page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Divine ( performer ) =
Harris Glenn Milstead , better known by his stage name Divine ( October 19 , 1945 – March 7 , 1988 ) , was an American actor , singer and drag queen . Closely associated with the independent filmmaker John Waters , Divine was a character actor , usually performing female roles in cinematic and theatrical appearances , and adopted a female drag persona for his music career .
Born in Baltimore , Maryland to a conservative middle @-@ class family , Milstead developed an early interest in drag while working as a women 's hairdresser . By the mid @-@ 1960s he had embraced the city 's countercultural scene and befriended Waters , who gave him the name " Divine " and the tagline of " the most beautiful woman in the world , almost . " Along with his friend David Lochary , Divine joined Waters ' acting troupe , the Dreamlanders , and adopted female roles for their experimental short films Roman Candles ( 1966 ) , Eat Your Makeup ( 1968 ) , and The Diane Linkletter Story ( 1969 ) . Again in drag , he took a lead role in both of Waters ' early full @-@ length movies , Mondo Trasho ( 1969 ) and Multiple Maniacs ( 1970 ) , the latter of which began to attract press attention for the group . Divine next starred in Waters ' Pink Flamingos ( 1972 ) , which proved a hit on the U.S. midnight movie circuit , became a cult classic , and established Divine 's fame within the American counterculture .
After starring as the lead role in Waters ' next picture , Female Trouble ( 1974 ) , Divine moved on to theater , appearing in several avant @-@ garde performances alongside San Francisco drag collective , The Cockettes . He followed this with a performance in Tom Eyen 's play Women Behind Bars and its sequel , The Neon Woman . Continuing his cinematic work , he starred in two more of Waters ' films , Polyester ( 1981 ) and Hairspray ( 1988 ) , the latter of which represented his breakthrough into mainstream cinema . Independent of Waters , he also appeared in a number of other films , such as Lust in the Dust ( 1985 ) and Trouble in Mind ( 1985 ) , seeking to diversify his repertoire by playing male roles . In 1981 , Divine embarked on a career in the disco industry by producing a number of Hi @-@ NRG tracks , most of which were written by Bobby Orlando . He achieved global chart success with hits like " You Think You 're a Man " , " I 'm So Beautiful " , and " Walk Like a Man " , all of which were performed in drag . Having struggled with obesity throughout his life , he died from cardiomegaly .
Described by People magazine as the " Drag Queen of the Century " , Divine has remained a cult figure , particularly within the LGBT community , and has provided the inspiration for fictional characters , artworks and songs . Various books and documentary films devoted to his life have also been produced , including Divine Trash ( 1998 ) and I Am Divine ( 2013 ) .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1945 – 65 = = =
Harris Glenn Milstead was born on October 19 , 1945 , at the Women 's Hospital in Baltimore , Maryland . His father , Harris Bernard Milstead ( May 1 , 1917 – March 4 , 1993 ) , after whom he was named , had been one of seven children born in Towson , Maryland to a plumber who worked for the Baltimore City Water Department . Divine 's mother , Frances Milstead ( née Vukovich ; April 12 , 1920 – March 24 , 2009 ) , was one of fifteen children born to an impoverished Serb immigrant couple who had grown up near Zagreb ( in today 's Croatia ) before moving to the United States in 1891 . When she was 16 , Frances moved to Baltimore where she worked at a diner in Towson , here meeting Harris , who was a regular customer . Entering into a relationship , they were married in 1938 before both gaining employment working at the Black and Decker factory in Towson . Due to his problems with muscular dystrophy , Harris was not required to fight for the U.S. armed forces in the Second World War , and instead Harris and Frances worked throughout the war in what they saw as " good jobs " . Attempting to conceive a child , Frances suffered two miscarriages in 1940 and 1943 .
By the time of Divine 's birth in 1945 , the Milsteads were relatively wealthy and socially conservative , adhering to the Baptist denomination of Christianity . Later describing his upbringing , Divine would recollect : " I was an only child in , I guess , your upper middle @-@ class American family . I was probably your American spoiled brat . " His parents lavished almost anything that he wanted upon him , including food , and he became overweight , a condition he lived with for the rest of his life . Divine preferred to use his middle name , Glenn , to distinguish himself from his father , and was referred to as such by his parents and friends .
At age 12 , Divine and his parents moved to Lutherville , a Baltimore suburb , where he attended Towson High School , graduating in 1963 . Bullied because of his weight and perceived effeminacy , he later reminisced that he " wasn 't rough and tough " but instead " loved painting and I always loved flowers and things . " Due to this horticultural interest , at 15 he took a part @-@ time job at a local florist 's shop . Several years later , he went on a diet that enabled him to drop in weight from 180 to 145 pounds ( 82 to 66 kg ) , giving him a new sense of confidence . When he was 17 , his parents sent him to a psychiatrist , where he first realized his sexual attraction to men as well as women , something then taboo in conventional American society . He helped out at his parents ' day care business , for instance dressing up as Santa Claus to entertain the children at Christmas time . In 1963 , he began attending the Marinella Beauty School , where he learned hair styling and , after completing his studies , gained employment at a couple of local salons , specializing in the creation of beehives and other upswept hairstyles . Milstead eventually gave up his job and for a while was financially supported by his parents , who catered to his expensive taste in clothes and cars . They reluctantly paid the many bills that he ran up financing lavish parties where he would dress up in drag as his favourite celebrity , actress Elizabeth Taylor .
= = = John Waters and Divine 's first films : 1966 – 68 = = =
Milstead built up a large collection of friends , among them David Lochary , who became an actor and costar in several of Divine 's later films . In the mid @-@ 1960s , Milstead befriended John Waters through their mutual friend Carol Wernig ; Waters and Milstead were the same age and from the same neighborhood , and both embraced Baltimore 's countercultural and underground elements . Along with friends like Waters and Lochary , Milstead began hanging out at a beatnik bar in downtown Baltimore named Martick 's , where they associated with hippies and smoked marijuana , bonding into what Waters described as " a family of sorts " . Waters gave his friends new nicknames , and it was he who first called Milstead " Divine " . Waters later remarked that he had borrowed the name from a character in Jean Genet 's novel Our Lady of the Flowers ( 1943 ) , a controversial book about homosexuals living on the margins of Parisian society , which Waters – himself a homosexual – was reading at the time . Waters also introduced Divine as " the most beautiful woman in the world , almost " , a description widely repeated in ensuing years .
Waters was an aspiring filmmaker , intent on making " the trashiest motion pictures in cinema history " . Many of his friends , a group which came to be known as " the Dreamlanders " ( and who included Divine , Lochary , Mary Vivian Pearce and Mink Stole ) , appeared in some of his low @-@ budget productions , filmed on Sunday afternoons . Following the production of his first short film , Hag in a Black Leather Jacket ( 1964 ) , Waters began production of a second work , Roman Candles ( 1966 ) . This film was influenced by the pop artist Andy Warhol 's Chelsea Girls ( 1966 ) , and consisted of three 8 @-@ millimeter movies played simultaneously side by side . Roman Candles was the first film to star Divine , in this instance in drag as a smoking nun . It featured the Dreamlanders modeling shoplifted clothes and performing various unrelated activities . Being both a short film and of an avant @-@ garde nature , Roman Candles never received widespread distribution , instead holding its premier at the annual Mt . Vernon Flower Mart in Baltimore , which had become popular with " elderly dames , young faggots and hustlers , and of course a whole bunch of hippies " . Waters went on to screen it at several local venues alongside Kenneth Anger 's short film Eaux d 'Artifice ( 1953 ) .
Waters followed Roman Candles with a third short film , Eat Your Makeup ( 1968 ) , in which Divine once more wore drag , this time to portray a fictionalized version of Jackie Kennedy , the widow of recently assassinated U.S. President John F. Kennedy . In the film , she turns to kidnapping models and forcing them to eat their own makeup . Divine kept his involvement with Waters and these early underground films a secret from his conservative parents , believing that they would not understand them or the reason for his involvement in such controversial and bad @-@ taste films ; they would not find out about them for many years . Divine 's parents had bought him his own beauty shop in Towson , hoping that the financial responsibility would help him to settle down in life and stop spending so extravagantly . While agreeing to work there , he refused to be involved in owning and managing the establishment , leaving that to his mother . Not long after , in the summer of 1968 , he moved out of his parental home , renting his own apartment .
= = = The Diane Linkletter Story , Mondo Trasho and Multiple Maniacs : 1969 – 70 = = =
Divine appeared in Waters 's next short film , The Diane Linkletter Story ( 1969 ) , which was initially designed to be a test for a new sound camera . A black comedy that carried on in Waters 's tradition of making " bad taste " films to shock conventional American society , The Diane Linkletter Story was based upon the true story of Diane Linkletter , the daughter of media personality Art Linkletter , who had committed suicide earlier that year . Her death had led to a flurry of media interest and speculation , with various sources erroneously claiming that she had done so under the influence of the psychedelic LSD . Waters 's dramatized version starred Divine in the leading role as the teenager who rebels against her conservative parents after they try to break up her relationship with hippie boyfriend Jim , before consuming a large quantity of LSD and committing suicide . Although screened at the first Baltimore Film Festival , the film was not publicly released at the time , largely for legal reasons .
Soon after the production of The Diane Linkletter Story , Waters began filming a full @-@ length motion picture , Mondo Trasho , starring Divine as one of the main characters , an unnamed blonde woman who drives around town and runs over a hitchhiker . In one scene , an actor was required to walk along a street naked , which was a crime in the state of Maryland at the time , leading to the arrest of Waters and most of the actors associated with the film ; Divine escaped , having speedily driven away from the police when they arrived to carry out the arrests . In their review of the film , the Los Angeles Free Press exclaimed that " The 300 @-@ pound ( 140 kg ) sex @-@ symbol Divine is undoubtedly some sort of discovery . "
In 1970 , Divine abandoned work as a hairdresser , opening up a vintage clothing store in Provincetown , Massachusetts using his parents ' money . Opening in 1970 as " Divine Trash " , the store sold items that Divine had purchased in thrift stores , flea markets and garage sales , although it had to move from its original location after he had failed to obtain a license from the local authorities . Realizing that this venture was not financially viable , Divine sold off his stock at very low prices . In the hope of raising some extra money , he sold the furniture of his rented , furnished apartment , leading the landlady to put out a warrant for his arrest . He evaded the local police by traveling to San Francisco , California , a city which had a large gay subculture that attracted Divine , who was then embracing his homosexuality .
In 1970 , Divine played the role of Lady Divine , the operator of an exhibit known as The Cavalcade of Perversion who turns to murdering visitors in Waters 's film Multiple Maniacs . The film contained several controversial scenes , notably one which involved Lady Divine masturbating using a rosary while sitting inside a church . In another , Lady Divine kills her boyfriend and proceeds to eat his heart ; in actuality , Divine bit into a cow 's heart which had gone rotten from being left out on the set all day . At the end of the film , Lady Divine is raped by a giant lobster named Lobstora , an act that drives her into madness ; she subsequently goes on a killing spree in Fell 's Point before being shot down by the National Guard . Due to its controversial nature , Waters feared that the film would be banned and confiscated by the Maryland Censor Board , so avoided their jurisdiction by only screening it at non @-@ commercial venues , namely rented church premises . Multiple Maniacs was the first of Waters 's films to receive widespread attention , as did Divine ; KSFX remarked that " Divine is incredible ! Could start a whole new trend in films . "
= = Rise to fame = =
= = = Pink Flamingos : 1971 – 72 = = =
Following his San Francisco sojourn , Divine returned to Baltimore and participated in Waters 's next film Pink Flamingos . Designed by Waters to be " an exercise in poor taste , " the film featured Divine as Babs Johnson , a woman who claims to be " the filthiest person alive " and who is forced to prove her right to the title from challengers , Connie ( Mink Stole ) and Raymond Marble ( David Lochary ) . In one scene , the Marbles send Babs a turd in a box as a birthday present , and in order to enact this scene , Divine defecated into the box the night before . Filmed in a hippie commune in Phoenix , Maryland , the cast members spent much of the time smoking cigarettes and marijuana and taking amphetamines , although all of the scenes had been heavily rehearsed beforehand . The final scene in the film proved particularly infamous , involving Babs eating fresh dog feces ; Divine later told a reporter , " I followed that dog around for three hours just zooming in on its asshole , " waiting for it to empty its bowels so that they could film the scene . The scene became one of the most notable moments of Divine 's acting career , and he later complained of people thinking that " I run around doing it all the time . I 've received boxes of dog shit – plastic dog shit . I have gone to parties where people just sit around and talk about dog shit because they think it 's what I want to talk about . " In reality , he remarked , he was not a coprophile but only ate excrement that one time because it was in the script .
The film premiered in late 1972 at the third Annual Baltimore Film Festival , held on the campus of the University of Baltimore , where it sold out tickets for three successive screenings ; the film aroused particular interest among underground cinema fans following the success of Multiple Maniacs , which had begun to be screened in New York City , Philadelphia , and San Francisco . Being picked up by the small independent company New Line Cinema , Pink Flamingos was distributed to Ben Barenholtz , the owner of the Elgin Theater in New York City . At the Elgin Theater , Barenholtz had been promoting the midnight movie scene , primarily by screening Alejandro Jodorowsky 's acid western film El Topo ( 1970 ) . Barenholtz felt that being of an avant @-@ garde nature , Pink Flamingos would fit in well with this crowd , screening it at midnight on Friday and Saturday nights . The film soon gained a cult following at the Elgin Theatre . Barenholtz characterized its early fans as primarily being " downtown gay people , more of the hipper set , " but after a while he noted that this group broadened , with the film becoming popular with " working @-@ class kids from New Jersey who would become a little rowdy " . Many of these cult cinema fans learned all of the film 's lines , reciting them at the screenings , a phenomenon which became associated with another popular midnight movie of the era , The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) .
While keeping his involvement with Waters 's underground filmmaking a secret from his parents , Divine continued relying on them financially , charging them for expensive parties that he held and writing bad checks . After charging them for a major repair to his car in 1972 , his parents confiscated it from him and told him that they would not continue to financially support him in such a manner . In retaliation , he came by their house the following day , collected his two pet dogs and then disappeared , not seeing or speaking with them for the next nine years . Instead , he sent them over fifty postcards from across the world , informing them that he was fine , but on none did he leave a return address . Frances and Harris Milstead retired soon after and moved to Florida at the advice of Harris 's doctor , who prescribed the southern state 's warmer weather as being beneficial for Harris 's muscular dystrophy .
= = = Theater work and Female Trouble : 1973 – 78 = = =
When the filming of Pink Flamingos finished , Divine returned to San Francisco , where he and Mink Stole starred in a number of small @-@ budget plays at the Palace Theater as part of drag troupe The Cockettes , including Divine and Her Stimulating Studs , Divine Saves the World , Vice Palace , Journey to the Center of Uranus and The Heartbreak of Psoriasis . It was here that he first met androgynous performer Sylvester . Divine purchased a house in Santa Monica , which he furnished to his expensive tastes . On visits to Washington D.C. during the early 1970s , Divine and Waters attended the city 's balls that were frequented by LGBT African @-@ Americans . Here , Waters encouraged Divine 's drag persona to become more outrageous , exposing her overweight stomach and carrying weapons . He later commented that he wanted Divine to become " the Godzilla of drag queens " , a direct confrontation with the majority of Euro @-@ American drag queens who wanted to be Miss America . In his private life , Divine became the godfather of Brook Yeaton , the son of his friends Chuck Yeaton and Pat Moran ; Brook and Divine remained very close until Divine 's death .
In 1974 , Divine returned to Baltimore to film Waters 's next motion picture , Female Trouble , in which he played the lead role . Divine 's character , teenage delinquent Dawn Davenport , embraces the idea that crime is art and is eventually executed in the electric chair for her violent behavior . Waters claimed that the character of Dawn had been partly based on the mutual friend who had introduced him to Divine , Carol Wernig , while the costumes and make @-@ up were once more designed by Van Smith to create the desired " trashy , slutty look . " In the film , Divine did his own stunts , including the trampoline scene , for which he had to undertake a number of trampolining lessons . Divine also played his first on @-@ screen male role in the film , Earl Peterson , and Waters included a scene during which these two characters had sexual intercourse as a joke on the fact that both characters were played by the same actor . Female Trouble proved to be Divine 's favorite of his films , because it both allowed him to develop his character and to finally play a male role , something he had always felt important because he feared being typecast as a female impersonator . Divine was also responsible for singing the theme tune for Female Trouble , although it was never released as a single . Divine remained proud of the film , although it received a mixed critical reception .
In 1977 , Divine co @-@ starred in the revue Restless Underwear , alongside Canadian rock band Rough Trade , which played at Massey Hall in Toronto . In 1980 , the revue appeared at the Beacon Theater on Manhattan 's Upper West Side . Bernard Jay , Divine 's manager , said that it was a " gigantic disaster , " as Divine did not have as large a part in the revue as audience members expected .
Divine was unable to appear in Waters 's next feature , Desperate Living ( 1977 ) , despite the fact that the role of Mole McHenry had been written for him . This was because he had returned to working in the theater , this time taking the role of the scheming prison matron Pauline in Tom Eyen 's comedy Women Behind Bars . Performed in New York City 's Truck and Warehouse Theater , the play proved popular and was later taken to London 's Whitehall Theater next to Trafalgar Square . Containing a new cast , it proved less successful than it had in New York . It was in this city that Divine met a group of people whom he would come to know as his " London family " : fashion designer Zandra Rhodes , photographer Robyn Beeche , sculptor Andrew Logan and the latter 's partner , Michael Davis . While in London in 1978 , Divine attended as the guest of honour at the seventh annual Alternative Miss World pageant , a mock event founded by Logan in 1972 in which drag queens – including men , women and children – competed for the prize . The event was filmed by director Richard Gayer , whose subsequent film , entitled Alternative Miss World , premiered at the Odeon in London 's Leicester Square as well as featuring at the Cannes Film Festival , both events which were attended by Divine .
Impressed with Divine 's performance in Women Behind Bars , playwright Tom Eyen decided to write a new play that would feature him in a starring role . The result was The Neon Woman , a story set in 1962 featuring Divine as Flash Storm , the female owner of a Baltimore strip club . It played at the Hurrah ! club in New York City before moving on to the Alcazar Theatre in San Francisco . Divine would remain very proud of the work , seeing it as evidence that his acting skills were coming to wider recognition , and his performances were attended by such celebrities as Eartha Kitt , Elton John and Liza Minnelli . It was during the New York leg of the play 's tour that Divine befriended Jay Bennett ; they subsequently began renting an apartment together on 58th Street . In the city , Divine assembled a group of friends that came to be known as his " New York family " : designer Larry LeGaspi , makeup artist Conrad Santiago , Vincent Nasso and dresser Frankie Piazza . While there , he frequented the famous club Studio 54 , having a love of partying and club culture .
= = = Early disco work and Polyester : 1979 – 83 = = =
Divine eventually decided to abandon his agent , Robert Hussong , and replace him with his English friend Bernard Jay . Jay suggested that with his love of clubs , Divine could obtain work performing in them ; as a result , Divine first appeared in 1979 at a gay club in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , where his unscripted act included shouting " fuck you " repeatedly at the audience and then getting into a fight with another drag queen , a gimmick that proved popular with the club 's clientele . Subsequently , he saw the commercial potential of including disco songs in with his act and , with Tom Eyen and composer Henry Krieger , created " Born to be Cheap " in 1981 . In 1981 Divine appeared in John Waters 's next film , Polyester , starring as Francine Fishpaw . Unlike earlier roles , Fishpaw was not a strong female but a meek and victimized woman who falls in love with her dream lover , Todd Tomorrow , played by Tab Hunter . In real life , tabloid publications claimed a romantic connection between them , an assertion both denied . The film was released in " Odorama , " accompanied by " scratch ' n ' sniff " cards for the audience to smell at key points in the film . Soon after Polyester , Divine auditioned for a male role in Ridley Scott 's upcoming science @-@ fiction film Blade Runner . Even though Scott thought Divine unsuitable for the part , he claimed to be enthusiastic about Divine 's work and was very interested in including him in another of his films , but ultimately this never came about .
That same year , Divine decided to get back in contact with his estranged parents . His mother had learned of his cinematic and disco career after reading an article about the films of John Waters in Life magazine , and had gone to see Female Trouble at the cinema , but had not felt emotionally able to get back in contact with her son until 1981 . She got a friend to hand Divine a note at one of his concerts , leading Divine to telephone her , and the family was subsequently reunited . The relationship was mended , and Divine bought them lavish gifts and informed them of how wealthy he was . In fact , according to his manager Bernard Jay , he was already heavily in debt due to his extravagant spending . In 1982 , he then joined forces with young American composer Bobby Orlando , who wrote a number of Hi @-@ NRG singles for Divine , including " Native Love ( Step By Step ) , " " Shoot Your Shot " , and " Love Reaction " . To help publicize these singles , which proved to be successful in many discos across the world , Divine went on television shows like Good Morning America , as well as on a series of tours in which he combined his musical performances with comedic stunts and routines that often played up to his characters ' stereotype of being " trashy " and outrageous . Throughout the rest of the 1980s , Divine took his musical performances on tour across the world , attaining a particularly large following in Europe .
= = Later life = =
= = = Later disco work , Lust in the Dust and Hairspray : 1984 – 88 = = =
Divine 's career as a disco singer continued and his records had sold well , but he and his management felt that they were not receiving their share of the profits . They went to court against Orlando and his company , O @-@ Records , and successfully nullified their contract . After signing with Barry Evangeli 's company , InTune Music Limited , Divine released several new disco records , including " You Think You 're A Man " and " I 'm So Beautiful " , which were both co @-@ produced by Pete Waterman of the then @-@ up @-@ and @-@ coming UK production team of Stock Aitken Waterman . In the United Kingdom , Divine sang his hit " You Think You 're A Man " – a song which he had dedicated to his parents – on BBC television show Top of the Pops . He gained a devout follower , Briton Mitch Whitehead , a man who would declare himself to be Divine 's " number 1 fan " , tattooing himself with images of his idol and eventually aiding Bernard Jay in setting up for Divine 's show onstage . In London , Divine also befriended drag comedy act Paul O 'Grady , with Jay helping O 'Grady obtain his first bookings in the U.S.
The next Divine film , Lust in the Dust ( 1985 ) , reunited him with Tab Hunter and was Divine 's first film not directed by John Waters . Set in the Wild West during the nineteenth century , the movie was a sex comedy that starred Divine as Rosie Velez , a promiscuous woman who works as a singer in saloons and competes for the love of Abel Wood ( Tab Hunter ) against another woman . A parody of the 1946 western Duel in the Sun , the film was a moderate critical success , with Divine receiving praise from a number of reviewers . Divine followed this production with a very different role , that of gay male gangster Hilly Blue in Trouble in Mind ( 1985 ) . The script was written with Divine in mind . Although not a major character in the film , Divine had been eager to play the part because he wished to perform in more male roles and leave behind the stereotype of simply being a female impersonator . Reviews of the film were mixed , as were the evaluations of Divine 's performance .
After finishing his work on Trouble in Mind , Divine again became involved with a John Waters project , the film Hairspray ( 1988 ) . Set in Baltimore during the 1960s , Hairspray revolved around self @-@ proclaimed " pleasantly plump " teenager Tracy Turnblad as she pursues stardom as a dancer on a local television show and rallies against racial segregation . As he had in Waters 's earlier film Female Trouble , Divine took on two roles in the film , one of which was male and the other female . The first of these , Edna Turnblad , was Tracy 's loving mother ; Divine would later note that with this character he could not be accurately described as a drag queen , proclaiming " What drag queen would allow herself to look like this ? I look like half the women from Baltimore . " His second character in the film was that of the racist television station owner Arvin Hodgepile . In one interview , Divine admitted that he had hoped to play both the role of mother and daughter in Hairspray , but that the producers had been " a bit leery " and chose Ricki Lake for the latter role instead . Divine went on to state his opinion on Lake , jokingly telling the interviewer that " She is nineteen and delightful . I hate her . " In reality they had become good friends while working together on set . Reviews of the film were predominantly positive , with Divine in particular being singled out for praise ; several commentators expressed their opinion that the film marked Divine 's breakthrough into mainstream cinema . He subsequently took his mother to the film 's premier in the Miami Film Festival before she once more accompanied him to the Baltimore premier , this time also with several of his other relatives . After the screening , a party was held at the Baltimore Museum of Art , where Frances Milstead granted an impromptu interview to the English film critic Jonathan Ross , a friend and fan of Divine 's .
Divine 's final film role was in the low @-@ budget comedy horror Out of the Dark , produced with the same crew as Lust in the Dust . Appearing in only one scene within the film , he played the character of Detective Langella , a foulmouthed policeman investigating the murders of a killer clown . Out of the Dark would be released the year after Divine 's death . Divine was also originally cast as an airplane passenger in the film Freddy 's Dead : The Final Nightmare , but died before the film was in production . Divine had become a well @-@ known celebrity throughout the 1980s , appearing on American television chat shows such as Late Night with David Letterman , Thicke of the Night , and The Merv Griffin Show to promote both his music and his film appearances . Divine @-@ themed merchandise was produced , including greeting cards and The Simply Divine Cut @-@ Out Doll Book . Portraits of Divine were painted by several famous artists , including David Hockney and Andy Warhol , both of whom were known for their works which dealt with popular culture .
= = = Death : 1988 = = =
On March 7 , 1988 , three weeks after Hairspray was released nationwide , Divine was staying at the Regency Plaza Suites Hotel in Los Angeles . He was scheduled to film a guest appearance the following day as Uncle Otto on the Fox network 's television series Married ... with Children in the second season wrap @-@ up episode . After spending all day at Sunset Gower Studios for rehearsals , Divine returned to his hotel that evening , where he dined with friends at the hotel restaurant before returning to his room . Shortly before midnight , he died in his sleep , at age 42 , of an enlarged heart . His corpse was discovered by Bernard Jay the following morning , who then sat with the body for the next six hours , alongside three of Divine 's other friends . They contacted Thomas Noguchi , the Chief Coroner for the County of Los Angeles , who arranged for removal of the body ; Divine 's friends were able to prevent the press from taking any photographs of the body as it was being carried out of the hotel .
Divine 's body was flown back to Maryland and taken to Ruck 's Funeral Home in Towson , where a coffin was obtained for him . The funeral took place at Prospect Hill Cemetery , where a crowd of hundreds had assembled to pay their respects . The ceremony was conducted by the Reverend Higgenbotham , who had baptized Divine into the Christian faith many years before . John Waters gave a speech and was one of the pallbearers who then carried the coffin to its final resting place , next to the grave of Divine 's grandmother . Many flowers were left at the grave , including a wreath sent by actress Whoopi Goldberg , which bore the remark " See what happens when you get good reviews . " Following the funeral , a tribute was held at the Baltimore Governor 's Mansion . In the ensuing weeks , the Internal Revenue Service confiscated many of Divine 's possessions and auctioned them off , as restitution for unpaid taxes .
= = Drag persona and performance = =
After developing a name for himself as a female impersonator known for " trashy " behavior in his early John Waters films , Divine capitalized on this image by appearing at his musical performances in his drag persona . In this role , he was described by his manager Bernard Jay , as displaying " Trash . Filth . Obscenity . In bucket @-@ loads " . Divine described his stage performances as " just good , dirty fun , and if you find it offensive , honey , don 't join in . " As a part of his performance , he constantly swore at the audience , often using his signature line of " fuck you very much " , and at times got audience members to come onstage , where he would fondle their buttocks , groins , and breasts . Divine and his stage act proved particularly popular among gay audiences , and he appeared at some of the world 's biggest gay clubs , such as Central London 's Heaven . According to Divine 's manager Bernard Jay , this was not because Divine himself was gay , but because the gay community " openly and proudly identified with the determination of the female character Divine " .
Divine became increasingly known for outlandish stunts onstage , each time trying to outdo what he had done before . At one performance in London 's Hippodrome coinciding with American Independence Day , Divine rose up from the floor on a hydraulic lift , draped in the American flag , and declared : " I 'm here representing Freedom , Liberty , Family Values , and the fucking American Way of Life . " When he performed at the London Gay Pride parade , he sang on the roof of a hired pleasure boat that floated down the Thames past Jubilee Gardens . At a performance Divine gave at the Hippodrome in the last year of his life , he appeared onstage riding an infant elephant which had been hired for the occasion . Divine was nevertheless not happy with being known primarily for his drag act , and told an interviewer that " my favorite part of drag is getting out of it . Drag is my work clothes . I only put it on when someone pays me to " , a view he echoed to his friends .
= = Personal life = =
During his childhood and adolescence , Divine was called " Glenn " by his friends and family ; as an adult , he used the stage name " Divine " as his personal name , telling one interviewer that both " Divine " and " Glenn Milstead " were " both just names . Glenn is the name I was brought up with , Divine is the name I 've been using for the past 23 years . I guess it 's always Glenn and it 's always Divine . Do you mean the character Divine or the person Divine ? You see , it gets very complicated . There 's the Divine you 're talking to now and there 's the character Divine , which is just something I do to make a living . She doesn 't really exist at all . " At one point he had the name " Divine " officially recognized , as it appeared on his passport , and in keeping with his personal use of the name , his close friends nicknamed him " Divy " .
Divine considered himself to be male , and was not transgender or transsexual . He was gay , and during the 1980s had an extended relationship with a married man named Lee , who accompanied him almost everywhere that he went . They later separated , and Divine went on to have a brief affair with gay porn star Leo Ford , which was widely reported upon by the gay press . According to his manager Bernard Jay , Divine regularly engaged in sexual activities with young men that he would meet while on tour , sometimes becoming infatuated with them ; in one case , he met a young man in Israel whom he wanted to bring back to the United States , but was prevented from doing so by Jay . This image of promiscuity was disputed by his friend Anne Cersosimo , who claimed that Divine never exhibited such behavior when on tour . Divine initially avoided informing the media about his sexuality , even when questioned by interviewers , and would sometimes hint that he was bisexual , but in the latter part of the 1980s changed this attitude and began being open about his homosexuality . Nonetheless , he avoided discussing gay rights , partially at the advice of his manager , realizing that it would have had a negative effect on his career .
Divine 's mother , Frances Milstead , remarked that while Divine " was blessed with many talents and abilities , he could be very moody and demanding . " She noted that while he was " incredibly kind and generous " , he always wanted to get things done the way that he wanted , and would " tune you out if you displeased him . " She noted that in most interviews , he came across as " a very shy and private person " . Divine 's Dutch friends gave him two bulldogs in the early 1980s , on which he doted , naming them Beatrix and Claus after Queen Beatrix and her husband Prince Claus of the Netherlands . On numerous occasions he would have his photograph taken with them and sometimes use these images for record covers and posters . Divine suffered from problems with obesity from childhood , caused by his love of food , and in later life his hunger was increased by his daily use of marijuana , an addiction that he publicly admitted to . According to Bernard Jay , in Divine 's final years , when his disco career was coming to an end and he was struggling to find acting jobs , he felt suicidal and threatened to kill himself on several occasions .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The New York Times said of Milstead 's 1980s films : " Those who could get past the unremitting weirdness of Divine 's performance discovered that the actor / actress had genuine talent , including a natural sense of comic timing and an uncanny gift for slapstick . " In a letter to the newspaper , Paul Thornquist described him as " one of the few truly radical and essential artists of the century ... [ who ] was an audacious symbol of man 's quest for liberty and freedom . " People magazine described him as " the Goddess of Gross , the Punk Elephant , the Big Bad Mama of the Midnight Movies ... [ and ] a Miss Piggy for the blissfully depraved . " Following his death , fans of Divine visited Prospect Hill Cemetery to pay their respects . In what has become a tradition , fans have been known to leave makeup , food , and graffiti on his grave in memoriam ; Waters claims that some fans have sexual intercourse on his grave , which he believes Divine would love .
Divine has left an influence on a number of musicians . During the mid @-@ 1980s , the androgynous performer Sylvester decorated the powder room of his San Francisco home with Divine memorabilia . Anohni of the band Antony and the Johnsons wrote a song about Divine which was included in the group 's self @-@ titled debut album , released in 1998 . The song , titled " Divine , " was an ode to the actor , who was one of Anohni 's lifelong heroes . Her admiration is expressed in the lines : " He was my self @-@ determined guru " and " I turn to think of you / Who walked the way with so much pain / Who holds the mirror up to fools . " In 2008 , Irish electronic singer Róisín Murphy paid homage to Divine in the music video for her song " Movie Star " by reenacting the attack by Lobstora from Multiple Maniacs .
Divine was an inspiration for Ursula the Sea Witch , the villain in the 1989 Disney animated film The Little Mermaid . Due to Divine 's portrayal of Edna Turnblad in the original comedy @-@ film version of Hairspray , later musical adaptations of Hairspray have commonly placed male actors in the role of Edna , including Harvey Fierstein and others in the 2002 Broadway musical , and John Travolta in the 2007 musical film . A 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) tall statue in the likeness of Divine by Andrew Logan can be seen on permanent display at The American Visionary Art Museum in Divine 's hometown of Baltimore . I Am Divine , a feature documentary on the life of Divine , was premiered at the 2013 South by Southwest film festival , and had its Baltimore premiere within Maryland Film Festival . It is produced and directed by Jeffrey Schwarz of the Los Angeles @-@ based production company Automat Pictures . In August 2015 , a play based on the final day of Divine 's life , Divine / Intervention , was performed at the New York Fringe Festival .
= = = Publications = = =
Divine 's manager and friend Bernard Jay wrote a book titled Not Simply Divine ! , published in 1992 by Virgin Books . Admitting that he was " immensely proud " of Divine and the cause which he " strived for " , Jay noted in the book 's introduction that he wrote the work because he felt that Divine deserved a " memorial " that would act as a " record for posterity " . He insisted that Not Simply Divine ! was " not the bitter revenge of an unappreciated manager , eager now to get his share of his praise " , but that equally it was not " a gushing homage " designed to paint Divine as " both saintly and legendary . " He expressed his hope that the book shines light on the " shades of grey " between the man and his female persona , portraying a " warts and all " picture . The book was criticized by Divine 's mother , Frances Milstead , who accused Jay of writing a " mean @-@ spirited " work that provided an incorrect image of her son . Not Simply Divine ! was also criticised by Divine 's friend Greg Gorman , who remarked that , " there was so much hostility and so much meanspiritedness in the way Divine was portrayed in the book , that it was just 180 degrees from who he was . "
Frances Milstead subsequently cowrote her own book about Divine , entitled My Son Divine , with Kevin Heffernan and Steve Yeager , which was published by Alyson Books in 2001 . His mother 's continued relationship with the gay community was later documented in a film Frances : A Mother Divine ( 2010 ) , directed by Tim Dunn and Michael O 'Quinn . Postcards From Divine , a book composed of over 50 postcards Divine sent to his parents while traveling the world between 1977 and 1987 , was released by the Divine estate on November 5 , 2011 . Postcards From Divine also includes quotes and stories from his friends and colleagues , including Waters , Mink Stole , Mary Vivian Pearce , Channing Wilroy , Susan Lowe , Jean Hill , Tab Hunter , Lainie Kazan , Alan J. Wendl , Ruth Brown , Deborah Harry , Jerry Stiller , Ricki Lake , Silvio Gigante and others .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = CD reissues = = =
= = = Singles = = =
|
= Wildlife ( La Dispute album ) =
Wildlife is the second studio album by American post @-@ hardcore band La Dispute , released October 4 , 2011 , on independent label No Sleep Records . Recording sessions for the album took place primarily at StadiumRed in New York in April 2011 . The band members took control of all of the production duties alongside the album 's recording engineers , Andrew Everding and Joseph Pedulla . Wildlife was their last release on No Sleep Records before forming their own record label , Better Living .
Noted by music writers for its varied elements , Wildlife incorporates musical components from La Dispute 's previous releases , particularly Somewhere at the Bottom of the River Between Vega and Altair and Here , Hear III . , and genres such as screamo , progressive rock and post @-@ rock . The album features lyrical themes that – while making several references to the band 's home town of Grand Rapids – focus on personal loss , anger , and despair and , in the vision of the band , is a collection of unpublished " short stories " from a hypothetical author , complete with the author ’ s notes and sectioned thematically by the use of four monologues .
The album debuted at number 135 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 3 @,@ 140 copies in its first week . It spent one week on the chart and charted only in the United States . Prior to its release , Wildlife was promoted with two singles , " Harder Harmonies " and " The Most Beautiful Bitter Fruit " . The album was well received by critics , who mainly praised its conceptual lyrics and more melodic approach to the band 's style .
= = Writing and recording = =
The writing of the album did not start until a year after La Dispute 's debut album , Somewhere at the Bottom of the River Between Vega and Altair , was released . Part of the reason for the delay was the band 's continuous touring and promotion of the debut across the United States and Canada , with rare tour and festival appearances in Europe and Australia . When commenting on the delay between the band 's album releases , singer Jordan Dreyer said he and the rest of the band members require " an absurdly long gestation period with these types of things and then we have to really sit down and be as meticulous as we all want to be " . The band decided to use lyrical elements that they had intended to use in the first album but that were not included because they did not seem fully developed at the time . While writing La Dispute , the band had very specific goals ; they projected the album to have 14 tracks and knew exactly what they wanted from each song .
La Dispute wrote and recorded Wildlife in pieces to accommodate their intense tour schedule . The album was recorded at two different studios with recording engineers Andrew Everding and Joe Pedulla . They started with the instrumentation of six tracks at Drasik Studios in Chicago ; this recording process took place over two weeks . The songwriting featured on the album is distinct from La Dispute 's previous releases . Dreyer wrote the stories or the concepts behind each song , and then the band adapted these stories into lyrics and created music to revolve around them . In an interview , Dreyer was asked how the songwriting differs ; he said that the lyrics were written before the music was composed . He was quoted as saying : " This time around , we switched the process up entirely . Previous to Wildlife , we 'd always start music first and add vocals later based on the way the song felt . This time around , because we had a more concrete concept going into it , and because we wanted to work even more as a single unit [ ... ] " Dreyer and the rest of La Dispute had expressed interest in writing a conceptual record , but with ambiguity so it would not limit the listener 's experience . " Oftentimes , I think records with a linear narrative narrow the ways in which a person can enjoy it , and not everyone wants to sit down and listen to something front to back . " When they returned from their touring in Australia in February 2011 they " dropped off the face of the earth " for two months , during which their writing sessions lasted twelve to fourteen hours a day .
La Dispute recorded the remainder of the album in a month in StadiumRed in New York City in April 2011 . Dreyer wanted to give the album the most organic feel possible by using no artificial reverb or studio techniques that would give the album a synthesized quality . Joe Pedulla stated that he wanted to give the album a more raw and authentic sound : " We were just trying to capture what it would be like for an audience member sitting and listening to a guitar in a room . " He also credited Dreyer 's vocal range : " Jordan Dreyer has this crazy dynamic range – a 20dB swing from how loud and quiet he gets . So there are some vocal parts with no resonance at all , where he 's speaking / singing softly , the room is not echoing , and he sounds close and in @-@ your @-@ face . Then the dynamic swing happens , and we would see how big it can get . " When recording vocals , Dreyer makes very long takes , trying to emulate the sound of his voice in live performances . The album 's recording features what the band considers " auxiliary instrumentation " , including trumpet and rhodes piano , and even improvised instruments that Sterenburg 's brother created out of scrap metal .
= = Title and packaging = =
The title Wildlife is not derived from lyrics from the album , but from themes that connect the songs . Dreyer regards wildlife as " an all @-@ encompassing word to sum everything up " , and he has said that " we all witness tragedy and change . It 's the summation of our existence . " On the inside of the album cover the words " To – for everything " are written as a dedication with a word being crossed out . It has been speculated by some that the word is the name ' Helen ' . Drummer Brad Vander Lugt when asked about the dedication replied " That ’ s Jordan ’ s story to tell , and not mine . [ ... ] It does have significance to a story he is telling . You will probably hear a little bit more about that in future work , Jordan has been known to continue stories or themes onto future albums . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The music on Wildlife , akin to the band 's first album , incorporates elements of post @-@ hardcore , screamo , progressive rock and post @-@ rock , described as having " bluesy quirks and experimental touches " by Alex Reeves of The 1st Five . Compared with the first album , Wildlife has melodic tendencies and a more synchronized approach to musicianship and vocals , with fewer unusual time signatures and more emphasis on chord progressions . There is less hardcore punk @-@ style screaming , but as in the band 's earlier work , the vocal style alternates between singing and speaking . The song structures are often unconventional . Wildlife utilizes instrumental passages to complement the lyrics ; Reeves described it by saying that " the music expertly builds tension , creating a sense of visceral emotion and releasing this tension in a well @-@ timed burst " .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Dreyer had always stated that the band 's second album would feature " a lot of storytelling " , " a lot of groove " , and " a more of an organic feel " than their debut album . When describing the sound of the album the band wrote that they believe it is " musically more heavy and more soft , more fast and more slow , more complicated and more straight @-@ forward , and I know my band mates would agree , so there isn 't really a thing this record sounds like , at least not that we can hear . " With writer Vladimir Nabokov 's works Pale Fire and Lolita being considered as the " biggest external influence " on Wildlife , the album features dark lyrical themes that focus on personal loss and the anger and despair felt from watching one 's hometown decay , as well as dealing with personal loss , whether it is faith , a friend , or a family member .
In the vision of the band the album is a collection of unpublished " short stories " from a hypothetical author , complete with the author 's notes , and sectioned thematically by the use of four monologues . The stories are told in parallel to the author 's own ambiguous loss and struggle , and the lyrics are a combination of Dreyer 's fictional stories and his interactions in life , including true stories from La Dispute 's home town , Grand Rapids . The four monologues in question project the loss and the struggle of the artist with the introduction ' a Departure ' , and the three interludes , ' a Letter ' , ' a Poem ' and ' a Broken Jar ' . The first two monologues of Wildlife were used to " capture a general feeling " . ' a Poem ' and ' a Broken Jar ' are noted for using spoken word and alternative folk @-@ influenced melodies to spark melodramatic feelings .
'St . Paul Missionary Baptist Church Blues ' focuses on the decaying value of a real life abandoned church in Grand Rapids and how that was a striking contrast to the popularity of other churches . ' Edit Your Hometown ' , has been described as " treading the boundary between melodrama and actual drama " by Ben Patashnik of ' Rock Sound ' . ' The Most Beautiful Bitter Fruit ' deals with the hypothetical author 's sexuality , by exploring and questioning his inability to participate in casual sex . ' King Park ' , a seven @-@ minute ballad , focuses on inner @-@ city gang culture and follows the perspective of an individual who is engrossed by a drive @-@ by shooting ; and also follows how the drive by shooter , plagued by guilt , commits suicide . Dreyer described the true story behind the song : " A year or two ago , down the street from where Brad and I work , a kid was shot . It 's an area that 's been riddled with gang violence , which has been really sad to witness . " ' Edward Benz , 27 Times ' is the story of a father dealing with the pain of being brutally attacked by his schizophrenic son , while " I See Everything " describes parents losing their seven @-@ year @-@ old son to cancer .
= = Release and promotion = =
Throughout their European tour in August 2011 , La Dispute performed a new song titled " Edit Your Hometown " . Once the tour was finished , La Dispute wrote a blog post titled " Arrivals " that announced the track listing , the album art , and the first single , titled " Harder Harmonies . " It became available to stream on August 23 , 2011 , in conjunction with the album 's announcement . On September 9 the seventh track , " The Most Beautiful Bitter Fruit " was released online to stream . On September 23 , La Dispute uploaded the entire album to stream on their official website and Facebook page . The album was released internationally on October 4 , 2011 . On October 26 , 2011 , Wildlife was released in Germany with German alternative magazine Visions . They promoted the initial release of the album by supporting Thrice 's headline tour across the United States in October and November 2011 .
For one day on December 25 , 2011 , La Dispute made all of their discography , including Wildlife , free to download with an opportunity to donate money to 826michigan , a Michigan @-@ based , non @-@ profit organization dedicated to supporting students ages 6 to 18 with creative writing and to helping teachers to inspire their students to write . Donations on that day totaled $ 1 @,@ 600 .
Throughout 2012 La Dispute went on a series of headline tours that acted as promotion for Wildlife , with tour legs in Europe , Australia and North America . La Dispute 's European tour took place over January and early February with support from Former Thieves . Their Australian tour started four days after their European tour , and instead of having a permanent support band , they had a different line @-@ up every night , composed of local bands . The North American leg of the tour started in late March , lasting into June and had support from Balance and Composure , Sainthood Reps , and All Get Out . At their shows in the United States in April , the band collaborated with 826michigan once again to release 150 limited @-@ edition packets at their shows . These packets included their CD " Conversations " , which annotates the lyrical themes in Wildlife in depth , along with rare photos , a poster , postcards and other items . In June 2012 , the band made several festival appearances in Europe including Download Festival , Greenfield Festival , Hurricane Festival and Southside Festival , during a short European tour with Hot Water Music . La Dispute planned to do a third European tour with Title Fight and Make Do and Mend in September and October 2012 .
As La Dispute have promoted their music on headline tours they have tried to create a play different songs and create a different experience for each live show . They have also used songs after a certain period of time : an example is ' King Park ' , which although was initially considered too emotionally draining for live performances , the band eventually started to play the song live . The band played ' St Paul Missionary Baptist Church Blues ' from Wildlife at its first performance in September 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album received favorable reviews from critics . Alex Reeves of the The 1st Five gave a positive review of Wildlife favoring its lyrical depth and intimacy , comparing the album 's lyrics to " reading the tear @-@ stained diary of a good friend " . Chrysta Cherrie , writing for Allmusic , gave the album a positive three and a half stars out of five and credited the album for its maturity and progression from the band from their debut , saying : " Wildlife is the best of both worlds , serving up the energy and power fans have come to expect from La Dispute , but showing a maturity beyond the band ’ s years . " Joshua Khan on Blare Magazine gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 star rating , describing the album 's four monologues as " tormented progressive rock outbursts " and describes the instrumentation as bringing character to the vocals and lyrics .
Daniel Roe , writing for Rockfreaks , acknowledged the album 's large stylistic shift from " blistering hardcore punk inspired " musicianship towards simpler chord progressions . Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic gave an appreciative review of the album while praising its lyrical improvements over the predecessor , describing the album overall as " a wake @-@ up call for post @-@ hardcore bands . "
Negative opinions about the album stemmed from its lyrical content . Some critics have said that the serious nature of the lyrics are hard to digest . Others said Dreyer 's lyrics and vocals still overshadow the instrumentation . Alex Andrews of Thrash Hits gave the album a four out of six rating , saying : " The flipside of Dreyer 's imposing presence is that it can be all too easy to let the rest of the band fade into the background . It 's a shame , because for the most part , there are some interesting things happening " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
La Dispute 's record label No Sleep produced 5 @,@ 000 copies for Wildlife 's first pressing , adamant that they would all sell . In the United States the album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 135 , selling 3 @,@ 140 copies of the album in the first week . Of those copies , 1 @,@ 192 were 7 " vinyl .
= = = Accolades = = =
In the year of Wildlife 's release it featured in some end @-@ of @-@ year lists , including those by Rock Sound and Kill Your Stereo . Rock Sound placed the album at 19 out of their top 50 , stating " some bands ask for you attention , on Wildlife La Dispute demand it . " The album was also on Kill Your Stereo 's " Staff International top 10 " list , being placed at 7 out of 10 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jordan Dreyer , Brad Vander Lugt , Chad Sterenberg , Kevin Whittemore and Adam Vass .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
La Dispute
Jordan Dreyer — lead vocals , lyrics , percussions
Chad Sterenburg — guitar , synthesizer , percussions , backing vocals , glockenspiel , trumpet
Adam Vass — bass , backing vocals , guitar , baritone guitar
Kevin Whittemore — guitar
Brad Vander Lugt — drums , percussions , keyboards , claps , bells , tambourine , shaker , triangle , chimes , guiro , box stomps , foot stomps , metal grate , chains , piano
Additional liner notes
Adam Vass — Album artwork and layout :
Andrew Everding , Joseph Pedulla , and La Dispute — Production
Joseph Pedulla and Andrew Everding — engineers
Keith Parry — Assistant engineer
Joseph Pedulla — Mix engineer
Ricardo Gutierrez — Mastering engineer
|
= Doug Bentley =
Douglas Wagner " Doug " Bentley ( September 3 , 1916 – November 24 , 1972 ) was a Canadian ice hockey left winger who played 13 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Chicago Black Hawks and New York Rangers as part of a senior and professional career that spanned nearly three decades . He was named to four NHL All @-@ Star Teams in his career and was the scoring leader in points and goals in 1942 – 43 and again in goals in 1943 – 44 .
Bentley was one of six hockey playing brothers and at one point played with four of his brothers with the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League . He made NHL history when he played on the league 's first all @-@ brother line with Max and Reg in 1943 . Injuries forced him out of the NHL in 1951 , but he returned in 1953 – 54 to play one last season for the Rangers with Max . He spent several seasons as a player @-@ coach for the Saskatoon Quakers , leading the team to the Pacific Coast Hockey League championship in 1952 . Bentley was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 .
= = Early life = =
Bentley was born March 1 , 1916 , in Delisle , Saskatchewan . He was the fifth of six boys and one of thirteen children . His father Bill was a native of Yorkshire , England , who emigrated to the United States as a child and became a speed skating champion in North Dakota before settling in Delisle . He became mayor and helped build the town 's covered skating rink . All of the Bentley children were athletes , and all six brothers played hockey .
Bill Bentley believed that all six boys could have played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , though responsibilities on the family farm resulted in the eldest four boys spending the majority of their careers playing senior hockey on the Canadian Prairies . Doug was a small , slender player , weighing only 145 lbs at the peak of his career , but he was an exceptionally fast skater and his father taught him to use his speed to avoid larger opponents . He learned his trade with his brothers as they constantly played street hockey in the summers and on the ice in the winters . Bentley 's father flooded a sheet of ice that was the length of a regulation NHL hockey rink but much narrower , forcing the boys to develop the ability to maintain control of the puck while making fast , hard turns to reach the net .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Senior hockey = = =
Bentley 's early career was spent with several senior teams throughout Saskatchewan . He first played in his hometown of Delisle for the Tigers hockey team in 1932 – 33 before playing a year in Saskatoon , then another in Regina before settling in Moose Jaw for three seasons beginning in 1935 – 36 . He led the South @-@ Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League in scoring in 1936 – 37 with 37 points and added another 14 in the playoffs , also leading the league . In 1937 , Bentley , along with future Hall of Famer Elmer Lach attended the Toronto Maple Leafs training camp ; both were rejected as too small for the National Hockey League . According to Lach , Conn Smythe , manager of the Leafs , saw Bentley and Lach and said “ They were sending me big guys from the West , but instead they ’ ve sent me peanuts . ” He moved to Alberta with brother Reg , and joined elder brothers Max , Wyatt and Roy with the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League ( ASHL ) for the 1938 – 39 season . When not playing hockey , Doug helped run a gas station that the family purchased in Drumheller .
= = = Chicago Black Hawks = = =
The Chicago Black Hawks signed Bentley to a contract in the fall of 1939 . He had previously been placed on the protected list of the Montreal Canadiens , meaning they were the only NHL team eligible to sign him to a contract . They subsequently dealt his NHL rights to the Boston Bruins for Vic Myles . When he and brother Max went to Boston for a tryout camp , Bruins ' owner Art Ross declared them " among the worst amateurs to come to my camp " . However , by the time Chicago signed him , Bentley had established himself as one of the top forwards on the prairies .
Bentley appeared in 39 games in his rookie campaign with Chicago , scoring 12 goals and 19 points . His brother Max joined him early in the 1941 – 42 season , and the pair were placed on a line together . After two years of development with the Black Hawks , Bentley emerged as the NHL 's scoring leader in 1942 – 43 with 73 points , a total that tied Cooney Weiland 's NHL record for points in a season . He was the first Black Hawks player to finish as the scoring leader , and finished second in voting for the Hart Trophy as most valuable player .
World War II had decimated the rosters of all NHL teams , and with the Black Hawks searching for players , Max and Doug convinced the team to sign their brother Reg . The trio made history on January 1 , 1943 , when they became the first all @-@ brother line the NHL had seen . Two nights later , Max and Doug assisted on Reg 's first , and only , NHL goal . It is the only time in league history that a trio of family members recorded the goal and assists on a scoring play . While Max and Doug were established NHL stars , Reg played only 11 games in his NHL career .
In 1943 – 44 , Bentley again led the NHL in goal scoring with 38 , and was named a First Team All @-@ Star at left wing for the second consecutive season . His career was briefly halted in 1944 when , after playing an exhibition game with Chicago in Canada prior to the 1944 – 45 season , Canadian officials refused to allow him to return to the United States . He was given permission by military authorities to return to his family farm for the duration of the war , and signed on to play with the Laura Beavers of the Saskatchewan Intermediate Hockey League . The Beavers went on to win the western Canadian intermediate championship , defeating a team from Canmore , Alberta , to capture the title .
Following the war , Bentley returned to the Black Hawks where he was reunited with his brother Max . The brothers and Bill Mosienko formed a line in which each player was small and exceptionally fast ; they were dubbed the " Pony Line " and emerged as one of the top scoring lines in the league . Max led the NHL in scoring with 61 points , while Doug scored 40 points in just 36 games for Chicago . He improved to 55 points in 1946 – 47 and was named a First Team All @-@ Star for the third time . He played in the first All @-@ Star Game on October 13 , 1947 , for the NHL All @-@ Stars , who defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs , 4 – 3 .
The Black Hawks , who never iced a strong lineup while Bentley played , made a significant trade early in the 1947 – 48 season . They sent Max Bentley and a prospect to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for five players . The trade shocked Doug . He thought about retiring following the deal but felt he could give Chicago at least one more good season . He gave them several good seasons , finished the following three seasons with 57 , 66 and 52 points respectively , was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team in 1949 , and appeared in four more All @-@ Star Games in 1948 , 1949 , 1950 and 1951 . Chicago 's Herald American newspaper named him the city 's top hockey player of the half @-@ century in 1950 .
= = = Saskatoon and New York = = =
Injuries , including a pulled groin muscle , plagued Bentley in 1950 – 51 and limited him to 44 games . He played only eight games of the 1951 – 52 NHL season before the Black Hawks allowed him to return to Saskatchewan . He was loaned to the Saskatoon Quakers where he took on the role of player @-@ coach for the Pacific Coast Hockey League ( PCHL ) team . Bentley appeared in 35 regular season games for the Quakers then scored 12 points in 13 games to lead the Quakers to the President 's Cup championship .
Bentley remained with Saskatoon in 1952 – 53 , appearing in all 70 league games for the Quakers . Following the season , the New York Rangers lured Bentley back to the NHL , acquiring his brother Max , then purchasing his rights from Chicago . In his first game with the Rangers , he scored a goal and three assists . He played 20 games with the Rangers , scoring 12 points , but returned to Saskatoon to coach the team in their playoffs once the Rangers ' season ended . Bentley continued as Saskatoon 's player @-@ coach until 1955 .
In the midst of the 1955 – 56 season , Bentley surprised his team by announcing his resignation as a coach . He initially agreed to continue as a player , but when the team announced as his replacement a player who was formerly subordinate to him as coach , Bentley felt it best to leave to avoid embarrassing his successor . The 39 @-@ year @-@ old Bentley immediately received offers from other Western Hockey League ( WHL ) teams , including the New Westminster Royals . He chose to finish the season with the Brandon Regals .
= = Coaching career = =
Bentley did not play during the 1956 – 57 season , as he and Max chose instead to operate a new Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League team in Saskatoon . He first served as the team 's manager , and after briefly playing with the WHL 's Saskatoon / St. Paul Regals in 1957 – 58 , became the head coach of the junior team . He remained in the position until 1961 when he left to become chief scout with the WHL 's Los Angeles Blades for the 1961 – 62 season .
He was named an assistant coach midway through the year and even played when injuries forced players out of the lineup . Bentley moved on to become the player @-@ coach of the Long Beach Gulls of the California Hockey League in 1962 – 63 , opposing his brother Max who coached the Burbank Stars . He returned to his Saskatchewan home in 1964 to coach the senior Saskatoon Quakers for one season . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame that same year . He then moved to the Eastern Hockey League 's Knoxville Knights in 1966 – 67 , and finally the Edmonton Nuggets of the Western Canada Senior Hockey League in 1967 – 68 .
= = Personal life = =
Throughout the 1950s , Bentley and his brothers played baseball for both their home town of Delisle and the Saskatoon Gems of the Saskatchewan and later Western Canada senior leagues . He played as an outfielder .
Bentley and his wife Betty had three daughters and one son . Their son , Doug Jr . , was also a hockey player . Much of Doug Sr. ' s time away from the rink was spent at the family farm near Delisle . The family operated a large farm , raising cattle and growing wheat . Bentley battled cancer in his later life , first requiring surgery in Edmonton in 1969 . A second operation followed in 1970 , but he died of the disease on November 24 , 1972 .
= = Career statistics = =
|
= Dinesh Karthik =
Krishna Kumar Dinesh Karthik ( pronunciation ) ( born 1 June 1985 ) is an Indian wicketkeeper @-@ batsman who made his debut for the Indian cricket team in 2004 and has been a regular member of the team for varying periods since then , including a stint in 2007 as a specialist opening batsman and non @-@ wicket @-@ keeper . Karthik was a batsman in his junior career , but turned to wicket @-@ keeping in order to improve his future prospects .
Rising through the junior ranks , Karthik made his first @-@ class debut in late @-@ 2002 for Tamil Nadu as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old , and was dropped in his first season despite his healthy run @-@ scoring because of his problematic glovework . He fought his way back into the team and after playing for India at the 2004 Under @-@ 19 World Cup , made his ODI and Test cricket debut in late @-@ 2004 .
Karthik was the regular wicket @-@ keeper in Tests , making rare appearances in ODIs . During this period , Karthik struggled and averaged less than 20 with the bat , and he was replaced as Test wicketkeeper by Mahendra Singh Dhoni , who had been prolific and destructive with the bat in ODIs , in late @-@ 2005 . After donning the mantle of an opener for Tamil Nadu and raising himself to the standard of a specialist batsman at domestic level , he was recalled to the national squad as a batsman in late @-@ 2006 after injuries and form slumps hit other batsmen , playing occasional matches in both forms of cricket on the tour to South Africa , and scoring a half @-@ century in a Test as an opener . Following India 's elimination from the first round of the 2007 Cricket World Cup , the selectors made multiple changes , and Karthik became a non @-@ wicket @-@ keeping opening batsman in the Test team and regularly played ODIs , batting in the middle order .
He made his maiden Test century against Bangladesh and then was India 's leading scorer in the Test tour of England , helping India to win their first series in England in 21 years . However , Karthik suffered a form slump in late @-@ 2007 and was dropped from the Test team , and since then has only made sporadic international appearances , although he continues to score heavily in domestic cricket . These have come in occasional appearances as a specialist batsman when other players were rested or injured , or as a wicket @-@ keeper when Dhoni was sidelined .
= = Early life = =
He was born to a Telugu Naidu ( Kapu ) Family , Karthik began playing cricket at the age of 10 , after a two @-@ year stint living in Kuwait , where his father Krishna Kumar worked . He studied in Indian Public School.Karthik was taught by his father , a first @-@ division cricketer from Chennai . Disappointed that his own career was hindered when he was forced by his family to put his education first , Karthik 's father did not want his son to suffer the same way , and trained him hard from an early age . Karthik honed his reflexes at this young age by having his father throw hard leather balls at him at high speed . Initially he played in the youth teams for Tamil Nadu as a batsman who was learning to keep wicket , and was regarded by Robin Singh as having very high levels of fitness .
Karthik steadily ascended the youth ranks . He made his debut for Tamil Nadu Under @-@ 14s in early @-@ 1999 , and after scoring 78 and 26 in his two interstate matches , was promoted to the Under @-@ 16 team in November , still less than 14 and half years old . After spending the entire 1999 – 2000 season in the Under @-@ 16s , he was promoted to the Under @-@ 19 team at the start of the 2000 – 01 season , aged 15 years and 3 months , despite scoring only 52 runs at 10 @.@ 40 at Under @-@ 16 level and still being eligible for that age group . The selectors ’ decision did not result in increased productivity from Karthik ; he scored 133 runs at 22 @.@ 16 in seven innings with a top @-@ score of 39 , and was demoted back to the Under @-@ 16s in November , and responded immediately with 124 in his first innings against Karnataka . He added two further fifties in the season , including a 99 against Kerala . Karthik ended with 367 runs at 52 @.@ 42 for the season .
Karthik regained his position in the Under @-@ 19 team at the start of the following season , which he opened with 150 against Goa . After scoring 314 runs at 46 @.@ 42 in eight matches , he was promoted to the Under @-@ 22 team and made 78 runs at 39 @.@ 00 in five matches . Karthik was rewarded with selection for South Zone , which represents the country ’ s south , in the Under @-@ 19 zonal competition . He was not a success with the bat , scoring 0 , 1 and 2 in his 3 innings . In April 2002 , Karthik was selected to play against the touring Australian Cricket Academy , and scored 125 in the second of two matches .
At the start of the rest of the 2002 – 03 season , Karthik began to make an imposing case for senior selection . In his opening match of the season for the Tamil Nadu Under @-@ 19s , he scored 227 in his team ’ s 392 / 7 against Goa , and after making a duck in the first innings against Hyderabad , he hit 126 not out in the second innings . He then registered his third century in four innings , cracking 235 against Andhra Pradesh . His form tapered off and he only made 111 runs in his next six innings , but was nevertheless called up to the senior team to make his first @-@ class debut .
= = First @-@ class beginnings = =
Karthik made his debut at the first @-@ class level in late @-@ 2002 against Baroda , playing as a wicket @-@ keeper and batting at No. 8 , where he scored 37 . He batted throughout the round @-@ robin phase in five matches , scoring 179 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 80 with a top score of 88 * against Uttar Pradesh in his second match . This innings helped Tamil Nadu to avoid an outright defeat , hanging on for a draw with one wicket in hand . However his form tapered off after this match and he failed to pass 20 again during the season . He took 11 catches , but due to his repeated wicket @-@ keeping errors , he was dropped for the final matches .
After being dropped from the senior state team , Karthik was overlooked for the selection in the zonal Duleep Trophy , and played in the Under @-@ 19s for South Zone . He had a more productive time in his second zonal season , scoring 180 runs at 60 @.@ 00 with three half @-@ centuries . He was rewarded with selection in the national Under @-@ 19 team , and played in three youth one day internationals ( ODIs ) against Nepal . He made only 51 runs at 17 @.@ 00 without taking a catch , but India won all their matches with ease .
Karthik attended a wicket @-@ keeping camp in the off @-@ season under the guidance of former Indian glove @-@ man and chairman of selectors Kiran More , which he credited for improving his technique . After playing for a period in the Chennai League , he returned to the Under @-@ 22 team at the start of the season , before being selected for India Emerging Players to play their youthful counterparts from Sri Lanka and Pakistan in late @-@ September . He made 50 runs at 16 @.@ 66 and took nine catches in three limited overs matches , and then made 35 , 7 and 77 for the national Under @-@ 19s in some ODIs against the other Asian countries .
After these performances , Karthik was recalled to the Ranji Trophy team at the start of the 2003 – 04 season . This time , he accumulated 438 runs with an average of 43 @.@ 80 , with two centuries , and took twenty catches . After opening the batting for much of the round @-@ robin phase , and struggling with only 159 runs at 19 @.@ 87 in four matches , Karthik then played in the zonal Under @-@ 19 one @-@ dayers , managing only 28 runs in four innings . Karthik returned to the middle @-@ order for the semi @-@ final against Railways , scoring his maiden first @-@ class century of 122 to help his team take a first innings lead . He followed this with 48 in the second innings , to help Tamil Nadu progress to the final on the basis of the first innings after Railways held on for a draw still more than 300 runs short of their target . He followed this with an unbeaten 109 in the final against Mumbai . His innings was the mainstay of Tamil Nadu ’ s 294 , but Mumbai made 613 to take a first innings lead . Tamil Nadu made 4 / 393 in the second innings with Karthik not batting , but the first innings lead in the drawn match gave Mumbai the title . Karthik ended with three catches in the innings . However these performances were insufficient to gain regional representation , and he was overlooked for South Zone 's matches in the Duleep Trophy .
Karthik was selected in the India squad for the 2004 U @-@ 19 World Cup in Bangladesh , where he scored 70 runs from 39 balls against Sri Lanka . This helped set up a 56 @-@ run win and propelled India into the semi @-@ final , where they were knocked out by Pakistan . Karthik made only seven as India were skittled for 169 . He ended the tournament with 163 runs at 32 @.@ 60 .
He then scored two half centuries on an India A tour to Zimbabwe , making 96 and 52 against Zimbabwe Select XI .
= = Early international career = =
Karthik was selected for his first Indian squad in August 2004 for the ODI team , after the selectors decided to cease using Rahul Dravid as a makeshift wicket @-@ keeper and also due to the poor form of alternative wicket @-@ keeper Parthiv Patel . He played in only one match against England at Lord 's , where he got out after scoring one run . Despite dropping England captain Michael Vaughan from the bowling of Anil Kumble , he eventually stumped Vaughan down the legside and took another catch . He played another match in the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy against Kenya , taking three catches as India persisted with Dravid 's wicket @-@ keeping for the majority of the English tour . Karthik was not required to bat as India only lost four wickets in their innings . He was subsequently replaced in the ODI team by Mahendra Singh Dhoni , who took over the gloves from Dravid on a full @-@ time basis ; Karthik did not play another ODI until April 2006 .
Karthik his Test debut in the 4th Test between Australia and India in Mumbai , when Parthiv Patel was dropped following a poor run of form with the gloves . He only managed 14 in two innings and two catches , but was praised for his wicket @-@ keeping on a pitch with variable bounce and spin in which 40 wickets fell in two days ’ playing time . Karthik tasted victory immediately as India scraped home by 13 runs . Karthik was retained for India ’ s next engagement , a two @-@ Test home series against South Africa . In a high @-@ scoring draw in which both teams passed 450 in the first innings , Karthik managed only a solitary run in the First Test in Kanpur . In the Second Test in Calcutta , he scored 46 to help extend India ’ s first innings lead to 106 runs , as the hosts completed an eight @-@ wicket win .
Karthik had a chance to score heavily in India ’ s two @-@ Test tour of Bangladesh in December 2004 . Against a team that had never won a Test , India encountered little difficulty in sweeping the series , winning both matches by an innings . They passed 500 in both matches , but Karthik was unable to join the high @-@ scoring , managing only 25 and 11 .
Karthik returned to domestic cricket at the conclusion of the Tests while his colleagues played in the ODIs , and played in two Ranji Trophy matches for Tamil Nadu , scoring only 100 runs at 25 @.@ 00 in four innings . In January 2005 , a series of one @-@ day domestic tournaments were held , and Karthik had a chance to press his claims for selection in that format , having never played more than three List A matches in a sequence . In five matches for Tamil Nadu , he only had three innings , but scored 72 and 80 in two of them . He was then called into South Zone ’ s senior team for the first time , to play in the zonal one @-@ day competition . He scored 106 runs at 26 @.@ 50 in four outings for the southerners . In the Challenger Trophy , Karthik played for India A against India B and India Seniors , and made little impact , scoring 17 and 3 . He then played for South Zone in the first @-@ class Duleep Trophy , but continued to have modest returns with the bat , scoring 101 runs at 25 @.@ 25 in two outings , although he was run out in one innings after making a start and reaching 59 .
