captain Robert Plampin .
= = Battle = =
On 9 July 1806 , the small British brig HMS Rattlesnake under Commander John Bastard was cruising off the Southern coast of the British colony of Ceylon in search of French privateers that had been attacking small British traders , known as country ships , in the region . Most notorious of these was the Bellone , known to be operating in the area . In the early afternoon , lookouts on Rattlesnake spotted sails near the Little Basses Reef and approached the ship , which turned with the wind and fled to the southwest . Bastard immediately gave chase , and soon came close enough to identify the vessel as the Bellone . Although Bellone was much larger than the British warship , Captain Perroud was unwilling to risk his vessel in an unprofitable confrontation with Rattlesnake and seemed to be making an effective withdrawal when , at 15 : 15 , a large ship came within sight directly ahead .
Although it was not immediately obvious to the men on Bellone , the new arrival was Plampin 's Powerful , which had arrived in Indian waters on 13 June 1806 . Finding no trace of Willaumez , who had elected to remain in the Atlantic , Plampin briefly anchored at Madras and subsequently cruised off Ceylon . There , following intelligence sent by Pellew , he captured the 20 @-@ gun French privateer Henriette near Trincomalee after an 11 @-@ hour chase . From information possibly supplied by prisoners removed from Henriette or possibly from a merchant ship sailing from Colombo , Plampin learned of Perroud 's operations and had arranged to meet Rattlesnake off the Little Basses Reef . In the hope of luring the privateer into a confrontation , he disguised his large warship to look like an East Indiaman . Perroud rapidly saw through the disguise , and also noticed that while the wind remained strong off the coast , Powerful was further out to sea and appeared becalmed . Realising that his only option was to sail between Powerful and the shore , Perroud turned eastwards , but the wind gradually strengthened for Powerful and by 17 : 00 the ship of the line was within range of Bellone with her bow chasers .
Although faced with overwhelming opposition , Perroud did not surrender , maintaining a steady cannonade on the approaching ship of the line with Bellone 's own stern chasers and occasionally turning to release a full broadside . The variable winds prevented Rattlesnake joining the battle and also delayed Powerful 's approach ; Bellone succeeded in causing casualties on Plampin 's deck but failed to damage the ship of the line 's rigging or sails , which would have facilitated her own escape . For an hour and 45 minutes the battle continued with neither ship able to land a decisive blow on the other , until , at 18 : 45 , it was clear that Powerful would soon be within range with her main broadside . Perroud surrendered rather than see his ship destroyed .
= = Aftermath = =
Although the defeat of Bellone by such an overwhelming force of professional warships would seem inevitable , the resistance given by the French privateer was considered impressive both at the time and by subsequent historians . Although largely undamaged , Powerful had suffered two men killed and 11 wounded , compared to French losses of one dead and six or seven wounded . Bellone was also largely undamaged , only surrendering when Powerful was in position to open a full broadside . After the battle , Bellone was taken into port and subsequently commissioned as HMS Blanche albeit with a reduction in class to a 28 @-@ gun sixth rate frigate . Head @-@ money , a reward for the men captured or killed aboard enemy ships , was subsequently paid to the men of Powerful and Rattlesnake , as was head money for Henriette , although in both cases there was a delay in payment until January 1814 . Pellew especially was delighted by the capture of Bellone , writing " I reflect with much pleasure on the capture of La Bellone in particular , as from her superior sailing , as her uncommon success in the present and preceding war against the commerce , in the Indian and European seas " .
Historical reaction to the engagement has focused on two aspects : Perroud 's bravery in attempting to combat a vastly superior British force and the inaccuracy of Plampin 's gunnery . Contemporary historian William James described Perroud 's actions as " extraordinary " and notes that this was the second engagement in the Indian Ocean during 1806 in which British gunnery had proven ineffective , citing an inconclusive engagement on 21 April in which the 74 @-@ gun HMS Tremendous had been outgunned by the French frigate Canonnière , the frigate escaping pursuit by damaging the larger vessel 's rigging . He also notes that Powerful was able to being six guns into regular use during the engagement as opposed to Bellone 's four , concluding that Plampin " might have made a better use of [ the extra cannon ] " . Later historian William Laird Clowes , writing in 1900 , agreed with James ' assessment , commenting that " This action serves to again illustrate the lamentable decline in British gunnery " .
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= Ridge Route =
The Ridge Route , officially the Castaic @-@ Tejon Route , was a two @-@ lane highway between Los Angeles and Kern counties , California . Opened in 1915 and paved with 15 @-@ ft concrete between 1917 and 1921 , the road was the first paved highway directly linking the Los Angeles Basin with the San Joaquin Valley over the Tejon Pass and the rugged Sierra Pelona Mountains ridge south of Gorman . Much of the old road runs through the Angeles National Forest , and passes by many historical landmarks , including the National Forest Inn , Reservoir Summit , Kelly 's Half Way Inn , Tumble Inn , and Sandberg 's Summit Hotel . North of the forest , the Ridge Route passed through Deadman 's Curve before ending at Grapevine .
Most of the road was bypassed in 1933 – 34 by the three @-@ lane Ridge Route Alternate , then U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) , to handle increased traffic and remove many curves . The four @-@ lane US 99 was completed in 1953 and replaced by a freeway , Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) around 1968 . The portion of the road within the Angeles National Forest was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 , following the efforts of Harrison Scott . Much of the road has been closed by the U.S. Forest Service ; other remnants of the road are used by local traffic .
= = Route description = =
The Ridge Route was officially the Castaic @-@ Tejon Route . The official limits of the Ridge Route , as built in the 1910s , were SR 126 at Castaic Junction and the bottom of the grade at Grapevine . Until 1930 @-@ 31 the road from San Fernando to Castaic Junction ran through the Newhall Tunnel at San Fernando Pass and along San Fernando Road , Magic Mountain Parkway ( both part of SR 126 until the early 2000s ) and Feedmill Road to a former bridge over the Santa Clara River . A 1930 bypass of the tunnel and Newhall through Weldon Canyon is now part of The Old Road .
From Castaic Junction north to Castaic the Ridge Route has been largely buried by the Ridge Route Alternate and Interstate 5 . At Castaic the Ridge Route Alternate turned northwest from the old road at 34 @.@ 4898 ° N 118 @.@ 617 ° W / 34 @.@ 4898 ; -118.617 , now the intersection of Castaic Road and Neely Street . The first piece of Ridge Route Road out of Castaic has been realigned as recently as the late 1990s when the North Lake housing development was built . The road begins to climb after passing North Lake ; a portion was straightened in 1924 and now is next to the southbound lanes of I @-@ 5 . In this area , known as the Five @-@ Mile Grade , the four @-@ lane Ridge Route Alternate became the northbound lanes of I @-@ 5 , while the added four @-@ lane alignment , built to the east ( next to the old Ridge Route ) , had lower grades and became the southbound ( downhill ) lanes to cut down on runaway trucks . Two bridges were built to allow traffic to cross to the left side . Near the north end of this area , the Ridge Route curves away from the newer bypass . The road enters the Angeles National Forest about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Templin Highway , with the Forest Service road designation 8N04 .
Establishments in the forest included the National Forest Inn , Kelly 's Half Way Inn , Tumble Inn , and Sandberg 's Summit Hotel .
The National Forest Inn was on the west side of the road . A popular place along the route , composed of white clapboard buildings , it was described in a 1932 highway beautification pamphlet as " the sort of filling station that gets into a national forest and is no addition thereto " . On October 14 , 1932 , a fire began in the garage , and took over a day to put out . When the Ridge Route Alternate bypassed the site to the west , the inn was not rebuilt , and all that remains are concrete steps .
About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the National Forest Inn is Serpentine Drive , where the road curves around the sides of hills as it climbs out of a low point in the route ( about 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 980 m ) above sea level ) . North of the curves , the road passes through Swede 's Cut , also called Big Cut , Culebra Excavation , or Castaic Cut . The cut was the largest on the route , with a depth of 110 feet ( 34 m ) .
Reservoir Summit , also called Reservoir Hill , is 3 @,@ 883 feet ( 1 @,@ 184 m ) above sea level . The Reservoir Summit Café was a popular high @-@ class restaurant on the east side of the road , closed in the late 1920s ; the foundation remains . The summit was named after a now @-@ dry reservoir , one of three probably built for the concrete used in paving the road .
Kelly 's Half Way Inn was roughly halfway between Los Angeles and Bakersfield . Located on a small knoll with a single tree on the east side of the road , all that remains is remnants of the foundation .
The Tumble Inn , later Mountain View Lodge , was on the west side of the road , and closed when the Ridge Route Alternate opened in 1933 . Steps , including the top step with " TUMBLE INN " in the concrete , and a retaining wall remain .
The Sandberg 's Summit Hotel , later Sandberg 's Lodge , was located just north of Liebre Summit , the highest point ( 4 @,@ 233 feet ( 1 @,@ 290 m ) ) on the road , at 4 @,@ 170 feet ( 1 @,@ 270 m ) above sea level . The hotel was built in 1914 , and thus served travelers from the opening of the road in 1915 . Built of logs , it was a high @-@ class hotel . The place , which had become a ceramics factory , burned down on April 29 , 1961 , from a fire started by the new owner — who was converting it into a " camp @-@ type operation " for underprivileged children — burning trash in the fireplace . The lease from the U.S. Forest Service was canceled in 1963 , and only portions of the foundation and a rock wall remain . The name " Sandberg " is still used by the National Weather Service for an automated weather station a short distance to the north at Pine Canyon Road . Pine Canyon Road ( CR N2 ) marks the end of the forest and the beginning of county maintenance , and CR N2 uses the old Ridge Route alignment to reach SR 138 near Quail Lake .
The Ridge Route crosses the West Branch California Aqueduct with SR 138 , splitting to the northwest on Gorman Post Road . It rejoins the path of I @-@ 5 at Gorman , and , from Gorman to the end at Grapevine , most of the old road has been covered over by the Ridge Route Alternate or I @-@ 5 . The path of the Ridge Route is now named Peace Valley Road and Lebec Road , passing over Tejon Pass and past Lebec and Fort Tejon . Past Fort Tejon , the route descends through Grapevine Canyon to Grapevine ( named for grapevines in the area ) . The best @-@ known curve on the road , Deadman 's Curve or Death Curve , is visible from Digier Road on the west side of I @-@ 5 . The next part of the old road that still exists is near the bottom of the grade , where a number of curves brought the road down to Grapevine . The original plan was to build the road nearer to the center of the canyon , but a March 1914 flood destroyed the work , and the grading was redone higher up . Deadman 's Curve and the Grapevine loops were both bypassed by the Ridge Route Alternate , which was built directly over most of the old road in this area . At Grapevine , the land suddenly flattens out , and the road north of Grapevine was the longest straight section of road in the state — 17 miles ( 27 km ) — in 1926 . Most of this road lies under I @-@ 5 and SR 99 , but the southernmost piece in Grapevine was bypassed by the Alternate , and is now in the median of I @-@ 5 .
= = History = =
= = = Before the Ridge Route = = =
Before the Ridge Route , passage between Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley was more indirect . For example , El Camino Real ( Spanish , " the King 's road " ) , the first major road in California , connected Los Angeles and the various missions , presidios and settlements with San Francisco and Sonoma . The San Joaquin Valley route split from the El Camino Real at present @-@ day Universal City , the western leg running along the Pacific Coast and coastal valleys and the eastern El Camino Viejo , ( Spanish , " the old road " ) laid out via the San Joaquin Valley to San Antonio , now East Oakland .
An alternate route between Los Angeles and Bakersfield followed the southern approach to the Ridge Route to Saugus , but took a longer route between Saugus and Gorman , heading northeast through the San Francisquito Canyon to the Antelope Valley and west to Gorman . The rest of the route , from Gorman toward Bakersfield via the Tejon Pass , followed the same path as the Ridge Route .
The Butterfield Overland Stage , the first overland mail service to California , went from Tipton , Missouri and Memphis to San Francisco via Los Angeles . From October 1858 , when the first stage passed through Tejon Pass , until April 1861 , the route was identical to El Camino Viejo , running via San Francisquito Canyon . In order to keep the stages from running directly northwest from San Bernardino and bypassing Los Angeles , the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors spent $ 8000 in 1858 ( about $ 3 @.@ 28 million in 2015 ) to deepen the cut — later Beale 's Cut — at San Fernando Pass , south of Saugus and Newhall ( east of Sierra Highway , west of the Antelope Valley Freeway or State Route 14 ) . The path followed by the stages was changed to pass along the Pacific Coast from Los Angeles in April 1861 .
Similarly , the residents of the City of Los Angeles approved the expenditure of a good deal of money towards the building of the Southern Pacific Railroad , which had originally planned to bypass the city . The line to San Francisco , including the 6 @,@ 966 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 123 m ) San Fernando Tunnel through San Fernando Pass , was completed on September 5 , 1876 . The railroad 's route between Saugus and Bakersfield was even longer than that of El Camino Viejo and the Butterfield Overland Stage , heading east through Soledad Canyon before turning north via Palmdale to Mojave and northwest over Tehachapi Pass .
In the 1910s , several power companies built lines through the area . The General Pipe Line Company completed an oil pipeline connecting the San Joaquin Valley 's Midway @-@ Sunset Oil Field with the port at San Pedro in 1913 . Its alignment followed the Ridge Route north of Gorman and south of Reservoir Summit , a longer distance than any of the earlier transportation routes , but from Gorman south to the present location of Pyramid Lake , where it turned east to Reservoir Summit , it roughly followed the later Ridge Route Alternate . That same year , the Midway Gas Company opened a natural gas line , and the Pacific Light and Power Company opened a power line , both staying fairly close to the entire Ridge Route .
The two general routes followed by the Butterfield Overland Stage and the Southern Pacific Railroad — known respectively as the Tejon Pass Route and the Tehachapi or Midway Route - were the main automobile routes between Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley around the start of the 20th century . The State Bureau of Highways recommended in 1895 that a more direct route be built to shorten this distance . A bond issue was approved in 1909 and 1910 to build a state highway system , including the Ridge Route . The new California Highway Commission was unable to raise funds in the East , but Los Angeles again contributed funds to ensure that construction would go forward .
These routes all shared the roadway south of Saugus , which was generally flat but included the crossing of San Fernando Pass . As discussed earlier , this was deepened at the county 's expense in 1858 . The California State Legislature authorized a turnpike in 1861 , and it was completed in 1863 , then owned by Edward Fitzgerald Beale . The cut , which came to be known as Beale 's Cut , was deepened by Beale , and lowered once more by the county in 1904 . To improve the crossing , the county bypassed the cut with the narrow 435 @-@ foot ( 133 m ) Newhall Tunnel , for railroad traffic only , which opened in October 1910 .
= = = Construction = = =
The California Highway Commission considered several easterly routes between Saugus and Gorman : Soledad Canyon ( used by the Southern Pacific ) had frequent washouts ; Mint Canyon ( used by the Midway Route ) was too long and cost too much ; Bouquet Canyon ( used by both automobile routes ) had bad drainage ; and San Francisquito Canyon ( used by the Tejon Pass Route ) was steep and narrow . Another possible route , through Piru Canyon to the west , was rejected because of a proposal for a dam . This route was later chosen for the Ridge Route Alternate , but had to be abandoned in the 1970s due to the construction of Pyramid Lake .
Thus , the route chosen was a direct line between Saugus and Gorman , over the top of the ridge for many miles . Due to cost and drainage concerns , and a desire to reduce altering the terrain , the road was built with 697 curves , high in the mountains . Construction on the Ridge Route , officially considered to run from Castaic Junction ( west of Saugus on the road to Ventura ) to the bottom of the grade at Grapevine , began in 1914 . The highway was one of the earliest projects completed by the California Highway Commission . To construct the road , horse @-@ drawn scrapers were used .
The new road , designed with an ideal grade of 6 percent ( but with several 7 percent grades , including at Grapevine , ) cut the distance by 24 miles ( 39 km ) over the Tejon Pass Route or 58 miles ( 93 km ) over the Midway Route . A speed limit of 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) was enforced between Castaic and Quail Lake , making the trip from Los Angeles to Bakersfield take about 12 hours . On the 48 @-@ mile ( 77 km ) Ridge Route , between Castaic Junction and Grapevine , the curves added up to a total of about 109 @.@ 5 complete circles , with a minimum radius of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The unpaved road , which had cost $ 450 @,@ 000 ( about $ 64 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) , opened in October 1915 .
In addition to being part of the state highway system ( as a portion of the unsigned Sacramento @-@ Los Angeles Legislative Route 4 ) , the road was also part of the National Park to Park Highway , a privately designated auto trail , and became part of US 99 in 1926 . The continuation south via Saugus and the Newhall Tunnel towards Los Angeles , also part of Route 4 , was added to the state highway system in 1917 .
According to the San Francisco Chronicle , the new route was " one of the most remarkable engineering feats accomplished by the State Highway Commission . It is Southern California 's Magnus Opus [ sic ] in mountain highway construction . " It was also credited with stopping efforts to split California into two states , by linking its two halves over the rugged terrain separating them .
Work on paving the Ridge Route with 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide and 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) thick reinforced concrete began in 1917 , but was delayed until 1919 by the U.S. entry into World War I. During work on the road , traffic was detoured via Mint and Bouquet Canyons . The road was reopened on November 15 , 1919 , completely paved except north of Lebec , including the grade at Grapevine , which was only oiled . After a bond issue was passed in July 1919 , this portion was paved from September 1919 to May 1921 ; the dangerous detour included a 20 percent grade . This paving added about $ 1 million to the cost , for a total price of about $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 122 million in 2015 ) , which was not paid off until 1965 . Asphalt was added on top of the concrete for 20 miles ( 32 km ) south from Swede 's Cut in 1922 , and in 1924 a number of dangerous blind curves were widened and straightened .
= = = Bypasses and the fate of the bypassed road = = =
In 1929 , the state decided to build a new bypass of the central portion through Piru Canyon , and to upgrade the northern portion over Tejon Pass and down the hill at Grapevine . This Ridge Route Alternate , or Ridge Alternate Highway , shortened the route by 9 @.@ 6 miles ( 15 @.@ 4 km ) and increased the minimum curve radius from 70 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 21 to 305 m ) . This was done over concerns regarding the safety of the road , which had a high number of traffic accidents , as well as the highway 's increased use . The old highway was to be relinquished to Los Angeles County , and incorporated into the county road system . Construction began in 1930 , and the road south of Tejon Pass was officially opened on October 29 , 1933 ; replacement of the Grapevine grade was completed by 1936 . The road , which included a center " suicide " passing lane , cost $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 295 million in 2015 ) , paid for by the state gas tax . It was estimated that it would pay itself off in 2 @.@ 5 years with the savings in time and gas . A new bypass of the Newhall Tunnel , through Weldon Canyon , had been opened on May 28 , 1930 , thus giving drivers a better route all the way from Los Angeles to Bakersfield . The roadway was widened to an expressway by 1952 at a cost of $ 13 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 321 million in 2015 ) , providing two lanes in each direction and a center median , but retaining at @-@ grade intersections .
Even this four @-@ lane Ridge Route Alternate was not adequate for the volume of traffic using the road , and construction of the eight @-@ lane freeway I @-@ 5 with a minimum curve radius of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) began in June 1963 . Large parts of the Ridge Route Alternate were incorporated into the new roadway , but the area through the present Pyramid Lake was completely bypassed . I @-@ 5 over the mountains between Castaic Junction and Grapevine was completed on August 24 , 1970 , at a cost of $ 103 million ( about $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in 2015 ) .
Meanwhile , portions of the old road continued to exist in as a county road . The longest preserved segment was the part completely bypassed by the Ridge Route Alternate , between Castaic and SR 138 near Sandberg , including the portion through the Angeles National Forest . The road for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south from SR 138 is part of CR N2 .
Harrison Scott , a retired engineer , was traveling north on I @-@ 5 with his son in 1991 , when his son speculated about the difficulty of driving over the first road through the rugged terrain . Having some extra time , and recalling a drive on the old road in 1955 , they left the freeway and traveled along most of the abandoned section . Near SR 138 , Scott asked a county road crew which was resurfacing the road if it was still maintained by the county , and the crew replied that they didn 't know who maintained it through the desert . It turned out that the county officially owned it but did not maintain it ; Scott has since convinced the county and forest to exchange ownership with the Santa Anita Canyon Road , then a county road .
For the next six years , Scott worked on getting the road added to the National Register of Historic Places , and finally succeeded when , on September 25 , 1997 , the National Park Service added the 17 @.@ 6 miles ( 28 @.@ 3 km ) within the forest to the National Register . He subsequently wrote a book , Ridge Route : The Road That United California , from the research he had done for the National Register application , that was published in 2002 .
The route was repaired in 2005 following heavy rainfall , but the road was not reopened as of early 2013 , due to objections from Angeles National Forest officials .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Aboriginal title in California =
Aboriginal title in California refers to the aboriginal title land rights of the indigenous peoples of California . The state is unique in that no Native American tribe in California is the counterparty to a ratified federal treaty . Therefore , all the Indian reservations in the state were created by federal statute or executive order .
California has experienced less possessory land claim litigation than other states . This is primarily the result of the Land Claims Act of 1851 ( following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ) that required all claims deriving from the Spanish and Mexican governments to be filed within two years . Three U.S. Supreme Court decisions and one Ninth Circuit ruling have held that the Land Claims Act applied to aboriginal title , and thus extinguished all aboriginal title in the state ( as no tribes filed claims under the Act ) . Two Deputy Attorneys General of California have advocated this view .
= = History = =
= = = Spanish rule = = =
Spain established twenty @-@ one missions , indigenous peoples ( the so @-@ called Mission Indians ) lived and worked under the supervision of missionaries . However , approximately 80 % of the approximately 100 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 indigenous population of California remained outside the Missions . Spanish law fully recognized the customary title of indigenous peoples . Spanish @-@ era land grants are referred to as the Ranchos of California .
= = = Mexican rule = = =
Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1824 . Mexico secularized the Mission system , and granted some of these tribes their land in fee simple .
= = = U.S. territory = = =
Mexico ceded California to the US in 1848 pursuant to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Under Article Eight of that treaty , the United States agreed to respect the hundreds of land grants , many quite substantial , granted by the Spanish and Mexican governments to private landowners . Articles Nine and Ten guaranteed the property rights of Mexican nationals . The United States established procedures to review the validity of such land grants .
That same year gold was discovered in California , rapidly accelerating migration to California . Reports commissioned by the federal government during this period uniformly downplayed the extent of indigenous land rights under Spanish and Mexican rule .
= = = Statehood = = =
= = = = The eighteen unratified treaties = = = =
California was admitted as a U.S. state on September 9 , 1850 . The admission act made no reference to Native American land rights . On their second day in office as California 's first Senators , John Fremont and William M. Gwin introduced bills to extinguish all aboriginal title in California . On September 30 , 1850 , Congress passed an amended version of Fremont 's bill appropriating $ 25 @,@ 000 and authorizing the President to appoint three commissioners to negotiate treaties with the tribes of California . By January 1852 , eighteen treaties had been negotiated , representing about one @-@ third of the tribes and bands in the state . The state legislature strongly opposed the Indian reservation policy pursued by the treaty and lobbied the federal government to instead remove the Indians from the state entirely . Because Fremont and Gwin represented the key swing votes between the Whig and Democratic parties , none of the treaties were ever ratified and all were classified .
Federal agents had already persuaded nearly all of the Indians to remove to their would @-@ be reservations while the treaties were pending ; soon , " starvation , disease , and murder " reduced their population to 17 @,@ 000 .
= = = = The Land Claims Act = = = =
On March 3 , 1851 , Congress enacted the Land Claims Act , requiring " each and every person claiming lands in California by virtue of any right or title derived by the Mexican government " to file their claim with a three @-@ member Board of Land Commissioners within two years . The Commissioners were to issue patents to the claims they found meritorious and the other lands were to pass into the public domain at the end of the two years . Two years later , Congress passed an act to survey those lands that had passed into the public domain under the first statute , but exempted " land in the occupation or possession of any Indian tribe . " That act also authorized the President to create five military reservations in California for Indian purposes .
The effect of these acts on aboriginal title in California has been a subject of litigation for 150 years . Regardless , the United States never again pursued treaty negotiations with California Indians , instead favoring legislation and executive orders . By statute , Congress created several Indian reservations . Congress gave the executive the discretion to create further reservations . By 1986 , Presidents had used this discretion to create 117 reservations totalling 632 @,@ 000 acres .
= = = = Claims Court litigation = = = =
In 1927 , the California legislature passed a statute authorizing the California Attorney General to bring claims on behalf of the tribes in the Court of Claims . The next year , Congress passed a statute granting that court jurisdiction for such claims . California Attorney General Earl Warren ( future Chief Justice ) finally argued the case in 1941 . The court found liability but indicated it would not award pre @-@ judgment interest , and the Supreme Court declined to grant certiorari . Warren negotiated a $ 5M settlement . After the passage of the Indian Claims Commission Act , the same group of tribes struggled to bring a single action for recovery under the broader claims allowed under the ICCA , which settled for $ 29M .