Despite these lean performances , Karthik was retained for the three @-@ Test series at home to Pakistan in March . In a high @-@ scoring draw in the First Test in Mohali , Karthik made only six as India amassed 516 . Karthik then put on his best Test batting performance to this point , at Eden Gardens , Kolkata against Pakistan . India batted first and Karthik made a start and reached 28 , before being run out . India made 407 and Pakistan almost broke even , replying with 393 . In the second innings , Karthik scored , combining with Rahul Dravid in a 166 @-@ run partnership to set up a target of 422 . This proved too much for the tourists on the deteriorating pitch and India won the match by 196 runs . In the next match , he made only 10 and 9 as India collapsed and lost ten wickets on the final day of an otherwise high @-@ scoring match — 1280 runs had been scored for only 22 wickets in the first three innings .
Karthik was not selected for the ODIs against Pakistan and returned to action in one @-@ dayers for Tamil Nadu in the meantime , but managed only 59 runs at 19 @.@ 66 in three matches . In contrast , Dhoni scored 148 in an ODI against Pakistan and kept his position as the ODI gloveman safe . Despite Dhoni ’ s heavy run @-@ scoring in the ODIs , the selectors continued to persist with Karthik for the Tests in the face of his low scoring at both domestic and international level in the preceding 12 months . Karthik started the tour of Zimbabwe with 40 in a warm @-@ up match against the Zimbabwe Board XI . The hosts , depleted due to political purges conducted by their government , were no match for India and lost by an innings and ten wickets respectively . India scored heavily against their weakened opponents , amassing 554 and 366 in their completed innings , but Karthik failed on both occasions , twice making a single .
Karthik returned to India and made 26 and 11 in the Challenger Trophy for India A , which was not enough for him to force his way into India ’ s squad for the home ODIs against Sri Lanka and South Africa . In the meantime , he played in the Duleep Trophy and had the chance to make his case for Test retention . However , he scored only 106 runs at 26 @.@ 50 in two matches and South Zone lost both of these and were eliminated , and Karthik spent the next month on the sidelines .
When the team for the three Tests at home to Sri Lanka was announced , Karthik was dropped in place of Dhoni . In ten Tests since his debut , Karthik had managed only 245 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 84 with only one half @-@ century and one other score beyond 25 . In contrast , Dhoni 's had been a prolific run @-@ scorer in ODIs , and had won the man of the series award against Sri Lanka and scored 183 not out in one match .
Karthik continued to play for Tamil Nadu in the Ranji Trophy , but only scored 30 in his first four innings of the season . This dropped him down the pecking order as Patel was favoured as the reserve wicket @-@ keeper on the 2006 tour to Pakistan . Immediately after the announcement , Karthik scored 134 against Mumbai in a losing effort , but was unable to back up with any scores beyond 50 in his five remaining innings in the competition .
Karthik then had mixed results in the domestic one @-@ day competitions . He scored only one half @-@ century in six matches for Tamil Nadu , a 79 , and one further fifty in three matches for South Zone , ending with a total of 209 runs at 23 @.@ 22 .
Test Centuries
= = International recall as a batsman = =
In April 2006 , Karthik 's career was revived when he was recalled to the ODI team by selectors to give Dhoni a rest in the final ODI against England in Indore . He was not required to bat as India cruised to a seven @-@ wicket victory .
He was then reinstated as the reserve wicketkeeper for the tour to the West Indies. after a campaign for India A during April in which he scored 134 runs at 33 @.@ 50 , including a man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match 75 runs against UAE on a tour to the gulf country . However , Karthik had little to do on his Caribbean sojourn , playing in only one non @-@ first @-@ class tour match ahead of the Tests .
At the start of the 2006 – 07 season , Karthik scored 11 and 85 for India Red in the Challenger Trophy . He then played in two Duleep Trophy matches for South Zone , scoring 95 in the latter against Sri Lanka A.
Karthik was given more opportunities at international level in late @-@ 2006 during the ODI tour of South Africa , after Yuvraj Singh was sidelined with a knee injury , and Karthik was given a spot purely as a batsman following the poor form of Suresh Raina and Mohammad Kaif . Karthik had opened the batting for Tamil Nadu in the previous season in the Ranji Trophy , as well as for South Zone in the Duleep Trophy . Playing in three of the ODIs , Karthik himself struggled , with 42 runs at an average of 14 @.@ 00 , and a top score of 17 as South Africa took a 5 – 0 whitewash . With India 's batsmen struggling , Raina and Kaif were dropped altogether from the Test squad , as Karthik was selected as a back @-@ up wicket @-@ keeper and middle order batsmen in the Test team for the first time in a year . He then scored an unbeaten 31 to steer India to a six @-@ wicket win in the Twenty20 International against South Africa with one ball to spare . After Dhoni suffered from a finger injury , Karthik replaced him for the Third Test at Newlands against South Africa , playing in his first Test in over a year . With regular opener Virender Sehwag suffering from a loss of form , Karthik opened the innings with Wasim Jaffer , allowing Sehwag to bat in the middle order . He used his domestic experience to score 63 in the first innings , combining in a century opening stand , helping India to 414 , enough for a first innings lead of 41 . In the second innings , he scored an unbeaten 38 , as the team suffered a batting collapse and were all out for 169 , allowing the hosts to take the series 2 – 1 by five wickets . In addition to his batting , his wicket @-@ keeping was praised and brought former South African fast bowler Allan Donald to predict further success in the future .
Karthik then featured in the four @-@ match ODI series against West Indies , and after not batting in the victory in the first match , he top @-@ scored with 63 as a specialist batsman when India recovered from 35 / 3 to post 189 on a slow wicket at the Barabati Stadium in Cuttack . India went on to win by 20 runs , giving Karthik his first man of the match award . He was rewarded with continued selection for the subsequent series against Sri Lanka and the 2007 Cricket World Cup . However , Karthik faltered in the series against Sri Lanka , managing only 31 , 4 not out and 1 , leaving his position in jeopardy . In two warm @-@ up matches in the West Indies before the start of the World Cup , Karthik scored 3 and 38 not out against The Netherlands and the West Indies .
Karthik did not play a match at the World Cup , and following India 's unexpected exit from the first round , a group of players was dropped from the squad , including Sehwag . As a result , Karthik was selected as a specialist opener for the tour of Bangladesh , scoring 56 and 22 in the drawn First Test in Chittagong before scoring his maiden Test century in the Second Test in Dhaka , compiling 129 runs and featuring in a century opening stand as India took an innings victory . He completed his tour with 58 * and six in the ODI series , playing in the middle order as India won both matches .
Prior to their tour of England , India played a series of ODIs in Ireland , against the hosts and South Africa . Karthik played in four matches , scoring 15 runs at 51 @.@ 00 and keeping wicket in two of the matches .
Karthik established himself as a regular opener in the mid @-@ 2007 Test series in England . After scoring 76 and 51 in the two tour matches ahead of the Tests , he recorded a half century in each of the three Tests , regularly helping India to make solid starts . In the First Test at Lord ’ s , Karthik made 60 in the second innings before India fell to 9 / 282 in pursuit of 380 when rain ended the match early . In the Second Test at Trent Bridge , Karthik scored 77 , helping to lay a top @-@ order platform for India ’ s first innings of 481 , which gave them a 283 @-@ run lead . He then scored 22 as they reached their target of 73 to take a winning series lead . In the Third Test at The Oval , Karthik scored 91 as India batted first and helped to lay the foundation for their total of 664 and a first @-@ innings lead . This was enough to secure a 319 @-@ run first innings lead , and although India were unable to finish England off , it was enough to secure a 1 – 0 series win . With a total of 263 runs at 43 @.@ 83 , he was the highest scorer in the series for India , as the tourists won their first series in England for 21 years . He started the ODI series with an unbeaten 44 in the first ODI as India capitulated to 184 all out and a 104 @-@ run defeat , but thereafter had four consecutive innings where he failed to score more than four runs , and he was dropped for the final two matches .
Karthik was selected for the inaugural World Twenty20 in South Africa in September 2007 , and played in India 's earlier matches , scoring 11 , 17 , and a duck , before being dropped from the semi @-@ final and final in favour of Rohit Sharma . India went on to win after starting the tournament as outsiders . Karthik kept his place in the Indian squad for the home ODI series against Australia but was on the outer after his decline in form in England , and played in only the final match in Mumbai , making a duck as India scraped home by two wickets .
After struggling in recent months in the limited overs format , Karthik bounced back during the Challenger Trophy at the start of the Indian domestic season . Playing for India Blue , he made a duck in the first match , but then made 65 against India Green and an unbeaten 116 in the final to guide his team through a successful run @-@ chase against India Red . He then rounded off his preparation for the next Test series with consecutive fifties for Tamil Nadu in the Ranji Trophy .
Karthik had a lean Test series against Pakistan at home in late @-@ 2008 . In the first two Tests , he managed only 39 in two innings , passing single figures only once . In the Third Test in Bangalore , Sachin Tendulkar was injured , and his replacement Yuvraj scored 170 . Karthik , batting down the order with Gautam Gambhir taking his opening position , scored 24 and 52 in a high @-@ scoring draw and kept wickets because of Dhoni 's absence with injury . In the first innings , Karthik was behind the stumps as India set a world record for the most extras conceded in a Test innings . The 35 byes that were leaked were the second highest amount in Test history . India won the First Test and the other matches were drawn .
Karthik was retained for the Test tour of Australia as an opener , while Gambhir was ruled out after suffering an injury . However , he did not play in the first two Tests , because Dravid was elevated into his opening position so that both Tendulkar and Yuvraj could bat in the middle order . When Dravid and Yuvraj both struggled in their new positions , Dravid was moved back to his No. 3 position and Yuvraj dropped for the Third Test of the series , but instead , it was Sehwag — who had earned a late call @-@ up as the reserve opener after Gambhir succumbed to injury — and not Karthik who was recalled . During the Test leg of the tour , Karthik played in only one non @-@ first @-@ class match against an Australian Capital Territory Invitation XI , scoring 25 and 97 . Karthik was selected for the limited overs component of the Australian tour , but did not play in any of the ten ODIs . This meant that in almost three months on tour , Karthik only played in a two @-@ day match and a Twenty20 match against Australia , in which he scored eight runs .
= = Back on the fringes = =
Upon his return to India , Karthik played in six one @-@ dayers for Tamil Nadu and South Zone , reaching 40 twice in six innings . Karthik played in the 2008 Indian Premier League as the wicket @-@ keeper for the Delhi Daredevils , scoring 145 runs at 24 @.@ 16 with a strike rate of 135 @.@ 51 . His highest score was an unbeaten 56 to steer Delhi to a five @-@ wicket win in a group match over the Mumbai Indians . In a match against the Deccan Chargers , team @-@ mate Amit Mishra took a hat @-@ trick , and when the new batsman came in , he charged out of his ground and missed , only for Karthik to miss the opportunity for the stumping and double hat @-@ trick .
He was recalled to the Test team as a wicket @-@ keeper for the July 2008 tour of Sri Lanka after Dhoni chose to take a break from cricket , citing the need to rest . Karthik played in the first two Tests , but struggled with the bat in the middle @-@ order , scoring 36 runs at 9 @.@ 00 , falling all four times to the spinners Muttiah Muralitharan and Ajantha Mendis . He also dropped frequent catches and he was replaced for the Third Test by Patel .
Following the loss of his place in the Indian team , Karthik returned home and played for India A in a series of one @-@ dayers against their counterparts from Australia and New Zealand , and then for India Blue in the Challenger Trophy . He had an unsuccessful campaign , accumulating only 70 runs at 11 @.@ 66 .
He then had a strong domestic first @-@ class season in 2008 – 09 . After starting the Ranji Trophy campaign with two single @-@ figure scores , he scored 213 , featuring in a 213 @-@ run partnership with Subramaniam Badrinath as Tamil Nadu defeated Uttar Pradesh by an innings . Karthik then scored 123 and 113 in consecutive matches against Baroda and Railways before ending his Ranji Torphy campaign with 72 against Uttar Pradesh in the return match . He then continued his strong run against Central Zone in the Duleep Trophy , scoring 153 and 103 in one match . Karthik ended with 1026 runs at 64 @.@ 12 for the season , including five centuries and two fifties .
He then scored an unbeaten 117 against Kerala in the one @-@ day tournament and was selected for the tour of New Zealand as the reserve wicket @-@ keeper . After watching the entire T20 and ODI series from the sidelines , he played in the Second Test after Dhoni was injured , but he was criticised for dropping multiple catches as the hosts amassed 9 / 619 and made only six in his only innings .
In the 2009 Indian Premier League held in South Africa , Karthik played in each of Delhi 's 15 matches , scoring 288 runs at 36 @.@ 00 , passing 40 on three occasions and making 17 dismissals . Delhi topped the pool stage of the tournament , but Karthik made only nine in the semi @-@ final as Delhi were defeated by six wickets by the Deccan Chargers .
He got a chance again in India 's four match tour of West Indies where he replaced opener Sehwag , who was out with a shoulder injury . He scored 67 , 4 and 47 as an opener which could help him claim a berth for the future , as India took the series 2 – 1 .
With Sehwag still injured , he was retained for a short triangular ODI tournament in Sri Lanka in September . He scored 4 and 16 in India 's two round robin matches and was dropped for the final , in which India triumphed over the hosts . Karthik was retained for the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy in South Africa , but after his performances in Sri Lanka , was omitted for the first two matches . He was given an opportunity in India 's final pool match against the West Indies and scored 34 in a seven @-@ wicket win , but it was not enough to prevent India 's first round exit .
Sehwag and Yuvraj recovered in time for the home ODI series against Australia , so Karthik returned to domestic duty at the start of the 2009 – 10 season . He played in Delhi 's four matches in the 2009 Twenty20 Champions League , scoring 92 runs at 23 @.@ 00 , including a top @-@ score of 61 against Sri Lanka 's Wayamba . Delhi were knocked out in the Super 8 stage . Karthik played in six Ranji Trophy matches for Tamil Nadu as captain , and he had an uneven run of scoring with the bat . He scored 152 against Orissa and 117 against Punjab , and added a further two scores of at least 70 , but managed only 16 runs in his four other innings . Karthik ended the season with 443 runs at 55 @.@ 37 . He also resorted to bowling himself twice , when matches were proceeding towards a draw , with no success ; he delivered 14 overs and conceded 97 runs in all . However , Karthik was not to lead Tamil Nadu into the knockout stages of the competition .
In December 2009 , Karthik was recalled to the ODI team during the Sri Lankan tour of India after Dhoni was banned after the second match for two matches because of slow over rates . Karthik kept wickets in the next two matches , scoring 32 and 19 and remaining unbeaten in both instances , helping to guide India to the target in successful runchases . He retained his place as a middle @-@ order batsman in the fifth and final match when Dhoni returned after Tendulkar was rested and Yuvraj injured , but the match was ended prematurely due to an unsafe pitch .
Karthik retained his place for the ODI tri @-@ series in Bangladesh against the hosts and Sri Lanka after Tendulkar was rested for the tournament . Karthik played as an opener along Gambhir in the last two of the round @-@ robin matches after Sehwag was rested . Karthik made 48 and 34 in quick time as India won both matches but was dropped for the final , which was lost .
Karthik then played in the First Test at Chittagong after Dhoni was forced to withdraw due to injury . He made a duck in the first innings as India stumbled to 243 on the first day . He then made 27 , falling in pursuit of quick runs for a declaration after India recovered in the second innings . India went on to win the match , and Karthik watched the next match from the sidelines after Dhoni recovered and steered India to a clean sweep .
Karthik was then displaced as the reserve gloveman for the two @-@ Test home series against South Africa ; Wriddhiman Saha was called up to be Dhoni 's deputy . Karthik scored 183 and 150 in the Duleep Trophy final against West Zone , becoming the third player after Lalchand Rajput and Yuvraj Singh to score centuries in both innings of a Duleep Trophy final . However , it was not enough as Yusuf Pathan scored an unbeaten 210 from only 190 balls to set a new world record for a successful run @-@ chase .
For 2012 Indian Premier League Dinesh Karthik transfer to Mumbai Indians from Delhi Daredevils .
In the 2013 Indian Premier League Dinesh Karthik had some good starts for the Mumbai Indians , in the early matches : in particular , when he scored a quick 86 against the Delhi Daredevils in their home match at the Wankhede Stadium . The Mumbai Indians went on to win their first IPL trophy this season with Karthik batting and wicket @-@ keeping in all 19 of their matches . In almost all the matches he batted third and was seen as a key run getter for the team . He ended the tournament with 510 runs and was within the top 10 run scorers of the tournament .
Karthik was recalled to the Indian ODI team for the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy following a great domestic season and IPL performance . He scored back to back centuries in the two warm up games sealing his place in the team for the tournament . Unfortunately these centuries will not be counted in his first class statistics as the teams were playing a 15- side team . He scored an unbeaten 51 in India 's group match against the West Indies .
= = Season by season at IPL = =
= = Personal life = =
In 2012 , he got divorced from his childhood sweetheart Nikitha ( m . 2007 ) . On 18 August 2015 , he married Indian squash player Dipika Pallikal Karthik in Chennai .
= = Outside cricket = =
Karthik took part in the dance reality show Ek Khiladi Ek Hasina partnering with Nigaar Khan .
|
= Resentment ( song ) =
" Resentment " is a song written by Walter W. Millsap III , Candice Nelson and Curtis Mayfield and originally performed by Victoria Beckham . It is an emotive ballad whose lyrics detail a situation where a woman feels hurt and anger that her man lied and cheated on her . " Resentment " along with several other songs were meant to be on Beckham 's third solo @-@ album , Come Together , which was later shelved , leading the song to be included on the documentary DVD titled The Real Beckhams ( 2004 ) . American recording artist Jazmine Sullivan had re @-@ recorded the song in 2005 for her unreleased original debut Break My Little Heart . Beyoncé 's version of the song was included on her second studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) and featured additional lyrics composed by the singer herself .
= = Background and development = =
On August 14 , 2000 , Victoria Beckham released her first solo single , " Out of Your Mind " in collaboration with Dane Bowers and Truesteppers . Beckham then signed a recording contract with her group label Virgin Records . Her eponymous debut album was released on October 1 , 2001 . The album cost a reputed £ 5 million to produce and it sold a modest 50 @,@ 000 copies . In 2002 , Telstar Records signed Beckham in a deal made with 19 Management worth £ 1 @.@ 5 million . Beckham spent much of that year recording her second , and more pop @-@ influenced album called Open Your Eyes , which yielded the single " Let Your Head Go " , but instead of pop , Beckham wanted a more urban sound for her third album , Come Together , which lead her to working with urban producer Damon Dash for a more rhythm and blues and hip hop influence .
She then worked with Walter M. Millsap III and Candice Nelson on a soul track titled " Resentment " ; recording sessions occurred in 2004 . The track used Curtis Mayfield 's 1972 " Think ( Instrumental ) " , from the Super Fly soundtrack . " Resentment " was first included on a documentary of Victoria and David Beckham , titled The Real Beckhams ( 2004 ) . The DVD captures the family as they move to Spain , and features Victoria Beckham launching her newest singles to date , and recording additional songs including " Resentment " . United Kingdom daily national tabloid newspaper , The Sun , noted Victoria Beckham 's multiple songs about a possible affair and read into the " poignant lyrics " as a stab at her husband David Beckham . " Resentment " along with " Valentine " and " Just Me And You This Time " were meant to be on Beckham 's third solo @-@ album Come Together , which was later shelved , forcing the song to be included on the documentary DVD .
= = Beyoncé version = =
American R & B recording artist Beyoncé recorded " Resentment " for her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . She covered the original song by Beckham with slightly modified lyrics . It was composed by Walter W. Millsap III and Candice Nelson . This version contained the instrumental of Curtis Mayfield 's " Think " from the film Superfly in 1972 .
The cover was well received by music critics who praised Beyoncé 's powerful vocal performance and vulnerability . It charted at number 11 on the Billboard Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles based on downloads alone . She performed the song during her revue shows I Am ... Yours ( 2009 ) and Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live ( 2012 ) . It was additionally included the 2009 DVD / CD I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas as the ninth track .
= = = Background and composition = = =
The version of " Resentment " on B 'Day contained writing and production credits for Beyoncé along with the team who worked on the original version of the song . During an interview with 4Music , the singer talked about the song , saying , " The song on my new album [ B 'Day ] I am proudest of is probably ' Resentment ' . I feel like vocally I 've grown , I feel like all the chord changes and the beautiful harmonies and the lyrics is something that I really am proud of " .
" Resentment " is a passionate ballad about a gritty , agitated goodbye which adds a " different kind of overwrought drama " . The track is written in the key of E major . " Resentment " features a slow groove of 70 beats per minute , with Beyoncé 's vocals range spanning from the note of F ♯ 3 to E5 . It is built around a honeyed sample from Curtis Mayfield 's [ Think ] ( 1972 ) album : " How could you lie ? " . In " Resentment " Beyoncé sings about infidelity and a boyfriend who cheats and lies to her , seen in the lines " I 've been crying for too long / What did you do to me ? / You lied , you lied , you lied . " In the song , Beyoncé presents a more vulnerable side of herself , because she shows that she doesn 't want her boyfriend to leave her for another woman .
= = = Reception = = =
Beyoncé 's version of " Resentment " received positive reviews from critics , most of whom noted the soulful vocal stylings used in the song . Bill Lamb of About.com complimented the song as one of the album highlights and described it as " gospel @-@ influenced " and " emotion filled " song . A writer of Billboard magazine stated that Beyoncé " shifts into emotive mode " on this song from " rockier , edgier " sound of album and noted that the track " calls to mind the subtle fervor and passion of the best girl groups of the ' 60s and ' 70s " . Brian Hiatt from Rolling Stone marked the track as " one of the most arresting moments " on the album and described it as an " anguished , sixties @-@ tinged ballad " . Spence Abbott of IGN also noted track as a stand out alongside " Irreplaceable " and observed that " [ the ] track goes straight for Aretha Franklin @-@ inspired territory , with Beyoncé actually getting gritty and dropping her high octave range down a few pegs to get guttural and downright Old School soulful " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that the " agitated goodbye " builds a different kind of overwrought drama . Steve Jones of USA Today the song showcases Beyoncé 's " maturing vocal chops , " describing the song as spare and gritty . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted that the song would have been better if performed by a trio of " talented " vocalists , such as Destiny 's Child , rather than Beyoncé by herself . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra felt that " Doubters of Beyoncé 's immense talent need only give one listen to this track [ ' Resentment ' ] from 2006 's B 'Day . It 's a stunner — a visceral , emotional showcase that casts Beyoncé as a scorned , sorrowful woman . You can almost feel the pain in her delivery . " According to a writer of Irish Independent , the song gives a more soulful feel to B 'Day . Jim Farber of Daily News called " Resentment " an " old @-@ school soul shouter " . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker described the song as a " fierce ballad " . " Resentment " peaked at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart , which acts as an extension to the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = = Live performances = = =
During Beyoncé 's 2009 Las Vegas revue show , I Am ... Yours , she performed the song live for the first time . Before performing the song , the singer described its meaning depth , stating : " How many of you have ever been lied to ? I 'm sure everyone has — we all have . But this next song is from my last album , B 'Day . And I never performed this song before , this is especially for Encore [ ... ] It talks about a relationship after you 've been lied to . And you 're trying your best to forgive . But it 's difficult because you never forget . It 's called ' Resentment ' . " She additionally included the song on the 2009 I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas as the ninth track of the DVD / CD 's first disc . During a Thanksgiving TV Special , Beyoncé aired I Am ... Yours in its entirety which also featured her performance of " Resentment " . Nate Chinen of The New York Times said , " There 's exactly one human @-@ scale moment in the concert , when she sits at the lip of the stage to sing an acoustic treatment of ' Resentment , ' from her album ' B 'Day . ' And even then she makes it a showstopper . "
In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Resentment " as a part of her revue show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . She announced it as her " favorite song " and according to Georgette Cline of The Boombox , " fans could feel the pangs of her once @-@ broken heart on ' Resentment , ' as she cooed of a lying lover who deceived her " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " Resentment " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . A writer of the Associated Press , noted that Beyoncé " held back tears during a rousing rendition " of the song . According to Chuck Darrow of The Philadelphia Inquirer , the acoustic performance of the ballad , " proved a nice respite from the relentless thump @-@ thump @-@ thump of the many dance @-@ pop numbers " . Tris McCall from The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that Beyoncé brought the song to life further describing the performance as a " full @-@ scale psychological portrait in three and a half minutes " . The live performance of the song during the concerts at Revel was used in Beyoncé 's HBO documentary film , Life Is But a Dream ( 2013 ) . Only one shot was used to film it for five minutes . Aaron Parsley from People magazine commented that the rendition of " Resentment " was " grittier and angrier " than the previous performances of the song . The song was also included on the set list of Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 ) , during several opening shows of the first leg where she performed it on a B @-@ stage .
" Resentment " was performed during Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) . During the concert , Beyoncé moved to an island stage in the middle of the stadium , dressed as a bride in white with a floor @-@ length bridal veil and performed the song seated . Video projections of the pair shooting at each other in an abandoned church , dressed in wedding attire followed as images of guns flashed across the screen with the words " this is not real " . The footage ended with Beyoncé shooting Jay @-@ Z dead . Kat Bein from the Miami New Times thought that the performance of the song was a " high note " during the concert .
= = = Credits and personnel = = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .
Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , & Candice Nelson
Writing : Beyoncé Knowles , Walter W. Millsap III , Candice Nelson , Curtis Mayfield
Producing : Walter W. Millsap III , Candice Nelson ( co @-@ producer ) , Beyoncé Knowles ( vocal production )
Recording : Jim Caruana , Geoff Rice
Assistance : Rob Kinelski , Andrew Coleman
Mixing : Jason Goldstein , Steve Tolle ( assistant )
= = Other versions = =
Following Beyoncé 's cover of the song , American recording artist Jazmine Sullivan covered the song in 2006 prior to her official debut Fearless ( 2008 ) .
|
= Tropical Storm Bonnie ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Storm Bonnie was a weak tropical storm that brought squally weather to the northern Caribbean Sea and Gulf Coast of the United States in July 2010 . The third tropical cyclone and second named storm of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed from a tropical wave over the Bahamas on July 22 . It strengthened to a tropical storm while crossing the islands , and made landfall on the southeastern coast of Florida the following day . Inland , Bonnie weakened to a tropical depression before entering the Gulf of Mexico , where its surface circulation dissipated on July 24 . The remnants of the storm moved ashore between Louisiana and Mississippi early on July 25 , prompting severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings in the area .
The precursor to Bonnie produced considerable amounts of rainfall across the Greater Antilles , resulting in light to moderate flooding . In the Dominican Republic , hundreds of people were displaced , and several bridges collapsed over rushing waters . One person drowned after being swept away by a swollen river in Puerto Rico . Elsewhere , light amounts of rainfall was reported in Haiti , the Bahamas and Florida . Effects were more severe from the remnants of Bonnie , with heavier rain amounts and higher winds reported near the Gulf Coast , especially in Louisiana . Damage as a result of the storm and its remnants totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 2010 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 10 , a tropical wave exited the African coast and moved westward over the open Atlantic for several days . Initially , the associated weather activity was limited to weak showers , and environmental conditions were not forecast to become conducive for significant organization . Although upper @-@ level wind shear remained somewhat adverse , a process of slow development became evident by July 19 as surface pressures began to fall . The wave proceeded along the extreme northeastern Caribbean , where convective activity waxed and waned due to periods of variable wind shear and brief land interaction with Hispaniola . By July 22 , thundershower activity reestablished over the Bahamas , with a distinct area of low pressure centered between the islands of Acklins and Great Inagua . Satellite observations confirmed a closed circulation , leading the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to issue the formation of Tropical Depression Three around 1500 UTC . However , post @-@ storm analysis indicated that a depression had developed nine hours earlier than operationally confirmed . Upon its formation , the depression was forecast to be steered to the west @-@ northwest along a well @-@ established subtropical ridge . Later that day , minimum pressure dropped to 1006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) , and satellite imagery showed an establishment of favorable outflow in nearly all quadrants . Although its cloud pattern remained disorganized — with the circulation center disassociated from the deepest convection — a reconnaissance aircraft flight into the cyclone found that the winds had increased . It was therefore upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie southeast of Nassau , Bahamas , about five hours after NHC initiated advisories on the system .
Around 2100 UTC , Bonnie moved over Ragged Island in the Bahamas with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter it attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Due to increasingly unfavorable conditions aloft , little change in intensity occurred during the following day as the storm accelerated toward Florida . Though tropical storm @-@ force winds prevailed , they were confined to a few rainbands to the north and east of the center at that time , with the deepest convection dislocated over southeast Florida . On July 23 at 1430 UTC , the center of Bonnie made landfall near Elliott Key with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Interaction with land caused the organization to deteriorate further , and its corresponding convection quickly diminished . In addition , a second reconnaissance flight affirmed a lack of significant winds ; it is estimated the cyclone lost tropical storm status around 1800 UTC that same day . On the morning of July 24 , deep convection briefly redeveloped over the center as Bonnie emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . Despite the redevelopment , the storm subsequently entered a region of intense upper @-@ level winds , causing associated convection to become sheared away rapidly . Embedded within a well @-@ established steering flow , Bonnie further degenerated to a tight swirl of low clouds , with no more than a few remaining patches of strong thunderstorms . Subsequent satellite images confirmed Bonnie no longer maintained a definable structure ; following the final advisory by the NHC , the system was pronounced dissipated while located about 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the mouth of the Mississippi River . The remnant low of Bonnie drifted west @-@ northwestward before dissolving over southeast Louisiana on July 25 .
= = Preparations = =
When the NHC initiated advisories on Bonnie , a tropical storm warning was issued for the central and northwest islands of the Bahamas . In Florida , a tropical storm watch was issued for Golden Beach northward to Jupiter Inlet , and included Lake Okeechobee . In addition , a tropical storm warning was issued from Golden Beach to Bonita Springs on the west coast of the state , and included the Florida Keys and Florida Bay . By early July 23 , the tropical storm warning from Golden Beach to Bonita Springs was discontinued , while a tropical storm warning was issued from Englewood to Deerfield Beach , Florida . Six hours later , a tropical storm watch was put into effect for Destin , Florida to Morgan City , Louisiana ; it was later upgraded to a tropical storm warning . Three hours later , the tropical storm watch from Deerfield Beach to Jupiter Inlet , Florida and all tropical storm warnings in the Bahamas were discontinued . All tropical storm watches and warnings had been discontinued by 1500 UTC July 24 , shortly before Bonnie dissipated .
Three cruise ships , Carnival Pride , Carnival Destiny , and Grandeur of the Seas had to alter their courses due to the presence of Bonnie . Due to the threat of a tropical storm , Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal declared a state of emergency on July 22 . Along the Gulf Coast , concerns arose regarding the potential effects of the storm on the BP oil spill earlier in the year . Due to risk of intoxicated storm surge , authorities prepared for possible evacuations of low @-@ lying areas along coastlines . On July 23 , Admiral Thad Allen ordered the oil spill site to be evacuated , as Bonnie posed a safety threat to nearly 2 @,@ 000 people in that area . The ships and vessels in the area began preparation for evacuation on July 24 . Closer to shore , approximately 1 @,@ 300 fishing boats laying boom had to evacuate .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
The precursor to Bonnie brought significant rainfall to parts of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola , leading to widespread flooding . In Puerto Rico , one person drowned after being caught in a swollen river , and roughly 500 people required evacuation in the Dominican Republic . According to officials in the Dominican Republic , the system produced more than 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rain across the territory . Several towns in the country were isolated after bridges collapsed . Some light flooding also occurred in Artibonite , Haiti , though no damage was reported .
As Bonnie moved through the Bahamas , residents stocked up on food and water as a precautionary measure ; however , no major preparations took place . Most businesses remained open during the system 's passage and schools were already closed for the summer . Throughout the islands , the effects from Bonnie were relatively minimal . Heavy rain fell across a few islands and copious lightning was reported . No known damage or loss of life took place .
= = = United States = = =
Due to the weak and disorganized structure of the storm , its effects upon landfall in Florida were minimal . Gusty winds damaged newly planted trees , and some power lines were downed ; throughout the state , roughly 14 @,@ 000 people lost power . A storm surge of 0 @.@ 94 ft ( 0 @.@ 29 m ) was measured at Virginia Key . Tropical storm @-@ force winds were recorded in several areas , although sustained winds of over 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) were confined to Virginia Key . Rainfall was also minimal , with a maximum of 3 @.@ 25 in ( 83 mm ) falling in northern Miami @-@ Dade County . Overall , monetary losses as a result of the storm in Florida amounted to $ 2 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) . In Pinellas County , one person was hospitalized after being struck by lightning at Fred Howard Park on July 24 .
On July 25 , the remnants of Bonnie brought torrential rainfall to parts of Louisiana . In a 90 minute span , between 8 and 9 in ( 200 and 230 mm ) of rain fell in West Baton Rouge Parish . About 110 homes were flooded throughout the parish , resulting in $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) in losses . Along Highway 15 , 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water was reported to have covered the road . In Washington Parish , more than 20 bridges and roads were washed out by flash flooding . Strong thunderstorms associated with the system also produced strong winds , estimated up to 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) , which downed several trees . A second day of severe weather on July 26 brought hurricane @-@ force wind gusts to portions of Vernon Parish ; two chicken houses were destroyed by the winds , killing 22 @,@ 000 chickens . Losses from the winds were estimated at $ 310 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) . After moving through Louisiana , Bonnie 's remnants brought heavy rain to parts of Texas . In Hidalgo County , U.S. Route 69 was reportedly covered with high water .
Further inland , moisture from Bonnie combined with a cold front to produce widespread thunderstorms over Arkansas , Mississippi and Tennessee . In Arkansas , lightning from a severe thunderstorm knocked out power to much of the city of Rison after striking a transformer . Significant wind damage took place in Dallas County where awnings were blown off homes , structures sustained roof damage , and trees were felled . Heavy rains also triggered localized flash flooding , covering several highways . Throughout the state , storm damage was estimated at $ 356 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) .
|
= Sivakasi =
Sivakasi is a town and municipality in Virudhunagar District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . The town is known for its fire cracker , match and printing industries . The industries in Sivakasi employ over 25 @,@ 000 people with an estimated turn over of ₹ 20 billion ( US $ 300 million ) .
Sivakasi was established in the 15th century during the reign of the Pandya king Harikesari Parakkirama Pandian . The town was a part of Madurai empire and has been ruled at various times by the Later Pandyas , Vijayanagar Empire , Madurai Nayaks , Chanda Sahib , Carnatic kingdom and the British . A major riot during the British Raj took place in 1899 .
Sivakasi has a dry weather , making it suitable for dry crops like cotton , chillies and millets . Badhrkali Amman temple is one of the most prominent landmarks of the town . Sivakasi is a part of Sivakasi constituency and elects its member of legislative assembly every five years , and a part of the Virudhunagar constituency that elects its member of parliament . Sivakasi is locally administered by a special @-@ grade municipality which covers an area of 6 @.@ 8 km2 ( 2 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . Roadways is the major mode of transport to the town , while there is also railroad connectivity . In 2011 , Sivakasi had a population of 71 @,@ 040 .
= = History = =
Sivakasi was established during the early 15th century CE . Between 1428 and 1460 , a Pandya king Harikesari Parakkirama Pandian ruled the southern part of Madurai region ( comprising modern day Sivakasi and it surroundings ) . As per Hindu legend , he wanted to construct a temple for Hindu god Shiva at Tenkasi and went to Kasi to bring a lingam ( an iconic representation of Shiva ) . While returning to his palace with the prized lingam , he rested under the grove of a vilva tree , the favourite tree of Shiva . When a cow carrying the lingam refused to move from the point , the king realised that the wishes of Shiva were different from his own , and he placed the lingam in the place where the cow halted . The place where the " shivalingam brought from Kasi " was installed came to be known as Sivakasi . Sivakasi was a part of Madurai region during the 16th century . Madurai became independent from Vijayanagar Empire in 1559 under the Nayaks . Nayak rule ended in 1736 and Madurai was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 ) in the middle of 18th century . In 1801 , Madurai came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency .
During the 1800s , Nadars , then aspiring business community , established their commercial base in the town . By the end of the 19th century , the Nadars ’ rapid rise as a business community and pursuit for higher social status caused resentment in higher castes . The mutual confrontation between the Maravars and Nadars reached its peak in 1899 , leading to a series of riots which became to be known as the Sivakasi riots . A total of 22 people were killed , as many as 800 houses and Big chariot in center of the city ( used by temple during festival ) were burnt during the riots . Eventually the riots came to an end after the intervention of the military in mid @-@ July 1899 .
The Sivakasi municipality was established in 1920 . After India 's independence from the British in 1947 , Sivakasi continued to be a municipality under the Madras state and later a part of Tamil Nadu , when the state was split on linguistic lines during 1953 , 1956 and 1960 and renamed in 1968 . It was promoted to a second @-@ grade municipality in 1978 , first @-@ grade in 1978 , selection @-@ grade in 1998 and special @-@ grade in 2013 @.@ a Over the decades after independence , Sivakasi grew as an industrial town specialising in firecracker , match and printing industries . Several incidents of fire and blasts have occurred in the firework factories .
= = Geography = =
Sivakasi is located at 9 @.@ 45 ° N 77 @.@ 8167 ° E / 9 @.@ 45 ; 77 @.@ 8167 and has an average elevation of 101 metres ( 331 feet ) . The town is located in Virudhunagar district of the South Indian state , Tamil Nadu , at a distance of 74 km ( 46 mi ) from Madurai . Sivakasi is located to the east of Western Ghats and to the west of Sattur . The topography is almost plain , with no major geological formation . There are no notable mineral resources available in and around the town . The soil types are black and red that are conducive for cotton , chillies and millets . These crops are predominant because of poor ground water supply and soil type . Sivakasi experiences hot and dry weather throughout the year . The temperature ranges from a maximum of 39 ° C ( 102 ° F ) to a minimum of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . Like the rest of the state , April to June are the hottest months and December to January are the coldest . Sivakasi receives scanty rainfall with an average of 812 mm ( 32 @.@ 0 in ) annually , which is lesser than the state average of 1 @,@ 008 mm ( 39 @.@ 7 in ) . The South west monsoon , with an onset in June and lasting up to August , brings scanty rainfall . Bulk of the rainfall is received during the North East monsoon in the months of October , November and December . The average humidity of the town is 76 @.@ 2 % and varies between 65 @.@ 6 % to 79 @.@ 2 % . The municipality covers an area of 6 @.@ 8 km2 ( 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m2 )
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Sivakasi had a population of 71 @,@ 040 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 009 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 6 @,@ 963 were under the age of six , constituting 3 @,@ 474 males and 3 @,@ 489 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 8 @.@ 35 % and .25 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 79 @.@ 62 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of 18952 households . There were a total of 29 @,@ 342 workers , comprising 22 cultivators , 135 main agricultural labourers , 955 in house hold industries , 27 @,@ 662 other workers , 568 marginal workers , 6 marginal cultivators , 3 marginal agricultural labourers , 79 marginal workers in household industries and 480 other marginal workers .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Sivakasi had 85 @.@ 42 % Hindus , 9 @.@ 21 % Muslims , 5 @.@ 2 % Christians , 0 @.@ 01 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 06 % Jains , 0 @.@ 08 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 01 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
In 2001 , 16 slums were identified in the town and a total of 34 @,@ 029 people resided in the slums . The slum population increased from 42 % to 47 % during the period of 1991 – 2001 . The high decadal growth of population during the 1961 – 71 period is attributed to the high level of industrialisation during the period . The density of population increased from 9 @,@ 646 persons per km2 in 1991 to 10 @,@ 613 persons per km2 in 2001 . The wards along the Virudhunagar , Sattur , Srivilliputhur and Vembakottai corridors have registered increased commercial and residential activity .
Majority of the residents are engaged in secondary sector involving match works , fireworks and printing industry . During the 2001 census , the occupational pattern indicated increasing presence of the tertiary sector . The agricultural output of the town is limited , due to the lack of favourable geographical and climatic conditions .
= = Municipal administration and politics = =
The Sivakasi municipality has 33 wards and there is an elected councillor for each of those wards . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : general administration / personnel , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , city planning and Information Technology ( IT ) . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 33 members , one each from the 33 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .
Sivakasi comes under the Sivakasi assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . From the 1977 elections , All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam ( AIADMK ) won the assembly seat four times ( in 1980 , 1984 @,@ 1991 , and 2011 elections ) ; Tamil Maanila Congress ( TMC ) twice ( 1996 , 2001 ) . The seat was won once by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK , 1989 ) , Janata Party ( 1977 ) , and Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( MDMK , 2006 ) . The current MLA of the constituency is K.T. Rajenthra Bhalaji from AIADMK .
During the 1957 elections , Sivakasi was a part of Srivilliputhur constituency and was held by the Indian National Congress and an independent after the by @-@ elections . During the 1962 elections , the town was a part of Aruppukkottai constituency and was held by the Forward Block party . Since 1967 , the town has been a part of Virudhunagar Lok sabha constituency ; the constituency was won by AIADMK five times ( 1980 , 1984 , 1989 , 1991 and 2014 ) , MDMK three times ( 1998 , 1999 and 2004 ) , and once each by Swathanthara Party ( 1967 ) , DMK ( 1971 ) , INC ( 1977 ) , and Communist Party of India ( CPI , 1996 ) . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is T. Radhakrishnan from the AIADMK .
Law and order in the town in maintained by the Sivakasi sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent . There are three police stations in the town , one of them being an all @-@ women police station . There are special units like prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Education and utility services = =
In 2011 , there were five government schools : two primary schools , one middle school , one high school and one higher secondary school . There were ten other private schools within the town . There were two engineering colleges in the town , with the Mepco Schlenk Engineering College being the prominent among them . There were three arts and science colleges and three polytechnic colleges in the town .
Electricity supply to Sivakasi is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . The town along with its suburbs forms the Sivakasi Electricity Distribution Circle . A Chief Distribution engineer is stationed at the regional headquarters . Water supply is provided by the Sivakasi Municipality from the Vaippar river through eight reservoirs and six feeders located in various parts of the town . In the period 2000 – 2001 , a total of 6 @.@ 5 million litres of water was supplied everyday for households in the town .
As per the municipal data for 2011 , about 45 metric tonnes of solid waste were collected from Sivakasi every day by door @-@ to @-@ door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping was carried out by the sanitary department of the Sivakasi municipality . The coverage of solid waste management in the town by the municipality had an efficiency of 100 % in 2001 . There is no underground drainage system in the town and the sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks , open drains and public conveniences . The municipality maintained a total of 85 @.@ 87 km ( 53 @.@ 36 mi ) of storm water drains in 2011 . In 2011 , there was one government hospital , three municipal health centres , one municipal maternity home and 25 private hospitals and clinics that take care of the health care needs of the citizens . In 2011 , the municipality maintained a total of 2 @,@ 584 street lamps : 322 sodium lamps , 125 mercury vapour lamps , 2 @,@ 136 tube lights and one high mast beam lamp . The municipality operates two markets , namely the Anna Daily Market and Viswanatham Municipal Meat Market that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Sivakasi is dependent on three major industries : fire crackers , match manufacturing and printing . The town has 520 registered printing industries , 53 match factories , 32 chemical factories , seven soda factories , four flour mills and two rice and oil mills . The town is the nodal center for firecracker manufacturing at the national level . In 2011 , the industry employed over 25 @,@ 000 people and some of the private enterprises had an annual turnover of ₹ 5 billion ( US $ 74 million ) . In 2011 , the combined estimated turnover of the firecracker , match making and printing industry in the town was around ₹ 20 billion ( US $ 300 million ) . Approximately 70 % of the firecrackers and matches produced in India are from Sivakasi . The hot and dry climate of the town is conducive for the firecracker and match making industries . The raw materials for these industries were procured from Sattur earlier , but was discontinued due to the high power and production cost . The source of raw materials is Kerala and Andaman . The paper for the printing industry is procured from various states . The town is a major producer of diaries , contributing to 30 % of the total diaries produced in India . Printing industry in the town was initially utilized for printing labels for the firecrackers and later evolved with modern machinery to grow as a printing hub . In 2012 , all the industries suffered 15 – 20 % production loss due to power shortage and escalating labor cost .
The major issues in the fireworks industry in Sivakasi is child labour and frequent accidents . In a blast in 1991 in a factory , 39 people were killed and 65 others were injured . In July 2009 , more than 40 people were killed in a fire accident in a firecracker unit . The police traced out unregistered units and irregularities that led to the accident . In a fire accident in August 2011 , seven people were killed and five were seriously injured . A similar fire accident and blast in a private unit in September 2012 killed 40 people and injured 38 others . The common reasons cited for the accidents are inadequate training of workers and supervisors involved in different stages of production and marketing of firecracker items . Other reasons are found to be overstocking of explosives , raw material and finished goods , and employment of workers in excess of the permitted strength .
Child labour in the industries , especially in match making factories , was at its peak during the 1970s and 1980s . In 1981 , the child work force in the age group 4 – 16 was 30 % of the total work force , 90 % of whom were girls . In 1986 , the National Child Labour project estimated child labour in Sivaksi match making industries to be 14 @,@ 121 children . The estimates indicated 80 % of the child labour belonging to Scheduled Castes ( SC ) , who were margianlised for centuries for cheap labour . Poverty and lack of farm produce were stated as the main reason for child labour . The employers also preferred children because of ease in management , discipline and lack of labour unions . The children in these industries suffered from back ache , neck ache , tuberclosis , malnutrition , gastointestinal disorders , dermatitis , respiratory disorders , over @-@ exhaustion , burn injuries and water borne diseases due to exposure to harmful chemicals in the work environment . The situation of the child labour came to light during an accident of a bus transporting the children in 1976 . The central government appointed a one @-@ man committee under Harbans Singh in 1978 , who reported abolishing child labour would seriously impact the economy of the region . The National Policy on child labour was formulated by the central government in August 1987 , aiming at the rehabilitation of children withdrawn from these factories . In 1988 , the union labour ministry initiated a programme for providing informal education , free health care and free lunch for children working in the factories . The Supreme Court of India , in a judgement ruled on December 1996 indicating provisions for preventing child labour like compensation for the child employed , employment to the adult members of the family and contribution to the corpus fund by the state government . From the establishment of child labour Act in 1986 till 2011 , 150 @,@ 000 inspections on child labour have been conducted in the factories , 1 @,@ 500 cases have been registered and few prosecutions have been made . The results indicated small amount of child labour in cottage and house hold industries .
= = Transportation = =
The Sivakasi municipality maintains 65 @.@ 151 km ( 40 @.@ 483 mi ) of road . The town has 13 @.@ 035 km ( 8 @.@ 100 mi ) concrete road and 52 @.@ 116 km ( 32 @.@ 383 mi ) bituminous road . A total of 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) of state highways is maintained by the State Highways Department . Four major roads connect the town with Sattur , Virudhunagar , Srivilliputhur and Vembakottai ; there are no bypass roads around the town . There are eight major intersections located across different parts in these major roads .
Sivakasi is served by town bus service , which provides connectivity within the town and the suburbs . Minibus service operated by private companies cater to the local transport needs . The town bus routes to surrounding villages are to Puliparaipatti , Thayilpatti , Madathupatti Vilampatti , Alangulam , Vilampatti , Alangulam , M.Pudupatti , Alamarathupatti , Sengamalapatti , Muthalipatti and Meenampatti . The main bus stand covers an area of 1 @.@ 39 acres ( 5 @,@ 600 m2 ) and is located in the heart of the town . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation operates daily services connecting various cities to Sivakasi . The State Express Transport Corporation operates long distance buses connecting the town to important cities like Chennai , Tiruppur and Thoothukudi . The major inter city bus routes from the town are to cities like Madurai , Chennai , Erode , Karur , Coimbatore , Karaikudi , Dindigul , Trichy , Ramanathapuram , Thanjavur , Sankarankovil , Sengottai , Rajapalayam , Tenkasi , Kovilpatti , Thoothukudi , Tiruchendur , Nagercoil and Tirunelveli . Being an industrial town , there is significant truck transport with around 400 – 450 trucks entering the town for loading and unloading activities daily . Three wheelers , called autos are also a common public transport system .
Sivakasi railway station is located in the rail head from Madurai to Sengottai . It connects Tamil Nadu with Kerala through Rajapalayam and Sengottai . The Podhigai Express connects Sivakasi to Sengottai and Chennai Egmore in either directions . All other express trains ply from Virudunagar station . There are also passenger trains running either side from Madurai to Shencottah .
= = Culture = =
Badhrakali Amman temple is the most prominent landmark of Sivakasi . The tower or Rajagopuram of this temple has a breadth of 66 ft ( 20 m ) , width of 44 ft ( 13 m ) and a height of 110 ft ( 34 m ) . " Panguni Pongal " and " Chithirai Pongal " are the annual festivals celebrated for the deities Mariamman and Badrakali Amman in April and May respectively , both of which are celebrated for ten days .
Thiruthangal , located in the Virudhunagar @-@ Sivakasi road has the Nindra Narayana Perumal Temple , a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu on the hillock , attracting lot of pilgrims . Ayyanar Falls located on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats is a popular picnic spot for the residents of Sivakasi . The Venkatachalapathy temple located 25 km ( 16 mi ) away from the town attracts pilgrims from southern Tamil Nadu . Periya Palli Vasal mosque and Chinna Palli Vasal mosque are two of the most prominent mosques in the town . The CSI Regland Memorial Church is the most prominent church in the town .
AJ Indoor Stadium on Velayutham Road , a coaching center for badminton , table tennis and basketball . This is a major sporting venue in Sivakasi . Many district , state and national level badminton championship matches are held in this stadium .
|
= Vancouver Grizzlies relocation to Memphis =
The Vancouver Grizzlies relocation to Memphis was a successful effort by the ownership group of the Vancouver Grizzlies to move the basketball team from the Canadian city of Vancouver , British Columbia , to the U.S. city of Memphis , Tennessee . The team began play as the Memphis Grizzlies in the 2001 – 02 season . It was the first of three National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise moves between 2001 and 2008 , and the third of four major league teams to relocate from Canada to the United States between 1995 and 2005 .
The Grizzlies had been created as an expansion team along with the Toronto Raptors in 1995 . For the six seasons in Vancouver , the Grizzlies performed poorly ; they only once finished better than last in the Midwest Division and never reached the playoffs . The Grizzlies were owned by Orca Bay Sports and Entertainment , who also owned the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1999 , Bill Laurie , owner of the NHL team St. Louis Blues , attempted to buy the Grizzlies , with the intent to move it to St. Louis . After interference by the NBA , the Grizzlies were sold to Michael Heisley . He immediately started the process to relocate the team , and seven U.S. cities were candidates for the team — Anaheim , Buffalo , Memphis , New Orleans , Louisville , Las Vegas , and San Diego — before settling on the move to Memphis at the end of the season .
The first four Grizzlies seasons had given average attendance in the middle third of the league . However , the last two seasons saw a reduction to among the league 's lowest attendances ; participating reasons were the team 's poor performance and the 1998 – 99 NBA lockout . Contributing to the conditions for relocation were a weak Canadian dollar , unwillingness of some U.S. players to live in Canada , and lack of local ownership .
= = Background = =
Memphis has previously hosted a different major professional basketball team in the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) . Founded as the New Orleans Buccaneers in 1967 , the franchise moved to Memphis in 1970 , becoming known as the Pros . The team changed its name to the Tams and then the Sounds , before folding in 1975 prior to the ABA – NBA merger in 1976 .
The Grizzlies were created as an expansion team for the 1995 – 96 season which , along with the creation of the Toronto Raptors , saw the NBA expand into Canada . The Grizzlies were owned by Vancouver Canucks owner Arthur Griffiths . His company was in the process of building General Motors Place ( GM Place ) for the Canucks , and saw the Grizzlies as an additional tenant . Both Canadian teams ( the Vancouver Grizzlies and the Toronto Raptors ) were hampered by the NBA 's decision to deny them one of the top five picks in the first draft , and the teams would not be allowed a top draft pick in the following three seasons , even if they should win the lottery . The teams were also hindered from using their full salary cap the first two seasons . For all six seasons in Vancouver , the Grizzlies had a terrible record . They finished seventh of seven in five seasons , and claimed one sixth place in the Midwest Division , never close to reaching the playoffs . The team won 101 games and lost 359 , giving a winning percentage of .220 .
= = Change of ownership = =
On 7 March 1995 , the majority of the holding company was sold from Griffiths to Seattle @-@ based John McCaw , Jr . On 12 November 1996 , McCaw bought the rest of company . He stated that he was committed to retaining the team in Vancouver . Griffiths was forced to sell the Canucks and Grizzlies following the cost overruns that occurred on GM Place , and the expansion fees to start the Grizzlies had made his company illiquid .
In 1999 , McCaw started attempts to sell either Orca Bay or the Grizzlies , and at first negotiated an agreement with Dennis Washington , owner of Seaspan , who had a large portion of his operations in Vancouver . Washington initially agreed to purchase 50 % of Orca Bay , with the intent of keeping the teams in Vancouver . Instead , McCaw used Washington 's bid to leverage a higher sales price with Bill Laurie , who offered US $ 148 million for the Grizzlies , and a US $ 52 million bonus if the team ultimately relocated to St. Louis . The announcement was made in September 1999 , one month after Laurie had bought the NHL team St. Louis Blues and their home venue Kiel Center ( now Scottrade Center ) . St. Louis had not been the home of an NBA franchise since the Hawks franchise relocated to Atlanta , Georgia in 1968 . Kiel Center had annual sell @-@ out for 15 to 17 basketball games for the Saint Louis University Billikens .
After the deal was announced , NBA Commissioner David Stern stated that he was opposed to a relocation , as no NBA franchise had moved since 1985 , when the Kansas City Kings relocated to Sacramento , California . He stated that his goal was that the Grizzlies remain in Vancouver and succeed there . The NBA Board of Governors ' Finance Committee also made negative statements , as the purchase agreement was structured with incentives to move the team . The deal was then renegotiated before the board could vote on the issue . On 21 January 2001 , Laurie announced that he had paid McCaw an undisclosed amount to walk away from the deal .
Four days later , on 25 January , it was announced that the Grizzlies was sold to Chicago @-@ based Michael Heisley for US $ 160 million . At a press conference , he stated that he had the support of Stern , that he was committed to keeping the franchise in Vancouver , to making it a winning team , and that he was an owner that was committed to the market .
= = Reasons for relocation = =
Dick Versace , the Grizzlies ' president of basketball operations , stated in the final Vancouver season that the company was losing US $ 40 million per season . These numbers were questioned by Richard Peddie , CEO of the Raptors , as the Grizzlies had a salary cap of US $ 48 million . Retrospectively , Heisley stated that he lost US $ 87 million on owning the Grizzlies , although that included a US $ 30 million relocation fee to the NBA . Versace stated that he felt that the team did not get sufficient support from the business community . Colin Jones , University of Victoria professor in sports economics , stated that it was difficult to attract corporate sponsors as long as the team was losing so many games ; the Grizzlies lack of good draft picks lead to the team failing to win , thus losing revenue . He also noted that the team never sought help in the general business community regarding management issues .
Stu Jackson , general manager for the first five seasons , made several non @-@ optimal player selection decisions . This included selecting Bryant Reeves in the 1995 Draft , and signing him to a US $ 65 million six @-@ year contract extension in 1997 , putting the Grizzlies in a salary cap squeeze . From then he consequently drafted point guards , including Antonio Daniels , who failed to develop . Jackson traded a 2003 first @-@ round pick for Otis Thorpe , who " hated Vancouver " . He signed free agent Tony Massenburg for US $ 1 @.@ 5 million , just to sign Isaac Austin for US $ 5 @.@ 5 million and leave Massenburg on the bench . Griffiths retrospectively stated that the draft conditions from the NBA did not allow the franchise to build a winning team in years , and that the NBA had asked too high a price for not providing the means of a suitable income . On the other hand , the Raptors succeeded in drafting Vince Carter , reached the playoffs in the 1999 – 2000 season and played for a sell @-@ out crowd .
The location of the team in Canada was a major contributor ; at the time the exchange rate was 67 U.S. cents to the Canadian dollar . Because revenue was collected in Canadian dollars but player and coach salaries were paid in U.S. dollars , the team ended up spending an undue amount of its revenue on salaries . The 1998 – 99 lockout was the pivoting point for home game attendance . While the whole league experienced a drop in attendance after the lockout , Vancouver experienced an even larger fall . The average attendance in 1997 – 98 was 16 @,@ 108 , ranking 16th in the league , while it fell to 13 @,@ 899 in 1999 – 00 , ranking 27th .
Retrospectively , Griffiths stated that Heisley intentionally ran the team financially aground by alienating people , running insufficient marketing , and claiming basketball did not work in Vancouver . While running the team , Griffiths had not lost " millions and millions " and he stated that Vancouver had a better fan base than most NBA teams . The statements were denied by Heisley .
= = Proposed cities = =
With the public announcement in mid @-@ February of the possible relocation of the team , Heisley and representatives for the Grizzlies set out on a road trip to consider several U.S. cities which wanted to have the franchise relocate to their city . Originally Heisley had until 1 March to apply to the NBA for a relocation , but the deadline was later extended to 26 March . A similar deadline was also awarded to the Charlotte Hornets , who were also considering a relocation .
In February 2001 , the Louisville Board of Aldermen contacted the Grizzlies in an attempt to relocate the team to Louisville , Kentucky . The city lacked a suitable venue , but state and local officials agreed to build a new US $ 200 million arena if the NBA franchise relocated to the city . In addition , Tricon Global Restaurants ( now Yum ! Brands ) would offer Heisley US $ 5 million per year for 20 years to locate the team in Louisville .
The Memphis relocation effort was led by AutoZone founder Pitt Hyde , who promised to purchase 50 % of the team . The city had a 1991 venue , Pyramid Arena , which could be used as a temporary home until a new US $ 250 million venue was ready for use in 2004 . The venue would be publicly financed through sales tax rebates , government @-@ backed bonds and hotel and car rental taxes . The Memphis efforts to get an NBA team had started in 1997 , following the relocation of the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League to Nashville .
New Orleans , Louisiana mayor Marc Morial stated that he had approached Heisley in an attempt to attract the Grizzlies to his city . The city had opened the US $ 114 million New Orleans Arena ( now Smoothie King Center ) in 1999 , and offered it as a home to the franchise . Metrovision , the area 's economic development chamber , stated that they had secured guarantees for purchasing suites , season tickets and club seating from businesses to the extent that there was a waiting list for suites . Also a relocation to St. Louis , under the same conditions as with Laurie , was considered .
Another option was to relocate to Anaheim , in the Greater Los Angeles area . The Houston Rockets had looked into relocation to Anaheim the previous season , with Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim ( now Honda Center ) as the home venue . However , the NHL team then known as the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim had an agreement that any other tenant at the Pond should share revenues with their then @-@ owner , The Walt Disney Company , although Disney stated they were willing to negotiate the terms . There are also two existing clubs in Los Angeles , the Lakers and the Clippers , which would make the media market small and limit revenue .
Buffalo , New York , announced interest in attracting the Grizzlies . The city had an appropriate venue in HSBC Arena ( now First Niagara Center ) , home of the Buffalo Sabres NHL ice hockey franchise . Mayor Anthony Masiello , a former college basketball star , stated that the attempt was " a long shot " , but worth the try . The city previously hosted an NBA franchise in the Buffalo Braves , which then relocated to become the San Diego Clippers in 1978 . The Clippers moved to Los Angeles in 1984 , and San Diego was also mentioned as a potential site for the Grizzlies , although the city lacked a suitable venue . Heisley visited Las Vegas , Nevada , where he negotiated with Mayor Oscar Goodman . The city offered the team free land for a new arena , but would not pay for construction . The other issue was Stern 's demand that casinos stop accepting bets on NBA games as a precondition of placing a team in Las Vegas .
The strongest bids were Memphis , Louisville , Anaheim and New Orleans . As the latter two had venues in place , they were seen as having an edge on the other two . Both Memphis and Louisville needed public funding for a new venue , and in either city , the team would have to play in a sub @-@ optimal location for several seasons . However , the construction of a new venue was seen as an advantage by the Grizzlies , as it could be tailor @-@ made for basketball , and the team would be able to control all revenue . The team also expected the highest local radio and television broadcasting rights in Louisville and Memphis , and that the two cities lacked other Big Four major league teams , granting the team preferred air times and increased attention from fans and media . A 2000 report from PricewaterhouseCoopers concluded that small cities often had higher attendance than larger cities because of team 's professional league exclusivity . It also pointed to the strong support for college basketball in Tennessee and Kentucky .
= = Relocation = =
In Vancouver , the organization Save the Grizzlies was established to find a local investor to purchase the team . Led by among others Peter Ufford , they had a plan to create a public entity which could take over ownership of the team . Ufford retrospectively stated that had the attempt been given more time , they may have been able to secure a deal to keep the team in town , but that the relocation decision came too quickly for any plan to be finalized . Heisley stated that he had been willing to sell the team with a 30 % discount to a Vancouver investor if he could secure a guarantee that the team would remain in town .
On March 26 , 2001 , Heisley announced that he had selected Memphis . Memphis and Louisville were the most promising cities , with Heisley selecting Memphis because it offered a better deal and because of poor local executive leadership in Louisville . The choice would still have to be studied by a five @-@ member NBA group before permission was granted from the league . The team 's final game at GM Place was a 95 – 100 loss against the Houston Rockets on April 14 ; the team 's final game as a Vancouver @-@ based franchise was a road 95 – 81 win against the Golden State Warriors on April 18 .
The NBA relocation committee gave its approval for the move to Memphis in late June , and on July 3 the Board of Governors unanimously approved the relocation . This also permitted Hyde to purchase a minority share of the franchise . By then the team administration had already relocated , and the day before the final decision , the team set up its rookie camp at Rhodes College . A relocation party was held on July 7 . A week before the move , the Grizzlies traded away two of the top players , Shareef Abdur @-@ Rahim and guard Mike Bibby , who therefore never played for the Memphis Grizzlies .
= = Aftermath = =
The move to Memphis did not solve the Grizzlies ' financial problems , and as of 2011 the team 's cumulative loss was US $ 100 million . The team did manage a 50 @-@ win season , reach the playoff four times , but failed to advance in the playoffs until the 2010 – 11 season . As of 2011 , the Grizzlies remain , according to Forbes , the third least @-@ valuable NBA franchise , at US $ 266 million . Attendance never exceeded Vancouver levels ; in the inaugural season the Memphis Grizzlies had an average of 13 @,@ 737 spectators , and in the 2010 – 11 season had 14 @,@ 650 .
The Grizzlies were the first NBA relocation since the Kansas City Kings relocated to Sacramento , California and became the Sacramento Kings in 1985 . It was followed by two others in the same decade . The first was the relocation of the original Charlotte Hornets to New Orleans in 2002 , with the team becoming the New Orleans Hornets ( now Pelicans ) . ( That relocation is no longer treated by the league as such ; after the 2013 – 14 season , the franchise then known as the Charlotte Bobcats reclaimed the Hornets name and also received sole rights to the history of the Hornets in Charlotte . ) The second was in 2008 , when the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to become the Oklahoma City Thunder . In the NHL , two teams were moved from Canada to the U.S. during the mid @-@ 1990s : the Quebec Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche in 1995 , and the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996 and were rebranded as the Arizona Coyotes in 2014 ( a new Winnipeg Jets team returned to the city by relocation of the Atlanta Thrashers in 2011 ) . In 2005 , one of Canada 's two Major League Baseball teams ( the Montreal Expos ) relocated to Washington , D.C. and became the Washington Nationals . The failure of the Vancouver franchise was part of the reason the NBA changed the expansion drafting rules following the return of Charlotte to the league as the Bobcats in 2005 . The Bobcats were allowed to pick fourth in their first draft , and were later not restricted from first picks .
In a major change from 2001 — when one unnamed former NBA executive stated that a franchise would not return to Vancouver in his lifetime — Stern revealed in February 2011 that Vancouver was being considered along with Pittsburgh , Tampa and Kansas City . Reasons for considering Vancouver are the strengthening of the Canadian dollar , which for several years in the early 2010s was roughly at par with the U.S. dollar ; the influx of international players who would be more willing to play in Canada ; sell @-@ outs for pre @-@ season exhibition games at Rogers Arena ( the new name of GM Place ) ; Vancouver having a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art venue ; and an increased realization among NBA executives that the Vancouver failure was not predominantly because of lack of interest for basketball in Vancouver . The city has also been through a resurrection in professional sports , with the creation of the Vancouver Giants in junior hockey , the 2010 Winter Olympics , and Vancouver Whitecaps FC joining Major League Soccer . However , the location of the city also allows for more varied sports experiences , such as skiing , hunting , fishing and golf , which could partially limit the interest for spectator sports .
In 2011 , the ownership group of the Canucks , now owned by Francesco Aquilini , announced they were considering purchasing the Hornets . In December 2010 , the Hornets were bought by the league , and there was potential for relocation due to the club 's financial difficulties . However , a Hornets move was effectively taken off the table in 2012 when Tom Benson , a New Orleans native who already owned the NFL 's New Orleans Saints , purchased the team . One year later , Aquilini denied rumours that he wanted to purchase the Sacramento Kings from the Maloof family . Aquilini expressed that while Rogers Arena is ready for basketball , having the NBA in Vancouver comes down to market support , which his company assesses to see if it has improved since the Grizzlies left .
|
= Primary Colours ( Eddy Current Suppression Ring album ) =
Primary Colours is the second album by Australian garage punk band Eddy Current Suppression Ring . The album was recorded in a suburb of Melbourne over a 24 @-@ hour period in August 2007 . The album was first released on Aarght ! Records in Australia only on 5 May 2008 , then on 9 September 2008 on Goner Records in the United States , and finally in the United Kingdom on Melodic Records on 17 August 2009 . " Which Way to Go " was the only single released from Primary Colours .
Primary Colours peaked at No. 13 on the ARIA Hitseekers Chart in June 2008 . It received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised the album 's minimalistic sound and warm , personable lyrics . It won the Australian Music Prize in 2008 , and was nominated for the ARIA Award that same year for best rock album , but lost to The Living End 's entry , White Noise .
= = Background and recording = =
Eddy Current Suppression Ring formed in 2004 , as a group of friends writing and performing songs together for fun . They decided to keep making their music when they discovered that other people liked it . The band recorded their first song as a trio , at a vinyl pressing plant where Eddy Current ( real name Mikey Young ) was working at the time . After they took a liking to the resulting song , they recruited Rob Solid ( real name Brad Barry ) to play bass guitar . The group recorded their debut self @-@ titled album in four hours in a rehearsal studio , and released it in 2006 on the Australian label Dropkick Records .
They recorded Primary Colours over the night of 3 August 2007 and part of the following day , in the Melbourne suburb of South Yarra on an 8 @-@ track , a form of multi @-@ track recording . The process of recording it took 24 hours and cost $ 1500 . The day after recording finished , the band and their engineer , Lachlan Wooden , added overdubs to the ten tracks . After recording , Eddy Current Suppression Ring toured the US for three weeks , after which Eddy Current , the band 's guitarist , mixed the album during November and December 2007 . The four members self @-@ produced Primary Colours .
Eddy Current Suppression Ring 's lead singer , Brendan Suppression ( real name Brendan Huntley ) , explained the choice of Primary Colours as its title , saying that the band chose it because they " believe ... that something beautiful can be made through simple colours or notes or lyrics " . In an interview with The Age , Suppression also said that Primary Colours 's title refers to the way that everything is made up of a combination of simple things , as all colours are made by combining primary colours .
Primary Colours was originally released in Australia on 5 May 2008 on Eddy Current Suppression Ring 's own label , Aarght ! Records , before being issued on 9 September 2008 in the United States on Goner Records . In Australia it was distributed by Shock Records . " Which Way to Go " was released as the only single . The following year , on 17 August , Primary Colours was re @-@ released on Melodic Records in the United Kingdom , in conjunction with the band 's eponymous debut album . On this release , the album 's title was stylised with a " + " symbol at the end , with Primary Colours denoted as " CD1 " . Primary Colours was originally presented in one of three different album covers – one red , one yellow , and one blue .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The lyrics on Primary Colours often focus on mundane topics pertaining to the lives of ordinary people , including watching TV and eating ice cream , while its music often features shredding power chords . According to The Washington Post 's Chris Richards , the music represents a new , gentler type of punk rock in the vein of No Age and Abe Vigoda . Richards also wrote that Suppression " [ keeps ] these upbeat rock tunes from becoming too saccharine with a nervy delivery that 's part David Byrne , part Iggy Pop " . A similar sentiment was expressed by David Bevan of Pitchfork Media , who wrote " there 's a softening of edges taking place throughout , a band testing limits after having already refined them " . He also described it as an " artfully polished extension of its predecessor " . Current described the album as " a bit more ' 82ish than the ' 76ish sound of our first LP , slightly less frantic and maybe a bit more palatable " .
The album 's opening track , " Memory Lane " , begins with guitar chopping described by Emily Mackay as " Stones @-@ meets @-@ Stooges rifforama " . The second track on the album , " Sunday 's Coming , " is an " all @-@ out skronkfest " featuring " whiplash guitars " and " so @-@ nonchalant @-@ they ’ re @-@ muffled vocals " . " Wrapped Up " contains " ribbons of guitar melody " matched with an " equally warm refrain " . " Colour Television " consists of " five minutes of unhurried , snaky buildups " resembling the sound of The Pixies and Future of the Left . " That 's Inside of Me " is a " Feelies @-@ esque instrumental " with a " herky @-@ jerky funk groove " . The " glumly confessional " " I Admit My Faults " focuses on the same mood for its entire duration . " Which Way to Go " , the album 's single , begins with heavy riffage , then segues to the verse , then the chorus , then repeats from the beginning . The song 's " sharp riffs , fiery speak @-@ sing vocals and constant forward momentum " exemplify the band 's typical sound . " You Let Me Be Honest with You " is centred on a lead guitar solo from Current . " We 'll Be Turned On " sees Eddy Current Suppression Ring using an organ , and Suppression making an especially " goofy turn " . " I Don 't Wanna Play No More " features a single @-@ note piano riff that recalls " I Wanna Be Your Dog " .
= = Reception = =
Primary Colours received generally positive critical reception , so much so that Eddy Current Suppression Ring 's front man , Current , remarked that it was " weird " because he didn 't " know if anyone 's said a bad word about it " . Bevan awarded Primary Colours a rating of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . Robert Christgau gave the album a rating of A − , which , according to him , corresponds to " the kind of garden @-@ variety good record that is the great luxury of musical micromarketing and overproduction " . He also wrote that they do " the same thing punk bands have always done " and described the album as a " recurring miracle . " Chris Richards compared the album to many early punk and post @-@ punk bands such as " a breezier Stooges " or " The Fall with less squall " . He concluded that the album was " the most righteous rock @-@ and @-@ roll moment of 2008 " . A more mixed review written by Emily Mackay awarded Primary Colours a rating of 7 out of 10 and criticised it for its lack of originality .
Many critics also praised Current 's guitar work on the album , with Richards writing that his riffs " come ripping from his amplifier like sunbeams through a smog of distortion " . Writing for Spin , Chuck Eddy wrote that Current 's guitar chords " soar Byrds @-@ like or surf Ventures @-@ like out of melodic stomps that seem basic , but aren 't " . K. Ross Hoffman , writing for Allmusic , praised the song " Wrapped Up " for its " strong , slinky riff " , while Bevan praised it for the way it " runs along some really beautiful ribbons of guitar melody " .
= = = Accolades and commercial performance = = =
On 20 March 2009 , Primary Colours won the $ 30 @,@ 000 Australian Music Prize for the previous year , defeating eight other nominees , including Cut Copy and the Presets . Eddy Current Suppression Ring told Triple J that they didn 't expect their recording plans to change significantly as a result of the win , but that they might be able to do them more quickly . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2008 , it was nominated in the category " Best Rock Album " , but lost to The Living End 's entry , White Noise . Current described this nomination as " nice , but mainly hilarious " .
Primary Colours was featured on several critics ' year @-@ end lists , including the 2008 Pazz & Jop ( No. 73 ) , the Washington Post 's David Malitz 's top 10 albums of 2008 ( No. 5 ) , and The Guardian 's 2009 critics ' poll ( No. 28 ) . Primary Colours peaked at No. 13 on the ARIA Hitseekers Chart on 2 June 2008 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Brendan Suppression ( real name Brendan Huntley ) , Eddy Current ( real name Mikey Young ) , Danny Current ( real name Danny Young ) , and Rob Solid ( real name Brad Barry ) .
= = Personnel = =
Brendan Suppression ( real name Brendan Huntley ) – vocals
Eddy Current ( real name Mikey Young ) – guitar , keyboards , mixing , tambourine
Danny Current ( real name Danny Young ) – drums
Rob Solid ( real name Brad Barry ) – bass guitar
Joseph Carra – mastering
Lachlan Wooden – engineer
Eddy Current Suppression Ring – producer
|
= Chuck Berry =
Charles Edward Anderson " Chuck " Berry ( born October 18 , 1926 ) is an American guitarist , singer and songwriter and is one of the pioneers of rock and roll music . With songs such as " Maybellene " ( 1955 ) , " Roll Over Beethoven " ( 1956 ) , " Rock and Roll Music " ( 1957 ) and " Johnny B. Goode " ( 1958 ) , Berry refined and developed rhythm and blues into the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive , with lyrics focusing on teen life and consumerism and music featuring guitar solos and showmanship that were a major influence on subsequent rock music .
Born into a middle @-@ class African @-@ American family in St. Louis , Missouri , Berry had an interest in music from an early age and gave his first public performance at Sumner High School . While still a high @-@ school student he was convicted of armed robbery and was sent to a reformatory , where he was held from 1944 to 1947 . After his release , Berry settled into married life and worked at an automobile assembly plant . By early 1953 , influenced by the guitar riffs and showmanship techniques of the blues musician T @-@ Bone Walker , Berry began performing with the Johnnie Johnson Trio . His break came when he traveled to Chicago in May 1955 and met Muddy Waters , who suggested he contact Leonard Chess , of Chess Records . With Chess he recorded " Maybellene " — Berry 's adaptation of the country song " Ida Red " — which sold over a million copies , reaching number one on Billboard magazine 's rhythm and blues chart . By the end of the 1950s , Berry was an established star with several hit records and film appearances and a lucrative touring career . He had also established his own St. Louis nightclub , Berry 's Club Bandstand . But in January 1962 , he was sentenced to three years in prison for offenses under the Mann Act — he had transported a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl across state lines .
After his release in 1963 , Berry had more hits in the mid @-@ 1960s , including " No Particular Place to Go " , " You Never Can Tell " , and " Nadine " . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he was more in demand as a live performer , playing his past hits with local backup bands of variable quality . In 1979 he served 120 days in prison for tax evasion .
Berry was among the first musicians to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on its opening in 1986 ; he was cited for having " laid the groundwork for not only a rock and roll sound but a rock and roll stance . " Berry is included in several of Rolling Stone magazine 's " greatest of all time " lists ; he was ranked fifth on its 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll includes three of Berry 's : " Johnny B. Goode " , " Maybellene " , and " Rock and Roll Music " . Berry 's " Johnny B. Goode " is the only rock @-@ and @-@ roll song included on the Voyager Golden Record .
= = Biography and career = =
= = = Early life and apprenticeship with Johnnie Johnson ( 1926 – 1954 ) = = =
Born in St. Louis , Missouri , Berry was the fourth child in a family of six . He grew up in the north St. Louis neighborhood known as The Ville , an area where many middle @-@ class people lived at the time . His father , Henry , was a contractor and deacon of a nearby Baptist church ; his mother , Martha , was a certified public @-@ school principal . His middle @-@ class upbringing allowed him to pursue his interest in music from an early age . He gave his first public performance in 1941 while still a student at Sumner High School .
In 1944 , while still a student at Sumner High School , he was arrested for armed robbery after robbing three shops in Kansas City , Missouri , and then stealing a car at gunpoint with some friends . Berry 's account in his autobiography is that his car broke down and he flagged down a passing car and stole it at gunpoint with a nonfunctional pistol . He was convicted and sent to the Intermediate Reformatory for Young Men at Algoa , near Jefferson City , Missouri , where he formed a singing quartet and did some boxing . The singing group became competent enough that the authorities allowed it to perform outside the detention facility . Berry was released from the reformatory on his 21st birthday in 1947 .
Berry married Themetta " Toddy " Suggs on October 28 , 1948 , who gave birth to Darlin Ingrid Berry on October 3 , 1950 . Berry supported his family by taking various jobs in St. Louis , working briefly as a factory worker at two automobile assembly plants and as a janitor in the apartment building where he and his wife lived . Afterwards he trained as a beautician at the Poro College of Cosmetology , founded by Annie Turnbo Malone . He was doing well enough by 1950 to buy a " small three room brick cottage with a bath " on Whittier Street , which is now listed as the Chuck Berry House on the National Register of Historic Places .
By the early 1950s , Berry was working with local bands in clubs in St. Louis as an extra source of income . He had been playing blues since his teens , and he borrowed both guitar riffs and showmanship techniques from the blues musician T @-@ Bone Walker . He also took guitar lessons from his friend Ira Harris , which laid the foundation for his guitar style .
By early 1953 Berry was performing with Johnnie Johnson 's trio , starting a long @-@ time collaboration with the pianist . The band played mostly blues and ballads , but the most popular music among whites in the area was country . Berry wrote , " Curiosity provoked me to lay a lot of our country stuff on our predominantly black audience and some of our black audience began whispering ' who is that black hillbilly at the Cosmo ? ' After they laughed at me a few times they began requesting the hillbilly stuff and enjoyed dancing to it . "
Berry 's calculated showmanship , along with a mix of country tunes and R & B tunes , sung in the style of Nat King Cole set to the music of Muddy Waters , brought in a wider audience , particularly affluent white people .
= = = Signing with Chess : " Maybellene " to " Come On " ( 1955 – 1962 ) = = =
In May 1955 , Berry traveled to Chicago , where he met Muddy Waters , who suggested he contact Leonard Chess , of Chess Records . Berry thought his blues music would be of more interest to Chess , but to his surprise it was a traditional country fiddle tune , " Ida Red " , as recorded by Bob Wills , that got Chess 's attention . Chess had seen the rhythm and blues market shrink and was looking to move beyond it , and he thought Berry might be the artist for that purpose . On May 21 , 1955 , Berry recorded an adaptation of the " Ida Red " , under the title " Maybellene " , with Johnnie Johnson on the piano , Jerome Green ( from Bo Diddley 's band ) on the maracas , Jasper Thomas on the drums and Willie Dixon on the bass . " Maybellene " sold over a million copies , reaching number one on Billboard magazine 's rhythm and blues chart and number five on its Best Sellers in Stores chart for September 10 , 1955 .
At the end of June 1956 , his song " Roll Over Beethoven " reached number 29 on the Billboard 's Top 100 chart , and Berry toured as one of the " Top Acts of ' 56 " . He and Carl Perkins became friends . Perkins said that " I knew when I first heard Chuck that he 'd been affected by country music . I respected his writing ; his records were very , very great . " As they toured , Perkins discovered that Berry not only liked country music but also knew about as many songs as he did . Jimmie Rodgers was one of his favorites . " Chuck knew every Blue Yodel and most of Bill Monroe 's songs as well , " Perkins remembered . " He told me about how he was raised very poor , very tough . He had a hard life . He was a good guy . I really liked him . "
In late 1957 , Berry took part in Alan Freed 's " Biggest Show of Stars for 1957 " , touring the United States with the Everly Brothers , Buddy Holly , and others . He was a guest on ABC 's Guy Mitchell Show , singing his hit song " Rock ' n ' Roll Music " . The hits continued from 1957 to 1959 , with Berry scoring over a dozen chart singles during this period , including the US Top 10 hits " School Days " , " Rock and Roll Music , " , " Sweet Little Sixteen " , and " Johnny B. Goode " . He appeared in two early rock @-@ and @-@ roll movies : Rock Rock Rock ( 1956 ) , in which he sang " You Can 't Catch Me " , and Go , Johnny , Go ! ( 1959 ) , in which he had a speaking role as himself and performed " Johnny B. Goode " , " Memphis , Tennessee " , and " Little Queenie " . His performance of " Sweet Little Sixteen " at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1958 was captured in the motion picture Jazz on a Summer 's Day .
By the end of the 1950s , Berry was a high @-@ profile established star with several hit records and film appearances and a lucrative touring career . He had opened a racially integrated St. Louis nightclub , Berry 's Club Bandstand , and invested in real estate . But in December 1959 , he was arrested under the Mann Act after questionable allegations that he had sexual intercourse with a 14 @-@ year @-@ old Apache waitress , Janice Escalante , whom he had transported across state lines to work as a hatcheck girl at his club . After a two @-@ week trial in March 1960 , he was convicted , fined $ 5 @,@ 000 , and sentenced to five years in prison . He appealed the decision , arguing that the judge 's comments and attitude were racist and prejudiced the jury against him . The appeal was upheld , and a second trial was heard in May and June 1961 , resulting in another conviction and a three @-@ year prison sentence . After another appeal failed , Berry served one and one @-@ half years in prison , from February 1962 to October 1963 . He had continued recording and performing during the trials , but his output had slowed as his popularity declined ; his final single released before he was imprisoned was " Come On " .
= = = " Nadine " and move to Mercury ( 1963 – 1969 ) = = =
When Berry was released from prison in 1963 , his return to recording and performing was made easier because British invasion bands — notably the Beatles and the Rolling Stones — had sustained interest in his music by releasing cover versions of his songs , and other bands had reworked some of them , such as the Beach Boys ' 1963 hit " Surfin ' U.S.A. " , which used the melody of Berry 's " Sweet Little Sixteen " . In 1964 and 1965 Berry released eight singles , including three that were commercially succesful , reaching the top 20 of the Billboard 100 : " No Particular Place to Go " ( a humorous reworking of " School Days " , concerning the introduction of seat belts in cars ) , " You Never Can Tell " , and the rocking " Nadine " . Between 1966 and 1969 Berry released five albums for Mercury Records , including his first live album , Live at Fillmore Auditorium , in which he was backed by the Steve Miller Band .
While this was not a successful period for studio work , Berry was still a top concert draw . In May 1964 , he had made a successful tour of the UK , but when he returned in January 1965 his behavior was erratic and moody , and his touring style of using unrehearsed local backing bands and a strict nonnegotiable contract was earning him a reputation as a difficult and unexciting performer . He also played at large events in North America , such as the Schaefer Music Festival , in New York City 's Central Park in July 1969 , and the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival festival in October .
= = = Back to Chess : " My Ding @-@ a @-@ Ling " to White House concert ( 1970 – 1979 ) = = =
Berry returned to Chess from 1970 to 1973 . There were no hit singles from the 1970 album Back Home , but in 1972 Chess released a live recording of " My Ding @-@ a @-@ Ling " , a novelty song which he had recorded in a different version as " My Tambourine " on his 1968 LP From St. Louie to Frisco . The track became his only number @-@ one single . A live recording of " Reelin ' and Rockin ' " , issued as a followup single in the same year , was his last Top 40 hit in both the US and the UK . Both singles were included on the part @-@ live , part @-@ studio album The London Chuck Berry Sessions ( other albums of London sessions were recorded by Chess 's mainstay artists Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf ) . Berry 's second tenure with Chess ended with the 1975 album Chuck Berry , after which he did not make a studio record until Rock It for Atco Records in 1979 , his last studio album to date .
In the 1970s Berry toured on the strength of his earlier successes . He was on the road for many years , carrying only his Gibson guitar , confident that he could hire a band that already knew his music no matter where he went . AllMusic said that in this period his " live performances became increasingly erratic , ... working with terrible backup bands and turning in sloppy , out @-@ of @-@ tune performances " which " tarnished his reputation with younger fans and oldtimers " alike . Among the many bandleaders performing a backup role with Berry were Bruce Springsteen and Steve Miller when each was just starting his career . Springsteen related in the documentary film Hail ! Hail ! Rock ' n ' Roll that Berry did not give the band a set list and expected the musicians to follow his lead after each guitar intro . Berry neither spoke to nor thanked the band after the show . Nevertheless , Springsteen backed Berry again when he appeared at the concert for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 . At the request of Jimmy Carter , Berry performed at the White House on June 1 , 1979 .
Berry 's touring style , traveling the " oldies " circuit in the 1970s ( often being paid in cash by local promoters ) added ammunition to the Internal Revenue Service 's accusations that Berry had evaded paying income taxes . Facing criminal sanction for the third time , Berry pled guilty to tax evasion and was sentenced to four months in prison and 1 @,@ 000 hours of community service — performing benefit concerts — in 1979 .
= = = Still on the road ( 1980 – 2014 ) = = =
Berry continued to play 70 to 100 one @-@ nighters per year in the 1980s , still traveling solo and requiring a local band to back him at each stop . In 1986 , Taylor Hackford made a documentary film , Hail ! Hail ! Rock ' n ' Roll , of a celebration concert for Berry 's sixtieth birthday , organized by Keith Richards . Eric Clapton , Etta James , Julian Lennon , Robert Cray and Linda Ronstadt , among others , appeared with Berry on stage and in the film . During the concert , Berry played a Gibson ES @-@ 355 , the luxury version of the ES @-@ 335 that he favored on his 1970s tours . Richards played a black Fender Telecaster Custom , Cray a Fender Stratocaster and Clapton a Gibson ES 350T , the same model that Berry used on his early recordings .
In the late 1980s , Berry bought The Southern Air , a restaurant in Wentzville , Missouri . In 1990 he was sued by several women who claimed that he had installed a video camera in the ladies ' bathroom . Berry claimed that he had the camera installed to catch red @-@ handed a worker who was suspected of stealing from the restaurant . Though his guilt was never proved in court , Berry opted for a class action settlement with 59 women . His biographer , Bruce Pegg , estimated that it cost Berry over $ 1 @.@ 2 million plus legal fees . During this time Berry began using Wayne T. Schoeneberg as his legal counsel . Reportedly , a police raid on his house found videotapes of women using the restroom , and one of the women was a minor . Also found in the raid were 62 grams of marijuana . Felony drug and child @-@ abuse charges were filed . In order to avoid the child @-@ abuse charges , Berry agreed to plead guilty to misdemeanor possession of marijuana . He was given a six @-@ month suspended jail sentence and two years ' unsupervised probation and was ordered to donate $ 5 @,@ 000 to a local hospital .
In November 2000 , Berry again faced legal charges when he was sued by his former pianist Johnnie Johnson , who claimed that he co @-@ wrote over 50 songs , including " No Particular Place to Go " , " Sweet Little Sixteen " and " Roll Over Beethoven " , that credit Berry alone . The case was dismissed when the judge ruled that too much time had passed since the songs were written .
In 2008 , Berry toured Europe , with stops in Sweden , Norway , Finland , the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , Ireland , Switzerland , Poland and Spain . In mid @-@ 2008 , he played at the Virgin Festival in Baltimore , Maryland .
During a concert on New Year 's Day 2011 in Chicago , Berry , suffering from exhaustion , passed out and had to be helped off stage .
Berry lives in Ladue , Missouri , approximately 10 miles west of St. Louis . Berry regularly performed one Wednesday each month at Blueberry Hill , a restaurant and bar located in the Delmar Loop neighborhood of St. Louis , from 1996 to 2014 .
= = Legacy = =
A pioneer of rock and roll , Berry was a significant influence on the development of both the music and the attitude associated with the rock music lifestyle . With songs such as " Maybellene " ( 1955 ) , " Roll Over Beethoven " ( 1956 ) , " Rock and Roll Music " ( 1957 ) and " Johnny B. Goode " ( 1958 ) , Berry refined and developed rhythm and blues into the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive , with lyrics successfully aimed to appeal to the early teenage market by using graphic and humorous descriptions of teen dances , fast cars , high @-@ school life , and consumer culture , and utilizing guitar solos and showmanship that would be a major influence on subsequent rock music . His records are a rich storehouse of the essential lyrical , showmanship and musical components of rock and roll . In addition to the Beatles and the Rolling Stones , a large number of significant popular @-@ music performers have recorded Berry 's songs . Though not technically accomplished , his guitar style is distinctive — he incorporated electronic effects to mimic the sound of bottleneck blues guitarists and drew on the influence of guitar players such as Carl Hogan , and T @-@ Bone Walker to produce a clear and exciting sound that many later guitarists would acknowledge as an influence in their own style . Berry 's showmanship has been influential on other rock guitarists , particularly his one @-@ legged hop routine , and the " duck walk " , which he first used as a child when he walked " stooping with full @-@ bended knees , but with my back and head vertical " under a table to retrieve a ball and his family found it entertaining ; he used it when " performing in New York for the first time and some journalist branded it the duck walk . "
The rock critic Robert Christgau considers Berry " the greatest of the rock and rollers , " while John Lennon said , " if you tried to give rock and roll another name , you might call it ' Chuck Berry ' . " Ted Nugent said , " If you don 't know every Chuck Berry lick , you can 't play rock guitar . "
Among the honors Berry has received are the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1984 and the Kennedy Center Honors in 2000 . He was ranked seventh on Time magazine 's 2009 list of the 10 best electric guitar players of all time . On May 14 , 2002 , Berry was honored as one of the first BMI Icons at the 50th annual BMI Pop Awards . He was presented the award along with BMI affiliates Bo Diddley and Little Richard . In August 2014 , Berry was made a laureate of the Polar Music Prize .
Berry is included in several of Rolling Stone magazine 's " Greatest of All Time " lists . In September 2003 , the magazine ranked him number 6 in its list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " . In November his compilation album The Great Twenty @-@ Eight was ranked 21st in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In March 2004 , Berry was ranked fifth on the list of " The Immortals – The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . In December 2004 , six of his songs were included in " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " : " Johnny B. Goode " ( # 7 ) , " Maybellene " ( # 18 ) , " Roll Over Beethoven " ( # 97 ) , " Rock and Roll Music " ( # 128 ) , " Sweet Little Sixteen " ( # 272 ) and " Brown Eyed Handsome Man " ( # 374 ) . In June 2008 , his song " Johnny B. Goode " ranked first in the " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " .
The journalist Chuck Klosterman has argued that in 300 years Berry will still be remembered as the rock musician who most closely captured the essence of rock and roll .
= = Discography = =
|
= Interstate 69 in Michigan =
Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that will eventually run from the Mexican border in Texas to the Canadian border at Port Huron , Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that enters the state south of Coldwater and passes the cities of Lansing and Flint in the Lower Peninsula . A north – south freeway from the Indiana – Michigan border to the Lansing area , it changes direction to east – west after running concurrently with I @-@ 96 . The freeway continues to Port Huron before terminating in the middle of the twin @-@ span Blue Water Bridge while running concurrently with I @-@ 94 at the border . There are four related business loops for I @-@ 69 in the state , connecting the freeway to adjacent cities .
Predecessors to I @-@ 69 include the first M @-@ 29 , US Highway 27 ( US 27 ) , M @-@ 78 and M @-@ 21 . The freeway was not included on the original Interstate Highway System planning maps in the mid @-@ 1950s , but it was added in 1958 along a shorter route . Michigan built segments of freeway for the future Interstate in the 1960s , and the state was granted additional Interstate mileage in 1968 to extend I @-@ 69 north and east to Flint . Later extensions in 1973 and 1987 resulted in the modern highway . The first freeway segment designated as I @-@ 69 in Michigan opened in 1967 , and the last was completed in 1992 , finishing Michigan 's Interstate System . US 27 previously ran concurrently with I @-@ 69 from the Indiana – Michigan state line north to the Lansing area , but this designation was removed in 2002 .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of I @-@ 69 is listed on the National Highway System , which is a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway carries 91 @,@ 100 vehicles on average each day between I @-@ 475 and M @-@ 54 in Flint and 14 @,@ 085 vehicles between M @-@ 53 and Capac Road near the Lapeer – St. Clair county line , the highest and lowest traffic counts in 2012 , respectively . I @-@ 69 carries the Lake Huron Circle Tour in the Port Huron area and the I @-@ 69 Recreational Heritage Route from the Indiana state line north to the Calhoun – Eaton county line .
= = = Northward to Lansing = = =
I @-@ 69 in Michigan begins at the Indiana state line southeast of Kinderhook and just north of an interchange with the Indiana Toll Road , which carries I @-@ 80 and I @-@ 90 . From there , I @-@ 69 runs northward through a mixture of Southern Michigan farmland and woodland in Branch County . A few miles north of the state line , the freeway passes Coldwater Lake State Park and its namesake body of water ; north of the lake , there is a welcome center for the northbound lanes . I @-@ 69 curves around the east side of Coldwater , connecting to the city 's business loop on the south of town . Immediately east of downtown , the freeway intersects the northern end of the business loop at an interchange that also features US 12 ( Chicago Road ) . Farther north , the freeway turns to the northwest , crosses into Calhoun County and then over the St. Joseph River . I @-@ 69 turns back northward and bypasses Tekonsha to the town 's west , intersecting M @-@ 60 in the process .
Curving around Nottawa Lake , I @-@ 69 continues northward through southern Calhoun County . It passes through an interchange that marks the southern terminus of M @-@ 227 , a highway that connects northward into Marshall . The freeway crosses the Kalamazoo River and passes through an interchange with M @-@ 96 west of downtown Marshall . From that interchange northward , the BL I @-@ 94 designation is overlaid on I @-@ 69 ; the business loop ends at the cloverleaf interchange northwest of Marshall that marks the first of I @-@ 69 's two junctions with I @-@ 94 in the state . North of I @-@ 94 , I @-@ 69 has one more interchange at N Drive North before crossing into Eaton County .
In southern Eaton County , the freeway parallels the Battle Creek River north of the junction with M @-@ 78 . Near Olivet , I @-@ 69 begins to turn in a northeasterly direction and curves around the north side of town . On the south side of Charlotte , I @-@ 69 turns northward , traversing an area to the east of downtown and crossing the former routing of US 27 , which is now part of the business loop for the city . Farther north , the freeway has a junction with M @-@ 50 , a bridge over the Battle Creek River , and an interchange with the northern end of the business loop next to Fitch H. Beach Airport . North of the airport , I @-@ 69 turns northeasterly again and parallels Lansing Road , the former route of US 27 / M @-@ 78 . The freeway meets the southern end of M @-@ 100 near Potterville and continues into the Lansing – East Lansing metropolitan area . Southwest of the state 's capital city , I @-@ 69 crosses over Lansing Road near Lansing Delta Township Assembly , a factory for General Motors ; northeast of the complex , I @-@ 69 merges into I @-@ 96 . The combined I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 runs northward through the suburban edges of the Lansing area , intersecting the western ends of I @-@ 496 and the BL I @-@ 69 for Lansing . The freeway enters Clinton County , and just north of a crossing of the Grand River , I @-@ 69 turns eastward to separate from I @-@ 96 . As a part of the larger interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 69 crosses BL I @-@ 96 ( Grand River Avenue ) without any connections .
= = = Eastward to Port Huron = = =
After leaving the I @-@ 96 concurrency , I @-@ 69 changes cardinal orientation and is signed as east – west from that point on . The freeway continues parallel to the Looking Glass River through suburban areas north of Capital Region International Airport . North of East Lansing , I @-@ 69 meets US 127 at a cloverleaf interchange . East of that junction , I @-@ 69 turns southeasterly passing the Hawk Hollow Golf Course and Park Lake on the way to meet the eastern end of BL I @-@ 69 just north of Lake Lansing . I @-@ 69 then turns northeasterly parallel to Lansing Road ( Old M @-@ 78 ) to enter Shiawassee County . The freeway continues through Central Michigan farmlands , jogging north of Perry and Bancroft .
At Durand , I @-@ 69 meets the southeastern end of M @-@ 71 on the northwest side of town . The freeway turns sharply to the northeast before turning due east near Lennon . The interchange with M @-@ 13 south of Lennon marks the Shiawassee – Genesee county line . Continuing eastward , I @-@ 69 parallels Miller Road to the north as far as the city of Swartz Creek ; east of town , the two roadways cross . I @-@ 69 parallels a line of the Canadian National Railway as it enters the Flint metro area . The freeway intersects Bristol Road near the Bishop International Airport and then crosses I @-@ 75 / US 23 southwest of downtown Flint . I @-@ 69 , the railroad and the Swartz Creek all parallel into downtown Flint where the freeway intersects I @-@ 475 and M @-@ 54 ( Dort Highway ) before exiting the east side of the city .
I @-@ 69 runs eastward out of Flint parallel to the railroad . At Davison , it intersects M @-@ 15 before crossing into Lapeer County . In this area , the freeway traverses farmlands in the southern part of the region called The Thumb . It jogs to the north around Lake Nepessing , which is southwest of Lapeer . The freeway continues through farmland to Imlay City , where it meets M @-@ 53 before crossing into western St. Clair County . Southwest of Capac , there is a temporary welcome center at the rest area along the westbound lanes . I @-@ 69 continues eastward through an interchange with M @-@ 19 at Emmett .
Near Wadhams , I @-@ 69 curves around to the north to follow part of the Black River . On the east side of the community , the freeway turns back to the southeast as it enters the western edge of the Port Huron suburbs . I @-@ 69 turns again to run due eastward to intersect I @-@ 94 . The two freeways merge in an interchange that also has connections to BL I @-@ 69 . Past the interchange , the freeway curves to the north and back around to the east to cross the Black River . On the eastern bank , I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 travels through one more interchange , this one for M @-@ 25 and BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 . Past the interchange , the freeway crosses through the toll and customs plazas for the twin @-@ span Blue Water Bridge . The I @-@ 69 designation officially ends at the international boundary in the middle of the St. Clair River where it connects with Highway 402 .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . None of these followed the path of the modern I @-@ 69 however . The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , none of the system 's divisions corresponded to the modern I @-@ 69 either . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) was required to signpost the highway system for the first time , and the state become the second after Wisconsin to do so . At the time , two different highways followed sections of the modern I @-@ 69 corridor . The original M @-@ 29 ran from the Indiana state line north to Charlotte and turned northeasterly to Lansing . The second highway was M @-@ 21 from Flint east to Goodells , a community west of Port Huron ; the highway was extended to Port Huron by 1924 .
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 from the state line northward to Lansing . By the end of the next year , M @-@ 78 was extended from Charlotte north and east of Lansing to a junction with M @-@ 47 near Pittsburg , north of the modern I @-@ 69 . The section of M @-@ 78 north of Lansing was changed in 1929 ; the segment from Dewitt to Pittsburg was redesignated M @-@ 104 , and M @-@ 78 was rerouted along a more southerly path through East Lansing to Haslett . By 1936 , M @-@ 78 was extended from Haslett all the way into Flint to end at M @-@ 21 . The first span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario , in 1938 .
= = = Interstate Highway era = = =
The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System did not include a highway along I @-@ 69 's route ; instead a highway further west connecting South Bend , Indiana , with Kalamazoo was included . This alternative highway was maintained on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " , and numbered I @-@ 67 in August 1957 . By June 1958 , this freeway had been shifted further east and renumbered I @-@ 69 , connecting Indianapolis , Indiana , with Marshall ; no connections north and east to Lansing , Flint or Port Huron were planned as part of the Interstate Highway System . Around the same time , a section of M @-@ 146 near Port Huron was converted into an approach freeway for the Blue Water Bridge .
By the middle of 1960 , the first section of freeway along M @-@ 78 was opened in the Lennon area . The next year , the freeway had been extended as far southwest as Durand from the end at Lennon . Also in 1961 , the MSHD had proposed that the section of US 27 south of Lansing be built as an electronic highway under a bid through General Motors ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead .
By the start of 1962 , M @-@ 78 was a freeway from Perry at the junction with M @-@ 47 all the way to Swartz Creek near Flint . On December 12 , 1962 , I @-@ 96 was completed around the Lansing area , and M @-@ 78 was rerouted to follow it . A year later , I @-@ 496 was partially opened through the Lansing area , and M @-@ 78 was routed to follow it as well ; the former route through downtown was redesignated Business M @-@ 78 ( Bus . M @-@ 78 ) . Around the same time , I @-@ 94 was extended along the Blue Water Bridge approach freeway .
The first freeway segment of M @-@ 21 on the east end was built from Wadhams to Port Huron in 1966 . The next year , M @-@ 78 's freeway was extended eastward to I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 in Flint . On October 11 , 1967 , the first segment of I @-@ 69 / US 27 was scheduled to open between the Indiana state line and Tekonsha . By the end of the year , the freeway extended north to I @-@ 94 northwest of Marshall . The MSHD requested additional Interstate Highway mileage in 1968 under the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 including an extension of I @-@ 69 from Marshall to Port Huron ; this extension was approved as far as I @-@ 75 / US 23 in Flint on December 13 , 1968 .
A discontinuous section of M @-@ 78 freeway east of Flint was completed in 1969 . The same year , I @-@ 475 was named the David Dunbar Buick Freeway , after the founder of Buick Motor Company in Flint ; the same legislation , House Concurrent Resolution 22 of 1969 named the M @-@ 78 freeway through Flint for Louis Chevrolet . In 1970 , the I @-@ 496 freeway was completed and the Bus . M @-@ 78 designation was removed through Lansing . A freeway segment between Flint and Lapeer opened in 1971 . M @-@ 21 was routed down M @-@ 13 to the new freeway where it joined the M @-@ 78 designation from M @-@ 13 east . The section of M @-@ 21 formerly between M @-@ 13 and Bus . M @-@ 54 was redesignated M @-@ 56 . The M @-@ 78 designation was replaced by I @-@ 69 in 1973 after a Temporary I @-@ 69 ( Temp . I @-@ 69 ) designation was extended northward from Charlotte through Lansing to Perry . On September 4 of that year , I @-@ 69 's designation was officially extended by Congress to end at I @-@ 475 on the east side of Flint ; this extension , and all subsequent ones , was of non @-@ chargeable mileage , or segments not financed through the Interstate Highway fund .
In 1980 , a Flint @-@ area politician wanted to dedicate a highway after the United Auto Workers ( UAW ) . As a result , the David Dunbar Buick Freeway name was moved off I @-@ 475 and applied to I @-@ 69 in Flint . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved the extension of the I @-@ 69 designation eastward in 1983 so that it would terminate at the international boundary at Port Huron ; this approval was contingent on construction of the roadway to Interstate Highway standards and other appropriate approvals at the federal government level . The remaining segment of freeway connecting Lapeer with Wadhams opened in 1984 as I @-@ 69 and several additional changes were made to the highway system at the same time . M @-@ 21 was shortened to Flint and replaced M @-@ 56 through the city . The former route of M @-@ 21 in Port Huron became BL I @-@ 69 , and the remainder of that highway was turned back to local control . The I @-@ 69 designation was officially extended once more under Congressional legislation on February 10 , 1987 ; this last extension designated I @-@ 69 all the way to I @-@ 94 in Port Huron to reflect the 1984 openings .
Another segment of freeway opened in 1987 in Clinton County between US 127 near DeWitt and Temp . I @-@ 69 near Bath . This section was connected to the existing freeway at Perry in 1991 . The final segment of I @-@ 69 to be completed was located southwest of Lansing . It opened on October 17 , 1992 , when the ribbon was cut by Governor John Engler . This segment marked the last in the state to complete Michigan 's portion of the Interstate Highway System . At the time it was completed , I @-@ 69 was concurrent with US 27 from the state line north to the DeWitt area ( exit 87 ) and then concurrent with US 127 to exit 89 before running alone to Port Huron .
= = = Since completion = = =
A second span of the Blue Water Bridge between Port Huron and Point Edward opened in July 1997 . The St. Johns Bypass on US 27 opened on August 31 , 1998 ; US 27 was extended along I @-@ 69 about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the connect to the bypass , and US 127 was simultaneously removed from I @-@ 69 . The next year , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change .
On July 23 , 2001 , the Michigan Legislature declared that I @-@ 69 from exit 105 in Shiawassee County east to exit 135 in Genesee County would be named the Pearl Harbor Memorial Highway . In October 2001 , the legislature consolidated the various legislation that created memorial highway designations in the state . Public Act 142 of 2001 extended the merged Chevrolet – Buick Freeway name to all of I @-@ 69 in Genesee County , and restored the David Dunbar Buick Freeway name to I @-@ 475 . The I @-@ 69 Recreational Heritage Route ( now a Pure Michigan Byway ) was created on October 8 , 2004 , to follow the freeway in Branch and Calhoun counties . The Branch County segment was also dedicated as the Purple Heart Trail on July 17 , 2006 .
In 2011 , construction began to widen I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 approaching the Blue Water Bridge , a project completed in 2012 . The widening project added dedicated lanes for local traffic and for Blue Water Bridge traffic with a new permanent welcome center expected to open in 2015 , replacing the temporary one near Capac . The lane configuration changes have confused drivers in the area , especially those with outdated GPS devices , a problem first noted as the department was preparing to reopen the freeway in October 2012 . As a result , MDOT installed updated signs complete with American and Canadian flags to help prevent drivers from heading to Canada by mistake .
In late 2013 , construction began to reconstruct and reconfigure the I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 interchange near Port Huron . The project will improve 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway , replace several bridges and ramps and cost $ 76 million . In June 2014 , MDOT closed the ramps from I @-@ 69 eastbound to BL I @-@ 69 through the interchange until later in the year . The project is slated to be completed in 2015 .
= = Exit list = =
= = Business loops = =
In Michigan , I @-@ 69 currently has four business loops . These highways , each designated Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) , provide access from the main freeway through the downtown districts of adjacent cities . They follow former routings used by I @-@ 69 's predecessor highways ( US 27 , M @-@ 78 and M @-@ 21 ) as well connecting roads . The cities served by these loops are : Coldwater , Charlotte , Lansing , and Port Huron .
|
= Ranch to Market Road 187 =
Ranch to Market Road 187 ( RM 187 ) is a 81 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 131 @.@ 8 km ) Ranch to Market Road located in Zavala , Uvalde , Bandera , and Kerr counties in the US state of Texas . The route passes through the cities of Sabinal , Utopia , and Vanderpool . The road helps connect several small south Texas ranches to major highways . RM 187 was first designated in 1945 , and was extended three times during the 1940s . As of 2012 , it is the longest Ranch to Market Road in the state of Texas .
= = Route description = =
RM 187 begins at its southern terminus with US Highway 57 ( US 57 ) , near Batesville , as a paved , two @-@ lane , asphalt road . RM 187 winds through several miles of Southern Texas grassland dotted with trees . The highway passes several large ranches and farms along this course and intersects with several county routes and private roads . For this stretch of the route , RM 187 is heading in a northeast direction . The highway turns north about two miles ( 3 km ) south of an intersection with FM 140 . The two highways run concurrently for nearly a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before FM 140 turns westward . RM 187 continues north through rolling grasslands for almost 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) before turning in a northeast direction . The route continues in this direction for about two miles before returning to a northerly direction . After about 15 miles ( 24 km ) , RM 187 intersects with US 90 and State Highway 127 ( SH 127 ) in the small town of Sabinal . The highway continues through more hilly , rolling grasslands . A few miles later , the highway crosses the Sabinal River and proceeds past the Waresville cemetery , the Links of Utopia Golf Course , and the Utopia on the River Airport before passing through the " downtown " area of the village of Utopia .
RM 187 winds through nearly seven miles ( 11 km ) of brushland , passing several large ranches and farms alongside the Sabinal River . The highway heads through the unincorporated community of Vanderpool and runs concurrently with RM 337 for a length of 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) . Separating and running northward , RM 187 continues along the southwestern edge of the Lost Maples State Natural Area . The highway turns northeasterly through a long stretch of brushland before reaching its northern terminus at SH 39 .
= = History = =
RM 187 was first designated as a stretch of road going from Sabinal to the Bandera County line on June 11 , 1945 . Just 14 days later , on June 25 , 1945 , it was extended from the Bandera County line up to Vanderpool . The highway was extended from an intersection with US 90 to Garner Field on April 1 , 1948 , which added approximately 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) to the route . The highway was lengthened on November 23 , 1948 to a point 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) south of Sabinal , while the previous extension was cancelled and redesignated to FM 1023 . The highway was again lengthened southward by 6 @.@ 7 miles ( 10 @.@ 8 km ) to a dead end point on July 15 , 1949 . RM 187 was again extended south on March 24 , 1954 to an intersection with FM 140 . This added approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , giving the route an overall length of 48 miles . On May 2 , 1962 , the road was extended 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) northward , totaling 52 @.@ 5 miles ( 84 @.@ 5 km ) long . RM 187 was extended to its modern @-@ day northern terminus at SH 39 on June 26 , 1963 , which added about 12 @.@ 9 miles ( 20 @.@ 8 km ) to the route . On June 2 , 1967 , FM 2557 was redesignated to RM 187 , bringing the route to its southern terminus US 57 . This added approximately 5 miles ( 8 km ) . This addition , in addition to 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) , totaled the road length to 81 @.@ 9 miles ( 131 @.@ 8 km ) .
= = Major junctions = =
|
= Roseland Theater =
The Roseland Theater , sometimes called the Roseland Theater and Grill , is a music venue located at 8 Northwest Sixth Avenue in the Old Town Chinatown neighborhood of Portland , Oregon , in the United States . The building was originally a church , constructed by the Apostolic Faith Church in 1922 . In 1982 , Larry Hurwitz converted the building to a music venue called Starry Night . In 1990 , the club 's 21 @-@ year @-@ old publicity agent was murdered in one of the theater 's hallways ; Hurwitz was convicted for this murder ten years later . Hurwitz sold the club in 1991 , claiming he had lost support from the local music industry . The venue was given its current name during the 1991 ownership transfer . During the 1990s , Double Tee acquired control of the hall 's operations , then purchased and renovated the building .
The theater features a standing @-@ only main floor and an upstairs balcony with an adjacent bar . Peter 's Room , an intimate showcase venue with a 400 @-@ person capacity , includes a restaurant and bar . Roseland has been named " Best Haunted Venue " by one local publication , referring to the 1991 murder . The venue is known for hosting a variety of music acts and for its good acoustics .
= = History = =
= = = Apostolic Faith Church = = =
The Apostolic Faith Church bought the property at 8 Northwest Sixth Avenue from the A. Meier estate in 1922 and immediately began constructing a two @-@ story building at the site . To make way for the new structure , church members first razed an older building that had housed a saloon at that address . The new building was finished in August 1922 .
Made of brick and constructed entirely with donated labor , the structure had a footprint of 100 by 100 feet ( 30 by 30 m ) next to a 60 @-@ by @-@ 100 @-@ foot ( 18 by 30 m ) parking lot . The lower floor contained 11 storerooms , some of which were rented to others , a printing room , the church headquarters , and a small chapel with a seating capacity of 200 . The upper floor consisted of a large meeting hall that could seat 1 @,@ 150 people . The meeting hall was designed partly with music in mind . Its raised platform held up to 70 people , including a 40 @-@ piece orchestra and male and mixed quartets that performed during church services . The church sold the building in 1981 . A neon sign reading " Jesus , the Light of the World " , hung on the building but was removed in 1981 .
= = = Starry Night = = =
Larry Hurwitz owned and operated the Starry Night nightclub in the building from 1982 through 1991 . The venue had a capacity of less than 1 @,@ 000 people . In the 1980s , the Starry Night hosted musical acts including Animotion , Nu Shooz , and the Crazy 8s . Hurwitz sold the Starry Night in February 1991 , claiming he had " lost the support of the local music industry " . The transfer in ownership resulted in a name change to Roseland Theater . In 1992 , Roseland 's manager for the new owners , Oregon Theater Management , said the name was changed to disassociate from Hurwitz 's business and reputation .
= = = = Murder of Starry Night employee = = = =
In 2000 , Hurwitz was convicted of the murder 10 years earlier of the Starry Night 's 21 @-@ year @-@ old publicity agent , Timothy Moreau , to keep Moreau from alerting authorities to a counterfeit ticket scam at the club . Another club employee , George Castagnola , pleaded guilty to helping Hurwitz kill Moreau . The death by strangulation occurred in one of the theater 's hallways after a John Lee Hooker concert . After the murder , Hurwitz moved to Vietnam , but in 1997 a federal grand jury indicted him on charges of tax evasion related to the scam . Extradited to the United States and pleading guilty to the tax evasion charges , he was sentenced to a year in federal prison . Publicity generated by the tax @-@ evasion trial led to new information about the murder . Sentenced to 11 years in prison after pleading no contest to one count of murder in 2000 , Hurwitz was released in 2008 after serving between 7 and 8 years . Meanwhile , to settle a civil wrongful @-@ death suit filed against him by Moreau 's parents , Hurwitz in 2001 stipulated to his part in the murder , agreed that a jury would have found him guilty if he had not pleaded " no contest " , and agreed to pay the Moreau family $ 3 million in damages .
= = = Roseland Theater = = =
In 1991 , Double Tee Promotions acquired control of Roseland 's operations . In December 1995 , The Oregonian reported that the company and its president , David Leiken , would be purchasing and renovating the building over several months . Leiken founded Double Tee , which produces events throughout the Pacific Northwest and continues to manage Roseland , in 1972 . The project , which included purchase of the building , new lounges and restrooms , and a ventilation system , was estimated to cost between $ 1 @.@ 75 million and $ 2 million . The size of the street @-@ level floor would also increased to accommodate an additional 350 – 440 guests , replacing a small club called the Garden . The renovation project ended in 1997 ; Leiken updated the building 's facade and opened a nightclub and sports bar on the lower level . Roseland remained open during the renovation , which reportedly cost around $ 2 @.@ 5 million .
Roseland Theater has been called a " somewhat chaotic " Portland staple , hosting " multi @-@ generational concerts every night of the week by everyone from small local bands to huge national icons " . The all @-@ ages venue is known for its smaller size , accommodating up to 1 @,@ 400 people . It is a popular venue for touring rock acts , though it also hosts blues , comedy , dance , hip hop , indie , and rap artists . Performers have included Ray Charles , the Dan Reed Network , Bob Dylan , Medeski Martin & Wood , Miles Davis , the Misfits , the Pixies , Bonnie Raitt , and the Red Hot Chili Peppers . During the 1990s , Phish performed at the venue four times , including once when it was still called Starry Night . In the 2010s , the venue has hosted Cut Copy , Metric , Prince , and Snoop Dogg .
Roseland features a standing @-@ only main floor and an upstairs balcony for patrons aged 21 or older because of an adjacent bar , and can also host a variety of events , including cage fighting . Downstairs includes Roseland Grill , a narrow bar with a wall covered in posters . Peter 's Room , an intimate showcase venue , includes a restaurant and bar and has a capacity of 400 people . Peter 's Room is open during all Roseland events and streams activity from the theater 's main stage on screens . The 16 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 5 by 6 m ) stage in Peter 's Room is 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the main floor . According to Double Tee , the theater and Peter 's Room host between 150 and 180 events annually .
= = Reception = =
In 2008 , Willamette Week named Roseland the " Best Haunted Venue " in a retrospective " Best of Portland " list highlighting the best of 1988 . Music journalist Martin Acaster wrote : " The Roseland has all the ambiance of a dank cave but boasts stellar acoustics . " Travelogue writer Rachel Dresbeck noted the " eclectic mix " of music genres hosted by the venue , which she said has " great sound " and " good stage visibility " .
|
= Mya ( program ) =
Mya was an intelligent personal assistant under development by Motorola . Proposed features for the program included the ability to read emails and answer questions 24 hours a day . Mya was intended to work with an internet service Motorola was developing called Myosphere , and was planned to be a paid service that would eventually be used by other mobile carriers . A female computer @-@ generated character was created to represent Mya in advertising . While the quality of the character 's animation was praised , it received criticism for being over sexualised .
Both the character and the program were announced to the public via an advertisement in March 2000 , though the program was not ready for use at that time . Despite the announcement generating a considerable amount of attention , little was heard regarding the project in subsequent months . The program was never officially released nor cancelled , though the trademarks for both Myosphere and Mya were abandoned by Motorola in 2002 . The name Mya was believed to be a play on the words ' My assistant ' .
= = Proposed features and development = =
The Internet service that Mya was developed for was called Myosphere . Motorola began development of Myosphere in 1998 , and it had been described as a speech enabled service " which enables consumers to manage and control wireless and wireline communications from a single point of access using natural voice commands . " Several other companies had already announced plans for similar software at the time ; Alan Reiter from Wireless Internet and Mobile Computing was puzzled at Motorola 's announcement of Myosphere , saying " They 're kind of late to the [ voice activation ] party . But the party is likely to be very big . ... Motorola 's entry will help further legitimize the value of voice response systems . But it 's a tough market , and it will take time . " The term myosphere was " a play on the theme of connecting the elements of an individual 's world , or sphere . "
Intended to provide a human @-@ like interface to the Internet , Mya was to be accessed via a toll @-@ free telephone number and a pin code . The program was designed to work with any phone , including landlines , but primarily for mobiles , and was to be accessible 24 hours a day . Mya was said to be able to answer questions on topics such as stock prices , news , sports , weather conditions , traffic , airline reservations , addresses , and appointments , as well as being able to call contacts in a mobile phone 's address book .
Intended to be a paid service that would be ready by December 2000 , Motorola hoped that Mya would also eventually be used on Palm Pilot and by other mobile carriers . In July 2000 Motorola was reported to be planning to work with Nuance Communications to internationalize Mya , and that same month BellSouth was declared to be the first carrier to buy the service . According to an article in Popular Science in August 2000 , Motorola was spending " millions of dollars " on both the Mya character and the program . Mya was originally programmed only for English , though by April 2001 the program was being developed in six languages , and additionally Nippon Telegraph and Telephone were said to be working with Motorola to develop a Japanese version . Mya was voiced by actress Gabrielle Carteris , and mechanically altered to sound more digital .
= = Character = =
To create a commercial for Mya , Motorola hired the McCann Erickson company , who in turn hired Digital Domain to create the character . The design was described as a " big @-@ budget " production , though Digital Domain were only given three months to complete the project . Mya 's physical representation : a tall , thin , blonde , blue @-@ eyed white female , was created in the likeness of a human model , Michelle Holgate . The initial inspiration for Mya came from vintage pin @-@ up girls . The first representation of Mya had a very small waist and large breasts , and was said to resemble Jessica Rabbit , which did not impress either Motorola or McCann Erickson . Motorola asked Digital Domain to make Mya look as human as possible yet still be obviously artificial . The first completed iteration of Mya was so realistic that Motorola asked for her to be made more obviously digital . Viewers were reportedly not impressed with Mya because they thought she was a real person . Digital Domain visual effects supervisor and animation director , Fred Raimondi , decided to remodel Mya 's appearance to be " just to the left of real " .
You know how when you first looked at Max Headroom and were like ' What is that ? ' That 's [ the effect ] we were after .
Mya 's hair was changed from brunette to bleach blonde . Her short spiky hair style was said to resemble that of Serena Altschul . According to Digital Domain , giving Mya hair that was longer than ear @-@ length was not possible in the time they had been given , due to the difficulties of creating digital photorealistic hair . Mya 's final body shape was an almost exact copy of the original model 's measurements . Mya was typically seen wearing a silver pantsuit but also appeared in halter tops in some shots and dressed in an evening gown for her debut . While Digital Domain staff wanted Mya to appear in a knee @-@ length skirt with high boots , Motorola and McCann chose the pantsuit , due to its contemporary look .
Digital Domain chose not to use motion capture for Mya 's movements as they believed it would constrain the character too much . Instead they used rotoscoping to place their digital character over the real model . The evening gown Motorola selected for Mya to debut in was described by Digital Domain as the most difficult item of clothing they could have chosen , due to its transparency and layering . To render 150 frames ( equating to 5 – 6 seconds of actual footage ) of Mya moving in the gown in low @-@ resolution required approximately 6 hours of processing time ; the final high @-@ resolution shots took longer . Mya 's rendering was so complex she crashed the computers at Digital Domain several times . Mya 's creators said they had difficulty making Mya appear as if she were " alive " , and focused intensely on movements , specular highlights and eye blinks in order to " bring her to life " . The specular highlights also had the intended effect of making Mya shine in an inhuman manner ; when the light hit Mya at certain angles , a rainbow would appear . Mya 's skin was described as " part china doll , part disco ball . " Her distinct shine was based on that of a china plate that the commercial 's director , Alex Proyas , had bought in Australia . In some shots of Mya , images were deliberately downgraded and had scan lines added to make the character appear more artificial .
Mya 's visual representation , however , appeared solely during advertising and on her website . Only her voice was to be heard when using the actual program . Demonstrations of Mya 's abilities and images of the character could be viewed at the now defunct website , mya.com. Raimondi said he believed the name Mya was a play on the words ' My assistant ' , as did Sidney Matrix in the book Cyberpop : Digital Lifestyles and Commodity Culture .
= = Debut and appearances = =
Mya made her debut on March 26 , 2000 in an 60 @-@ second advertisement shown during the 72nd Academy Awards . The ad featured Mya dressed in her evening gown and wearing a headset . In the ad Mya steps out of a stretch limousine and walks down the red carpet for the show . The ad declared Mya to be " the darling of the e @-@ world , the 24 @-@ hour talking Internet " and stated that Mya 's abilities would change users ' lives . Despite making her first advertising appearance in March , the Mya program was not scheduled to be ready until December 2000 .
Mya subsequently received considerable media attention , and was featured on the front covers of USA Today , InStyle , Wired and Adbusters . One promotion for Mya showed Hugh Hefner sitting in a limousine with two Playboy Bunnies , asking Mya to read him his emails .
The Mya program was on display at the Motorola wireless booth at COMDEX in April 2000 , which was visited by then president Bill Clinton . Mya " chok [ ed ] up halfway " through a demonstration for the president and had to be restarted .
In 2006 Sidney Matrix stated Mya " disappeared " after her debut commercial ; in August 2000 , a Yankee Group vice @-@ president stated the debut advertisement for Mya was a " great ad , but where have [ Motorola ] gone with it ? ... The spot drove viewers to its website to demo the product ... but failed to market Mya further . " Mya was never documented to have been released , nor was there an announcement of the program 's cancellation ; Motorola abandoned their trademark for ' Mya ' on September 19 , 2002 and their trademark for ' Myosphere ' on December 1 , 2002 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Character = = =
The reception of the character was mixed . Libby Callaway from New York Post stated Mya was one of their favourite " virtual babes " , and said she threatened to take Lara Croft 's title as the internet 's most popular pin @-@ up girl , also describing Mya as " the world 's first ' cyber assistant ' " . Whilst admitting that the character of Mya was visually appealing , John Sullivan of Wireless Insider also stated that Motorola " went overboard " by trying to give the Mya program a character in the hopes she would become a celebrity in her own right , and accused Motorola of trying to mimic the success of Lara Croft . Mya was described in the 2003 book Data Made Flesh : Embodying Information as " by far " the best @-@ rendered and most self @-@ assured digital woman . Noah Robischon from Entertainment Weekly called her debut the second creepiest moment at that year 's Academy Awards ( the first being Angelina Jolie kissing her brother ) .
Writing in Popular Mechanics , Tobey Grumet described Mya as a male @-@ chauvinistic creation , and she was cited in the 2006 book Physical Culture , Power , and the Body as an example of simulated sexualised females . Sidney Matrix stated that Mya 's seductive appearance and sultry voice " depended on , borrowed from and retrench [ ed ] sexist stereotypes " , and accused Motorola of normalising the assumption that technology users are both male and heterosexual . Motorola 's marketing director Julie Roth defended the design of Mya 's appearance and voice , attributing it to market research of what would appeal to users .
Mya 's character was often compared to the female computer @-@ simulated character for Ananova , a web @-@ based news service that was being developed around the same time .
= = = Announced program = = =
Though Mya 's character was generally regarded as impressive , the underlying technology was described by Peggy Albright in Wireless Week as not surprising ; Albright said Motorola was " latest company in recent weeks to introduce a voice @-@ activated virtual assistant " , as Mya was announced shortly after Microsoft had announced their MiPad , and Lucent had launched their Mobile Voice Activated Dialing software . However , Tobey Grummet spoke highly of the program in anticipation of its release , and Mya was described by Elliot Drucker of Wireless Week as a solution to the limitations of accessing the Internet on a mobile phone , without a keyboard or large colour display . While regarding the program with interest , John Sullivan doubted that Mya would persuade people who were not already on the Internet to start using it , and stated that if Mya could only read emails and not actually converse with him , he would rather just read his emails himself . Dawn Chmielewski from the Orange County Register called Mya a " crude interpretation of things to come " , noting that speech technology at the time was not without its limitations .
You need to speak like a BBC broadcaster to be understood and use the vocabulary of a toddler to get what you want .
The program won the " Most Innovative Telephony Application " award at the 20th Annual AVIOS Conference in April 2001 .
|
= New York State Route 221 =
New York State Route 221 ( NY 221 ) is a state highway in Cortland County , New York , in the United States . Its western terminus is at an intersection with NY 38 in the town of Harford . The eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 26 and NY 41 in the town of Willet . Near its western end , NY 221 intersects New York State Route 200 . Together , NY 200 and NY 221 form a loop route off NY 38 between the hamlets of Harford and Harford Mills within the town of Harford . NY 221 originally followed modern NY 200 and ended at U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in Marathon when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was extended to its present length by the following year and realigned to serve Harford later in the decade . NY 200 was assigned in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
NY 221 begins at an intersection with NY 38 in the town of Harford . The route progresses northward through a small hamlet , crossing the Owego and Harford Railway and serving a mobile home park . At the intersection with Owego Hill Road , NY 221 turns eastward as a two @-@ lane road , where the route changes backdrops into a more rural and residential mix . After about a mile , the route intersects with NY 200 , a 1 @.@ 37 @-@ mile long ( 2 @.@ 20 km ) route that connects NY 221 back to NY 38 and the hamlet of Harford Mills . At this junction , NY 221 turns north once again , while NY 200 begins on the former right @-@ of @-@ way used by NY 221 . The surroundings remain the same as the route continues , turning to the northeast , and soon east at the junction at County Route 131 ( CR 131 ; Babcock Hollow Road ) .
The rural road bends to the southeast gradually , entering the town of Lapeer , turning east again until it meets CR 133 ( Clarks Corner Road ) . The highway soon reverts to a southeast direction , passing to the north of Beaver Pond and the county line , while NY 221 enters the hamlet of Hunts Corners and intersects with CR 136 ( Jennings Creek Road ) . Here , NY 221 changes direction again , following a northeasterly path out of the hamlet . It bypasses the nearby hamlet of Clarks Corner and soon intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 133 , which gives way to NY 221 as the state road merges with the east – west county highway . NY 221 continues on an eastward track into the town of Marathon , where it descends into the Tioughnioga River valley and enters the village of Marathon .
Within the village , the route gains the West Main Street moniker and heads through a mix of residential and commercial areas . NY 221 crosses intersections with CR 134A and CR 134B and passes the former Marathon railroad depot before crossing the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railway and the Tioughnioga River in the center of the community . After crossing the river , the renamed Main Street heads northeast through the village , intersecting with US 11 ( Cortland Street ) just ahead of an interchange with Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) at the latter 's exit 9 . After the exit from I @-@ 81 , NY 221 reenters another rural area and turns eastward past Dean Pond . After intersecting with CR 161B ( Texas Valley Road ) and CR 161C ( Merrill Creek Road ) , NY 221 crosses Merrill Creek and winds through farmland . Entering the town of Willet , NY 221 crosses the southern terminus of CR 167 ( Bloody Pond Road ) and makes a gradual curve to the north while intersecting with CR 169 ( Landers Corners Road ) . NY 221 continues north to the hamlet of Willet , where it ends at an intersection with NY 26 and NY 41 .
= = History = =
The state of New York assumed maintenance of two highways linking the hamlets of Harford and Harford Mills — one directly connecting the two and a second , more circuitous route to the east — in the early 20th century . The direct route and most of the loop road were improved to state highway standards as part of a project contracted out on October 16 , 1914 , and were added to the state highway system on December 10 , 1915 , as State Highway 1075 ( SH 1075 ) . Each end of SH 1075 connected to the segment of the loop route between modern NY 38 and Owego Hill Road , which was rebuilt as part of an earlier project awarded on September 19 , 1906 , and included in the state highway system on July 5 , 1908 , as SH 379 . Both designations are unsigned and used only for inventory purposes .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the south half of the loop road became part of NY 221 , a new route extending from NY 38 at Harford Mills to US 11 in the village of Marathon . NY 221 was extended east to its current eastern terminus in Willet by the following year . The portion of the route between the Harford loop road and Willet utilized a highway added to the state highway system sometime after 1926 . NY 221 was rerouted to follow its current alignment to the hamlet of Harford in the mid @-@ 1930s , and its former routing to Harford Mills was redesignated as NY 200 in the 1940s .
= = Major intersections = =
= = = NY 221 = = =
The entire route is in Cortland County .
= = = NY 200 = = =
The entire route is in Harford , Cortland County .
|
= Rail transport in Victoria =
Rail transport in Victoria , Australia , is provided by a number of railway operators who operate over the government @-@ owned railway lines . Victorian lines use 5 ft 3 in ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) broad gauge , with the exception of a number of standard gauge 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) freight and interstate lines , a few experimental 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge lines , and various private logging , mining and industrial railways .
Railways were privately owned and operated , until the State Government established the vertically integrated Victorian Railways in 1883 . This remained until corporatisation occurred in the 1980s , followed by privatisation in the 1990s . Passenger services today are operated by Metro Trains Melbourne in suburban Melbourne with electric multiple units , and V / Line in regional Victoria with diesel trains . Freight services are operated by Aurizon ( interstate ) , Pacific National and SCT Logistics ( interstate and intrastate ) , and Qube Logistics and TransVolution ( intrastate ) .
The rail network radiates from the state capital , Melbourne , with main interstate links to Sydney and to Adelaide , as well as major lines running to regional centres , upgraded as part of the Regional Fast Rail project . The rail network reached a peak in 1942 but steadily declined , as branch and cross country lines were closed up to the 1980s .
Victoria does not have a dominant mining base as with other states , and has traditionally been more dependent on agriculture for rail freight traffic . By the 1990s road transport had captured most general freight traffic , with an average of only 6 @.@ 1 million tonnes of intrastate freight carried each year between 1996 and 1998 ; containers being the major cargo , followed by cement , logs , quarry products and steel .
= = History = =
= = = First lines = = =
Australia 's first steam operated railway was a 2 1 ⁄ 2 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) Victorian broad gauge line between the Melbourne ( or City ) Terminus ( on the site of modern @-@ day Flinders Street Station ) and Sandridge ( now Port Melbourne ) , constructed by the Melbourne and Hobson 's Bay Railway Company and opened in September 1854 . The first country line in Victoria was from Melbourne to Geelong , opened in 1857 by the Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company . The early years saw the of lines being constructed by private companies , this not changing until the 1870s when the Government Railway Department ( Victorian Railways ) had built their own lines .
The suburban network expanded to the east from Princes Bridge railway station to Richmond in 1859 , then later to Brighton and Hawthorn by the early 1860s. the initial suburban lines were all built by different private companies centred upon Flinders St , being amalgamated into the Melbourne and Hobson 's Bay United Railway Company by 1865 , with public ownership not coming until 1878 . In 1862 Victorian Railways lines had reached the great gold rush towns of Bendigo and Ballarat , and in 1864 railways were extended to the Murray River port of Echuca .
In 1883 the first connection to another State 's rail system was made , when the Albury @-@ Wodonga line was completed to the New South Wales Government Railways ' station at Albury , requiring a break @-@ of @-@ gauge to New South Wales ' 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) ( standard gauge ) . It was then followed in 1887 by a connection with the broad gauge South Australian Railways at Serviceton , with the Intercolonial Express ( now The Overland ) to Adelaide running between the capitals . Additional trunk lines were also built though the 1870s , with rails extended to Sale , Portland and Colac ; and the first branch lines built . It was a time of improved train safety , with the first interlocking of railway signalling to protect trains provided in 1874 , and tests of continuous train brakes carried out in 1884 .
In 1884 State Parliament passed The Railway Construction Act , which authorised fifty @-@ nine new lines to almost every corner of the state , and thus became known as the Octopus Act . The proposed lines would serve both new agricultural communities and support suburban land speculation . It was also this decade that the first narrow gauge line was opened from Wangaratta to Whitfield , with three other lines following by 1910 . The South Gippsland line was also opened from Dandenong to Leongatha by 1891 . However , by the late 1890s the majority of the state was now covered in railways , with the exception of the Mallee country in the north west of the state which saw further line openings , such as the Mildura line in 1903 .
= = = A new century = = =
In 1907 the A2 class steam locomotive was introduced . There were 185 locomotives in this class and they were Victorian Railway 's main passenger locomotive until the arrival of the diesel electric B class in 1952 . On 20 April 1908 the Sunshine train disaster occurred , killing 44 passengers in the worst Victorian railway accident .
Electrification of the Melbourne suburban network was also carried out , with the first train running in 1919 . By 1924 210 @,@ 000 passengers passed through the main city terminal of Flinders Street Station per weekday . St Kilda was Melbourne 's busiest suburban station with 4 ½ million journeys , followed by Footscray with almost 4 million , then Elsternwick , Ascot Vale , Essendon and Balaclava . Technology advancements continued , with 3 position automatic signals introduced in 1915 , the conversion of screw couplings to knuckle couplers from 1924 , and the first remote controlled signalling provided in 1925 . The first level crossing flashing lights were installed at Mentone on Moorabin Road in 1932 .
Despite the World War I , significant extensions of rail lines were carried out , particularly in the wheat growing areas in the north west and west . The new lengthy parallel lines were considered to be cheaper to operate than the numerous short spurs such as those in the Goulburn Valley . By 1930 the railway map of Victoria was largely complete , with the best land settled and the remaining land marginal for agriculture , with a number of lines built across the state border into the Riverina of NSW . On November 1937 the first run of the Spirit of Progress was made , a streamlined all air conditioned train run between Melbourne and Albury , led by the matching S class steam locomotives .
From 1924 to 1935 , the Better Farming Train made 38 tours promoting improved agricultural practices .
The Victorian Railways biggest steam locomotive H 220 Heavy Harry entered service in 1941 , at a time when the railways were struggling with the needs of the war effort . In 1943 the Victorian Railways employed 25 @,@ 450 , had 577 steam locos and 12 electric locos on register along with 19 @,@ 823 goods wagons and 1 @,@ 499 passenger cars , running along 4 @,@ 758 miles ( 7 @,@ 657 km ) of lines . The network reached its largest extent in 1942 , covering 7668 route kilometres .
= = = Post war rebuilding = = =
After World War II the railways were run down , with Operation Phoenix unveiled in 1950 , involving the expenditure of £ 80 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 over 10 years . Works included electrification to Traralgon , new Harris suburban trains , the Walker railmotors , and approximately 3 @,@ 000 new goods wagons .
On 14 July 1952 the VR entered the diesel era , with the delivery of the first B class mainline locomotive , with the commissioning of the first mainline electrification scheme in Australia in July 1954 to Warragul . March 1954 saw Queen Elizabeth II tour Victoria by Royal Train , the first time a reigning monarch had travelled on the VR , 1954 also saw the last steam locomotive to enter service , J class 559 , as well as the last four wheeled open wagons being built . The fifties also saw the loss of a number of short branch lines , particularly country where the only traffic had been timber or livestock .
In the 1960s the break of gauge at Albury was eliminated , with the opening of the North East standard gauge line in 1962 . The new line aided freight traffic between the state capitals , and enabled though passenger trains , such as the Southern Aurora and the Intercapital Daylight . At the same time the sixties was also the end of steam , with the demolition of the massive North Melbourne Locomotive Depot on 20 January 1961 .