= = Effect of the Land Claims Act of 1851 = =
= = = Early California Supreme Court decisions = = =
The earliest cases heard by the Supreme Court under the Land Claims Act involved non @-@ Indians . Therefore , in Thompson v. Doaksum ( 1886 ) , the California Supreme Court considered the application of the Act to Indians as a matter of first impression . The court upheld a quiet title judgment for the plaintiff , holding : " If defendants [ Indians belonging to the Big Meadows tribe ] had any right to the land , it should have been asserted in the land department pending the application for patent , or by direct proceeding on the part of the government to set aside the patent . "
Two years later , Byrne v. Alas ( 1888 ) , the court distinguished its holding by reversing a quiet title judgment against a group of Mission Indians . Byrne , in distinguishing Doaksum , held that the fact of a third party validating title to certain lands was conclusive of the fact that those lands were not in the public domain , and thus , that the aboriginal title was not extinguished .
There , the Mission Indians did not claim fee simple by any Mexican grant , but rather " by virtue of their possession , and the continuous , open , and exclusive use and occupancy by their predecessors and ancestors ever since the year 1815 . " Further , the court interpreted the language in the Land Claims Act requiring the Commissioner to investigate the status of indigenous tenure as evidence that " Congress did not intend that the rights of the Indians should be cut off by a failure on their part to present their claims . "
= = = Barker v. Harvey ( 1901 ) = = =
In Barker v. Harvey ( 1901 ) , the Supreme Court heard the consolidated appeals of a group of Mission Indians who had lost a quiet title action by several non @-@ Indians . The appeal to the Supreme Court was brought by the federal government in its trustee capacity . Justice Brewer , for a unanimous Court ( White recused ) , affirmed .
Barker has two independent holdings . First , the Court reaffirmed its holding from Botiller v. Dominguez ( 1889 ) that even perfect title was subject to the requirements of the Land Claims Act . Barker rejected in part the reasoning of the California Supreme Court from Byrne , noting : " Surely a claimant would have little reason for presenting to the land commission his claim to land , and securing a confirmation of that claim , if the only result was to transfer the naked fee to him , burdened by an Indian right of permanent occupancy . " Thus , Barker has since been cited by the Court as the source of the rule that the Land Claims Act itself extinguished aboriginal title .
Second , the Court held that the plaintiff 's title had been extinguished before the Mexican Cession . To determine this , the Court examined and quoted extensively the specific text of the plaintiff 's grants . From this , the Court concluded that the aboriginal title had long been extinguished by abandonment :
It thus appears that prior to the cession the Mexican authorities , upon examination , found that the Indians had abandoned the land ; that the only adverse claim was vested in the mission of San Diego and made an absolute grant , subject only to the condition of satisfying whatever claims the mission might have . How can it be said therefore that when the cession was made by Mexico to the United States there was a present recognition by the Mexican government of the occupancy of these Indians ? On the contrary , so far as any official action is disclosed , it was distinctly to the contrary , and carried with it an affirmation that they had abandoned their occupancy , and that whatever of title there was outside of the Mexican nation was in the mission , and an absolute grant was made subject only to the rights of such mission .
= = = United States v. Title Ins . & Trust Co . ( 1923 ) = = =
More than two decades later , the Court reconsidered the meaning and propriety of its Barker decision in United States v. Title Ins . & Trust Co . ( 1923 ) . There , the federal government sued on behalf of a group of Mission Indians holding an 1842 Mexican grant . The court cited reliance considerations of stare decisis in declining the government 's request to overrule Barker :
The decision was given 23 years ago , and affected many tracts of land in California , particularly in the southern part of the state . In the meantime there has been a continuous growth and development in that section , land values have enhanced , and there have been many transfers . Naturally there has been reliance on the decision . The defendants in this case purchased 15 years after it was made . It has become a rule of property , and to disturb it now would be fraught with many injurious results . Besides , the government and the scattered Mission Indians have adjusted their situation to it in several instances .
= = = Super v. Work ( 1926 ) = = =
Super v. Work ( 1926 ) involved a challenge in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia ( now known as the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ) to the construction of federal hydroelectric dams in California . The plaintiffs , members of the Karuk and Peh @-@ tsick tribes , alleged both that the dams would violate their aboriginal title rights and their rights under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia held that both rights ( if they existed ) were extinguished by the 1851 statute . Unlike the plaintiffs in Barker , who were Mission Indians , the plaintiffs here were nomadic at the time of the relevant times .
In a one @-@ sentence per curiam opinion , the Court affirmed the D.C. Circuit , citing Barker , Title Insurance , Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock ( 1903 ) , and Conley v. Ballinger ( 1910 ) . The Karuk attempt to re @-@ assert their claims decades later based upon the federal government 's general trust relationship and other statutes were unsuccessful . Since Super , the Court has twice interpreted the Land Claims Act to also have imposed the requirement to file upon the state of California itself .
= = = United States ex rel . Chunie v. Ringrose ( 1986 ) = = =
In United States ex rel . Chunie v. Ringrose ( 1986 ) , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit considered the trespass and conversion claims of Chumash tribe ( joined by the federal government ) over the ownership of the Channel Islands of California ( and the channel beds surrounding the Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands ) in California . The Ninth Circuit held that , although the Chumash 's aboriginal title survived the issuance of Mexican land grants to the same islands , the tribe 's title was extinguished by its failure to file under the Land Claims Act .
First , the Ninth Circuit disagreed with the District Court 's holding that Mexican land grants had extinguished the Chumash 's title . Instead , the court applied the same standards to Mexican land grants as would have been applied to federal land grants : the grants were presumed to grant an interest subject to the tribe 's aboriginal title . Next , the Ninth Circuit rejected the tribe 's arguments that the islands were not within the land ceded by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Third , the court rejected the Chumash 's argument that the Treaty converted the tribe 's aboriginal title into recognized title .
Finally , the court reached the question of the Land Claims Act . The Ninth Circuit examined the rule of Barker , Title Insurance , and Super . As for Barker , the court conceded that " the precise basis for this holding is not clear . " With respect to Title Insurance , the court noted that it is " not entirely clear in the opinion " that the case involved aboriginal title , but inferred such from subsequent interpretations of that decision .
The Chumash attempted to distinguish these cases by relying on Cramer v. United States ( 1923 ) , the case that established the existence of " individual aboriginal title " ( as opposed to tribal ) ; Cramer , after all , had distinguished Barker . Thus , " [ g ] iven the line of Supreme Court decisions recognizing the extensive reach of the Act of 1851 , " the Ninth Circuit stated that Cramer could only avail those whose individual aboriginal title post @-@ dated 1851 . The court also rejected the Chumash 's attempt to interpret the Act according to canons of international law .
The Supreme Court denied certiorari .
= = Individual aboriginal title = =
= = = Cramer v. United States ( 1923 ) = = =
Cramer v. United States ( 1923 ) involved would @-@ be Indian reservations ( as provided for in the aforementioned unratified treaties ) that had subsequently been granted to railroads by the federal government . The United States District Court for the Northern District of California canceled the railroad 's land patents based upon the actual use and occupation of the Indians since 1855 . The Ninth Circuit agreed with the District Court , but cancelled the entirety of the patents at issue .
The Supreme Court considered six arguments by the railroad . First , it rejected the railroad 's argument that the exceptions to the grant did not specifically mention Indians ; instead , the court held that all land grants are presumed to be granted subject to aboriginal title .
Next , the Court considered the Act of 1851 . The Court held that it was irrelevant :
The act plainly has no application . The Indians here concerned do not belong to any of the classes described therein and their claims were in no way derived from the Spanish or Mexican governments . Moreover , it does not appear that these Indians were occupying the lands in question when the act was passed .
Third , the Court rejected the argument that the federal government could not bring suit on behalf of the tribe . Fourth , the Court rejected the statute limiting the time in which the government could challenge the validity of its land patents , holding that did not apply to suits on behalf of Indians . Fifth , the Court rejected estoppel : " Since these Indians with the implied consent of the government had acquired such rights of occupancy as entitled them to retain possession as against the defendants , no officer or agent of the government had authority to deal with the land upon any other theory . " Finally , however , the Court reversed the Ninth Circuit 's voiding of the entire patents , holding that only the portions possessed by the Indians should be void .
The holding in Cramer lay dormant for many years . Decade later , Justice Douglas dissented to the denial of certiorari where the lower court had denied a California Indian defendant the ability to defend a criminal prosecution for illegal logging on the basis of individual aboriginal title as recognized in Cramer . The Court has since elaborated on the basis for its holding in Cramer :
This holding was based upon the well @-@ understood governmental policy of encouraging the Indian to forgo his wandering habits and adopt those of civilized life ; and it was said that to hold that by so doing he acquired no possessory rights to the lands occupied , to which the government would accord protection , would be contrary to the whole spirit of the traditional American policy toward these dependent wards of the nation . The fact that such right of occupancy finds no recognition in any statute or other formal governmental action is not conclusive .
= = = United States v. Dann ( 1989 ) = = =
United States v. Dann ( 1989 ) is the most in @-@ depth consideration of individual aboriginal title since Cramer . There , although the relevant tribal aboriginal title had been extinguished , and an ordinance prohibited entry onto the federal lands in question , the Court found that the defendants could and did establish individual aboriginal title based on their use of the lands before the ordinance . The Ninth Circuit ( in an appeal from Nevada , not California ) held :
[ An individual ] establish [ es ] aboriginal title in much the same manner that a tribe does . An individual might be able to show that his or her lineal ancestors held and occupied , as individuals , a particular tract of land , to the exclusion of all others , from time immemorial , and that this title had never been extinguished .
However , the Ninth Circuit concluded that the federal policies in place at the time of Cramer had changed and thus :
In short , an Indian cannot today gain a right of occupancy simply by occupying public land , as the Indians did in Cramer . Under current law , that occupancy could not be viewed as undertaken with the implied consent of the government , as was the occupancy in Cramer . We therefore conclude that any individual occupancy rights acquired by the Danns must have had their inception prior to November 26 , 1934 , the date that the lands in question were withdrawn from entry by Executive Order No. 6910 .
Individual aboriginal title is a fact @-@ specific and fact @-@ intensive defense , which is difficult to raise as a criminal affirmative defense , for which the defendant has the burden of proof .
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= Lionel Messi =
Lionel Andrés " Leo " Messi ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ljoˈnel anˈdɾes ˈmesi ] ; born 24 June 1987 ) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club FC Barcelona . Often considered the best player in the world and rated by many in the sport as the greatest of all time , Messi is the only football player in history to win five FIFA Ballons d 'Or , four of which he won consecutively , and the first player to win three European Golden Shoes . With Barcelona he has won eight La Liga titles and four UEFA Champions League titles , as well as four Copas del Rey . Both a prolific goalscorer and a creative playmaker , Messi holds the records for most goals scored in La Liga , a La Liga season ( 50 ) , a football season ( 82 ) , and a calendar year ( 91 ) , as well as those for most assists made in La Liga and the Copa América .
Born and raised in central Argentina , Messi was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency as a child . At age 13 , he relocated to Spain to join Barcelona , who agreed to pay for his medical treatment . After a fast progression through Barcelona 's youth academy , Messi made his competitive debut aged 17 in October 2004 . Despite being injury @-@ prone during his early career , he established himself as an integral player for the club within the next three years , finishing 2007 as a finalist for both the Ballon d 'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award , a feat he repeated the following year . His first uninterrupted campaign came in the 2008 – 09 season , during which he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football . At 22 years old , Messi won the Ballon d 'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award by record voting margins .
Three successful seasons followed , with Messi winning three consecutive FIFA Ballons d 'Or , including an unprecedented fourth . His personal best campaign to date was the 2011 – 12 season , in which he set the La Liga and European records for most goals scored in a single season , while establishing himself as Barcelona 's all @-@ time top scorer in official competitions in March 2012 . He again struggled with injury during the following two seasons , twice finishing second for the Ballon d 'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo , his perceived career rival . Messi regained his best form during the 2014 – 15 campaign , breaking the all @-@ time goalscoring records in both La Liga and the Champions League in November 2014 , and led Barcelona to a historic second treble .
A former Argentine international , Messi is his country 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer . At youth level , he won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship , finishing the tournament with both the Golden Ball and Golden Shoe , and an Olympic gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics . His style of play as a diminutive , left @-@ footed dribbler drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona , who declared the teenager his successor . After making his senior debut in August 2005 , Messi became the youngest Argentine to play and score in a FIFA World Cup during the 2006 edition , and reached the final of the 2007 Copa América , where he was named young player of the tournament . As the squad 's captain from August 2011 , he led Argentina to three consecutive finals of the 2014 World Cup , for which he won the Golden Ball , and the 2015 and 2016 Copas América . Following his fourth final defeat , Messi retired from international football aged 29 , having represented his country in seven major tournaments . He was then convicted of tax fraud committed from 2007 to 2009 , for which he received a fine and a suspended prison sentence .
= = Early life = =
Lionel Andrés Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario , Santa Fe , the third of four children of Jorge Messi , a steel factory manager , and his wife Celia Cuccittini , who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop . On his father 's side , he is of Italian and Spanish heritage , the great @-@ grandson of immigrants from Marche and Catalonia , and on his mother 's side , he is of primarily Italian descent . Growing up in a tight @-@ knit , football @-@ loving family , " Leo " developed a passion for the sport from an early age , playing constantly with his older brothers , Rodrigo and Matías , and his cousins , Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi , both of whom became professional footballers . At the age of four years , he joined local club Grandoli , where he was coached by his father , though his earliest influence as a player came from his maternal grandmother , Celia , who accompanied him to training and matches . He was greatly affected by her death , shortly before his eleventh birthday ; since then , as a devout Catholic , he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute of his grandmother .
A lifelong supporter of Newell 's Old Boys , Messi joined the Rosario club when he was six years old . During the six years he played for Newell 's , he scored almost 500 goals as a member of " The Machine of ' 87 " , the near @-@ unbeatable youth side named for the year of their birth , and regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half @-@ time of the first team 's home games . However , his future as a professional player was threatened when , at age 10 , he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency . As his father 's health insurance covered only two years of growth hormone treatment , which cost at least $ 1 @,@ 000 per month , Newell 's agreed to contribute , but later reneged on their promise . He was scouted by Buenos Aires club River Plate , whose playmaker , Pablo Aimar , he idolised , but they were also unable to pay for his treatment due to the country 's economic collapse .
As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia , they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000 . First team director Charly Rexach immediately wanted to sign him , but the board of directors hesitated ; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age . On 14 December , an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment , and Rexach , with no other paper at hand , offered a contract on a paper napkin . In February 2001 , the family relocated to Barcelona , where they moved into an apartment near the club 's stadium , Camp Nou . During his first year in Spain , Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell 's ; as a foreigner , he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league . Without football , he struggled to integrate into the team ; already reserved by nature , he was so quiet that his teammates initially believed he was mute . At home , he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and little sister , María Sol , while he stayed in Barcelona with his father .
After a year at Barcelona 's youth academy , La Masia , Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation in February 2002 . Now playing in all competitions , he befriended his teammates , among whom were Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué . After completing his growth hormone treatment aged 14 , Messi became an integral part of the " Baby Dream Team " , Barcelona 's greatest @-@ ever youth side . During his first full season , in 2002 – 03 , he was top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A , who won an unprecedented treble of the league and both the Spanish and Catalan cups . The Copa Catalunya final , a 4 – 1 victory over Espanyol , became known in club lore as the partido de la máscara , the final of the mask . A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match , Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a plastic protector ; soon hindered by the mask , he took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes before his substitution . At the close of the season , he received an offer to join Arsenal , his first from a foreign club , but while Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England , he chose to remain in Barcelona .
= = Barcelona = =
= = = 2003 – 05 : Rise to the first team = = =
During the 2003 – 04 season , his fourth with Barcelona , Messi rapidly progressed through the club 's ranks , debuting for a record five teams in a single campaign . After being named player of the tournament in four international pre @-@ season competitions with the Juveniles B , he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juveniles A , where he scored 18 goals in 11 league games . Messi was then one of several youth players called up to strengthen a depleted first team during the international break . At 16 years , four months , and 23 days old , he made his first team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against José Mourinho 's Porto on 16 November 2003 . His performance , creating two chances and a shot on goal , impressed the technical staff , and he subsequently began training daily with the club 's reserve side , Barcelona B , as well as weekly with the first team . After his first training session with the senior squad , Barça 's new star player , Ronaldinho , told his teammates that he believed the 16 @-@ year @-@ old would become an even better player than himself . Ronaldinho soon befriended Messi , whom he called " little brother , " which greatly eased his transition into the first team .
To gain further match experience , Messi joined Barcelona C in addition to the Juveniles A , playing his first game for the third team on 29 November . He helped save them from the relegation zone of the Tercera División , scoring five goals in 10 games , including a hat @-@ trick in eight minutes during a Spanish Cup match while man @-@ marked by Sevilla 's Sergio Ramos . His progress was reflected in his first professional contract , signed on 4 February 2004 , which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of € 30 million . A month later , on 6 March , he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B , and his buyout clause automatically increased to € 80 million . He played five games with the B team that season but did not score . Physically he was weaker than his opponents , who were often much older and taller , and in training he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength in order to be able to shake off defenders . Towards the end of the season , he returned to both youth teams , helping the Juveniles B win the league . He finished the campaign having scored for four of his five teams with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions .
During the 2004 – 05 season , Messi was a guaranteed starter for the B team , playing 17 games throughout the campaign and scoring on six occasions . Since his debut the previous November , he had not been called up to the first team again , but in October 2004 , the senior players asked manager Frank Rijkaard to promote him . Since Ronaldinho already played on the left wing , Rijkaard moved Messi from his usual position onto the right flank , though initially against the player 's wishes , allowing him to cut into the centre of the pitch and shoot with his dominant left foot . Messi made his league debut during the next match on 16 October , against Espanyol , coming on in the 82nd minute . At 17 years , three months , and 22 days old , he was at the time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition . As a substitute player , he played only 77 minutes in nine matches for the first team that season , including his debut in the UEFA Champions League against Shakhtar Donetsk . He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005 , against Albacete , from an assist by Ronaldinho , becoming at that time the youngest @-@ ever scorer for the club . Barcelona , in their second season under Rijkaard , won the league for the first time in six years .
= = = 2005 – 08 : Making the starting eleven = = =
On 24 June 2005 , his 18th birthday , Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player . It made him a Barcelona player until 2010 , two years less than his previous contract , but his buyout clause increased to € 150 million . His breakthrough came two months later , on 24 August , during the Joan Gamper trophy , Barcelona 's pre @-@ season competition . A starter for the first time , he gave a well @-@ received performance against Fabio Capello 's Juventus , receiving an ovation from the Camp Nou . While Capello requested to loan Messi , a bid to buy him came from Inter Milan , who were willing to pay his buyout clause and triple his wages . According to then @-@ president Joan Laporta , it was the only time the club faced a real risk of losing Messi , but he ultimately decided to stay . On 16 September , his contract was updated for the second time in three months and extended to 2014 .
Due to issues regarding his legal status in the Spanish Football Federation , Messi missed the start of La Liga , but on 26 September , he acquired Spanish citizenship and became eligible to play . Wearing the number 19 shirt , he gradually established himself as the first @-@ choice right winger , forming an attacking trio with Ronaldinho and striker Samuel Eto 'o . He was in the starting line @-@ up in major matches like his first clásico against rivals Real Madrid on 19 November , as well as their away victory over Chelsea in the last 16 round of the Champions League , where he played his best match to that point . After he had scored 8 goals in 25 games , including his first in the Champions League , his season ended prematurely during the return leg against Chelsea on 7 March 2006 , when he suffered a torn hamstring . Messi worked to regain fitness in time for the Champions League final , but was told the day of the final , 17 May , that he was not fit enough to play . He was so disappointed that he did not celebrate their victory over Arsenal in Paris , something he later came to regret .
While Barcelona began a gradual decline , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Messi established himself as one of the best players in the world during the 2006 – 07 campaign . Already an idol to the culés , the club 's supporters , he scored 17 goals in 36 games across all competitions . However , he continued to be plagued by major injuries ; a metatarsal fracture sustained on 12 November 2006 kept him out of action for three months . He recovered in time for the last 16 round of the Champions League against Liverpool , but was effectively marked out of the game ; Barcelona , the reigning champions , were out of the competition . In the league , his goal contribution increased towards the end of the season ; 11 of his 14 goals came from the last 13 games . On 10 March 2007 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick in a clásico , the first player to do so in 12 years , equalizing after each goal by Real Madrid to end the match in a 3 – 3 draw in extra time . His growing importance to the club was reflected in a new contract , signed that month , which greatly increased his wages .
Already frequently compared to compatriot Diego Maradona , Messi proved their similarity when he nearly replicated Maradona 's two most famous goals in the span of three weeks . During a Copa del Rey semi @-@ final against Getafe on 18 April , he scored a goal remarkably similar to Maradona 's goal in the quarter @-@ finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup , known as the Goal of the Century . Messi collected the ball on the right side near the halfway line , ran 60 metres ( 200 ft ) , and beat five defenders before scoring with an angled finish , just as Maradona had done . A league match against Espanyol on 9 June saw him score by launching himself at the ball and guiding it past the goalkeeper with his hand in similar fashion to Maradona 's Hand of God goal in the same World Cup match . As Messi continued his individual rise , Barcelona faltered ; the team failed to reach the Copa del Rey final after Messi was rested during the second leg against Getafe and lost the league to Real Madrid on goal average .
After Ronaldinho lost form , Messi became Barça 's new star player at only 20 years old , receiving the nickname " Messiah " from the Spanish media . His efforts in 2007 also earned him award recognition ; journalists voted him the third @-@ best player of the year for the Ballon d 'Or , behind Kaká and runner @-@ up Cristiano Ronaldo , while international managers and national team captains voted him second for the FIFA World Player of the Year award , again behind Kaká . Although he managed to score 16 goals during the 2007 – 08 campaign , the second half of his season was again marred by injuries after he suffered a torn hamstring on 15 December . He returned to score twice in their away victory against Celtic in the last 16 round of the Champions League , becoming the competition 's top scorer at that point with six goals , but reinjured himself during the return leg on 4 March 2008 . Rijkaard had fielded him despite warning from the medical staff , leading captain Carles Puyol to criticise the Spanish media for pressuring Messi to play every match . Barcelona finished the season without trophies , eliminated in the Champions League semi @-@ finals by the eventual champions , Manchester United , and placed third in the league .
= = = 2008 – 09 : Winning the sextuple = = =
After two unsuccessful seasons , Barcelona were in need of an overhaul , leading to the dismissals of Rijkaard and Ronaldinho . Upon the latter 's departure , Messi was given the number 10 shirt . He signed a new contract in July 2008 on an annual salary of € 7 @.@ 8 million , becoming the club 's highest @-@ paid player . Ahead of the new season , a major concern remained his frequent muscular injuries , which had left him side @-@ lined for a total of eight months between 2006 and 2008 . To combat the problem , the club implemented new training , nutrition , and lifestyle regimens , and assigned him a personal physiotherapist , who would travel with him during call @-@ ups for the Argentina national team . As a result , Messi remained virtually injury @-@ free during the next four years , allowing him to reach his full potential . In his first uninterrupted campaign , the 2008 – 09 season , he scored 38 goals in 51 games , contributing alongside Eto 'o and winger Thierry Henry to a total of 100 goals in all competitions , a record at the time for the club . Despite his injuries early in the year , his performances in 2008 saw him again voted runner @-@ up for the Ballon d 'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award , both times behind Cristiano Ronaldo .
During his first season under Barcelona 's new manager , former captain Pep Guardiola , Messi played mainly on the right wing , like he had under Rijkaard , though this time as a false winger with the freedom to cut inside and roam the centre . During a clásico on 2 May 2009 , however , he played for the first time as a false nine , positioned as a centre @-@ forward but dropping deep into midfield to link up with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta . He assisted with a chip his side 's first goal and scored twice to end the match in an emphatic 6 – 2 victory , their greatest @-@ ever score at Real Madrid 's Bernabéu stadium . Returning to the wing , he played his first final since breaking into the first team on 13 May , scoring once and assisting a second goal as they defeated Athletic Bilbao 4 – 1 to win the Copa del Rey . With 23 league goals from Messi that season , they were crowned La Liga champions three days later to win their fifth double .
As the season 's Champions League top scorer with nine goals , the youngest in the tournament 's history , Messi scored two goals and assisted two more to ensure a 4 – 0 quarter @-@ final victory over Bayern Munich . He returned as a false nine during the final on 27 May in Rome , where they faced Manchester United . When he headed the ball over goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar to make the end score 2 – 0 , Barcelona were champions of Europe , achieving the first treble in the history of Spanish football . Their success was reflected in a new contract , signed on 18 September , which committed Messi to the club through 2016 with a new buyout clause of € 250 million , while his salary increased to € 12 million . Barça 's prosperity continued into the second half of 2009 , as they became the first club to achieve the sextuple , winning six top @-@ tier trophies in a single year . After victories in the Supercopa de España and UEFA Super Cup in August , they won the FIFA Club World Cup against Estudiantes on 19 December , with Messi scoring the winning 2 – 1 goal with his chest . At 22 years old , Messi won the Ballon d 'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award , both times by the greatest voting margin in each trophy 's history .
= = = 2010 – 11 : Continued success = = =
Unsatisfied with his position on the right wing , Messi resumed playing as a false nine in early 2010 , beginning with a Champions League last 16 round match against Stuttgart . After a first @-@ leg draw , they won the second leg 4 – 0 with two goals and an assist from Messi . At that point , he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola 's team , and his goalscoring rate increased . Messi scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions that season , equal to Ronaldo 's club record from the 1996 – 97 campaign . He notably scored all of his side 's four goals in the Champions League quarter @-@ final against Arsène Wenger 's Arsenal on 6 April , a rare achievement , while becoming Barcelona 's all @-@ time top scorer in the competition . Although they were eliminated in the Champions League semi @-@ finals by the eventual champions , Inter Milan , Messi finished the season as top scorer , with eight goals , for the second consecutive year . As league top scorer in Spain and Europe with 34 goals , again tying Ronaldo 's record , he helped Barcelona win La Liga with only a single defeat .
Messi secured their first trophy of the 2010 – 11 campaign , the Supercopa de España , by scoring a hat @-@ trick in their 4 – 0 victory over Sevilla , after a first @-@ leg defeat . Assuming a playmaking role , he was again instrumental in a clásico on 29 November 2010 , the first with José Mourinho in charge of Real Madrid , as Barcelona defeated their rivals 5 – 0 . Messi helped the team achieve 16 consecutive league victories , a record in Spanish football , concluding with another hat @-@ trick against Atlético Madrid on 5 February 2011 . His club performances in 2010 earned him the inaugural FIFA Ballon d 'Or , an amalgamation of the Ballon d 'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award , though his win was met with some criticism due to his lack of success with Argentina at the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Under the award 's old format , he would have placed just outside the top three , owing his win to the votes from the international coaches and captains .
Towards the end of the season , Barcelona played four controversial clásicos in the span of 18 days . A league match on 16 April ended in a draw after a penalty from Messi , securing their third consecutive La Liga title . In addition to his 31 goals , Messi was the league 's top assist provider with 18 assists . After they lost the Copa del Rey final four days later , he scored both goals in their 2 – 0 win in the first leg of the Champions League semi @-@ finals , the second of which — a dribble past three players — was acclaimed as one of the best ever in the competition . Although he did not score , he was again important in the second @-@ leg draw that sent them through to the Champions League final , where they faced Manchester United in a repeat of the final two years earlier . As the competition 's top scorer for the third consecutive year , with 12 goals , Messi gave a man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match performance at Wembley on 28 May , scoring the match @-@ winning goal of their 3 – 1 victory . He finished the season with 53 goals and 24 assists in all competitions , becoming Barcelona 's all @-@ time single @-@ season top scorer and the first player in Spanish football to reach the 50 @-@ goal benchmark .
As Messi developed into a combination of a number eight ( a creator ) , a nine ( scorer ) , and a 10 ( assistant ) , he scored an unprecedented 73 goals and provided 29 assists in all club competitions during the 2011 – 12 season , producing a hat @-@ trick or more on 10 occasions . He began the campaign by helping Barcelona win both the Spanish and European super cups ; in the Supercopa de España , he scored three times to achieve a 5 – 4 aggregate victory over Real Madrid , overtaking Raúl as the competition 's all @-@ time top scorer with eight goals . At the close of the year , on 18 December , he scored twice in the FIFA Club World Cup final , a 4 – 0 victory over Santos , winning the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament , as he had done two years previously . For his efforts in 2011 , he again received the FIFA Ballon d 'Or , becoming only the fourth player in history to win the Ballon d 'Or three times , after Johan Cruyff , Michel Platini , and Marco van Basten . Additionally , he won the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award , a revival of the old @-@ style Ballon d 'Or . By then , Messi was widely considered one of the best players in history , alongside legends like Diego Maradona and Pelé .
= = = 2012 : A record @-@ breaking year = = =
As Messi maintained his goalscoring form into the second half of the season , the year 2012 saw him break several longstanding records . On 7 March , two weeks after scoring four goals in a league fixture against Valencia , he scored five times in a Champions League last 16 round match against Bayer Leverkusen , an unprecedented achievement in the history of the competition . In addition to being the joint top assist provider with five assists , this feat made him top scorer with 14 goals , tying José Altafini 's record from the 1962 – 63 season , as well as becoming only the second player after Gerd Müller to be top scorer in four campaigns . Two weeks later , on 20 March , Messi became the top goalscorer in Barcelona 's history at 24 years old , overtaking the 57 @-@ year record of César Rodríguez 's 232 goals with a hat @-@ trick against Granada .
Despite Messi 's individual form , Barcelona 's four @-@ year cycle of success under Guardiola — one of the greatest eras in the club 's history — drew to an end . Although they won the Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao on 25 May , their fourteenth title of that period , they had lost the league to Real Madrid and were eliminated in the Champions League semi @-@ finals by the eventual champions , Chelsea , with Messi sending a crucial second @-@ leg penalty kick against the crossbar . In their last home league match on 5 May , against Espanyol , Messi scored all four goals before approaching the bench to embrace Guardiola , who had announced his resignation as manager . He finished the season as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for a second time , with 50 goals , an all @-@ time La Liga record , while his 73 goals in all competitions surpassed Gerd Müller 's 67 goals in the 1972 – 73 Bundesliga season , making him the single @-@ season top scorer in the history of European club football .
Under manager Tito Vilanova , who had first coached him aged 14 at La Masia , Messi helped the club achieve their best @-@ ever start to a La Liga season during the second half of the year , amassing 55 points by the competition 's midway point , a record in Spanish football . A double scored on 9 December against Real Betis saw him break two longstanding records : he surpassed César Rodríguez 's record of 190 league goals , becoming Barcelona 's all @-@ time top scorer in La Liga , and Gerd Müller 's record of most goals scored in a calendar year , overtaking his 85 goals scored in 1972 for Bayern Munich and Germany . He sent Müller a number 10 Barcelona shirt , signed " with respect and admiration " , after breaking his 40 @-@ year record . At the close of the year , Messi had scored an unprecedented 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina . Although FIFA did not acknowledge the achievement , citing verifiability issues , he received the Guinness World Records title for most goals scored in a calendar year . As the odds @-@ on favourite , Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d 'Or , becoming the only player in history to win the Ballon d 'Or four times .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Messidependence = = =
Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013 , eventually equalling Real Madrid 's 100 @-@ point record of the previous season . However , their performances deteriorated in the second half of the 2012 – 13 campaign , concurrently with Vilanova 's absence due to ill health . After losing successive clásicos , including the Copa del Rey semi @-@ finals , they were nearly eliminated in the first knockout round of the Champions League by A.C. Milan , but a revival of form in the second leg led to a 4 – 0 comeback , with two goals and an assist from Messi . Now in his ninth senior season with Barcelona , Messi signed a new contract on 7 February , committing himself to the club through 2018 , while his fixed wage rose to € 13 million . He wore the captain 's armband for the first time a month later , on 17 March , in a league match against Rayo Vallecano ; by then , he had become the team 's tactical focal point to a degree that was arguably rivalled only by former Barcelona legends Josep Samitier , László Kubala , and Johan Cruyff . Since his evolution into a false nine three years earlier , his input into the team 's attack had increased exponentially ; from 24 percent in their treble @-@ winning campaign , his goal contribution rose to more than 40 percent that season .
After four largely injury @-@ free seasons , the muscular injuries that had previously plagued Messi reoccurred . After he suffered a hamstring strain on 2 April , during the first quarter @-@ final against Paris Saint @-@ Germain , his appearances became sporadic . In the second leg against PSG , with an underperforming Barcelona down a goal , Messi came off the bench in the second half and within nine minutes helped create their game @-@ tying goal , which allowed them to progress to the semi @-@ finals . Still unfit , he proved ineffective during the first leg against Bayern Munich and was unable to play at all during the second , as Barcelona were defeated 7 – 0 on aggregate by the eventual champions . These matches gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia , Barcelona 's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player .
Messi continued to struggle with injury throughout 2013 , eventually parting ways with his long @-@ time personal physiotherapist . Further damage to his hamstring sustained on 12 May ended his goalscoring streak of 21 consecutive league games , a worldwide record ; he had netted 33 goals during his run , including a four @-@ goal display against Osasuna , while becoming the first player to score consecutively against all 19 opposition teams in La Liga . With 60 goals in all competitions , including 46 goals in La Liga , he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year , becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times . Following an irregular start to the new season under manager Tata Martino , formerly of his boyhood club Newell 's Old Boys , Messi suffered his fifth injury that year when he tore his hamstring on 10 November , leaving him side @-@ lined for two months . Despite his injuries , he was voted runner @-@ up for the FIFA Ballon d 'Or , relinquishing the award after a four @-@ year monopoly to Cristiano Ronaldo .
During the second half of the 2013 – 14 season , doubts persisted over Messi 's form , leading to a perception among the culés that he was reserving himself for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . Statistically , his contribution of goals , shots , and passes had dropped significantly compared to previous seasons . He still produced fine moments , as he did when he broke two longstanding records in seven days : a hat @-@ trick on 16 March against Osasuna saw him overtake Paulino Alcántara 's 369 goals to become Barcelona 's top goalscorer in all competitions including friendlies , while another hat @-@ trick against Real Madrid on 23 March made him the all @-@ time top scorer in El Clásico , ahead of the 18 goals scored by Real Madrid legend Alfredo Di Stéfano . Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons , though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions . For the first time in five years , Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy ; they were defeated in the Copa del Rey final by Real Madrid and lost the league in the last game to Atlético Madrid , causing Messi to be booed by sections of fans at the Camp Nou .
After prolonged speculation over his future with the club , Messi signed a new contract on 19 May 2014 , only a year after his last contractual update ; his salary increased to € 20 million , or € 36 million before taxes , the highest wage ever in the sport . Under their new manager , former captain Luis Enrique , Messi experienced a largely injury @-@ free start to the 2014 – 15 season , allowing him to break three more longstanding records towards the end of the year . A hat @-@ trick scored against Sevilla on 22 November made him the all @-@ time top scorer in La Liga , as he surpassed the 59 @-@ year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra . Three days later , he scored another hat @-@ trick against APOEL , overtaking Raúl 's 71 goals to become top scorer in the history of the Champions League . A third hat @-@ trick , scored against city rivals Espanyol on 7 December , allowed him to surpass César Rodríguez as the all @-@ time top scorer in the Derbi barceloní with 12 goals . Messi again placed second in the FIFA Ballon d 'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo , largely owing to his second @-@ place achievement with Argentina at the World Cup .
= = = 2015 : A historic treble = = =
At the start of 2015 , Barcelona were perceived to be headed for another disappointing end to the season , with renewed speculation in the media that Messi was leaving the club . A turning point came on 11 January during a 3 – 1 victory over Atlético Madrid , the first time Barça 's attacking trident of Messi , Luis Suárez , and Neymar , dubbed MSN , each scored in a match , marking the beginning of a highly successful run . After five years of playing in the centre of the pitch , Messi had returned to his old position on the right wing late the previous year , by his own suggestion according to Suárez , their striker . From there , he regained his best — arguably his best @-@ ever — form , while Suárez and Neymar ended the team 's attacking dependency on their star player . With 58 goals from Messi , the trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season , a record in Spanish football .
Towards the end of the campaign , Messi scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over Atlético Madrid on 17 May , securing the La Liga title . Among his 43 league goals that season was a hat @-@ trick scored in 11 minutes against Rayo Vallecano on 8 March , the fastest of his senior career ; it was his thirty @-@ second hat @-@ trick overall for Barcelona , allowing him to overtake Telmo Zarra as the player with the most hat @-@ tricks ever in Spanish football . Additionally , as the season 's top assist provider with 18 assists , he surpassed Luís Figo as the player with the most assists in La Liga ; he made his record 106th assist in a fixture against Levante on 15 February , which he also scored a hat @-@ trick . Messi then scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 – 1 in the Copa del Rey final on 30 May , achieving the sixth double in their history . His opening goal was hailed as one of the greatest in his career ; he collected the ball near the halfway line and beat four opposing players , before feinting the goalkeeper to score in a tight space by the near post . The goal was later named one of the three final nominees for the 2015 FIFA Puskás Award .
In the Champions League , Messi scored twice and assisted on another in their 3 – 0 semi @-@ final victory over Bayern Munich , now under the stewardship of Guardiola . His second goal , which came only three minutes after his first , saw him chip the ball over goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after his dribble past Jérôme Boateng had made the defender drop to the ground ; it went viral , becoming the year 's most tweeted about sporting moment , and was named the best goal of the season by UEFA . Despite a second @-@ leg loss , Barcelona progressed to the final on 6 June in Berlin , where they defeated Juventus 3 – 1 to win their second treble , becoming the first club in history to win the league , domestic cup , and European cup twice . Although Messi did not score , he participated in each of his side 's goals , particularly the second as he forced a parried save from goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon from which Suárez scored the match @-@ winning goal on the rebound . In addition to being the top assist provider with 6 assists , Messi finished the competition as the joint top scorer , with 10 goals , which earned him the distinction of being the first player ever to achieve the top scoring mark in five Champions League seasons . For his efforts that season , he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe award for a second time .
Messi opened the 2015 – 16 season by scoring twice from free kicks in Barcelona 's 5 – 4 victory over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup . A subsequent 5 – 1 aggregate defeat against Athletic Bilbao in the Supercopa de España ended their expressed hopes of a second sextuple , with Messi scoring his side 's only goal . On 16 September , he became the youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League in a 1 – 1 away draw to Roma . On 26 September , Messi sustained an injury in Barcelona 's match against Las Palmas ; tests later confirmed that he suffered a tear in the medial collateral ligament of his left knee , ruling him out for six to eight weeks . He finally returned to the pitch on 21 November , making a substitute appearance in Barcelona 's 4 – 0 away win over rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico . Messi capped off the year by opening the scoring in the 36th minute of the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Final on 20 December , collecting his fifth club trophy of 2015 as Barcelona went on to defeat River Plate 3 – 0 in Yokohama , and winning the tournament 's Silver Ball , despite missing the semi @-@ final . On 30 December , Messi scored on his 500th appearance for Barcelona , in a 4 – 0 home win over Real Betis .
= = = 2016 = = =
On 6 January 2016 , recording Barcelona 's first goal of the new year , Messi scored two goals and assisted the other two in a 4 – 1 derby win over Espanyol at the Camp Nou , in the first leg of the Round of 16 of the 2015 – 16 Copa del Rey . Five days later , Messi won the FIFA Ballon d 'Or for a record fifth time in his career . On 3 February , he scored a hat @-@ trick in Barcelona 's 7 – 0 win against Valencia CF in the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi @-@ final at the Camp Nou , also scoring his 500th career goal in the process , including youth competitions . With teammate Luis Suárez scoring the other four goals in the same match , this was the first time that two players had scored at least three goals each at Camp Nou , and the first time since Luis Suárez Miramontes and Justo Tejada in 1956 . The feat had only occurred three times before in the club 's history , all at Camp de Les Corts . The next league match at Camp Nou , a 6 – 1 win against Celta Vigo , Messi assisted Suárez from a penalty kick . Some people saw it as " a touch of genius " , while others criticised it as being disrespectful to the opponent . However , the Celta players never complained and their coach defended the penalty , stating : " Barca 's forwards are very respectful " . The penalty routine has been compared to that of Barça icon Johan Cruyff in 1982 , who was battling lung cancer , leading many fans to indicate that the penalty was a tribute to him . Cruyff himself was " very happy " with the play , insisting " it was legal and entertaining " .
On 17 February , Messi reached his 300th league goal in a 1 – 3 away win against Sporting Gijon . A few days later , he scored both goals in Barcelona 's 0 – 2 win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium , in the first leg of the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League Round of 16 , with the second goal being Barcelona 's 10,000th in official competitions . On 17 April , Messi ended a five @-@ match scoring drought with his 500th senior career goal for club and country in Barcelona 's 2 – 1 home loss to Valencia . Messi finished the 2015 – 16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona 's 2 – 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final , at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , on 22 May 2016 , as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season . In total , Messi scored 41 goals and provided 23 assists , as Barcelona 's attacking trio managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season , breaking the record they had set the previous season .
= = Argentina national team = =
= = = 2004 – 05 : Success at youth level = = =
As a dual Argentine – Spanish national , Messi was eligible to play for the national team of both countries . Selectors for Spain 's Under @-@ 17 squad began pursuing him in 2003 after Barcelona 's director of football , Carles Rexach , alerted the Royal Spanish Football Federation to their young player . Messi declined the offer , having aspired to represent La Albiceleste since childhood . To further prevent Spain from taking him , the Argentine Football Association organised two Under @-@ 20 friendlies in June 2004 , against Paraguay and Uruguay , with the purpose of finalising his status as an Argentina player in FIFA . Five days after his seventeenth birthday , on 29 June , he made his debut for his country against Paraguay , scoring once and providing two assists in their 8 – 0 victory . He was subsequently included in the squad for the South American Youth Championship , held in Colombia in February 2005 . As he lacked the stamina of his teammates , the result of his former growth hormone deficiency , he was used as a substitute in six of the nine games , proving more effective when coming on in the second half . After being named man of the match against Venezuela , he scored the winning 2 – 1 goal in the crucial last match against Brazil , thereby securing their third @-@ place qualification for the FIFA World Youth Championship .
Aware of his physical limitations , Messi employed a personal trainer to increase his muscle mass , returning to the squad in improved condition in time for the World Youth Championship , hosted by the Netherlands in June 2005 . After he was left out of the starting line @-@ up in their first match against the United States , a 1 – 0 defeat , the squad 's senior players asked manager Francisco Ferraro to let Messi start , as they considered him their best player . After helping the team defeat Egypt and Germany to progress past the group stage , Messi proved decisive in the knockout phase as he scored their equalizer against Colombia , provided a goal and an assist against title favourites Spain , and scored their opening goal against reigning champions Brazil . Ahead of the final , he was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament . He scored two penalties in their 2 – 1 victory over Nigeria , clinching Argentina 's fifth championship and finishing the tournament as top scorer with 6 goals . His performances drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona , who had led Argentina to the title in 1979 .
= = = 2005 – 06 : Senior and World Cup debuts = = =
In recognition of his achievements with the Under @-@ 20 side , senior manager José Pékerman gave Messi his first call @-@ up for a friendly against Hungary on 17 August 2005 . Aged 18 , Messi made his senior debut for Argentina when he came on in the 63rd minute , only to be sent off after two minutes for a perceived foul against Vilmos Vanczák who had grabbed his shirt . He had struck the defender with his arm while trying to shake him off , which the referee interpreted as an intentional elbowing , a contentious decision . Messi was reportedly found weeping in the dressing room after his sending @-@ off . He returned to the team on 3 September in their World Cup qualifier defeat to Paraguay , which he had declared his " re @-@ debut " ahead of the match . Messi started his first game in the next qualifying match against Peru , in which he was able to win a crucial penalty that secured their victory ; after the match Pékerman described him as " a jewel " . He subsequently made regular appearances for the team ahead of Argentina 's participation in the 2006 FIFA World Cup , scoring his first goal in a friendly against Croatia on 1 March 2006 . A hamstring injury sustained a week later jeopardised his presence in the World Cup , but he was nevertheless selected for Pékerman 's squad and regained fitness in time for the start of the tournament .
During the World Cup in Germany , Messi witnessed their opening match victory against Ivory Coast from the substitutes ' bench . In the next match against Serbia and Montenegro , he became the youngest player to represent Argentina at a World Cup when he came on as a substitute in the 74th minute . He assisted their fourth strike within minutes and scored the final goal in their 6 – 0 victory , making him the youngest scorer in the tournament and the sixth @-@ youngest goalscorer in the history of the World Cup . As their progression to the knockout phase was secured , several starters were rested during the last group match . Messi consequently started the game against the Netherlands , a 0 – 0 draw , as they won their group on goal differential . In the round of 16 match against Mexico , played on his nineteenth birthday , Messi came on in the 84th minute , with the score tied at 1 – 1 . He appeared to score a goal , but it was contentiously ruled offside , with the team needing a late goal in extra time to proceed . He did not play in the quarter @-@ final against Germany , during which Argentina were eliminated 4 – 2 in a penalty shootout . Back home , Pékerman 's decision to leave him on the bench against Germany led to widespread criticism from those who believed Messi could have changed the outcome of the match in Argentina 's favour .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Copa América final and Olympic gold = = =
As Messi evolved into one of the best players in the world , he secured a place in Coco Basile 's starting line @-@ up , as part of a team considered favourites to win the 2007 Copa América , held in Venezuela . He set up the game @-@ winning goal of their 4 – 1 victory over the United States in the opening match , before winning a penalty that led to the game @-@ tying first strike of their 4 – 2 win in the next match against Colombia . As they had secured their place in the knockout phase , Messi started the next game on the bench , coming on in the last 25 minutes with the score at 0 – 0 to help his team defeat Paraguay by assisting their only goal . At the quarter @-@ final stage , where the group winners faced Peru , he scored the second goal of a 4 – 0 victory that saw them through to the semi @-@ final , during which he chipped the ball over Mexico 's goalkeeper to ensure another 3 – 0 win . In a surprise defeat , Argentina lost the final 3 – 0 to a Brazil that lacked several of their best players . Their unexpected loss was followed by much criticism in Argentina , though Messi was mostly exempt due to his young age and secondary status to star player Juan Román Riquelme . He was named the best young player of the tournament by CONMEBOL .
Ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics , Barcelona legally barred Messi from representing Argentina at the tournament as it coincided with their Champions League qualifying matches . After interference from newly appointed manager Pep Guardiola , who had won the tournament in 1992 , Messi was permitted to join Sergio Batista 's Under @-@ 23 squad in Beijing . During the first match , he scored the opening goal and assisted another in their 2 – 1 victory over Ivory Coast . Following a 1 – 0 win in the next group match against Australia , ensuring their quarter @-@ final qualification , Messi was rested during the game against Serbia , while his side won the match to finish first in their group . Against the Netherlands , he again scored the first goal and assisted a second strike to help his team to a 2 – 1 win in extra time . After a 3 – 0 semi @-@ final victory over Brazil , Messi assisted the only goal in the final as Argentina defeated Nigeria to claim Olympic gold medals . Along with Riquelme , Messi was singled out by FIFA as the stand @-@ out player from the tournament 's best team .
= = = 2008 – 11 : Collective decline = = =
From late 2008 , the national team experienced a three @-@ year period marked by poor performances . Under manager Diego Maradona , who had led Argentina to World Cup victory as a player , the team struggled to qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup , securing their place in the tournament only after defeating Uruguay 1 – 0 in their last qualifying match . Maradona was criticised for his strategic decisions as he played Messi out of position , positioned too deep for him to be able to contribute to the attack to his full ability . In eight qualifying matches under Maradona 's stewardship , Messi scored only one goal , netting the opening goal in the first such match , a 4 – 0 victory over Venezuela . During that game , played on 28 March 2009 , he wore Argentina 's number 10 shirt for the first time , following the international retirement of Riquelme . Overall , Messi scored four goals in 18 appearances during the qualifying process . Ahead of the tournament , Maradona visited Messi in Barcelona to request his tactical input ; Messi then outlined a 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 formation with himself playing behind the two strikers , a playmaking position known as the enganche in Argentine football , which had been his preferred position since childhood .
Despite their poor qualifying campaign , Argentina were considered title contenders at the World Cup in South Africa . At the start of the tournament , the new formation proved effective ; Messi managed at least four attempts on goal during their opening match but was repeatedly denied by Nigeria 's goalkeeper , resulting in a 1 – 0 win . During the next match against Korea , he excelled in his playmaking role , participating in all four goals of his side 's 4 – 1 victory . As their place in the knockout phase was guaranteed , most of the starters were rested during the last group match , but Messi reportedly refused to be benched . He wore the captain 's armband for the first time in their 2 – 0 win against Greece ; as the focal point of their play , he helped create their second goal to see Argentina finish as group winners . In the round of 16 , they defeated Mexico 3 – 1 , with Messi assisting their first goal , a controversial strike that stood despite being offside .
Argentina 's unstructured defence had proved a liability throughout the World Cup and finally led to their elimination in the quarter @-@ final against Germany , at the same stage of the tournament and by the same opponent as four years earlier . Their 4 – 0 loss was their worst margin of defeat since 1974 . FIFA subsequently identified Messi as one of the tournament 's 10 best players , citing his " outstanding " pace and creativity and " spectacular and efficient " dribbling , shooting , and passing . Back home , however , Messi was the subject of far harsher judgement . As the perceived best player in the world , he had been expected to lead an average team to the title , as Maradona arguably did in 1986 , but he had failed to replicate his performances at Barcelona with the national team , leading to the accusation that he cared less about his country than his club .