1965 saw the Victorian Railways produce a £ 193 @,@ 727 surplus , but by 1973 increasing costs and declining revenue resulted in a $ 86 @,@ 086 @,@ 361 deficit . On 20 July 1976 the Laverton derailment occurred , killing one passenger , in what was the last railway passenger fatality not involving a road vehicle . By the late seventies roadside goods and country railmotor services had been replaced by road transport , and branch lines outside the grain producing areas were now virtually non @-@ existent . The Lonie Report delivered in 1980 recommended the closure of all country passenger service except that to Geelong , elimination of a number of suburban railways , and moving small @-@ volume freight from rail to road .
= = = New deal = = =
The 1980s saw corporatisation of the Victorian Railways carried out , with the railway commissioners replaced by VicRail and later government authorities . New liveries on trains were unveiled , as elderly " red rattlers " were replaced by new trains .
1981 saw the Melbourne underground loop open in January , followed by the new air conditioned Comeng suburban trains and " N " type country passenger carriages in September the same year . Country services were also sped up under the New Deal by the closure of 35 of small wayside stations . Country passenger services saw the last of the non @-@ air @-@ conditioned wooden bodied passenger cars withdrawn from service in 1986 , replaced by new " H " set carriages . Trials were also carried out for further upgrades , with locomotive A85 re @-@ geared for 160 km / h operation in a series of test runs between Glenorchy and Lubeck in the state 's west in July 1986 .
It was also the end of an era , with freight trains having their guards vans and guards abolished from 1985 , and the carriage of livestock ended in 1986 . The last run of the Spirit of Progress and Southern Aurora passenger trains were also made in 1986 , on 3 August . Working practices were also altered , with through working of C class locomotives introduced between Melbourne and Adelaide in 1982 . Previously Victorian locomotives were detached at the state borders , and replaced by locomotives from the next state . New locomotive were also introduced , with the G class and N classes enabling the retirement of many of the 1st generation diesels .
Cuts continued to the rail network , with larger centralised silos in the north western area of the state , and replacement of traditional safeworking systems by systems that required no local staff saw further stations de @-@ manned .
= = = Privatisation = = =
The 1990s saw costs further reduced on the rail network . Guards were removed from passenger trains in 1989 , and driver only suburban trains commenced running in 1993 , with the last suburban train crewed by a guard running in November 1995 . In 1994 the National Rail Corporation was established , taking profitable steel , and intermodal trafficks from V / Line ; and the Melbourne to Adelaide standard gauge line was opened in 1995 moving the break of gauge .
Moves towards privatisation begun in 1997 , with V / Line split into V / Line Passenger and V / Line Freight by Bayside Trains and Hillside Trains being separated from the Public Transport Corporation in 1998 . V / Line Freight was sold to Rail America , known as Freight Victoria in 1999 , followed by National Express taking over Bayside Trains and V / Line Passenger in 2000 , with Connex Melbourne taking over Hillside Trains .
= = = End of private lease = = =
Victorian Premier Steve Bracks negotiated a premature end to the " under @-@ rail " Victorian country Broad Gauge network lease just minutes before the caretaker mode began before the state election of November 2006 . This cost around $ 125 million .
In May 2008 the then Premier John Brumby arranged a 45 @-@ year lease to the ARTC of the single track Seymour @-@ Albury section . Part of the negotiation involved Victoria contributing money for the track to be upgraded and standardised and for Wodonga to be bypassed .
Today , the state consists of four networks : the electrified metropolitan system operated by Metro Trains Melbourne , the country passenger network operated by V / Line and upgraded as part of the Regional Fast Rail project , the standard gauge interstate lines to Adelaide and Sydney , and the grain network in the north west of the state , connected to the ports at Geelong and Portland .
= = Infrastructure = =
The trunk railway lines of Victoria are double track , some built as such , and others duplicated later on . Early sections of the suburban network were double track , with later additions being single track that were later duplicated .
The Bendigo and Geelong – Ballarat mainlines were both built as double track in the 1860s , but were singled in the 1930s and first decade of the 21st century respectively . The north @-@ east line to Seymour was duplicated in the mid @-@ 1880s and remains so today , the Gippsland line to Moe was duplicated in the 1950s in conjunction with increased briquette traffic , and the busiest country line in the state to Geelong was progressively duplicated from 1959 to 1981 .
Few railway tunnels exist in Victoria , with the exception of the Melbourne City Loop . The longest tunnel before the opening of the loop was on the Fyansford Cement Works Railway ( near Geelong ) , where a 1300 metre long tunnel existed on a narrow gauge quarry railway . Of those open today the longest is the single track 422 metre long Geelong Tunnel , followed by the double track 385 metre Elphinstone and the 390 metre long Big Hill Tunnels on the Bendigo line . A 154 metre long tunnel also exists on the Healesville line , as well as three tunnels on the suburban Hurstbridge line , and another on the freight lines under Footscray station .
On the interstate railway corridors there are independent sections of track due to the use of both broad and standard gauges in the state , these sections being from Melbourne to Seymour and on to Albury ( constructed in the 1960s ) , and Melbourne to Geelong ( completed in 1995 ) . The gauge issue also sees dual gauge track used , in areas including Maryborough , North Geelong , and various freight terminals in Melbourne .
The maximum speed of suburban electric multiple units and locomotive hauled trains is 115 km / h , with diesel multiple units permitted up to 130 km / h on the same track , and up to 160 km / h on specified lines . The maximum axle loading of freight wagons is 20 tonnes , with locomotives of up to 22 tonne axle loading operating . Train lengths are limited to 1200 metres , except on the main interstate lines where 1500 metre long trains are permitted .
= = = Track gauge = = =
The majority of the railways of Victoria are of 5 ft 3 in ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) broad gauge , presenting break @-@ of @-@ gauge difficulties when connections were made with New South Wales which uses the 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge . In addition , the Victorian Railways experimented with four short narrow gauge lines of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) in the early 20th century . Efforts to eliminate the gauge issue were proposed many times in the intervening years , with a Royal Commission in 1921 deciding " that the gauge of 4 @-@ ft . 8 @.@ 5 @-@ in. be adopted as the standard for Australia ; that no mechanical , third rail , or other device would meet the situation , and that uniformity could be secured by one means only , viz . , by conversion of the gauges other than 4 @-@ ft . 8 @.@ 5 @-@ in . "
By the 1950s , interstate traffic was suffering from the break @-@ of @-@ gauge at the New South Wales state border , and a parallel standard gauge line was opened from the Melbourne to join the New South Wales system in 1962 , along with a bogie exchange depot to allow wagons to operate across the broad and standard gauge networks . The second interstate link from Victoria to Adelaide ( the oldest single @-@ gauge inter @-@ capital line dating from 1887 ) was converted from broad to standard gauge in 1995 enabling rail traffic from Victoria to access the rest of the nation without disruption .
Today the standard gauge network consists of the two main interstate lines , and a number of branch lines in the far west of the state . Gauge conversion of 2000 kilometres of track was announced in May 2001 by the Victorian Government under the Linking Victoria program , but did not proceed due to the difficulty of achieving any agreement with then track manager , Freight Australia . The works would have covered 13 lines , including the Mildura line via Geelong , Ballarat , and Maryborough ; the north western Victorian grain network ; and the lines centred upon Seymour and Benalla in the north east . Conversion of the regional and suburban passenger networks is not envisioned . In 2008 the conversion of the North East line was announced , with the conversion of 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) of broad gauge track to standard gauge between Seymour and Albury providing double track along the section .
= = = Loading gauge = = =
The Victorian loading gauge for vehicles is sized between that of British and American practices . Wagons may be up to 22 @.@ 85 metres ( 75 @.@ 0 feet ) long , 2 @.@ 97 metres ( 9 feet 9 inches ) wide , and carry loads up to 4 @.@ 27 metres above the rail height . Double stacking of container wagons is not possible under these limits , with 2 @,@ 655 mm ( 8 ft 8 @.@ 5 in ) high containers the largest permitted , with the exception of 3 @,@ 200 mm ( 10 ft 6 in ) high containers on some routes . Trials were made with the 4D double deck passenger train on some suburban lines , requiring alterations to overhead bridges and structures , but no double deck trains are used today .
= = = Signalling = = =
Compare with Australian railway signalling
Victoria uses a mix of railway signalling practices : British route signalling with home and distant signals ( 2 position signalling ) and American speed signalling ( 3 position signalling ) .
Semaphore signals were used on the very first railway lines , but only a bare minimum were provided as the time interval system being relied upon instead . The first interlocking of signals to protect trains was provided in 1874 , as before this time conflicting moves could be made . The design of the signals also progressed , with the disc type siding signals first introduced in 1885 , and the lower quadrant somersault type main line signals adopted in 1887 , both of which are still in use today . Green was not adopted as the All Right colour until 1898 , with white being used before this time . Red was the usual colour of all signal arms , until yellow was chosen as the colour for distant signals in 1926 , with full adoption made in 1930 . Colour light signals first appeared in 1918 , and by 1924 they were the standard for new installations .
The safeworking of trains between stations on the early lines was time interval working , where a train would be allowed to leave a given time after the train before it . With heavier traffic this method became unsafe , with Staff and Ticket working on single lines adopted from 1873 , and telegraph block working from 1878 on double lines . Both of these systems ensured that only one train would be in a section of track at one time . Telegraphic block working was then replaced with Winters Block working between 1883 and 1888 , a system that is a predecessor of the Double line Block system which is still used today . Later years saw variations made to the Staff and Ticket system , with busier lines provided with Electric Staff working which provided greater safely when more trains ran .
Heavier suburban traffic on the Melbourne network saw a greater strain on the block working then used , which required a large number of manned signal boxes to enable trains to run close together . As a result , it was decided to adopt power signalling under the Automatic Block System ( ABS ) of safeworking , where the presence of trains automatically control the signals after them , providing a safe distance between trains . Introduced from 1915 , the system was based on American speed signalling practice with GRS2A upper quadrant mechanical signals with two arms able to indicate up to 5 different speed aspects to train drivers . These signals were later replaced by colour light signals which are the standard today , but the old mechanical style remained until 2001 .
A variant of the Automatic Block System , Automatic and Track Control ( ATC ) has since been introduced , which provides the same benefits as ABS on single lines of track , while still ensuring only one train in a section at a time . Centralised Traffic Control was also introduced in the 1960s on the new standard gauge line to Albury , and then on the main interstate line to Adelaide , allowing trains to be directed from a distance .
Today little mechanical signalling remains , with local signal boxes controlling signals abolished from many areas as part of the Regional Fast Rail project . The suburban network and busier regional lines use variants of Automatic Block Signalling , while quieter lines use the Train Staff and Ticket or Train Order systems of safeworking . Train protection has also progressed , with the Train Protection & Warning System also introduced on major passenger lines as part of the Regional Fast Rail project .
= = Rollingstock = =
Rollingstock in Victoria has used air braking since tests of continuous train brakes were carried out in 1884 . Initially screw couplings were used to connect wagons , but from 1924 automatic knuckle couplers were introduced , with buffers removed from freight wagons by 1960 .
= = = Locomotives = = =
In Victoria groups of locomotives of the same design are classed together by letter , in a system introduced in 1886 . Initially low letters were given to passenger classes , and high letters for goods classes , but from about 1916 this pattern was discarded . Within classes locomotives are individually numbered , in a continuous number block which is unique to the class . In some cases locomotives have been renumbered to keep number blocks continuous , and in some cases there is no correlation between the number blocks used for the steam and diesel locomotives of the same class letter . In addition , some classes start the number series with a 0 , while others start with a 1 .
The first locomotives used in the state were small steam locomotives , and by the end of the 19th century 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender engines were used on goods , and 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 configurations for passenger workings . The majority of locomotives were imported from Britain , from companies such as Beyer , Peacock and Company , Robert Stephenson and Company , R and W Hawthorn and George England and Co .. The Williamstown Workshops also built locomotives locally , as did the Phoenix Foundry in Ballarat .
As the size of train increased , so did the locomotives . The 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement became popular for passenger and mixed traffic work with the D3 and A2 classes , and the 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 arrangement on goods with the K , J and C classes lasting into the 1960s . These were then followed by the 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 S class Pacifics for the Spirit of Progress express , and the single 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 H class locomotive H220 , the biggest Victorian Railways steam locomotive . The final steam locomotives built for the Victorian Railways were the 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 R class and 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 J classes . Although they were of more modern design , their advantages were overshadowed by the simultaneous arrival of the first diesels .
Electric locomotives were first acquired with the electrification of the suburban railways , the E class suburban engines acquired in 1923 and 1928 – 29 , followed by the L class from 1953 when the mainline to Traralgon was electrified for briquette traffic .
Dieselisation occurred from 1951 with the F class shunter , but the B and S classes of 1952 and 1957 revolutionised main line operations . They were then followed by the T and Y classes in 1955 and 1963 which displaced steam from the branch lines and yards . Apart from the F class , Clyde Engineering has had a monopoly on Victorian diesel @-@ electric locos. as the Australian licensee of General Motors EMD engines and traction motors , fitting them into locally designed bodies . By the 1980s the first generation locomotives were approaching the end of their lives , with the electric locomotives withdrawn by 1988 , and the modern N and G classes allowing the withdrawal of lower power T and Y classes .
Today the former Victorian Railways locomotive fleet has been split into two , with the N , A and P classes utilised by V / Line on passenger services , with the remainder with Pacific National or other private operators in freight use . No new passenger locomotives have been built since the 1980s , with Diesel Multiple Units being acquired instead . Freight operations have seen the re @-@ powering of the G and X classes , as well as the restoration to service of stored locomotives , now up to 50 years old .
= = = Passenger = = =
Early passenger services were operated with 4 and 6 wheeled " dogbox " passenger carriage with small compartments and no side corridors . Later years saw the provision of side corridors to provide access down the train , and onboard toilets . Sleeping carriages was first introduced in 1887 , and dining cars from 1908 .
Larger bogie rollingstock started to appear from the turn of the 20th century , with the E type carriage stock introduced on The Overland , and smaller W type carriage stock on intrastate trains . The first air conditioned carriage was introduced in 1935 , when one of the E type carriages was fitted . All steel carriages came to the Victorian Railways in 1927 , with the construction of the " Avoca " and " Hopkins " dining cars , followed by the S type carriage stock for the new Spirit of Progress in 1937 .
On the Melbourne suburban network Electric Multiple Units were introduced speeding up services . Experiments were also made with various diesel and petrol railcars for use smaller branch lines , with the DERM being the most successful , remaining in service from 1928 to 1991 . A fleet of Walker railcars was also introduced in the 1950s , along with Z type saloon carriage stock for both intra and interstate trains .
By the 1980s country passenger services were run down , and older wooden rolling stock was now approaching their use by date . As a result , the N type carriages were introduced from 1981 , followed by the converted H type stock from 1984 . Since then , diesel multiple units have become the norm for new purchases , with the Sprinter introduced in 1992 , and the VLocity from 2005 .
= = = Freight = = =
Early wagons were built on four wheeled under frames , but from 1871 bogie vehicles begun to appear . These early wagons were of all wood construction , but later types had wood bogies on steel underframes , then followed by all steel wagons . Groups of wagons of the same design are classed together by a multiple character alphabetical code , initially in a system restricted to Victoria only , but from 1979 the Railways of Australia four letter coding was introduced . Under this system the first letter represent owner of the wagon , the second represents the general type of wagon , the third separates different classes of the same general type , and the four letter indicates the maximum running speed .
The last four wheeled open wagons were built in 1958 , but were not scrapped in large numbers until the 1980s when new bogie wagons replaced them . In 1987 the bogie wagon fleet numbered 5000 , with approximately 700 grain hoppers , 800 container flats , 1000 louvred vans , 700 open wagons , 400 tank cars , and 300 flat wagons . Today the broad gauge intrastate fleet numbers 2600 , with large numbers of louvred vans , open and flat wagons , and tank cars stored or scrapped due to the transfer of traffic to road following years of apathy by Governments .
= = Operations = =
= = = Commodities = = =
Victoria does not have a dominant mining base as with other states , and has traditionally been more dependent on agriculture for rail freight traffic . In the early 20th century rail was a " common carrier " and was required to carry almost any freight offered . After World War I road competition increased , until in 1933 legislation was passed to regulate trucks competing with rail on specific routes . From 1974 to the 1980s intrastate road freight was deregulated , and rail " common carrier " obligations were removed , resulting in the loss of to road of much non @-@ bulk freight . In 1987 10 @.@ 51 million tonnes of freight was carried by rail , with bulk grain being the main commodity consisting of 31 @.@ 4 % of traffic .
Continued drought , road competition , and rationalisation of intrastate freight operations have seen this change in recent years , with an average of only 6 @.@ 1 million tonnes of intrastate freight carried from each year between 1996 and 1998 ; and containers now being the major traffic , with residual cement , logs , quarry , and steel trains operating . By the 1990s road transport has captured most general freight traffic , with less than carload traffic was discontinued in July 2007 with the end of the Fastrack freight service . An exception to the decline is interstate operations , with intermodal container traffic growing due to competition between private operators .
= = = Companies = = =
The first railways in Victoria were operated by private companies , but when these companies failed or defaulted , Victorian Railways took over . The Victorian Railways was initially known as the " Department of Railways " from the first appointment of staff in 1856 , and on 1 November 1883 the Victorian Railways Commissioners Act established the " Victorian Railways " .
This situation remained until May 1973 when the Railways ( Amendment ) Act 1972 passed the management of the Railways from the Victorian Railways Commissioners to a Victorian Railways Board , with rebranding as VicRail following in 1976 .
In 1983 VicRail was split into the State Transport Authority taking responsibility for the provision of country rail and road , passenger and freight services under the V / Line brand ; and the Metropolitan Transit Authority taking over suburban passenger operations . These authorities were then merged into the Public Transport Corporation in 1989 , with the suburban services rebranded as " The Met " .
In 1993 the Kennett Government offered long @-@ distance country rail services previously run by the government @-@ owned operator V / Line to private operators . While several rail services were replaced by road coach services , West Coast Railway successfully tendered to operate the railway line to Warrnambool , becoming the first private operator in Victoria . In 1993 Professor Fred Hilmer presented the findings of the National Competition Policy Review Committee , known as the Hilmer Report , leading to the introduction of National Competition Policy in 1995 . This allowed new rail freight operators to establish operations in Victoria . Specialised Container Transport commenced operating trains to Perth in 1995 , and Great Northern Rail Services started intrastate operations .
Privatisation of the Public Transport Corporation commenced under the Kennett Government of the 1990s . V / Line was split into separate freight and passenger divisions , and " The Met " was divided into " Hillside Trains " and " Bayside Trains " . These separate bodies were all sold separately in 1999 : V / Line Freight and the rural intrastate network to Freight Victoria ; Hillside Trains and track lease to Connex Melbourne ; and V / Line Passenger and Bayside Trains ( with track lease ) to the National Express Group . Control of V / Line 's former interstate rail freight infrastructure was passed to the federal Australian Rail Track Corporation .
On 22 December 2002 National Express withdrew from their operations in Victoria and the government taking control temporarily , V / Line reverted to government ownership on 1 October 2003 , and M @-@ Train was taken over by Connex on 18 April 2004 . 16 August 2004 saw the Freight Victoria business and rural track lease was purchased by Pacific National , but by November 2006 they entered into an agreement to sell the track lease back to the Victorian Government for $ 133 @.@ 8 million , with the sale completed on 7 May 2007 and V / Line becoming track manager .
In December 2007 Pacific National announced plans to sell or close its grain transport and Portlink rural container business operations in Victoria . The decision has been criticised as it will force grain growers to use higher cost road transport to transport the annual grain harvest from rural silos to the ports . The decision has seen many commentators accuse Pacific National of only acquiring the operations of Freight Australia in 2004 for the purposes of asset stripping and eliminating competition in rail freight . In 2008 El Zorro took over the Warrnambool - Melbourne container service from Pacific National , and moved into broad gauge grain services , while QRNational has taken over the Melbourne - Horsham container service .
= = By line = =
Victoria 's first railway was a 4 km Victorian broad gauge line between the Melbourne ( or City ) Terminus ( on the site of modern @-@ day Flinders Street Station ) and Sandridge ( now Port Melbourne ) , constructed by the Melbourne and Hobson 's Bay Railway Company and opened in September 1854 . Today , Melbourne 's suburban railway network consists of 16 electrified lines , the central City Loop subway , and 200 stations , with a total length of 372 km of the electrified lines , operated by Metro Trains Melbourne under franchise to the Government of Victoria .
In Gippsland the Orbost line was constructed as an extension of suburban lines between 1877 and 1888 to Bairnsdale , and extended eastwards to Orbost in 1916 . The line between Dandenong and Traralgon was electrified in 1954 , but electrification was cut back progressively to Pakenham between 1987 and 2001 . V / Line passenger trains now run as far as Bairnsdale .
The South Gippsland line was opened from Dandenong to Cranbourne , Leongatha and Port Albert between 1888 and 1892 . A number of branch lines were also built , with almost all closed in stages between the early 1970s and 1994 , except for part has since been electrified and re @-@ opened as part of the suburban network , and between Nyora and Leongatha where the South Gippsland Tourist Railway operates heritage services .
The North East line originated from a suburban line to Essendon in 1860 , being extended to Wodonga by 1873 , connecting with the New South Wales Government Railways at Albury at a break @-@ of @-@ gauge in 1883 . A standard gauge track was completed parallel with the broad gauge track from Albury to Melbourne in 1962 . The broad gauge track has been converted to standard gauge between Seymour and Albury .
The Shepparton line was built from Mangalore to Shepparton in 1880 and extended to the New South Wales Government Railways at Tocumwal at a break @-@ of @-@ gauge in 1908 . V / Line passenger service run as far as Shepparton .
The Bendigo line was completed in 1862 , with extensions were opened to Echuca in 1864 , and Swan Hill in 1890 , followed by a number of lines throughout the north @-@ west corner of the state . Only these lines continue to see V / Line services , with other lines in the region only seeing freight traffic .
The main western line had its beginnings in the first railway line from Melbourne to Ballarat , the Geelong @-@ Ballarat line that opened in 1862 . The line extended from Ballarat to Ararat between 1874 and 1875 , but it was not until 1889 that the direct line between Melbourne and Ballarat was opened , built from both ends in stages until they met at Ballan . Further branch lines followed to Portland and other western towns . The line formed the first interstate railway line in Australia , when it was extended to the South Australian Railways at Serviceton in 1887 . Up until the 1990s the Ballarat line was on the main route between Melbourne and Adelaide , as well as The Overland services to Adelaide , until the One Nation Program rerouted the main interstate line via Geelong and Maroona as standard gauge .
The Port Fairy line was started when the Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company opened the Geelong line to Newport in 1857 , being extended to Spencer Street Station in 1859 . The line was taken over by Victorian Railways in 1860 and a line was opened from Geelong to Ballarat in 1862 , and later extended south @-@ east from 1876 , reaching Warrnambool and Port Fairy in 1890 . Branch lines also existed to Queenscliff , Beech Forest , and a number of other towns .
= = Private railways = =
A small number of private railways have also existed at various times . Some , such as the Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company , and the Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company , Melbourne and Hobson 's Bay Railway Company , Melbourne and Essendon Railway Company and St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company were acquired by the Victorian Railways and made part of the core state network in 1860 and 1878 respectively . Other country branch lines were also built by private companies : namely the Kerang @-@ Koondrook Tramway and the Deniliquin and Moama Railway , both not being acquired until the 20th century .
In addition to the main Victorian rail network of the Victorian Railways and successors , a number of narrow gauge private railways and tramways have also existed for logging and mining purposes . These included the Yallourn 900mm Railway in the Latrobe Valley open cut coal mines , the Fyansford Cement Works Railway near Geelong , the Tyers Valley Tramway at Mount Baw Baw , and the Powelltown Tramway from Yarra Junction .
Most logging tramways operated in the Otway Ranges , Gippsland , and the inner east of the Great Dividing Range ; primarily between the 1850s and the 1950s , with only one surviving into the 1960s . They were primarily of 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) or 3 ft ( 914 mm ) gauge , with 2 ft ( 610 mm ) , 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) , 4 ft ( 1 @,@ 219 mm ) , 5 ft 3 in ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) and variants also used .
= = Railway preservation = =
Organised railway preservation commenced in Victoria with the formation of the Puffing Billy Preservation Society in 1955 , and operating under the Emerald Tourist Railway Board from 1977 . Formed to operate the narrow gauge 2 ft 6 in ( 760 mm ) gauge railway in the Dandenong Ranges near Melbourne , the group continues to operate the railway today .
The demise of the last of the steam locomotives in Victoria commenced in the 1960s , with the Australian Railway Historical Society and Association of Railway Enthusiasts working with the Victorian Railways to have a number of locomotives preserved for the future . In 1962 the ARHS Railway Museum was established at North Williamstown to house static exhibits , and Steamrail Victoria was formed in 1965 to assist in the restoration of locomotives and carriages for use on special trains .
By the 1980s a number of heritage railways had been established in Victoria on closed branch lines . These railways serve both as tourist attractions , and to preserve the railway past . The work of railway preservation groups has since expanded to retired railway carriages , electric multiple units , rail motors , and diesel locomotives . In 2006 heritage railways carried 542 @,@ 000 patrons over 161 km of track ; with 28 operational steam locomotives , 47 diesels , 14 railmotors , and 192 carriages .
Heritage Railways and Operators include :
Puffing Billy Railway , Belgrave
Bellarine Peninsula Railway , Queenscliff
Daylesford Spa Country Railway , Daylesford
Victorian Goldfields Railway , Maldon
Mornington Railway Preservation Society , Mornington
Seymour Railway Heritage Centre , Seymour
Steamrail Victoria , Newport
Walhalla Goldfields Railway , Walhalla
Yarra Valley Tourist Railway , Healesville
South Gippsland Railway , Leongatha
Melbourne Tramway Museum , Bylands
= = Rail trails = =
A number of former rail lines in Melbourne and regional Victoria have been converted into rail trails , for walking , cycling and horse riding . These make excellent tracks for beginners as the lines were originally designed to avoid steep gradients . Most lines are still in public ownership . Some sections of the track are specially leased to neighbouring farmers for stock grazing . This reduces maintenance costs .
Trails around Melbourne include :
Inner Circle ( Rushall to Royal Park )
Outer Circle ( Fairfield to Hughesdale )
Rosstown ( Hughesdale to Elsternwick )
Hawthorn to Kew
Red Hill ( Merricks to Red Hill )
Lilydale to Warburton Rail Trail
Trails around Victoria include :
East Gippsland ( Bairnsdale to Newmeralla )
The Beechy ( Colac to Beech Forest )
Crater to Coast ( Camperdown to Timboon )
Ballarat – Skipton
Murray to the Mountains ( Wangaratta to Beechworth and Bright )
Goulburn River High Country ( Bonnie Doon to Mansfield )
Great Southern Rail Trail ( Leongatha – Foster , future extension to Yarram )
Bass Coast Rail Trail ( Anderson – Wonthaggi , future extension to Nyora )
Port Fairy to Warrnambool Rail Trail
= = Legislation , governance and access = =
= = = Key statutes = = =
The prime rail statute in Victoria is the Transport Integration Act . The Act establishes the Department of Transport , Planning and Local Infrastructure as the integration agency for Victoria 's transport system . The Act also establishes and sets the charters of the State agencies charged with providing public transport rail services and managing network access for freight services , namely the Director of Public Transport and V / Line . In addition , the Act creates VicTrack which owns the public rail network and associated infrastructure . Another important statute is the Rail Management Act 1996 which confers powers on rail operators and provides for a rail access scheme for the State 's rail network . As a result of recent changes to the Transport Integration Act , the responsibilities of the Director of Public Transport are being progressively assumed by the new Public Transport Development Authority , a major initiative of the Bailieu Government .
= = = Safety = = =
= = = = Regulation = = = =
The safety of rail operations in Victoria is regulated by the Rail Safety Act 2006 which applies to all commercial passenger and freight operations as well as tourist and heritage railways . The Act creates a framework containing safety duties for all rail industry participants and requires rail operators who manage infrastructure and rolling stock to obtain accreditation prior to commencing operations . Accredited rail operators are also required to have a safety management system to guide their operations .
Sanctions applying to the safety scheme established under the Rail Safety Act are contained in the Transport ( Compliance and Miscellaneous ) Act 1983 . The safety regulator for the rail system in Victoria is the Director , Transport Safety ( trading as Transport Safety Victoria ) whose office is established under the Transport Integration Act 2010 .
= = = = Investigation = = = =
Rail operators in Victoria can also be the subject of no blame investigations conducted by the Chief Investigator , Transport Safety or the Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) . The Chief Investigator is charged by the Transport Integration Act with conducting investigations into rail safety matters including incidents and trends . ATSB , on the other hand , claims jurisdiction over the same matters where they occur on the Designated Interstate Rail Network .
= = = Ticketing and conduct = = =
Ticketing requirements for public transport in Victoria are mainly contained in the Transport ( Ticketing ) Regulations 2006 and the Victorian Fares and Ticketing Manual . Rules about safe and fair conduct on trains and trams in Melbourne are generally contained in the Transport ( Compliance and Miscellaneous ) Act 1983 and the Transport ( Conduct ) Regulations 2005 .
= = = Tourist and heritage railways = = =
Tourist and Heritage Railways in Victoria are governed by provisions in the Tourist and Heritage Railways Act 2010 which commenced on 1 October 2011 .
|
= Siege of Badajoz ( 1658 ) =
The 4th Siege of Badajoz took place from July to October 1658 during the Portuguese Restoration War . It was an attempt by a huge Portuguese army under the command of Joanne Mendes de Vasconcelos , governor of Alentejo , to capture the Spanish city of Badajoz , which was the headquarters of the Spanish Army of Extremadura . The fortifications of Badajoz were essentially medieval and considered vulnerable by the Portuguese , and had already been attacked by them three times during this war .
So in 1658 , Mendes de Vasconcelos gathered an army at Elvas and advanced on Badajoz . The city was poorly defended and the Spanish troops under the command of Francisco de Tuttavilla , Duke of San Germán , looked principally to their own survival until a Spanish relief expedition could be mounted . The Portuguese forces launched a direct assault on the town , hoping initially to capture a key fort , San Cristóbal , but after 22 days of unsuccessful attack , the Portuguese abandoned this plan and began to build a circumvallation wall around Badajoz instead , to try to isolate the city . These plans received a boost when they captured a large Spanish defensive installation outside Badajoz , the Fort of San Miguel , but were unable to use this platform successfully against Badajoz itself .
The siege lasted for four months , during which time one @-@ third of the Portuguese troops either died ( mainly from the plague ) or deserted . The arrival of a relief army , under King Philip IV of Spain 's favorite don Luis de Haro in October , lifted the siege . Mendes de Vasconcelos , the Portuguese commander , was stripped of his rank and imprisoned for his failure .
Taking advantage of this failure , D. Luis de Haro , invaded Portugal and besieged Elvas , the main defensive system of Portugal - where the Portuguese army that had besieged Badajoz took refuge and was suffering a second catastrophic plague . A small relief army was improvised by the Portuguese which inflicted a crushing defeat to the Spanish army at the decisive battle of the Lines of Elvas ( 14 January 1659 ) . This way , the Portuguese independence was granted while the Spanish reached military advantage in the secondary front of war , Minho and Galicia .
= = Background = =
After the death of John IV of Portugal in 1656 , various Spanish offensives were launched against Portuguese territory , mainly from Extremadura , but also from Galicia , where a second front was opened to force the Portuguese to divide their forces . The Spanish Army of Extremadura , recently reinforced with many veterans of the war against France , was commanded by Francisco de Tuttavilla , Duke of San German , who appointed Gaspar Téllez @-@ Girón y Sandoval , Duke of Osuna , as general of artillery and his second @-@ in @-@ command . In 1657 they laid siege to the Portuguese town of Olivença with 8 @,@ 000 soldiers and 29 cannons and occupied the town , despite a desperate attempt by the Count of San Lorenzo , military governor of Alentejo , to dislodge them by launching a surprise attack himself on the Spanish town of Badajoz . Mourão fell into Spanish hands shortly thereafter . San Lorenzo was then dismissed from his command and replaced by dom Joanne Mendes de Vasconcelos , who easily managed to retake both Mourão and Olivença in the following months , since their Spanish garrisons had been considerably diminished in order to move troops to face the French armies in Catalonia .
Mendes de Vasconcelos , encouraged by his successes , promised the Portuguese Queen Regent Luisa de Guzmán that he would capture the town of Badajoz , headquarters of the Spanish Army of Extremadura and therefore the most important Spanish fortress near the Portuguese frontier . The Count of Sabugal suggested that an offensive in the north , to conquer the Galician city of Tui , would be easier , due to the mild climate of the coast , and suggested that this would also be strategically more beneficial as it would secure the province of Entre Douro e Minho . But the queen and her ministers preferred Mendes de Vasconcelos ' plan . He was given command of an army consisting of 14 @,@ 000 infantry and 3 @,@ 000 cavalry troops with a train of 20 cannons and 2 mortars , gathered in the main fortress of Elvas . Mendes de Vasconcelos ' second @-@ in @-@ command was the recently appointed Maestro de Campo General dom Rodrigo de Castro , a friend of the Count of Soure , Vasconcelos ' enemy in the court , which was a cause of friction between them .
The Spanish fortress town of Badajoz was at that time garrisoned by 4 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry soldiers . The military governor of the fortress was the Marquis of Lanzarote , Diego Paniagua y Zúñiga , but the command of the army belonged to the Duke of San German , who had retreated to Badajoz after the loss of Olivenza , which he had briefly attempted to retake . The infantry was led by don Diego Caballero de Illescas , the tercios by don Rodrigo de Múgica y Butrón , the cavalry by the Duke of Osuna , and the artillery by don Gaspar de la Cueva , brother of the Viceroy of New Spain . The defenses of the town consisted essentially of an old Moorish Alcazaba and a medieval wall dating from the Almohad period , reinforced since the outbreak of the war in 1640 by various newly built bulwarks and ravelins .
= = Siege = =
= = = Preliminary maneuvers = = =
The Portuguese army left its fortress at Elvas on 12 July and arrived outside Badajoz the following day . A company of cuirassiers under dom Luiz de Menezes and some cavalry troops commanded by dom André de Albuquerque were confronted near a bridge over the Guadiana river by a Spanish cavalry party led by the Duke of Osuna . Both units retreated after inflicting serious losses upon each other in a bloody fight , the Spanish seeking protection behind the walls of the town . Mendes de Vasconcelos arrived shortly thereafter with the main Portuguese army , with its artillery , and a large number of supply wagons brought from Elvas . Seeing the strength of the Portuguese army , the Duke of San German hastily sent a message calling on Philip IV for help .
Despite the longstanding danger of a Portuguese attack , the situation of the Spanish force in Badajoz was dreadful . The garrison suffered from a lack of ammunition and supplies , the soldiers were dressed in rags or were practically nude , and there was none among the civilian population of the town trained to wield a weapon . The Duke of San German put soldiers and civilians to work on the fortifications and storing food . The Portuguese sappers , meanwhile , proceeded to prepare the field for an assault upon the fortress . Mendes de Vasconcelos had decided , in a war council with many other senior officers , to attack Fort San Cristóbal , a key point in the Badajoz defenses . This fort , built after 1640 , covered a bridgehead over the Guadiana river , thus guarding access to the city . A redoubt was quickly strengthened on the bridgehead by the Spanish sappers , who , protected by the Duke of Osuna and his cavalry , also widened the trenches which connected it with Fort San Cristóbal , the garrison of which was being strengthened every day along a strongly defended communication road .
The Portuguese assault was thoroughly prepared . The plan was for six Portuguese squadrons under dom João da Silva to block the entrance to the bridge , isolating the redoubt from Fort San Crisóbal . The fort would in turn be attacked by Alfonso Futrado and Simon Correa da Silva . Maestre de Campo dom Diogo Gomes was given the task of cutting the communication lines along the Guadiana river and Pedro Almado of distracting several minor forts nearby . Some cavalry regiments were deployed in the expectation of a fierce Spanish resistance .
The assault , however , was a costly failure . After twenty @-@ two days of prolonged action , during which the defenders , led by the Marquis of Lanzarote , virtually wiped out Almado 's regiment with musketry fire and firebombs , Mendes de Vasconcelos ordered a withdrawal .
= = = Attempted encirclement = = =
The Portuguese general , convinced of the impossibility of taking Badajoz by assault , changed his strategy and began a circumvallation of the town , in order to try to isolate it completely . The Spanish , meanwhile , were reinforcing their own defensive fortifications with extensive works , mainly ravelins built between the medieval towers . Various outlying forts were also strengthened with the aim of obstructing the Portuguese works and forcing them to build a larger circumvallation line . One of these forts was San Miguel , a star fort able to accommodate 600 infantry , built around a hermitage . It had five earthen bulwarks and an artillery @-@ proof parapet .
Portuguese sappers built a pontoon bridge over the Guadiana river which united two Portuguese quarters in Vado del Moro and allowed Mendes de Vasconcelos ' troops to cross the river . Having reinforced Santa Engracia , north of San Critsóbal , and fortified a bridge over the Gévora river , they built , unmolested , an arc of the circumvallation from Gévora to Vado del Moro . Fort del Mayordomo , located near the Guadiana river , had been abandoned by its Spanish garrison shortly after being built . The Portuguese used it to cover the construction of the circumvallation line to the Guadiana . They also tried to occupy Cerro del Viento , a hill near Vado del Moro , but were repelled by the Spanish garrison that was there and had to build the circumvallation line behind it . Given the strategic importance of Cerro del Viento , the nearby hill of Cerro de las Mayas had been earmarked for an improvised star fortification by the Italian general Ventura de Tarragona , but it had not been built , leaving the Fort of San Miguel vulnerable .
Mendes de Vasconcelos instructed dom André de Albuquerque , dom Rodrigo de Castro and the Count of Misquitella to occupy the Convent of San Gabriel . All the Portuguese cavalry and five terços were dispatched with this aim . They passed through the undefended Cerro de las Mayas and easily overran the convent , whose small Spanish garrison promptly surrendered . The Portuguese sappers then began to build a fort in front of an old watchtower known as " Torre quebrada " , located between the convent and the Fort of San Miguel . The continued Spanish occupation of the Fort of San Miguel was preventing the completion of the circumvallation line , so its capture was a priority to Vasconcellos . Albuquerque and the Count of Misquitellos , assisted by the engineers Nicolao de Lanres , Pedro de S. Coloma , and Luiz Serrão Pimentel , planned an assault on the fortification .
On 20 June , after an ineffective bombardment by a 6 @-@ gun battery put in place to try to breach the parapets , the Portuguese tercios and the cavalry , the latter covered by ranks of musketeers , were ordered to attack . The advance was made difficult by the presence of vineyard fences in the field . Moreover , 5 Portuguese battalions at the head of the attack were surprised by the Spanish cavalry of the Duke of Osuna and his general , don Juan de Pacheco , followed by the Duke of San German who , with various Spanish tercios , had sallied out of Badajoz in order to try to counter the Portuguese assault . Maestre de Campo of Tercio de la Armada , whose brother the Irish officer William Dongan was the commander of the Fort of San Miguel , managed to reach the fort . Albuquerque , meanwhile ordered dom Luiz de Menezes to reinforce his vanguard battalions . The Portuguese cavalry was also sent into action . Teniente General Diniz de Mello de Castro was wounded and captured , but a Spanish counter @-@ attack was repelled and the Fort of San Miguel finally surrendered .
= = = Skirmishing and bombardment = = =
The capture of Fort San Miguel allowed the Portuguese sappers to complete the circumvallation works , which consisted of a continuous line of little forts , each able to garrison as many as about 200 soldiers , or perhaps as few as 25 musketeers . The Spanish also continued strengthening their defenses . The Southwestern section of the wall was fortified at Pedraleras , and a ravelin was erected 400 meters in front of the Gate of Santa Maria . No significant action took place during this period , except for an ambush near San Gabriel by André de Albuquerque , against a Spanish supply convoy sent from La Albuera , and various sorties by the garrison of Badajoz to try to obstruct the Portuguese works . A night attack by the Spanish Duke of Osuna against a Portuguese section cost Mendes de Vasconcelos 200 infantry and 40 horses .
On 6 August , however , Osuna and San German abandoned the town , and with 1 @,@ 200 cavalry soldiers , broke the lines of circumvallation near the quarter of Santa Engracia , between two Portuguese redoubts , reaching Alburquerque shortly thereafter . San German was replaced in the command of Badajoz by Rodrigo de Múgica y Butrón , his Maestre de Campo General . The Spanish concentrated their efforts on the defense of a large ravelin in Pradaleras garrisoned by 2 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry , against Portuguese artillery fire from Cerro del Viento and San Miguel . In late August , news of the formation of a relief army under Philip IV of Spain 's favorite Luis de Haro reached the Portuguese camp , increasing the pressure upon Mendes de Vasconcelos to bring his siege to a conclusion . Unfortunately , the damage caused by the bombardment of the Spanish positions was minor , and heat and disease was decimating the Portuguese army .
= = = Relief = = =
The Duke of Medina de las Torres had suggested that Philip IV himself should lead the relief of Badajoz in the company of all the Grandees of Spain . Luis de Haro , Philip IV 's favourite , however , feared that Queen Mariana of Austria would be given the government of the country during the absence of the king , and , although having no military experience , offered himself to lead the relief army . His force consisted of up to 12 @,@ 000 infantry and 4 @,@ 500 cavalry , or perhaps as little as 8 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry . Haro did not reach Badajoz until mid @-@ October , but his appearance compelled Mendes de Vasconcelos to abandon the siege . The buildings in Cerro del Viento were set on fire and the bridge over the Gévora river was destroyed , The Portuguese army retreated unmolested to Elvas having lost 6 @,@ 200 men in all , either killed in battle or dead from disease .
= = Aftermath = =
When the Spanish relief army arrived , Luis de Haro entered Badajoz , where he was acclaimed by some as " Liberator of the town and Restorator of the Monarchy " . In Portugal , Queen Luisa de Guzmán imprisoned Mendes de Vasconcelos for his failure to capture Badajoz . News of a further setback for the Portuguese arrived from the northern frontier , as a Spanish army commanded by the Governor of Galicia , Rodrigo Pimentel , Marquis of Viana , entered Portuguese territory in early September , defeating a Portuguese army led by João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos e Sousa , 2nd Count of Castelo Melhor at the Battle of Vilanova . Spanish forces proceeded over the following months to capture Lapela , Monção , Salvatierra de Miño and other Portuguese strongholds . De Haro , meanwhile , decided to attack Portugal on his own and , against the advice of the Duke of San German , advanced towards the Portuguese fortress of Elvas .
Elvas was reached by the Spanish army on 22 October and a siege begun . Although the fortifications could not ensure safety from a full @-@ scale assault supported with heavy guns , they enabled the defenders to withstand a considerable attack for enough time to allow the Portuguese to mobilize a relief army in Estremoz , firstly under André de Albuquerque and later under António Luís de Meneses , Count of Cantanhede . On 17 January , around 8 o 'clock in the morning , the Portuguese attacked the Spanish in their trenches . The battle was undecided in its initial stages , as the Duke of San Germán and other Spanish generals made every effort to collect their troops and recover the lost ground , but after some time , the Portuguese forces of Cantanhede managed to break the lines and the Spanish retreated to Badajoz with great loss : from the initial army of 17 , 500 men , only 5 @,@ 000 infantry men plus 1 @,@ 300 horsemen managed to reach Badajoz , and all the artillery together with 5 @,@ 000 men , 15 @,@ 000 firearms , luggage and correspondence , were captured . The Portuguese army again besieged Badajoz shortly after , bringing events in the region full circle , but failed once again to take the city . By then , the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees had ended Spains 's war with France and the recovery of Portugal had become the main objective of Philip IV .
|
= Who Framed Roger Rabbit =
Who Framed Roger Rabbit is a 1988 American live @-@ action / animated fantasy comedy film directed by Robert Zemeckis , produced by Frank Marshall and Robert Watts , and written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman . The film is based on Gary K. Wolf 's 1981 novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit ? . The film stars Bob Hoskins , Christopher Lloyd , Charles Fleischer , Stubby Kaye ( in his final film role before his retirement and death ) , and Joanna Cassidy . Set in Hollywood during the late 1940s , the film tells the story of Eddie Valiant , a private detective who must exonerate animated character Roger Rabbit , who is accused of murdering a wealthy businessman .
Walt Disney Pictures purchased the film rights for Who Framed Roger Rabbit 's story in 1981 . Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman wrote two drafts of the script before Disney brought in executive producer Steven Spielberg , and his production company , Amblin Entertainment . Zemeckis was brought on to direct the film , and Canadian animator Richard Williams was hired to supervise the animation sequences . Production was moved from Los Angeles to Elstree Studios in England to accommodate Williams and his group of animators . While filming , the production budget began to rapidly expand and the shooting schedule ran longer than expected .
Disney released the film through its Touchstone Pictures division on June 22 , 1988 , to critical and commercial success , becoming a blockbuster . The film brought a renewed interest in the Golden Age of American animation , spearheading modern American animation and the Disney Renaissance .
= = Plot = =
In 1947 Hollywood , " toons " act out theatrical cartoon shorts as with live @-@ action films ; they regularly interact with real people and animals and reside in Toontown , an animated portion of Los Angeles . Private detective Eddie Valiant and his brother , Teddy , once worked closely with the toons on several famous cases , but after Teddy was killed by a toon , Eddie lapsed into alcoholism and vowed never to work for toons again . One day , R.K. Maroon , head of Maroon Cartoon Studios , is concerned about the recent poor acting performances of one of his biggest stars , Roger Rabbit . Maroon hires Valiant to investigate rumors about Roger 's voluptuous toon wife Jessica being romantically involved with businessman and gadgets inventor , Marvin Acme , owner of both Acme Corporation and Toontown . After watching Jessica perform at the underground Ink & Paint Club , Valiant secretly takes photographs of her and Acme playing patty @-@ cake in her dressing room , which he shows to Roger . Maroon suggests to Roger that he should leave Jessica , but a drunken Roger refuses and flees .
Acme is discovered murdered in his factory the next morning ; a safe had been dropped on his head , and evidence points to Roger being responsible . At the crime scene , Valiant meets Judge Doom , Toontown 's Superior Court judge , who has created a substance capable of killing a toon : a toxic chemical known as " The Dip " . Valiant runs into Roger 's toon co @-@ star , Baby Herman , who believes Roger is innocent and Acme 's missing will ( which will give the toons ownership of Toontown ) may be the key to his murder . He then finds Roger hiding in his office , who begs him to help exonerate him . Valiant reluctantly hides Roger in a local bar where his ex @-@ girlfriend , Dolores , works . Later , Jessica approaches Valiant and says that Maroon had forced her to pose for the photographs so that he could blackmail Acme .
Doom and his toon @-@ weasel henchmen discover Roger , but he and Valiant escape with Benny , an anthropomorphic toon cab . They flee to a theater , where Valiant tells Roger about Teddy 's death . As they leave with Dolores , Valiant sees a newsreel detailing the sale of Maroon Cartoons to Cloverleaf , a mysterious corporation that bought the city 's trolley network shortly before Acme 's murder . Valiant goes to the studio to confront Maroon , leaving Roger to guard outside , but Jessica knocks him out and puts him in the trunk . Maroon tells Valiant that he blackmailed Acme into selling his company so that he could then sell the studio , but is shot dead before he can explain the consequences of the missing will . Valiant spots Jessica fleeing the scene and , assuming she is the culprit , follows her into Toontown . Jessica reveals that Doom killed Acme and Maroon , and that the former had given her his will for safe @-@ keeping , but she discovered that the will was blank . She and Valiant are then captured by Doom and the weasels .
At the Acme factory , Doom reveals his plot to destroy Toontown with a giant machine loaded with Dip to build a freeway , the only way past Toontown since Cloverleaf ( which Doom owns ) has bought out Los Angeles ' tram system . Roger unsuccessfully attempts to save Jessica , and the couple is tied onto a hook in front of the machine 's hose . Valiant then performs a comedic vaudeville act , causing the weasels to die of laughter ; Valiant kicks their leader , Smart Ass , into the machine 's Dip vat . Valiant then fights Doom , who is eventually flattened by a steamroller , but survives . Re @-@ inflating himself , he reveals he is a toon in disguise — the same toon who killed Teddy . Valiant gets a hold of a toon mallet with a spring @-@ loaded boxing glove , and fires it at a switch that causes the machine to empty its Dip onto Doom , killing him . The empty machine crashes through the wall into Toontown , where it is destroyed by a train . Numerous toons run in to regard Doom 's remains , and Roger discovers that he inadvertently wrote his love letter for Jessica on Acme 's will , which was written in disappearing @-@ reappearing ink . Roger then shocks Valiant with a joy buzzer , and Valiant gives him a kiss , having regained his sense of humor . Valiant happily enters Toontown with Dolores , and Roger with Jessica , followed by the other toons .
= = Cast = =
Bob Hoskins as Eddie Valiant , an alcoholic private investigator who resents Toons . Executive producer Spielberg 's first choice for the role was Harrison Ford , but Ford 's price was too high . Bill Murray was also considered for the role ; however , due to his method of receiving offers for roles , he missed out . Eddie Murphy reportedly turned down the role and later regretted it .
Christopher Lloyd as Judge Doom , the cold and power @-@ hungry judge of Toontown District 's Superior Court . Lloyd was cast because he previously worked with Zemeckis and Amblin Entertainment in Back to the Future . Lloyd compared his part as Doom to his previous role as the Klingon commander Kruge in Star Trek III : The Search for Spock , both being overly evil characters which he considered being " fun to play " . Lloyd avoided blinking his eyes while on camera in order to perfectly portray the character .
Charles Fleischer as the voice of Roger Rabbit , an A @-@ list Toon working for Maroon Cartoons , who is framed for the murder of Marvin Acme , and requests Eddie 's help in proving his innocence . To facilitate Hoskins ' performance , Fleischer dressed in a Roger bunny suit and " stood in " behind camera for most scenes . Animation director Williams explained Roger Rabbit was a combination of " Tex Avery 's cashew nut @-@ shaped head , the swatch of red hair ... like Droopy 's , Goofy 's overalls , Porky Pig 's bow tie , Mickey Mouse 's gloves and Bugs Bunny @-@ like cheeks and ears . " Fleischer also voices of Benny the Cab and two members of Doom 's Weasel Gang , Psycho and Greasy . Lou Hirsch , who supplied the voice for Baby Herman , was the original choice for Benny the Cab , but was replaced by Fleischer .
Stubby Kaye as Marvin Acme , the jester @-@ like owner of the Acme Corporation .
Joanna Cassidy as Dolores , Eddie 's on @-@ off girlfriend who works as a waitress .
Kathleen Turner provides the uncredited voice of Jessica Rabbit , Roger Rabbit 's beautiful and flirtatious Toon wife , She loves Roger because , as she says , " he makes me laugh " . Amy Irving supplied the singing voice , while Betsy Brantley served as the stand @-@ in . Alan Tilvern , in his final film role , portrays R. K. Maroon , the short @-@ tempered and manipulative owner of " Maroon Cartoon " studios . Lou Hirsch provides the voice of Baby Herman , a mentally middle @-@ aged smoker baby and co @-@ star in Maroon Cartoons . Williams said Baby Herman was a mixture of " Elmer Fudd and Tweety crashed together " . April Winchell provides the voice of Mrs. Herman and the " baby noises " . Additionally , Richard LeParmentier has a minor role as Santino , a Lieutenant of the Los Angeles Police Department . Joel Silver has a cameo appearance as Raoul J. Raoul , a director frustrated with Roger Rabbit 's antics . Singer Frank Sinatra performed " Witchcraft " for the animated Singing Sword . David Lander voices Smart Ass , the leader of the weasels , Fred Newman voices Stupid and June Foray voices Wheezy . Foray also voiced Lena Hyena , a hag Toon woman who resembles Jessica Rabbit and provides a comical role which shows her falling for Eddie and pursuing him . She shares her name with the character from Lil ' Abner , but it 's unclear if it 's the same character Al Capp created .
Mel Blanc voiced Bugs Bunny , Daffy Duck , Porky Pig , Tweety , and Sylvester ( Who Framed Roger Rabbit was one of the final productions in which Blanc voiced his Looney Tunes characters before his death the following year ) . Joe Alaskey voiced Yosemite Sam ( in place of the elderly Blanc ) . Wayne Allwine voiced Mickey Mouse , Tony Anselmo voiced Donald Duck ( with an archival recording of Clarence Nash , the original voice of Donald , used at the beginning of the scene ) , Tony Pope voiced Goofy ( also partially voiced by Bill Farmer ) and The Big Bad Wolf , Mae Questel reprised her role of Betty Boop , Russi Taylor voiced Minnie Mouse and some birds , Pat Buttram , Jim Cummings and Jim Gallant voiced Valiant 's animated bullets , Les Perkins voiced Mr. Toad , Mary Radford voiced Hyacinth Hippo from Fantasia , Nancy Cartwright voiced the Dipped shoe , Cherry Davis voiced Woody Woodpecker , Peter Westy voiced Pinocchio , and Frank Welker voiced Dumbo . Animation director Richard Williams voiced Droopy .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Walt Disney Productions purchased the film rights to Gary K. Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit ? shortly after its publication in 1981 . Ron W. Miller , then president of The Walt Disney Company saw it as a perfect opportunity to produce a blockbuster . Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were hired to write the script , penning two drafts . Robert Zemeckis offered his services as director in 1982 , but Disney acknowledged that his previous films ( I Wanna Hold Your Hand and Used Cars ) were box office bombs , and thus let him go . Between 1981 and 1983 Disney developed test footage with Darrell Van Citters as animation director , Paul Reubens voicing Roger Rabbit , Peter Renaday as Eddie Valiant , and Russi Taylor as Jessica Rabbit . The project was revamped in 1985 by Michael Eisner , the then @-@ new CEO of Disney . Amblin Entertainment , which consisted of Steven Spielberg , Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy , were approached to produce Who Framed Roger Rabbit alongside Disney . The original budget was projected at $ 50 million , which Disney felt was too expensive .
Roger Rabbit was finally green @-@ lit when the budget decreased to $ 30 million , which at the time still made it the most expensive animated film ever green @-@ lit . Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg argued that the hybrid of live action and animation would " save " Disney 's animation department . Spielberg 's contract included an extensive amount of creative control and a large percentage of the box office profits . Disney kept all merchandising rights . Spielberg convinced Warner Bros. , Fleischer Studios , King Features Syndicate , Felix the Cat Productions , Turner Entertainment , and Universal Pictures / Walter Lantz Productions to " lend " their characters to appear in the film with ( in some cases ) stipulations on how those characters were portrayed ; for example , Disney 's Donald Duck and Warner 's Daffy Duck appear as equally @-@ talented dueling pianists , and Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny also share a scene . Apart from this agreement , Warner Bros. and the various other companies were not involved in the production of Roger Rabbit . Additionally , the producers were unable to acquire the rights to use Popeye , Tom and Jerry , Little Lulu , Casper the Friendly Ghost or the Terrytoons for appearances from their respective owners ( King Features , Turner , Western Publishing , Harvey Comics and Viacom ) .
Terry Gilliam was offered the chance to direct , but he found the project too technically challenging . ( " Pure laziness on my part , " he later admitted , " I completely regret that decision . " ) Robert Zemeckis was hired to direct in 1985 , based on the success of Romancing the Stone and Back to the Future . Disney executives were continuing to suggest Darrell Van Citters to direct the animated sequences , but Spielberg and Zemeckis decided against it . Richard Williams was eventually hired to direct the animation . Zemeckis wanted the film to imbue " Disney 's high quality of animation , Warner Bros. ' characterization and Tex Avery humor " .
= = = Writing = = =
Price and Seaman were brought aboard to continue writing the script once Spielberg and Zemeckis were hired . For inspiration , the two writers studied the work of Walt Disney and Warner Bros. Cartoons from the Golden Age of American animation , especially Tex Avery and Bob Clampett cartoons . The Cloverleaf streetcar subplot was inspired by Chinatown . Price and Seaman said that " the Red Car plot , suburb expansion , urban and political corruption really did happen , " Price stated . " In Los Angeles , during the 1940s , car and tire companies teamed up against the Pacific Electric Railway system and bought them out of business . Where the freeway runs in Los Angeles is where the Red Car used to be . " In Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit ? , the Toons were comic strip characters rather than movie stars .
During the writing process , Price and Seaman were unsure of whom to include as the villain in the plot . They wrote scripts that had either Jessica Rabbit or Baby Herman as the villain , but they made their final decision with newly created character Judge Doom . Doom was supposed to have an animated vulture sit on his shoulder , but this was deleted due to the technical challenges this posed . Doom also had a suitcase of 12 small animated kangaroos that act as a jury , by having their joeys pop out of their pouches , each with letters , which put together would spell YOU ARE GUILTY . This was also cut for budget and technical reasons . Doom 's five @-@ man " Weasel Gang " ( Stupid , Smart Ass , Greasy , Wheezy and Psycho ) satirizes the Seven Dwarfs ( Doc , Grumpy , Happy , Sleepy , Bashful , Sneezy and Dopey ) who appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . There were originally seven weasels to mimic the dwarfs ' complement , but eventually two of them , Slimey and Slezey , were written out of the script . Further references included The " Ink and Paint Club " resembling the Harlem Cotton Club , while Zemeckis compared Judge Doom 's invention of " The Dip " to eliminate all the Toons as Hitler 's Final Solution . Doom was originally the hunter that killed Bambi 's Mother , but Disney objected to the idea . Benny the Cab was first conceived to be a Volkswagen Beetle before being changed to a Taxicab . Ideas originally conceived for the story also included a sequence set at Marvin Acme 's funeral , whose attendees included Eddie , Foghorn Leghorn , Mickey Mouse , Minnie Mouse , Tom and Jerry , Heckle and Jeckle , Chip n ' Dale , Mighty Mouse , Superman , Popeye , Olive Oyl , Bluto , Clarabelle Cow , and The Seven Dwarfs in cameo appearances . However , the scene was cut for pacing reasons and never made it past the storyboard stage . Before finally agreeing on Who Framed Roger Rabbit as the film 's title , working titles included Murder in Toontown , Toons , Dead Toons Don 't Pay Bills , The Toontown Trial , Trouble in Toontown , and Eddie Goes to Toontown .
= = = Filming = = =
Animation director Richard Williams admitted he was " openly disdainful of the Disney bureaucracy " and refused to work in Los Angeles . To accommodate him and his animators , production was moved to Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England . Disney and Spielberg also told Williams that in return for doing Roger Rabbit , they would help distribute his uncompleted film The Thief and the Cobbler . Supervising animators included Dale Baer , James Baxter , David Bowers , Andreas Deja , Chris Jenkins , Phil Nibbelink , Nik Ranieri , and Simon Wells . The animation production , headed by associate producer Don Hahn , was split between Richard Williams ' London studio and a specialized unit in Los Angeles , set up by Walt Disney Feature Animation and supervised by Dale Baer . The production budget continued to escalate while the shooting schedule lapsed longer than expected . When the budget reached $ 40 million , Disney president Michael Eisner seriously considered shutting down production , but Jeffrey Katzenberg talked him out of it . Despite the budget escalating to over $ 50 million , Disney moved forward on production because they were enthusiastic to work with Spielberg .
VistaVision cameras installed with motion control technology were used for the photography of the live @-@ action scenes which would be composited with animation . Rubber mannequins of Roger Rabbit , Baby Herman and the Weasels would portray the animated characters during rehearsals in order to teach the actors where to look when acting with " open air and imaginative cartoon characters " . Many of the live @-@ action props held by cartoon characters were shot on set with either robotic arms holding the props or the props were manipulated by strings , similar to a marionette . The voice of Roger , Charles Fleischer , insisted on wearing a Roger Rabbit costume while on the set , in order to get into character . Filming began on December 2 , 1986 , and lasted for seven months at Elstree Studios , with an additional month in Los Angeles and at Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) for blue screen effects of Toontown . The entrance of Desilu Studios served as the fictional Maroon Cartoon Studio lot .
= = = Animation and post @-@ production = = =
Post @-@ production lasted for fourteen months . Because the film was made before computer animation and digital compositing were widely used , all the animation was done using cels and optical compositing . First , the animators and lay @-@ out artists were given black and white printouts of the live action scenes ( known as " photo stats " ) , and they placed their animation paper on top of them . The artists then drew the animated characters in relationship to the live action footage . Due to Zemeckis ' dynamic camera moves , the animators had to confront the challenge of ensuring the characters were not " slipping and slipping all over the place . " After rough animation was complete , it would run through the normal process of traditional animation until the cels were shot on the rostrum camera with no background . The animated footage was then sent to ILM for compositing , where technicians would animate three lighting layers ( shadows , highlights and tone mattes ) separately , in order to make the cartoon characters look three @-@ dimensional and give the illusion of the characters being affected by the lighting on set . Finally , the lighting effects were optically composited on to the cartoon characters , who were , in turn , composited into the live @-@ action footage . One of the most difficult effects in the film was Jessica 's dress in the night club scene , because it had flashing sequins , an effect accomplished by filtering light through a plastic bag scratched with steel wool .
= = = Music = = =
Regular Zemeckis collaborator Alan Silvestri composed the film score , performed by the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) under the direction of Silvestri . Zemeckis joked that " the British [ musicians ] could not keep up with Silvestri 's jazz tempo " . The performances of the music themes written for Jessica Rabbit were entirely improvised by the LSO . The work of American composer Carl Stalling heavily influenced Silvestri 's work on Who Framed Roger Rabbit . The film 's soundtrack was originally released by Buena Vista Records on June 22 , 1988 , and reissued by Walt Disney Records on CD on April 16 , 2002 .
= = Release = =
Michael Eisner , then CEO , and Roy E. Disney , Vice Chairman of the Walt Disney Company , felt Who Framed Roger Rabbit was too risqué with sexual references . Eisner and Zemeckis disagreed over various elements of the film , but since Zemeckis had final cut privilege , he refused to make alterations . Roy E. Disney , head of Feature Animation along with studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg , felt it was appropriate to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner instead of the traditional Walt Disney Pictures banner .
Who Framed Roger Rabbit opened on June 22 , 1988 , in America , grossing $ 11 @,@ 226 @,@ 239 in 1 @,@ 045 theaters during its opening weekend , ranking first place in the domestic box office . The film went on to gross $ 156 @,@ 452 @,@ 370 in North America and $ 173 @,@ 351 @,@ 588 internationally , coming to a worldwide total of $ 329 @,@ 803 @,@ 958 . At the time of release , Roger Rabbit was the twentieth highest @-@ grossing film of all time . The film was also the second highest grossing film of 1988 , behind only Rain Man .
Zemeckis has revealed a 3D reissue could be possible .
= = = Home media = = =
Who Framed Roger Rabbit was first released on VHS on October 12 , 1989 . A Laserdisc edition was also released . A DVD version was first available on September 28 , 1999 .
On March 25 , 2003 , Buena Vista Home Entertainment released it as a part of the " Vista Series " line in a two @-@ disc collection with many extra features including a documentary , Behind the Ears : The True Story of Roger Rabbit ; a deleted scene in which a pig 's head is " tooned " onto Eddie 's own ; the three Roger Rabbit shorts , Tummy Trouble , Roller Coaster Rabbit , and Trail Mix @-@ Up ; as well as a booklet and interactive games . The only short on the 2003 VHS release was Tummy Trouble .
On March 12 , 2013 , Who Framed Roger Rabbit was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD combo pack special edition for the film 's 25th Anniversary . The film was also digitally restored by Disney for its 25th Anniversary . Frame @-@ by @-@ frame digital restoration was done by Prasad Studios removing dirt , tears , scratches and other defects .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Who Framed Roger Rabbit received widespread critical acclaim . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes assessed the critical approval rating at 97 % based on 61 reviews , with an average score of 8 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " Who Framed Roger Rabbit is an innovative and entertaining film that features a groundbreaking mix of live action and animation , with a touching and original story to boot . " Aggregator Metacritic calculated a score of 83 / 100 , based on 15 reviews indicating " universal acclaim " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film four stars out of four , predicting it would carry " the type of word of mouth that money can 't buy . This movie is not only great entertainment but a breakthrough in craftsmanship . " Ebert and his colleague Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune spent a considerable amount of time in the Siskel & Ebert episode in which they reviewed the film analyzing the film 's painstaking filmmaking . Siskel also praised the film , and ranked it # 2 on his top ten films list for 1988 , while Ebert ranked it as # 8 on a similar list . Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that " although this isn 't the first time that cartoon characters have shared the screen with live actors , it 's the first time they 've done it on their own terms and make it look real " . Desson Thomson of The Washington Post considered Roger Rabbit to be " a definitive collaboration of pure talent . Zemeckis had Walt Disney Pictures ' enthusiastic backing , producer Steven Spielberg 's pull , Warner Bros. ' s blessing , Canadian animator Richard Williams ' ink and paint , Mel Blanc 's voice , Jeffrey Price 's and Peter S. Seaman 's witty , frenetic screenplay , George Lucas ' Industrial Light & Magic , and Bob Hoskins ' comical performance as the burliest , shaggiest private eye . " Gene Shalit on the Today Show also praised the film , calling it " one of the most extraordinary movies ever made " .
Conversely , Richard Corliss , writing for Time , gave a mixed review . " The opening cartoon works just fine , but too fine . The opening scene upstages the movie that emerges from it , " he said . Corliss was mainly annoyed by the homages to the Golden Age of American animation . Animation legend Chuck Jones made a rather scathing attack on the film in his book Chuck Jones Conversations . Among his complaints , Jones accused Robert Zemeckis of robbing Richard Williams of any creative input and ruining the piano duel that both he and Williams storyboarded .
= = = Accolades = = =
Who Framed Roger Rabbit won three competitive Academy Awards and a Special Achievement Award . It became the first animated film to win multiple Academy Awards since Mary Poppins in 1964 . It won Academy Awards for Best Sound Editing ( Charles L. Campbell and Louis Edemann ) , Best Visual Effects , and Best Film Editing . Other nominations included Best Art Direction ( Elliot Scott , Peter Howitt ) , Best Cinematography , and Best Sound ( Robert Knudson , John Boyd , Don Digirolamo and Tony Dawe ) . Richard Williams received a Special Achievement Academy Award " for animation direction and creation of the cartoon characters " . Roger Rabbit won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film , as well as Best Direction for Zemeckis and Special Visual Effects . Hoskins , Lloyd , and Cassidy were nominated for their performances , while Alan Silvestri and the screenwriters received nominations . The film was nominated for four categories at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards and won for Best Visual Effects . Roger Rabbit was nominated the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture ( Musical or Comedy ) , while Hoskins was also nominated for his performance . The film also won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie .
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" I 'm not bad . I 'm just drawn that way . " — Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 — Nominated Fantasy Film
= = Legacy = =
The success of Who Framed Roger Rabbit rekindled an interest in the Golden Age of American animation , and sparked the modern animation scene . In 1991 , Walt Disney Imagineering began to develop Mickey 's Toontown for Disneyland , based on the Toontown that appeared in the film . The attraction also features a ride called Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin . Three theatrical animated shorts were also produced ; Tummy Trouble played in front of Honey , I Shrunk the Kids , Roller Coaster Rabbit was shown with Dick Tracy and Trail Mix @-@ Up was included with A Far Off Place . The film also inspired a short @-@ lived comic book and video game spin @-@ offs , including two PC games , the Japanese version of The Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle ( which features Roger instead of Bugs ) , a 1989 game released on the Nintendo Entertainment System , and a 1991 game released on the Game Boy .