Maradona was replaced by Sergio Batista , who had orchestrated their Olympic victory . Batista publicly stated that he intended to build the team around Messi , employing him as a false nine within a 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 system , as used to much success by Barcelona . Although Messi scored a record 53 goals during the 2010 – 11 club season , he had not scored for Argentina in an official match since March 2009 . Despite the tactical change , his goal drought continued during the 2011 Copa América , hosted by Argentina . Their first two matches , against Bolivia and Colombia , ended in draws , with Messi underperforming by his standards . Media and fans noted that he did not combine well with striker Carlos Tévez , who enjoyed far greater popularity among the Argentine public ; Messi was consequently booed by his own team 's supporters for the first time in his career . During the crucial next match , with Tévez on the bench , he gave a well @-@ received performance , assisting two goals in their 3 – 0 victory over Costa Rica . After the quarter @-@ final against Uruguay ended in a 1 – 1 draw following extra time , with Messi having assisted their equaliser , Argentina were eliminated 4 – 5 in the penalty shootout by the eventual champions .
= = = 2011 – 13 : Assuming the captaincy = = =
After Argentina 's unsuccessful performance in the Copa América , Batista was replaced by Alejandro Sabella . Upon his appointment in August 2011 , Sabella awarded the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Messi the captaincy of the squad , in accord with then @-@ captain Javier Mascherano . Reserved by nature , Messi went on to lead his squad by example as their best player , while Mascherano continued to fulfil the role of the team 's on @-@ field leader and motivator . In a further redesign of the team , Sabella dismissed Tévez and brought in players with whom Messi had won the World Youth Championship and Olympic Games . Now playing in a free role in an improving team , Messi finally ended his goal drought by scoring during their first World Cup qualifying match against Chile on 7 October , his first official goal for Argentina in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years .
Under Sabella , his goalscoring rate drastically increased ; where he had scored only 17 goals in 61 matches under his previous managers , he scored 25 times in 32 appearances during the following three years . Messi netted a total of 12 goals in nine games for Argentina in 2012 , equalling the record held by Gabriel Batistuta , Argentina 's all @-@ time top scorer , for the most goals scored in a calendar year for their country . His first hat @-@ trick with the Albicelestes came in a friendly against Switzerland on 29 February 2012 , followed by two more hat @-@ tricks over the next year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half in friendlies against Brazil and Guatemala . Messi then helped the team secure their place in the 2014 FIFA World Cup with a 5 – 2 victory over Paraguay on 10 September 2013 ; in addition to providing an assist , he scored twice from a penalty kick , taking his international tally to 37 goals to become Argentina 's second @-@ highest goalscorer behind only Batistuta . Overall , he had scored a total of 10 goals in 14 matches during the qualifying campaign . Concurrently with his bettered performances , his relationship with his compatriots improved , as he gradually began to be perceived more favourably in Argentina .
= = = 2014 – 15 : World Cup and Copa América finals = = =
Ahead of the World Cup in Brazil , doubts persisted over Messi 's form , as he finished an unsuccessful and injury @-@ plagued season with Barcelona . At the start of the tournament , however , he gave strong performances , being elected man of the match in their first four matches . In his first World Cup match as captain , he led them to a 2 – 1 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina ; he helped create their early opening goal and scored their second strike after a dribble past three players , his first World Cup goal since his debut in the tournament eight years earlier . During the second match against Iran , he scored an injury @-@ time goal from 23 metres out to end the game in a 1 – 0 win , securing their qualification for the knockout phase . He scored twice in the last group match , a 3 – 2 victory over Nigeria , his second goal from a free kick , as they finished first in their group . Messi assisted a late goal in extra time to ensure a 1 – 0 win against Switzerland in the round of 16 , before starting the play that led to their match @-@ winning 1 – 0 goal in the quarter @-@ final against Belgium , helping Argentina progress to the semi @-@ final of the World Cup for the first time since 1990 . Following a 0 – 0 draw in extra time , they eliminated the Netherlands 4 – 2 in a penalty shootout to reach the final .
Billed as Messi versus Germany , the world 's best player against the best team , the final was a repeat of the 1990 final featuring Diego Maradona . Within the first half @-@ hour , Messi had started the play that led to a goal , but it was ruled offside . He missed several opportunities to open the scoring throughout the match , in particular at the start of the second half when his breakaway effort went wide of the far post . Substitute Mario Götze finally scored in the 113th minute , followed in the last minute of extra time by a free kick that Messi sent over the net , as Germany won the match 1 – 0 to claim the World Cup . At the conclusion of the final , Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament . In addition to being the joint third @-@ highest goalscorer , with four goals and an assist , he created the most chances , completed the most dribbling runs , made the most deliveries into the penalty area , and produced the most throughballs in the competition . However , his selection drew criticism due to his lack of goals in the knockout round ; FIFA president Sepp Blatter expressed his surprise , while Maradona suggested that Messi had undeservedly been chosen for marketing purposes .
Another final appearance , the third of Messi 's senior international career , followed in the 2015 Copa América , held in Chile . Under the stewardship of former Barcelona manager Tata Martino , Argentina entered the tournament as title contenders due to their second @-@ place achievement at the World Cup . During the opening match against Paraguay , they were ahead two goals by half @-@ time but lost their lead to end the match in a 2 – 2 draw ; Messi had scored from a penalty kick , netting his only goal in the tournament . Following a 1 – 0 win against defending champions Uruguay , Messi earned his hundredth cap for his country in the final group match , a 1 – 0 win over Jamaica , becoming only the fifth Argentine to achieve this milestone . In his 100 appearances , he had scored a total of 46 goals for Argentina , 22 of which came in official competitive matches .
As Messi evolved from the team 's symbolic captain into a genuine leader , he led Argentina to the knockout stage as group winners . In the quarter @-@ final , they created numerous chances , including a rebound header by Messi , but were repeatedly denied by Colombia 's goalkeeper , and ultimately ended the match scoreless , leading to a 5 – 4 penalty shootout in their favour . At the semi @-@ final stage , Messi excelled as playmaker as he provided three assists and helped create three more goals in his side 's 6 – 1 victory over Paraguay , receiving applause from the initially hostile crowd . Argentina started the final as the odds @-@ on title favourites , but were defeated by Chile 4 – 1 in a penalty shootout after an 0 – 0 extra @-@ time draw . Faced with aggression from opposing players , including taking a boot to the midriff , Messi played below his standards , though he was the only Argentine to successfully convert his penalty . At the close of the tournament , he was reportedly selected to receive the Most Valuable Player award but rejected the honour . As Argentina continued a trophy drought that began in 1993 , the World Cup and Copa América defeats again brought intense criticism for Messi from Argentine media and fans .
= = = 2016 : Copa América Centenario and retirement = = =
Messi 's place in Argentina 's Copa América Centenario squad was initially put in jeopardy when he sustained a back injury in a 1 – 0 friendly win over Honduras in a pre @-@ Copa América warm @-@ up match on 27 May 2016 . It was later reported that he had suffered a deep bruise in his lumbar region , but that he would remain in Martino 's squad for the tournament , although he was later left on the bench in Argentina 's 2 – 1 opening win over defending champions Chile on 6 June due to concerns regarding his fitness . Although Messi was declared match @-@ fit for his nation 's second group match against Panama on 10 June , Martino left him on the bench once again ; he replaced Augusto Fernández in the 61st minute and subsequently scored a hat @-@ trick in 19 minutes , also starting the play which led to Agüero 's goal , as the match ended in a 5 – 0 victory , sealing Argentina 's place in the quarter @-@ finals of the competition ; he was elected man of the match for his performance .
On 18 June 2016 , in the quarter @-@ final of the Copa América against Venezuela , Messi produced another man of the match performance , assisting two goals and scoring another in a 4 – 1 victory , which enabled him to equal Gabriel Batistuta 's national record of 54 goals in official international matches . This record was broken three days later when Messi scored in a 4 – 0 win in the semi @-@ final of the Copa América against hosts the United States ; he also assisted two goals during the match as Argentina sealed a place in the final of the competition for a second consecutive year , and was named man of the match once again .
During a repeat of the previous year 's final on 26 June , Argentina once again lost to Chile on penalties after a 0 – 0 deadlock , resulting in Messi 's third consecutive defeat in a major tournament final with Argentina , and his fourth overall . After the match , Messi , who had missed his penalty in the shootout , announced his retirement from international football . Sources reported that other Argentine players , Sergio Agüero , Javier Mascherano , Gonzalo Higuaín , Lucas Biglia , Éver Banega , Ezequiel Lavezzi and Ángel Di María could follow their captain in retiring from international football . The Chile coach , Argentine Juan Antonio Pizzi , said after the match : " My generation can ’ t compare him to Maradona that ’ s for my generation , because of what Maradona did for Argentine football . But I think the best player ever played today here in the United States . " Messi finished the tournament as the second highest scorer , behind Eduardo Vargas , with five goals , and was the highest assist provider with four assists , also winning more Man of the Match awards than any other player in the tournament ( 3 ) ; he was named to the team of the tournament for his performances , but missed out on the Golden Ball Award for best player , which went to Alexis Sánchez .
= = = = " Don 't go , Leo " = = = =
Following the announcement , a campaign began in Argentina by the fans and many big names in football and society for Messi to change his mind about retiring . He was greeted by fans with signs reading " Don 't go , Leo " when the team landed in Buenos Aires . Argentina 's President Mauricio Macri urged Messi not to quit , stating : " We are lucky , it is one of life 's pleasures , it is a gift from God to have the best player in the world in a footballing country like ours ... Lionel Messi is the greatest thing we have in Argentina and we must take care of him . " The Buenos Aires mayor Horacio Rodríguez Larreta unveiled a statue of Messi in the capital to convince him reconsider retirement . On social networks , NoTeVayasLeo became a global trending topic , and even a playlist on Spotify . The campaign also continued in the streets and avenues of the Argentine capital , with about 50 @,@ 000 supporters going to the Obelisco de Buenos Aires on 2 July , using the same slogan .
Just a week after Messi announced his international retirement , Argentine newspaper La Nación reported that he is reconsidering playing for Argentina at the FIFA World Cup 2018 qualifiers in November .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Style of play = = =
Due to his short stature , Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players , which gives him greater agility , allowing him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles . For that , the Spanish media calls him La Pulga Atómica ( " The Atomic Flea " ) . Despite being physically unimposing , he possesses significant upper @-@ body strength , which , combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance , aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents ; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting . His short , strong legs allow him to excel in short bursts of acceleration while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed . His former Barcelona manager , Pep Guardiola , once stated : " Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it . " Although he has improved his ability with his weaker foot since his mid @-@ 20s , Messi is predominantly a left @-@ footed player ; with the outside of his left foot , he usually begins dribbling runs , while he uses the inside of his foot to finish and provide passes and assists .
A prolific goalscorer , Messi is known for his finishing , positioning , quick reactions , and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line . He also functions in a playmaking role , courtesy of his vision and precise passing , and is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker . His pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal , in particular during counterattacks , usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch . Widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world , and one of the greatest of all time , with regard to this ability , his former Argentina manager Diego Maradona has said of him : " The ball stays glued to his foot ; I 've seen great players in my career , but I 've never seen anyone with Messi 's ball control . " Beyond his individual qualities , he is also a well @-@ rounded , hard @-@ working team player , known for his creative combinations , in particular with Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta .
Tactically , Messi plays in a free attacking role ; a versatile player , he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch . His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers , known as the enganche in Argentine football , but he began his career in Spain as a left @-@ winger or left @-@ sided forward . Upon his first @-@ team debut , he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard ; from this position , he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot , rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates . Under Guardiola and subsequent managers , he most often played in a false nine role ; positioned as a centre @-@ forward or lone striker , he would roam the centre , often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him , in order to create and exploit spaces for passes , dribbling runs or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta . Under the stewardship of Luis Enrique , he returned to playing in the right @-@ sided position that characterised much of his early career . With the Argentina national team , Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline ; under various managers , he has been employed on the right wing , as a false nine , or in a deeper , creative role as a classic number 10 or attacking midfielder .
= = = Reception = = =
A prodigious talent as a teenager , Messi established himself among the world 's best players before age 20 . Diego Maradona considered the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Messi the best player in the world alongside Ronaldinho , while the Brazilian himself , shortly after winning the Ballon d 'Or , commented : " I 'm not even the best in Barça , " in reference to his protégé . Four years later , after Messi had won his first Ballon d 'Or by a record margin , the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was the greatest player in history . An early proponent was his then @-@ manager , Pep Guardiola , who had as early as August 2009 declared Messi to be the best player he had ever seen . In the following years , this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits , managers , former and current players , and by the end of Barça 's second treble @-@ winning season , Messi 's superiority , ahead of Maradona and Pelé , had become the predominant view among insiders in continental Europe . A frequent dismissal , however , has centred on the fact that Messi has not won the FIFA World Cup with Argentina , leading some in the sport to instead cite him as the best club player in history .
Throughout his career , Messi has been compared with his compatriot Diego Maradona , due to their similar playing styles as diminutive , left @-@ footed dribblers . Initially , he was merely one of many young Argentine players , including his boyhood idol Pablo Aimar , to receive the " New Maradona " moniker , but as his career progressed , Messi proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders , establishing himself as the greatest player Argentina had produced since Maradona . Jorge Valdano , who won the 1986 World Cup alongside Maradona , said in October 2013 : " Messi is Maradona every day . For the last five years , Messi has been the Maradona of the World Cup in Mexico . " César Menotti , who as manager orchestrated their 1978 World Cup victory , echoed this sentiment when he opined that Messi plays " at the level of the best Maradona . " Other notable Argentines in the sport , such as Osvaldo Ardiles , Javier Zanetti , and Diego Simeone , have expressed their belief that Messi has overtaken Maradona as the best player in history .
In Argentine society , Messi is generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona , a consequence of not only his uneven performances with the national team , but also of differences in class , personality , and background . Messi is in some ways the antithesis of his predecessor : where Maradona was an extroverted , controversial character who rose to greatness from the slums , Messi is reserved and unassuming , an unremarkable man outside of football . An enduring mark against him is the fact that , although through no fault of his own , he never proved himself in the Argentine Primera División as an upcoming player , achieving stardom overseas from a young age , while his lack of outward passion for the Albiceleste shirt — he does not sing the national anthem and is disinclined to emotional displays — have in the past led to the false perception that he felt Catalan rather than truly Argentine . Despite having lived in Spain since age 13 , Messi has said : " Argentina is my country , my family , my way of expressing myself . I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy . "
= = = Comparisons to Cristiano Ronaldo = = =
Among his contemporary peers , Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo , as part of an ongoing rivalry that has been compared to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali – Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing , the Björn Borg – John McEnroe rivalry in tennis , and the Ayrton Senna – Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One . Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry , they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world : since 2008 , Ronaldo has won three Ballons d 'Or to Messi 's five , and four European Golden Shoes to Messi 's three . Pundits and fans regularly argue the individual merits of both players ; beyond their playing styles , the debate also revolves around their differing physiques — Ronaldo is 1 @.@ 85 m ( 6 ft 1 in ) with a muscular build — and contrasting public personalities , with Ronaldo 's self @-@ confidence and theatrics a foil to Messi 's humility . Messi faces Ronaldo at least twice every season in El Clásico , which ranks among the world 's most viewed annual sports events . Off the pitch , Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary , sponsorships , and social media fanbase .
= = In popular culture = =
According to France Football , Messi was the world 's highest @-@ paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014 ; he was the first player to exceed the € 40 million benchmark , with earnings of € 41 million in 2013 , and the € 50 – € 60 million points , with income of € 65 million in 2014 . In 2016 , Messi was second on Forbes list of the world 's highest @-@ paid athletes ( after Cristiano Ronaldo ) with income of $ 81 @.@ 4 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 – 16 . Since 2008 , he has been Barcelona 's highest @-@ paid player , receiving a salary that increased incrementally from € 7 @.@ 8 million to € 13 million over the next five years . His current salary of € 20 million net ( € 36 million before taxes ) , established in 2014 , is the highest ever in the sport . In addition to his salary and multimillion @-@ euro bonuses , much of his income derives from endorsements ; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world 's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010 . His main sponsor since 2006 is the sportswear company Adidas . As Barça 's leading youth prospect , he had been signed with Nike since age 14 , but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival 's claim to his image rights in court . Over time , Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser ; from 2008 , he had a long @-@ running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots , and in 2015 , he became the first footballer to receive his own sub @-@ brand of boots , the Adidas Messi .
As a commercial entity , Messi 's marketing brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player , in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Cristiano Ronaldo and David Beckham . At the start of his career , he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports @-@ oriented marketing , such as Adidas , Pepsi , and Konami . From 2010 onwards , concurrently with his increased achievements as a player , his marketing appeal widened , leading to long @-@ term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet . Messi is also a global brand ambassador for Gillette , Turkish Airlines , Ooredoo , and Tata Motors , among other companies . Additionally , Messi was the face of Konami 's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer , appearing on the covers of PES 2009 , PES 2010 , and PES 2011 . He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and has since appeared on four consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16 .
Messi 's global popularity and influence are well documented . He was among the Time 100 , an annual list of the world 's most influential people as published by Time , in 2011 and 2012 . His fanbase on the social media website Facebook is among the largest of all public figures : within seven hours of its launch in April 2011 , his Facebook page had nearly seven million followers , and by November 2013 , he had become only the second sportsperson , after Cristiano Ronaldo , to amass over 50 million followers . According to a 2014 survey by sports research firm Repucom in 15 international markets , Messi was familiar to 87 % of respondents around the world , of whom 78 % perceived him favourably , making him the second @-@ most recognized player globally , behind Ronaldo , and the most likable of all contemporary players .
Other events have illustrated Messi 's presence in popular culture . A solid gold replica of his left foot , weighing 25 kg ( 55 lb ) and valued at $ 5 @.@ 25 million , went on sale in Japan in March 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . A 2013 Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi , in which he engages in a selfie competition with Los Angeles Lakers star Kobe Bryant , was the most @-@ watched ad on YouTube in the year of its release , receiving 137 million views , and was subsequently voted the best advertisement of the 2005 – 15 decade to commemorate YouTube 's founding . World Press Photo selected " The Final Game " , a photograph of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina 's final defeat to Germany , as the best sports image of 2014 . Messi , a documentary about his life by filmmaker Álex de la Iglesia , premiered at the Venice Film Festival in August 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family and relationships = = =
Since 2008 , when he was 20 , Messi has been in a relationship with Antonella Roccuzzo , a fellow native of Rosario . He has known Roccuzzo since he was five years old , as she is the cousin of his best friend since childhood , Lucas Scaglia , who is also a football player . After keeping their relationship private for a year , Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009 , before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona – Espanyol derby . He had previously been romantically linked with Argentine models Macarena Lemos and Luciana Salazar .
Messi and Roccuzzo have two sons : Thiago ( born 2012 ) and Mateo ( born 2015 ) . To celebrate his partner 's first pregnancy , Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina 's 4 – 0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012 , before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later . Thiago was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012 , with Messi attending the birth after being given permission by Barcelona to miss training . He announced his son 's arrival on his Facebook page , writing : " Today I am the happiest man in the world , my son was born and thanks to God for this gift ! " Thiago 's name and handprints are tattooed on his left calf . In April 2015 , Messi confirmed on Facebook that they were expecting another child . He missed training ahead of a match against Atlético Madrid to attend the birth of his second son , Mateo , on 11 September 2015 in Barcelona .
Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members , particularly his mother , Celia , whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder . His professional affairs are largely run as a family business : his father , Jorge , has been his agent since he was 14 , and his oldest brother , Rodrigo , handles his daily schedule and publicity . His mother and other brother , Matías , manage his charitable organisation , the Leo Messi Foundation , and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario .
Since leaving for Spain at age 13 , Messi has maintained close ties to his hometown of Rosario , even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent . He has kept ownership of his family 's old house , although it has long stood empty ; he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother , as well as a family compound just outside the city . Once when he was in training with the national team in Buenos Aires , he made a three @-@ hour trip by car to Rosario immediately after practice to have dinner with his family , spent the night with them , and returned to Buenos Aires the next day in time for practice . Messi keeps in daily contact via phone and text with a small group of confidants in Rosario , most of whom were fellow members of " The Machine of ' 87 " at Newell 's Old Boys . Although considered a one @-@ club man , he has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell 's . He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona , but by 2012 their public feud had ended , with Newell 's embracing their ties with Messi , even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son .
= = = Charity = = =
Throughout his career , Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at vulnerable children , a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood . Since 2004 , he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) , an organisation with which Barcelona also have a strong association . Messi has served as a UNICEF goodwill ambassador since his appointment in March 2010 , completing his first field mission for the organisation four months later as he travelled to Haiti to bring public awareness to the plight of the country 's children in the wake of the recent earthquake . He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns targeting HIV prevention , education , and the social inclusion of disabled children . To celebrate his son 's first birthday , in November 2013 , Messi and Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children .
In addition to his work with UNICEF , Messi founded his own charitable organisation , the Leo Messi Foundation , which supports access to health care , education , and sport for children . It was established in 2007 following a visit Messi paid to a hospital for terminally ill children in Boston , an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society . Through his foundation , Messi has awarded research grants , financed medical training , and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina , Spain , and elsewhere in the world . In addition to his own fundraising activities , such as his global " Messi and Friends " football matches , his foundation receives financial support from various companies to which he has assigned his name in endorsement agreements , with Adidas as their main sponsor .
Messi has also invested in youth football in Argentina : he financially supports Sarmiento , a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born , committing in 2013 to the refurbishment of their facilities and the installation of all @-@ weather pitches , and funds the management of several youth players at Newell 's Old Boys and rival club Rosario Central , as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires . At Newell 's Old Boys , his boyhood club , he funded the 2012 construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside the club 's stadium for their youth academy . His former youth coach at Newell 's , Ernesto Vecchio , is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players . In February 2016 , Messi utilized social media and UNICEF to track down an Afghanistani boy in a photo that went viral , which showed him wearing a homemade shirt made from a striped blue plastic bag with " Messi 10 " etched on the back , imitating the Argentina strip .
= = = Legal issues = = =
His financial affairs came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion . Offshore companies in tax havens Uruguay and Belize were allegedly used to evade € 4 @.@ 1 million in taxes related to sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009 . An unrelated shell company in Panama , set up in 2012 , was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak . Messi , who pleaded ignorance of the alleged scheme , voluntarily paid arrears of € 5 @.@ 1 million in August 2013 . He stood trial alongside his father on three counts of tax evasion in May 2016 . On 6 July 2016 , Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were handed suspended 21 @-@ month prison sentences , and respectively ordered to pay € 1 @.@ 7 million and € 1 @.@ 4 million in fines .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 22 May 2016
Notes
= = = International = = =
As of 26 June 2016
Notes
= = Honours and achievements = =
= = = Club = = =
La Liga : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Copa del Rey : 2008 – 09 , 2011 – 12 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Supercopa de España : 2006 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013
UEFA Champions League : 2005 – 06 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2014 – 15
UEFA Super Cup : 2009 , 2011 , 2015
FIFA Club World Cup : 2009 , 2011 , 2015
= = = International = = =
FIFA World Youth Championship : 2005
Olympic Gold Medal : 2008
Runner @-@ up FIFA World Cup : 2014
Runner @-@ up Copa América : 2007 , 2015 , 2016
= = = Individual = = =
= = = = Awards = = = =
Ballon d 'Or : 2009
FIFA World Player of the Year : 2009
UEFA Club Footballer of the Year : 2009
UEFA Club Forward of the Year : 2009
FIFA Ballon d 'Or : 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2015
IFFHS World 's Best Top Goalscorer : 2011 , 2012
IFFHS World 's Best Top Division Goalscorer : 2012 , 2013
IFFHS World 's Best Playmaker : 2015
UEFA Best Player in Europe : 2011 , 2015
European Golden Shoe : 2010 , 2012 , 2013
La Liga Best Player : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2015
La Liga Best Forward : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2015
La Liga Player of the Month : January 2016
Olimpia de Plata ( Argentine Footballer of the Year ) : 2005 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2015
Olimpia de Oro ( Argentine Sportsperson of the Year ) : 2011
FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball : 2009 , 2011
FIFA Club World Cup Silver Ball : 2015
FIFA World Cup Golden Ball : 2014
Copa América Most Valuable Player : 2015 ( rejected )
FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015
UEFA Team of the Year : 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2014 , 2015
La Liga Team of the Year : 2015
AFA Team of All Time ( published 2015 )
FIFA World Cup Dream Team : 2014
Copa América Dream Team : 2007 , 2011 , 2015 , 2016
UEFA Goal of the Year : 2007 , 2015
Copa América Best Goal : 2007
FIFPro Young World Player of the Year : 2006 , 2007 , 2008
Golden Boy ( Young European Footballer of the Year ) : 2005
FIFA World Youth Championship Golden Ball : 2005
FIFA World Youth Championship Golden Shoe : 2005
Copa América Best Young Player : 2007
La Liga top goalscorer : 2009 – 10 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
La Liga top assist provider : 2010 – 11 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Copa del Rey top goalscorer : 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
UEFA Champions League top goalscorer : 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 , 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12 , 2014 – 15
UEFA Champions League top assist provider : 2011 – 12 , 2014 – 15
FIFA Club World Cup top goalscorer : 2011
FIFA World Youth Championship top goalscorer : 2005
Copa América top assist provider : 2011 , 2015 , 2016
= = = = Records = = = =
As of 21 June 2016
Most FIFA Ballons d 'Or : 5 ( 2009 – 12 , 2015 )
Most consecutive FIFA Ballons d 'Or : 4
Youngest two @-@ time and three @-@ time FIFA Ballon d 'Or winner : 23 and 24 years old
Most UEFA Best Player in Europe awards : 3 ( 2009 , 2011 , 2015 )
Most La Liga Best Player awards : 6 ( 2009 – 13 , 2015 )
Top goalscorer in La Liga : 312 goals
Top assist provider in La Liga : 127 assists
Top goalscorer in the Supercopa de España : 11 goals
Top goalscorer in El Clásico : 21 goals
Top goalscorer in the Derbi barceloní : 16 goals
Top goalscorer in the UEFA Super Cup : 3 goals ( shared with Arie Haan , Oleg Blokhin , Gerd Müller , Rob Rensenbrink , François Van der Elst , Terry McDermott , and Radamel Falcao )
Top goalscorer in the FIFA Club World Cup : 5 goals ( shared with César Delgado and Luis Suárez )
Top goalscorer for club and country in a calendar year : 91 goals in 2012
Top goalscorer in all club competitions in a calendar year : 79 goals in 2012
Top goalscorer in all club competitions in a season : 73 goals in 2011 – 12
Longest goalscoring run in a domestic league : 21 matches , 33 goals in 2012 – 13
Top goalscorer in a La Liga season : 50 goals in 2011 – 12
Most hat @-@ tricks scored in a La Liga season : 8 in 2011 – 12 ( shared with Cristiano Ronaldo )
Only player to score consecutively against all opposition teams in La Liga : 19 matches , 30 goals in 2012 – 13
Only player to have won more than one FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball .
Youngest player to score 200 goals in La Liga : 25 years in 2013
Only player to be top goalscorer in five UEFA Champions League seasons ( 2008 – 09 to 2011 – 12 , 2014 – 15 )
Only player to be top goalscorer in four consecutive UEFA Champions League seasons
Most hat @-@ tricks scored in the UEFA Champions League : 5
Most goals scored in a UEFA Champions League match : 5 in 2012 ( shared with Luiz Adriano )
Youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League : 28 years , 84 days in 2015
Most titles won with Barcelona : 28 ( shared with Andrés Iniesta )
Top goalscorer for Barcelona in official competitions : 448 goals
Top goalscorer for Barcelona including friendlies : 477 goals
Top goalscorer for Barcelona in the UEFA Champions League : 82 goals
Most hat @-@ tricks scored in all competitions by a Barcelona player : 35
Most hat @-@ tricks scored in La Liga by a Barcelona player : 26
Only Barcelona player to be top goalscorer in three La Liga seasons ( 2009 – 10 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 )
All @-@ time top assist provider in Copa América : 11 assists
Argentina all @-@ time top goalscorer : 55 goals
Top goalscorer for Argentina in a calendar year : 12 goals in 2012 ( shared with Gabriel Batistuta )
Youngest player to play for Argentina in a FIFA World Cup : 18 years , 357 days in 2006
Youngest player to score for Argentina in a FIFA World Cup : 18 years , 357 days in 2006
Youngest player to reach 100 caps for a country under CONMEBOL 's jurisdiction : 27 years , 361 days in 2015
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= Ice Ice Baby =
" Ice Ice Baby " is a hip hop song written by American rapper Vanilla Ice and DJ Earthquake , but based on the bassline of " Under Pressure " by Queen and David Bowie , who did not initially receive songwriting credit or royalties until after it had become a hit . Originally released on Vanilla Ice 's 1989 debut album Hooked and later on his 1990 national debut To the Extreme , it is his most well known song . It has appeared in remixed form on Platinum Underground and Vanilla Ice Is Back ! A live version appears on the album Extremely Live , while a rap rock version appears on the album Hard to Swallow , under the title " Too Cold " .
" Ice Ice Baby " was initially released as the B @-@ side to Vanilla Ice 's cover of " Play That Funky Music " , but the single was not initially successful . When disc jockey David Morales played " Ice Ice Baby " instead , it began to gain success . " Ice Ice Baby " was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts . Outside the United States , the song topped the charts in Australia , Belgium , the Netherlands , New Zealand , the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom , thus helping the song diversify hip hop by introducing it to a mainstream audience . The song came fifth in VH1 and Blender 's 2004 list of the " 50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs Ever . "
= = Lyrics and music = =
Robert Van Winkle , better known by his stage name Vanilla Ice , wrote " Ice Ice Baby " in 1983 at the age of 16 , basing its lyrics upon his experiences in South Florida . The lyrics describe a shooting and Van Winkle 's rhyming skills . The chorus of " Ice Ice Baby " originates from the signature chant of the national African American fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha . Of the song 's lyrics , Van Winkle states that " If you released ' Ice Ice Baby ' today , it would fit in today 's lyrical respect among peers , you know what I 'm sayin ' ? [ ... ] My lyrics aren 't , ' Pump it up , go ! Go ! ' At least I 'm sayin ' somethin ' . "
The song 's hook samples the bassline of the 1981 song " Under Pressure " by Queen and David Bowie , who did not receive credit or royalties for the sample . In a 1990 interview , Van Winkle said the two melodies were slightly different because he had added an additional note , an anacrusis ( " pickup " ) between odd @-@ numbered and subsequent even @-@ numbered iterations of the Under Pressure sample . In later interviews , Van Winkle readily admitted he sampled the song and claimed his 1990 statement was a joke ; others , however , suggested he had been serious . Van Winkle later paid Queen and Bowie and as a result , Bowie and all members of Queen have since been given songwriting credit for the sample . In December 1990 , Van Winkle told British youth music magazine Smash Hits where he came up with the idea of sampling " Under Pressure " :
Van Winkle described himself as the first rapper to cross into the pop market and said that although his pioneer status forced him to " take the heat for a lot of people " for his music 's use of samples , the criticism he received over sample use allowed sampling to become acceptable in mainstream hip hop .
= = Release = =
" Ice Ice Baby " was initially released by Ichiban Records as the B @-@ side to Van Winkle 's cover of " Play That Funky Music " . The 12 @-@ inch single featured the radio , instrumental and a cappella versions of " Play That Funky Music " and the radio version and " Miami Drop " remix of " Ice Ice Baby " . When a disc jockey played " Ice Ice Baby " instead of the single 's A @-@ side , the song gained more success than " Play That Funky Music " . A music video for " Ice Ice Baby " was produced for $ 8000 . The video was financed by Van Winkle 's manager , Tommy Quon , and shot on the roof of a warehouse in Dallas , Texas . In the video , Van Winkle is shown rapping the lyrics while he and others dance to the song . Heavy airplay of the video by The Box while Van Winkle was still unknown increased public interest in the song . " Ice Ice Baby " was given its own single , released in 1990 by SBK Records in the United States , and EMI Records in the United Kingdom . The SBK single contained the " Miami Drop " , instrumental and radio mixes of " Ice Ice Baby " and the album version of " It 's A Party " . The EMI single contained the club and radio mixes of the song , and the shortened radio edit . The single was quickly pulled from the American market soon after the song reached number one , in a successful attempt to drive consumers to buy the album instead .
= = Reception = =
" Ice Ice Baby " garnered critical acclaim , and was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts . It has been credited for helping diversify hip hop by introducing it to a mainstream audience .
Entertainment Weekly reviewer Mim Udovitch wrote that " [ Vanilla Ice ] probably would have scored with his hit rap single ' Ice Ice Baby ' even if he hadn 't been white . There 's just something about the way its hook – a sample from Queen and David Bowie 's ' Under Pressure ' — grabs you and flings you out onto the dance floor . "
Following the song 's success , California rapper Mario " Chocolate " Johnson , an associate of record producer Suge Knight , claimed that he had helped in writing the song , and had not received credit or royalties . Knight and two bodyguards arrived at The Palm in West Hollywood , where Van Winkle was eating . After shoving Van Winkle 's bodyguards aside , Knight and his own bodyguards sat down in front of Van Winkle , staring at him before finally asking " How you doin ' ? " Similar incidents were repeated on several occasions before Knight showed up at Van Winkle 's suite on the fifteenth floor of the Bel Age Hotel , accompanied by Johnson and a member of the Los Angeles Raiders . According to Van Winkle , Knight took him out on the balcony by himself , and implied that he would throw Van Winkle off unless he signed the rights to the song over to Knight . In 2012 , Mario " Chocolate " Johnson told to LA Weekly that this story is false .
= = Legacy = =
After audiences began to view Van Winkle as a novelty act and a pop star rather than a legitimate rapper , his popularity began to decline . Detroit @-@ based rapper Eminem states that when he first heard " Ice Ice Baby " , " I felt like I didn 't want to rap anymore . I was so mad , because he was making it real hard for me . " Van Winkle lost some credibility among hip hop fans , but later began to regain some success , attracting a new audience outside of the mainstream audience that had formerly accepted him , and then rejected him . " Ice Ice Baby " continues to be the song that Van Winkle is best known for internationally , although Van Winkle states that his American fans like his newer music better .
A live version appeared on the album Extremely Live . " Ice Ice Baby " was rerecorded in a rap rock version titled " Too Cold " . Originally intended to be released as a hidden track or B @-@ side , " Too Cold " was featured on Van Winkle 's 1998 album Hard to Swallow , and became a radio hit in some markets . In 2000 , a remix titled " Ice Ice Baby 2001 " was released in Europe as a single , with a newly produced music video . The remix generated new international interest in Van Winkle 's music .
VH1 and Blender ranked " Ice Ice Baby " fifth on its list of the " 50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs Ever " . It was also given the distinction by the Houston Press as being the worst song ever to emanate from Texas . In 1999 , the song 's music video was " retired " on the MTV special 25 Lame , in which Van Winkle himself appeared to destroy the video 's master tape . Given a baseball bat , Van Winkle ended up destroying the show 's set . In December 2007 , the song was ranked No. 29 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90 's .
In 1991 , Alvin and the Chipmunks released a cover version entitled " Ice Ice Alvin " for their album The Chipmunks Rock the House . " Weird Al " Yankovic included the chorus as the final song in " Polka Your Eyes Out " , the polka medley from his 1992 album Off the Deep End . In 2010 , the song was featured in the Glee episode " Bad Reputation " as performed by Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = = 1990 release = = =
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Other uses = =
In 2013 , a parody of the song titled " Rice Rice Baby " was created for an advert from Müller involving a 7 @-@ foot bear who disrupts a hungry co @-@ worker whilst singing the parody . Two versions were created , a 30 @-@ second version and a 10 @-@ second version .
= = = Successions = = =
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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= The Guardian of Education =
The Guardian of Education was the first successful periodical dedicated to reviewing children 's literature in Britain . It was edited by 18th @-@ century educationalist , children 's author , and Sunday school advocate Sarah Trimmer and was published from June 1802 until September 1806 by J. Hatchard and F. C. and J. Rivington . The journal offered child @-@ rearing advice and assessments of contemporary educational theories , and Trimmer even proffered her own educational theory after evaluating the major works of the day .
Fearing the influence of French Revolutionary ideals , particularly those of philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , Trimmer emphasized orthodox Anglicanism and encouraged the perpetuation of the contemporary social and political order . Despite her conservatism , however , she agreed with Rousseau and other progressive educational reformers on many issues , such as the damaging effects of rote learning and the irrationalism of fairy tales .
The Guardian of Education was the first periodical to review children 's books seriously and with a distinctive set of criteria . Trimmer 's reviews were carefully thought out ; they influenced publishers and authors to alter the content of their books , helped to define the new genre of children 's literature , and greatly affected the sales of children 's books . The Guardian also offered the first history of children 's literature ; establishing a list of landmark books , which scholars still use today .
= = Founding and structure = =
Sarah Trimmer was prompted to publish The Guardian of Education by the flood of new children 's books on the market early in the nineteenth century and by her fear that those books might contain French Revolutionary values . The 1790s had been one of the most tumultuous decades in Europe 's history , with the French revolution , increased demands for reform in Britain , and the French Revolutionary Wars . Following this upsurge in radicalism , a conservative backlash erupted in Britain ; the Guardian was , in many ways , a part of this movement . In its pages , Trimmer denounced the Revolution and the philosophers whose works she believed were responsible for it , particularly Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . She argued that there existed a vast conspiracy , organized by the atheistic and democratic revolutionaries of France , to undermine and overthrow the legitimate governments of Europe . From her perspective , the conspirators were attempting to overturn traditional society by " endeavouring to infect the minds of the rising generation , through the medium of Books of Education and Children 's Books " [ emphasis Trimmer 's ] . She intended to combat this conspiracy by pointing parents towards properly Christian books .
Each issue of Trimmer 's Guardian was divided into three sections : 1 ) extracts from texts which Trimmer thought would edify her adult readers ( grouped under " Memoirs " and " Extracts from Sermons " ) ; 2 ) an essay by Trimmer commenting on educational issues ( contained in sections such as " Original Essays " and " Systems of Education Examined " ) ; 3 ) and reviews of children 's books . Trimmer herself wrote all of the essays listed under her name and all of the reviews , but she was not the author of the texts she extracted . The issues did not always consist of the same sections ; for example , beginning in 1804 Trimmer started including an " Essay on Christian Education " and in 1805 occasionally reviewed " School books " . Beginning a tradition that persists to this day , she divided the books she reviewed by age group : " Examination of Books for Children " ( for those under fourteen ) and " Books for Young Persons " ( for those between fourteen and twenty @-@ one ) .
Matthew Grenby , the foremost expert on Trimmer , estimates that the Guardian 's circulation was between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 500 copies per issue . Thus the Guardian 's circulation was probably comparable to political periodicals such as the Tory Critical Review and the British Critic , which both reached 3 @,@ 500 by 1797 , or the Analytical Review , which reached about 1 @,@ 500 , but not to the Monthly Review , which reached approximately 5 @,@ 000 . From June 1802 until January 1804 , the Guardian appeared monthly ; from then until it ceased publication in September 1806 , it was issued quarterly . There were 28 issues in all .
Trimmer undertook a challenging task in publishing her periodical . According to Grenby , she aimed " to assess the current state of educational policy and praxis in Britain and to shape its future direction " . To do so , she evaluated the educational theories of Rousseau , John Locke , Mary Wollstonecraft , Hannah More , Madame de Genlis , Joseph Lancaster , and Andrew Bell , among others . In her " Essay on Christian Education " , subsequently published separately as a pamphlet , she proposed her own comprehensive educational program .
= = Reviewing criteria and values = =
The Guardian of Education was the first periodical to take the reviewing of children 's books seriously . Trimmer 's over four hundred reviews constituted a set of distinct and identifiable criteria regarding what was valuable in this new genre . As a high @-@ church Anglican , she was intent on protecting Christianity from secularism as well as evangelicalism , particularly as the latter manifested itself in Methodism . Her reviews also reveal her to be a staunch monarchist and opponent of the French Revolution . As Grenby puts it , " her initial questions of any children 's books that came before her were always first , was it damaging to religion and second , was it damaging to political loyalty and the established social hierarchy " . Religion was Trimmer 's first priority and her emphasis on the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy illustrated her fundamentalism . She wrote to a friend : " I will only say , that the more I reflect on the subject , the more I am convinced that it is not right to supersede the figurative style in which they speak of God and divine things , my opinion is , that whoever attempts to teach the truths of divine revelation , should follow the method of the inspired writers as nearly as possible " [ emphasis Trimmer 's ] . For Trimmer , the truth of the Bible was not only in its content , but also in its style , and some of her harshest reviews were written against texts that altered both the style and the substance of the Bible .
Trimmer 's fundamentalism , Grenby argues , does not necessarily mark her as a rigid thinker . Grenby points out that Trimmer , like Rousseau , believed children were naturally good . In this view , she was arguing against centuries of tradition , particularly Puritanical attitudes towards raising children ( exemplified in the doctrine of original sin ) . Although she attacked Rousseau 's works , Grenby argues that she agreed with " Rousseau 's key idea , later taken up by the Romantics , that children should not be forced to become adults too early " , in particular that they should not be exposed to political issues too soon . Trimmer also maintained that mothers and fathers should share the responsibility of caring for the family . Like the progressive educational reformers and children 's authors Maria Edgeworth and Thomas Day and even Rousseau himself , Trimmer opposed rote learning and advocated flexible and conversational lessons that encouraged critical thinking in children . She also promoted breastfeeding ( a controversial position at the time ) and parental involvement in childhood education .
In his analysis of her reviews , Grenby comes to the conclusion " Trimmer was ... not nearly so vitriolic in her reviewing as her reputation suggests .... fewer than 50 [ of the reviews ] were chiefly negative , and of these only 18 were thoroughly excoriating . These were easily outweighed by the positive notices , although most of her reviews were mixed or – more surprisingly given her reputation for always impassioned appraisal – ambivalent . " She objected primarily to texts that altered the Bible , such as William Godwin 's Bible Stories ( 1802 ) , and secondarily to books that promoted ideas she associated with the French Revolution . She also criticized the inclusion of scenes of death , characters who were insane , and representations of sexuality , as well as books that might frighten children . She typically praises books that encourage intellectual instruction , such as Anna Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) .
= = = Fairy tales = = =
Trimmer is perhaps most famous now for her condemnation of fairy tales , such as the various translations of Charles Perrault 's Histoires ou Contes du Temps passé ( 1697 ) . She disliked fairy tales because they endorsed an irrational view of the world and success without work . Trimmer 's view of fairy tales , although often ridiculed by modern critics , was widespread at the end of the eighteenth century , in part because most educators accepted John Locke 's theory that the mind was a tabula rasa and therefore particularly sensitive to impressions early in life . Trimmer was opposed to fairy tales that were not grounded in reality and which would " excite an unregulated sensibility " in the reader . Without a proper moral or a moralizing narrator , fairy tales could lead a reader astray . Above all , she was concerned about " unmediated " , unknown , and unsupervised feelings in the child reader . One of the reasons Trimmer believed fairy tales were dangerous was because they led child readers into a fantasy world where adults could not follow and control their exposure to harmful experiences . She was just as horrified by the graphic illustrations included with some fairy tale collections , complaining that " little children , whose minds are susceptible of every impression ; and who from the liveliness of their imaginations are apt to convert into realities whatever forcibly strikes their fancy " should not be allowed to see such scenes as Blue Beard hacking his wife 's head off .
Fairy tales were often found in chapbooks — cheap , disposable literature — which contained sensational stories such as Jack the Giant Killer along with lewder tales such as How to restore a lost Maidenhead , or solder a Crackt one . Chapbooks were the literature of the poor and Trimmer attempted to separate children 's literature from texts she associated with the lower classes . Trimmer criticized the values associated with fairy tales , accusing them of perpetuating irrationality , superstition , and unfavorable images of stepparents . Rather than seeing Trimmer as a censor of fairy tales , therefore , children 's literature scholar Nicholas Tucker has argued , " by considering fairy tales as fair game for criticism rather than unthinking worship , Mrs Trimmer is at one with scholars today who have also written critically about the ideologies found in some individual stories " .
= = = French Revolution and religion = = =
Trimmer 's views of the French philosophes were shaped by Abbé Barruel 's Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism ( 1797 – 98 ) ( she extracted large sections from this text into the Guardian itself ) but also by her fears of the ongoing wars between France and Britain during the 1790s . Trimmer emphasized Christianity above all in her writings and maintained that one should to turn to God in times of trial . As children 's literature scholar M. Nancy Cutt argues , Trimmer and writers like her " claimed emphatically that the degree of human happiness was in direct proportion to the degree of submission to the divine Will . Thus they repudiated the moralists ' view that learning should exalt reason and work to the temporal happiness of the individual , which was governed by the best interests of society . " Trimmer and her allies contended that French pedagogical theories led to an immoral nation , specifically , " deism , infidelity and revolution " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Although one previous attempt had been made to regularly review British children 's books it was not as comprehensive , did not last as long , and was not nearly as influential as Trimmer 's Guardian . Grenby suggests , for example , that Godwin changed the name of his Bible Stories to Sacred Histories after Trimmer 's attack on it and the publishers of John Newbery 's Tom Telescope and the Philosophy of Tops and Balls immediately removed the material Trimmer found offensive . Other scholars have argued that authors wrote with Trimmer 's reviewing criteria in mind , one going so far as to call it " a manual for prospective writers " . However , Trimmer 's reviews were not always heeded ; for example , her negative review of the sentimental works of Edward Augustus Kendall , such as Keeper 's Travels in Search of His Master , did little to dampen the sales of his works .
With its four hundred reviews , The Guardian of Education , as Grenby writes , " contributed to the establishment of children 's literature as a secure , permanent and respectable literary genre " . By excluding novels , chapbooks , tracts , ballads , and fairy tales , it effectively decided what counted as children 's literature and what did not . Furthermore , in one of her early essays , " Observations on the Changes which have taken place in Books for Children and Young Persons " , Trimmer wrote the first history of children 's literature . Its landmark books , such as Sarah Fielding 's The Governess ( 1749 ) and John Newbery 's The History of Little Goody Two Shoes ( 1765 ) , are still cited today by scholars as important in the development of children 's literature .
It was not until the last quarter of the nineteenth century , with the publication of the work of children 's author and literary critic Charlotte Yonge , that any sustained reviewing or historicizing of children 's literature took place again .
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= Hoedown Throwdown =
" Hoedown Throwdown " is a song performed by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was released as a single from the soundtrack for Hannah Montana : The Movie . It was then released via iTunes Store on March 10 , 2009 as a Radio Disney exclusive that had an interview as a B @-@ side . A karaoke version is available in the soundtrack 's karaoke series . " Hoedown Throwdown " is an instructional dance song with a hybrid of country and hip hop . The choreography was designed by Jamal Sims and incorporates line dance influences .
The song received mixed critical reception , but enjoyed commercial success and became a top twenty hit in various nations including Australia , Canada , Ireland , Norway , the United Kingdom , and the United States . " Hoedown Throwdown " reached its highest international peak in the Irish Singles Chart , at number ten . The single never received an official music video , but an excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie was used for promotion . Cyrus incorporated " Hoedown Throwdown " into the set list of her first worldwide concert tour , the Wonder World Tour .