= = = Controversy = = =
With the film 's Laserdisc release , Variety first reported in March 1994 that observers uncovered several scenes of antics from the animators that supposedly featured brief nudity of the Jessica Rabbit character . While undetectable when played at the usual rate of 24 film frames per second , the Laserdisc player allowed the viewer to advance frame @-@ by @-@ frame to uncover these visuals . Whether or not they were actually intended to depict the nudity of the character remains unknown . Many retailers said that within minutes of the Laserdisc debut , their entire inventory was sold out . The run was fueled by media reports about the controversy , including stories on CNN and various newspapers .
Another frequently debated scene includes one in which Baby Herman extends his middle finger as he passes under a woman 's dress and re @-@ emerges with drool on his lip . There is also controversy over the scene where Daffy Duck and Donald Duck are playing a piano duel , and , during his trademark ranting gibberish , it is claimed that Donald calls Daffy a " goddamn stupid nigger " ; however , this is a misinterpretation , with the line from the script being " doggone stubborn little — . "
= = = Legal issue = = =
Gary K. Wolf , author of the novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit ? , filed a lawsuit in 2001 against The Walt Disney Company . Wolf claimed he was owed royalties based on the value of " gross receipts " and merchandising sales . In 2002 , the trial court in the case ruled that these only referred to actual cash receipts Disney collected and denied Wolf 's claim . In its January 2004 ruling , the California Court of Appeal disagreed , finding that expert testimony introduced by Wolf regarding the customary use of " gross receipts " in the entertainment business could support a broader reading of the term . The ruling vacated the trial court 's order in favor of Disney and remanded the case for further proceedings . In a March 2005 hearing , Wolf estimated he was owed $ 7 million . Disney 's attorneys not only disputed the claim but said Wolf actually owed Disney $ 500 @,@ 000 – $ 1 million because of an accounting error discovered in preparing for the lawsuit . Wolf won the decision in 2005 , receiving between $ 180 @,@ 000 and $ 400 @,@ 000 in damages .
= = = Proposed sequel = = =
With the film 's critical and financial success , Disney and Spielberg felt it was obviously time to plan a second installment . J. J. Abrams says that he met Spielberg in 1989 to discuss working on a Roger Rabbit sequel , to the extent of preparing an outline and storyboards . More substantial work was done by Nat Mauldin , who wrote a prequel titled Roger Rabbit : The Toon Platoon , set in 1941 . Similar to the previous film , Toon Platoon featured many cameo appearances by characters from the golden Age of American animation . It began with Roger Rabbit 's early years , living on a farm in the Midwestern United States . With human Richie Davenport , Roger travels west to seek his mother , in the process meeting Jessica Krupnick ( his future wife ) , a struggling Hollywood actress . While Roger and Ritchie are enlisting in the Army , Jessica is kidnapped and forced to make pro @-@ Nazi Germany broadcasts . Roger and Ritchie must save her by going into Nazi @-@ occupied Europe accompanied by several other `toons in their Army platoon . After their triumph , Roger and Ritchie are given a Hollywood Boulevard parade , and Roger is finally reunited with his mother , and father : Bugs Bunny .
Mauldin later re @-@ titled his script Who Discovered Roger Rabbit . Spielberg left the project when deciding he could not satirize Nazis after directing Schindler 's List . Eisner commissioned a rewrite in 1997 with Sherri Stoner and Deanna Oliver . Although they kept Roger 's search for his mother , Stoner and Oliver replaced the WWII subplot with Roger 's inadvertent rise to stardom on Broadway and Hollywood . Disney was impressed and Alan Menken was hired to write five songs for the film and offered his services as executive producer . One of the songs , " This Only Happens in the Movies " , was recorded in 2008 on the debut album of Broadway actress Kerry Butler . Eric Goldberg was set to be the new animation director , and began to redesign Roger 's new character appearance .
Spielberg had no interest in the project because he was establishing DreamWorks , although Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy decided to stay on as producers . Test footage for Who Discovered Roger Rabbit was shot sometime in 1998 at the Disney animation unit in Lake Buena Vista , Florida ; the results were an unwieldy mix of CGI , traditional animation and live @-@ action that did not please Disney . A second test had the Toons completely converted to CGI ; but this was dropped as the film 's projected budget escalated well past $ 100 million . Eisner felt it was best to cancel the film . In March 2003 , producer Don Hahn was doubtful about a sequel being made , arguing that public tastes had changed since the 1990s with the rise of computer animation . " There was something very special about that time when animation was not as much in the forefront as it is now . "
In December 2007 , Marshall admitted he was still " open " to the idea , and in April 2009 , Zemeckis revealed he was still interested . According to a 2009 MTV News story , Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were writing a new script for the project , and the cartoon characters will be in traditional 2D , while the rest will be in motion capture . However , in 2010 , Zemeckis said that the sequel will remain hand @-@ drawn animated and live @-@ action sequences will be filmed , just like in the original film , but the lighting effects on the cartoon characters and some of the props that the toons handle will be done digitally . Also in 2010 , Don Hahn , who was the film 's original associate producer , confirmed the sequel 's development in an interview with Empire magazine . He stated , " Yeah , I couldn 't possibly comment . I deny completely , but yeah ... if you 're a fan , pretty soon you 're going to be very , very , very happy . " In 2010 , Bob Hoskins stated he was interested in the project , reprising his role as Eddie Valiant . However , he retired from acting in 2012 after being diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease a year earlier , and died from those complications in 2014 . Marshall has confirmed that the film is a prequel , similar to earlier drafts , and that the writing was almost complete . During an interview at the premiere of Flight , Zemeckis stated that the sequel is still possible , despite Hoskins ' absence , and the script for the sequel was sent to Disney for approval from studio executives .
In February 2013 , Gary K. Wolf , creator of Roger Rabbit , said that he , as well as Erik Von Wodtke , were working on a development proposal for an animated Disney buddy comedy starring Mickey Mouse and Roger Rabbit called The Stooge , based on the 1952 film of the same name . The proposed film is set to a prequel , taking place five years before Who Framed Roger Rabbit and part of the story is about how Roger met Jessica , his future wife . Wolf has stated the film is currently wending its way through Disney .
= = = Roger Rabbit dance = = =
The Roger Rabbit became a popular dance move in the early 1990s . It was named after the floppy movements of the Roger Rabbit cartoon character . In movement , the Roger Rabbit dance is similar to the Running Man , but done by skipping backwards with arms performing a flapping gesture as if hooking one 's thumbs on suspenders .
|
= Orel Hershiser 's scoreless innings streak =
During the 1988 Major League Baseball season , pitcher Orel Hershiser of the Los Angeles Dodgers set the MLB record for consecutive scoreless innings pitched . Over 59 consecutive innings , opposing hitters did not score a run against Hershiser . During the streak , he averted numerous high @-@ risk scoring situations . The streak spanned from the sixth inning of an August 30 game against the Montreal Expos to the tenth inning of a September 28 game against the San Diego Padres . The previous record of 58 2 ⁄ 3 innings was set by former Dodger pitcher Don Drysdale in 1968 ; as the team 's radio announcer , Drysdale called Hershiser 's streak as he pursued the new record . Pundits have described the streak as among the greatest individual feats in sports and among the greatest records in baseball history .
During the streak , the Elias Sports Bureau changed its criteria for the official consecutive scoreless innings record for starting pitchers from including fractional innings in which one or two outs had been recorded to counting only complete scoreless innings . Since the streak was active at the end of the 1988 season , it would have spanned two separate seasons if Hershiser had pitched any additional scoreless innings to begin the next year . However , he yielded a run in his first inning of the 1989 season , thus ending the streak . The streak only includes innings pitched in the regular season , excluding eight scoreless innings Hershiser pitched to start Game 1 of the 1988 National League Championship Series on October 4 ( unofficially extending his streak to 67 combined innings ) . Although he completed the ninth inning in each start , the streak 's final game lasted 16 innings , of which he only pitched the first ten . Thus , Hershiser did not match Drysdale 's record of six consecutive complete game shutouts . Like Drysdale 's streak , the penultimate game of Hershiser 's streak was a Dodgers – Giants game that featured a controversial umpire 's ruling that saved the streak .
The streak was initially overshadowed by Hershiser achieving 20 wins and the race for the NL Cy Young Award between Hershiser and Danny Jackson until Hershiser reached 40 consecutive innings . Another distraction during the streak was his wife 's pregnancy and his son 's childbirth complications . The record @-@ setting game was overshadowed by the 1988 Summer Olympics , American football , and baseball pennant races ; it was not broadcast on local television in Los Angeles . Following the regular season , Hershiser was awarded the NL Cy Young Award . In the playoffs , he earned both the NL Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award and the World Series MVP Award . He also secured Sportsman of the Year and Associated Press Athlete of the Year honors . Hershiser appeared in the 1989 MLB All @-@ Star Game and continued to be an effective pitcher for many seasons , including two additional appearances in the World Series , one of which was preceded by his winning the 1995 AL Championship Series MVP Award .
= = Background = =
Hershiser had been drafted by Dodgers in the 17th round of the 1979 MLB draft with the 440th overall selection . He made his professional debut with the Class A Dodger farm team in the Midwest League , the Clinton Dodgers in 1979 . He made his MLB debut for the Dodgers on September 1 , 1983 , against the Montreal Expos . Hershisher made his first start on May 26 , 1984 , against the New York Mets and became a full @-@ time starter in the Dodgers ' rotation on July 14 .
Hershiser had pitched a 33 2 ⁄ 3 @-@ inning scoreless streak in 1984 , eventually joining Gaylord Perry and Luis Tiant as the only pitchers between 1963 and 2014 with at least two streaks of this length . Hershiser 's 1984 streak , which was the longest scoreless inning streak of the year , was broken up on July 24 by a home run by two @-@ time NL Most Valuable Player Dale Murphy of the Atlanta Braves . His streak included a blown save on July 8 against the St. Louis Cardinals and a nine @-@ inning shutout against the Cardinals on July 19 .
Despite an emergency appendectomy that delayed his spring training and shortened his time to get in shape for the season , Hershiser had been named NL Baseball Pitcher of the Month in April and a participant in the 1988 All @-@ Star Game , getting outs against all three batters . In the eight games he started between July 10 and August 14 , Hershiser had a 3 – 4 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 76 earned run average ( ERA ) , raising his season ERA from 2 @.@ 46 to 3 @.@ 06 . Following his August 14 start where he left the game after two innings ( his shortest appearance since 1985 ) with the Dodgers behind the Giants 8 – 2 , he pitched complete games on August 19 ( a shutout ) and August 24 . Prior to the game , Hershiser trailed teammate Tim Leary in shutouts , six to three , and Leary also combined with other pitchers to record a shutout that was not counted in his individual total .
Previously , Walter Johnson of the 1913 Washington Senators had held the consecutive scoreless innings record , at 55 2 ⁄ 3 , with two relief appearances , which gave him a fractional total . In 1968 , Drysdale , also of the Dodgers , surpassed Johnson by pitching 58 2 ⁄ 3 innings in six consecutive nine @-@ inning shutouts between May 14 and June 4 , 1968 . Drysdale 's streak ended with four scoreless innings in a 5 @-@ 3 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies on June 8 .
= = The streak = =
The streak spanned Hershiser 's 29th through 35th ( and final ) starts of the 1988 season for the Dodgers , which were the 190th through 196th games of his career . It began on August 30 against the Expos , after seven @-@ time All @-@ Star Tim Raines scored with two outs in the 5th inning . The streak ended on April 5 , 1989 against Cincinnati , when Baseball Hall of Famer Barry Larkin scored with two outs in the first inning . During the streak , although forty @-@ one of the 59 scoreless innings came on the road away from traditionally pitcher @-@ friendly Dodger Stadium , Hershiser lowered his ERA from 2 @.@ 90 to 2 @.@ 26 . The Dodgers only scored 13 runs in support of Hershiser 's 59 innings . Overall , opposing hitters batted 0 @-@ for @-@ 9 with runners on third and 0 @-@ for @-@ 31 with runners in scoring position . During the streak , according to the Chicago Tribune , Hershiser caused opposing teams to leave 30 runners on base ; Drysdale , in his streak , left 35 . However , USA Today reported that Hershiser left 36 runners on base . At that point in his career , Hershiser was regarded as a " right @-@ handed sinkerball artist " although he did not throw a sinker . He relied on a fastball , slider , curveball , and a split @-@ finger fastball , the latter of which he used as a sinker .
Once Hershiser achieved his second consecutive complete @-@ game shutout to reach 22 consecutive scoreless innings , he was lauded for his 20th win in the national press while the local press praised his serious contention for the Cy Young Award , given to the league 's best pitcher . The 20th win had been his preseason goal . His third consecutive complete @-@ game shutout , which brought him to 31 consecutive innings , was said in local newspapers to have strengthened his Cy Young Award chances and in national newspapers to have helped his team in the pennant race . There was little emphasis on the historical context of his streak at this point , even among newspapers that headlined the streak . Upon reaching 40 consecutive innings , most of the national media began to mention that the record was 58 ( in some cases 58 2 ⁄ 3 ) . In some papers , Hershiser 's approach to the record was being described as a chase . Hershiser , however , said that he was primarily focused on his hospitalized newborn son .
After Hershiser reached 49 consecutive innings because of what some sources describe as an umpire 's favorable interference ruling on a double play , the sports media compared him to Drysdale , who had a similar incident occur during his streak . The Houston Chronicle noted that both beneficial calls were in Dodgers – Giants games . However , the press also noted that Hershiser needed another complete game shutout to tie Drysdale and pass Johnson on the all @-@ time consecutive scoreless innings list . In addition to covering the record pursuit , some sportswriters perceived that Hershiser had taken a commanding lead in the Cy Young Award race . Despite the official ruling by MLB statistician Seymour Siwoff that only full innings of starting pitchers count toward the record , some of the press continued to refer to the record as 58 2 ⁄ 3 innings . The pennant race also continued to draw attention as the Dodgers closed in on the NL West division title . An Associated Press article noted that it was Hershiser 's eighth consecutive complete game and fifteenth of the season and Hershiser 's fifth consecutive complete game shutout . As Hershiser 's last remaining start approached , the media mentioned that he needed one more complete game shutout to tie the all @-@ time record . When the total reached 49 , Hershiser first began to feel that the record was within reach . Not only were his teammates too superstitious to talk to him about the streak , Dodgers announcer Drysdale also avoided the subject when talking to Hershiser for fear of jinxing him . Hershiser was not superstitious about the record , saying , " I 'm pretty loosey @-@ goosey about it ... I talk about it all the time . I 'm not superstitious . "
= = = August 30 , 1988 = = =
The Dodgers entered the game with a 76 – 54 record and a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Houston Astros , while the Montreal Expos were 11 games back in third place in the NL East with a 66 – 64 record entering the game . With the August 30 win , the Dodgers retained their 6 @.@ 5 @-@ game lead . The win marked the Dodgers ' fifth consecutive win and twelfth out of 15 . Hershiser contributed a two @-@ run double in the second inning to help the Dodgers build a 3 – 0 lead . After Hershiser gave up two runs in the fifth , no baserunners reached second base against him in the final four innings , thus marking the first four scoreless innings of his streak . The game marked Hershiser 's third consecutive and tenth complete game of the season . Following the game , his 2 @.@ 84 ERA ranked third on the team behind Tim Leary ( 2 @.@ 44 ) and John Tudor ( 2 @.@ 37 ) .
= = = September 5 , 1988 = = =
Hershiser had been scheduled to pitch against the NL @-@ leading New York Mets ( 80 – 54 ) on Sunday , September 4 , but a rainout delayed his performance . The Dodgers entered the game with a 77 – 57 record and a 5 @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Astros , while the Atlanta Braves were 31 games back in sixth place in the division with a 46 – 88 record entering the game . With the September 5 win , the Dodgers retained their 5 @-@ game lead . Hershiser struck out Dale Murphy four times , once resorting to a rare sidearm curveball to do so , to the dismay of pitching coach Ron Perranoski , who worried about injuries caused by sidearm pitching . According to ESPN 's Mark Simon , this was the only game of Murphy 's 2 @,@ 180 @-@ game career in which a single pitcher struck him out four times . After a two @-@ out walk to Dion James in the third inning , Hershiser allowed no baserunners until the ninth inning . With his fourth straight complete game , Hershiser raised his record to 19 – 8 , making him 3 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 00 ERA in those games .
= = = September 10 , 1988 = = =
The Dodgers entered the game with a 79 – 60 record and a four @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Houston Astros , while the Cincinnati Reds were 5 @.@ 5 games back in third place in the division with a 74 – 66 record entering the game . With the September 10 win , the Dodgers held a five @-@ game lead . Although left @-@ handed pitcher Fernando Valenzuela had won 20 games in 1986 , Hershiser became the first Dodger righthander to win 20 games since Don Sutton in 1976 . Hershiser said , about reaching this accomplishment , " It 's a goal that the world sets as a standard , and when you reach it , it 's a great feeling " . In the Cy Young Award race , Danny Jackson of the Reds had beaten the Dodgers the night before to move to 21 @-@ 6 with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA ( against Hershiser 's 20 @-@ 8 with a 2 @.@ 62 ERA ) . In the third inning , Hershiser struck out Eric Davis with the bases loaded and two outs and later got Davis to hit into two double plays . In the seventh inning , Ken Griffey , Sr. and Larkin were retired after the Reds put runners on first and third base with one out . The game marked Hershiser 's fourth consecutive complete game ( and twelfth of the season ) .
= = = September 14 , 1988 = = =
The Dodgers entered the game with an 83 – 60 record and a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Astros , while the Atlanta Braves were 34 games back in 6th place in the division with a 49 – 94 record entering the game . With Hershiser 's September 14 win , the Dodgers maintained a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ game lead . Hershiser 's record on the season against the Braves was 5 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 29 ERA . The game marked only the third time in 1988 that he pitched on three days rest . With the streak at 31 innings Hershiser tied Jackson in number of wins , and moved into a tie for the sixth longest scoreless streak for the franchise since the 1958 relocation to Los Angeles . Although Drysdale 's record was mentioned after he reached 31 consecutive innings , the focus of the media was on the Cy Young Award race with Jackson . The win was Hershiser 's seventh consecutive against the Braves , a streak that began on September 13 , 1987 .
The Braves opened the third inning with back @-@ to @-@ back singles by Ozzie Virgil and Terry Blocker . Hershiser responded by striking out opposing pitcher Rick Mahler and Ron Gant and then retiring Jeff Blauser on a flyball to left . In the seventh inning , a double by Andrés Thomas was followed with an error by Franklin Stubbs , giving the Braves runners at first and third . Hershiser loaded the bases with an intentional walk before retiring Mahler and Gant again . Gant 's flyball sent Gibson to the outfield wall . Hershiser felt this was his worst outing of his six consecutive complete games saying : " It was the worst I 've thrown in the last five or six starts , ... I was really inconsistent . I didn 't have good stuff or location . I couldn 't establish a pattern . I had to work hard adjusting and got away with pitches I wouldn 't have if I was going badly . " The Dodgers ' only run came in the ninth inning on a successful hit and run play in which Mike Marshall doubled Kirk Gibson in from first base . Orel and wife Jamie , scheduled induced labor for the following day , an off day for Hershiser .
= = = September 19 , 1988 = = =
The Dodgers entered the game with an 86 – 61 record and a nine @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Astros and Giants who each held a 78 – 71 record . With the September 19 win , the Dodgers held a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ game lead over the Reds . The game marked Hershiser 's second consecutive 1 – 0 victory . The game marked Nolan Ryan 's final start for the Astros . He pitched two innings ( striking out four Dodgers ) before leaving the game because of a hamstring cramp . Hershiser retired the final 13 batters in a row . Based on the rules in place on September 20 , Hershiser would have ended up 2 / 3 inning shy of Drysdale record even with two nine @-@ inning shutouts in his final two starts . Jackson also won his 22nd game that night . Hershiser 's ERA in the seven consecutive complete games had fallen to 0 @.@ 57 . Houston 's strongest scoring opportunities came about because of Dodger errors : Kevin Bass recorded a two @-@ out single followed by a stolen base . Then a Griffin error on a Glenn Davis ground ball moved the runner to third base and dangerously close to home plate . Also , in the fifth inning Stubbs ' error put runners on first and second with no outs . The game marked Hershiser 's sixth ( and fourth consecutive ) shutout of the season , making him the first Dodger since Drysdale in 1968 to record four in a row . This September 19 performance was the middle of three consecutive shutouts posted by the Dodgers . Tudor posted one on September 18 with relief from Alejandro Peña ; Tim Belcher pitched a shutout on September 20 .
On September 19 , Hershiser 's four @-@ day @-@ old son Jordan was suffering from fluid buildup in his lungs in a Pasadena hospital . Hershiser , by winning that day reduced the Dodgers ' magic number to five over the Reds . Publications such as The New York Times , Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times began to take note of the streak length and the nearer horizon of the record as Hershiser reached 40 consecutive innings with this win . Several Canadian newspapers even used the word chasing to note Hershiser ' progress — e.g. , The Ottawa Citizen ran a story titled " Hershiser chasing record " .
= = = September 23 , 1988 = = =
In order that Hershiser and the rest of the staff could have their normal number of days of rest heading into the playoff series that could start as early as October 3 , Hershiser pitched on only three days rest rather than making his regular start on September 24 . The Dodgers entered the game with an 89 – 63 record and an 8 @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Cincinnati Reds , while the San Francisco Giants were 10 @.@ 5 games back in fourth place in the division with a 79 – 74 record entering the game . With the September 23 win , the Dodgers retained an 8 @-@ game lead over the Reds . The victory reduced the Dodgers ' magic number to two . The game marked Hershiser 's eighth consecutive complete game and fifteenth of the season and Hershiser 's fifth consecutive complete game shutout , which stretched his consecutive scoreless inning streak to 49 . Following the game , Hershiser was quoted as saying " I want to keep putting zeroes up there — not because of the streak , but for the team ... I want to stay hot right up through the playoffs . "
Prior to the start , Seymour Siwoff , the Elias Sports Bureau chief and official statistician for MLB , determined that the official method of accounting for consecutive scoreless innings would only count whole innings for starting pitchers and that if the streak extended into 1989 it would bear an asterisk . Previously there had been division among various sources on whether to include fractional innings . According to some sources , official statisticians such as Siwoff had a long history of only counting complete scoreless innings by starting pitchers . Hershiser 's September 23 shutout moved him to third on the all @-@ time consecutive scoreless innings list , behind Johnson and Drysdale . He also passed Carl Hubbell and G. Harris " Doc " White , who each had streaks of 45 innings on the newly redefined record 's list and Bob Gibson , who had a streak of 47 before the record was redefined . Hershiser also became one of three pitchers to throw five consecutive shutouts , joining Drysdale , who did it in 1968 and White , who did it in 1904 . His 23 wins were the most by a Dodger since Sandy Koufax had won 27 games in 1966 .
During the third inning of the September 23 game , according to articles written by ESPN and the Los Angeles Times , after José Uribe and Atlee Hammaker got on base with consecutive singles , Brett Butler grounded into a force out at second base to leave Uribe on third and Butler on first . When Ernie Riles hit a groundball , Butler interfered with Dodger shortstop Alfredo Griffin causing a bad throw and breaking up the double play . A run was posted on the scoreboard after Uribe crossed home plate . However , Bob Engel ruled the double play had been broken up by interference , making the play a double play . This allowed the streak to continue beyond 42 innings . Contemporaneous sources such as The Washington Post and Los Angeles Times noted that when Butler swiped at Griffin 's leg , Griffin threw over the head of Tracy Woodson . Other contemporaneous sources such as Sports Illustrated and USA Today said that Paul Runge ruled that Butler had interfered with second baseman Steve Sax ' relay throw to Griffin . Several sources noted that late in Drysdale 's streak , Drysdale benefited similarly when Harry Wendelstedt nullified Dick Dietz ' bases loaded hit by pitch for failing to attempt to avoid the pitch .
Hershiser retired the side in order in the fourth , fifth and sixth innings . In the game , Giants manager Roger Craig made what some describe as a questionable pinch hitting substitution . In order to contest Hershiser with a left @-@ handed batter , with runners on first and second and one out , he substituted rookie Francisco Meléndez ( batting .190 ) for Robby Thompson ( batting .266 ) , which resulted in an inning @-@ ending double play . That day , USA Today claimed Dodgers ' manager Tommy Lasorda had determined his postseason pitching rotation with Hershiser slated for game one of the NLCS , but Lasorda denied having any plan in place for a playoff appearance that had not yet been clinched . The Dodgers ' runs came on Mickey Hatcher 's first home run of the season in the eighth inning .
= = = September 28 , 1988 = = =
As his turn in the rotation approached , Hershiser joked that he would skip a start and rest for the playoffs rather than pursue the record . The Dodgers had clinched the NL West on September 26 . Thus , the focus of the game on the 28th was on Hershiser 's need to get nine scoreless innings to tie Drysdale , which was Hershiser 's hope . On September 27 , Lasorda announced the Dodger starting pitchers for games one ( Hershiser ) and game two ( Tudor ) of the NL Championship series , which would begin the following Tuesday , October 4 . The Dodgers entered the game with a 92 – 65 record and a seven @-@ game lead in the NL West over the Cincinnati Reds , while the San Diego Padres were 13 games back in fifth place in the division with a 79 – 78 record entering the game . With the September 28 loss , the Dodgers retained a seven @-@ game lead over the Reds . In the off days leading up to Hershiser 's last start , Frank Viola had tied Jackson and Hershiser at 23 wins for the MLB lead .
Hershiser had ended Padres catcher Benito Santiago 's 34 @-@ game hitting streak the year before and the Padres were eager to snap Hershiser 's streak . Santiago 's streak was an MLB record for a catcher , an MLB record for a rookie and a team record for the Padres . No one who has started a hitting streak at age 22 or younger has matched the streak since . According to Tony Gwynn , " We wanted so badly to put a run on the board ... Maybe , we tried a little too hard . You have to give the man credit . He didn 't give me one decent pitch to hit all night . He put everything right where he wanted it to go . "
Prior to the game Hershiser explained why he wanted to win a World Series more than break the scoreless innings streak : " You can break a record or win a Cy Young and go home and celebrate with your wife and friends , but after it 's over there 's only a few people that really care about it . But if you win a team thing , you 've got 24 guys and all their families , all their friends , a whole city celebrating . "
Hershiser picked Roberto Alomar off at first base to end the eighth inning . When the game went into extra innings , Hershiser did not want to continue : " I really didn 't want to break it " , Hershiser said . " I wanted to stop at 58 . I wanted me and Don to be together at the top . But the higher sources ( Lasorda and Perranoski ) told me they weren 't taking me out of the game , so I figured , what the heck , I might as well get the guy out . " Through the first nine innings , no Padre had reached second base . Lasorda , Perranoski and Ben Hines all felt he owed it to the game and to himself to continue . Hershiser made it through the tenth inning , with the record @-@ setting out being a Keith Moreland flyball caught by right fielder José González . However , he had some close calls in a couple of innings . Marvell Wynne struck out swinging to open the inning , but reached first base after a wild pitch evaded catcher Mike Scioscia . The following two hitters , Santiago and Randy Ready , moved Wynne over to third with two outs . Then , Garry Templeton was given an intentional base on balls . Templeton advanced to second base before the final out was recorded .
Even after achieving the record , Hershiser expressed regret : " Because of respect for Don and respect for the record , I don 't think I should have walked to the mound in a situation where I 'm supposed to be resting for the playoffs , just to beat a record . That would have tarnished the whole thing . " According to some sources , Drysdale was the person who convinced Hershiser to take the mound for the tenth inning , saying , " I gave him a kick in the pants and told him to get out there and go as far as he can " . However , other sources state that Drysdale merely said that if he had known about Hershiser 's hesitance to break the record , he would have reassured him , saying " I 'd have kicked him right in the rear if I had known that ... I 'd have told him to get his buns out there and get them . "
When the tenth inning ended , giving Hershiser the record , he " stood bent with his hands on his knees for a long moment after the final out and then was inundated by teammates pouring out of the dugout to congratulate him . " Drysdale served as the Dodger radio broadcast announcer with Vin Scully that year . As Hershiser left the mound with the record in hand , he was searching for Drysdale and saying " Where is Drysdale ? I 've got to find Drysdale " . Drysdale was on hand to congratulate Hershiser after the game . In fact , when Hershiser returned to the dugout , Drysdale was waiting with his microphone for an interview .
During Hershiser 's streak he posted 59 IP , 0 runs , 31 hits , 38 strikeouts , 10 walks , and 3 extra @-@ base hits , while Drysdale had posted 58 IP , 0 runs , 28 hits , 45 strikeouts , 10 walks , and 3 extra @-@ base hits . Drysdale maintained the record for consecutive shutouts ( 6 ) because Hershiser did not pitch beyond the first 10 innings of his September 28 start because it lasted 16 innings . Hershiser 's record was overshadowed because the 1988 Summer Olympics and the start of the 1988 National Football League season occurred at the same time . Los Angeles had two NFL teams at the time ( Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Raiders ) . Additionally , baseball fans were more concerned with pennant races . Furthermore , four of the final five games in the streak were played in the Pacific Time Zone , limiting the games ' visibility to the rest of the country . Controversially , KTTV channel 11 did not broadcast either the September 26 game in which the Dodgers clinched the NL West or the September 28 game in which Hershiser set the record . Instead , it showed Friday the 13th and The Funhouse on September 26 and 28 , respectively . The record @-@ setting game drew an attendance of 22 @,@ 596 .
= = = October 4 , 1988 = = =
The New York Mets concluded the regular season with a record of 100 – 60 while the Dodgers had a 94 – 67 record . The Mets had won ten of the eleven head @-@ to @-@ head regular season contests and were the favorite in the series . On October 4 , 1988 , Hershiser posted eight scoreless innings in Game 1 of the 1988 NL Championship Series ( bringing his unofficial total of consecutive scoreless innings to 67 ) before surrendering runs in the 9th inning . In both the third and sixth inning the Mets got two runners on base only to have the next hitter hit an infield groundball against Hershiser . When Gregg Jefferies got a sinker down the middle , he led off the ninth inning with a single and reached second base on a ground out in a hit and run play with Keith Hernandez . Jefferies recorded his third hit in four at bats in his first ever appearance against Hershiser . With Jefferies on second , Darryl Strawberry posted an RBI double on a pitch he described as up in the strike zone . Strawberry had fouled off four fastballs before getting what Lasorda called a hanging curveball . After Hershiser gave up a run in the ninth inning 100 pitches into his performance , pitching coach Perranoski removed him from the game by signalling for a double switch before getting to the mound to talk to Hershiser . The Dodgers ' bullpen had led the league in saves that year . Howell had recorded 18 consecutive scoreless innings in relief . Howell 's scoreless streak was longer in calendar days , his last runs allowed occurring on August 11 . It had been 35 days since anyone had scored a run against Hershiser . Controversially , Mets pitcher David Cone attributed Hershiser 's success to luck after the Mets rallied to score against him in the ninth inning . The Mets went on to add two more runs on a ball that John Shelby could not secure until it first hit the ground . The ball bounced out of his glove as he lunged for the catch , yielding the tying and winning runs . Despite the results , Hershiser 's scoreless inning streak in the regular season was still intact at 59 consecutive innings , as the runs scored against him on October 4 were in the postseason .
= = = April 5 , 1989 = = =
The Dodgers entered the game with a 0 – 1 record , having lost to the Reds , who were 1 – 0 the day before . As Hershiser prepared for his first start , he said that the continuation of the streak via the asterisk did not mean much to him and that in his mind the streak was already over . His mound opponent was Tom Browning who had pitched a perfect game the last time he had faced the Dodgers ( September 16 , 1988 ) . Todd Benzinger drove in Larkin to end Hershiser 's streak in the first inning and Hershiser was tagged with his first loss since August 24 . The Dodgers endured three errors and a passed ball in the game . Leadoff hitter Larkin chopped a groundball over Hershiser into centerfield . Hershiser 's pick off throw hit Larkin 's armpit . After Hershiser retired Chris Sabo and Eric Davis via strikeout , he walked Kal Daniels , who had a career .500 batting average and four home runs against Hershiser , on four pitches . Then Benzinger , who Hershiser was not familiar with , singled through the right side of the Dodger infield to score Larkin thus ending Hershiser 's streak . Howell did not allow an earned run in his second 1989 outing on April 10 . Thus , Howell 's streak went from August 11 , 1988 , through April 9 , 1989 .
= = Reaction and outcome = =
It had been unlikely that Hershiser would ever became a successful pitcher . He was unable to make his high school varsity team until he was a junior , and he went undrafted as a high schooler . He failed to make the Bowling Green State University team as a freshman , and after graduating , he struggled through two years in both Double A and Triple A baseball . Drysdale said that he enjoyed rooting for Hershiser because his jersey number , 55 , like Drysdale 's own number , 53 , indicated that Hershiser had been a long shot to make the majors ( lower numbers were generally assigned to better prospects in those days ) . After the record was broken , Drysdale said he was not surprised that his record was broken . Even though Hershiser had the second @-@ best ( behind Dwight Gooden ) career ERA among active pitchers , he believed that someone would surpass the record because he did not feel he was that great a pitcher , saying , " I think someone 's going to break it from me because I know I 'm not any big deal " .
After his NLCS game one performance , Hershiser went on to post a 21 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings streak in the 1988 NL Championship Series and 1988 World Series , winning both the NL Championship Series Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award and the World Series MVP Award . Hershiser also won the 1988 NL Cy Young Award . Hershiser 's season was recognized outside of baseball as well . He earned the Sportsman of the Year from Sports Illustrated in December and Associated Press Athlete of the Year in January 1989 , becoming the first non @-@ Olympian to win the award in an Olympic year in 20 years . After seeking arbitration in January , Hershiser signed a new three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 9 million contract on February 16 . Hershiser 's annual salary of $ 2 @,@ 766 @,@ 667 ( equal to $ 5 @,@ 281 @,@ 549 in 2016 dollars ) moved him ahead of Cal Ripken as baseball 's highest @-@ paid player at the time . Following his success of the 1988 season , Hershiser realized any future exploits would be seen comparatively as a failure , even as he began spring training in 1989 with the streak still active .
Hershiser 's combined single @-@ season total of 309 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched including both the regular season and postseason has not been surpassed since 1988 . Nonetheless , he would lead the NL in innings pitched for a third consecutive season in 1989 . Hershiser 's statistics in 1989 were nearly identical to 1988 except for his win – loss record . Two wins during the 1988 streak were against the Atlanta Braves . Hershiser would eventually win twelve consecutive decisions against the Braves ( a post @-@ 1920 record for a pitcher against a single franchise ) . His 1 – 0 win on September 14 over the Braves and 1 – 0 win over the Astros on September 19 were the last of his three career 1 – 0 victories . After posting seven shutouts in his previous eleven starts , he was only able to tally six more in his remaining 319 career starts . Hershiser was selected to the 1989 MLB All @-@ Star Game and also contributed to two Cleveland Indians World Series runs ( 1995 and 1997 ) , earning another League Championship Series MVP in 1995 .
= = = Historical context = = =
Sports historians consider Hershiser 's record to be among the greatest streaks in sports history and among baseball 's most outstanding records . ESPN 's Jeff Merron named it the third @-@ greatest individual streak in sports history , behind Joe DiMaggio 's 56 @-@ game hitting streak and Edwin Moses ' 107 straight hurdles finals wins . In Baseball 's Top 100 : The Game 's Greatest Records by Kerry Banks , Hershiser 's streak is ranked as the seventh @-@ greatest baseball record .
The record that Hershiser broke was regarded as " one of the most unbreakable records in baseball " . In 2013 , the 25th anniversary of Hershiser 's record @-@ breaking season was widely heralded in the press . ESPN , Los Angeles Daily News , and SB Nation are among the media outlets that covered the anniversary . SB Nation ran stories on the 25th anniversary of each of Hershiser 's starts during the streak . Baseball Digest celebrated the accomplishment with stories during the 10th , 15th and 20th anniversary seasons .
= = Subsequent challenges = =
In the first 25 years after Hershiser recorded his streak , the closest challenge came from Brandon Webb of the 2007 Arizona Diamondbacks , who pitched 42 consecutive scoreless innings . Greg Maddux and Kenny Rogers were the only other pitchers to have reached 39 innings during that time period .
R. A. Dickey threw a streak of more than 32 consecutive scoreless innings that broke the Mets franchise record in 2012 . The streak was snapped by baseball etiquette against " running up the score " ; Mets manager Terry Collins opted not to position his infield in with a runner on third and one out with a 9 – 0 lead , allowing a routine ground ball hit to score a runner and end Dickey 's streak .
In 2014 , Dodgers ace Clayton Kershaw pitched 41 consecutive scoreless innings , before giving up a solo home run to Padres ' Chase Headley on July 10 . In 2015 another Dodger , Zack Greinke , maintained a streak of 452 ⁄ 3 consecutive innings without allowing a run . It ended on July 26 .
|
= Cyclone Rewa =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Rewa affected six countries and caused 22 deaths on its 28 @-@ day journey across the South Pacific Ocean in December 1993 and January 1994 . Cyclone Rewa developed from a tropical disturbance on 28 December south of Nauru . After forming , Rewa moved southwest through the Solomon Islands , crossing the 160th meridian east from the South Pacific basin into the Australian region . The cyclone began to strengthen steadily and turned southward , paralleling the eastern Australian coast through 31 December . Rewa reached its initial peak intensity as a Category 4 tropical cyclone on 2 January . It maintained this intensity for about 12 hours before an increase in wind shear induced its weakening by 3 January . The cyclone turned southeastward and moved back into the South Pacific basin on 4 January , before it passed over New Caledonia between 5 – 6 January . After affecting New Caledonia , Rewa weakened to a tropical depression and turned northwestward before re @-@ entering the Australian basin on 10 January .
Over the following days , the cyclone showed signs of restrengthening and executed an elongated cyclonic loop to the southeast of Papua New Guinea . Rewa subsequently entered a phase of quick intensification while proceeding southeastward , peaking in intensity as a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone . It recurved toward the southwest while gradually weakening for several days . Although forecasters had predicted Rewa to make landfall near Mackay , Queensland , the cyclone began interacting with an upper @-@ level trough on 18 January , causing it to divert to the southeast and move along the Queensland coast . Rewa transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on 20 January , with its remnants bringing heavy rain to New Zealand three days later .
The cyclone caused the deaths of 22 people on its course , affecting parts of the Solomon Islands , Papua New Guinea , Eastern Australia , New Caledonia , Vanuatu and New Zealand . Nine people in a banana dinghy en route to Rossel Island went missing at the height of the storm ; they were presumed drowned after wreckage from their boat turned up at the island . In Queensland , three people died in traffic accidents caused by the storm , and another fatality occurred when a boy became trapped in a storm pipe . One death took place in New Caledonia , while flooding caused eight drownings in Papua New Guinea . After this usage of the name Rewa , the name was retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
During 26 December , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Tropical Cyclone Warning Center in Nadi , Fiji ( TCWC Nadi ) , started to monitor a tropical depression that had developed within the Intertropical Convergence Zone about 575 km ( 355 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Nauru . Over the next few days the depression gradually developed and organised further , as it moved towards the west @-@ southwest under the influence of a north @-@ easterly steering flow . During 28 December , the JTWC classified the depression as Tropical Cyclone 05P , before TCWC Nadi reported that the system had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale and named it Rewa . Over the next few days , the system gradually intensified under the influence of favourable upper @-@ level winds while it moved towards the south @-@ southwest , passing through the Solomon Islands on 29 December and affecting the southeastern islands of Papua New Guinea . As it moved through the Solomon Islands , Rewa moved out of the South Pacific basin and into the Australian region , where the Bureau of Meteorology 's Brisbane tropical cyclone warning centre ( TCWC Brisbane ) took the primary warning responsibility for the system .
On 30 December , the JTWC reported that Rewa had become equivalent to a category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ( SSHS ) ; early the next day TCWC Brisbane reported that the system had developed into a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , and an eye became visible on satellite imagery . The system then abruptly turned and started to move towards the south parallel to the Queensland coast because of an interaction with an upper @-@ level trough of low pressure . On 2 January both the JTWC and TCWC Brisbane reported that Rewa had reached its peak intensity , with the JTWC reporting that Rewa had peaked with 1 @-@ minute windspeeds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , equivalent to a category 4 tropical cyclone on the SSHS . Meanwhile , TCWC Brisbane reported that the system had peaked with 10 @-@ minute windspeeds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) with a central pressure of 920 hPa ( 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) , which made it a category 5 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian Scale . When the data was reanalyzed , TCWC Brisbane lowered their estimate of the wind speed to 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , which made Rewa a category 4 severe tropical cyclone . Rewa remained at its peak intensity for 12 hours before the system started to weaken during 3 January , as strengthening upper level north @-@ westerlies increased vertical wind shear over the system . Throughout that day , the cyclone started to move towards the south @-@ east , before it started to take a more eastwards track as it approached 160 ° E.
During 4 January , Rewa moved back into the South Pacific basin and continued eastward as a weakening category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with TCWC Nadi estimating the 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds at 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . During the next day , its eye became obscured after the mountains of New Caledonia affected Rewa 's circulation by creating a hot and dry Foehn wind . TCWC Nadi reported that the system had weakened into a category 2 tropical cyclone , while the JTWC reported that Rewa had become a tropical storm . The system subsequently made landfall in the vicinity of Saint Vincent Bay on New Caledonia 's south @-@ western coast , before it emerged near Thio from the east coast during 6 January . By 7 January , Rewa 's circulation had become exposed under the influence of upper level north @-@ westerlies ; as a result both the JTWC and TCWC Nadi reported that Rewa had weakened into a depression . Over the next 3 days , the residual low @-@ level circulation was steered towards the northwest and Papua New Guinea in a southeasterly trade wind flow generated by a powerful area of high pressure located between New Zealand and Kermadec Islands . During 10 January , Rewa 's remnants moved out of the South Pacific basin and back into the Australian region while starting to re @-@ intensify into a tropical cyclone , as a mid to upper level trough over eastern Australia increased in size .
As moved into the Australian region , Rewa began to move in a long arc to the northwest and then to the north , and on 13 January , both the JTWC and TCWC Port Moresby reported that the system had reintensified into a tropical cyclone around Papua New Guinea 's southern islands . Later that day , Rewa executed a sharp clockwise turn near Tagula Island and started to move towards the southeast and TCWC Brisbane 's area of responsibility while gradually intensifying further . During 15 January , TCWC Brisbane reported that the system had reintensified into a category 3 severe tropical cyclone while the JTWC reported that Rewa had become equivalent to a category 1 tropical cyclone again . Later that day , the system started to rapidly intensify as an upper level trough approached the system . During the next day the JTWC reported that the system had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . TCWC Brisbane then reported later that day , that Rewa had peaked with 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , which made it a category 5 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . After it had peaked in intensity the system recurved towards the south @-@ southwest , and started to gradually weaken . By 18 January the JTWC reported that Rewa had weakened into a tropical storm while throughout that day TCWC Brisbane assessed Rewa as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone . During the next day , TCWC Brisbane reported that Rewa had weakened into a category 2 tropical cyclone as it recurved and started to move towards the south @-@ east about 265 km ( 165 mi ) to the east of Mackay , Queensland . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ southeast along the Queensland coast while maintaining its intensity . During 21 January , TCWC Brisbane and the JTWC reported that Rewa had weakened below cyclone strength , as the system moved back into the South Pacific basin for the third and final time . Rewa 's remnants were last noted late on 23 January , by TCWC Wellington , bringing heavy rain to New Zealand , while dissipating over water about 400 km ( 250 mi ) to the east of Wellington , New Zealand .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Twenty @-@ two people lost their lives in accidents caused by Cyclone Rewa , while it affected parts off the Solomon Islands , Papua New Guinea , Australia , New Caledonia , Vanuatu and New Zealand . Due to the impact of this storm , the name Rewa was retired .
= = = The Solomon Islands , New Caledonia , Vanuatu and New Zealand = = =
The Solomon Islands were affected by the developing tropical cyclone between 28 – 30 December and was the first Island country to be impacted by Rewa . As it developed into a tropical cyclone on 28 December , the system passed to the north of the outer lying atolls of Malaita Province in the Solomon Islands . Rewa then passed over the southern tip of Malaita Island , before passing to the south of Guadalcanal Island and the north of Rennell Island during 29 December .
Cyclone Rewa started to affect New Caledonia on 5 January , before it passed over Grand Terre Island later that day . Rewa dumped over 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rain on parts of the archipelago , which made all of the major rivers overflow and burst their banks . Several landslides and a death were recorded within New Caledonia , while on the Loyalty Island of Mare , waves from Rewa partially destroyed the harbour wall at Tadine 's port .
The system had no effect on Vanuatu while it passed through the Solomon Islands between 28 – 30 December ; however the southern islands of Vanuatu were affected by the cyclone after it had passed through New Caledonia during 5 January . As it moved towards the north @-@ west between 6 – 8 January , Rewa brought high seas and strong winds to parts of the island nation including the provinces of Shefa and Tafea . Some damage was recorded to Port Villa 's harbours intertidal zone , as the system passed about 175 km ( 110 mi ) to the southeast of the city .
Between 19 – 24 January , Rewa 's remnants , a slow moving weather front over Fiordland and a southerly brought widespread rainfall and flooding to New Zealand 's South Island . In Westland , Fiordland and the Southern Lakes , landslides and flooding occurred on 21 January , while several roads and bridges were damaged .
= = = Papua New Guinea = = =
Cyclone Rewa affected Papua New Guinea on two separate occasions while it was active , with the cyclone first affecting the archipelago between 28 December and 1 January , before grazing the archipelago between 12 @-@ 14 January . Before Rewa affected the country , cyclone alerts and warnings were issued for Sudest , Rossel and Samarai islands , while authorities urged people not to go to beaches . As it affected the archipelago , Rewa brought heavy rainfall , high seas , and wind gusts of up to 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) to parts of the archipelago including Sudest , Rossel and Samarai islands . The hardest hit areas were communities near major river systems , with the cyclone blocking roads , destroying a church , bridges , homes and gardens with vital crops such as coffee and copra destroyed . In total , Cyclone Rewa left around 3500 people homeless and caused 17 deaths , 8 of which were due to flooding . Nine other people went missing while travelling to Rossel Island after their boat was caught up in high seas associated with Rewa . They were later presumed dead by the National Disaster and Emergency Service , after a local search and rescue mission found wreckage of the boat . At 00 : 00 UTC on 30 December , the automatic weather station at Jingo on Rossel island recorded a maximum sustained wind of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) .
= = = Australia = = =
During the opening days of 1994 , Rewa moved southwards parallel to the Queensland coast ; however , because it was located about 600 km ( 370 mi ) to the north @-@ east of Mackay , it was too far away from the coast for there to be any direct impact on Queensland . The only indirect impact was higher surf , from which several people had to be rescued from before the cyclone started to move towards New Caledonia during 4 January . As Rewa affected Queensland for the second time , watches and warnings were issued for various parts of Queensland by TCWC Brisbane , who predicted a landfall near Mackay . On 18 January local disaster committees met to consider evacuating people , while people who were on vacation in national parks were alerted about Rewa by a helicopter . A military training exercise that was due to take place in Shoalwater Bay had to be cancelled , with army personal evacuated to Rockhampton to avoid being cut off by flood waters . Along the coast , several ports including Gladstone were shut with large vessels told to head to sea and small vessels told to batten down and prepare for the storm .
On 19 January Rewa started to affect Queensland with torrential rain and storm force windspeeds which caused some damage along the coast . However it did not make its predicted landfall near Mackay , instead it recurved to the south @-@ southeast and came to within 100 km ( 60 mi ) of the coast . Two men off Yeppoon 's coast were rescued from a fishing trawler by an army Black Hawk helicopter after high seas damaged the trawler 's propeller and snapped its heavy anchor chain , leaving it drifting helplessly in the cyclone 's path . The worst affected island was Lady Elliot as it bore the brunt of the wind , while on Heron Island , several rare trees and bird rookeries were either destroyed or severely damaged . As Rewa interacted with an upper trough of low pressure on 19 January , heavy rainfall and thunderstorms were observed in parts of Brisbane and the Gold Coast . Brisbane received over 144 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in just six hours , which led to some localised flash flooding in parts of the city and four deaths . Three of the deaths were from people crashing their cars , while the other death occurred when a person went surfing Brisbane 's flood water and got trapped in a storm drain . Within Brisbane , 100 homes and 20 cars were damaged by the flood waters , while a Sheffield Shield cricket match between Western Australia and Queensland was delayed , after The Gabba resembled a small lake .
|
= Amon Tobin =
Amon Adonai Santos de Araújo Tobin ( born February 7 , 1972 ) , known as Amon Tobin , is a Brazilian musician , composer and producer of electronic music . He is described as a virtuoso sound designer and is considered to be one of the most influential electronic music artists in the world . He is noted for his unusual methodology in sound design and music production . He has released seven major studio albums under the London @-@ based Ninja Tune record label .
In 2007 he released Foley Room , an album based entirely on the manipulation of field recordings . His latest album , 2011 's ISAM , included " female " vocals made from his own processed voice . His music has been used in numerous major motion pictures including The Italian Job and 21 . Tobin has created songs for several independent films , including the 2006 Hungarian film Taxidermia , and had his music used in other independent films such as the 2002 Cannes Palme d 'Or nominated Divine Intervention . A selection of his tracks were featured in commercial bumps on Toonami and in the 2005 anime IGPX , and he produced the musical scores to critically acclaimed video games Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Chaos Theory by Ubisoft in 2005 , and Sucker Punch 's Infamous in 2009 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = =
Tobin was born in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . At the age of 2 , he and his family left Brazil to live in Morocco , the Netherlands , London , Portugal and Madeira . Tobin settled in Brighton , England as a teenager which remained his permanent residence until 2002 . There he began producing electronic music in his bedroom with samplers and other audio equipment such as an Amstrad Studio 100 4 @-@ track , although he was " not really involved in the [ music ] scene " at that time . While taking an editorial photography class at a university in Brighton , he responded to a magazine promotion for the London @-@ based Ninebar record label asking artists to send in demos of their songs . Ninebar signed Tobin to the label in 1996 after hearing his early work , and he traveled between his home in Brighton and the studios in London to produce his first official works . He also spent some time living in Montreal before moving to the San Francisco Bay Area in 2008 .
Under his original moniker Cujo ( in Portuguese , the word for whose ) , he released a series of original compositions on 12 @-@ inch vinyl . AllMusic called them " head @-@ turning " in a review . Many of those tracks were later included on his first full @-@ length album Adventures in Foam , originally released in 1996 by Ninebar to a limited release of 5 @,@ 000 copies .
The larger Ninja Tune record label had been growing in the United Kingdom at the time with help from their successful artists such as DJ Food , Funki Porcini , The Herbaliser , and Coldcut . DJ Food and Funki Porcini noticed Tobin 's work on Adventures in Foam and prompted the label to approach him . Ninja Tune signed Tobin in late 1996 , this time under his abbreviated name " Amon Tobin " . The official Ninja Tune website has said that Adventures in Foam had been re @-@ released without permission by the US @-@ based Shadow Records that same year and that this unauthorized version , labeled the " US release " , included only 7 of the original songs , different cover art , and that some tracks were titled incorrectly . In 1997 Ninja Tune acquired the proper licenses from Ninebar and re @-@ released the album themselves . This version included the original album in its entirety , and a second disc containing previously unreleased material . As of 2008 , copies of Shadow Record 's " US version " are still sold by online retailer Amazon.com. Over the course of its production , Adventures in Foam has been reviewed favorably . Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork Media said that its break @-@ beat style " got totally out of hand " , but that it " never fails to let the listener know who 's in charge . " The album was released for a fourth time in 2002 , again by Ninja Tune .
= = = Defining albums ( 1997 – 2002 ) = = =
Over the next several years , Tobin released three albums . Bricolage , released in 1997 , was the culmination of two projects Tobin had started after his debut album earlier that year . His third album Permutation was released in 1998 . Independent radio stations aired Tobin 's pieces during the summer of 1998 to positive listener reaction from conventional jazz aficionados , who identified with the computer @-@ generated drums and composition . In the late 1990s , sample @-@ based music was becoming more popular with a wide range of emerging and developing genres , but Tobin himself was still largely unknown . Tobin 's style of music was not seen as definitively belonging to one genre or another . The critics that commented on Bricolage and Permutation gave them positive reviews and they are often mentioned , by later reviewers and interviewers , as classic albums of the time . Pitchfork Media acclaimed the use of jazz instrument samples , comparing him to famous composers Quincy Jones and Miles Davis . In a 1999 review , they awarded Bricolage a very rare 10 / 10 and said that it was " one of the most inventive records of the decade . "
Tobin released his fourth album , Supermodified in 2000 . The album is regarded as his most commercial album to date . Critic reviews were generally positive , with Pitchfork rating the album 9 @.@ 1 / 10 , and Stylus Magazine saying , " Not many studio @-@ bound electronic musicians could put forward such a vivid and dynamic statement or make it as entertaining and downright funky as Supermodified has managed to do . "
= = = Montreal ( 2002 – present ) = = =
In 2002 , Tobin relocated to Montreal , Canada where he had spent time previously at Ninja Tune 's North American Headquarters . Tobin lived in the industrial area of Old Montreal to avoid noise complaints from neighbors after dark . There he produced his fifth album Out From Out Where released that same year . This was his first album created primarily in a professional studio . He later released a single , Verbal , taken from Out From Out Where . Otis Hart of Dusted Magazine said that Tobin 's style of producing had come into its own . He acclaimed Tobin 's " refined sense of tempo " .
In January 2004 , Tobin was contracted by video game company Ubisoft Montreal to compose the soundtrack for the third installment of their critically successful Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series , Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Chaos Theory . To facilitate using the music in a video game , where the level of action or plot can change in real @-@ time , each track was broken down by Tobin into four distinct but similar parts based on their level of intensity . The game 's developers could then use each section to provide music based on the actions of the player . Despite not being an official album in Tobin 's discography , it was considered a ground breaking work in the world of video game sound tracks described as " an entirely new era of media " by Tiny Mix Tapes
The album continued the trend Tobin started with Out From Out Where , as he used more field recordings during production . In addition to being included with the game , Ninja Tune released the score as an individual album in 2005 , titled Chaos Theory – Splinter Cell 3 Soundtrack , several months before the game 's release . It was received well , benefiting from a wider audience of reviewers in both the music and gaming industries . Ben Hogwood of MusicOMH.com applauded Tobin 's use of melody and texture , adding that he controlled the sounds with the " clarity of a classical orchestrator . " He later recorded a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound version of the album with audio engineer Bobby Azinsky in a dedicated Solid State Logic studio in Los Angeles .
Tobin 's sixth studio album , Foley Room , was released in 2007 . The title alludes to the " foley rooms " used by recording engineers and foley artists to record sound effects in the movie industry . On this album , Tobin concluded his transition away from prerecorded source material that started with Out From Out Where . All of the samples used for production were recorded by himself using an omnidirectional microphone . Recorded primarily in Montreal , San Francisco , and Seattle , the samples came from a wide range of sources including motorbikes , tigers , insects , and water falling from a tap . Also contributing to the album were the string quartet Kronos Quartet , drummer Stefan Schneider , and harpist Sarah Pagé . Foley Room 's use of field @-@ recordings was used to help promote the album , including two official pre @-@ release trailers posted to YouTube . Nate Dorr of PopMatters.com called it a " smooth , natural progression " from his work on Supermodified . The first single , " Bloodstone " , was released to the iTunes Music Store months before the rest of the album . Ninja Tune also published a DVD titled Foley Room : Found Footage which documented the recording process .
In 2008 , Tobin announced he was working on a new video game soundtrack for an " undisclosed PS3 title " . This was later revealed to be the PlayStation 3 exclusive game , inFamous , and in 2010 , Tobin announced that he would be working on the music for Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Conviction . Recent works include " Hey Mr. Tree " as a ' Bonus Joint ' to accompany his earlier ' Monthly Joint ' collection , a remix of Noisia 's " Machine Gun " released alongside remixes by 16 Bit and Spor , and a collaboration with ESKMO dubbed Eskamon . Eskamon has released a single " Fine Objects " . A new AT record has also been officially announced via www.amontobin.com , for which he is " researching and developing new production tools and techniques " and using " a whole new array of gadgetry from the past and the future " .
Amon Tobin 's sounds and samples are frequently used in the British car @-@ based TV show Top Gear , and his song " Four Ton Mantis " has been used in a few of the more recent Nissan Qashqai and Juke advertisements .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Tobin is best known for his use of audio manipulation techniques , where any given source material is transformed to produce a new sound . His use of this technique has changed over the course of his career . On his original singles under Ninebar and his first three albums , Tobin acquired all of the sound sources to produce music from his personal collection of vinyl records . He manipulates the sounds with a combination of audio hardware and software such as Cubase , often leaving the original source unrecognizable in its new context . The majority of his early work focused on reordering the break beats from jazz and blues music into faster more complex patterns . Guido Farnell of InTheMix.com , wrote about his use of this technique , saying that Tobin has " taken the art to new and dizzying heights . " His fifth album Out From Out Where , began the gradual shift away from prerecorded material by incorporating original guitar samples . His techniques began branching into technical sound design , taking break beats or single instruments , modifying specific frequencies , and producing new sounds . This trend continued through his video game score Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Chaos Theory Soundtrack , and by his sixth album , Foley Room , all of the source material was recorded in the field by himself . Speaking about the creativity of sample @-@ based music compared to traditional instruments , he says that " creative input is not determined by your source material but in how you edit and manipulate the sounds . "
Tobin experimented with various instruments . He does not come from a music family , nor has he had any formal training in music theory . About his music in general , Tobin says that he sees it as a " genuine " expression of the time he lives in , as he says that by contrast , blues , jazz , and Brazilian genres were " genuine " expressions of the 1960s . Despite his indirect connection with Brazilian genres , Tobin collaborated with a number of artists on Bebel Gilberto 's 2000 bossa nova album Tanto Tempo . Tobin 's albums are often compared to soundtracks , and he says that movies by David Lynch have influenced him . In addition , he has stated to like films by the Coen brothers , Dario Argento , and Roman Polanski .
= = Live performances = =
Tobin began performing live shows in clubs with other Ninja Tune artists after releasing his second album , Bricolage . His shows generally contained music that he had produced during his career , mixed with modified songs from drum and bass , hip @-@ hop , or other genres . Because his music was entirely produced in a studio with electronics , Tobin was not interested in adapting his music to suit a Live PA incorporating musicians . He instead used turntables which he felt had more in common with his approach to music production . He is known for building Dolby Digital 7 @.@ 1 surround sound speaker systems for his performances .
In 2011 Tobin has developed a live show in support of the album ISAM fitting his criteria for a performance that is both live and purely electronic . He told Wired Magazine " The idea was to integrate myself , quite literally , into an audio and visual presentation of the album , " . It incorporates the use of new video mapping techniques that are projected onto a large cubic structure from which Tobin performs . The show has been met with international acclaim described by Vice Magazine 's Creators Project as " revolutionizing the live music experience " .
Tobin has performed individual shows in many countries including tours in Europe , Australia , Japan , and the United States . His 2003 live performance in Melbourne , Australia was used for the fourth album in Ninja Tune 's Solid Steel series because Tobin was not available to record a studio mix at the time . Many songs from the original recording were omitted because of copyright issues with the original artists , including the R & B group Destiny 's Child .
A second Solid Steel album called Foley Room Recorded Live in Brussels was recorded in Brussels at the Ancienne Belgique in 2007 and was released for free in November 2008 . According to Tobin 's official website , " After months of back and forth and despite everyone 's best efforts the mix was in danger of being edited into the ground to accommodate big labels and publishers . Rather than release a compromised version commercially , the decision was made to give it away for free instead . "
= = Discography = =
Tobin has released eight major studio albums :
1996 : Adventures in Foam ( under alias Cujo )
1997 : Bricolage
1998 : Permutation
2000 : Supermodified
2002 : Out from Out Where
2005 : Chaos Theory – Splinter Cell 3 Soundtrack
2007 : Foley Room
2011 : ISAM
In addition , his body of work includes 21 extended play ( EP ) albums which contain several B @-@ sides each , a live album for Ninja Tune 's Solid Steel series , new material for various compilation albums , and original tracks available as free downloads on his website .
Tobin 's music has been used in several major motion pictures including The Italian Job and 21 . He has also produced tracks for a number of independent films , such as The Last Minute , and has created production music for the BMG Zomba commercial library which is used in various films . In 2006 he scored the soundtrack for the Hungarian horror film Taxidermia which was made available on his website . He also produced the score for the 2009 documentary Pax Americana and the Weaponization of Space .
In 2006 he began collaborating on a hip @-@ hop oriented project with drum & bass / jungle producer Doubleclick and a number of guest vocalists . Under the name Two Fingers , the pair have released several singles followed by their self @-@ titled debut album in 2009 .
In 2009 he collaborated on a track titled Sylo with the UK drum and bass artist Dom & Roland for the album No Strings Attached .
In April 2010 , a small body of work Tobin composed and produced for the video game Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Conviction was available for streaming on his website .
In January 2011 , his artist page was updated on Ninja Tune 's official website , announcing a new album in 2011 , called ISAM , as well as a Splinter Cell : Chaos Theory remix album . Later , the official Ping Pong Facebook page suggested that ISAM would be released on May 9 , 2011 . After being leaked by a journalist with a press copy of the album , ISAM was instead released on April 20 , 2011 .
In 2015 , four years since his last EP , Tobin released Dark Jovian ( EP ) , which contains tracks made after " binge @-@ watching space exploration films . "
|
= Astraea ( album ) =
Astraea is the third studio album by British mathcore band Rolo Tomassi . It was released on 5 November 2012 in the United Kingdom through Destination Moon , the band 's own record label . In interviews , the band described the composition of the album as being much more accessible and direct than their previous albums , while retaining the technical and experimental elements of their typical sound . The album was produced by Jason Sanderson , the producer of Rolo Tomassi 's first album Hysterics . This is the band 's first release with Chris Cayford and Nathan Fairweather in their line @-@ up after the departure of Joseph Thorpe and Joe Nicholson .
The album was recorded in various locations across Nottingham , United Kingdom including James Spence 's house and The Bodega club night venue . This was because the band 's producer , Sanderson had come into contractual issues with the land owner of his recording studio . The album was critically acclaimed , praised for both its increased accessibility , sonic development and the increased use of Eva Spence 's singing . However , the album performed poorly commercially , failing to chart or make significant sales in upon its release .
= = Background = =
Rolo Tomassi only completed one short tour of the United Kingdom in 2011 . They spent all the year preparing for their new album and the creation of Destination Moon , the band 's own record label . They released a compilation CD , Eternal Youth , in mid @-@ 2011 to compile selected works from their numerous split EPs , demos and out @-@ of @-@ print extended plays . When asked about leaving Hassle to form their own record label , the band stated " We were questioning what we were doing for our label that we couldn 't do ourselves . We 've always been very proactive with the running of our band and we 've never given away much freedom . " The band announced in early February 2012 that both Joseph Thorpe and Joe Nicholson had left the band . This was because Joe Nicholson wanted to read chemistry at university , while Thorpe 's reasons were related to personal differences . The band replaced both with Chris Cayford , who is the current frontman and former guitarist of No Coast , and Nathan Fairweather , who plays in Brontide , making this the first release with the new line @-@ up .
The title of the album has been cited as having several origins . Some have suggested it gets its name from the Greek goddess of justice Astraea . Another possibility is ASTRAEA , ( Autonomous Systems Technology Related Airborne Evaluation & Assessment ) an acronym for the development of British unmanned aerial vehicle . The album 's title acted as a reference to the Spence siblings ' admiration for greek mythology and a desire to pick an title that made the album " sound big and like this proper body of work " . James Spence described Astraea and the band 's previous album Cosmology as being " really grand titles " .
= = Writing and recording = =
Writing for the album started as early as July 2011 . James Spence also had stated that in that period the band have at least two songs written with the lyrics being self @-@ reflective , a common theme for the band 's music . Around this time as well , Rolo Tomassi expressed interest in working with Anthony Gonzalez or Kurt Ballou respectively of M83 and Converge as producers for the third album . However at the time insufficient progress had been made for them to search for producers . James Spence had said that with this record he wished to experiment with shoegaze , " dreamy keyboard [ s ] " and utilising more melodic passages . Spence has also commented that " quite progressive synth @-@ based music " such as M83 and the horror film soundtracks Goblin have produced acted as influences .
Because all the members were working their band schedule round their jobs they had to practice in basic recording rooms and write and record their own ideas . From this the members listened to each other 's ideas and gave their interpretations and evaluations . Synthesiser player James felt the band produced their best work with this method as they were constantly assessing themselves .
In the writing of previous albums by Rolo Tomassi a majority of the music was written by James and Eva Spence wrote most of the lyrics . For Astraea , the band treated it as a collaboration between all five members ; however James and Cayford were the " main brains " . In January 2012 , in an interview with Kerrang ! , Eva Spence confirmed that the band are self @-@ producing their third full @-@ length with Hysterics producer Jason Sanderson . The choice of returning to Sanderson was because he has been a close friend of the band members for a long time . Regarding the sound of the album , she stated that it will be " more direct and heavier " , but also noted that the band " will never shy away from being experimental " . However , James Spence went on record saying that during the actual production of the album the band did not consider themselves as part of the overall production ; rather just having a say in every aspect of the album progress . In April 2012 , the NME did a studio update with on the album with James Spence stating that the band 's writing was " 70 % complete " . He credited how the new members Chris and Nathan " breathed new life " into the band 's writing as the original three members had become " too set in their ways " . The band members have commented that this has made the writing a lot more fun as the band no longer writes a song then learns it . As the band wrote Astraea they decided to contrast with their typical style more with the clean and ethereal parts , which led to an increase of Eva 's singing .
They started recording Astraea in June at James Spence 's house in Nottingham . They were forced into this situation as Sanderson 's recording studio was taken from him through a contractual issue on the building with the landlord . The recording process was different from previous albums as there was a lot of production and pre @-@ production involved . Sanderson would come to the practice sessions of the bands and make suggestions to the songs and then they would go to record it . The album took three months to record because of band member 's personal commitments , this to James Spence had a positive effect as the members took their time with the music , believing the album was more “ produced ” than previous efforts . James believed Rolo Tomassi had much more of an opportunity to experiment in the studio and try things they had never tried before . However , James had commented that the recording of the album in his house revealed to be a stressful decision . An example of this was were his basement- where all the recording equipment was- flooded due to heavy rainfall . Although nothing got damaged , stagnant water remained and they had to move the guitar cab to his bedroom . They recorded the drums upstairs at The Bodega in Nottingham then Rolo Tomassi then went to James and Eva Spence 's parents house record the vocals , keyboard and pianos .
= = Musical style = =
Much like the band 's previous work Astraea is considered primarily as mathcore . This is displayed in the theoretical complexity of their music , such as odd time signatures like 9 / 13 , polyrhythmic drumming and use of dynamics , akin to bands such as Converge , Radiohead and Sigur Rós . Their sound is seen as a " stylistic schism " between " Dillinger Escape Plan @-@ esque tech @-@ metalcore , grandstanding prog rock and modish synthesised pop " and fusing aesthetics from shoegaze , space rock , ambient , black metal , hardcore punk , jazz , pop , progressive rock and techno . The band is noted for their two vocalists who utilise both screaming and singing vocals , and the album is described as featuring more ' clean vocals ' than previous albums . The band 's vocal diversity is said to : " immediately creates a rich and textured sonic world " . Eva has been seen as pushing her vocals " further than ever before , displaying extremity , contrasted with canorous beauty " , with her singing voice being compared to the dream pop stylings of Grimes and Cocteau Twins . When Eva Spence has been asked about the album 's musical approach , is much more ' hard @-@ hitting ' and ' more direct ' than previous albums . She was quoted saying that the album is much more accessible than their previous albums : " You can get your teeth into it much quicker , people who didn 't have patience before with our music before will be into this record . It 's still technical , but we 're using the mathy bits more sparingly . "
The album opens out with ' Howl ' , a grinding , but graceful opener . The song starts with an opening two minutes of intense and spacious drone synthesisers . The following two minutes of the song break into " unrelenting and brutal " mathcore with Eva Spence making her vocal debut with her " gleefully guttural vocal register " . The song is used as an example of how the band is using more complex , but ' more rewarding ' song structures in their music . ‘ Ex Luna Scientia ’ , the opening single for the album is seen as a more expansive and more melodic song in comparison to their previous work , placing emphasis on Eva Spence ’ s singing rather than her trademark ' guttural ' style . Rock Sound reviewer Oliver Robertson used the song as an example for the sonic development of the album as it is " more focused on making each element stand out now , rather than creating simply a cacophony of noise . " The introduction to ' Empiresk ' is seen as being " completely caked in reverb " and ends with a stoner riff . The " sparse piano chords " that open both ' Empiresk ' and ' Prelude II ' , among the atmospheric breaks that are featured on other tracks on the album defy the aggression featured on the rest of Astraea . Songs like ' The Scales of Balance ' , ' Remancer ' and ' Gloam ' are seen as having a fimiliar style to the Rolo Tomassi 's previous work . ' Gloam ' , specifically the last half of the song , showcases a " battle between melodic keyboard [ s ] and screamed vocals with a real sense of urgency and threat . " ' Remancer ' specifically has been considered as almost like Mastodon . The album closes with ' Illuminare ' , a song which Metal Hammer reviewer Merlin Alderslade cites as showing Radiohead and Sigur Rós influences .
Lyrically , Eva Spence credited on how the Astraea was a lot more positive than their previous material due to having time off between tours and being able to relax in the writing process . " I feel happier than I have done in the past few years . I 'm seeing things in a positive light and I hope the lyrics will be more uplifting " In an interview with James Spence about the early writing process and how the lyrics have an essence of self @-@ reflection as a common theme in the band 's work , " it 's not something people normally look at or focus on ; self @-@ reflection as a theme , but if you ignore what 's happening to you and how it 's making you think about things then I don 't think that 's good . "
= = Release and promotion = =
In early February 2012 , Rolo Tomassi announced the release of a new single : ' Old Mystics ' . ' Old Mystics ' and its B @-@ side ' Mesmerizer ' was written by synthesiser play James Spence in the earliest stages of the Astraea 's writing , in late 2011 . The single was uploaded to the band 's Facebook profile to stream for free . They released the single on 26 March . The band announced a few days after releasing " Old Mystics " for streaming that it will most likely not appear on the new album and will just be a stand @-@ alone single as they felt the two songs did not fit onto Astraea . Rolo Tomassi completed their first tour of the year as the main support for Architects on a 14 @-@ date UK tour in April . They used this tour to promote their new single ' Old Mystics ' as well as debut other unrecorded new material from the album , such as songs ' Howl ' and ' Remancer ' . Rolo Tomassi 's presence on the tour was met with positive reception ; however , reviewers believed the band 's music was too aggressive and chaotic for fans of Architects . Tim Sewell when writing for The Courier Online said that : " it was apparent that much of the crowd ( mostly Architects fans ) were left a little confused by singer / shewolf Eva Spence , who flung herself about in front of them screaming . "
The album 's release date was delayed several times . Kerrang ! magazine initially announced that Astraea was expected to be released in May . But by April the album was then declared as being released in October . On 16 August 2012 , the band issued both the track listing for the album its title , Astraea and unveiled its British release date as 5 November . Before the Astraea 's release , they completed an October tour of Britain with support from Oathbreaker and Goodtime Boys and then went on to support the album in Europe in November 2012 which , as a tour was 24 shows in 26 days . One music video and one single spawned out of the release of Astraea . The single was ' Ex Luna Scientia ' which was released in September 2012 . The music video was for ' Howl ' and was released in early March 2013 .
The aims of Astraea , in James Spence 's mind , was to help reach parts of the world they 've been unable to tour , like North America and South @-@ east Asia as well as desiring to tour and support the album all of 2013 . The band learned their studio output was not as easy to re @-@ create live as it was with previous albums . An example was with the song ' Gloam ' as the pedal changes were too rapid for live performances .
The band completed a small British tour in January 2013 , but in May that year Rolo Tomassi completed another short British tour with Bastions , the band was noted for only costing five pound a ticket for all venues . They picked Bastions as they were aware of them because of their mutual relationship with Holy Roar Records and how their bassist played in Crocus , a band which has played with Rolo Tomassi in the past . Rolo Tomassi 's decision of making the shows of the tour only cost five pound was questioned by interviewer Samantha Booth when writing for The National Student , James replied saying it was for the sake of encouraging people to come see them and because of the high prices of concert tickets . The band has hinted that their touring schedule would go " further afield " than Europe . In September Rolo Tomassi performed on three out of the four dates of the Japanese touring festival Reverberation Festival . In September and October , starting just three days after their Japanese performances Rolo Tomassi completed 13 date tour of Australia with Australian bands Totally Unicorn and Stockades . It is the first time the band has been in the country since 2010 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album received critical acclaim from popular critics . BBC issued a very much favourable review of the album as writer Noel Gardner praised Rolo Tomassi as remaining a " remarkably singular band " three albums into their career . Drowned In Sound writer Pieter Macmillan commented positively on their use of vocals on the album saying " having male and female vocals and the ability to switch from singing to screaming and back again immediately creates a rich and textured sonic world if it ’ s done well , as it certainly is here . "
The Fly magazine gave the album a four out of five star rating summarising the album as " blissed @-@ out ecstasy " . New Musical Express writer Barry Nicolson gave the album an 8 out of 10 and drew parallels between the album titles name , being derived from the Greek goddess of justice by concluding his review with " If there is any justice in the world , here ’ s an album richly deserving of some . " Metal Hammer reviewers praised the album for its increase in ' clean vocals ' and less disjointed song writing but still being heavy .
John Doran of online magazine The Quietus gave the album a glowing review expecting it to appear in his publicationsend of year lists , describing it in summary as a triumph : " Rolo Tomassi are miles ahead of the game not just because they are constantly trying to break new ground but also because they have entered a nuclear arms race of progressiveness with their own back catalogue . " Oliver Robertson when writing for Rock Sound magazine gave the album a 7 out of 10 and started his review by praising the band saying " deviating little from the blueprint while making some of the finest mathcore albums of the past few years " . Considering the album as a sign of Rolo Tomassi maturing as a band .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album earned numerous best @-@ of lists in 2012 . Appearing on Rock Sounds top 50 at 47 , The Quietus at number 62 out of 75 , Kerrang ! scored the album at 35 out of 101 and Ourzone at number 22 out of 25
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Rolo Tomassi
Eva Spence – lead vocals
James Spence – synthesizer , vocals
Edward Dutton – drums
Chris Cayford – lead guitar
Nathan Fairweather – bass guitar
Additional personnel
Jason Sanderson – production
|
= Theatre Europe =
Theatre Europe is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services . It was first released in the United Kingdom for the Commodore 64 , ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC and Atari 8 @-@ bit home computers in 1985 . It was later released in France by ERE Informatique in 1986 , and was released in the United States by Datasoft later that year . It was also ported to the Tatung Einstein home computer in 1989 , exclusively in the United Kingdom . It is the fifth instalment of the Strategic Wargames series .
The game is set during a fictional war in Europe between NATO and the Warsaw Pact , in which both sides use nuclear and chemical weapons against each other . The main objective of the game is to fight conventional battles in continental Europe , whilst trying to avoid a worldwide nuclear holocaust . Throughout the game , various capital cities and their civilian populations will be destroyed by nuclear weapons ; the game will only end once either side is forced to surrender or if the entire population of Europe perishes . In order to request a nuclear strike , the player was required to call a dedicated telephone number , which led to an automated message announcing the authorisation code .
During development , the developers obtained extensive information and statistics of military strength from the Ministry of Defence and the Soviet embassy in London . Theatre Europe gained national controversy upon release , receiving criticism from both the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) and The Sun newspaper . Some high street retail chains refused to sell the game upon release . Despite the controversy , the game received critical acclaim from reviewers . Praise was directed at its accuracy , playability and value for money . It won the " Best Strategy Game " award at the 1985 Golden Joystick Awards and was nominated for the " Game of the Year " title .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and revolves around a fictional conflict between the powers of NATO and allies of the Warsaw Pact . The player has the choice of choosing either NATO or the Warsaw Pact ( collectively referred to as Soviet forces ) , or a " demo " computer versus computer option , where the game plays itself . The game takes place over a period of 30 in @-@ game days , in which one day is equal to one " round " . There are three types of difficulty ; level one , in which unless provoked , the enemy will not use nuclear weapons , whilst levels two and three will enable the enemy to use nuclear and chemical attacks to prevent the player from winning the game .
The main feature of the game is focused on a map of Europe and western Russia , which displays accurate terrain such as mountain ranges , major cities , borders and all military forces belonging to each side . The game also features an arcade sequence which involves shooting down enemy units in order to secure combat bonuses ; this gameplay mode , however , can be ignored by changing the game 's settings . If the arcade sequences are turned on , the player will be notified to choose a battle on the map . Depending on the area chosen , an illustration of a battle commencing in countryside or a city is presented with various forms of military equipment including aeroplanes , helicopters and tanks . The player must shoot down and destroy enemy units using their cursor , in similar style to Missile Command . The outcome of the arcade sequence will affect the game ; performing poorly will result in severe losses throughout that round .
After combat has been resolved , the player must move and assemble their forces in continental Europe , which is known as the movement phase . Two special units are exclusively available to the Warsaw Pact : " the 1st Airborne Army which can be flown directly behind enemy lines , and the 1st Amphibious Army which can move over the sea to a tactical attack point " . Units are moved by cursor , and only one may be moved at a time . Once all units have been moved within a round , the attack phase will begin . Any amount of friendly units may attack an opposing army ; however , once a unit has been dispatched for battle it cannot be stopped until the current attack phase concludes . During the attacking phase , a separate screen displaying combat information , such as enemy numbers and casualties , is displayed . If the screen detailing the attacking phase has been turned off in the settings , the battle will instead be decided on warrants of air superiority and armaments .
After battle sequences , the player will have the opportunity to rebuild their units by allocating a quantity of armament supplies , such as air support , which can be issued to any friendly unit on the map . After rebuilding ground units , the game will move onto an " air phase " , which consists of commanding aircraft such as aeroplanes , bombers and a limited number of reserve air units . Several options for allocating air forces include : counter air strikes , reconnaissance on enemy movement , interdiction , assault breakers , and deep strikes . Counter air strikes involve attacks on enemy air bases , whereas interdiction involves aircraft being sent behind enemy lines in order to attack supply and movement networks . If interdiction aircraft are discovered in enemy territory , there will be a chance that the side will respond with a retaliatory nuclear strike . The remaining three aircraft options are to attack a single unit , strike enemy territory , and attack railways in order to disable enemy reinforcements , respectively .
The game allows the player to request chemical and nuclear tactical strikes against the enemy . A chemical attack is automatically targeted at an enemy capital city , and will conclude with a readout announcing the outcome of the attack , such as civilian casualties . In order to launch a strategic nuclear attack , the player is given 30 seconds to call a dedicated 1 @-@ 800 telephone number and obtain a special authorisation code from the automated answerphone message . Once the authorisation code has been received , the player will be given three separate options on how to proceed . Standby mode will postpone the nuclear launch , whereas a strategic launch will involve one nuclear warhead targeting a city . The third option , known as " Fire @-@ Plan " , will issue a full @-@ scale nuclear strike across Europe and may result in a nuclear holocaust , which will end the game .
= = Background and release = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , West Midlands , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic battles and conflicts , such as Battle of Britain , Bismarck and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pulling out " from the Spectrum market by video game journalist Phillipa Irving . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid @-@ 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties ; Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
In an interview with Your Computer magazine , Richard Cockayne stated that Theatre Europe received heavy criticism from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) and The Sun newspaper , respectively . The CND accused the developers of " bad taste " , despite Cockayne claiming that the organisation never " looked into the product " . During development of the game , Cockayne and Mays obtained figures and statistics of various military strength from the Ministry of Defence and the Soviet embassy in London . Cockayne asserted that the statistics the developers gained were realistically plausible , stating that he would let the " horrifying results speak for themselves " during the game . Game designer Alan Steel stated that during testing , he was " alarmed " to discover when the computer played itself , the Warsaw Pact always won a conventional war overwhelmingly , forcing NATO to either surrender or begin a nuclear war . Steel adjusted the game to give NATO a chance to win . Theatre Europe was first released in the United Kingdom for the Commodore 64 , ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC and Atari 8 @-@ bit home computers in 1985 . It was then re @-@ released in France and the United States for those consoles in 1986 . Due to lobbying from the CND , high street outlets such as Boots and John Menzies refused to sell the game in their stores , with the former finding it " morally offensive " .
= = Reception = =
The game received critical acclaim upon release . Gwyn Hughes of Your Sinclair defended the accuracy and morality of the game , stating that it was not in " bad taste " and that the game was a " well researched program " , which he thought would give the player an insight into the nature of modern war . Philippa Irving of Crash similarly stated that Theatre Europe offered more than a usual " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill " war game and heralded its simplistic nature , adding that novice gamers would " get in to it with ease " . John Gilbert of Sinclair User added scepticism over the developer 's intention of making something " so serious " as opposed to their other titles , however he praised the game as a " brilliant , if chilling " simulation . A reviewer writing for ZX Computing similarly stated that the game was " superbly chilling " and " extremely " well @-@ presented . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games criticised the inferior graphics on the ZX Spectrum , stating that they were " a bit flawed " in comparison to the Commodore 64 version .
Mark Reed of Computer Gamer noted that the game attracted media attention , despite the objective of the game discouraging the use of nuclear weapons . Reed praised the presentation and gameplay , also stating that the use of a joystick and keyboard is " excellent " . A reviewer of Zzap ! 64 heralded the presentation and value for money , stating that it is overall " very special indeed " . The reviewer also gave praise to the sound , suggesting that the game featured " one of the best pieces of micro music ever " . Peter Connor of Advanced Computer Entertainment said that Theatre Europe was a " gift " , in regards to its value of money and level of playability . The game won the " Best Strategy Game " award at the 1985 Golden Joystick Awards and was also nominated for the " Game of the Year " title .
|
= Oswald Watt =
Walter Oswald Watt , OBE ( 11 February 1878 – 21 May 1921 ) was an Australian aviator and businessman . The son of a Scottish @-@ Australian merchant and politician , he was born in England and moved to Sydney when he was one year old , returning to Britain at the age of eleven for education at Bristol and Cambridge . In 1900 he went back to Australia and enlisted in the Militia , before acquiring cattle stations in New South Wales and Queensland . He was also a partner in the family shipping firm .
The first Australian to qualify for a Royal Aero Club flying certificate , in 1911 , Watt joined the French Foreign Legion as a pilot on the outbreak of World War I. He transferred to the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) in 1916 , quickly progressing from flight commander with No. 1 Squadron in Egypt to commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron on the Western Front . By February 1918 , he had been promoted to lieutenant colonel and taken command of the AFC 's 1st Training Wing in England .
A recipient of France 's Legion of Honour and Croix de Guerre , and twice mentioned in despatches during the war , Watt was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1919 . He left the military to pursue business interests in Australia , and was lauded for his generosity to other returned airmen . In 1921 , at the age of forty @-@ three , he died by accidental drowning at Bilgola Beach , New South Wales , . He is commemorated by the Oswald Watt Gold Medal for outstanding achievement in Australian aviation , and the Oswald Watt Fund at the University of Sydney .
= = Early career = =
Born on 11 February 1878 in Bournemouth , England , Oswald Watt was the youngest son of John Brown Watt , a Scot who had migrated to New South Wales in 1842 and became a successful merchant and politician , frequently representing his state on overseas missions . Oswald 's Australian @-@ born mother , Mary Jane , died when he was one and shortly afterwards the family relocated to Sydney . Oswald was sent back to England at the age of eleven to complete his schooling at Clifton College , Bristol , before going on to study at Trinity College , Cambridge , where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1899 . Returning to Sydney in 1900 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the New South Wales Scottish Rifles , a Militia unit , and in 1902 was appointed an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor of New South Wales . On 27 September that year , he married Muriel Williams at St. John 's Anglican Church in Toorak , Victoria ; the couple had one son .
Watt 's family was wealthy , and he was able to establish himself as a grazier by purchasing several cattle stations in New South Wales and Queensland . Travelling abroad again , he obtained his Master of Arts degree from Cambridge in 1904 . In October the following year he was promoted to captain in the Scottish Rifles . On a subsequent trip to England he took flying lessons at the Bristol aviation school on Salisbury Plain , where his fellow students included Eric Harrison . Watt attained his Royal Aero Club certificate , no . 112 , on 1 August 1911 , becoming the first Australian citizen so qualified . Upon his return to Australia later that year , he publicly declared that the time was " rapidly approaching when an aero corps [ would ] have to be inaugurated " as part of the country 's " military defence scheme " .
In March 1912 , Watt recommended a location in Canberra near the Royal Military College , Duntroon , as a base for the Army 's proposed Central Flying School . Owing to its altitude and nearby mountainous terrain , the site was rejected by the school 's nominated commanding officer , Lieutenant Henry Petre . Petre eventually chose 297 hectares at Point Cook , Victoria , an area suitable for seaplanes as well as land @-@ based aircraft , to become the " birthplace of Australian military aviation " . Watt also advocated manufacturing foreign @-@ designed aircraft under licence in Australia , but this would not be pursued until after World War I. In 1913 he was divorced on the grounds of " misconduct " with actress Ivy Schilling , and lost custody of his son in the judgment . He then went to Egypt , where he purchased and practised flying a Blériot XI monoplane ; while there he met leading French aviators Louis Blériot and Roland Garros .
= = World War I = =
In May 1914 , the francophile Watt left Egypt with his aeroplane and took up employment at the Blériot factory and airfield in Buc , outside Paris . Fired by the widely held conviction that Britain would stay out of a European conflict , Watt offered his services and his plane to the French government on 2 August , the day France declared war on Germany . This gesture was welcomed and he joined the Aviation Militaire section of the Foreign Legion as a pilot . Though he was ranked an ordinary soldier , his colleagues in Bleriot Squadron No. 30 referred to him as " Capitaine " in deference to his previous status in the Australian Militia . Posted to Maurice Farman Squadron No. 44 in April 1915 , he earned the Legion of Honour badge after he and his observer crash @-@ landed in no man 's land and succeeded in making their way back to French lines with valuable intelligence under intense fire from German positions . Soon afterwards , Watt was awarded the Croix de Guerre — with palm leaves personally presented by General Joffre — and promoted to the provisional rank of captain . As a foreigner , however , he was not eligible to command a French unit . Watt always proclaimed his antipodean connection while serving France , painting a kangaroo on the nose of his plane , which he named Advance Australia . Considered a no @-@ nonsense type , he once introduced himself to a British pilot with the words " I am an Australian and I haven 't got any manners " .
The French recognised that Watt 's talents were not being fully utilised due to his ineligibility to lead a squadron , and recommended that he transfer to the Australian Flying Corps . Watt did so on 1 March 1916 , with the rank of captain . Posted to Egypt in May , he was made commander of B Flight , No. 1 Squadron , and took charge of the unit 's first contingent of Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s the following month . No. 1 Squadron was engaged mainly in aerial reconnaissance and army co @-@ operation duties , but the two @-@ seat B.E.2 proved inferior to German Fokkers and Rumplers in speed , time @-@ to @-@ climb , and manoeuvrability . In September 1916 , Watt was promoted to major and given command of No. 2 Squadron , which was formed in Kantara . He was mentioned in despatches by General Archibald Murray , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , on 13 October ; the commendation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 1 December . No. 2 Squadron 's personnel was composed largely of former Lighthorsemen , as well as thirteen mechanics from the Australian Flying Corps ' first combat formation , the Mesopotamian Half Flight , led by Flight Sergeant George Mackinolty . Watt personally trained the force in England commencing in January 1917 , before deploying it to the Western Front that September . He was " a born leader of men " , according to one officer , while another recalled that " In the things that mattered , his men knew he stood for absolute obedience . They also knew that when discipline could be safely relaxed he would be quick to grant them some relief from the strain . "
In the vicinity of Saint @-@ Quentin on 2 October , No. 2 Squadron became the first AFC unit in Europe to see aerial combat when one of its patrols engaged some German two @-@ seaters , which managed to escape . Because the Airco DH.5s in the squadron were handicapped as fighters by engine problems and low speed , the squadron was employed mainly in ground support duties . During the Battle of Cambrai that commenced on 20 November 1917 , Watt led his pilots on daring low @-@ level bombing and strafing attacks against enemy fortifications and lines of communication . Their loss rate reached 30 % , but morale remained high . After visiting the squadron , the Royal Flying Corps ' Major General Hugh Trenchard described its airmen as " really magnificent " while Charles Bean , war correspondent and future editor of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 , commented on their " remarkably high level of conduct and general tone " . Six of Watt 's officers were awarded the Military Cross for gallantry during the battle , prompting General Sir William Birdwood to send him a personal message of congratulation on 16 December , declaring : " ... This is indeed a magnificent record for your squadron , and one of which I am sure everyone of you must rightly be extremely proud ; I doubt if it has been beaten anywhere ... " By this time , No. 2 Squadron had begun converting to Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s , though it could achieve little in the winter months due to inclement weather . Watt himself , now almost forty , was beginning to show the strain of frontline command . Bean found him looking " very worn " and noticed him shivering even while seated in front of the mess hall fire .
In February 1918 , Watt was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of the AFC 's 1st Training Wing ( Nos. 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 Squadrons ) headquartered at Tetbury in Gloucestershire , England ; the wing 's role was to train replacement pilots for the four operational AFC squadrons in Palestine and France . Watt proposed moving the wing to France , but it remained in England . He was mentioned in despatches by Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig on 7 April , and the commendation was gazetted on 28 May . Shortly after the end of hostilities in November 1918 , novelist William John Locke visited 1st Training Wing and found that " there was not one [ of Watt 's men ] who ... did not confide to me his pride in serving under a leader so distinguished " . A pilot later opined that as well as having " courage , determination , and an immense capacity for work " , Watt possessed " the greatest factor in leadership , a genius for endearing himself ( without conscious effort ) to all who served under him " .
= = Post @-@ war career and legacy = =
Watt was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1919 , in recognition of his war service . He returned to Australia on 6 May with the rest of 1st Training Wing 's personnel , aboard the troopship Kaisar @-@ i @-@ Hind , on which he was the ranking officer . Leaving the AFC soon afterwards , he was elected president of the New South Wales section of the Australian Aero Club . He also served as senior delegate on a committee of veteran military pilots examining applications for appointment to a proposed independent Australian air service . Watt was esteemed as a man who did not forget old comrades , providing former AFC members with financial aid and helping them re @-@ establish themselves in civilian life . He maintained an interest in commercial flying but refused an offer to take up the position of controller of civil aviation in 1920 owing to his business interests , which included partnership in the family shipping firm of Gilchrist , Watt & Sanderson Ltd , and directorships of mining , rubber , and art corporations . He also turned down invitations to stand for parliament , and to join the fledgling Royal Australian Air Force .
Oswald Watt drowned at Bilgola Beach , near Newport , New South Wales , on 21 May 1921 . Cuts and bruising on his body indicated that he had slipped on rocks , struck his head , and rolled unconscious into relatively shallow water . Survived by his 15 @-@ year @-@ old son , he was accorded a military funeral two days later at St Jude 's Church , Randwick . Members of the AFC , Royal Air Force , and Australian Aero Club formed a guard of honour at the service , one of the largest in the suburb 's history , which also included representatives of the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Army . Among the tributes was a floral wreath from an anonymous group of French admirers , and another that was dropped by parachute from a low @-@ flying plane . On 31 May , Watt 's body was cremated and his ashes interred in the family vault at St Jude 's .
In his will , Watt left two bequests to the Australian Aero Club , one of which was used to establish the Oswald Watt Gold Medal for outstanding achievement in Australian aviation . Winners of the award have included Charles Kingsford Smith , Bert Hinkler , Henry Millicer , Ivor McIntyre , Jon Johanson and Andy Thomas . He also bequeathed a sum to the Royal Military College , Duntroon , to award annually a set of binoculars for the best cadet essay on military aviation or aeronautics . The award was founded as the Oswald Watt Prize later in 1921 . Most of the residue of Watt 's estate went to the University of Sydney . Considered one of the university 's great benefactors , he was commemorated by the Oswald Watt Fund . In May 1923 , the Oswald Watt Wing of the Havilah Home for Orphans , Wahroonga , was opened by the Governor @-@ General of Australia . Watt was acknowledged as both a source and a reviewer by F.M. Cutlack in the latter 's volume on the Australian Flying Corps that was first published in 1923 as part of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 . During World War I , Oswald Watt had been the only AFC officer to command a wing apart from Lieutenant Colonel Richard Williams , who was later to become known as the " Father of the RAAF " . In 2001 , military historian Alan Stephens noted that " had fate drawn him to a post @-@ war career in the Air Force instead of to business and an untimely death , ' Toby ' Watt might have challenged Richard Williams as the RAAF 's dominant figure in its formative years " .
|
= Drosera regia =
Drosera regia , commonly known as the king sundew , is a carnivorous plant in the sundew genus Drosera that is endemic to a single valley in South Africa . The genus name Drosera comes from the Greek word droseros , meaning " dew @-@ covered " . The specific epithet regia is derived from the Latin for " royal " , a reference to the " striking appearance " of the species . Individual leaves can reach 70 cm ( 28 in ) in length . It has many unusual relict characteristics not found in most other Drosera species , including woody rhizomes , operculate pollen , and the lack of circinate vernation in scape growth . All of these factors , combined with molecular data from phylogenetic analysis , contribute to the evidence that D. regia possesses some of the most ancient characteristics within the genus . Some of these are shared with the related Venus flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula ) , which suggests a close evolutionary relationship .
The tentacle @-@ covered leaves can capture large prey , such as beetles , moths , and butterflies . The tentacles of all Drosera species are specialised stalked glands on the leaf 's upper surface that produce a sticky mucilage . The leaves are considered active flypaper traps that respond to captured prey by bending to surround it . In its native fynbos habitat , the plants compete for space with native marsh grasses and low evergreen shrubs . Of the two known populations of D. regia , the higher altitude site appears to be overgrown and is essentially extirpated . The lower altitude site is estimated to have about 50 mature plants , making it the most endangered Drosera species , since it is threatened with extinction in the wild . It is often cultivated by carnivorous plant enthusiasts , and a single cultivar has been registered .
= = Description = =
Drosera regia plants are fairly large herbs that produce horizontal woody rhizomes and a crown of large , linear leaves up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The leaves possess stalked glands ( tentacles ) on the upper surface of the lamina along nearly the entire length of the leaf . The leaves lack petioles and stipules , emerging by circinate vernation ( uncurling ) and tapering to a filiform point . The tentacles and the leaf itself are capable of responding to prey by bending toward insects trapped in the sticky mucilage produced by the glands . Leaves are even capable of folding over themselves several times . Each leaf can possess thousands of tentacles , which can aid in the retention of larger prey when combined with the leaf wrapping tightly around captured insects . In its native habitat , D. regia has been known to capture large beetles , moths and butterflies . Plants go dormant during the colder season and form a dormant bud , consisting of a tight cluster of short , immature leaves . Plants begin to break dormancy in mid @-@ July with a typical growing season lasting from October to April , though this is variable and plants can continue growing year @-@ round without dormancy . Individual leaves die back but remain attached to the short stem , clothing the bottom portion of the plant in the blackened dead leaves of former years .
The woody rhizomes produced by the plant are one of the unusual characteristics that it shares only with D. arcturi in the genus ; the absence of woody rhizomes in all other Drosera is often cited as an indication of the presumed ancient lineage of D. regia and D. arcturi . Drosera regia also produces relatively few thick , fleshy roots , which possess root hairs along the terminal 15 cm ( 6 in ) . Asexual reproduction of mature plants usually occurs after flowering with new plants arising from the rhizome and roots . After a fire , undamaged roots will often re @-@ sprout new plants .
Drosera regia flowers in January and February , producing scapes up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) long . The scapes emerge vertically , lacking the circinate vernation of its leaves and all other scapes of the genus Drosera , with the exception of D. arcturi . The scapes consist of two primary branches and bear 5 to 20 ( sometimes 30 ) unscented pink flowers with 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) long petals . Bracts are small , bearing some reduced tentacles . Each flower has three unbranched , spreading styles emerging from the top of the ovary and extending beyond the five erect stamens ( 15 mm long ) , which surround the ovary . This arrangement minimizes the chance of self @-@ fertilisation . Studies have shown that the operculate pollen shed in tetrads ( fused groups of four pollen grains ) , characteristics that are similar in the related Dionaea muscipula ( the Venus flytrap ) and Aldrovanda vesiculosa , is incompatible with clones , failing to produce seed when plants are self @-@ fertilised . Seeds are brown to black , linear and ornamented with fine network @-@ like markings , and 2 mm long and 0 @.@ 5 mm in diameter . Seed is shed by the end of March .
The unusual characteristics that set it apart from other species in the genus include the woody rhizome , undivided styles , and the operculate pollen . Drosera regia shares other features with the robust Tasmanian form of D. arcturi , including the lack of stipules and petioles and the non @-@ circinate growth of the scape .
It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n |
= 34 , which is unusual for the genus Drosera and closer to the diploid chromosome number of the Venus flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula ) , another member of the Droseraceae . Variable chromosome counts for Dionaea from multiple studies include 2n =
30 , 32 , and 33 . Of the Drosera species with known chromosome counts , most are a multiple of x |
= 10 . Based on an extensive review of karyotype studies , the botanist Fernando Rivadavia suggested that the base chromosome number for the genus could be 2n =
20 , a number that many Drosera species share including the widespread D. rotundifolia . Exceptions to this base number include the Australian , New Zealand and Southeast Asian Drosera , which have chromosome numbers ranging from 2n = 6 to 64 .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Drosera regia is endemic to South Africa and has only ever been found at two sites at altitudes of 500 and 900 m ( 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 000 ft ) in the Bainskloof Range near Wellington , Western Cape in South Africa . Despite extensive exploration , D. regia has not been found at any similar location in neighbouring valleys . Small morphological variations such as broader leaves have been recorded from these two small populations , which are restricted to an area of just a few hundred square meters . Drosera regia is found in a natural fynbos vegetation amongst dense marshy grasses . The fynbos habitat is similar to a low or medium shrubland or heathland , dominated by low evergreen shrubs .
The lower altitude site where D. regia is found is characterised by permanently damp soils consisting mostly of a gravel bench formed from a creek bed . The plants grow in a peaty quartzite sand , often with a gravel cover . Rhizomes of mature plants grow above ground and among associated grasses and sedges when gravel is absent and below ground when there is a gravel cover present . Associated vegetation included species of Leucadendron and members of the families Cyperaceae , Iridaceae , and Restionaceae . The habitat of D. regia depends on periodic fire sweeping through and keeping the larger plants from choking out D. regia . Frost occurs infrequently in the valley .
= = = Conservation status = = =
In a 2009 report of a 2006 trip , botanist Andreas Fleischmann noted that the higher altitude site is overgrown with plants of the family Restionaceae and he could not locate any remaining D. regia . The lower altitude site was in a similar state , but he recorded approximately 50 mature plants , making this one of the most critically endangered Drosera species . While D. regia has not been evaluated under the current International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) standards for a rating on the Red List of Threatened Species , the International Carnivorous Plant Society recognised D. regia on their list of imperiled carnivorous plant species . Drosera regia was also listed as " rare " on an early IUCN report in 1997 , but these earlier IUCN assessments were often poorly documented and are thus not relied upon today . Several other authors have identified how rare D. regia is in the wild , even calling it " threatened with extinction " .
= = Taxonomy and botanical history = =
Drosera regia was originally described by South African botanist Edith Layard Stephens in 1926 . The binomial name Drosera regia is derived from the Greek word droseros , meaning " dew @-@ covered " and the specific epithet regia comes from the Latin for " royal " , a reference to what Stephens described as its " striking appearance " . The genus is collectively referred to as the sundews , while Drosera regia is commonly referred to as the king sundew . Stephens was informed about this new species by Mr. J. Rennie , who had found several plants growing by a stream in the upper end of " Baviaans Kloof " on Easter in 1923 . Additional specimens were located directly above this site on a plateau between South Ridge Peak and Observation Point . A second population was located in 1926 about 6 @.@ 5 km ( 4 mi ) away below the Slanghoek Peak near the headwaters of the Witte River .
Stephens placed D. regia in section Psychophila Planch . , which at that time included D. arcturi , D. stenopetala , and D. uniflora , though she noted that the many @-@ flowered inflorescence was unusual for this group . In 1970 , the South African botanist Anna Amelia Obermeyer suggested that D. regia did not fit into any of the taxonomic groups established by Ludwig Diels in his 1906 monograph on the family . Obermeyer noted the unusual characteristics that set D. regia apart from any other Drosera species : the operculate pollen , circinate leaf vernation , undivided styles , and woody rhizomes . In 1994 , Rüdiger Seine and Wilhelm Barthlott proposed classifying D. regia as the sole species in a new subgenus , Drosera subg . Regiae , to " give adequate recognition to the isolated position of D. regia within the genus . " This taxonomic position was affirmed by Jan Schlauer in his dichotomous key and taxonomic revisions published in 1996 . Also in 1996 two Czech researchers , Jindřich Chrtek and Zdeňka Slavíková , proposed changes to the taxonomy of the genus by splitting D. regia off into its own , monotypic genus , Freatulina . Chrtek and Slavíková cited the many morphological differences between D. regia and every other member of the genus Drosera in support of their decision to make this taxonomic split . They reaffirmed their taxonomic opinions in a 1999 article that also split the tuberous Drosera , members of the subgenus Ergaleium , to Johann Georg Christian Lehmann 's resurrected genus Sondera . These taxonomic revisions , however , have not gained any support , being rejected or largely ignored by recent publications on the genus .
= = = Evolutionary relationships = = =
Phylogenetic analysis of morphological characteristics and gene sequences has supported the basal position within the genus long suspected of D. regia , often regarded as the most ancient of all extant Drosera species . Its distinct morphology and unique relict characteristics , ones it likely shared with the common ancestor of all Drosera such as the operculate pollen , led early researchers to suggest its ancient position in the genus . The first cladistic analysis based on rbcL and morphological data confirmed these ideas and suggested that D. regia formed a clade sister to all other Drosera surveyed , with Dionaea muscipula forming a sister clade to all Drosera . Further analysis in 2002 based on the nuclear 18S rDNA , plastid DNA ( rbcL , matK , atpB ) , and morphological data confirmed these relationships , supporting the basal position of D. regia in the genus and its close relationship with Dionaea and Aldrovanda . New analysis in 2003 revealed a close relationship between D. regia and D. arcturi , both of which clustered basally with respect to all other Drosera , suggesting a link between D. regia and all other Drosera through its relationship with D. arcturi .
Evidence for the evolution of " snap @-@ traps " of Dionaea and Aldrovanda from a flypaper trap like D. regia has also emerged and been argued for based on molecular data . The molecular and physiological data implies that the Venus flytrap ( Dionaea ) and Aldrovanda snap @-@ traps evolved from the flypaper traps of a common ancestor with the Drosera ; the living evidence of a link between Drosera and Dionaea is D. regia and its remnant characteristics . In this evolutionary model , pre @-@ adaptations to evolution into snap @-@ traps were identified in several species of Drosera , such as rapid leaf and tentacle movement . The model proposes that plant carnivory by snap @-@ trap evolved from the flypaper traps of Drosera , driven by increasing prey size . Larger prey can easily escape the sticky mucilage of flypaper traps ; the evolution of snap @-@ traps would largely prevent escape and kleptoparasitism ( theft of prey captured by the plant before it can derive any benefit from it ) .
= = Cultivation = =
Drosera regia cultivation was first attempted prior to the formal description of the species in 1926 . The author , Edith Layard Stephens , reported the successful cultivation of D. regia , noting that such success required " a moist and comparatively cool atmosphere " , similar to that of its native environment .
Drosera regia is often described as being a difficult species to cultivate , though modern reports on its cultivation have indicated which conditions have led to success for some . For optimal growth , D. regia appears to require good soil drainage and sufficient light levels , and prefers cooler temperatures . Cool nights and warm days have been reported to induce vigorous growth . Asexual propagation is frequently achieved through small root cuttings instead of leaf cuttings , which tend to rot before roots can form . Seed germination occurs as early as 10 days to 3 or 4 weeks with fresh seed , faster than many other Drosera species . Germination is phanerocotylar ( non @-@ glandular cotyledons exposed , free from seed coverings ) , with the first true leaves being alternate in arrangement .
In 2004 , William Joseph Clemens registered the only cultivar of this species , D. regia ' Big Easy ' . It is reputed to be more robust than other clones of the species and is also more compact with maximum leaf lengths of 23 cm ( 9 in ) . Under his culture conditions , ' Big Easy ' has also never flowered or gone dormant . Clemens originally obtained his D. regia from a vendor at the International Carnivorous Plant Society conference held in 2000 . After sufficient investigation , he registered the new cultivar in a 2004 issue of the Carnivorous Plant Newsletter , the quarterly publication of the International Carnivorous Plant Society .
|
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Dennis =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Dennis spanned twenty @-@ two days , beginning with its inception as a tropical wave over Africa on June 26 , 2005 , and terminating with its dissipation on July 18 over the Great Lakes of North America . The incipient wave that became Dennis emerged over the Atlantic Ocean on June 29 and moved briskly to the west . Dry air initially inhibited development , though once this abated the wave was able to consolidate into a tropical depression on July 4 . The depression soon crossed Grenada before entering the Caribbean Sea whereupon increasingly favorable environmental factors , such as low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , fueled intensification . Turning west @-@ northwest , the system achieved tropical storm status on July 5 and hurricane status the following day .
Formation of a well @-@ defined eye and central dense overcast signaled Dennis 's intensification into a major hurricane . The powerful storm soon struck Granma Province , Cuba , as a Category 4 early on July 8 ; violent winds battered the province and caused extensive damage . Paralleling the western coast of Cuba , Dennis attained its peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) later that day before making a second landfall in the country , this time in Matanzas Province . Interaction with the mountains of Cuba caused significant weakening ; however , once Dennis emerged over the Gulf of Mexico on July 9 , it was able to quickly reorganize . The hurricane reached Category 4 strength for a third time on July 10 as it approached Florida , weakening somewhat before striking the state . Dramatic weakening ensued once the cyclone moved ashore . Dennis lingered as a tropical depression and remnant low for roughly a week , traversing the Mississippi River Valley and Ohio River Valley before finally dissipating over Ontario on July 18 .
= = Origins = =
On June 26 , 2005 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave well @-@ inland over Africa . The feature was tracked via radiosonde observations from various nations for two days before being analyzed as a surface feature on June 28 over western Senegal . Accompanied by scattered convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — the westward moving system featured some cyclonic flow ; it emerged over the Atlantic Ocean early on June 29 . Conflicting observations from Dakar , Senegal , made tracking the wave difficult , with surface observations revealing a clear shift in wind direction and upper @-@ level soundings showing no change . Regardless of the exact position of the system , accompanying convection soon diminished and the system became ill @-@ defined . By June 30 , the system grew significantly and multiple low @-@ level circulations developed within the broader cyclonic envelope . Weather models at the time depicted a low probability of tropical cyclogenesis in the subsequent days . Gradual development ensued over the following days , though the broad circulation initially remained largely devoid of convection due to dry air associated with the Saharan Air Layer .
Two distinct low @-@ level centers became apparent on July 2 as the overall system progressed west . Surface observations from the Windward Islands and Guyana depicted a broad circulation ; however , satellite animations failed to show a defined center , inhibiting its classification as a tropical cyclone . The westernmost of the two centers moved across the Windward Islands early on July 4 and lost organization soon thereafter . Banding features developed with the eastern circulation throughout the day , consolidating around a 1012 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 89 inHg ) low . Later on July 4 , upper @-@ level outflow — an anticyclonic feature that provides thermal ventilation for tropical cyclones and allows for further development — became increasingly prominent . With continued organization , the NHC classified the system as Tropical Depression Four at 18 : 00 UTC at which time it was situated 65 mi ( 105 km ) east of St. George 's , Grenada .
= = Intensification and Cuban landfalls = =
Embedded within deep east @-@ southeasterly flow and along the periphery of a subtropical ridge , the depression moved rapidly along a west @-@ northwest course ; it soon made landfall over Grenada at 21 : 00 UTC on July 4 with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , deep convection flared over the system . Environmental conditions ahead of the depression favored intensification into a hurricane , with little to no wind shear — analyzed to be roughly 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) below average — and high sea surface temperatures around 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) present along its path . Based on satellite intensity estimates obtained through the Dvorak technique , the depression is assessed to have become a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC on July 5 . Accordingly , the NHC assigned it the name Dennis at this time . This marked the earliest formation of a season 's fourth named storm on record ; however , this was later surpassed by Tropical Storm Debby of 2012 which was named on June 23 .
Throughout July 6 , convection steadily consolidated as the system acquired a more northerly component to its track . Hurricane Hunters investigating Dennis found steadily falling barometric pressures , indicative of intensification . Around 22 : 00 UTC , observation from the aircraft indicated that Dennis achieved hurricane @-@ strength ; a central pressure of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) and flight @-@ level winds of 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) were measured . A central dense overcast soon blossomed over the hurricane 's center while microwave satellite imagery depicted a closed , well @-@ defined mid @-@ level eye . At this point , the only factor inhibiting development was interaction with the mountains of Hispaniola and Jamaica . Dennis developed unusually prominent outflow , especially along its western side , for its location and time of year due in part to an unseasonably weak trough over the mid @-@ Atlantic .
Rapid intensification ensued throughout July 7 , as Dennis turned more northwest and tracked through the Jamaica Channel . A well @-@ defined , 10 mi ( 16 km ) eye formed within the hurricane 's central dense overcast that evening . Dennis achieved major hurricane status by 18 : 00 UTC and Category 4 status by 00 : 00 UTC on July 8 as it approached southern Cuba . An abbreviated eyewall replacement cycle likely took place during this period as the eye expanded to 18 to 23 mi ( 29 to 37 km ) in diameter . Reconnaissance flying in the storm reported flight @-@ level winds of 154 mph ( 248 km / h ) , and based on this Dennis is estimated to have reached its initial peak with surface winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . Around 02 : 45 UTC , Dennis briefly moved over Granma Province , Cuba , with its center crossing the coast near Punta del Inglés ( close to Cabo Cruz ) . Violent and destructive winds battered the province . A weather station in Cabo Cruz reported sustained winds of 133 mph ( 214 km / h ) and a gust to 148 mph ( 238 km / h ) before being destroyed .
Interaction with land caused slight weakening ; however , Dennis soon emerged over the Gulf of Guacanayabo and the region 's shallow , warm waters fueled an abrupt reorganization . The hurricane traveled along the western spine of the Jardines de la Reina archipelago , subjecting the islands to Category 3 and 4 strength winds . Paralleling the coast of Cuba , Dennis attained its peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) around 12 : 00 UTC on July 8 . Hurricane Hunters observed flight @-@ level winds of 173 mph ( 278 km / h ) and a pressure of 938 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) around this time . The former value indicated surface winds around Category 5 strength while the latter yielded slightly lower winds , via a pressure @-@ wind relationship method . The aforementioned peak strength was chosen accordingly as a compromise between the conflicting data . Another eyewall replacement cycle took place soon after this peak and slight weakening ensued . Around 18 : 45 UTC , Dennis made its second landfall in Cuba near Punta Mangles Altos in Matanzas Province with winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) ; a gust of 149 mph ( 240 km / h ) was reported in Cienfuegos . Despite moving over land , weakening was initially slow due to the hurricane 's proximity to water . Nearly six hours after moving ashore , Unión de Reyes was subjected to sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) and gusts up to 123 mph ( 198 km / h ) .
= = Gulf of Mexico and dissipation = =
Maintaining its northwesterly course , Dennis emerged over the Gulf of Mexico just north of Havana around 05 : 00 UTC on July 9 . Prolonged interaction with the mountains of Cuba severely disrupted the hurricane 's core , though it managed to retain a ragged 14 mi ( 23 km ) wide eye . By the time Dennis emerged over water , its maximum winds fell to 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and its pressure rose to 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 74 inHg ) . Situated along the western periphery of a ridge , a gradual turn to the north @-@ northwest ensued . A cool eddy temporarily halted notable reorganization ; however , once Dennis cleared this eddy it was able to strengthen . Starting at 18 : 00 UTC , the hurricane underwent rapid intensification " at a rate that bordered on insane " , as described by forecaster Jack Beven . In the subsequent 18 hours , its central pressure fell by 32 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 95 inHg ) , including a drop of 11 mbar ( hPa ; 0 @.@ 32 inHg ) in 1 hour and 35 minutes . Hot towers extending to 10 mi ( 16 km ) were observed during the strengthening . The intensification culminated with Dennis attaining winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) at 06 : 00 UTC on July 10 and reaching its lowest pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 47 inHg ) at 12 : 00 UTC . This ranked Dennis as the strongest pre @-@ August hurricane in the Atlantic basin ; however , this was eclipsed just six days later by Hurricane Emily which was the first July Category 5 on record . At this time , the hurricane was situated roughly 180 mi ( 290 km ) southwest of Tallahassee , Florida . Although Dennis featured a large circulation with tropical storm @-@ force winds extending up to 230 mi ( 370 km ) from its center , its core was compact and hurricane @-@ force winds only stretched 40 mi ( 65 km ) outward .
During the latter part of July 10 , Dennis traversed an area with lower ocean heat content . Coupled with entrainment of mid- to upper @-@ level dry air , notable weakening took place as the hurricane approached the Florida Panhandle . Around 19 : 30 UTC , Dennis made its third and last landfall as a major hurricane over Santa Rosa Island , between Navarre Beach and Gulf Breeze , with estimated winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a pressure of 946 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 94 inHg ) . A Florida Coastal Management Program tower in Navarre observed sustained winds of 99 mph ( 159 km / h ) and a gust to 121 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Dramatic weakening ensued once the hurricane moved onshore , with winds falling below tropical storm @-@ force in just 12 hours . Upon weakening to a depression on July 11 , handling of operational advisories was transferred from the NHC to the Weather Prediction Center ( formerly the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ) .
The lingering depression continued north @-@ northwest through the Mississippi River Valley and gradually slowed . Weakening steering currents caused Dennis to slow and turn northeast as it traversed the Ohio River Valley on July 12 – 13 . Dennis 's circulation became elongated and the system degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low by 12 : 00 UTC on July 13 as it moved across Illinois . Thereafter , the cyclone executed a prolonged clockwise loop over the state before accelerating northeast on July 16 . During this period , a band of heavy precipitation set up over the southern Appalachian Mountains ; record rain fell across northern Georgia , with localized totals exceeding 10 in ( 250 mm ) . The remnants later crossed the Great Lakes before being absorbed into a larger extratropical cyclone over Ontario on July 18 .
|
= Foguang Temple =
Foguang Temple ( Chinese : 佛光寺 ) is a Buddhist temple located five kilometres from Doucun , Wutai County , Shanxi Province of China . The major hall of the temple is the Great East Hall , built in 857 AD , during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . According to architectural records , it is the third earliest preserved timber structure in China . It was rediscovered by the 20th @-@ century architectural historian Liang Sicheng ( 1901 – 1972 ) in 1937 , while an older hall at Nanchan Temple was discovered by the same team a year later . The temple also contains another significant hall dating from 1137 called the Manjusri Hall . In addition , the second oldest existing pagoda in China ( after the Songyue Pagoda ) , dating from the 6th century , is located in the temple grounds . Today the temple is part of a UNESCO World Heritage site and is undergoing restoration .
= = History = =
The temple was established in the fifth century during the Northern Wei dynasty . From the years of 785 to 820 , the temple underwent an active building period when a three level , 32 m tall pavilion was built . In 845 , Emperor Wuzong banned Buddhism in China . As part of the persecution , Foguang temple was burned to the ground , with only the Zushi pagoda surviving from the temple 's early history . Twelve years later in 857 the temple was rebuilt , with the Great East Hall being built on the former site of a three storey pavilion . A woman named Ning Gongyu provided most of the funds needed to construct the hall , and its construction was led by a monk named Yuancheng . In the 10th century , a depiction of Foguang Temple was painted in cave 61 of the Mogao Grottoes . However , it is likely the painters had never seen the temple , because the main hall in the painting is a two @-@ storied white building with a green @-@ glaze roof , very different from the red and white of the Great East Hall . This painting indicates that Foguang Temple was an important stop for Buddhist pilgrims . In 1137 of the Jin dynasty , the Manjusri Hall was constructed on the temple 's north side , along with another hall dedicated to Samantabhadra , which was burnt down in the Qing Dynasty ( 1644 @-@ 1912 ) .
In 1930 , the Society for Research in Chinese Architecture began a search in China for ancient buildings . In the seventh year of the society 's search in 1937 , an architectural team led by Liang Sicheng discovered that Foguang Temple was a relic of the Tang Dynasty . Liang was able to date the building after his wife found an inscription on one of the rafters . The date 's accuracy was confirmed by Liang 's study of the building which matched with known information about Tang buildings .
= = Layout = =
Unlike most other Chinese temples which are oriented in a south @-@ north position , the Foguang temple is oriented in an east @-@ west position due to there being mountains located on the east , north and south . Having mountains behind a building is believed to improve its Feng Shui . The temple consists of two main halls . The northern hall is called The Hall of Manjusri and was constructed in 1147 during the Jin dynasty . The largest hall , the Great East Hall was constructed in 857 during the Tang Dynasty . Another large hall , known as the Samantabhadra Hall , once existed on the south side of the monastery but is no longer extant .
= = = Great East Hall = = =
Dating from 857 of the Tang Dynasty , the Great East Hall ( 东大殿 ) is the third oldest dated wooden building in China after the main hall of the Nanchan Temple dated to 782 , and the main hall of the Five Dragons Temple , dated to 831 . The hall is located on the far east side of the temple , atop a large stone platform . It is a single storey structure measuring seven bays by four or 34 by 17 @.@ 7 metres ( 110 by 58 ft ) , and is supported by inner and outer sets of columns . On top of each column is a complicated set of brackets containing seven different bracket types that are one @-@ third as high as the column itself . Supporting the roof of the hall , each of the bracket sets are connected by crescent shaped crossbeams , which create an inner ring above the inner set of columns and an outer ring above the outer columns . The hall has a lattice ceiling that conceals much of the roof frame from view . The hipped @-@ roof and the extremely complex bracket sets are testament to the Great East Hall 's importance as a structure during the Tang Dynasty . According to the 11th @-@ century architectural treatise , Yingzao Fashi , the Great East Hall closely corresponds to a seventh rank building in a system of eight ranks . The high rank of the Great East Hall indicates that even in the Tang Dynasty it was an important building , and no other buildings from the period with such a high rank survive .
Inside the hall are thirty @-@ six sculptures , as well as murals on each wall that date from the Tang Dynasty and later periods . Unfortunately the statues lost much artistic value when they were repainted in the 1930s . The centre of the hall has a platform with three large statues of Sakyamuni , Amitabha and Maitreya sitting on lotus shaped seats . Each of the three statues is flanked by four assistants on the side and two bodhisattvas in front . Next to the platform , there are statues of Manjusri riding a lion as well as Samantabhadra on an elephant . Two heavenly kings stand on either side of the dais . A statue representing the hall 's benefactor , Ning Gongwu and one of the monk who helped build the hall Yuancheng , are present in the back of the hall . There is one large mural in the hall that shows events that took place in the Jataka , which chronicles Buddha 's past life . Smaller murals in the temple show Manjusri and Samantabhadra gathering donors to help support the upkeep of the temple .
= = = Hall of Manjusri = = =
On the north side of the temple courtyard is the Manjusri Hall ( 文殊殿 ) . It was constructed in 1137 during the Jin dynasty and is roughly the same size as the East Hall , also measuring seven bays by four . It is located on an 83 cm ( 2 @.@ 7 ft ) high platform , has three front doors and one central back door , and features a single @-@ eave hip gable roof . The interior of the hall has only four support pillars . In order to support the large roof , diagonal beams are used . On each of the four walls are murals of arhats painted in 1429 during the Ming dynasty .
= = = Zushi Pagoda = = =
The Zushi Pagoda ( 祖师塔 ) , is a small funerary pagoda located to the south of the Great East Hall . While it is unclear as to the exact date of its construction , it was either built during the Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386 @-@ 534 ) or Northern Qi Dynasty ( 550 @-@ 577 ) and possibly contains the tomb of the founder of the Foguang Temple . It is a white , hexagonal shaped 6 metres ( 20 ft ) tall pagoda . The first storey of the pagoda has a hexagonal chamber , while the second storey is purely decorative . The pagoda is decorated with lotus petals and the steeple supports a precious bottle in the shape of a flower .
= = = Funerary pillars = = =
The temple grounds contain two Tang Dynasty funerary pillars . The oldest one , which 3 @.@ 24 meters ( 10 @.@ 6 ft ) tall and hexagonal , was built in 857 to record the East Hall 's construction .
= = The present = =
Beginning in 2005 , Global Heritage Fund ( GHF ) , in partnership with Tsinghua University ( Beijing ) , has been working to conserve the cultural heritage of Foguang Temple 's Great East Hall . The hall has not had any restoration work done since the 17th century , and suffers from water damage and rotting beams . Despite the temple undergoing restoration , it is still open to the public . On June 26 , 2009 , the temple was inscribed as part of the Mount Wutai UNESCO World Heritage Site .
|
= French battleship Voltaire =
Voltaire was one of the six Danton class semi @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the late 1900s . Shortly after World War I began , the ship participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . She spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out into the Mediterranean . Voltaire was hit by two torpedoes fired by a German submarine in October 1918 , but was not seriously damaged . After the war , she was modernized in 1923 – 25 and subsequently became a training ship . She was condemned in 1935 and later sold for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
Although the Danton @-@ class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class , they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed . They were not well liked by the navy , although their numerous rapid @-@ firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean .
Voltaire was 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 736 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 424 long tons ) at deep load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam generated by twenty @-@ six Belleville boilers . The turbines were rated at 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Voltaire , however , reached a top speed of 20 @.@ 7 knots ( 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 23 @.@ 8 mph ) during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 370 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 240 km ; 3 @,@ 880 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Voltaire 's main battery consisted of four 305mm / 45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets , three on each side of the ship . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 65 guns and ten 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also armed with two submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's waterline armor belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
During the war 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the roofs of the ship 's two forward 240 mm gun turrets . During 1918 , the mainmast was shortened to allow the ship to fly a captive kite balloon and the elevation of the 240 mm guns was increased which extended their range to 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = Career = =
Construction of Voltaire was begun on 26 December 1906 by Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and the ship was laid down on 20 July 1907 . She was launched on 16 January 1909 and was completed on 5 August 1911 . The ship was assigned to the Second Division of the 1st Squadron ( escadre ) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned . The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May – June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of France , Raymond Poincaré on 7 June 1913 . Afterwards , Voltaire joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October – December 1913 and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Mediterranean in May 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
In early August 1914 , the ship cruised the Strait of Sicily in an attempt to prevent the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau from breaking out to the West . On 16 August 1914 the combined Anglo @-@ French Fleet under Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère , including Voltaire , made a sweep of the Adriatic Sea . The Allied ships encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta , escorted by the destroyer SMS Ulan , blockading the coast of Montenegro . There were too many ships for Zenta to escape , so she remained behind to allow Ulan to get away and was sunk by gunfire during the Battle of Antivari off the coast of Bar , Montenegro . Voltaire subsequently participated in a number of raids into the Adriatic later in the year and patrolled the Ionian Islands . From December 1914 to 1916 , the ship participated in the distant blockade of the Straits of Otranto while based in Corfu . On 1 December 1916 , some of her sailors , transported to Athens by her sister Mirabeau , participated in the Allied attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia . Voltaire spent part of 1917 through April 1918 based at Mudros to prevent Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean .
The ship was overhauled from May to October 1918 in Toulon . While returning to Mudros on 10 October , the ship was torpedoed by UB @-@ 48 off the island of Milos . Despite being struck by two torpedoes , she able to make temporary repairs at Milos before sailing to Bizerte for permanent repairs . Voltaire was based in Toulon throughout 1919 and was modernized in 1922 – 25 to improve her underwater protection . The ship became a training ship in 1927 and was condemned in on 17 March 1937 . She was scuttled in Quiberon Bay on 31 May 1938 for long @-@ term use as a target ; the wreck was sold in December 1949 and broken up from March 1950 onwards .
|
= Soviet cruiser Chervona Ukraina =
Chervona Ukraina ( Ukrainian : " Червона Україна " – " Red Ukraine " ) was an Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class light cruiser of the Soviet Navy assigned to the Black Sea Fleet . During World War II , she supported Soviet forces during the Sieges of Odessa and Sevastopol before being sunk at Sevastopol on 12 November 1941 by German aircraft . She was raised in 1947 and was used as a training hulk before becoming a target ship in 1950 .
= = Description = =
Chervona Ukraina displaced 8 @,@ 400 long tons ( 8 @,@ 500 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 163 @.@ 2 metres ( 535 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 15 @.@ 7 metres ( 51 ft 6 in ) and a mean draught of about 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft 4 in ) . She was powered by four Curtiss @-@ AEG steam turbines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 55 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ; 33 @.@ 9 mph ) . The engines were powered by 14 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . Four were coal @-@ fired while the rest were mixed @-@ firing . The ship carried a maximum of 540 long tons ( 550 t ) of coal and an additional 690 long tons ( 700 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate in the mixed @-@ firing boilers . At full capacity , she could steam for 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Chervona Ukraina was designed to carry about 630 officers and men .
The ship 's main armament consisted of fifteen 55 @-@ calibre 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts , six of which were mounted in casemates . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 64 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Chervona Ukraina also mounted twelve above @-@ water 457 @-@ millimetre ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in triple swivelling mounts .
Chervona Ukraina 's waterline belt consisted of 76 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of Krupp cemented armour and above it was an upper belt 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The gun shields were protected by 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armour . Each of the armoured decks was 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick . The armour of the conning tower was 76 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
She was laid down on 3 October 1913 as Admiral Nakhimov after Pavel Nakhimov and launched on 6 November 1915 . Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was about 80 % complete . In the second half of 1918 , the Marine Department of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi restarted construction of the ship . On 25 January 1919 , the ship was formally renamed " Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitsky " , but Nikolayev was captured shortly afterward by the Entente .
At the start of the Russian Civil War , the ship was run aground at the fitting dock in Nikolayev by the shipyard workers to hinder the evacuation by the Whites in 1919 . The ship was raised by the Soviets in 1920 pending a decision on her disposition . The ship was renamed to Chervona Ukraina on 7 December 1922 . It was decided to finish her in 1923 and the job was completed in 1927 to nearly the original design . She was modified to handle aircraft by adding cranes on either side of the middle funnel and a parking area was built for them between the central and rear funnels , although no catapult was ever fitted . The original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes mounted on the deck abaft the rear funnel .
Chervona Ukraina made a number of port visits to Turkey , Greece and Italy before World War II . She was extensively overhauled between 26 August 1939 and 1 May 1941 where her aircraft equipment was removed and she was fitted with new fire control equipment . The ship was given three Italian Minizini twin @-@ gun 50 caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft mounts , one was placed on the forecastle , in front of the forward 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 gun and the other two on each side of the quarterdeck . One torpedo tube mount was removed from each side and four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K gun were fitted as well as seven 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns .
= = = World War II = = =
Chervona Ukraina , in company with the cruisers Krasny Kavkaz , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June 1941 . She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces during the Siege of Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She escorted convoys from Odessa to Sevastopol in October when the evacuation of Odessa was ordered . During the Siege of Sevastopol Chervona Ukraina provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She was hit three times in the South Bay of Sevastopol by bombs from German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from II . / StG 77 on 12 November 1941 , but didn 't sink until the next day after her crew was ordered to abandon her . Her guns were salvaged and most of the guns and crew were incorporated into the port 's defenses , although two of her twin Minizini turrets were added to Krasny Kavkaz .
She was raised on 3 November 1947 , repaired , and used as a training hulk until 30 October 1950 when she became a target ship . On 10 May 1952 , Chervona Ukraina was grounded on a spit to serve as a fixed target ; by 1980 there was nothing left of the ship above the surface .
|
= Democratic Left Movement ( Lebanon ) =
The Democratic Left Movement ( DLM , Arabic : حركة اليسار الديمقراطي Harakat Al @-@ Yassar Al @-@ Dimuqratiy , Arabic acronym HYD ) is a nonsectarian and a democratic leftist political party with seats in the Lebanese Parliament . It was founded in September 2004 by left @-@ wing and center @-@ left intellectuals and activists some of whom had previously split from the Lebanese Communist Party ( LCP ) while some were student activists from the " Independent Leftist Groups " . The DLM affirms a European @-@ style social democracy — but is open to all forms of leftism and encourages the development of a true secular state . The party operates under a decentralized framework that emphasizes diversity of thought for a progressive democratic society in a liberal democratic environment . It participated in the 2005 Cedar Revolution , a wave of demonstrations against the Syrian occupation of Lebanon , and calls for correcting imbalanced relations with Syria .
The DLM won its first parliamentary seat in Lebanon 's 2005 elections representing the Tripoli district . On 2 June 2005 , amid election rounds , Samir Kassir , a founder of the movement , was assassinated in a car bombing . Less than one month later , George Hawi , a former secretary general of the Lebanese Communist Party and an ally of the DLM , was killed in a similar car bombing in Beirut . In the 2009 elections , the party again won a single seat , instead representing the West Bekaa district . It is a member of the March 14 Alliance parliamentary coalition .
= = History = =
= = = Background and foundation = = =
During the late 1990s , there was a growing number of intellectuals ( Samir Kassir , Ziad Majed , Elias Khoury ) and a network of independent student groups ( " Independent Leftist Groups " ) who advocated democracy , individual liberties , secularism and center @-@ left economic policies in Lebanon . On the other hand , a growing number Lebanese Communist Party ( LCP ) members were dissatisfied with the status of their party : the rise of Islamic Fundamentalism , the fall of the Soviet Union , and the failure of the LCP to assume a more democratic socialist platform ushered in an era of political decline for the party . This , coupled with perceived Syrian domination of its leadership , led to increasing frustration among rank @-@ and @-@ file communists against the upper echelons of the party .
On 13 September 2000 , a group calling itself " the reform and democracy forces in the Lebanese Communist Party " wrote an open letter demanding the resignation of party leadership . Led by Elias Atallah , the dissidents accused LCP leaders of subservience to Syria and called for full democratization of the party and abandonment of the Stalinist line . Atallah was expelled from the party on 26 September of that year .
These activists who split from the LCP along with the leftist student groups and the intellectuals with no prior affiliation to the LCP , formed the Democratic Left Movement . An initial " temporary preparatory committee " for the movement emerged , which issued statements critical of Syrian intervention in Lebanon and called for the birth of a new left . In September 2004 , the Democratic Left Movement was officially established . On 17 October , at a ceremony commemorating its foundation attended by figures across the political spectrum , Elias Atallah declared that the movement was founded on three principles : " [ First ] , we are preachers of real social and cultural change on the bases of democracy , national independence and reconciliation with the Arab nation and Arab nationalism . Second we are preachers of cultural and ideological renaissance for the sake of secularism and political and religious reforms in the Arab east ... Thirdly we believe in fighting for freedom and against tyranny and oppression . "
Shortly after foundation , the DLM , Qornet Shehwan Gathering , Democratic Renewal , and Democratic Gathering formed a " multi @-@ party opposition " to oppose the constitutional amendment that extended the presidential term of Emile Lahoud . The informal coalition , which sought to defend the constitution and republic , appealed for free elections based on an equitable electoral law , curtailing corruption , fostering an independent judiciary , and reforming public administration . It was divided on the Syrian military presence in the country and on the use of arms to resolve the Shebaa farms dispute . Later , in December 2004 and again in February 2005 , the movement was among an agglomeration of opposition parties to gather at Beirut 's Le Bristol Hotel Beirut and demand a " total withdrawal " of Syrian troops .
= = = Independence Intifada = = =
The DLM actively participated in the 2005 Independence Intifada ( Cedar Revolution ) , a so @-@ called colour revolution in which hundreds of thousands rallied against the Syrian occupation of Lebanon and its supporters in the Lebanese government . As the only leftist , nonsectarian element in the demonstrations , the DLM proved important for the opposition 's public relations . Following the resignation of pro @-@ Syrian Prime Minister Omar Karami in a wave of demonstrations , DLM leader Elias Atallah is quoted as saying , " Today the government fell . Tomorrow , it 's the one huddled in Anjar , " in reference to the Syrian chief of intelligence based in that city . The New York Times credited Samir Kassir , a founder of the movement , with orchestrating the protests . On 14 March 2005 , Atallah addressed the demonstrators , articulating the need for a free , sovereign , and united Lebanon . The DLM called on the protesters to press on to Baabda Palace , residence of the president , hoping to use the momentum to compel Emile Lahoud to resign . However , resistance by Maronite Patriarch Nasrallah Sfeir prevented this , resulting in a temporary fallout between the DLM and opposition .
The movement remains critical of perceived Syrian interference in Lebanon , citing its participation in the March 14 Alliance parliamentary bloc as " defending Lebanese independence against the Syrian government ’ s attacks and against Hezbollah and its allies ’ attempts to impose their views and choices " . It lists " attaining full independence of the country " as a political goal .
= = = Kassir and Hawi assassinations = = =
On 2 June 2005 , Samir Kassir , a founder and leader of the movement , a prominent Lebanese journalist , and an outspoken critic of Syria was assassinated in a car bombing . DLM activists marched to the presidential palace in the Beirut suburb of Baabda to lay a wreath representing guilt for Kassir 's death . Elias Atallah , head of the DLM , explained that the wreath would " place the blame at the head of the joint Lebanese @-@ Syrian security regime " . Emile Lahoud , then president , condemned the killing and told reporters , " My conscience is clear " . After Kassir 's death , membership in the DLM surged to a few thousand .
Less than one month later , on 21 June 2005 , George Hawi , a former secretary general of the LCP , was killed in a similar car bombing in Beirut . Hawi , an outspoken critic of Syria in recent years , actively campaigned for DLM leader Elias Atallah 's candidacy in Lebanon 's 2005 Elections . Atallah and other allies of Hawi blamed the bombing on pro @-@ Syrian forces in the Lebanese @-@ security apparatus . In an interview with NOW Lebanon , former DLM Vice President Ziad Majed explained , " Georges Hawi ... was trying to bring the communist party , or at least part of it , to join efforts with us [ the DLM ] . "
In Al Mustaqbal newspaper , Elias Atallah called for broadening the planned inquiries into Rakfik Harri 's assassination to include the Kassir and Hawi bombings . He demanded Lahoud 's resignation , saying the president was " incapable of protecting leadership figures in Lebanon . "
= = Structure and composition = =
The DLM operates under a decentralized framework in which internal movements are encouraged and represented in a national body . The party 's constituency elects a National Assembly , the principal decision @-@ making body , through proportional representation , where every internal movement forms a list . Composed of 51 to 101 members , determined proportionately by the size of the constituency , it maintains political priorities , alliances , and rhetoric , and elects an Executive Committee of 9 to 15 members for daily organizational activities . Other organizational bodies include the Legal Committee and Financial Committee , and internal elections occur every three years .