= = Background = =
" Hoedown Throwdown " was created for the 2009 musical film Hannah Montana : The Movie , in which Cyrus stars as a famous pop star sent to reconnect with her Southern roots and family . The film 's director , Peter Chelsom , felt the movie needed a big dance @-@ number , similar to the " Macarena " ( 1995 ) or the " Funky Chicken " ( 1950s ) . Chelsom knew he wanted a song in which Cyrus ' character , Miley Stewart , called dance steps that captured Cyrus ' " real silliness physically " and her " great abandon " . In addition , Chelsom wanted the song to represent the two worlds of Stewart , the main theme of the film , by " combin [ ing ] Miley Stewart ’ s L.A. hip @-@ hop / pop style with her country roots " . Because the song is an instructional dance song , it became an ongoing collaboration between Chelsom , choreographer Jamal Sims , Cyrus , and the song 's songwriters , Adam Anders and Nikki Hasman . According to Chelsom , the collaborators referred to the song by the working title " The Project " " for the longest time " before naming it the " Hoedown Throwdown " . The song was also nick @-@ named " Miley 's Macarena " . " Hoedown Throwdown " was first released as a promotional single from the soundtrack to Hannah Montana : The Movie on March 10 , 2009 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Hoedown Throwdown " merges from a hybrid of country and hip hop . It is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . " Hoedown Throwdown " is written in the key of E ♭ major . Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from B ♭ 3 to F5 . The song begins with an intro in which Cyrus repeats " Boom Boom clap , boom di @-@ clap di @-@ clap " four times . This line is reused in the song 's outro . Allmusic described the song as a tribute to " down @-@ home family times " . Cyrus stated " Hoedown Throwdown " was one of those on the film 's soundtrack that " is all about " her Nashville roots and " the reason why [ she is who she is ] . "
= = Dance = =
The dance for " Hoedown Throwdown " is heavily influenced by line dancing and merges some hip @-@ hop . A video starring Cyrus and Hannah Montana : The Movie 's choreographer Jamal Simms entitled " How to Do the Hoedown Throwdown " , premiered on Disney Channel on February 20 , 2009 . The video features Cyrus and Simms , accompanied by several back @-@ up dancers , in a pink room and sporting workout attire . Throughout the evening , Cyrus and Simms executed and explained each dance move . At the end of the night , Cyrus and Simms put together all of the dance steps at once into a competition entitled " Hoedown Throwdown Showdown " . Cyrus explained the dance required " semi @-@ coordinat [ ion ] " . Ann Donahue of Billboard said that she discovered " exactly how Cyrus ' legion of preteen female fans is learning the dance : YouTube onscreen , phone to ear , someone on phone offering encouragement amid occasional peals of laughter . " She also drew similarities to Billy Ray Cyrus ' choreography for " Achy Breaky Heart " . Reported by MTV News , the " Hoedown Throwdown , " caused a sizable younger audience " jumping on the country bandwagon " . In an interview with Just Jared , Cyrus said
" I have all these different kids at events who say , ' Oh yeah , I know the " Hoedown Throwdown " now , ' and that 's really cool that they 're getting to dance to it . In the theaters , I think if they danced to it , it would be kind of cool . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed reviews . Warren Truitt from About.com described the song as Cyrus ' " only misstep " in the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack because of its " weird " merge of country and hip @-@ hop " that sound [ ed ] like Disney 's trying a liiittle [ sic ] bit too hard to cover all genres " . Heather Phares of Allmusic stated the song was the exception to Cyrus ' usual husky and natural songs . Phares added that " Hoedown Throwdown " was " goofy " and " feels more like a parody of down @-@ home fun than a tribute to it " . The Baltimore Sun reviewer Chris Kahltenblach wrote that the song is " catchy as the law allows " . Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe praised the " Hoedown Throwdown " was " an epic line dance " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly described the song as " deep @-@ fried [ ... ] sort of goofy Hee [ sic ] Haw " . However , Owen Gleiberman , also of Entertainment Weekly , called Cyrus a " professional charmer " and found that " it 's hard to resist when she leads a hip @-@ hop hoedown " . The Hollywood Reporter reviewer Michael Rechtshaffen wrote that the song was a " misguided attempt at marrying Hannah 's contemporary pop / hip @-@ hop sound with the Grand Ole Opry " and that it was " squirm @-@ inducing " . Meanwhile , Mary McNamara , writing for the Los Angeles Times , called the " Hoedown Throwdown " one of the few " flashes of inspiration " in Hannah Montana : The Movie and Variety magazine 's Lael Lowenstein referred to it as a " pleasing , rousing , toe @-@ tapping , line @-@ dancing hoedown . " The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
Due to digital sales , the song debuted at number sixty @-@ eight in the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending March 21 , 2009 . The song then found new peaks at number forty @-@ six and twenty @-@ eight on the chart , respectively . For the week ending May 2 , 2009 , " Hoedown Throwdown " peaked at number eighteen on the Billboard Hot 100 due to digital downloads that placed it at number eight on Hot Digital Songs . The song also peaked at number twenty @-@ nine in the canceled Pop 100 chart . In Canada , the song peaked at number fifteen . In the Australian Singles Chart , the song debuted at number forty and peaked at number twenty after three weeks of finding new peaks . " Hoedown Throwdown " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the sales of over 35 @,@ 000 digital downloads . " Hoedown Throwdown " debuted and peaked at number forty in the New Zealand Singles Chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number sixty @-@ two for the week ending March 18 , 2009 . It peaked at number eighteen for the week ending May 16 , 2009 . The song reached its highest international peak in Ireland . It entered the Irish Singles Chart on the week ending May 7 , 2009 , both debuting and peaking at number ten . In mainland Europe , " Hoedown Throwdown " peaked at number fifty in the European Hot 100 and at number seventeen in the Norwegian Singles Chart . The song also reached charts in Austria , Germany , and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video , directed by Peter Chelsom , is an excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie which premiered on February 16 , 2009 on Disney Channel .
The video begins with a black background and blue printed letters that spell " boom " . Other words appear , ultimately spelling the phrase " boom , clap , boom dee clap " . A quick montage of Hannah Montana and Miley Stewart are played . It then skips to the video 's main setting . Cyrus is at a crowded barn , wearing a plaid blouse , jean skirt , and boots , on top of a stage . Blue printed letters that spell the lyrics then make an appearance , as Cyrus attempts to teach the crowd the dance . After the crowd learns the dance routine , scenes of Mitchel Musso , Moises Arias , Vanessa Williams , Tyra Banks , Jason Earles , and Emily Osment doing the " Hoedown Throwdown " are played . When Cyrus ' scene reappears she is off the stage and performing with the rest of the crowd . In the conclusion , Cyrus finishes singing onstage and the audience applauds .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus never sang " Hoedown Throwdown " live during televised events , but often performed the dance with the track on playback . On April 3 , 2009 , Cyrus performed " Hoedown Throwdown " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . Cyrus performed the dance on Good Morning America on April 8 , 2009 . On April 10 , 2009 , Cyrus danced to the track with some of the movie 's castmates on The Tyra Banks Show . Preceded by a performance of " Let 's Get Crazy " as herself and succeeded by " These Four Walls " , Cyrus performed " Hoedown Throwdown " as part of her set list in her first worldwide concert tour , the Wonder World Tour . For the performances Cyrus dressed in a short white tutu @-@ like dress and performed the dance with her background dancers . Mid @-@ way through the song , will.i.am appeared on the screens to congratulate Cyrus and continued speaking as she left the stage . When he finished , the dancers performed to a remix of " Boom Boom Pow " by The Black Eyed Peas .
= = Charts = =
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= 1948 Cleveland Browns season =
The 1948 Cleveland Browns season was the team 's third in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . After winning the AAFC crown in 1946 and 1947 , the league 's first two years of existence , the Browns repeated as champions in 1948 and had a perfect season , winning all of their games .
The season began with a number of roster moves , including the addition of linebacker Alex Agase and halfbacks Ara Parseghian and Dub Jones . Following training camp and two preseason games , the Browns began the regular season with a win against the Buffalo Bills . Led by quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and ends Mac Speedie and Dante Lavelli , the Browns followed with a string of victories leading up to a November matchup with the San Francisco 49ers . Both teams had perfect records to that point , the 49ers relying heavily on the offensive production of quarterback Frankie Albert and end Alyn Beals to win their first 10 games . The Browns beat the 49ers 14 – 7 , and followed two weeks later with another narrow victory over San Francisco , their closest competition in the AAFC in 1948 .
By the end of the season , the Browns had a perfect 14 – 0 record and led the league 's Western Division , setting up a championship @-@ game matchup with the Bills , who had won a playoff to take the Eastern Division . Cleveland beat Buffalo 49 – 7 in December to win the championship and preserve its unbeaten record . After the season , Graham , Motley and Speedie were included in many news organizations ' All @-@ Pro teams , alongside several other teammates . Graham was named the co @-@ Most Valuable Player of the league alongside Albert . Browns games were televised for the first time in 1948 .
The season is recognized as perfect by the Pro Football Hall of Fame , although the National Football League ( NFL ) , which absorbed the Browns when the AAFC dissolved in 1949 , does not recognize it . Ohio senator Sherrod Brown wrote a letter to NFL commissioner Roger Goodell in 2008 asking the league to officially recognize AAFC team statistics , including the perfect season . The New England Patriots were vying to complete a 19 – 0 season at the time and join the 1972 Miami Dolphins as the only teams to register a perfect record .
= = Offseason and roster moves = =
Cleveland finished the 1947 season with a 12 – 1 – 1 win @-@ loss @-@ tie record and beat the New York Yankees to win its second straight AAFC championship . While the team was successful in those first two years of existence , head coach Paul Brown made numerous roster changes before the 1948 season . He brought in linebacker Alex Agase and defensive tackle Chubby Grigg via a trade with the Chicago Rockets . Tommy James , a defensive back who stayed with the team through the 1955 season , came from the National Football League 's Detroit Lions . Defensive back Warren Lahr also joined the team but did not play in 1948 after breaking a leg in the preseason .
Offensive additions included halfback Ara Parseghian and quarterback George Terlep , but the most significant signing of the year was Dub Jones . Brown got Jones – who had a long and successful career in Cleveland – in a trade with the Brooklyn Dodgers for the rights to draft Bob Chappuis . Author Andy Piasick describes this trade as one of the most astute in Browns history . The Browns also signed quarterback Y.A. Tittle from Louisiana State University , but were forced to send him to the Baltimore Colts as part of an effort to balance talent among the AAFC 's teams during the league 's third year of play .
Browns center Mike Scarry left before the season to become the head coach at Western Reserve . Frank Gatski took over at the position after Scarry 's retirement . Don Greenwood , a halfback who featured in the team 's first two seasons , retired after sustaining a serious cheekbone injury in 1947 and accepted a job as head football coach at Cuyahoga Falls High School in Cuyahoga Falls , Ohio . Browns games were televised for the first time in 1948 on 84 stations across the country . Only away games were shown in northeast Ohio ; they were presented by Bob Neal and Stan Gee , who had announced Browns games on WGAR @-@ AM radio in 1946 and 1947 .
The entry of a new ownership group of the Brooklyn Dodgers in the offseason that included Branch Rickey had an impact on the Browns ' schedule in 1948 . Rickey , an executive for baseball 's Brooklyn Dodgers , convinced Brown to schedule a late @-@ season road trip during which Cleveland would play three teams in eight days : the New York Yankees , the Los Angeles Dons and the San Francisco 49ers . The plan was part of an effort to bring more attention to the AAFC and help attendance by sending its most successful team on a cross @-@ country road trip , a strategy that had worked in baseball .
= = Roster and coaching staff = =
= = Preseason results = =
= = Preseason game summaries = =
Cleveland held its training camp at the campus of Bowling Green State University , as it had the previous two years . Two preseason games were scheduled , one against the Buffalo Bills at the Rubber Bowl in Akron , Ohio and a second against the Baltimore Colts at the Glass Bowl in Toledo , Ohio .
= = = Week 1 : vs. Buffalo Bills = = =
Cleveland 's first preseason game was a victory over the Bills in Akron . The Browns scored three touchdowns in the first quarter , first on an interception return by Cliff Lewis and then on a pair of passes from quarterback Otto Graham to Dean Sensanbaugher and Mac Speedie . Sensanbaugher scored another touchdown in the second quarter on a pass from Lewis , who came in to substitute for Graham . By the time fullback Marion Motley ran for a short touchdown in the third quarter to make the score 35 – 0 , coach Paul Brown had pulled most of the team 's starters . Buffalo proceeded to mount a comeback , scoring one touchdown in the third quarter and two in the fourth . Buffalo 's final score came on a punt return received by Rex Bumgardner . As he was about to be tackled at the Cleveland 20 @-@ yard line , Bumgardner pitched the ball to teammate Bill Heywood , who ran the rest of the way for the touchdown . Cleveland and Buffalo both had 12 first downs and 206 yards of rushing , but the Browns had 159 yards of passing to Buffalo 's 127 , helping secure the 35 – 21 win .
= = = Week 2 : vs. Baltimore Colts = = =
Cleveland lost its second preseason game , played against the Baltimore Colts in 100 @-@ degree heat in Toledo , Ohio . Browns placekicker Lou Groza opened the scoring with an 18 @-@ yard field goal in the first quarter , and a touchdown by fullback Ollie Cline later in the period put the Browns up 10 – 0 . Baltimore responded in the second quarter with a touchdown pass by quarterback Y.A. Tittle to receiver Jake Leicht . Cline ran for another touchdown soon thereafter , however , once more giving the Browns a 10 @-@ point lead . Colts receiver Lamar Davis caught a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass at the end of the second quarter . Cleveland led 17 – 14 at halftime . Neither team scored again until the fourth quarter , when Baltimore 's Bus Mertes ran for a 38 @-@ yard touchdown and secured the 21 – 17 win . A number of Cleveland players suffered injuries during the game . Graham hurt his hand , Motley strained his back and end Dante Lavelli suffered a broken leg . Lavelli 's injury sidelined him for the first seven games of the regular season . During the game , Baltimore players Hub Bechtol and Lew Mayne , a former Brown , tapped a phone line that went from Cleveland 's press box to its sideline . This allowed the Colts to listen in on coaches ' conversations and anticipate the Browns ' play @-@ calling .
= = Regular season results = =
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 1 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
The Browns opened the regular season with a win at home against the Los Angeles Dons . The Dons had beaten the Chicago Rockets in their season opener the week before , but they struggled against the Browns . Cleveland built a 19 – 0 lead after the first three quarters on touchdowns by Ara Parseghian and Bill Boedeker , a Lou Groza field goal and a safety . The Dons , however , almost pulled off a comeback with just 30 seconds remaining in the game . Los Angeles fullback John Kimbrough scored a touchdown on a short run with time ticking down , and the Dons recovered an onside kick on the ensuing kickoff . Dons quarterback Glenn Dobbs then threw a long pass to end Joe Aguirre . It fell incomplete , but Cleveland was called for pass interference , and the ball was placed on the Browns ' nine @-@ yard line . Dobbs then threw a completion to Aguirre for a second touchdown with five seconds left to play . Time expired on the ensuing kickoff , however , and Cleveland won 19 – 14 . Groza 's 51 @-@ yard field goal matched a professional football record he set two years earlier .
= = = Week 2 : vs. Buffalo Bills = = =
The Browns beat the Bills in the second game of the regular season . Cleveland dominated the game from beginning to end , scoring 42 points and amassing 504 total yards on offense . The scoring began with touchdowns in the first quarter by halfback Bob Cowan and Marion Motley . End Mac Speedie caught another touchdown in the second quarter , giving the Browns three scores in a span of just 18 minutes . Buffalo scored two touchdowns of its own in the second period , however , and the score stood at 21 – 13 at halftime . The Browns pulled away in the second half , scoring three more unanswered touchdowns . Otto Graham ran for a score in the third period , but was taken out of the game when the Browns ' lead widened . Motley ran for 136 yards on 17 carries , and Speedie matched an AAFC single @-@ game record by recording 10 receptions for 151 yards . Despite the loss , Bills backs Vic Kulbitski and Julie Rykovich ran for 187 yards combined . The final score was 42 – 13 .
= = = Week 3 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
The Browns beat the Chicago Rockets in Chicago for their third straight victory . The matchup was a messy one , marked by turnovers and rough play by both sides . The teams combined for eight fumbles and four interceptions , and play was stopped several times to break up fights . Chicago was penalized 30 yards for unnecessary roughness , while Cleveland was penalized 15 yards . Despite the interruptions and frequent turnovers , Cleveland quarterback Otto Graham had his best game of the season , throwing three touchdowns and rushing for a fourth . Bob Cowan caught two of the touchdowns . Chicago , meanwhile , scored just one touchdown – a short pass to Elroy Hirsch from quarterback Angelo Bertelli in the second quarter . Chicago successfully contained Marion Motley , Cleveland 's most productive back , who finished the game with 49 yards on 14 carries . The final score was 28 – 7 .
= = = Week 4 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
The Browns next played the Rockets for a second time in as many weeks , this time in Cleveland . The Rockets opened the scoring with a 74 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Jesse Freitas to receiver Eddie Prokop in the first four minutes of the game , and added a field goal by Jim McCarthy near the end of the second quarter . The Browns did not score in the first half , but came back to win the game in the second . Rockets defenders were double @-@ teaming Cleveland 's ends , and the Browns adjusted by sending halfbacks out to receive deep passes . Cleveland halfbacks Dub Jones and Bill Boedeker both caught long touchdown passes from Graham in the third quarter . Boedeker ran in for another touchdown in the fourth quarter to make the final score 21 – 10 . As in the previous game , there were several cases of rough play : tackle Lou Rymkus was ejected from the game for hitting Jim Pearcy of the Rockets . A Rockets player picked up a handful of sand from the stadium 's baseball infield and threw it in Mac Speedie 's face during the game , temporarily blinding him . Hirsch was accidentally kicked by a Browns player and suffered a skull fracture .
= = = Week 5 : vs. Baltimore Colts = = =
The Browns won their fifth game of the season against the Baltimore Colts on a muddy field during a rainstorm . Led by quarterback Y.A. Tittle , the Colts began the scoring on the fourth play of the game with a 78 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Billy Hillenbrand . A few minutes later , the Browns evened the score after a pass from Graham set up a short touchdown run by Edgar Jones . The Colts retook the lead in the second quarter with a field goal by Rex Grossman and led 10 – 7 at the half . Focusing on the running game because of the muddy conditions , the Browns scored a touchdown in the third quarter that put them in the lead for good . Jones , who was returning from a rib injury , finished the day with 61 yards and two touchdowns , while Motley ran for 130 yards . The slippery and windy conditions caused miscues on both sides . Tittle and Motley had fumbles , and Cleveland botched a fake field goal attempt in the second quarter . The final score was 14 – 10 . While the Browns had won their first five games , the San Francisco 49ers were at the top of the AAFC 's eastern division standings , having won all six of their games .
= = = Week 6 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The Browns beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the sixth game of the season . While the Dodgers had not won a game all season , they started off strong against Cleveland . The Browns took a 10 – 0 lead in the first quarter , but the Dodgers answered with 10 points of their own in the second quarter to tie the score at halftime . Edgar Jones ran for Cleveland 's first touchdown , which Groza followed with a 53 @-@ yard field goal , the longest of his career at the time . Brooklyn 's Mickey Colmer ran in the team 's second @-@ quarter touchdown after a 66 @-@ yard drive . The Browns came back with another touchdown in the third quarter , aided by two long Horace Gillom receptions , but the Dodgers again evened the score after a Groza field goal was blocked and returned by Hank Foldberg for a touchdown . Cleveland pulled away in the fourth quarter , however , with a fumble recovery for a touchdown by George Young and a short run by Motley . The Browns had 23 first downs in the game , setting a team record . Groza missed an extra point after one of Cleveland 's touchdowns , breaking a long streak . He also narrowly missed a 57 @-@ yard field goal attempt that would have set a professional football record if it were good .
= = = Week 7 : vs. Buffalo Bills = = =
The Browns won their seventh game in a row against the Bills in Cleveland . Edgar Jones scored the Browns ' first touchdown on the team 's third offensive play on a 35 @-@ yard pass from Graham . Motley fumbled on the Browns ' next possession , however , and the Bills capitalized on the mistake . After several running plays brought the ball to the Browns ' 22 @-@ yard line , quarterback Jim Still threw to Al Baldwin for a touchdown that evened the score . A Groza field goal and a short touchdown run by Motley later in the first quarter put the Browns up by 10 points at halftime . Cleveland retained the lead for the rest of the game as end Mac Speedie caught touchdown passes in the third and fourth quarters . Graham ended the game with 11 completions for 189 yards and two touchdowns . Speedie , who was leading the league in receiving , added seven receptions for 140 yards . While the Bills lost , second @-@ string quarterback George Ratterman , who came in for Still in the second quarter , put in a strong performance , completing 13 passes for 174 yards . His totals included a touchdown throw to Lou Tomasetti in the fourth quarter , when the game was out of reach .
= = = Week 8 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
End Dante Lavelli returned to the lineup for the Browns ' week @-@ eight game against the New York Yankees after recovering from a broken leg sustained in the preseason . Lavelli 's return had an immediate impact . He caught a 29 @-@ yard pass from Graham for the Browns ' first touchdown in the first quarter . Graham then threw two more touchdowns in the second quarter to Bob Cowan and Mac Speedie . Cowan scored after catching Graham 's pass behind New York 's defenders and running 35 yards for the end zone . Receptions by Cowan and Lavelli set up Speedie 's 9 @-@ yard touchdown . Lavelli caught another touchdown at the beginning of the third quarter to give the Browns a 28 – 0 lead . Graham ran 22 yards for a fifth Browns touchdown in the fourth quarter after a pass play broke down . The Yankees avoided a shutout in the final minute of the game , when end Buddy Young got behind Cleveland 's defenders and caught a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Pete Layden . The Browns had 486 total yards in the game , including 337 yards of passing . While Cleveland remained undefeated , the San Francisco 49ers continued to hold the best record in the AAFC with nine straight wins to begin the season .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Baltimore Colts = = =
Cleveland beat Baltimore for the second time during the regular season for its ninth straight victory . A Baltimore turnover on downs early in the game set up the Browns ' first score , a short touchdown run by Edgar Jones in the first quarter . Baltimore 's Y.A. Tittle drove deep into Cleveland territory early in the second quarter , but another turnover on downs gave the ball back to the Browns . Passes from Graham to Lavelli and Speedie took the Browns to the Colts ' 22 @-@ yard line , and Motley ran from there for a touchdown to make the score 14 – 0 at halftime . Jones scored Cleveland 's third touchdown to cap an 85 @-@ yard drive at the start of the third quarter . Ara Parseghian ran for another touchdown in the fourth quarter . The Colts avoided a shutout later in the period when Tittle threw a screen pass to Billy Hillenbrand , who ran 69 yards for a touchdown . The final score was 28 – 7 . The win gave the Browns 12 victories in a row extending to the previous season , setting a new AAFC record . Lou Groza missed two field goals during the game .
= = = Week 10 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
A victory over San Francisco gave the Browns 10 wins in a row to start the regular season . The game was eagerly anticipated by both sides : San Francisco had started the season with 10 victories , while the Browns had won their first nine games . The 49ers relied heavily on their offense , which featured quarterback Frankie Albert and end Alyn Beals . The team came into the matchup with the Browns averaging 35 @.@ 9 points per game . The Browns , meanwhile , were more proficient than the 49ers on defense and in placekicking : the team ranked first in the AAFC in fewest points allowed , and Groza held the league record for the longest field goal . The game began with a San Francisco fumble of Cleveland 's opening kickoff that was recovered by Lou Saban . Several plays later , Graham ran 14 yards for a touchdown , giving the Browns their first points . San Francisco responded later in the period with a rushing touchdown by Joe Perry to tie the score . Cleveland struck back with an Edgar Jones touchdown in the third quarter , however , and held on to win the game 14 – 7 . Ara Parseghian was a standout on both offense and defense , batting down several of Albert 's passes . The crowd of 82 @,@ 769 set a professional football record . While Cleveland won , several key players suffered injuries . Speedie had a separated shoulder , while linebacker Bill Willis was kicked in the face and Tommy James hurt his ankle . Graham had his hand stepped on , and guard Weldon Humble suffered a chin injury .
= = = Week 11 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
The Browns beat the Yankees in the eleventh game of the season . It was the first of three road games the Browns were scheduled to play in a span of eight days . The Browns opened the scoring early in the first quarter with a screen pass from Graham to Motley , who ran 78 yards for a touchdown . An interception by Parseghian on the Yankees ' next possession set up another Browns touchdown , a one @-@ yard run by Edgar Jones . The Yankees responded with two touchdowns of their own in the second quarter . The first was a long pass from Pete Layden to Bruce Alford early in the period . On Cleveland 's next possession , Graham threw a pass to John Yonakor , but as Yonakor was waiting for the ball to arrive , New York 's Otto Schnellbacher jumped in front of him and made an interception . Schnellbacher had a clear shot at Cleveland 's end zone and ran it in for a touchdown that tied the game at 14 points . An interception by Yonakor later in the quarter set up a Groza field goal , and the Browns pulled away as halfback Bob Cowan ran for a touchdown and Groza added another field goal before halftime . Another touchdown by Motley in the third quarter put the Browns ahead by 20 points . The Yankees scored a final touchdown in the fourth quarter to cap a 45 @-@ yard drive , but the Browns won the game 34 – 21 . Lavelli was hit in the eye early in the game and had to sit out . Tackle Chubby Grigg and Edgar Jones were also hurt in the game , adding to Cleveland 's long list of injured players .
= = = Week 12 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
A victory against Los Angeles in the twelfth week of the season preserved Cleveland 's undefeated record . The Dons began the scoring in the first quarter with a 75 @-@ yard drive engineered by quarterback Glenn Dobbs . The series ended with a short touchdown run by halfback Walt Clay . The Browns came back to tie the game in the second quarter after a 71 @-@ yard drive that features several completions from Graham to Lavelli . Lavelli caught a 49 @-@ yard pass from Graham for the score . On the next possession , Los Angeles converted a fourth down deep in their own territory , extending a long drive that ended with another touchdown by Clay . Cleveland again evened the score with under two minutes left in the first half on a touchdown pass to Edgar Jones . The Browns pulled away in the third quarter , when Graham ran a quarterback sneak for a touchdown . Groza later kicked a 36 @-@ yard field goal , and an interception by Cliff Lewis set up a run by Tony Adamle for a final touchdown . The final score was 31 – 14 . Graham twisted his knee in the fourth quarter , and Edgar Jones , Parseghian and Bob Gaudio also had injuries . The Browns planned to stay at the hot springs in Boyes , California to recover as they prepared to face the 49ers for a second time in San Francisco three days later .
= = = Week 13 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
Three days after beating the Dons , the Browns played the 49ers in San Francisco . While the Browns had won their first 12 games , the rematch against the 49ers was significant because the 49ers held an 11 – 1 record , their only loss coming against the Browns two weeks earlier . The teams were both in the AAFC 's Western Division , and a loss would have put the Browns in a tie with the 49ers for the lead . The teams ' combined 23 – 1 record was the best ever for two professional squads in one game , and as of 2007 , has not been surpassed . Graham was initially considered doubtful for the game because of the knee injury he suffered against the Dons , but team trainer Wally Bock cleared him to play . The game began with a 49ers fumble on their first play from scrimmage . Tony Adamle recovered the ball , and Graham threw a 41 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Lavelli on the Browns ' first play . A field goal by Groza later in the first quarter put the Browns up 10 – 0 , but the 49ers came back in the second period and scored two touchdowns . The first was a short run by halfback Joe Perry and the second was a pass from Albert to Beals . San Francisco widened its lead in the third quarter with another touchdown catch by Beals . Graham , however , engineered three drives in the space of eight minutes that gave the browns three touchdowns and a 10 @-@ point advantage . Motley ran in the first score , while Dub Jones and Edgar Jones caught Graham passes for the other two . The 49ers scored a touchdown in the final quarter , but the Browns won the game 31 – 28 . After the game , Paul Brown called it " Otto 's greatest performance " given his injury .