In October 2004 , a 77 @-@ member constituent assembly elected a 15 @-@ member Executive Committee in the movement 's first session of internal elections . Those elected included Elias Atallah as General Secretary ( and leader ) , Nadim Abdel Samad as president , and Hikmat Eid , Anju Rihan , Ziad Majed and Ziad Saab as members . In April 2007 , another internal election occurred . Two lists competed , one supported by Atallah and representing the leadership 's rhetoric and the other an all @-@ youth movement named Keep Left . While Atallah was reelected , Keep Left attained 30 % of votes in Lebanon and 58 % of votes abroad in an online poll , enabling the entire list to be elected . Ziad Majed , previously vice president of the DLM , and Elias Khoury , a prominent and founding member , chose not to participate for personal and political reasons .
Headquartered in the Lebanese capital , Beirut , branches are permitted in any region of Lebanon or abroad . Provincial and district associations are largely autonomous . Youth members comprise a substantial portion of the movement ; Elias Atallah stated that half of the party 's members was 26 or younger .
The General Assembly , which was set for 2010 , took place in December 2011 , and saw the emergence of a new leadership . Walid Fakhreddin was elected as the new Secretary General and the Executive Bureau was formed mainly from a new generation of leaders . However , this General Assembly was boycotted by many members who refused to have an election only assembly and were insisting on having a General Assembly that discusses the direction the movement should take . Some of the members who boycotted formed a current within the movement , called the Democratic Current in the Democratic Left Movement . It is to be noted that the bylaws of the Democratic Left Movement allows for internal currents and factions to operate freely .
= = Political stances = =
= = = Ideology = = =
The DLM backs a European @-@ style social democracy to promote equality without hampering personal liberty or economic productivity . In an interview with NOW Lebanon , DLM Former Vice President Ziad Majed classified the movement as center @-@ left economically . However , he went on to say that the party adopted a decentralized model when founded to enable the coexistence of divergent views in which internal movements are encouraged . Its political manifesto identifies the movement as " beyond the requirement of singularity of thought " and open to leftists of all denominations . This emphasis on pluralism distinguishes the DLM from other leftist groups in Lebanon .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
The DLM is one of a few parties to propose secularization of the Lebanese state . This includes abolishing sectarian appropriation of public jobs , replacing the confessional parliamentary system with a representative system , and permitting the execution of civil marriage on Lebanese soil . The Economist magazine described the party as the " most avowedly secular component " of the March 14 Alliance .
The DLM appeals for administrative reform in the public sector through a decentralization , modernization , and mechanization plan . It defends human rights and calls for the respect of public freedoms and rule of law . Listed within its platform is support for the marginalized and the abandonment of divisive particularism . The movement supports prohibiting the discrimination of the disabled .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
On foreign policy , the DLM platform is more uniform . The party calls for a diverse , unified , and democratic Arab society . It opposes foreign interference in Lebanese politics and supports correcting imbalanced relations with Syria . In the Shebba farms dispute , the movement advocates resolving the identity of the territory through diplomacy . If the farms are determined Lebanese , the cabinet should authorize their " liberation " either diplomatically or militarily but through state institutions alone to allow the state to fulfill its role there . On the broader Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict , the DLM appeals for the creation of a regional defense strategy which protects Lebanese sovereignty from Israeli aggression while promoting the interests of the region . It opposes American intervention in Iraq and elsewhere while also rejecting authoritarian governments like the Ba 'ath . The party advocates democracy in Syria and associates with its democratic opposition , particularly the Syrian Democratic People 's Party .
= = Electoral results = =
In the legislative elections of May and June 2005 , the DLM won one seat to become the first leftist political party in the Lebanese Parliament . Holding the Maronite seat of Tripoli , Elias Atallah represented the district as part of the March 14 Alliance , a pro @-@ Western political coalition and parliamentary majority . Atallah received 89 @,@ 890 votes to defeat rival Fayez Wajih Karam by 14 @,@ 482 votes .
In the 2009 elections , Atallah could not seek reelection because March 14 selected Samer Saadeh , a Kataeb Party candidate , to run on the coalition 's list in the Tripoli district . Meanwhile , Amin Wehbi , another DLM candidate , won a Shiite parliamentary seat in West Bekaa on the March 14 coalition 's list . Accruing 34 @,@ 424 votes , 53 % of ballots cast , Wehbi unseated incumbent Nasser Nasrallah of the Amal Movement , who obtained 25 @,@ 457 votes .
The influence of the DLM , however , stems not from its limited electoral successes but from " its articulation of anti @-@ Syrian positions from a left [ ist ] perspective . "
|
= Kate Bosworth =
Catherine Ann " Kate " Bosworth ( born January 2 , 1983 ) is an American actress and model . She made her film debut in The Horse Whisperer ( 1998 ) and appeared in Remember the Titans ( 2000 ) and new comers ( 2000 ) alongside Chris Evans , before landing a lead role as a teenage surfer in the box @-@ office hit Blue Crush ( 2002 ) . She also had roles in independent films , playing Dawn Schiller in the true crime film Wonderland ( 2003 ) , and as Sandra Dee in the Bobby Darin biographical drama Beyond the Sea ( 2004 ) . She also portrayed Lois Lane in Superman Returns ( 2006 ) , and has had roles in Straw Dogs ( 2011 ) and Still Alice ( 2014 ) .
= = Early life = =
Bosworth was born on January 2 , 1983 , in Los Angeles , California . She is the only child of Patricia ( née Potter ) , a homemaker , and Harold Bosworth , a former executive for Talbots . She was born with heterochromia iridum , and has a hazel right eye and a blue left eye . At the age of six , Bosworth 's family relocated from San Francisco to various parts of the country due to her father 's job . She was raised mainly on the East Coast , spending the rest of her youth in Massachusetts and Connecticut .
Bosworth developed an interest in competitive horse racing , and by the age of fourteen , she was a champion equestrian . She graduated from Cohasset High School , in Cohasset , Massachusetts , in 2001 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Bosworth 's first film role came after an open casting call in New York for the supporting part of Judith in the 1998 film , The Horse Whisperer . The film 's producers needed someone who was already an experienced horse rider , leading to Bosworth 's successful audition for the role . The film received positive reception from film critics . In 2000 , she starred in the television series drama Young Americans , in which she played Bella Banks . The series , however , was canceled . That same year , she had a small part in the film Remember the Titans . In 2001 , Bosworth moved to Los Angeles in hopes of obtaining easier access to auditions and better film parts .
= = = Initial Success = = =
The breakthrough role in Bosworth 's career came in the 2002 surfing movie Blue Crush , which she prepared for by working out with two separate trainers seven hours a day for months in order to add fifteen pounds of muscle to her frame . In his review of the film , Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers wrote : " Bosworth is a star in the making , but even she can 't outshine the surfing footage , which is flat @-@ out spectacular . " The film received positive reviews and grossed $ 40 million at the United States box office . Following the success of Blue Crush , Bosworth took on the lead role in low @-@ budget Wonderland ( 2003 ) opposite Val Kilmer . Bosworth played the teenage girlfriend of porn star John Holmes .
In 2004 , she played the lead role in romantic comedy Win a Date with Tad Hamilton ! , opposite Topher Grace . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . Also in 2004 , Bosworth depicted actress Sandra Dee in Beyond the Sea . The movie received mixed reception , and was a box office disappointment , though Bosworth received critical acclaim for her performance . The following year , Bosworth portrayed Chali , a Hare Krishna , in the film adaptation of Myla Goldberg 's novel Bee Season ( 2005 ) , about a dysfunctional Jewish family . She has appeared in several Revlon ads and ranked as number 60 in FHM 's " 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2005 " list . For two years running , she has placed on the Maxim Hot 100 List – number 38 in 2005 and number 8 in 2006 .
= = = Later career = = =
Bosworth was cast as reporter Lois Lane in Bryan Singer 's superhero film Superman Returns ( 2006 ) . She starred along with her Beyond the Sea co @-@ star Kevin Spacey as Lex Luthor , as well as newcomer Brandon Routh as Superman . The film was a box office success and received mostly positive reviews . Bosworth 's performance however , was not well received among critics ; Anthony Lane of The New Yorker noted , " The new Lois Lane , Kate Bosworth , is not a patch on Margot Kidder , or , for that matter , on Teri Hatcher , in the TV series . " San Francisco Chronicle film critic Mick LaSalle felt that Bosworth , at the age of 22 years , was too young to portray Lois Lane , and the climax did not " match the potential of the tiring 154 minute long film " . Although Bosworth 's performance was ambivalently received , she herself loved the experience of working on the movie . As she told Teen Vogue in August 2006 , " You know how you have an experience , a time in your life when you feel you 've come into your own ? When you grow up a bit , and think , Now I get it ? [ ... ] That 's how I feel . I feel a little bit more complete . " The movie grossed $ 52 million during its opening weekend in North America and went on to earn $ 391 million worldwide .
Bosworth starred as Louise in the psychological drama called The Girl in the Park with Sigourney Weaver , Alessandro Nivola and Keri Russell , written and directed by Pulitzer Prize winner David Auburn in his directorial debut . The film premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival , it has since been picked up by The Weinstein Company . Alissa Simon of Variety wrote that Bosworth " tries her best , but her character 's too extremely drawn . " Bosworth also filmed 21 , an adaptation of the book Bringing Down the House , in early 2007 in Boston , Massachusetts and Las Vegas , Nevada . This film reunites her with co @-@ star Kevin Spacey and director Robert Luketic . 21 garnered mixed reviews , with Joanne Kaufman of the Wall Street Journal concluding , " Very little adds up in 21 . "
In 2006 , she optioned the film rights to Catherine Hanrahan 's novel Lost Girls and Love Hotels and was set to produce the project alongside filmmaker Nadia Connors . As of 2016 , the project was at a standstill . In 2010 , she starred in the The Warrior 's Way , which was shot in New Zealand alongside Korean actor Jang Dong @-@ gun and Geoffrey Rush . The film was a one of 2010 's biggest box office flops , grossing only slightly more than $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worldwide , but costing $ 42 million . She has said about her roles , " I just don 't do comfort zones . "
In January 2008 , Bosworth was named the new face for Calvin Klein Jeans and will be featured in the Calvin Klein Jeans campaign . She also takes on the role of spokesperson for American luxury bag brand Coach in Asia .
= = = 2010s : Fashion and acting = = =
In 2011 , Bosworth contracted to sing the television jingle for Cotton Incorporated 's " Fabric of My Life " advertisement . On 4 December 2012 , Topshop revealed that Bosworth was the " secret " women in the new Topshop Christmas Adverts .
Bosworth designed a jewelry line with friend and celebrity stylist Cher Coulter called JewelMint , which launched in October 2010 . JewelMint , the first vertical of MySpace co @-@ founder Josh Berman and Diego Berdakin ’ s social commerce company , BeachMint , has designs by Coulter and Bosworth .
Bosworth released ten films between 2011 and 2014 , moving away from the big @-@ budget Superman franchise into lower @-@ budget film roles like Still Alice with Julianne Moore . The short film Lov , which was filmed in Slovenia , featured Bosworth and launched fashion designer Vanessa Bruno ’ s Fall 2011 campaign .
= = Personal life = =
Bosworth was accepted to Princeton University in late 2000 , but because of continual deferral of her attendance , her acceptance was later revoked . She is a member of the Appalachia Service Project .
From 2003 until September 2006 , Bosworth was in a relationship with English actor Orlando Bloom .
In July 2011 , Bosworth and her boyfriend , Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgard , parted ways after two years of dating . In mid @-@ 2011 , Bosworth began dating American director Michael Polish , whom she had met earlier that year when he directed her in the film Big Sur . Bosworth and Polish announced their engagement in August 2012 , and married on August 31 , 2013 in Philipsburg , Montana .
Bosworth is a fan of the Dallas Cowboys , as mentioned as part of her appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in January 2015 .
She is a member of Soka Gakkai International , an organization of Nichiren Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism .
= = Filmography = =
|
= Parliamentary Monitoring Services =
Parliamentary Monitoring Services is a United Kingdom @-@ based political research and publishing company . The company researches the activities of the United States Congress , European Parliament , and the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Consultants to the company have included British politicians Sir Peter Fry and William Howie , Baron Howie of Troon . The company published PMS Guide to Pressure Groups and PMS Guide to the 1997 General Election .
The company has been hired to undertake political research work by The Sunday Times and The Royal British Legion . In 2006 , the company and its sister company Political Wizard were sold to Dods Parliamentary Communications , a subsidiary of Dods ( Group ) PLC — formerly Huveaux PLC . Colin Doeg , author of Crisis Management in the Food and Drinks Industry , characterized the company as a " comprehensive service " . The Independent described it as a " well @-@ known political lobbying firm " .
= = Political research = =
= = = 1979 – 2002 = = =
Parliamentary Monitoring Services was founded in London in 1979 . The company researches the activities of the United States Congress , European Parliament , and the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Lionel Zetter became Managing Director of the company in 1986 . In 1992 the company conducted a study commissioned by The Sunday Times which " revealed that , for the first time , more Conservatives were educated in state schools than in private schools " . In 1995 , Sir Peter Fry was a paid consultant and shareholder of Parliamentary Monitoring Services . The company published the second edition of PMS Guide to Pressure Groups in 1997 , and the third edition by J. Flower in 2000 . David Boothroyd , author of The History of British Political Parties , was a researcher at the company in 2001 . Boothroyd was the principal compiler of the second edition of PMS Guide to Pressure Groups and PMS Guide to the 1997 General Election . In 2002 , the company was hired by The Royal British Legion to develop an Internet @-@ based tool to help the organization make its case for Her Majesty 's Government to recognize Gulf War syndrome .
= = = 2002 – present = = =
William Howie , Baron Howie of Troon served as a publishing consultant to Parliamentary Monitoring Services in 2004 ; in 2007 The Times reported that Lord Howie received " regular remunerated employment " from the company . In 2005 , Zetter was Managing Director of the company 's sister firm , Political Wizard . In Public Affairs in Practice , Zetter wrote , " Without parliamentary monitoring , political news and political intelligence no public affairs campaign can hope to succeed " . Westminster lobbyist Doug Smith served as chairman of the company in 2006 ; by 2007 , Smith had left this role and his position on the company 's board of directors . In 2006 , Parliamentary Monitoring Services owned half of Political Wizard and received GB £ 1 @.@ 5 million for this share when Political Wizard was bought by Huveaux subsidiary Dods Parliamentary Communications . Zetter decided in 2006 to sell Parliamentary Monitoring Services to Dods Parliamentary Communications , and its parent Huveaux purchased the company for £ 4 @.@ 8 million . In 2007 , Huveaux owned Parliamentary Monitoring Services through the Dods brand , the parent company 's political division .
= = Commentary = =
When asked if the Department for Work and Pensions maintained profiles on Members of Parliament ( MPs ) , Secretary of State for Work and Pensions Andrew Smith said , " The Department does not compile personal profiles on MPs . We do have access to parliamentary reference works such as Dods and in order to provide , in a cost @-@ effective way , such reference information to the large number of officials drafting parliamentary answers we subscribe to Parliamentary Monitoring Services Ltd . ( PMS ) . " Writing in the book Crisis Management in the Food and Drinks Industry , Colin Doeg characterized Parliamentary Monitoring Services as a " Comprehensive service covering the proceedings of Westminster and European Parliaments as well as US Congress " . The organization is described in Public Relations in Practice as " a political research , publishing , polling and campaigning company " . James Macintyre and Nigel Morris of The Independent called Parliamentary Monitoring Services a " well @-@ known political lobbying firm " .
|
= The Register @-@ Guard =
The Register @-@ Guard is a daily newspaper published in Eugene , Oregon , United States . It was formed in a 1930 merger of two Eugene papers , the Eugene Daily Guard and the Morning Register . The paper serves the Eugene @-@ Springfield area , as well as the Oregon Coast , Umpqua River Valley , and surrounding areas . As of 2016 , it has a circulation of around 43 @,@ 000 Monday through Friday , around 47 @,@ 000 on Saturday , and a little under 50 @,@ 000 on Sunday .
The newspaper is owned by the Baker family of Eugene , and members of the family were in charge of nearly all departments within the paper until 2015 , when , for the first time in 88 years , someone who is not a member of the Baker family took the reins as publisher and editor . It is Oregon 's second @-@ largest daily newspaper and one of the few medium @-@ sized family newspapers left in the United States .
= = History of The Guard = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The Guard was launched in Eugene City , Oregon on Saturday , June 1 , 1867 by John B. Alexander . The paper began as a weekly organ expressing allegiance to the states ' rights @-@ oriented Democratic Party and it joined an existing Republican paper in the field , the Oregon State Journal , published by Harrison R. Kincaid .
Founding publisher Alexander was born about 1830 and came to Oregon from the midwestern state of Illinois as a pioneer of 1852 . Alexander initially worked as a farmer , supplementing his income as a surveyor and local justice of the peace before learning the printing trade working for the town 's earlier pro @-@ Southern newspapers . Although his own venture as a publisher was short and unprofitable , Alexander unwittingly was the scion of a local newspaper dynasty in Oregon , with two of his sons later themselves publishing The Guard ( following the tenure of several intermediate owners ) , while a grandson , George L. Alexander , would one day edit another Oregon paper , the Lebanon Express .
Alexander and his paper vocally supported the old political governing class of the former Confederate States of America and was rabid in its opposition to the policies of Reconstruction imposed upon the South by the Northern @-@ based Republican Party . Such views were out of step with the majority of Oregonians , however , with the Republicans coming to dominate Oregon politics during the last quarter of the 19th Century . Alexander was forced to liquidate his stake in his money @-@ losing newspaper in 1868 .
= = = Ownership changes = = =
A short interregnum followed , during which ownership was transferred to J.W. Skaggs . Skaggs continued to push Alexander 's Democratic Party / states ' rights agenda during his short five weeks at the helm . The poor economics of the weekly paper were unchanged , however , and Skaggs immediately moved to unload his newly acquired white elephant , cutting his losses and avoiding the stigma of financial failure for himself and the conservative political movement by giving away the paper outright to two men who worked for him as printers , William Thompson and William Victor . According to Thompson 's later recollection , Skaggs sweetened the transfer of ownership by tossing in two bundles of paper and two cords of firewood for the new owners .
The leading partner in the new ownership pair , William Thompson ( 1846 @-@ 1934 ) , had come to Oregon from his native Missouri aboard a wagon train during the 1850s and had worked as a printer 's devil for the Democratic Eugene City newspapers the Democratic Register and The Review from the age of 16 . His acquisition of The Guard required only that he fulfill a contractual obligation " to run the paper and keep it alive . " This he and Victor managed to do successfully , earning Thompson a healthy $ 1 @,@ 200 for his work before his sale of the paper to George J. Buys and A. Eltzroth on Christmas Eve of 1869 . Thompson would subsequently move to Roseburg , Oregon and there establish a new newspaper , the Roseburg Plaindealer .
George J. Buys bought out his business partner Eltzroth in July 1870 and subsequently remained solely at the publisher 's desk for more than seven years . He continued to battle for the Democratic Party , " first , last , and always " in competition with the Republican Oregon State Journal and the short @-@ lived Eugene City Hawk @-@ Eye , which professed allegiance to the similarly shorter @-@ lived Oregon Independent Party , which ran a full slate of candidates for state and local office in the election of 1874 .
Buys ended his tenure as owner of The Guard in May 1877 when he sold out to the sons of the original publisher , F.R. Alexander and W.R. Alexander . Their stint as publishers was nearly as brief as their father 's , and in November 1878 they sold the paper yet again , this time to the brothers John R. Campbell and Ira Campbell , who would remain owners for 30 years .
= = = Growth = = =
In 1890 , the Eugene Guard became a daily newspaper . Charles H. Fisher took over the paper in 1907 and published it until 1912 when E. J. Finneran purchased the paper . Finneran bankrupted the newspaper in 1916 , partly due to the purchase of a perfecting press that proved too expensive for such a small newspaper . The University of Oregon 's journalism school briefly ran the paper during the receivership under the guidance of Eric W. Allen .
In April 1916 , Fisher returned along with partner J. E. Shelton , forming The Guard Printing Company . Fisher continued to publish the Capital Journal in Salem until 1921 . In 1924 , after Fisher died , Paul R. Kelty purchased the Guard and published it with his son , before selling it in 1927 . The paper was purchased in 1927 by publisher Alton F. Baker , Sr. , whose father had published The Plain Dealer . Three years later , Baker bought the Morning Register and merged the two papers . Reporter William Tugman was recruited from The Plain Dealer to be the managing editor of the new paper .
= = Post @-@ merger history = =
In 1953 , Tugman was one of four editors in the country to sign a declaration opposing Senator Joseph McCarthy 's questioning of New York Post editor James Wechsler in closed Senate hearings . Eugene S. Pulliam of The Indianapolis Star , J. R. Wiggins , The Washington Post , and Herbert Brucker , of The Hartford Courant were the other editors to sign the declaration , calling Senator McCarthy 's actions " a peril to American freedom . "
Alton F. " Bunky " Baker , Jr . , son of Alton F. Baker , Sr. , inherited the newspaper in 1961 and later passed it on to his brother Edwin . In the late 1980s , it was handed down to Alton F. " Tony " Baker III , who remained the paper 's editor and publisher for more than 28 years , until 2015 .
In August 1996 , a photographer and reporter from the paper were arrested by the United States Forest Service for trespassing at the site of a timber protest in a national forest . The Register @-@ Guard responded by suing the Forest Service for violating the First Amendment freedom of the press . The criminal charged were later dropped and the civil suit was settled out of court .
Originally located in downtown Eugene , the paper moved to its current location in northeast Eugene in January 1998 . The former Register @-@ Guard building was leased by the University of Oregon and renamed the Baker Downtown Center for the Baker family . The building houses the university 's printing facility , archives , and continuing education program , as well as the Oregon Career Information System .
In 2000 , the company began negotiations with the employee ’ s union for a new contract , and during negotiations banned the use of the company email system by the union . This led to an unfair labor practice charge against the newspaper , with the National Labor Relations Board ruling for the paper in December 2007 that employers can ban employees ' pro @-@ union emails from the company email system .
In the weeks following the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the newspaper saw a 1 @.@ 6 % increase in paper sales . In 2006 , the paper received protests regarding its policy against including birth announcements from same @-@ sex couples . It was reported that managing editor Dave Baker was very helpful when same @-@ sex couples first complained " until he talked to Alton Baker [ III ] , and then he stopped returning our phone calls . " In November 2008 , the Register @-@ Guard finally changed its policy and printed a birth announcement featuring names of both the child 's female parents .
In 2003 , the newspaper reduced the width of the printing to 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) to reduce costs , and further shrank the paper to 11 inches ( 280 mm ) in 2009 .
In 2009 , two separate layoffs reduced the newspaper 's staff by the equivalent of 41 positions ; by August 2009 , it had 305 full- and part @-@ time employees . The company 's management blamed the layoffs on the " lousy economy " and advertising revenues that were 16 % below projections in May and about 25 % for June , July , and the first half of August .
In May 2015 , Tony Baker stepped down as the Register @-@ Guard 's editor and publisher , after 28 years , making the end of an 88 @-@ year span in which someone from the Baker family had headed the paper . He was succeeded as editor and publisher by N. Christian Anderson III , who had been publisher of The Oregonian since 2009 and president of the Oregonian Media Group since 2013 . Anderson began working in the new position on June 1 , 2015 , but held it for less than seven months . In mid @-@ December 2015 , Tony Baker , who remains the chairman of the Guard Publishing Company , announced that Anderson " is no longer Editor and Publisher " of the Register @-@ Guard , and that the Baker family was taking control again . Tony Baker returned to the position of Editor and Publisher . In July 2016 , Logan Molen took over as Publisher and CEO of RG Media Company ( a.k.a. the Guard Publishing Company ) , while Baker remains editor .
= = Awards = =
The paper won in a tie for best feature photo in 1997 from the Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association . In 1998 , the paper took first place for science reporting from the Pacific Northwest Society of Professional Journalists competition for Excellence in Journalism . The Register @-@ Guard took first place in the same competition in 2001 for best arts coverage . In 1999 , the newspaper was a Pulitzer Prize finalist for Spot News Photography , for its coverage of the community 's reaction to shootings at Springfield 's Thurston High School by student Kip Kinkel .
The Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association 's 2010 General Excellence Award again went to The Register @-@ Guard , and so did the association 's Best Overall Website award .
= = Blocked in Turkey = =
Since June 17 , 2008 , by court order , access to the website of The Register @-@ Guard has been blocked in Turkey .
|
= Achaemenid Assyria =
Athura ( Old Persian : 𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼𐎠 Aθurā ) was a geographical area within the Persian Achaemenid Empire held by the last nobility of Aššur ( Akkadian ) , known as Athura ( Neo @-@ Aramaic ) or Atouria ( Greek ) , during the period of 539 BC to 330 BC as a military protectorate state of Persia under the rule of Cyrus the Great . Although sometimes regarded as a satrapy , Achaemenid royal inscriptions list it as a dahyu , a concept generally interpreted as meaning either a group of people or both a country and its people , without any administrative implication .
It mostly incorporated the original Assyrian kingdom , corresponding with modern northern Iraq in the upper Tigris , the middle and upper Euphrates , modern @-@ day north eastern Syria ( Eber @-@ Nari ) and part of south @-@ east Anatolia ( modern Turkey ) . The Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire collapsed after a period of violent civil wars , followed by an invasion by a coalition of some of its former subject peoples , the Iranian peoples ( Medes and Persians ) , Babylonians , Scythians , and Cimmerians in the late 7th century BC , culminating in the Battle of Nineveh , and Assyria had fallen completely by 605 BC . Between 605 and 559 BC , Assyria was divided between the Median Empire to the east and the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire to the west . Both parts were subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC , and it has been argued that they constituted the satrapies of Media and Athura , respectively . In Herodotus ' account the Ninth Tributary District comprised " Babylonia and the rest of Assyria " , and excluded Eber @-@ Nari .
Despite a few rebellions , Assyria functioned as an important part of the Achaemenid Empire . The Assyrian people were given the right to govern themselves throughout Achaemenid rule , and the Assyrian ( Aramaic ) language was used diplomatically by the Persians . Known for their combat skills , Assyrian soldiers ( along with the Lydians ) constituted the main heavy infantry of the Achaemenid empire 's military . Due to the major destruction of Assyria during the fall of its empire , some early scholars described the area as an " uninhabited wasteland . " Other Assyriologists , however , such as John Curtis and Simo Parpola , have strongly disputed this claim , citing how Assyria would eventually become one of the wealthiest regions among the Achaemenid Empire . This wealth was due to the land 's great prosperity for agriculture that the Persians used effectively for almost 200 years . In contrast to the policy of the Assyrian Empire , the Achaemenid Persians did not intervene in the internal affairs of their ruling satrapies as long as they continued the flow of tribute and taxes back to Persia .
= = Fall of the Assyrian Empire = =
Between the mid 14th centuries and late 11th century BC , and again between the late 10th and late 7th centuries BC , the respective Middle Assyrian Empire and Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire dominated the Middle East militarily , culturally , economically and politically , and the Persians and their neighbours the Medes , Parthians , Elamites and Manneans were vassals of Assyria and paid tribute . In the late 7th century BC , however , the Assyrian empire descended into a period of civil war in 626 BC , which drastically weakened it , and eventually led to a number of its former subject peoples ; the Babylonians , Chaldeans , Medes , Persians , Scythians and Cimmerians , forming an alliance and attacking the civil war ridden Assyrians in 616 BC . The Battle of Nineveh in 612 BC eventually left Assyria destroyed for years to come . The Assyrians continued to fight on , with the aid of another of their former vassals , Egypt who feared the rise of these new powers . Harran , the new Assyrian capital , was eventually taken in 608 BC . Despite this , the Assyrians continued to fight on until final defeat at Carchemish in 605 BC .
A costly but victorious battle at Megiddo against the forces of Judah allowed the Egyptians to advance to the rescue , only to be defeated by the Babylonian @-@ Median @-@ Scythian alliance . Assyria was conquered by the alliance . Babylonian rule was unpopular , but did not last long . In 539 , Cyrus the Great defeated the Babylonian King Nabonidus ( ironically himself an Assyrian from Harran ) , took Babylon and made it , along with Assyria , into provinces of the Persian Empire .
= = Athura as part of the Achaemenid Empire = =
The former major Assyrian capitals of Nineveh , Dur Sharrukin and Kalhu were only sparsely populated during the Achaemenid rule . Much Assyrian settlement was mostly in smaller cities , towns and villages at plain level , in the mountains , or on mounds such as Tell ed @-@ Darim . However , according to more recent Assyriologists such as Georges Roux , cities such as Arrapkha , Guzana and Arbela remained intact , and Ashur was to revive . Despite many of the Assyrian cities being left largely in ruins from the battles that led to the fall of its empire in the 7th century BC , rural Assyria was prosperous according to the Greek scholar Xenophon . After passing Kalhu and Nineveh ( which he described in ruins with only a handful of Assyrians dwelling amongst them ) , Xenophon and the Greeks turned north @-@ west , following the east bank of the Tigris River , he described rural Assyria as :
.. there was an abundance of corn in the villages , and found a palace , with many villages round about it ... In these villages they remained for three days , not only for the sake of the wounded , but likewise because they had provisions in abundance – flour , wine , and great stores of barley that had been collected for horses , all these supplies having been gathered together by the acting satrap of the district .
The testimony is an example of the rich agricultural resources of Assyria 's region and the existence of a satrap ’ s palace . It is not known exactly where this palace was located , but Layard suggest it may have been near Zakho .
An inscription found in Egypt written by Arsames describes Assyrian cities whom obtained administrative centres within Achaemenid rule :
Lair : Assyrian Lahiru ( Eski Kifri ) , by the Diyala Valley
Arzuhina : Tell Chemchemal , 40 kilometers east of Kirkuk
Arbela
Halsu : Location unknown
Matalubash : Assyrian Ubaše ( Tell Huwaish ) , 20 kilometers north of ancient city of Assur
Prior to the Persian rule of Assyria , The Achaemenids were greatly Assyrianized , and Aramaic continued as the lingua franca of the Empire in the region , with the Assyrian script being the everyday writing system . Assyrian ( Sumero @-@ Akkadian ) religion within the empire were tolerated , and the judicial system , calendar and imperial standards imposed by the Assyrians remained in force everywhere .
The Assyrians , like all other tributary peoples of the Persian Empire , were obliged to pay taxes to the King of Persia and , whenever the King campaigned , supply troops as well . Reliefs of Assyrian tribute bearers carved on the east and north sides of the Apadana , consist of seven bearded men : one carrying animal skins , one carrying a length of cloth , two carrying bowls , and two leading Mouflons .
= = = Rise of Aramaic = = =
The Assyrian Empire resorted to a policy of deporting troublesome conquered peoples ( predominantly fellow Semitic Aramean tribes as well as many Jews ) into the lands of Mesopotamia . While this allowed some integration , it may have also led to the various rebellions within the Empire in the 7th century . By the 6th century , the indigenous and originally Akkadian speaking Semites of Assyria and Babylonia , spoke Akkadian infused dialects of Eastern Aramaic , which still survive among the Assyrian people to this day . Consequently , during the Persian rule of Assyria , Aramaic gradually became the main language spoken by the Assyrians . Even before the Empire fell , the Assyrians had made the language the lingua franca of its empire , and many could speak Aramaic , and the ruling elite of Assyria needed to have been bilingual , capable of speaking both Akkadian and Aramaic . The conquest of Assyria and the violent destruction of the cities meant that many of these bilingual skilled individuals died with their language and the Aramaic script was incorporated into the Assyrian culture by around the late 6th century BC .
Following the Achaemenid conquest of Assyria under Darius I , the Aramaic language was adopted as the " vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages . " The use of a single official language , which modern scholarship has dubbed " Official Aramaic " or " Imperial Aramaic " , and be assumed to have greatly contributed to the success of the Achaemenids in holding their far @-@ flung empire together for as long as they did . Imperial Aramaic was highly standardized ; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect , and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility . In 1955 , Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an " official language " , noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language . Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the " lingua franca " of the Achaemenid territories , suggesting then that the Achaemenid @-@ era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought .
For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenids , Imperial Aramaic – or near enough for it to be recognizable – remained an influence on the various native Iranian languages . Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary survived as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system .
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis fortification tablets , which number about five hundred . Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt , and Elephantine in particular . Of them , the best known is the Wisdom of Ahiqar , a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical book of Proverbs . Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written . Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language .
A group of thirty Imperial Aramaic documents from Bactria were recently discovered , and an analysis was published in November 2006 . The texts , which were rendered on leather , reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BCE Achaemenid provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana .
Aramaic dialects and written script survive to this day among the Christian Assyrian people of Iraq , south eastern Turkey , north eastern Syria and north western Iran .
= = = Revolts of Assyria , 546 and 520 BC = = =
In 546 BC and 520 BC , the two Assyrian Provinces of Mada and Athura revolted against the Persian Empire . Though the revolts were suppressed , it illustrated that the two regions acted in unison , suggesting perhaps an ethnic and cultural link . Having said this a rebellion could occur in several different parts of an Empire for geographical reasons and it may have been that the whole of the Mesopotamia region became swept with rebellion .
= = = Campaigns = = =
Although the effectiveness of the once invincible Assyrian army was shown to be greatly depleted by the time of its eventual collapse , the soldiers of Assyria continued to be brave and fierce warriors . Most soldiers at the time would not wear heavy armour , but rather than act as melee troops , would serve as skirmishers . The Assyrian troops were different however , since they fought as archers , cavalry and heavy infantry and were useful as front line troops . The Assyrian infantry was specifically trained to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand . A massive army was assembled by Xerxes in the early 5th century BC . Contemporary estimates place the numbers between 100 @,@ 000 and over a million . Whatever the number , it was enormous and the Persians summoned troops from all across their realm . Herodotus remarks that Assyrian soldiers were employed in Xerxes ' expedition to Greece .
The Assyrian contingent wore on their heads either bronze helmets or plaited helmets of a peculiarly foreign design which is hard to describe . Their shields , spears , and daggers , resembled Egyptian ones , and they also carried wooden clubs with iron studs , and wore . | author = Herodotus
= = = Influence of Assyrian art on Achaemenid sculpture = = =
The Assyrians continued to serve the Persians under King Darius I , who was at his time considered the greatest ruler , often styling himself as " King of Kings . " He ruled as a king over many other powerful subordinates and , as such , it was believed that a great palace should be built at the Persian city of Susa . The Assyrians were employed in the construction of this building , albeit with many other tributary peoples as well as Persians themselves . The Western Assyrians of Athura were closer to Mount Lebanon , where fine trees could be found and timber processed for Darius ' grand Palace . The Eastern Assyrians of Mada were charged with excavating gold .
Assyrian influence over Achaemenid art and sculpture can be seen in various areas of the empire . Examples include the doorway relief of the palaces in Pasargadae , and in the Bukan area ( near Urmia ) where various tiles are decorated with human @-@ headed winged figures , lions , and ibexes . The symbol of the Assyrian God , Ashur , was chosen as the faravahar , the symbol of God in Zoroastrianism , during the Achaemenid rule of Assyria .
The best example of Assyrian influence can be observed in the Gate of All Nations in Persepolis , with two lamassus ( human @-@ headed winged bull ) in the entrance . The Assyrian lamassu , however , was used to protect the palace from evil spirits , while those of Persepolis expressed meditative calm and humanity . Iranologists and Assyriologists have tried to answer the question of how was the influence transmitted . Possibilities include contacts between Athura and Persia were frequent and Achaemenid architects visited the Assyrian palaces . Other suggest Assyrian slaves were brought back to Persia to have them work on the new palaces .
= = = Economy = = =
As with many other countries , the primary occupation was farming . The large output of Mesopotamian farms resulted in highly populated civilizations . The chief crop that fueled the ever @-@ growing civilizations in the region was the grain barley and enumer wheat though sesame seeds also provided a source of nourishment . Like much of the rest of the world at the time , the economy of Athura relied heavily upon the produce of the farms and the rivers , including fish and what fruit and meat could be raised in the Euphrates ' fertile soils . The agricultural year began with sowing after summer . Flooding posed a serious risk to farmers , whilst rodents were supposedly driven off by prayers to the rodent god . To ensure that such prayers were answered , tall silos were built to house the grain and keep out the mice .
Trees were grown for their fruit . To prevent the hot winds of the region from destroying the crops , tall palm trees were planted around the smaller trees , thus breaking the wind and shading the plants from the heat of the sun , the intensity of which provided plenty for the plants , even when shaded . Following the Persian conquest , peaches were added to the original Assyrian mix of apples , cherries , figs , pears , plums and pomegranates . Tree growing was an art mastered with tree @-@ cutting and even " artificial mating " in order to have the Palm trees yield fruit . In the north , rainfall in Athura met the demands of farming but in the more southernly parts ( covering Mada ) Shadufs were used to assist in irrigation .
Oxen , donkeys , cattle and sheep were raised , the latter for their milk ( which could be turned into butter ) and the former as draught animals . Pigs , ducks , geese and chickens were all raised for their meat . Hunting supplemented the food supply with birds and fish .
The down @-@ time resulting from farming and the seasons allowed men and women to master other skills in life such as the arts , philosophy and leisure . Without the fertile soils of the Euphrates river valley , civilization would not have come to be .
= = = Archaeological findings = = =
= = = = Kalhu = = = =
Kalhu ( Nimrud ) ' s buildings were dramatically destroyed during the sacking of 614 – 612 BC . However , evidence of reoccupation during the " post @-@ Assyrian period " ( 612 – 539 BC ) is noted in various areas , including the Palace of Adad @-@ nirari III , the North @-@ West Palace , the Burnt Palace and Nabu Temple complex , Fort Shalmaneser , and the Town @-@ Wall Houses .
Claudius Xenophon passed by Nimrud ( which he called Larissa ) in 401 BC along with 10 @,@ 000 Greek soldiers and described the city as
a large deserted city … Its wall was twenty @-@ five feet in breadth and a hundred in height , and the whole circuit of the wall was two parasangs . It was built of clay bricks , and rested upon a stone foundation twenty feet high … Near by this city was a pyramid of stone , a plethrum in breadth and two plethra in height ; and upon this pyramid were many barbarians ( Assyrians ) who had fled away from the neighbouring villages .
Despite Xenephon ’ s description of the city as being abandoned , archaeological evidence seems to show that there was some Achaemenid @-@ period occupation . Phase 3 or H in the Nabu Temple complex and Burnt Palace is described as Achaemenid occupation . They include traces of kilns on the south side of Room 47 in the Burnt Palace , together with red glass ingots and slag , which after a radiocarbon analysis yielded a date of 425 + / - 50 BC . In the Nabu Temple , a pipe lamp and a group of seven pottery vessels are considered to be " ascribed to the Achaemenid period . " There was also some Achaemenid occupation in the South @-@ East Palace : a deep footed bowl , a hemispherical bowl ( which is compared with pottery from the Achaemenid village at Susa ) , and three pottery vessels . Also in the South @-@ East Palace were two " eye of Horus " amulets , often regarded as hallmarks of Achaemenid period material culture . Another eye of Horus amulet has been found in the Town Hall Houses . In the palace of Adad @-@ nirari III , three bronze kohl sticks with castellated heads having been identified as Achaemenid period .
= = = = Assur = = = =
Like other Assyrian capitals , Assur was greatly destroyed during the battles of the century before . The importance of the city thereafter is not clear , but much evidence indicate it was a flourishing city during the Achaemenid rule . After the Babylonian conquest by Cyrus the Great , the " Cyrus Cylinder " mentions Assur as one of the cities of which cult statues were returned . In 401 BC , Xenephon describes the city as
A large and prosperous city named " Caenae " ( Assur ) which was seen on the opposite ( west ) bank of the Tigris River . From this city , the barbarians ( Assyrians ) brought over loaves , cheeses and wine , crossing upon rafts made of skins .
At the Assur Temple , two shrines have been identified as being built between the fifth and third centuries BC . A few graves at the site also may have been belonged to the Achaemenid period . From the grave site , a pair of circular earrings with globules has clearly been identified as Achaemenid . These earrings are similar to the silver earring found at Dur @-@ Sharrukin near Nineveh . In another grave , Haller dates grave number 811 as Achaemenid period . The grave contained three bodies , a stamp @-@ seal showing the goddess Ishtar standing on the back of a lion . This might indicate that ancient Mesopotamian religion was still being practiced within the Assyrian population during the Achaemenid rule . Other objects from the grave 811 include a bronze fibula ; another earring , but gold rather than the earlier described silver ; different kinds of beads of silver , agate , frit and glass ; an alabastron ; a bowl made of copper ; and two pottery bottles . It is not clear , however , if all the items are Achaemenid in date .
= = = = Tel ed @-@ Daim = = = =
To the northeast of Kirkuk , the site of Tel ed @-@ Daim shows significant evidence of Achaemenid rule . A small fortified palace ( most probably for a local governor ) includes a bronze wall @-@ plaques , a bronze snaffle @-@ bit of a type well @-@ known from Achaemenid contexts at Persepolis , kohl tubes with ribbed decoration tapering , and pottery . The pottery in the palace show similarities with the pottery from Nimrud that has been identified as Achaemenid .
= = = = Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project = = = =
In Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project , a few items have been identified as Achaemenid period . The project was located to the northwest of Mosul , in the upper Tigirs valley , and within the Assyrian heartland . In the Kharabeh Shattani site , various amounts of pottery have been dated Achaemenid . These include , four bowls of which have similarities of Achaemenid bowls in Susa and Pasargadae . Other times include clay spindle whorls , two iron sickle blades , and a bronze plate optimistically identified as a horse ’ s forehead plaque . A bronze finger @-@ ring with a crouching animal engraved on the bezel was also found in the site and is considered to be widespread in the Achaemenid empire . Also in the project , a grave site excavated found bodies that included a conical kohl pot and a bronze pin with a castellated top . These objects are considered to be distinctive Achaemenid type .
= = Assyria after the Achaemenid Period = =
In the late fourth century BC , Alexander the Great led his Greco @-@ Macedonian army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire . The empire 's vast territory and numerous tributary peoples ensured that rebellion would be a constant problem . This new Greek Empire relied upon the administrative system put in place by the Persians to govern these new lands ; consequently , the Assyrian lands of Athura and Mada were administrated as such by their own satraps . When Alexander the Great died , the Greek successor state of the Seleucid Empire , created in the Babylonian War , retained control of much of the Persian Empire . The Babylonian Chronicles now show the vitality of Greek culture in ancient cities like Babylon .
Whilst Greek rule beyond the Euphrates was subject to constant and eventually successful Iranian incursions , Assyria was forced to take the role of a frontier province , first defending the Seleucid Empire against the Parthians , later defending the Parthan Empire against the Romans . Greek rule in the East did not last long even though the cultural impacts did - by the mid @-@ third century BC , the satraps began revolting against the Seleucid Empire in Iran and Bactria establishing their own domains . A temporary revival of Seleucid Power reestablished Imperial authority in these regions in the late 3rd and early 2nd century BC but after which the Parthians soon came to incorporate the lands known as Assyria once again by the mid @-@ second century BC .
Rule by the Parthian Empire aimed to emulate that of their Persian predecessors , the Achaemenids , with a similar system of administration involving satraps and smaller provinces . Indeed , the main rebel behind the rise of Parthia from Seleucia was a satrap himself . On top of this , the Parthian Empire was more decentralized and power was shared amongst clan leaders , hinting at the possibility of the retention of the provinces . Mesopotamia became the heartland of the Seleucid Empire with a new capital , Seleucia , founded . As a result , much culture and knowledge was exchanged between the Greeks and the Assyrians . The invasions of Alexander the Great consisted not only of soldiers but scientists and Historians .
Beginning in the first century BC , the Romans began expanding their Empire at the cost of the Parthians . Initially , the nomadic military tactic of circling and shooting worked to deadly effect against the slow , heavy @-@ moving infantry of the Romans . In time however , superior technology and strategy drove the Parthians out of the Mediterranean and most of Anatolia . The Parthians continued to resist Roman rule , invading and in turn being invaded by the Romans many times , with their capital Ctesiphon being sacked three times . The consequence of these bloody and inconclusive wars meant that the Assyrian provinces bore the brunt of the fighting , with Assyrian troops fighting for one side and then , at the change of the governing of the lands of Mada and Athura , fighting for the other side . Naturally such events served to undermine the Assyrians .
Assyrians had begun to adopt Christianity from the first century and Aramaic remained the spoken language of the region .
By the second century , the Roman Empire under Trajan began to achieve the upper hand against the Parthians and established the province of Assyria along the Euphrates and Tigris .
From 226 , Assyria became a province of the Sasanian Empire and was known as Asōristān ( " Asōr @-@ land " ) in Middle Persian .
In 650 , the area fell to the early Muslim conquests . However , the region remained Aramaic @-@ speaking and largely Christian well into the Middle Ages . Assyrians remain in the area to this day , and there are a number of Assyrian towns and villages in the region . In addition , cities such as Mosul , Dohuk , Erbil and Kirkuk have Assyrian populations . Most Assyrians remain Christian and retain the Aramaic language and script .
|
= Stronger ( Sugababes song ) =
" Stronger " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their second studio album Angels with Dirty Faces ( 2002 ) . The Sugababes wrote the song in collaboration with Jony Rockstar , Marius de Vries and Felix Howard ; it was inspired by group member Heidi Range 's experience of being separated from her family and friends . " Stronger " is a downtempo pop and R & B ballad with a self @-@ empowerment theme . It is the third single from Angels with Dirty Faces , and was released as a double A @-@ side with the album 's title track . The song received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards its composition .
" Stronger " charted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart and reached the top ten on the singles charts in the Netherlands and Norway . It peaked in the top forty in Australia and New Zealand , and many European countries . Alison Murray directed the song 's music video , which was filmed at a swimming pool in London and portrays each group member as a different persona . The single was performed by the Sugababes at the Edinburgh 50 @,@ 000 – The Final Push concert in July 2005 , and was included in the set lists for their tours in support of Three , Overloaded : The Singles Collection and Change . Lee Mead covered the ballad for his self @-@ titled studio album .
= = Background and release = =
Soon after the release of the group 's debut album , One Touch ( 2000 ) , and its singles " New Year " , " Run for Cover " and " Soul Sound " , the Sugababes were dropped by their record label London Records , and band member Siobhán Donaghy left the group amid reports of in @-@ fighting with members Keisha Buchanan and Mutya Buena . Former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range was announced as Donaghy 's replacement , and the Sugababes subsequently signed to Island Records . " Stronger " was written by Buchanan , Buena and Range , in collaboration with Jony Rockstar , Marius de Vries and Felix Howard , for the group 's second studio album Angels with Dirty Faces . The song was conceptualised during the period in Range 's life when she had not yet joined the group and was separated from her family and friends . Range related her experience to the writing process of " Stronger " , a technique which she suggested was essential for songwriting . The song was produced and mixed by Rockstar . Tom Elmhirst also mixed the song , recorded the group 's vocals and programmed it . Range has named " Stronger " as her favourite song from the group 's career , and considers it personal to her . " Stronger " was released as the album 's third single as part of a double A @-@ side with the album 's title track in CD , cassette and 12 @-@ inch single formats on 11 November 2002 . To promote its release , the Sugababes played the track to the Birmingham Mail in October 2002 as part of an interview , and visited 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM in November 2002 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Stronger " is a downtempo pop and R & B ballad , with elements of hip hop . Daily Mail 's Adrian Thrills described it as a " madeto @-@ measure pop ballad " . " Stronger " was composed in the key of A minor in common time , at a relatively slow @-@ paced 74 beats per minute . The song features an orchestral musical arrangement ; its instrumentation is provided by a bass guitar , violin , viola , cello , double bass , drums and keyboards . The song features a slow and dark melody , and is reminiscent of the Sugababes ' 2001 One Touch single " Run for Cover " . According to NME 's Alex Needham , " Stronger " features a similar musical style to the American R & B group En Vogue . Graeme Virtue of The Sunday Herald compared the ballad to the music of English group Massive Attack , writing : " The orchestral sweep of ' Stronger ' aims for Massive Attack @-@ style emotional sweep " . " Stronger " is a self @-@ empowerment ballad that contains an " I @-@ will @-@ survive " testimony ; the chorus is opened with the line , " I 'm all alone , and finally , I 'm getting stronger " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical response to " Stronger " was generally positive . Andy Strickland of Yahoo ! Music described it as having " splashes of pure Massive Attack " . Stuart McCaighy of This Is Fake DIY wrote that it " sounds ace " , while Birmingham Post writer Andrew Cowen described the track as " defiant " . Dean Piper from Daily Mirror considered it the Sugababes ' best release and applauded the group 's vocals on the song . Hot Press writer Phil Udell characterised " Stronger " as " an elegant ballad way beyond their tender years " . Akin Ojumu of The Guardian was complimentary about the track 's R & B elements , writing : " When they get it right on tracks such as ' Stronger ' and ' Supernatural ' the Sugababes are cool " . Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman praised the song 's composition , calling it " tastefully restrained " . However , Barry Nicholson from NME named it the weaker track on the double A @-@ side and stated that it " leers at you for a bit , then staggers off to puke up that last Bacardi Breezer " . Marianne Gunn from The Herald called the track 's strings " inferior " and wrote that it contains " the same cheesy sentiment " as American singer Britney Spears ' song of the same name .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Stronger " debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated 23 November 2002 as part of its double A @-@ side release with the album 's title track . It became the third consecutive single from Angels with Dirty Faces to reach the top ten in the UK . The single eventually spent thirteen weeks on the chart . The double A @-@ side has sold 125 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , placing it twelfth on the Sugababes ' list of highest @-@ selling singles . The double A @-@ side debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ four on the Australian Singles Chart on 9 March 2003 and spent nine weeks on the chart . It performed better on the New Zealand Singles Chart , where it peaked at number twenty @-@ four and remained on the chart for eighteen weeks . " Stronger " charted individually in other countries . The song performed most notably on the Dutch Top 40 chart , where it peaked at number five , spent six weeks in the top ten , and was placed 29th on its list of best @-@ performing singles in 2003 . " Stronger " reached number six on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista chart and spent fourteen weeks in the top twenty . The single peaked at number eleven on the Danish Singles Chart , and number thirteen on the Irish Singles Chart . " Stronger " debuted at number forty @-@ three on the Ultratop chart in Belgium ( Flanders ) and later peaked at number twenty . It peaked at number 23 on the Swedish and Swiss singles charts and reached the top forty on the German and Hungarian charts .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Stronger " was directed by Alison Murray . It was filmed in September 2002 at a swimming pool , located in London . Range played a stripper in the video , while Buena portrayed a gangster and Buchanan was a heartbroken woman . Range described being semi @-@ naked in front of the camera as " weird , and very invasive " . The video opens with a scene of Buena in a moving car down the streets in London , where she is sitting next to a man on the phone . She boils up the courage to leave her superstar boyfriend . After the car stops at a red light , she gets out of it and walks away , leaving her boyfriend behind yelling at her .
The following scenes show Buchanan , Range and Buena at an outdoor swimming pool ; Buchanan is sitting on a chair , Range is standing in front of a fence , and Buena is sitting on the pool 's stairs . Five women are later shown dancing simultaneously by the pool . The video cuts to Buchanan sitting in the middle of a support group in a room in a university , with a blackboard behind her reading " Heartbroken " and " Anonymous " . She later leaves the room , and the video then shows the Sugababes sitting on a bench near the pool . Range is shown on the stage in a nightclub disco as a stripper . Like Mutya Buena , she acts up the courage and leaves her profession , then she throws the microphone into the water in the nightclub . Meanwhile , all three Sugababes appear under the running water of a shower tap , and are shown dancing with the group of women from the previous scenes . The final scenes of the video show three children swimming underwater in the pool , resembling the members of the Sugababes .
= = Live performances and other appearances = =
The Sugababes performed " Stronger " on 27 August 2002 during an Up Close gig for the launch of Angels with Dirty Faces , organised by Scottish Radio Holdings and the Royal Bank of Scotland . They performed the single on 5 October 2002 at the University of Leeds . The trio played " Stronger " , along with many of their other songs , at the Edinburgh Corn Exchange on 18 August 2004 . The song was performed by the band at the Edinburgh 50 @,@ 000 – The Final Push concert in July 2005 , which was part of the Live 8 concert series to persuade G8 leaders to increase the assistance of poverty in Africa . The performance received mixed reviews from critics , who considered it weak . " Stronger " was included in the set list for the group 's 2004 tour in support of their album Three . In October 2006 , the Sugababes performed it as part of an acoustic set with " Shape " at the 100 Club on Oxford Street , to promote the release of their greatest hits album , Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
" Stronger " was featured in the set list for the group 's Overloaded tour , in which the performances were accompanied by footage of their Comic Relief trip to Africa . The band performed the song in December 2007 in Glasgow , Scotland , as part of an acoustic gig . The single also appeared on the set list for their 2008 Change Tour , in support of their fifth studio album Change . The Journal 's Kat Keogh wrote that their performance at the Newcastle City Hall " displayed a confident shift from moody pop princesses to sassy Supremes @-@ style harmony " . The group performed " Stronger " on 27 June 2009 at the Cannock Chase Forrest as part of a 75 @-@ minute show , and on 10 July 2009 at County Durham 's Riverside Ground along with many of their other singles . The fourth line @-@ up of the Sugababes , consisting of Range , Amelle Berrabah and Jade Ewen , performed the song at the London Superclub in March 2010 as part of a gig .
English musical theatre actor Lee Mead covered " Stronger " for his self @-@ titled album . Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy characterised the cover as " the only tune on the record with the sort of story @-@ telling lyrics that are fitting for Mead 's dramatic style " , while Michael Quinn from the BBC described it as " more sweetly plaintive " than the Sugababes ' version . " Stronger " was used in an anti @-@ bullying advertisement that depicts a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old girl with her mouthed stitched up . The advertisement was banned from appearing on television , although it was permitted by the Cinema Advertising Association to appear in cinemas across Britain from 19 January 2010 . The music video for " Stronger " became the subject of media attention in June 2011 after a member of Scotland 's SlutWalk movement posted it on the group 's website , claiming that it was in encouragement for victims of rape .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Personnel = =
Songwriting – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Jony Rockstar , Marius de Vries , Felix Howard
Production – Jony Rockstar
Mixing – Tom Elmhirst , Jony Rockstar
Recording – Tom Elmhirst
Programming – Tom Elmhirst
String arrangement – Chris Elliott
Vocals – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range
Guitar – Jeremy Shaw
Bass guitar – Simon Benson
Drums – Jony Rockstar
Keyboards – Jony Rockstar
Violin – Perry Montague @-@ Mason , Chris Tombling , Dermot Crehan , Kathy Shave , Warren Zielinski , Mark Berrow , Julian Leaper , Simon Fischer , Benedict Cruft , Everton Nelson , Gavin Wright , Patrick Kiernan , David Woodcock , Jackie Shave , Rebecca Hirsch , Peter Hanson , Boguslav Kostecki
Viola – Donald McVay , Philip Dukes , Rachel Bolt , Peter Lale , Timothy Grant , Bruce White , Zoe Lake
Cello – David Bucknail , Michael Stirling , Chris Elliott , Naomi Wright , David Daniels , Frank Schaefer , Nick Cooper , Anthony Lewis
Double bass – Mary Scully , Leon , Patrick Lannigan
Credits are taken from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
|
= Beautiful Eyes =
Beautiful Eyes is the second extended play ( EP ) by American singer Taylor Swift . The EP was released on July 15 , 2008 by Big Machine Records exclusively to Walmart stores in the United States and online . The limited release EP has a primarily country pop sound and features alternate versions of tracks from her debut album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) , and two original tracks , " Beautiful Eyes " and " I Heart ? " , songs which she had previously written ; a DVD , featuring music videos of singles from Taylor Swift , is also included on the physical release of the EP . Like their second album , this one also features CDVU + technology that includes more than 30 pages of bonus features with an exclusive video performance , 60 printable photos , complete album lyrics , downloadable graphics , and hidden links . In addition , the packaging of the album is made from 100 % recycled materials .
Beautiful Eyes peaked at number nine on the U.S. Billboard 200 and topped Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart , succeeding her self @-@ titled debut album . " I Heart ? " was released as a promotional single in June 2008 . Though the EP was not heavily promoted , Swift performed the title track at a few venues .
= = Background = =
Swift received much success with the release of her self @-@ titled debut album Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) , and began working on her second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) , in 2007 . During that time , she received a number of e @-@ mails from fans requesting for new material to be released , which drove Swift into releasing Beautiful Eyes : " I thought this might tide them over till the new album comes out in the fall . " Beautiful Eyes is musically oriented to country pop and contemporary music . It includes new versions of tracks from Taylor Swift : an alternate version of " Should 've Said No " , the fifth single from the album , an acoustic version of " Teardrops on My Guitar " , the second single from the album , a radio edit of " Picture to Burn " , the fourth single from the album , and " I 'm Only Me when I 'm with You " , a promotional single from the album . The EP also features two original songs , " Beautiful Eyes " and " I Heart Question Mark " , which she previously wrote in 2003 . The EP 's DVD features music videos from the singles from Taylor Swift , as well as a music video made for " Beautiful Eyes " from footage from Swift 's eighteenth birthday party .
Swift did not want any misconceptions of Beautiful Eyes as her second album and therefore partnered with the American retail company Wal @-@ Mart to make the EP an exclusive release . The album was only made available through American Wal @-@ Mart stores and Wal @-@ Mart 's website . Furthermore , it was made a limited release because Swift only allowed Big Machine Records to manufacture a certain number of copies of the EP . She said , " I ’ m only letting my record company make a small amount of these . The last thing I want any of you to think is that we are putting out too many releases . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending August 2 , 2008 , Beautiful Eyes debuted at number nine on the Billboard 200 due to sales of 45 @,@ 000 copies . The EP spent a total of twenty weeks on the Billboard 200 . On the same week , it debuted at number one on Top Country Albums , replacing her own album Taylor Swift as the chart 's number one album . With Taylor Swift charting at number two , Swift became the first artist to hold the first two positions on Top Country Albums since LeAnn Rimes charted in 1997 with Blue ( 1996 ) and Unchained Melody : The Early Years ( 1997 ) . The following week , the EP slipped to number two and , in total , it spent twenty eight weeks on Top Country Albums . As of July 2014 , the EP has sold 316 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Promotion = =
" I Heart ? " was released as promotional single from Beautiful Eyes on June 23 , 2008 . Swift promoted Beautiful Eyes minimally for the reason being she did not want for misconceptions of the EP being her second album , although she did perform the title track at different venues . She first performed " Beautiful Eyes " on January 23 , 2005 at the 2005 NAMM Show , an annual music product trade show held in Anaheim , California at the Anaheim Convention Center . The performance featured Swift , dressed in a red blouse and blue jeans , performing acoustically with a guitar , sitting on a bar stool . " Beautiful Eyes " was later performed as part of Swift 's set for Stripped on August 5 , 2008 ; she wore a black , one @-@ shoulder dress and performed with a back @-@ up band while playing a rhinestoned acoustic guitar .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
As listed in liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Technical = = =
|
= Joe Tipton =
Joe Hicks Tipton ( February 18 , 1922 – March 1 , 1994 ) was an American professional baseball player . He played as a catcher in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1948 through 1954 with the Cleveland Indians , Chicago White Sox , Philadelphia Athletics , and the Washington Senators . In 417 career games , Tipton recorded a batting average of .236 and accumulated 29 home runs , and 125 runs batted in ( RBI ) .
Born and raised in Georgia , Tipton played amateur baseball until the Cleveland Indians signed him . He spent two years in the minor leagues before serving in World War II . He played two more years in the minor leagues upon his return , then made his MLB debut with the Indians in 1948 . The Indians traded him to the White Sox in 1949 , then the White Sox sent him to the Philadelphia Athletics in 1950 . Tipton spent two and a half years with the Athletics before returning to Cleveland . After spending a season with the Washington Senators , he played and managed in the minor leagues for a few seasons before being banned from the minor leagues . After the ban , he moved to Birmingham , Alabama where he died in 1994 .
= = Early life and career = =
Tipton was born and raised in McCaysville , Georgia as the fifth of seven children . His birthplace was on the Tennessee border , so it was originally registered as Copperhill , Tennessee . Tipton attended Epworth High School and Copperhill High School in Tennessee , where he played on the high school basketball and football teams . He moved to Shannon , Georgia at the age of 16 in order to pursue a career in baseball . Tipton began his playing career in the Textile League with Brighton Mills in Shannon in 1938 , and spent the next three years with the Talladega team . While with Talladega , he was spotted by a scout from the Cleveland Indians organization , who signed Tipton to a professional contract .
After being signed by the Indians , Tipton made his professional debut with the Appleton Papermakers of the Wisconsin State League , where he had a .298 batting average and 11 home runs in 59 games . He spent most of the year there , and played in ten games with the Flint Arrows of the Michigan State League . In 1942 , Tipton was promoted to the Charleston Senators , the Indians ' Class C minor league affiliate . In one of his first games with the Senators , Tipton hit two triples and a home run to give his team the win by a score of seven to four . In 81 games with the team , Tipton had a .313 batting average .
= = Military service = =
Before the 1943 season began , Tipton joined the military to serve in World War II . He served in the United States Navy and was part of the Pacific Theater of Operations from 1943 to 1945 . During his time in the Pacific , he served on the USS Kadashan Bay . The ship was part of a kamikaze attack in January 1945 ; Tipton emerged unscathed from the attack .
After the end of the war , Tipton returned to baseball . He spent the 1946 season with the Harrisburg Senators , and had a .327 batting average in 104 games . In 1947 , he was promoted to the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons of the Eastern League . That season , he had a .375 batting average , which led the league . The following season , Tipton joined the Cleveland Indians for spring training . By the end of March , he was considered a sure thing to make the major league roster .
= = Major League career = =
The Cleveland Indians decided to keep only two catchers on the roster for the 1948 Cleveland Indians season , and manager Lou Boudreau chose Tipton to back up Jim Hegan . He made his major league debut on May 2 , and a month later , in a game on June 6 , he had five hits in five plate appearances to give Cleveland a win against the Philadelphia Athletics . Tipton played in 47 games over the course of the season and had a .289 batting average . He also played in one game during the 1948 World Series , striking out in his only appearance .
After the World Series , Indians owner Bill Veeck wanted to improve the pitching staff . Despite finding Tipton to be worthy of a starting job and despite Veeck considering trading Hegan instead , Tipton was traded to the Chicago White Sox for Joe Haynes . Early in the season , White Sox manager Jack Onslow accused Tipton of tipping pitches after a loss to the St. Louis Browns and fined him $ 500 . The two then fought and Tipton threatened to leave the team , but they buried the hatchet a short time later . He played in 67 games during the season , and ended the year with a .204 batting average and three triples .
On October 19 , 1949 , the White Sox traded Tipton to the Philadelphia Athletics for Nellie Fox . Fox played 14 years for the White Sox and went on to become a Hall of Famer , and as a result the trade is considered one of the most lopsided in baseball history . During spring training for the Athletics , Tipton battled Mike Guerra and Joe Astroth for the starting job at catcher . All three ended up splitting time over the course of the season . Tipton finished the year hitting .266 with six home runs and 20 RBIs in 64 games .
Jimmy Dykes took over as Athletics ' manager in 1951 , and had high hopes for Tipton heading into the season , saying that he " is a lot better catcher than most people think . " In May , Tipton was hit in the head by a stray baseball bat during a game , and spent some time in the hospital as a result . He split time with Astroth and Ray Murray during the season , but appeared in a career @-@ best 72 games , hitting .239 with 51 walks . After the season ended , Tipton was part of Lefty O 'Doul 's American baseball team that toured Japan . To start the 1952 season , Tipton was rumored to be the subject of a trade involving the Boston Red Sox and two of their players , but the deal never materialized . Tipton missed part of May with a kidney infection , and struggled upon returning , hitting .191 in 23 games . In late June , he was waived by the Athletics and picked up by the Indians . He spent the rest of the year with them , and finished with nine home runs , 30 RBIs , and a .225 average in 66 games .
Tipton remained the backup catcher to Hegan during the 1953 season . He battled a myriad of injuries throughout the season , including a bruised hand , a broken thumb , a split finger , and losing a fingernail . He finished the year with a .229 batting average in 47 games . On January 20 , 1954 , Tipton was traded to the Washington Senators for Mickey Grasso in an exchange of catchers . Manager Bucky Harris traded for Tipton in hopes that he would compete for the starting job due to his defense . Tipton served as the backup catcher to Ed Fitz Gerald in 1954 . He made his last MLB appearance on September 26 , and in 54 games he had a .223 average .
= = Later life = =
The New York Giants purchased the contracts of Tipton and Wayne Terwilliger on January 14 , 1955 , who sent them to the minor league Minneapolis Millers . While Terwilliger played for the Millers that year , Tipton had planned to retire from baseball , and never played a game for Minneapolis . Later that year , White Sox general manager Frank Lane wanted him to join the Memphis Chickasaws so that the young pitchers in the minor leagues could work with a veteran catcher ; Tipton obliged and joined the team for the 1955 season . In 60 games for the Chickasaws that season , Tipton had a .277 batting average and seven home runs .
After playing in the 60 games , Tipton was suspended after an argument with Chickasaws manager Jack Cassini , and after the season ended he retired from the game to work at his service station . He returned to baseball in 1957 and spent a season with the Birmingham Barons , and partway through the 1958 season , he joined the Panama City Fliers as manager . He was fired a month later , and in protest the Fliers refused to play their next game . Tipton retired afterwards , and a year later was banned for life from the minor leagues after it came to light that he accepted payouts by acting as a liaison for Jesse Levan , who was intentionally fouling off balls in order for gamblers in the stands to take advantage of them .
His baseball career over , Tipton moved to Birmingham , Alabama with his wife and three children , where he ran automobile dealership . He was named to the Fannin County Sports Hall of Fame in 2013 . In 1994 , Tipton died in Birmingham at the age of 72 .
|
= Funerary art =
Funerary art is any work of art forming , or placed in , a repository for the remains of the dead . The term also encompasses cenotaphs ( " empty tombs " ) , tomb @-@ like monuments which do not contain human remains ; and communal memorials to the dead ( such as war memorials ) , which may or may not contain human remains .
Funerary art may serve many cultural functions . It can play a role in burial rites , serve as an article for use by the dead in the afterlife , and celebrate the life and accomplishments of the dead , whether as part of kinship @-@ centred practices of ancestor veneration or as a publicly directed dynastic display . It can also function as a reminder of the mortality of humankind , as an expression of cultural values and roles , and help to propitiate the spirits of the dead , maintaining their benevolence and preventing their unwelcome intrusion into the affairs of the living .
The deposit of objects with an apparent aesthetic intention may go back to the Neanderthals over 50 @,@ 000 years ago , and is found in almost all subsequent cultures — Hindu culture , which has little , is a notable exception . Many of the best @-@ known artistic creations of past cultures — from the Egyptian pyramids and the Tutankhamun treasure to the Terracotta Army surrounding the tomb of the Qin Emperor , the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus , the Sutton Hoo ship burial and the Taj Mahal — are tombs or objects found in and around them . In most instances , specialized funeral art was produced for the powerful and wealthy , although the burials of ordinary people might include simple monuments and grave goods , usually from their possessions .
An important factor in the development of traditions of funerary art is the division between what was intended to be visible to visitors or the public after completion of the funeral ceremonies . The Tutankhamun treasure , for example , though exceptionally lavish , was never intended to be seen again after it was deposited , while the exterior of the pyramids was a permanent and highly effective demonstration of the power of their creators . A similar division can be seen in grand East Asian tombs . In other cultures , nearly all the art connected with the burial , except for limited grave goods , was intended for later viewing by the public or at least those admitted by the custodians . In these cultures , traditions such as the sculpted sarcophagus and tomb monument of the Greek and Roman empires , and later the Christian world , have flourished . The mausoleum intended for visiting was the grandest type of tomb in the classical world , and later common in Islamic culture .