= = = Week 14 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The Browns ended their regular season with a win over the Dodgers and an undefeated record . The Browns began the game by scoring 31 unanswered points . The first score came on a short Dub Jones run that followed an 80 @-@ yard drive in the first quarter . The next score came on a 76 @-@ yard drive in the second quarter . After a pair of passes and a 14 @-@ yard run by Edgar Jones , Graham completed a long touchdown pass to Lavelli , who sped away from defender Monk Gafford on the right sideline . Graham engineered another long drive just before the end of the first half , completing 18- and 20 @-@ yard passes to Speedie . The 90 @-@ yard march ended with a short touchdown run by Graham , giving Cleveland a 21 – 0 advantage at the half . Groza kicked a field goal at the beginning of the third quarter , and a fumble by Gafford on the ensuing kickoff led to a touchdown pass from Graham to Gillom , putting the Browns up by 31 points . With a comfortable lead , Brown took out his starters and substituted third @-@ string players . The Dodgers proceeded to score three touchdowns , two of which came on long passes from Bob Chappuis , but the Browns won the game 31 – 21 . The win left the Browns on top of the standings in the AAFC 's Western Division ahead of San Francisco , which had lost only two games , both to the Browns . The perfect regular season record was the first in professional football since 1942 , when the National Football League 's Chicago Bears won all of their games . Chicago , however , lost the NFL championship that year .
= = Final standings = =
= = AAFC championship game = =
The Browns won the AAFC 's Western Division with their perfect record and faced the Buffalo Bills , the winners of the Eastern Division , in the AAFC championship game . The Bills had tied with the Colts for the lead in the Eastern , forcing a playoff that the Buffalo won on December 12 in Baltimore . The championship game took place in Cleveland in 35 @-@ degree weather and was sparsely attended . The Browns were expected to win the game , having beaten the Bills twice in the regular season and possessing a significantly better record than the 7 – 7 Bills . The scoring began with a late @-@ first @-@ quarter Edgar Jones touchdown run , followed by a fumble return for a touchdown by George Young in the second period that put the Browns ahead 14 – 0 at halftime . Cleveland scored two more touchdowns in the third quarter on runs by Jones and Motley before Buffalo scored its first points . Aided by a roughing the kicker penalty on the Browns , the Bills capped an 80 @-@ yard drive with a short touchdown pass from Jim Still to Al Baldwin . Motley scored two more touchdowns in the fourth quarter , however , and Lou Saban ran back an interception for a third to make the final score 49 – 7 . Motley and Edgar Jones led the Browns offense in the game , accounting for a large share of the team 's offensive production . Graham had an uncharacteristically quiet day , passing for just 118 yards on 11 completions . The victory made the Browns the first professional team to win three league championships in a row , following AAFC titles they won in 1946 and 1947 . It was also the first time a professional football team finished a full season unbeaten and untied since a championship game was instituted in the NFL in 1933 . The Chicago Bears had finished with perfect records in 1934 and 1942 , but lost the NFL championship both times . The Browns had won 18 consecutive games stretching to the 1947 season , a professional record that stood until 2004 .
In the NFL , the Philadelphia Eagles won the championship 7 – 0 during a blizzard in Philadelphia 's Shibe Park . Following the win , Eagles owner Alexis Thompson advocated a championship game between the top teams in the NFL and the AAFC , in part because he was losing money and felt an inter @-@ league championship would draw large crowds . Thompson was also a leading proponent among NFL owners of negotiation with the AAFC over a deal to ease the leagues ' competition for talent , which had driven up salaries and was eating into owners ' profits . Thompson met with Browns owner Mickey McBride and agreed to a playoff – either one game in Yankee Stadium or a best @-@ of @-@ three series with games in Philadelphia , Cleveland and possibly New York . Thompson 's proposal was shot down by other NFL owners , however , and he was given a reprimand by commissioner Bert Bell for suggesting the NFL @-@ AAFC championship . Frustrated with his financial losses and lack of support among the owners , Thompson sold the Eagles shortly after the season ended .
= = Season leaders and postseason = =
Graham finished the season with the most receiving yards in the AAFC and was named the league 's Most Valuable Player , sharing the honor with Frankie Albert of the 49ers . Motley led the league in rushing , and Groza scored the most field goals in the league for the second year in a row . Speedie , meanwhile , had the most overall receptions and receptions per game of all receivers in the AAFC and NFL for the second year running . The Associated Press named Graham , Speedie and Motley to the first team of its combined AAFC @-@ NFL All @-@ Pro team , while Lou Rymkus and Bill Willis made the second team . The magazine Sporting News put Motley and Speedie on its first @-@ team All @-@ Pro list and put Graham and Willis on its second team . Cleveland 's top players also made All @-@ Pro teams assembled by the New York Daily News , United Press International and the AAFC itself .
The Browns ' perfect season and third championship victory came during a strong year for Cleveland sports teams . That April , the Cleveland Barons , the city 's American Hockey League team , won the Calder Cup championship . The Cleveland Indians , the city 's Major League Baseball club , set an all @-@ time season attendance record and won the World Series . The Browns ' success was also a major draw for fans : the team led professional football in attendance in 1948 with an average of 45 @,@ 517 people per game , although that was still 10 @,@ 000 lower than the year before . The distribution of talent and fortune among AAFC 's teams was unbalanced , however , and while the Browns , the 49ers and the Dons were successes at the gate , teams including the Rockets and Colts languished financially . The NFL was also facing major financial trouble – nine of its ten teams lost money that year – and the two leagues ' competition for talent led to talks about a merger . Discussions centered around how many AAFC teams the NFL would absorb ; most owners favored four teams , but the talks broke down when powerful owners George Preston Marshall of the Washington Redskins and Tim Mara of the New York Giants intervened and suggested only Cleveland and San Francisco should be absorbed . The AAFC continued play in 1949 , but was disbanded after that season . The Browns , 49ers and Colts were merged into the NFL starting in 1950 .
= = Perfect season controversy = =
In winning all of their regular season games and the AAFC championship , the Browns recorded the first perfect season in professional football since the advent of NFL championships in 1933 . The feat has been duplicated only once since , by the Miami Dolphins in 1972 . When the AAFC faltered and dissolved after the 1949 season and the NFL absorbed the Browns , their new league did not recognize AAFC statistics , including the perfect season . The Pro Football Hall of Fame , however , recognizes it as a perfect season . In 2008 , United States Senator Sherrod Brown , who represents Ohio in the United States Congress , sent a letter to NFL commissioner Roger Goodell asking the league to recognize AAFC championships and team records including the perfect season . At the time , the New England Patriots were undefeated as they prepared for the Super Bowl against the New York Giants , a game they went on to lose . Dante Lavelli also advocated for the NFL to adopt AAFC records .
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= Psilocybe hoogshagenii =
Psilocybe hoogshagenii is species of psilocybin mushroom in the Strophariaceae family . The mushroom has a brownish conical or bell @-@ shaped cap up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide that has an extended papilla up to 4 mm long . The stem is slender ( up to 3 mm thick ) and 5 to 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long . The variety P. hoogshagenii var. convexa lacks the long papilla .
The species is found in Mexico , where it grows singly or in small groups in clayey soils in subtropical coffee plantations , and from Colombia and Brazil in South America . The mushroom contains the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin , and all parts will stain blue or bluish black when handled or injured . P. hoogshagenii is used for divinatory purposes by some indigenous groups in Mexico .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically by French mycologist Roger Heim in 1958 . It was one of several species described and illustrated in the popular American weekly magazine Life ( " Seeking the Magic Mushroom " ) , in which R. Gordon Wasson recounted the psychedelic visions that he experienced during the divinatory rituals of the Mixtec people , thereby introducing psilocybin mushrooms to Western popular culture ; it was however , mislabeled as Psilocybe zaptecorum . Similarly , Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán suggests that P. zapotecorum , as described by Rolf Singer in 1958 , is misidentified as it agrees well with the type of P. hoogshagenii . The species Psilocybe caerulipes var. gastonii , described by Singer in 1958 , is a synonym of P. hoogshagenii .
The species is named in honor of American anthropologist Searle Hoogshagen , who helped Heim and Wasson in their search for entheogenic mushrooms in Mexico . The mushroom is known locally by several common names . In Spanish , it is called los niños or los Chamaquitos ( " the little boys " ) , in Mazatec as pajaritos de monte ( " little birds of the woods " ) , in Nahuatl as cihuatsinsintle or teotlaquilnanácatl ( " divine mushroom that describes or paints " ) , and in Mixe as Atka : t ( " judge " ) or na.shwi.ñ mush ( " mushrooms of the earth " ) .
The variety P. hoogshagenii var. convexa was described by Guzmán in 1983 to account for mushrooms without an acute papilla that were otherwise roughly the same as the type variety . Psilocybe semperviva , described by Heim and Roger Cailleux in 1958 , was later determined by Guzmán to be synonymous with P. hoogshagenii var. convexa . The varietal epithet convexa refers to the convex shape of the cap .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from conical to bell @-@ shaped to convex , reaching diameters of 0 @.@ 7 – 3 in ( 18 – 76 mm ) , although a range of 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) is most usual . It has a long , sharp papilla that is up to 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) . The cap surface is smooth , somewhat sticky when wet , and often has ridges extending halfway to the center of the cap . Its color is reddish brown to orangish brown to yellowish , and it is hygrophanous , fading when dry to a straw or fulvous color . The brownish gills have an adnate to adnexed attachment to the stem ; mature gills become purplish black because of the spores . The hollow stem measures 50 to 90 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 3 mm thick . It is roughly equal in width throughout its length or slightly thicker at the base , and sometimes twisted . A thin rudimentary cortina @-@ like partial veil covers the gills of immature fruit bodies , but it is fragile and disappears soon after the cap expands . The flesh in the cap is whitish , but more yellow in the stem . Both the odor and taste of the mushroom are farinaceous ( similar to freshly ground flour ) . As is characteristic of psilocybin mushrooms , all parts of the fruit body bruise blue when handled or injured . P. hoogshagenii var. convexa lacks an acute papilla , although it occasionally has a small , rounded papilla . Its cap ranges in width from 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) , and it is convex to roughly bell @-@ shaped . All other macroscopic and microscopic features are identical to the type variety .
The spore print is dark purplish brown . Spores are rhomboid or nearly so in face view , and more or less ellipsoid when viewed from the side . They are thick @-@ walled , with dimensions of 6 @.@ 5 – 4 – 5 @.@ 6 μm , and feature a broad germ pore . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are usually four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , roughly cylindrical or with a central constriction , and measure 12 – 22 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are relatively abundant ; they are ventricose ( swollen ) , club @-@ shaped or irregularly shaped , measuring 16 – 36 by 8 – 12 μm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are also abundant . They are 19 – 35 by 4 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 6 μm , lageniform ( flask @-@ shaped ) , narrowing into a long neck with a width of 1 – 3 μm , and either acute or somewhat capitate ( ending in a roughly globular tip ) . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies of Psilocybe hoogshagenii grow solitarily or in small groups in humus or in muddy clay soils in subtropical coffee plantations . According to the natives of the San Agustin Loxicha region of Mexico , the fungus tends to fruit simultaneously in large flushes . In Mexico , fruiting occurs in June and July , whereas in Argentina , fruiting is in February . The mushroom has been reported from Mexico in the states of Puebla , Oaxaca , and Chiapas , where it grows at elevations of 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . In South America , the species is known from Brazil and Colombia . P. hoogshagenii var. convexa has been found in grasslands in Hidalgo , and Oacaxa , but is most common in Puebla . It fruits from June to August .
= = Uses = =
Psilocybe hoogshagenii mushrooms are used for entheogenic , or spiritual , purposes by some Chinantec @-@ speaking curanderos of the Ixtlán District in Oacaxa . The mushrooms are primarily used to diagnose and prognose illness , and , to a lesser extent , to divine the location of objects or animals that have been lost or stolen . Guzmán also indicates contemporary ceremonial usage by Mixe and Zapotec people . Paul Stamets , in his Psilocybe Mushrooms of the World , rates the psychoactive potency of the mushroom as " moderately active " , and reports psilocybin levels of 0 @.@ 6 % ( milligrams per gram of dried mushroom ) , and psilocin of 0 @.@ 1 % . In comparison , Stamets indicates that the commonly cultivated species P. cubensis contains 0 @.@ 63 % and 0 @.@ 60 % ( psilocybin and psilocin ) , while the widespread P. semilanceata has 0 @.@ 98 % and 0 @.@ 02 % . Chemical analysis of P. hoogshagenii specimens from Brazil yielded up to 0 @.@ 3 % psilocybin and 0 @.@ 3 % psilocin .
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= Feminism in Russia =
Feminism in Russia originated in the 18th century , influenced by the Western European Enlightenment and mostly confined to the aristocracy . Throughout the 19th century , the idea of feminism remained closely tied to revolutionary politics and to social reform . In the 20th century Russian feminists , inspired by socialist doctrine , shifted their focus from philanthropic works to organizing among peasants and factory workers . After the February Revolution of 1917 , feminist lobbying gained suffrage and nominal equality for women in education and the workplace ; however , in the 1960s and 1970s , women continued to experience discrimination in certain career @-@ paths ( including politics ) as well as income inequality and a greater burden of household work . In spite of this , the concern with feminism waned during this period .
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , feminist circles arose among the intelligentsia , though the term continues to carry negative connotations among contemporary Russians . In the 21st century some Russian feminists , such as the punk @-@ rock band Pussy Riot , have again aligned themselves with revolutionary anti @-@ government movements , as in the 2012 demonstrations against President Vladimir Putin , which led to a lawyer representing the Russian Orthodox Church calling feminism a " mortal sin " .
= = Origins = =
= = = 18th century = = =
Russian feminism originated in the 18th century , influenced by the Western European Enlightenment and the prominent role of women as a symbol for democracy and freedom in the French Revolution . Notable Russian intellectual figures like Alexander Pushkin and Alexander Herzen wrote positively about the increased power and independence of women in their society and supported the growing concern for gender equality . In his influential novel What is to be Done ? , the writer Nikolai Chernyshevski embodied the new feminist ideas in the novel 's heroine , Vera Pavlovna , who dreams of a future utopian society with perfect equality among the sexes .
In aristocratic Russian society , the greater freedoms allowed to women led to the rise of the powerful , socially @-@ connected woman , including such iconic figures as Catherine the Great , Maria Naryshkina , and Countess Maria Razumovskaya . Women also began to compete with men in the literary sphere , with Russian women authors , poets , and memoirists increasing in popularity .
= = = 19th century = = =
The loosening of restrictions on women 's education and personal freedom that were enacted by Peter the Great in the 18th century created a new class of educated women , such as Princess Natalia Sheremeteva , whose 1767 Notes was the first autobiography by a woman in Russia . In the 19th century , Sheremeteva was one of the " Decembrist women , " the female relatives of the Decembrists . The male Decembrists were a group of aristocratic revolutionaries who in 1825 were convicted of plotting to overthrow Emperor Nicholas I , and many of whom were sentenced to serve in labor camps in Siberia . Though the wives , sisters , and mothers of the Decembrist men shared the same liberal democratic political views as their male relatives , they were not charged with treason because they were women ; however , 11 of them , including Sheremeteva and Princess Mariya Volkonskaya , still chose to accompany their husbands , brothers , and sons to the labor camps . Though they were portrayed as heroes in popular culture , the Decembrist women insisted that they were simply doing their duty to their family . While in Siberia , some of them cared not only for their own relatives , but also for the other prisoners . They also set up important institutions like libraries and clinics , as well as arranging lectures and concerts .
In the historical writing of the time , the humble devotion of the Decembrist women was contrasted with the intrigues and hedonism of female aristocrats of the 18th century , like Catherine the Great , whose excesses were seen as the danger of too @-@ sudden liberation for women . Although they did not explicitly espouse a feminist agenda , the Decembrist women were used as an example by later generations of Russian feminists , whose concern for gender equality was also tied to revolutionary political agendas .
In the late 19th century , other aristocratic women began to turn away from refined society life and focused on feminist reform . Among them was Anna Pavlovna Filosofova , a woman from an aristocratic Moscow family married to a high @-@ ranking bureaucrat , who devoted her energy to various societies and projects to benefit the poor and underprivileged in Russian society , including women . Together with Maria Trubnikova and Nadezhda Stasova , she lobbied the Emperor to create and fund higher education courses for women . She was also a founding member of the Russian Women 's Mutual Philanthropic Society and responsible for helping to organize the All @-@ Women 's Congress of 1908 .
At the end of the century , some of the most widely read Russian literary figures focused on feminist motifs in their works . In his later years , Leo Tolstoy argued against the traditional institution of marriage , comparing it to forced prostitution and slavery , a theme that he also touched on in his novel Anna Karenina . In his plays and short stories , Anton Chekhov portrayed a variety of working female protagonists , from actresses to governesses , who sacrificed social esteem and affluence for the sake of financial and personal independence ; in spite of this sacrifice , these women are among the few Chekhovian characters who are truly satisfied with their lives .
= = The Revolution and Soviet era = =
= = = Pre @-@ Revolution = = =
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century , the focus of Russian feminism shifted from the aristocracy to the peasants and working class . Imbued with socialist ideology , young women began to organize all @-@ women unions among female factory workers , who tended to be ignored or marginalized by male socialists .
Between 1907 and 1917 , the League for Women 's Equal Rights was the most important feminist organization in Russia . Like the Russian Women 's Mutual Philanthropic Society , it was focused on education and social welfare , but it also pushed for equal rights for women , including suffrage , equal inheritance , and an end to passport restrictions . The 1917 Revolution , catalyzed in part by women workers ' demonstrations , generated a surge of membership in the organization . In the same year , because of the society 's continued lobbying , Russia became the first major world power to grant women the right to vote .
= = = Feminism in Soviet society = = =
Vladimir Lenin , who led the Bolsheviks to power in the October Revolution , recognized the importance of women 's equality in the Soviet Union ( USSR ) they established . " To effect [ woman 's ] emancipation and make her the equal of man , " he wrote in 1919 , two years after the Revolution , following the Marxist theories that underlaid Soviet communism , " it is necessary to be socialized and for women to participate in common productive labor . Then woman will be the equal of man . "
In practice , Russian women saw mixed gains in their rights under Communism . Women 's suffrage was granted , though voting meant little in Soviet society owing to the Communist Party 's monopoly on power . This monopoly also meant that many independent feminist organizations and journals were shut down . Abortion was legalized in 1920 , making the Soviet Union the first country to do so ; however , it was banned again between 1936 and 1955 . Generous maternity leave was legally required , and a national network of child @-@ care centers was established . The country 's first constitution recognized the equal rights of women .
Though the prevailing Soviet ideology stressed gender equality in labor and education , and many Soviet women held jobs and advanced degrees , they did not participate in core political roles and institutions . Above the middle levels , political and economic leaders were overwhelmingly male . While propaganda claimed , accurately , that more women sat in the Supreme Soviet than in most democratic countries ' legislative bodies combined , only two women , Yekaterina Furtseva and ( in its last year of existence ) Galina Semyonova , were ever members of the party 's Politburo , in practice the country 's real leadership .
By the 1970s , while women 's liberation was a mainstream term in American public discourse , no comparable movement existed in the Soviet Union , despite gender @-@ based income inequality and a rate of additional work in the household greater than that experienced by American women . There were also double standards in social norms and expectations . " A man can fool around with other women , drink , even be lackadaisical toward his job , and this is generally forgiven , " wrote Hedrick Smith , former Russian correspondent for The New York Times , but " if a woman does the same things , she is criticized for taking a light @-@ hearted approach toward her marriage and her work . " In an open letter to the country 's leadership shortly before he was expelled from it in 1974 , the dissident writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn pointed out the heavy burden placed on women to do the menial work in Soviet society : " How can one fail to feel shame and compassion at the sight of our women carrying heavy barrows of stones for paving the street ? "
Smith wrote that many women he talked to complained that their emancipation had in fact been exploitation , since economic circumstances effectively compelled them to work while they retained their domestic responsibilities at home , and they were often tired ; and that in contrast to Western women , Soviet women regularly saw their idea of liberation as working less and having more opportunity to stay at home . He recounted a popular joke :
Under capitalism , women are not liberated because they have no opportunity to work . They have to stay at home , go shopping , do the cooking , keep house and take care of the children . But under socialism , women are liberated . They have the opportunity to work all day and then go home , go shopping , do the cooking , keep house and take care of the children .
Sexist attitudes still prevailed across Soviet society . Men in the leadership often did not take women or their ideas seriously , and excluded them from many discussions . Domestic violence and sexual harassment continued to exist . Yet , sociological studies at the time found that Soviet women tended not to see their inequality as a problem .
= = Glasnost and post @-@ Soviet Russia = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s Mikhail Gorbachev instituted glasnost , allowing greater freedom of speech and organization than ever before in the USSR . This openness generated a burst in women ’ s political action , academic research , and artistic and business ventures . Additionally , women were aware that the new government would offer little assistance with their economic and social struggles . Citizens of the Soviet Union could file complaints and receive redress through the Communist Party , but the post @-@ Soviet government had not developed systems of state recourse . Women began to form their own networks of resource sharing and emotional support , which sometimes developed into grassroots organizations .
During glasnost and after the fall of the Soviet Union , feminist circles began to emerge among intelligentsia women in major cultural centers like Moscow and St. Petersburg . In the 1990s , Russian women were hesitant to use the term " feminist " to describe themselves , because they believed it to have negative connotations throughout Russian history , and especially after the Revolution , when it was equated with the " proletariat " woman who only cares for her career , not her family . Russian women ’ s activism in the 1990s was not explicitly feminist ; women attempted to improve their financial and social conditions through any practical means . From this struggle emerged female communities which empowered many women to assert themselves in their pursuit of work , equitable treatment and political voice .
Political and economic transformation in post @-@ Soviet Russia caused deep economic decline in the 1990s and particular financial struggles for women . Although many held jobs , women were also expected to be homemakers . Soviet working women often received extensive employment benefits , such as long child @-@ care leaves , which pushed women into the role of housewife . In the 1990s domestic work grew increasingly demanding as acquiring goods became more time @-@ consuming in the restructured economy . Women ’ s benefits also made them less attractive employees , and during privatization many companies fired women . While 90 % of women were in the labor market in the 1980s , by 1991 women made up 70 – 80 % of unemployed Russians . Those jobs available to women in the 1990s were often in low @-@ wage sectors , and many job descriptions specified that only young , attractive women need apply . Employed women often received significantly less pay than men doing the same work .
= = 21st Century = =
In the 2000s , women started entering local governments , if only at low @-@ level positions . In 2003 , 43 percent of local administrators in St. Petersburg were women .
In 2012 , the feminist punk rock band Pussy Riot performed publicity stunts to show their opposition to Vladimir Putin , and have faced criticism from the Russian Orthodox Church and the Putin administration . Three members of the group were arrested in March 2012 after performing a " punk @-@ prayer " against Putin in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow . During their trial for hooliganism , they talked about being feminists and stated that this was not incompatible with Russian Orthodoxy . However , Larisa Pavlova , the lawyer representing the Church , insisted this view " does not correspond with reality " and called feminism a " mortal sin . "
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= Ardennes horse =
The Ardennes or Ardennais is one of the oldest breeds of draft horse , and originates from the Ardennes area in Belgium , Luxembourg and France . They are heavy @-@ boned with thick legs and are used for draft work . The Ardennes is found in many colors , although black horses are very rare and are not allowed to be registered with the breed registry . Their history reaches back to Ancient Rome , and throughout the years blood from several other breeds has been added to the Ardennes , although only the Belgian breed had any significant impact . The first Ardennes were imported to the United States in the early 20th century , and the first breed registry was established in Europe in 1929 . The horses have been used throughout history as war horses , both as cavalry mounts and to draw artillery , and are used today mainly for heavy draft and farm work , meat production and competitive driving events . They have also been used to influence or create several other horse breeds throughout Europe and Asia .
= = Description = =
In France , Ardennes stallions stand about 1 @.@ 62 metres ( 16 hands ) high , and mares about 1 @.@ 60 m ( 15 @.@ 3 hands ) , while in Belgium these are the maximum allowable heights . They weigh 700 to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . Their heads are heavy , with a broad face and a straight or slightly convex profile . Their conformation is broad and muscular , with a compact body , short back , and short , sturdy legs with strong joints . Their fetlocks are feathered . Their coats may be bay , roan , chestnut , gray , or palomino . Bay and roan are the two most common colors . Black is very rare and is excluded from registration . White markings are small , usually restricted to a star or blaze . The breed matures early , and they are said to be easy keepers , economical to feed despite their size . The Ardennes is a free @-@ moving , long @-@ striding breed , despite their compact body structure .
= = History = =
The Ardennes breed could be a direct descendent of the prehistoric Solutre horse , and is thought to be descended from the type of horse described by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico . Caesar described these horses of Belgium as " rustic , hard and tireless " , and recommended them for use in heavy cavalry units . The early type was used by many later Roman emperors for military applications . The breed 's ancestors are thought to have been bred for 2 @,@ 000 years on the Ardennes plains , and it is one of the oldest documented European heavy draft breeds . In the Roman era , the breed stood only around 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) high . Later , Napoleon added Arabian blood to increase stamina and endurance and used the breed in his Russian campaign . In 1780 , the breed still stood only 1 @.@ 42 to 1 @.@ 52 metres ( 14 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 0 hands ) and weighed around 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) .
Percheron , Boulonnais and Thoroughbred blood were also added , although they had little impact . In the 19th century , Belgian draft blood was added to give the breed the heavier conformation it has today . The extra weight and size was desired to turn the breed into a very heavy draft breed , after their role as an artillery horse had diminished through the advent of mechanization , as well as a desire for a meat animal . The breed increased in size from an average of 550 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 210 lb ) to their current weight , which at the same time had the consequence of reducing their vigor and endurance . Breed registries have been in existence since 1929 . Today there are three separate studbooks in France , Belgium and Luxembourg , although there is extensive interbreeding between the three . The Ardennes Horse Society of Great Britain was also formed in the late 20th century to preserve and promote the horses of that country , but today is not recognized as a studbook or passport issuing organization by the British government and may not exist in any form .
It is difficult to determine when the first Ardennes horses were imported to the United States because originally , when imported to the United States , Ardennes horses were eligible for registration with the now @-@ defunct National French Draft Horse Association of America or French Draft Horse Society . This organization published a stud book and registered six individual French draft breeds as one breed , combining the information so that no totals of individual breeds are known . Many of these horses were imported to the United States with their breed being considered simply " French draft " and no individual type being specified . Some Ardennes horses imported to the United States before 1917 were called Belgians when they were imported and subsequently registered as Belgians . Ardennes horses have continued to be imported into the United States from Belgium , with imports occurring as late as 2004 .
= = Uses = =
Horses from the Ardennes region were used in the Crusades in the 11th century by knights led by Godfrey of Bouillon . They were used during the 17th century by Marshal Turenne as remounts for his cavalry . In the French Revolution , they were considered to be the best artillery horse available , due to their temperament , stamina and strength . Napoleon used large numbers of Ardennes horses to pull artillery and transport supplies during his 1812 Russian campaign . They were said to be the only breed used by Napoleon that was hardy enough to withstand the winter retreat from Moscow , which they did while pulling a large amount of the army 's wagon train . They were also used to pull artillery in World War I , when they were depended upon by the French and Belgian armies . Their calm , tolerant disposition , combined with their active and flexible nature , made them an ideal artillery horse . The breed was considered so useful and valuable that when the Germans established the Commission for the Purchase of Horses in October 1914 to capture Belgian horses , the Ardennes was one of two breeds specified as important , the other being the Brabant .
Today , the breed is used mainly for meat , due to its extensive musculature . Horse meat is a dietary staple in many European countries , including France , Belgium , Germany and Switzerland . However , they are increasingly used for farm , forest and leisure work . Their nimble action , stamina and good temper make them increasingly used for competitive driving across Europe , and they have also been used as mounts for therapeutic horseback riding . The breed is known for its ability to work in rough , hilly terrain .
Ardennes horses have been used as foundation bloodstock to develop several other draft horse breeds and subgroups . These include the Baltic Ardennes and Russian Heavy Draft . The Swedish Ardennes is well established in that country , where it is in demand for use in forestry . It was first recognized as a separate sub @-@ group in the 19th century , but today is considered a separate breed , even though its ancestry is entirely from the Ardennes horses of Belgium and France . Another closely related breed is the Auxois . Ardennes horses were also used in the 1920s to improve the Comtois by adding size . Along with the Breton and the Anglo @-@ Norman , the Ardennes horse was used to create the Sokolsky horse . Similarly , the Trait Du Nord was created through a mixture of Ardennes and Belgian blood .
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= Lesopoval =
Lesopoval ( Russian : Лесопова ́ л pronounced [ lʲɪsəpɐˈvɑl ] , translated as " tree felling " or " logging camp " , a symbol of Siberian labor camps and also of the forced labor within the camps ) is a Russian band formed in 1990 by Mikhail Tanich and Sergey Korzhukov . Their music is in the style of Russian chanson , which is music from the perspective of the criminal underworld . The hero of many of their songs is often a criminal or ex @-@ convict , and their songs contain many references to the way such " marginalized " persons live . The songs in many way romanticize the life of criminals , many of them taking place in and concerning labor camps and prison .
Mikhail Tanich wrote the lyrics to every song the group performed until his death on April 17 , 2008 . In writing the lyrics to the songs Lesopoval performed , Mikhail Tanich drew on the six years he spent in a Soviet labor camp , during which time he came to empathize with criminals from all walks of life . In total , the group released at least 19 albums , including one after Mikhail Tanich 's death . Until his death in 1994 , Sergey Korzhukov wrote the musical melodies and performed most of the songs ; after his death , other artists wrote and performed the melodies . Musically , most songs feature a guitar , drums , accordions , and are often performed with strong vocals .
= = History = =
Mikhail Tanich , the co @-@ founder and lead songwriter of Lesopoval , was born on September 15 , 1923 in Taganrog , Russia . After being accused of " anti @-@ Soviet agitation " due to his praise of the German radio Telefunken while at the Rostov Civil Engineering Institute , he served six years in the Soviet labor camps from 1947 to 1953 in the Siberian city of Solikamsk . This was the same labor camp where his father served and was executed . When Joseph Stalin died , Tanich was granted amnesty , and he would leave to become a Russian poet .
He wrote many poems that would , after he met Sergey Korzhukov in 1990 , become the music of Lesopoval . The two met while Tanich was searching for a soloist to sing his songs ; Tanich 's wife had recommended Korzhukov . Sergey Korzhukov turned the poems into music by incorporating a melody , musical notes and a guitar accompaniment . He also sang the early songs of Lesopoval . The reason they named their musical group " Lesopoval " was that this was the term that people commonly used to refer to the Soviet Siberian labor camps , and the musical group was created from Tanich 's experience in these Siberian camps .
Together , Mikhail Tanich and Sergey Korzhukov wrote the early songs of Lesopoval . In 1994 , Sergey Korzhukov died at the age of 35 after falling from the balcony of his house , but he was still listed as a co @-@ author of all the songs through the 1996 album " New Lineup " ( Новый состав . )
After the death of Sergey Korzhukov , many other writers and singers helped write the music for the songs , including Aleksandr Fedorkov . In 2008 , Tanich died in the hospital from kidney disease . Until his death , Mikhail Tanich continued to write the lyrics for all the Lesopoval songs , including the latest album - " Our life , " ( Наша Жизнь ) which was produced and released after his death . In his honor , the group performed in the Kremlin to memorialize his death .
= = Musical style = =
The music of Lesopoval places great importance on lyrical content , which tends to focus on freedom , labor camps , criminal life , and occasionally other topics such as peace and love . Mikhail Tanich has stated that his six years in the Russian labor camps gave him an inside perspective of all kinds of criminal life , and that his goal was to find the good in all sorts of criminals . Mikhail Tanich was a political prisoner , but he came to sympathize with many of the other prisoners who were serving in the camps , some who were falsely accused and some who were there for petty crimes . He has stated that Chanson music " blossomed wildly in Soviet times when the entire country was in camps , when these zones , barbed wire , guard towers with guards and machine guns , were everywhere , " and he has said that he feels that everyone in Russia is in some way connected to the camps and to criminal life .
In his songs , Mikhail Tanich often touches on universal themes of Soviet life , focusing on criminal elements ( the camps , the buses that took people to camp , the life of ex @-@ convicts , etc . ) Some of his songs also deal with the political themes of the Soviet era , often with a humorous take . For example , the song " Tax " focuses on the tax on childlessness imposed during the Soviet Union , which was a 6 % tax on every adult who did not have a child . The hero of the song laments that he is forced to pay this tax while doing time in jail , yet the prison guards refuse to provide him any woman with which to reproduce .
The songs often include criminal slang , jargon and vulgarities , which the group says is necessary in order to accurately represent criminal life in Russia . However , official Governmental sources have denounced bands that sing in the style of Russian Chanson , with Vladimir Ustinov , the former prosecutor general , calling it " propaganda of the criminal subculture . "
Musically , the group builds upon the style of Russian bard music , which features strong vocals with a guitar accompaniment . The music mixes these more traditional instruments with an accordion , synthesizer , and drums .
= = Reception = =
Due to the propensity of Russian piracy , it is difficult to measure how many Lesopoval records have been sold . Furthermore , the genre is typically relegated to late @-@ night broadcasts due to governmental pressure , and is not typically played on the radio , where Russian pop is more popular . However , Lesopoval regularly performs concerts , and is one of the most popular current Chanson bands in Russia .
Critically , the band has received positive reviews from critics . The Russian website Pravda positively reviewed their recent concerts , but stated that the group 's first hit -- " I will buy you a house " ( sung by Sergey Korzhukov ) -- remains their most popular and well @-@ sung song .
= = Discography = =
Ya kuplyu tebe dom / I will buy you a house ( 1993 )
Kogda ya pridu / When I come ( 1993 )
Vorovskoj zakon / Law of thieves ( 1993 )
Poslednij kontsert s Sergeem Korzhukovym / The final concert with Sergey Korzhukov ( 1994 )
Amnistiya / Amnesty ( 1995 )
Novyj sostav / New composition ( 1996 )
Koroleva Margo / Queen Margo ( 1996 )
101 @-@ j kilometr / 101st kilometer ( 1998 )
Legendy Russkogo Shansona tom / Legends of Russian Chanson Volume ( 2000 )
Kormilets / The Feeder ( 2000 )
Lichnoe svidanie / Conjugal visit ( 2001 )
Ya - ottuda / I am from there ( 2002 )
Bazara net / No rumble ( 2003 )
Svobodna , blin ! / Freedom , darn it ! ( 2005 )
Vintorez / The Rifle ( 2006 )
Ulybnis , Rossiya ! / Smile , Russia ! ( 2006 )
Mama - ulitsa / Mother Street ( 2007 )
Nasha Zhizn / Our Life ( 2008 )
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= Ontario Highway 410 =
King 's Highway 410 , also known as Highway 410 and colloquially as the four @-@ ten , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects Highways 401 and 403 to Brampton . North of Brampton , the freeway connects to Highway 10 , which continues north through Caledon as a four lane arterial road . The route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police and has a speed limit of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) .
Highway 410 was built along the alignment of Heart Lake Road south of Bovaird Drive , while north of Bovaird Drive it was built along a new alignment . The highway was designated in 1978 between Highway 401 and Bovaird Drive ( later Highway 7 ) , though it was only two lanes wide and did not feature any interchanges . It was widened throughout the 1980s and completed as a freeway in 1991 . In 2003 , construction began on a northward extension of the freeway that was completed in November 2009 .
A notable feature of Highway 410 is the four @-@ level interchange with Highways 401 and 403 which includes a large flyover ramp from Highway 401 eastbound to Highway 410 northbound , constructed in 1990 . The majority of the freeway features a grass median as opposed to an Ontario Tall Wall like neighbouring freeways .
= = Route description = =
Highway 410 is a commuter freeway and a bypass of Brampton , acting as the southward continuation of Highway 10 . The highway is also a continuation of Highway 403 ( eastern segment ) from the south , which ends at the Queen Elizabeth Way . The freeway begins as several ramps converge from Highway 401 north of the large interchange . Maintaining a straight north @-@ westward course , it passes beneath Courtney Park Drive and Derry Road , with a slight jog to the right between the two underpasses . The freeway then intersects Highway 407 as it crosses into Brampton and passes beneath an electrical corridor . Veering to the right once again , the freeway enters a second industrialized area and returns to its northwest – southeast orientation . It passes beneath Steeles Avenue East and later Queen Street East , the former Highway 7 , now Peel Regional Road 107 . Until it was decommissioned across the Greater Toronto Area , Highway 7 was concurrent between Queen Street East and Bovaird Drive . Passing north of Queen Street , the highway exits the industrial area and enters residential subdivisions .
Throughout this section , Highway 410 is located within a cutting below grade . It passes beneath several roads until Bovaird Drive East . The more recently completed extension begins at this point , as Highway 410 passes to the west of Trinity Common and diverges from its straight path into greenspace and alongside the Heart Lake Conservation Area . As it passes beneath Mayfield Road , the highway makes a sharp turn to the west and descends through the Etobicoke Creek valley . After rising back to level ground , it curves north , passing beneath Valleywood Drive . The central concrete median and high @-@ mast lighting end as the freeway becomes Highway 10 , which continues north as a four @-@ lane undivided road to Orangeville , Shelburne and eventually Owen Sound .
= = History = =
Planning for highway 410 began during the late 1960s as a result of the rapid suburbanization of Brampton . On May 25 , 1965 , the Department of Highways ( DHO ) unveiled the Toronto Region Western Section Highway Planning Study . The plan designated several new highway corridors and widening projects through Peel and Halton , including Highway 10 . However , it did not include a truck bypass that was desired by Brampton city council . In 1969 , William H. Brydon would encourage the DHO to construct this bypass utilizing Heart Lake Road , and announced the plans at his final city council meeting as mayor , claiming that it may be known as the Brampton Expressway and would connect with Highway 401 . Successor Jim Archdekin announced in the new year that he would meet with highways minister George Gomme to discuss the route of the bypass . The DHO studied the corridor over the next several months before releasing a report in late August .
Ontario Premier Bill Davis , who was known as " Brampton Billy " , formally initiated the construction of Highway 410 along the Heart Lake Road corridor during his administration . Prior to the construction of Highway 410 , Heart Lake Road was flanked by the industrial lands of Brampton and Bramalea north of Steeles Avenue . Between Steeles and Highway 401 was agricultural lands . In 1975 , construction began on the widening of Highway 401 between Highway 10 ( Hurontario Street ) and Highway 427 . During this expansion from six to eight lanes , a directional and loop ramp were constructed at Heart Lake Road to allow access to and from Toronto . Heart Lake Road was rebuilt over the next several years , and reopened as a two lane expressway on November 15 , 1978 . It was at this point that the road was designated Highway 410 as far north as Queen Street .
Construction to twin the highway began in 1983 , following the completion of a culvert over the east branch of the Etobicoke Creek ; the interchange with Clark Boulevard was built at the same time . The City of Brampton constructed the West Drive Extension , between Orenda Road and Tomken Road , as a detour in 1983 . The following year , contracts were awarded to build the two structures over the Canadian National Railway south of Orenda Road , as well as an interchange at Queen Street ; the former was completed by the end of the year while the latter took until late 1985 . Construction of the interchange at Bovaird Drive began in 1985 and was completed the following summer . With the construction of each interchange , the future northbound lanes of the freeway were constructed and opened to two @-@ way traffic . By 1988 , two lanes were open between Steeles Avenue and Bovaird Drive .
In 1987 , construction began south of the future Highway 407 interchange , expanding the two lane Heart Lake Road to a six lane freeway . In addition , work began on the future southbound lanes north of Steeles Avenue . In 1990 , work began on an interchange with Courtney Park Drive . By mid @-@ 1991 , Highway 410 was complete from north of Highway 401 to Bovaird Drive , and work was underway on two large flyover ramps . The interchange with Highway 401 was rebuilt alongside the widening of that highway to a collector @-@ express system and opened to traffic ramp @-@ by @-@ ramp beginning August 28 , 1990 and continuing through the end of the year .
In the fall of 1991 , alongside the widening of Highway 410 into a full freeway , construction began on the connecting ramps between Highway 403 and Highway 410 , which pass under the existing bridge structures for Highway 401 collector traffic , while new overpasses were constructed for the Highway 401 express lanes . The 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) link opened on November 2 , 1992 , at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 3 million .
= = = Extension = = =
The extension beyond Bovaird Drive to Hurontario was conceived as part of the ultimate plan for Highway 410 when it was under construction in 1982 . It would take until 2003 for construction to begin . Planning for the 8 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) freeway began with the submitting of an Environmental Assessment by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) in October 1995 . The assessment was approved without a hearing by the Minister of Environment and Energy on March 5 , 1997 . The next several years were spent on engineering and design . The new section , planned and built as a four lane freeway , was constructed on a new alignment in order to bypass the Heart Lake Conservation Area . It was completed in phases : initially to the new eastward extension of Sandalwood Parkway , later to Mayfield Road and finally to Highway 10 north of Sandalwood .
Premier of Ontario Ernie Eves officially announced the extension on June 23 , 2003 ; construction subsequently began on the first phase . On May 15 , 2006 construction began on the second phase between Sandalwood Parkway and Mayfield Drive . The first two phases were built by Dufferin Construction and opened together in mid – late 2007 ; the northbound lanes were opened by the beginning of September and the southbound lanes by the end of the month . Upon its opening , trucks were prohibited from driving along it due to concerns of them travelling on the two lane Mayfield Road ; this ban has since been lifted . Construction on the third phase between Mayfield Road and Highway 10 began in August 2007 . The entire extension was completed and opened to traffic on November 16 , 2009 . Additional work continued in the months that followed to clean up the land surrounding the new freeway .
= = Future = =
On September 9 , 2014 , the MTO announced that Highway 410 would be widened to ten lanes from south of Highway 401 to Queen Street in Brampton by 2018 . A C $ 156 @.@ 7 million contract was awarded to Aecon Construction to expand the freeway by adding one general purpose and one High @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lane in each direction . In addition , two new ramps will be built at the partial interchange with Highway 401 and Highway 403 , thereby providing access to and from all directions .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 410 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Peel .
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= Supporters of FC Barcelona =
FC Barcelona is a Catalan club based in Barcelona , formed in 1899 by a group of Swiss , English and local players led by Joan Gamper . It has been part of the Spanish top @-@ flight , La Liga , since the league 's inception in 1928 and has won La Liga 23 times , along with 28 Copas del Rey and 5 UEFA Champions League victories . The supporters of Barcelona have played an important part in the formation of the club 's Catalan identity during the club 's 116 @-@ year existence . From the authoritarian rule of Spain under Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923 , which later ended with the autocratic rule of Franco , various forms of cultural oppression were enacted against Catalonia and FC Barcelona in particular , causing the club to become a symbol of rebellion , although this has been disputed . After Spain 's transition to democracy in 1978 , several support groups of FC Barcelona evolved , most notably the Boixos Nois , who later mixed their support of the club with a demand of secession from Spain .
The arrival of Ronaldinho in 2003 , and Barcelona 's subsequent success in La Liga and Champions League , has been seen as crucial to an increase in the national , and worldwide , fan @-@ base of the club . This development of a larger national fan @-@ base has created friction between the Catalan nationalist supporters , who wish to secede from Spain , and the club 's other Spanish supporters .
There exist four different types of supporters of Barcelona ; one is the soci or club @-@ member , who is eligible to vote in the presidential election of the club and other matters . The penyes , who are closely affiliated with the socis , are fan @-@ clubs , which in the past have been responsible for large donations to the club . Also , there are Barça Fans and this term refers to the official online fan community of the club where these registered fans participate in games and other activities . Lastly there are the ordinary fans of the club , the culers , who do not possess any formal membership .
= = History = =
Before 1909 , Barcelona played in various stadiums , none of which were owned by the club . On 14 March 1909 , the club moved to the Camp de la Indústria which had a capacity of 6 @,@ 000 people , and it was the first ground owned by the club . Barcelona moved to Les Corts in 1922 , which had an initial capacity of 20 @,@ 000 , which was later enlarged 3 @-@ fold to 60 @,@ 000 . The top @-@ row of Les Corts was the origin of the nickname culer , derived from the Catalan cul ( English : arse ) , as the spectators at the first stadium , Camp de la Indústria , sat with their culs over the stand . The English author , Phil Ball , notes that " all you could see was row upon row of bums " .
In the mid @-@ 1940s , the club invented the notion of penyes , a mix between a fan club and a financial support club , during a time when the club was in need of financial and public support in face of the hostility of Francisco Franco 's dictatorship . The first Penya Solera , was formed in 1944 by a group of supporters and former players of the team . The penyes would later exhibit their financial prowess in 1953 , when they proposed the building of the Camp Nou . Inspiration was drawn from the financial plan Athletic Bilbao , a rival team , used to build San Mamés , where an association of penyes pledged to finance the construction . As a result , the subsequent construction of the stadium put the club into its supporters ' hands , giving the penyes political influence over the club , which still lasts today .
During the same period , Franco 's oppression of Catalonia caused the relationship between the club and its supporters to change . For the supporters , FC Barcelona became synonymous with Catalonia , a feeling incorporated in the club 's Més que un club motto ( English : More than a club ) . The socio @-@ political impulse Visca el Barça ( Long live Barça ) , gradually evolved into Visca el Barça i visca Catalunya ( Long live Barça and Catalonia ) and was the same as a protest @-@ song against the central government in Madrid .
In 1975 , the death of Franco marked the beginning of Spain 's transition into a democracy and four years later , Josep Lluís Núñez became the first elected president of FC Barcelona . Since then , the members of Barcelona , called socios , have elected a club president .
In the early 1980s , one of the most notorious penyes , the Boixos Nois ( English : Crazy Boys ) was founded . The peña who identified with left @-@ wing separatism , repeatedly demanded the resignation of president Núñez , openly defying his presidency through chants and banners at matches . At the same time , the city of Barcelona experienced a rise in the number of skinheads , who identified with right @-@ wing separatism . The skinheads slowly moved the Boixos Nois ' political ideology from liberalism to fascism , which caused fractions within the group . Inspired by British hooligans , the remaining Boixos Nois became violent , which often lead to mass @-@ scale arrests .
According to the protest organisation L 'Elephant Blau ( English : The Blue Elephant ) , formed in part by later @-@ president Joan Laporta in 1998 , the former president Núñez promoted the emergence of skinheads among the Boixos and gave them permission to roam freely around the stadium , using them for his own political gain . When Núñez resigned in 2000 , his vice @-@ president Joan Gaspart took over as president . Gaspart publicly expressed his sympathies for Boixos Nois , claiming that he would join the group as soon as he resigned as chairman . The comment caused the Boixos Nois members to occasionally be referred to as ' the chairman 's boys ' .
The same year saw the controversial transfer of the Barcelona vice @-@ captain Luís Figo to arch @-@ rivals Real Madrid . When Figo returned to the Camp Nou with his new club in November 2002 , the Boixos responded to Figo 's perceived treachery by whistling and jeering whenever he went near the ball . The abuse peaked when the Boixos threw a severed pig 's head at him , while he was taking a corner . The match has since been known in Spain as the " Partido de la Vergüenza " ( English : The Game of Shame ) . It was suspended for 13 minutes by the referee , who took the players off the pitch because of fears for their safety . It ended in a 0 – 0 draw .
During the first decade of the new millennium , president Joan Laporta , a supporter of Catalonian nationalism , repeatedly expressed his support of Catalonia 's secession from Spain and characterised the club as the symbol for Catalonian separatism . The politicalisation of the club drew criticism from several club members who accused Laporta of alienating Barcelona fans , both within and outside of Catalunya . By 2003 Barcelona had 1 @,@ 200 penyes around the world , causing other Spanish clubs to copy the concept . With each individual peña ( Castillian Spanish spelling ) having different names and rules , it has become a custom in Spain to name a new peña after their favourite player or match , and in turn the player usually attends to the inaugural supper .
In the presidential election of 2010 , the rise in club @-@ members during the last seven years caused the campaign to focus on whether to allow votes from non @-@ Catalan members , through internet or post . The balloting committee decided to only allow votes from members who registered at the home stadium on the day of the election .
As of November 2010 , membership of the club is no longer open to the public . Only close relatives to current and former FC Barcelona members can join the club as well as previous members with at least a two @-@ year history of membership . This ruling however will not apply to children under the age of 15 .
= = Fan base = =
In Spain , 26 percent of the population supports Barcelona as their primary club , with another 7 % supporting Barcelona while having another club as their primary . Throughout Europe many fans regard Barcelona as their second club . Since the 2003 – 04 season , the club 's membership figures have risen from 100 @,@ 000 to 170 @,@ 000 socis in September 2009 , a 70 percent increase . The sharp rise was attributed to the influence of Ronaldinho and then @-@ president Joan Laporta 's media @-@ strategy , which focused on online media in Spanish and English . As of June 2010 there are 1 @,@ 335 officially registered penyes around the world , representing an 11 percent increase since 2003 .
Many prominent people are recognised as Barcelona supporters , including the former Pope John Paul II , who was an honorary member , former Prime Minister of Spain , José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero , Spanish actor Javier Bardem , and Belgian actor Matthias Schoenaerts .
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