= = Common terms = =
Tomb is a general term for any repository for human remains , while grave goods are other objects which have been placed within the tomb . Such objects may include the personal possessions of the deceased , objects specially created for the burial , or miniature versions of things believed to be needed in an afterlife . Knowledge of many non @-@ literate cultures is drawn largely from these sources .
A tumulus , mound , kurgan , or long barrow covered important burials in many cultures , and the body may be placed in a sarcophagus , usually of stone , or a coffin , usually of wood . A mausoleum is a building erected mainly as a tomb , taking its name from the Mausoleum of Mausolus at Halicarnassus . Stele is a term for erect stones that are often what are now called gravestones . Ship burials are mostly found in coastal Europe , while chariot burials are found widely across Eurasia . Catacombs , of which the most famous examples are those in Rome and Alexandria , are underground cemeteries connected by tunnelled passages . A large group of burials with traces remaining above ground can be called a necropolis ; if there are no such visible structures , it is a grave field . A cenotaph is a memorial without a burial .
The word " funerary " strictly means " of or pertaining to a funeral or burial " , but there is a long tradition in English of applying it not only to the practices and artefacts directly associated with funeral rites , but also to a wider range of more permanent memorials to the dead . Particularly influential in this regard was John Weever 's Ancient Funerall Monuments ( 1631 ) , the first full @-@ length book to be dedicated to the subject of tomb memorials and epitaphs . More recently , some scholars have challenged the usage : Phillip Lindley , for example , makes a point of referring to " tomb monuments " , saying " I have avoided using the term ' funeral monuments ' because funeral effigies were , in the Middle Ages , temporary products , made as substitutes for the encoffined corpse for use during the funeral ceremonies " . Others , however , have found this distinction " rather pedantic " .
Related genres of commemorative art for the dead take many forms , such as the moai figures of Easter Island , apparently a type of sculpted ancestor portrait , though hardly individualized . These are common in cultures as diverse as Ancient Rome and China , in both of which they are kept in the houses of the descendants , rather than being buried . Many cultures have psychopomp figures , such as the Greek Hermes and Etruscan Charun , who help conduct the spirits of the dead into the afterlife .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
Most of humanity 's oldest known archaeological constructions are tombs . Mostly megalithic , the earliest instances date to within a few centuries of each other , yet show a wide diversity of form and purpose . Tombs in the Iberian peninsula have been dated through thermoluminescence to c . 4510 BCE , and some burials at the Carnac stones in Brittany also date back to the fifth millennium BCE . The commemorative value of such burial sites are indicated by the fact that , at some stage , they became elevated , and that the constructs , almost from the earliest , sought to be monumental . This effect was often achieved by encapsulating a single corpse in a basic pit , surrounded by an elaborate ditch and drain . Over @-@ ground commemoration is thought to be tied to the concept of collective memory , and these early tombs were likely intended as a form of ancestor @-@ worship , a development available only to communities that had advanced to the stage of settled livestock and formed social roles and relationships and specialized sectors of activity .
In Neolithic and Bronze Age societies , a great variety of tombs are found , with tumulus mounds , megaliths , and pottery as recurrent elements . In Eurasia , a dolmen is the exposed stone framework for a chamber tomb originally covered by earth to make a mound which no longer exists . Stones may be carved with geometric patterns ( petroglyphs ) , for example cup and ring marks . Group tombs were made , the social context of which is hard to decipher . Urn burials , where bones are buried in a pottery container , either in a more elaborate tomb , or by themselves , are widespread , by no means restricted to the Urnfield culture which is named after them , or even to Eurasia . Menhirs , or " standing stones " , seem often to mark graves or serve as memorials , while the later runestones and image stones often are cenotaphs , or memorials apart from the grave itself ; these continue into the Christian period . The Senegambian stone circles are a later African form of tomb markers .
= = = Ancient Egypt and Nubia = = =
Egyptian funerary art was inseparably connected to the religious belief that life continued after death – even more , it expressed a belief that " death is a mere phase of life " . Aesthetic objects and images connected with this belief were partially intended to preserve material goods , wealth and status for the journey between this life and the next , and to " commemorate the life of the tomb owner ... depict performance of the burial rites , and in general present an environment that would be conducive to the tomb owner 's rebirth . " In this context , Egyptian mummies encased in one or more layers of decorated coffin , are famous ; canopic jars preserved the internal organs . A special category of Ancient Egyptian funerary texts clarify the purposes of the burial customs . The early mastaba type of tomb had a sealed underground burial chamber but an offering @-@ chamber on the ground level for visits by the living , a pattern repeated in later types of tomb . A Ka statue effigy of the deceased might be walled up in a serdab connected to the offering chamber by vents that allowed the smell of incense to reach the effigy . The walls of important tomb @-@ chambers and offering chambers were heavily decorated with reliefs in stone or sometimes wood , or paintings , depicting religious scenes , portraits of the deceased , and at some periods vivid images of everyday life , depicting the afterlife . The chamber decoration usually centred on a " false door " , through which only the soul of the deceased could pass , to receive the offerings left by the living .
Representational art , such as individual portraiture of the deceased , is found extremely early on and continues into the Roman period in the encaustic Faiyum funerary portraits applied to coffins . However , it is still hotly debated whether there was realistic portraiture in Ancient Egypt . The purpose of the life @-@ sized reserve heads found in burial shafts or tombs of nobles of the Fourth dynasty is not well understood ; they may have been a discreet method of eliding an edict by Khufu forbidding nobles from creating statues of themselves , or may have protected the deceased 's spirit from harm or magically eliminated any evil in it , or perhaps functioned as alternate containers for the spirit if the body should be harmed in any way .
Architectural works such as the massive Great Pyramid and two smaller ones built during the Old Kingdom in the Giza Necropolis and ( much later , from about 1500 BCE ) the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were built for royalty and the elite . The Theban Necropolis was later an important site for mortuary temples and mastaba tombs . The Kushite kings who conquered Egypt and ruled as pharaohs during the Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty were greatly influenced by Egyptian funerary customs , employing mummification , canopic jars and ushabti funerary figurines . They also built the Nubian pyramids , which in both size and design more closely resemble the smaller Seventeenth dynasty pyramids at Thebes than those of the Old Kingdom near Memphis .
Lower @-@ class citizens used common forms of funerary art — including shabti figurines ( to perform any labor that might be required of the dead person in the afterlife ) , models of the scarab beetle and funerary texts — which they believed would protect them in the afterlife . During the Middle Kingdom , miniature wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to tombs . In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife , these models show laborers , houses , boats and even military formations which are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife .
= = = Ancient Greece = = =
The ancient Greeks did not generally leave elaborate grave goods , except for a coin to pay Charon , the ferryman to Hades , and pottery ; however the epitaphios or funeral oration from which the word epitaph comes was regarded as of great importance , and animal sacrifices were made . Those who could afford them erected stone monuments , which was one of the functions of kouros statues in the Archaic period before about 500 BCE . These were not intended as portraits , but during the Hellenistic period , realistic portraiture of the deceased was introduced and family groups were often depicted in bas @-@ relief on monuments , usually surrounded by an architectural frame . The walls of tomb chambers were often painted in fresco , although few examples have survived in as good condition as the Tomb of the Diver from southern Italy or the tombs at Vergina in Macedon . Almost the only surviving painted portraits in the classical Greek tradition are found in Egypt rather than Greece . The Fayum mummy portraits , from the very end of the classical period , were portrait faces , in a Graeco @-@ Roman style , attached to mummies .
Early Greek burials were frequently marked above ground by a large piece of pottery , and remains were also buried in urns . Pottery continued to be used extensively inside tombs and graves throughout the classical period . The larnax is a small coffin or ash @-@ chest , usually of decorated terracotta . The two @-@ handled loutrophoros was primarily associated with weddings , as it was used to carry water for the nuptial bath . However , it was also placed in the tombs of the unmarried , " presumably to make up in some way for what they had missed in life . " The one @-@ handled lekythos had many household uses , but outside the household , its principal use was the decoration of tombs . Scenes of a descent to the underworld of Hades were often painted on these , with the dead depicted beside Hermes , Charon or both — though usually only with Charon . Small pottery figurines are often found , though it is hard to decide if these were made especially for placement in tombs ; in the case of the Hellenistic Tanagra figurines , this seems probably not the case . But silverware is more often found around the fringes of the Greek world , as in the royal Macedonian tombs of Vergina , or in the neighbouring cultures such as those of Thrace or the Scythians .
The extension of the Greek world after the conquests of Alexander the Great brought peoples with different tomb @-@ making traditions into the Hellenistic sphere , resulting in new formats for art in Greek styles . A generation before Alexander , Mausolus was a Hellenized satrap or semi @-@ independent ruler under the Persian Empire , whose enormous tomb ( begun 353 BCE ) was wholly exceptional in the Greek world – together with the Pyramids it was the only tomb to be included in the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The exact form of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus , which gave the name to the form , is now unclear , and there are several alternative reconstructions that seek to reconcile the archaeological evidence with descriptions in literature . It had the size and some elements of the design of the Greek temple , but was much more vertical , with a square base and a pyramidal roof . There were quantities of large sculpture , of which most of the few surviving pieces are now in the British Museum . Other local rulers adapted the high @-@ relief temple frieze for very large sarcophagi , starting a tradition which was to exert a great influence on Western art up to 18th @-@ century Neo @-@ Classicism . The late 4th @-@ century Alexander Sarcophagus was in fact made for another Hellenized Eastern ruler , one of a number of important sarcophagi found at Sidon in the modern Lebanon . The two long sides show Alexander 's great victory at the Battle of Issus and a lion hunt ; such violent scenes were common on ostentatious classical sarcophagi from this period onwards , with a particular revival in Roman art of the 2nd century . More peaceful mythological scenes were popular on smaller sarcophagi , especially of Bacchus .
= = = Etruscans = = =
Objects connected with death , in particular sarcophagi and cinerary urns , form the basis of much of current knowledge of the ancient Etruscan civilization and its art , which once competed with the culture of ancient Rome , but was eventually absorbed into it . The sarcophagi and the lids of the urns often incorporate a reclining image of the deceased . The reclining figures in some Etruscan funerary art are shown using the mano cornuta to protect the grave .
The motif of the funerary art of the 7th and 6th centuries BCE was typically a feasting scene , sometimes with dancers and musicians , or athletic competitions . Household bowls , cups , and pitchers are sometimes found in the graves , along with food such as eggs , pomegranates , honey , grapes and olives for use in the afterlife . From the 5th century , the mood changed to more somber and gruesome scenes of parting , where the deceased are shown leaving their loved ones , often surrounded by underworld demons , and psychopomps , such as Charun or the winged female Vanth . The underworld figures are sometimes depicted as gesturing impatiently for a human to be taken away . The handshake was another common motif , as the dead took leave of the living . This often took place in front of or near a closed double doorway , presumably the portal to the underworld . Evidence in some art , however , suggests that the " handshake took place at the other end of the journey , and represents the dead being greeted in the Underworld " .
= = = Ancient Rome = = =
See also : Roman funerary art
The burial customs of the ancient Romans were influenced by both of the first significant cultures whose territories they conquered as their state expanded , namely the Greeks of Magna Graecia and the Etruscans . The original Roman custom was cremation , after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot , ash @-@ chest or urn , often in a columbarium ; pre @-@ Roman burials around Rome often used hut @-@ urns — little pottery houses . From about the 2nd century CE , inhumation ( burial of unburnt remains ) in sarcophagi , often elaborately carved , became more fashionable for those who could afford it . Greek @-@ style medallion portrait sculptures on a stela , or small mausoleum for the rich , housing either an urn or sarcophagus , were often placed in a location such as a roadside , where it would be very visible to the living and perpetuate the memory of the dead . Often a couple are shown , signifying a longing for reunion in the afterlife rather than a double burial ( see married couple funerary reliefs ) .
In later periods , life @-@ size sculptures of the deceased reclining as though at a meal or social gathering are found , a common Etruscan style . Family tombs for the grandest late Roman families , like the Tomb of the Scipios , were large mausoleums with facilities for visits by the living , including kitchens and bedrooms . The Castel Sant 'Angelo , built for Hadrian , was later converted into a fortress . Compared to the Etruscans , though , there was less emphasis on provision of a lifestyle for the deceased , although paintings of useful objects or pleasant activities , like hunting , are seen . Ancestor portraits , usually in the form of wax masks , were kept in the home , apparently often in little cupboards , although grand patrician families kept theirs on display in the atrium . They were worn in the funeral processions of members of the family by persons wearing appropriate costume for the figure represented , as described by Pliny the Elder and Polybius . Pliny also describes the custom of having a bust @-@ portrait of an ancestor painted on a round bronze shield ( clipeus ) , and having it hung in a temple or other public place . No examples of either type have survived .
By the late Republic there was considerable competition among wealthy Romans for the best locations for tombs , which lined all the approach roads to the city up to the walls , and a variety of exotic and unusual designs sought to catch the attention of the passer @-@ by and so perpetuate the memory of the deceased and increase the prestige of their family . Examples include the Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker , a freedman , the Pyramid of Cestius , and the Mausoleum of Caecilia Metella , all built within a few decades of the start of the Common Era .
In Italy , sarcophagi were mostly intended to be set against the wall of the tomb , and only decorated on three sides , in contrast to the free @-@ standing styles of Greece and the Eastern Empire . The relief scenes of Hellenistic art became even more densely crowded in later Roman sarcophagi , as for example in the 2nd @-@ century Portonaccio sarcophagus , and various styles and forms emerged , such as the columnar type with an " architectural background of columns and niches for its figures " . A well @-@ known Early Christian example is the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus , used for an important new convert who died in 359 . Many sarcophagi from leading centres were exported around the Empire . The Romans had already developed the expression of religious and philosophical ideas in narrative scenes from Greek mythology , treated allegorically ; they later transferred this habit to Christian ideas , using biblical scenes .
= = = China = = =
Funerary art varied greatly across Chinese history . Tombs of early rulers rival the ancient Egyptians for complexity and value of grave goods , and have been similarly pillaged over the centuries by tomb robbers . For a long time , literary references to jade burial suits were regarded by scholars as fanciful myths , but a number of examples were excavated in the 20th century , and it is now believed that they were relatively common among early rulers . Knowledge of pre @-@ dynastic Chinese culture has been expanded by spectacular discoveries at Sanxingdui and other sites . Very large tumuli could be erected , and later , mausoleums . Several special large shapes of Shang dynasty bronze ritual vessels were probably made for burial only ; large numbers were buried in elite tombs , while other sets remained above ground for the family to use in making offerings in ancestor veneration rituals . The Tomb of Fu Hao ( c . BCE 1200 ) is one of the few undisturbed royal tombs of the period to have been excavated — most funerary art has appeared on the art market without archaeological context .
The discovery in 1974 of the Terracotta army located the tomb of the First Qin Emperor ( died 210 BCE ) , but the main tumulus , of which literary descriptions survive , has not been excavated . Remains surviving above ground from several imperial tombs of the Han dynasty show traditions maintained until the end of imperial rule . The tomb itself is an " underground palace " beneath a sealed tumulus surrounded by a wall , with several buildings set at some distance away down avenues for the observation of rites of veneration , and the accommodation of both permanent staff and those visiting to perform rites , as well as gateways , towers and other buildings .
Chinese imperial tombs are typically approached by a " spirit road " , sometimes several kilometres long , lined by statues of guardian figures , based on both humans and animals . A tablet extolling the virtues of the deceased , mounted on a stone representation of Bixi in the form of a tortoise , is often the centerpiece of the ensemble . In Han tombs the guardian figures are mainly of " lions " and " chimeras " ; in later periods they are much more varied . A looted tomb with fine paintings is the Empress Dowager Wenming tomb of the 5th century CE , and the many tombs of the 7th @-@ century Tang dynasty Qianling Mausoleum group are an early example of a generally well @-@ preserved ensemble .
The complex of Goguryeo Tombs , from a kingdom of the 5th to 7th centuries which included modern Korea , are especially rich in paintings . Only one of the Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties has been excavated , in 1956 , with such disastrous results for the conservation of the thousands of objects found , that subsequently the policy is to leave them undisturbed .
The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum in Hong Kong displays a far humbler middle @-@ class Han dynasty tomb , and the mid @-@ 2nd @-@ century Wu Family tombs of Jiaxiang County , Shandong are the most important group of commoner tombs for funerary stones . The walls of both the offering and burial chambers of tombs of commoners from the Han period may be decorated with stone slabs carved or engraved in very low relief with crowded and varied scenes , which are now the main indication of the style of the lost palace frescoes of the period . A cheaper option was to use large clay tiles which were carved or impressed before firing . After the introduction of Buddhism , carved " funerary couches " featured similar scenes , now mostly religious . During the Han Dynasty , miniature ceramic models of buildings were often made to accompany the deceased in the graves ; to them is owed much of what is known of ancient Chinese architecture . Later , during the Six Dynasties , sculptural miniatures depicting buildings , monuments , people and animals adorned the tops of the hunping funerary vessels . The outsides of tombs often featured monumental brick or stone @-@ carved pillar @-@ gates ( que 闕 ) ; an example from 121 CE appears to be the earliest surviving Chinese architectural structure standing above ground . Tombs of the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) are often rich in glazed pottery figurines of horses , servants and other subjects , whose forceful and free style is greatly admired today . The tomb art reached its peak in the Song and Jin periods ; most spectacular tombs were built by rich commoners .
Early burial customs show a strong belief in an afterlife and a spirit path to it that needed facilitating . Funerals and memorials were also an opportunity to reaffirm such important cultural values as filial piety and " the honor and respect due to seniors , the duties incumbent on juniors " The common Chinese funerary symbol of a woman in the door may represent a " basic male fantasy of an elysian afterlife with no restrictions : in all the doorways of the houses stand available women looking for newcomers to welcome into their chambers " Han Dynasty inscriptions often describe the filial mourning for their subjects , for example text from a funeral stele for the daughter of a scholar @-@ official of the dynasty , which described the " hurt and grief " of her two sons :
= = = Korea = = =
Murals painted on the walls of the Goguryeo Tombs are examples of Korean painting from its Three Kingdoms era . Although thousands of these tombs have been found , only about 100 have murals . These tombs are often named for the dominating theme of the murals – these include the Tomb of the Dancers , the Tomb of the Hunters , the Tomb of the Four Spirits , and the Tomb of the Wrestlers . Heavenly bodies are a common motif , as are depictions of events from the lives of the royalty and nobles whose bodies had been entombed . The former include the sun , represented as a three @-@ legged bird inside a wheel , and the various constellations , including especially the Four directional constellations : the Azure Dragon of the East , the Vermilion Bird of the South , the White Tiger of the West , and the Black Tortoise of the North .
The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea , built between 1408 and 1966 , reflect a combination of Chinese and Japanese traditions , with a tomb mound , often surrounded by a screen wall of stone blocks , and sometimes with stone animal figures above ground , not unlike the Japanese haniwa figures ( see below ) . There is usually one or more T @-@ shaped shrine buildings some distance in front of the tomb , which is set in extensive grounds , usually with a hill behind them , and facing a view towards water and distant hills . They are still a focus for ancestor worship rituals . From the 15th century , they became more simple , while retaining a large landscape setting .
= = = Japan = = =
The Kofun period of Japanese history , from the 3rd to 6th centuries CE , is named after kofun , the often enormous keyhole @-@ shaped Imperial mound @-@ tombs , often on a moated island . None of these have ever been allowed to be excavated , so their possibly spectacular contents remain unknown . Late examples which have been investigated , such as the Kitora Tomb , had been robbed of most of their contents , but the Takamatsuzuka Tomb retains mural paintings . Lower down the social scale in the same period , terracotta haniwa figures , as much as a metre high , were deposited on top of aristocratic tombs as grave markers , with others left inside , apparently representing possessions such as horses and houses for use in the afterlife . Both kofun mounds and haniwa figures appear to have been discontinued as Buddhism became the dominant Japanese religion .
Since then , Japanese tombs have been typically marked by elegant but simple rectangular vertical gravestones with inscriptions . Funerals are one of the areas in Japanese life where Buddhist customs are followed even by those who followed other traditions , such as Shinto . The bodaiji is a special and very common type of temple whose main purpose is as a venue for rites of ancestor worship , though it is often not the actual burial site . This was originally a custom of the feudal lords , but was adopted by other classes from about the 16th century . Each family would use a particular bodaiji over generations , and it might contain a second " grave " if the actual burial were elsewhere . Many later emperors , from the 13th to 19th centuries , are buried simply at the Imperial bodaiji , the Tsuki no wa no misasagi mausoleum in the Sennyū @-@ ji temple at Kyoto .
= = = The Americas = = =
Unlike many Western cultures , that of Mesoamerica is generally lacking in sarcophagi , with a few notable exceptions such as that of Pacal the Great or the now @-@ lost sarcophagus from the Olmec site of La Venta . Instead , most Mesoamerican funerary art takes the form of grave goods and , in Oaxaca , funerary urns holding the ashes of the deceased . Two well @-@ known examples of Mesoamerican grave goods are those from Jaina Island , a Maya site off the coast of Campeche , and those associated with the Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition . The tombs of Mayan rulers can only normally be identified by inferences drawn from the lavishness of the grave goods and , with the possible exception of vessels made from stone rather than pottery , these appear to contain no objects specially made for the burial .
The Jaina Island graves are noted for their abundance of clay figurines . Human remains within the roughly 1 @,@ 000 excavated graves on the island ( out of 20 @,@ 000 total ) were found to be accompanied by glassware , slateware , or pottery , as well as one or more ceramic figurines , usually resting on the occupant 's chest or held in their hands . The function of these figurines is not known : due to gender and age mismatches , they are unlikely to be portraits of the grave occupants , although the later figurines are known to be representations of goddesses .
The so @-@ called shaft tomb tradition of western Mexico is known almost exclusively from grave goods , which include hollow ceramic figures , obsidian and shell jewelry , pottery , and other items ( see this Flickr photo for a reconstruction ) . Of particular note are the various ceramic tableaux including village scenes , for example , players engaged in a Mesoamerican ballgame . Although these tableaux may merely depict village life , it has been proposed that they instead ( or also ) depict the underworld . Ceramic dogs are also widely known from looted tombs , and are thought by some to represent psychopomps ( soul guides ) , although it should also be noted that dogs were often the major source of protein in ancient Mesoamerica .
The Zapotec civilization of Oaxaca is particularly known for its clay funerary urns , such as the " bat god " shown at right . Numerous types of urns have been identified . While some show deities and other supernatural beings , others seem to be portraits . Art historian George Kubler is particularly enthusiastic about the craftsmanship of this tradition :
No other American potters ever explored so completely the plastic conditions of wet clay or retained its forms so completely after firing ... [ they ] used its wet and ductile nature for fundamental geometric modelling and cut the material , when half @-@ dry , into smooth planes with sharp edges of an unmatched brilliance and suggestiveness of form .
The Maya Naj Tunich cave tombs and other sites contain paintings , carved stelae , and grave goods in pottery , jade and metal , including death masks . In dry areas , many ancient textiles have been found in graves from South America 's Paracas culture , which wrapped its mummies tightly in several layers of elaborately patterned cloth . Elite Moche graves , containing especially fine pottery , were incorporated into large adobe structures also used for human sacrifices , such as the Huaca de la Luna . Andean cultures such as the Sican often practiced mummification and left grave goods in precious metals with jewels , including tumi ritual knives and gold funerary masks , as well as pottery .
The Mimbres of the Mogollon culture buried their dead with bowls on top of their heads and ceremonially " killed " each bowl with a small hole in the centre so that the deceased 's spirit could rise to another world . Mimbres funerary bowls show scenes of hunting , gambling , planting crops , fishing , sexual acts and births .
Some of the North American mounds , such as Grave Creek Mound ( c . 250 – 150 BCE ) in West Virginia , functioned as burial sites , while others had different purposes .
= = Traditional societies = =
There is an enormous diversity of funeral art from traditional societies across the world , much of it in perishable materials , and some is mentioned elsewhere in the article . In traditional African societies , masks often have a specific association with death , and some types may be worn mainly or exclusively for funeral ceremonies . The funeral ceremonies of the Indigenous Australians typically feature body painting ; the Yolngu and Tiwi people create carved pukumani burial poles from ironwood trunks , while elaborately carved burial trees have been used in south @-@ eastern Australia . The Toraja people of central Sulawesi are famous for their burial practices , which include the setting @-@ up of effigies of the dead on cliffs . The 19th- and 20th @-@ century royal Kasubi Tombs in Uganda , destroyed by fire in 2010 , were a circular compound of thatched buildings similar to those inhabited by the earlier Kabakas when alive , but with special characteristics .
In several cultures , goods for use in the afterlife are still interred or cremated , for example Hell bank notes in East Asian communities . In Ghana , mostly among the Ga people , elaborate figurative coffins in the shape of cars , boats or animals are made of wood . These were introduced in the 1950s by Seth Kane Kwei .
= = Funerary art and religion = =
= = = Hinduism = = =
Cremation is traditional among Hindus , who also believe in reincarnation , and there is far less of a tradition of funerary monuments in Hinduism than in other major religions . However , there are regional , and relatively recent , traditions among royalty , and the samādhi mandir is a memorial temple for a saint . Both may be influenced by Islamic practices . The mausoleums of the kings of Orchha , from the 16th century onwards , are among the best known . Other rulers were commemorated by memorial temples of the normal type for the time and place , which like similar buildings from other cultures fall outside the scope of this article , though Angkor Wat in Cambodia , the most spectacular of all , must be mentioned .
= = = Buddhism = = =
Buddhist tombs themselves are typically simple and modest , although they may be set within temples , sometimes large complexes , built for the purpose in the then @-@ prevailing style . According to tradition , the remains of the Buddha 's body after cremation were entirely divided up into relics ( cetiya ) , which played an important part in early Buddhism . The stupa developed as a monument enclosing deposits of relics of the Buddha from plain hemispherical mounds in the 3rd century BCE to elaborate structures such as those at Sanchi in India and Borobudur in Java . Regional variants such as the pagoda of China and Japan and the candi of Indonesia evolved from the Indian form . However , none of these can strictly be called tombs . Some important Tibetan lamas are buried in relatively small chortens ( Tibetan stupas ) , sometimes of precious metal , inside or outside monasteries , sometimes after mummification . There are examples at Kursha Monastery in Zanskar and Tashiding Monastery in Sikkim , as well as the Potala Palace in Lhasa and many other monasteries . However , most chortens do not function as tombs .
= = = Christianity = = =
The Catacombs of Rome contain most of the surviving Christian art of the Early Christian period , mainly in the form of frescos and sculpted sarcophagi . They show a Christian iconography emerging , initially from Roman popular decorative art , but later borrowing from official imperial and pagan motifs . Initially , Christians avoided iconic images of religious figures , and sarcophagi were decorated with ornaments , Christian symbols like the Chi Rho monogram and , later , narrative religious scenes . The Early Christians ' habit , after the end of their persecution , of building churches ( most famously St Peter 's , Rome ) over the burial places of martyrs who had originally been buried discreetly or in a mass grave perhaps led to the most distinctive feature of Christian funerary art , the church monument , or tomb inside a church . The beliefs of many cultures , including Judaism and Hinduism as well as classical paganism , consider the dead ritually impure and avoid mixing temples and cemeteries ( though see above for Moche , and below for Islamic culture ) .
Christians believed in a bodily resurrection of the dead at the Second Coming of Christ , and the Catholic Church only relaxed its opposition to cremation in 1963 . Although mass ossuaries have also been used , burial has always been the preferred Christian tradition , at least until recent times . Burial was , for as long as there was room , usually in a graveyard adjacent to the church , with a gravestone or horizontal slab , or for the wealthy or important clergy , inside it . Wall tombs in churches strictly include the body itself , often in a sarcophagus , while often the body is buried in a crypt or under the church floor , with a monument on the wall . Persons of importance , especially monarchs , might be buried in a free @-@ standing sarcophagus , perhaps surrounded by an elaborate enclosure using metalwork and sculpture ; grandest of all were the shrines of saints , which became the destinations of pilgrimages . The monument to Maximilian I , Holy Roman Emperor in the Hofkirche , Innsbruck took decades to complete , while the tomb of Saint Dominic in Bologna took several centuries to reach its final form .
If only because its strong prejudice against free @-@ standing and life @-@ size sculpture , Eastern Orthodoxy could not have developed the tomb monument in the same way as the Western Church , and the burials of rich or important individuals continued the classical tradition of sarcophagi carved in relief , with the richness of the carving tending to diminish over the centuries , until just simple religious symbols were left . Constantine I and most later Byzantine Emperors up to 1028 were buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople , which was destroyed after the fall of Constantinople of 1453 . Some massive but mostly plain porphyry sarcophagi from the church are now placed outside the Istanbul Archaeology Museums .
The Tomb of Antipope John XXIII in Florence is a grand Early Renaissance wall tomb by Donatello and Michelozzo ; although classical in style , it reflects the somewhat inharmonious stacking up of different elements typical of major Gothic tombs . It has a life @-@ size effigy , also known as a gisant , lying on the sarcophagus , which was common from the Romanesque period through to the Baroque and beyond . Ruling dynasties were often buried together , usually in monasteries ; the Chartreuse de Champmol was founded for that purpose by the Valois Dukes of Burgundy in 1383 . The Scaliger tombs in Verona are magnificent free @-@ standing Gothic canopied tombs — they are outside the church in a special enclosure , and so are unrestricted in height . Important churches like Saint Peter 's in Rome , Saint Paul 's Cathedral , London , Santi Giovanni e Paolo , Venice ( twenty @-@ five Doges ) , and the Basilica of Santa Croce , Florence contain large numbers of impressive monuments to the great and the good , created by the finest architects and sculptors available . Local parish churches are also often full of monuments , which may include large and artistically significant ones for local landowners and notables . Often a prominent family would add a special chapel for their use , including their tombs ; in Catholic countries , bequests would pay for masses to be said in perpetuity for their souls . By the High Renaissance , led by Michelangelo 's tombs , the effigies are often sitting up , and later may stand . Often they turn towards the altar , or are kneeling facing it in profile .
In the late Middle Ages , influenced by the Black Death and devotional writers , explicit memento mori imagery of death in the forms of skulls or skeletons , or even decomposing corpses overrun with worms in the transi tomb , became common in northern Europe , and may be found in some funerary art , as well as motifs like the Dance of Death and works like the Ars moriendi , or " Art of Dying " . It took until the Baroque period for such imagery to become popular in Italy , in works like the tomb of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini ( 1628 – 1647 ) , where a bronze winged skeleton inscribes the Pope 's name on a tablet below his enthroned effigy . As cities became more crowded , bones were sometimes recovered after a period , and placed in ossuaries where they might be arranged for artistic effect , as at the Capuchin Crypt in Rome or the Czech Sedlec Ossuary , which has a chandelier made of skulls and bones .
The church struggled to eliminate the pagan habits of leaving grave goods except for the clothing and usual jewellry of the powerful , especially rings . Kings might be buried with a sceptre , and bishops with a crozier , their respective symbols of office . The 7th @-@ century Stonyhurst Gospel , with a unique Insular original leather binding , was recovered from St Cuthbert 's coffin , itself a significant object ; it was probably Cuthbert 's personal copy , which he had very likely scribed himself . The armour and sword of a knight might be hung over his tomb , as those of the Black Prince still are in Canterbury Cathedral . The Early Christian Church , to the frustration of historians of costume , encouraged burial in a plain white winding @-@ sheet , as being all that would be required at the Second Coming . For centuries , most except royalty followed this custom , which at least kept clothing , which was very expensive for rich and poor alike , available for the use of the living . The use of a rich cloth pall to cover the coffin during the funeral grew during the Middle Ages ; initially these were brightly coloured and patterned , only later black . They were usually then given to the Church to use for vestments or other decorations .
From the early 13th century to the 16th , a popular form of monument north of the Alps , especially for the smaller landowner and merchant classes , was the monumental brass , a sheet of brass on which the image of the person or persons commemorated was engraved , often with inscriptions and an architectural surround . They could be on the floor or wall inside a church . These provide valuable evidence as to changes in costume , especially for women . Many bishops and even some German rulers were commemorated with brasses .
The castrum doloris was a temporary catafalque erected around the coffin for the lying in state of important people , usually in a church , the funerary version of the elaborate temporary decorations for other court festivities , like royal entries . These began in the late Middle Ages , but reached their height of elaboration in the 18th century . A particular feature in Poland was the coffin portrait , a bust @-@ length painted portrait of the deceased , attached to the coffin , but removed before burial and often then hung in the church . Elsewhere , death masks were used in similar fashion . Hatchments were a special lozenge @-@ shaped painted coat of arms which was displayed on the house of the deceased for a mourning period , before usually being moved to hang in the church . Like mourning clothes , these fall outside a strict definition of art .
For some time after the Protestant Reformation , English church monuments formed the majority of large @-@ scale artworks added to Protestant churches , especially in sculpture . The English upper classes ceased to commission altarpieces and other religious art for churches , but their tomb monuments continued to grow in size to fill the empty wall spaces ; similar trends were seen in Lutheran countries , but Calvinists tended to be more disapproving of figure sculpture . Many portraits were painted after death , and sometimes dead family members were included along with the living ; a variety of indications might be used to suggest the distinction .
The large Baroque tomb monument continued likely to include a portrait of the deceased , and was more likely to include personified figures of Death , Time , Virtues or other figures than angels . The late medieval transi tomb vocabulary of images of bodily decay , such as skulls and skeletons , was sometimes re @-@ introduced , but in a less confrontational manner . Neo @-@ Classicism , led by Antonio Canova , revived the classical stela , either with a portrait or a personification ; in this style there was little or no difference between the demands of Catholic and Protestant patrons .
By the 19th century , many Old World churchyards and church walls had completely run out of room for new monuments , and cemeteries on the outskirts of cities , towns or villages became the usual place for burials . The rich developed the classical styles of the ancient world for small family tombs , while the rest continued to use gravestones or what were now usually false sarcophagi , placed over a buried coffin . The cemeteries of the large Italian cities are generally accepted to have outdone those of other nations in terms of extravagant statuary , especially the Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno in Genoa , the Cimitero Monumentale di Milano and the Certosa di Bologna . In Italy at least , funerary sculpture remained of equal status to other types during the 19th and early 20th centuries , and was made by the leading artists , often receiving reviews in the press , and being exhibited , perhaps in maquette form . Monuments kept up with contemporary stylistic developments during the 19th century , embracing Symbolism enthusiastically , but then gradually became detached from the avant @-@ garde after Art Nouveau and a few Art Deco examples . Where burials in church crypts or floors took place , memorial stained glass windows , mostly on normal religious subjects but with a commemorative panel , are often found . War memorials , other than on the site of a battle , were relatively unusual until the 19th century , but became increasingly common during it , and after World War I were erected even in villages of the main combatant nations .
= = = Islam = = =
Islamic funerary art is dominated by architecture . Grave goods are discouraged to the point that their absence is frequently one recognition criterion of Muslim burials . Royalty and important religious figures were typically buried in plain stone sarcophagi , perhaps with a religious inscription . However , funerary architecture often offered a means of " moving beyond the strictures of formal Muslim burial rites " and expressing social dimensions such as status , piety , love for the deceased , and Muslim identity . A number of distinct architectural traditions arose for expressing these social elements . The Islamic tradition was slow in starting ; the hadith " condemn the building of tombs , and Muhammad himself set the example of requesting burial in an unmarked grave in one of the chambers of his house " in Medina , though by at least the 12th century , buildings of the vast Al @-@ Masjid an @-@ Nabawi complex already marked the site . The earliest identified Muslim monumental tomb , in Samarra in Iraq , only dates from 862 , and was commissioned by the Byzantine princess whose son was buried there . At some point , the tradition incorporated the idea of a garden setting , perhaps following the Islamic concept of Paradise , an association certainly made when the tradition was mature , although the difficulty of reconstructing gardens from archaeology makes the early stages of this process hard to trace . At any rate , gardens surrounding tombs became established in Islamic tradition in many parts of the world , and existing pleasure gardens were sometimes appropriated for this purpose . Versions of the formal Persian charbagh design were widely used in India , Persia and elsewhere .
Another influence may have been the octagonal Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , not a mausoleum itself , but " the earliest Islamic model for centrally planned commemorative buildings " , adapting the Byzantine form of the martyrium in a building standing alone , though on a stone platform rather than in a garden . In the Persian sphere , a tradition of relatively small mausoleums evolved , often in the shape of short hexagonal or octagonal domed towers , usually containing a single chamber , like the Malek Tomb . These single @-@ chambered tombs developed into larger buildings in the Timurid and Mughal Empires , like the Gur @-@ e Amir tomb of Timur at Samarkand and the famous Mughal tombs of India , which culminated in the Taj Mahal . The Mughal tombs are mostly set in a large walled charbagh ( chahar @-@ bagh ) or Mughal gardens , often with pavilions at the corners and a gatehouse . The Taj Mahal is atypically placed at the end of the garden , backing onto the river Yamuna ; a central placing is usual . They may have minarets , although they do not normally function as mosques . The Tomb of Jahangir lacks any dome , while the Tomb of Akbar the Great has only small decorative ones . Other Islamic Indian rulers built similar tombs , such as Gol Gumbaz .
In all this tradition , the contemporary architectural style for mosques was adapted for a building with a smaller main room , and usually no courtyard . Decoration was often tilework , and could include parchin kari inlays in semi @-@ precious stone , painting , and decorative carving . No animals would be represented , but geometric patterns and written inscriptions were common . The sarcophagus might be in a small inner chamber , dimly visible through a grille of metal or stone , or might stand in the main room . Money would be bequeathed to pay for continuous readings of the Qur 'an in the mausoleum , and they were normally open for visitors to pay their respects . The Mausoleum of Khomeini , still under construction in a Tehran cemetery , and intended to be the centre of a huge complex , continues these traditions .
The tradition evolved differently in the Ottoman world , where smaller single @-@ roomed türbe typically stand on the grounds of mosque complexes , often built by the deceased . The sarcophagi ( often purely symbolic , as the body is below the floor ) may be draped in a rich pall , and surmounted by a real cloth or stone turban , which is also traditional at the top of ordinary Turkish gravestones ( usually in stylised form ) . Two of the most famous are in the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul ; the Yeşil Türbe ( " Green Tomb " ) of 1421 is an unusually large example in Bursa , and also unusual in having extensive tile work on the exterior , which is usually masonry , whereas the interiors are often decorated with brightly colored tiles .
Other parts of the Islamic world reflected local techniques and traditions . The 15th @-@ century royal Tomb of Askia in Mali used the local technique of mud @-@ building to erect a 17 metre high pyramidal tomb set in a mosque complex . At the other end of the Islamic world , Javanese royalty are mostly buried in royal graveyards such as those at Kota Gede and Imogiri .
In the Arab world , mausoleums of rulers are more likely to be a side @-@ room inside a mosque or form part of a larger complex containing perhaps a hospital , madrasah or library . Large domes , elaborately decorated inside , are common . The tomb @-@ mosque of Sultan Qaitbay ( died 1496 ) is a famous example , one of many in Cairo , though here the tomb chamber is unusually large compared to the whole .
= = Modern period = =
Funerary art tends to be conservative in style , and many grave markers in various cultures follow rather traditional patterns , while others reflect modernism or other recent styles . Public monuments representing collective memorials to particular groups of dead people continue to be erected , especially war memorials , and in the Western world have now replaced individual or family memorials as the dominant types of very large memorials ; Western political leaders now usually receive simple graves . Some large memorials are fairly traditional , while those reflecting more contemporary styles include the Vietnam Veterans Memorial , and several Holocaust memorials , such as Yad Vashem in Jerusalem , the Vel d 'Hiv Memorial in Paris ( 1994 ) , the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin ( 2004 ) , and the Judenplatz Holocaust Memorial in Vienna ( 2000 ) . These are in notable contrast to the style of most war memorials to the military of World War II ; earlier modernist memorials to the dead of World War I were sometimes removed after a time as inappropriate . Some war memorials , especially in countries like Germany , have had a turbulent political history , for example the much @-@ rededicated Neue Wache in Berlin and the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo , which is internationally controversial .
Several critics detect a crisis in public memorial style from 1945 , when the traditional figurative symbolic language , and evocation of nationalist values , came to seem inadequate , especially in relation to genocide , at least on the Western side of the Iron Curtain . In the Communist East the established style of Socialist Realism was still considered appropriate , at least by the authorities . The generation of abstracted and conceptual war and Holocaust memorials erected in the West from the 1990s onwards seems finally to have found a resolution for these issues .
Many large mausoleums have been constructed for political leaders , including Lenin 's Mausoleum and those for Atatürk , Jinnah , Kim Il @-@ Sung , Che Guevara and several Presidential memorials in the United States , although the actual burials of recent presidents are very simple , with their Presidential library and museum now usually their largest commemorative memorial . The Mausoleum of Khomeini is a grand mosque complex , as large as any medieval example , not least because it includes a 20 @,@ 000 place parking lot .
|
= Miss Rosa =
Rosa " Miss Rosa " Cisneros is a fictional character from the Netflix dramedy series Orange Is the New Black , played by Barbara Rosenblat . The character made her first screen appearance during the premiere episode titled " I Wasn 't Ready " , which aired on July 11 , 2013 . Stephanie Andujar portrayed " Young Rosa " in flashback sequences . Rosenblat originally auditioned for another character but producers asked her to portray Miss Rosa . The character is a cancer sufferer who is incarcerated in Litchfield federal prison because she committed armed bank robberies . Rosenblat did not want to shave her head for the role and a make @-@ up artist was hired to fit a prosthetic appliance to her head creating the character 's baldness . The application process took three hours , meaning that the actress had to arrive on set earlier than other cast members . Initially there was no character biography created for Miss Rosa and it was Rosenblat who implemented a Hispanic background and accent . The character is respected amongst fellow inmates and despite her criminal past she has a caring nature and good heart .
The show decided to increase Miss Rosa 's role during the second season ; creating a backstory episode in which she was revealed to be a daring bank robber surrounded by tragedy . Other storylines include forming friendships with Lorna Morello ( Yael Stone ) and Yusef ( Ben Konigsberg ) , growing animosity with the show 's villain Yvonne " Vee " Parker ( Lorraine Toussaint ) . The show remained focused on developing Miss Rosa 's cancer storyline and her illness progressed to terminal stages . She was used to close the second season finale where she is told she has weeks to live , escapes prison and murders Vee .
Critical reception of the character has generally been positive . Various critics praised the character for being the second season 's break out role . Jayme Deerwester from USA Today called for Rosenblat to be handed an Emmy Award , while Arielle Calderon of BuzzFeed and Elizabeth Freda from E ! Online labelled her as one of the show 's best characters . But Kate Zernike of The New York Times criticized the character 's fake accent and Vogue magazine 's John Powers thought that she had a " clumsy " backstory .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
The character was created for the pilot episode of the show . At the time the character did not have a surname and there was no characterization . Barbara Rosenblat attended auditions for Orange Is the New Black in New York . She originally read for the part of Galina " Red " Reznikov which was later awarded to Kate Mulgrew . Later she was asked to play Miss Rosa after she impressed the casting director . Rosenblat asked her agent for more details about the character but the only information supplied was that Miss Rosa suffers from an unknown form of cancer . Little was known because only the first episode had been planned . Alongside dialogue acquired from the audition , the actress had the creative freedom to develop Miss Rosa 's image and persona .
= = = Characterization = = =
Miss Rosa has a unique Hispanic accent which Rosenblat created and puts on . She drew inspiration from her scripts and costume . When she first placed a wig cap and looked in the mirror she began to envision how her character should sound . Though it was not until she filmed later episodes that she made a decision . Rosenblat told Anna Silman from Vulture that it was a scene involving Miss Rosa and Piper Chapman ( Taylor Schilling ) , in which she states " I could have been the jefa " . Rosenblat said that the Spanish word made her realize that her character is Hispanic and her dialect is indicative of something Latin .
Miss Rosa is a complex character and as she is developed she became more humanized . Though suffering from cancer , she does not let this define her or limit what she can do . Rosenblat said that she styled Miss Rosa to be a self @-@ absorbed woman who had spent a long time incarcerated in Litchfield prison . The character 's fellow inmates have much respect for her . While the actress also wanted to play her as " classy and centered " . She is an adrenaline junkie with attitude but also has a good heart .
= = = Cancer = = =
Miss Rosa suffers from cancer but refuses to let her illness define her . Rosenblat believed that her character 's attitude resonated with viewers and she received letters of thanks from the audience and later recalled that one such letter , from a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old viewer meant a lot to her . Her storyline helped him understand elements of his grandmother 's cancer he could not grasp . Rosenblat said that these such stories relating to Miss Rosa left her " touched and moved " .
Miss Rosa undertakes chemotherapy to treat her cancer which leaves her bald . Rosenblat did not shave her head for the role because she worried about other roles . She had to wear a silicone " appliance " on her head and neck . Each morning on set makeup artist Josh Turri made up the appliance onto her . The process would take approximately three hours and Turri added false beauty marks , eyebrows and small veins to complete Miss Rosa 's look . Rosenblat described him as " utterly brilliant and a perfectionist ... so you got this entirely organic sense that I was utterly bald and suffering [ from ] cancer . " While on set fellow actors and crew members incorrectly assumed she had shaved her head . The weather during filming also affected Miss Rosa 's costumer . During warm weather crew shielded Rosenblat from the sun with umbrellas because the heat would cause the make up to crack . Other breaches were caused by perspiration and Turri would drain water from underneath the prosthetics prior to repairing it . At the end of each shoot it took Rosenblat 45 minutes to remove the appliance .
Rosenblat also recalled ( Vulture interview ) that while filming an episode directed by Jodie Foster she plucked her nipple hair . Foster was on set to talk over the logistics of how she wanted it portrayed through Miss Rosa . During season two Miss Rosa needs life saving surgery . But Sam Healy ( Michael J. Harney ) informs her that the DOC are not willing to fund the operation . Instead she is forced to continue with chemotherapy meaning she will die .
= = = Character expansion = = =
Miss Rosa played a minor role throughout the first season . Rosenblat had admitted that she only appeared sporadically and did not get to portray much . But the actress was eager to return for the show 's second season . But during the second season the role was expanded which surprised Rosenblat . The actress told a reporter from Indiewire , " I learned where Miss Rosa is from I learned why she 's in prison . You 're going to learn a lot about her , a lot that I was desperate to know , and it helps . " In March 2014 , series creator Jenji Kohan told Jessie Katz ( The Hollywood Reporter ) that viewers would be introduced to Miss Rosa 's backstory . When the writers had planned a backstory episode for the character , Rosenblat was delighted . But the development left her unsure how Miss Rosa 's story would fit into main storyline of Orange Is the New Black .
The episode , titled " Appropriately Sized Pots " features a young Rosa portrayed with good looks , intelligence and lots of money . She is involved with a gang who commit bank robberies . It soon transpires that each time Rosa participates in a robbery someone close to her dies . During her first heist her boyfriend Marco ( Alfredo De Quesada ) is shot and killed by a security guard . In a later robbery her new lover Andy ( Andhy Méndez ) suffers a heart attack . Left with the only other gang member Don ( Edvin Ortega ) , Rosa continues her crime spree . But she becomes obsessed with the thrill of money and raids a bank she did not check out and is apprehended for her crimes . Actress Stephanie Andujar played the character during flashback scenes . She watched Rosenblat 's version of the character so that she could portray her similarly .
During the season Miss Rosa has several encounters with the show 's villain Yvonne " Vee " Parker ( Lorraine Toussaint ) . Rosenblat told Taylor Cole Miller of The Huffington Post that she recalled thinking that the storyline would not have a happy ending and felt that there was a bigger story to come from it . Another storyline sees the character attending chemotherapy sessions at a hospital . Rosenblat told radio host Ira Wood that Miss Rosa meets a cancer stricken teenager Yusef ( Ben Konigsberg ) who thinks she is an " old git " . But when he learns that she is a bank robber he gains respect for her . The dialogue featured in the story was the actress ' favourite from the entire show .
Rosenblat was given the storyline that ties up the second season . The scenes feature Miss Rosa being told that she is going to die from her cancer . Fellow inmate and prison van driver Lorna Morello ( Yael Stone ) feels sorry for her and exits the van urging Miss Rosa to escape . The final scene features Miss Rosa driving away when she notices Vee also making an escape from prison . Recalling an earlier altercation with Vee , Miss Rosa careens the vehicle at Vee killing her instantly . Rosenblat told Silman that she joyfully screamed in the bathroom for five minutes when she learned of her character 's actions . She added " After all this effort to get rid of this woman , just evil incarnate , you know , and then I stroll along in my van . [ In Miss Rosa voice ] ' So rude , that one . ' Amazing . That final scene was really great . " During the scene Miss Rosa morphs into her younger incarnation as she becomes free once again . Rosenblat recalled the logistics of filming having to swap backwards and forth with Andujar to create the same position behind the wheel .
= = Storylines = =
Miss Rosa meets new prison inmate Piper and offers her some advice . She reveals that she is suffering from cancer and undergoing chemotherapy . Miss Rosa is told that she needs an operation to improve her chances of survival . However the DOC refuse to fund the operation and she is told that she needs to keep having chemotherapy . The outcome of which means she is likely to die . She then reminisces about her past as bank robber in which all the men she kissed during heists ended up dead . She details her life to a fellow cancer patient Yusef and they bond . He decides to help her regain the adrenaline rush felt from robbery and they steal a nurse 's purse . Miss Rosa is delighted to learn that Yusef has gone into remission but is sad to say goodbye . She returns to her cell and informs good friend Anita DeMarco ( Lin Tucci ) that she is dying before smelling the money she stole from the nurse .
Vee approaches Miss Rosa claiming to remember her and tries to recruit her . But she is not interested and tells Vee that she is a rude woman . Vee and Suzanne " Crazy Eyes " Warren ( Uzo Aduba ) later force Rosa to move out of the canteen and ruin her meal . Morello becomes concerned for Rosa during a hurricane which leaves Litchfield without power . Miss Rosa attends a hospital appointment and is told she only has weeks to live . The prison guard seems unfazed that she will die in prison . When a prison lockdown occurs Morello uses the opportunity to help Miss Rosa escape . She takes the offer and escapes from prison and on the way spots Vee . Recalling how Vee had treated her , Miss Rosa deliberately runs Vee down and kills her .
= = Reception = =
Anna Silman from Vulture described Miss Rosa as a " no @-@ nonsense bank robber evolved from being a bit player to becoming one of season two 's most fascinating breakout roles . " She also praised the role for being " rich and unusual " . Arielle Calderon of BuzzFeed named the character as " one of the Season 2 ’ s new fan favorites " . Elizabeth Freda from E ! Online ranked Miss Rosa as the third best character from season two . The character 's backstory was her favourite . She said that a " cursed bank robber " sounded corny , but worked well . Hilary Busis of Entertainment Weekly described the character as a forgettable non @-@ entity during the first season . She also praised Stephanie Andujar 's performance as Young Rosa and called for her own spin @-@ off series to be created . Kimberley Potts of Yahoo ! TV voted Miss Rosa 's backstory as the second best one of the entire show . But Vogue magazine 's John Powers criticized it adding " bald Miss Rosa is never again as interesting after clumsy , overlong flashbacks to her criminal career . "
The Huffington Post 's Miller described Rosa as " the husky @-@ voiced , curmudgeonly , terminal cancer patient who comes up for air just long enough to pluck a " tit hair " or knock off a bank . " Jenee Osterheldt from The Kansas City Star said that " if there ’ s one thing that sticks out about her character , it ’ s that husky and seductive voice that steals every conversation . You want to hear her speak , to cling to her words and let her paint the picture . " Anita Li writing for Mashable praised the character 's friendship with Yusef stating " despite the depressing circumstances of their meeting , the pair 's chemistry is entertaining for viewers to watch . "
ScreenCrush 's Britt Hayes said that Miss Rosa Vee 's stories dominated the second season . But was disappointed that the two stories collided to form the series finale . She felt that it was both comical and absurd . Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast opined that the scene Miss Rosa learns she is dying was handled phenomenally . He also said that she deserved an award for killing Vee . Kate Zernike of The New York Times criticized the characters 's accent believing it sounded more Russian . She thought Miss Rosa 's last scene was both brilliant and exhilarating . But least expected her to kill Vee because fellow enemies sparred with Vee more . But Perri Nemiroff from Screen Rant praised the ending because it was emotional . She described Morello offering her freedom as an " especially moving season @-@ ending thrill " . She summed up Miss Rosa as being a kind person and branded it all more " gratifying " when she killed Vee . Entertainment Weekly readers voted Miss Rosa killing Vee as the " most shocking moment " of season two . Jayme Deerwester ( USA Today ) said that Miss Rosa provided the best moments of season two and deserved an Emmy Award . Dana Piccoli from AfterEllen.com said Miss Rosa was a character with the ability to " beguile me and break my heart " . She branded the scene with her sniffing the stolen money as " euphoric " . Lauren Hoffman of Cosmopolitan believed that her cancer struggle almost ignorable during the first season . But viewers later saw her true self and her branded her refusal to care as her strength .
|
= Weapon dance =
The weapon dance employs weapons — or stylized versions of weapons — traditionally used in combat in order to simulate , recall , or reenact combat or the moves of combat in the form of dance , usually for some ceremonial purpose . Such dancing is quite common to folk ritual in many parts of the world . Weapon dancing is certainly ancient ; among the earliest historical references we have are those that refer to the pyrrhic , a weapon dance in ancient Sparta , in which the dance was used as a kind of ritual training for battle .
There are virtually no parts of the world left where the weapon dance is directly connected with imminent or recent combat . This is especially true of European states , which have long since moved away from the tribalism that usually gives rise to such folk dances . It is , however , also true of parts of the world where tribal traditions have succumbed to colonialism and the forces of globalism . The dances that one sees today are often part of general movements to preserve and rejuvenate tribal or local traditions . Some of these movements are quite strong now , such as those among native North American tribes and the aboriginal peoples of Australia .
Related to weapon dances and war dances is the dance of the hunt . A very early reference to a weapon dance of the hunt comes in the form of a rock engraving at Çatal Höyük , the large neolithic settlement in south @-@ central Anatolia . It depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their bows ; one figure has a bow in each hand , two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn @-@ shaped stick and is striking a frame drum .
= = Function of the weapon dance = =
In the modern world , dance has come to be regarded as something one does for recreation , thus distancing dance from the important place it has held in many human cultures throughout history — that is , a method of expression , preservation and transmission of the culture and history of a people . Many of the activities that humans have engaged in for millennia ( religion and courtship , for example ) have traditionally found expression in various kinds of dance . Another activity — combat — has obviously been central to the life of most human cultures ; thus , one expects to find dances that celebrate skill in the use of weapons . Indeed , there is a wide range of such weapon dances in the world ; they vary from general displays of prowess in the use of weapons to reenactments of real episodes of combat specific to a given culture .
= = Examples = =
= = = Europe = = =
Early examples of sword and spear dances can be found amongst the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe , such as those mentioned by Tacictus , the Norse peoples and the Anglo @-@ Saxon tribes . The Sutton Hoo is thought to show figures dancing with spears . Other references to such traditions include that in " Constantine VII Porphrogenitus ’ Book of Ceremonies " ( from c . 953 ) which describes the Varangian Guard ( a group made up of Norse and later English and Anglo @-@ Danish warriors ) dancing in two circles , with some wearing skins or masks , along with chants of “ Toúl ! ” and clashing staves on shields . Sword dancing exists in some parts of Europe . The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance , or may be incorporated as an element of the dance itself , intertwining with other swords . In some places , sticks are used instead of swords . Iberian stick dances ( paulitos , paloteos , ball de bastons ) display two opposite rows of dancers . A common sword dance in Europe is the moresca in Spain , in which the dance recalls the strife between Christians and Muslims in that country from the 12th to 15th centuries . The gun parade of Moros y Cristianos also celebrates these battles , as does the British morris dance .
In Macedonia and Northern Italy , weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding . Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans ; the most famous of these is from Albania , where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman . Northern @-@ Portuguese jogo do pau involves two rivals with long sticks . Other weapons , such as axes ( or wooden versions thereof ) may be used in some places . In parts of Europe , there are lance dances , dagger dances , and even rifle dances .
In the Scottish Highlands , there are dances that used the Lochaber axe , the broadsword , targe & dirk , and the flail . The Highland Dirk Dance , resembles a combative dance similar to those of Indonesian pencak silat , which has the performer executing knife techniques combined with wrestling style kicks , trips , and sweeps .
Hilt @-@ and @-@ point sword dances exist in many places in Europe . In this kind of dance the swords interlock to form a “ rose , ” or “ lock , ” that is placed around the neck of a participant to simulate decapitation . As well , crossed @-@ sword dances are common in Europe . Typically , dancers execute complicated patterns of steps over and between the swords . In some variations , clay pipes may replace the swords . Many European sword dances were appropriated by trade guilds , with tools replacing the swords . In Turkey and Greece there exists a butchers ’ dance called the hassapikos . It is now a social dance , but goes back to a battle mime in the Middle Ages performed with swords and performed by members of by the butchers ' guild . Also in Turkey are the so @-@ called “ guerrilla dances ” , performed by dances arranged in a circle who make swishing and whiffling sounds with their swords ( possibly to clear the area of evil spirits ) , followed by mock combat .
Chain @-@ sword dance is a group dance in which the dancers first use a sword or other implement ( stick , stave , etc . ) to link themselves in a chain . In the Hungarian tradition , the Erdőbénye cooper dance represents this form of dance .
Moreška , a sword dance on the Croatian island of Korčula in the Adriatic , recalls combat between Christians and Moros ( Moors ) , though in the 19th century the dance changed from Christians vs. Moors to Turks vs. Moors .
Historically , the Hungarian heyduck dance was a soldiers ' dance that involved virtuoso whirling of weapons and free @-@ form compositions with battle practice motifs . Such dances also appear in Gypsy , Slovak , Ruthenian , and Transylvanian folklore . In many of these areas , the so @-@ called " stick dancing " of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons .
In a few isolated sections of Europe , a rather savage male combat dance survives . In the villages of the Transylvania Alps and Carpathian mountains , before Twelfth Night and Whitsunday , nine men from nine villages assemble for the Joc de căluşari or căluş , a rite of initiation . The men engage in fierce battle with sticks , which used to be bloody and sometimes fatal .
= = = = Basque dances = = = =
Some of the Basque dances feature weapons . The ezpatadantza ( " sword dance " ) comes from the Durango area and is danced for authorities and in the feast of Corpus Christi . After the dance , both opposing rows of dancers raise their weapons and form a corridor for the authorities . The ezpatadantza and the makildantza ( " stick dance " ) employs makila ( traditional Basque walking sticks ) , and ends with the dancers raising one of them , lying as a fallen warrior , over their heads . In the Basque province of Gipuzkoa in Spain , the Okrabario Dantza is performed in Legazpi — a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft . In Tolosa , on Midsummer Day , the Bordon @-@ Dantza ( " walking stick dance " ) is performed with the figures of the ezpatadantza ; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages , when the Castilian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from Navarre at the Battle of Beotibar . Sticks simulate some weapons , and halberds — a combination of a spear and a battle @-@ axe — are also used .
= = = Asia = = =
Baris is a traditional dance of Bali , in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle . Originally , Baris was performed as a religious ritual . The dancer may bear a kris , a spear , a bow , or other weapons , depending on the variant performed . The word " Baris " literally means " line " or " file " , and referred to the line of soldiers who served the rajas of Bali . The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as sixty . The ritualistic function of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills , particularly the use of weapons .
In China , dances with weapon have been recorded for a long time . The founder of the Han Dynasty Liu Bang was said to be fond of the war dance of the Ba people . Large scale performances of the dance involved the brandishing of various weapons to the accompaniment of drums and songs in the Ba language . It remained popular through the Tang Dynasty and spread as far as Central Asia . The development of art dance , in general , in China reached its peak during the Tang dynasty and then was largely integrated into Chinese Opera practice . Tribal weapon dancing may also be present among the original aboriginal tribes on Taiwan ( The Republic of China ) . The Shaolin martial arts employ weapons in ways that are sometimes enjoyed for aesthetic reasons , however , similar to a dance . Shaolin spear , Yezhan spear , Lanmen spear , and sword and stick exercises may be included . T 'ai chi ch 'uan also incorporates sword practise in a similar way .
The Dayak people of Borneo are renowned for their solo sword dances , which show the skill of a young man using a sharp mandau . Also on the island of Borneo one finds the Lotud , an indigenous ethnic group residing in Sabah . The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances , one of which is the Bakanjar , a war @-@ like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield , originally performed to portray the sword fight and heroic exploits of the headhunting days .
In India , the sword dance Choliya or Saraon of the Kumaon region of the hills of the Indian state of Uttarakhand started partly due to their long martial tradition and also to give protection to marriage processions . It was also held auspicious and , according to Hindu tradition , warded off evil spirits . It has a very beautiful and graceful form and has techniques which give it the status of a martial art .
Among the traditional weapon dances of India is the Shad Sukmynsiem , performed in the north @-@ eastern state of Meghalaya . Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community . Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other . The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens . A popular dance in Mizoram in the north @-@ east corner of India is Sawlakin , a word that " means spirit of the slain . " Traditionally , the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man . He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather . He would wield a gun or dao and a shield . He would be followed by other dancers in a row , who would also carry weapons , or cymbals or gongs .
The Pashtuns of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances , including the Khattak Wal Atanrh ( named after the Khattak tribe ) and the Mahsood Wal Atanrh ( which , in modern times , involves the juggling of loaded rifles ) . A sub @-@ type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute .
= = = Middle East and Asia Minor = = =
There are a number of Arab weapon dances , including the Razha . It was originally practiced at Manga in Muscat prior to going out on a raid ; the object of the dance was to " warm up " for combat to come . Also , on the Arabian peninsula a dance named ard recalls pre @-@ Islamic tribal battles . Two rows of men face one another , clapping , singing , and dancing in a lively manner , accompanied by large frame drums . At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers . The Assyrian minority in Syria have a dramatic folk dance called the Shora which commemorates the bloody battles fought by the Ancient Assyrians back in their time consisting of a leader ( usually a man ) in front with a sword otherwise known as a saypa and a line of men joining together . Generally speaking , a number of dances ( also known as razfah or ayyala ) of Bedouin origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and are associated with festive occasions among the non @-@ Bedouin sedentary population .
In Iran there exists the Çûb @-@ Bâzî ( " stick game " ; or raqs @-@ e çûb , " stick dance " ) , a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat . Essentially , an attacker and a defender duel with poles . The çûb @-@ bâzî is “ … both a dance and a show of skill and bravery ; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects , as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements . ”
= = = Africa = = =
In South Africa , such dances as the Zulu Indlamu , the traditional dance most often associated with Zulu culture , is performed with drums and full traditional attire and is derived from the war dances of the warriors . Also , the military influence of the warrior King Shaka is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting ( umshiza ) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel .
The Jerusema ( or Mbenede ) dance of the Zezuru people in Zimbabwe is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance — " hybrid " in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle @-@ field preparations , themselves , as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle . ( The Zezuru are one of the Shona peoples who were the builders of the great monuments of the Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries . ) The dance is a re @-@ creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the Boers . The dance , itself , recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position ; thus , the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “ distractors ” as well as warriors with weapons moving into position .
Ethiopia has a long , historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role . According to Lucian , a Greek writer from the 2nd century , “ The Ethiopians dance also during the battle . The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand . He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand . ” The broad range of weapon dances includes the hota jumping dance of Amharic males ; the attack dance of the Hailefo ; the stick @-@ dance of the Kullo ; the Beroronsi Hama Haban , a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa ; and the shire , the saber dance of the Tigrean nomadic shepherds .
= = = Australia , New Zealand and Polynesia = = =
In Australia , there are aboriginal dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the boomerang . Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances .
In New Zealand , Maori have raised the martial art associated with the taiaha and mere to the level of a weapon dance . The haka could also be considered as a weapon dance , as it includes elements of warlike challenge to chanting and musical ( sung ) accompaniment .
The Nifo oti , or Samoan fire knife dance , is also a kind of weapon dance . The kailao is a standing male war dance of Tonga . The kailao is performed by men ( less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance ) , who carry clubs or fighting sticks . The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat , all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box . Additional idiophonic percussion is provided by strung rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers , and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war , which today are either sticks or mock weapons . The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment , which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere .
= = = North and Central America = = =
So @-@ called “ war dances ” of indigenous North American tribes may also be classified as weapon dances . Recent interest in preserving Native American traditions has led to such groups as The Warriors of AniKituhwa , a Cherokee dance group who recreate Cherokee dances , including the war dance , do research and offer dance workshops for their community . A dance such as the Comanche Sun Dance of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnerability to the White Man 's bullets ; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and , hence , a weapon dance .
Also , the moresca ( or morisca ) ( above ) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies — Mexico , for example . In the Jamiltepec region of Mexico , there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance , the Chareos dance . It represents a battle between Moors , led by Pilate , and Christians , led by James , the apostle . Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse . The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads , a peacock feather at the front , white cotton square over their shoulders , velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete . In addition , the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress . Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags , red symbolizing the blood spilt by James ' soldiers and white symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory . The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance . These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier , pre @-@ Cortez dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle .
Similar to the Moor @-@ Christian confrontation of the morisca — whether in Spain or in transplanted versions in Central America — there are also elaborate ritual dances in Mexico such as the Danza de la Pluma that exploit the trauma of the Spanish conquest of indigenous America . Weapons employed may be swords ( and shields ) whips , even firearms . These representations take place over a large area of Mesoamerica and , in part , are an obvious adaptation of Spanish tradition , but in Mexico will pit the native Aztec against the Spanish invader . The most interesting aspect of these dances is that — depending on where one sees them and under what conditions — it is plausible to read into the dances an outcome other than the historical Spanish victory . That is , indigenous performers may take inspiration from the fact that the natives of Spain drove out the Moorish invaders ; thus , the natives of Mesoamerica , too , shall one day drive out the invaders .
Some dances that abound at Carnival and Corpus Christi fiestas go back to pre @-@ Conquest ritual combat dances of the Aztecs . For example , during the 15th month of the Aztec calendar , Huitzilopochtli , god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries . Also , among the Náhuatl @-@ speaking people in the Pacific Ocean region of Michoacán , there is the cuauileros " dance ( the cudgelers ' dance ) . The performance of this dance represents a battle between Aztecs and Spaniards , and dancers perform with rattles made of thin metal plates and wooden cudgels .
= = = South America = = =
The landscape of all dance in a large country such as Brazil is rich and complex due to the mixing of three separate traditions — Indian native , Black African , and Portuguese . In Brazil , the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable . For example , capoeira — a dance @-@ like fighting style — and the maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances . Capoeira is of particular interest . In the 19th century , Capoeira was played mostly by African slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa , making them the original capoeristas and making the art a complex form of social interaction , expressing the participants ' physical skills and spiritual essence , involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers . The participants played during festivals and holidays , jumping and leaping in front of musical bands , military troops , and religious processions . This dance “ game ” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 19th century . Today , capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions . Capoeira may be played unarmed or with blades held in the hands or feet .
The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments . In the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul , the machete , a tool used to cut jungle brush , is used in a dance called dança dos facões ( dance of the machetes ) . In this dance ( historically performed only by men , although this trend changes as the dance spreads ) , the dancers knock their machetes while dancing , simulating a battle . Machete are sometimes used in place of sticks in Maculelê .
= = Weapon dance as art = =
Since dance is already an art form , “ weapon dance as art ” may seem redundant ; yet , “ art ” is used here to mean the re @-@ creation , say , of a folk weapon dance in a more professional staged venue , such as a ballet , or when an Australian , Native American , or African troupe of professional musicians and dancers present a reenactment on stage of a weapon dance , or when the use of weapons is introduced in stylized dance enactments of fighting . For example , recent ballets such as the New York City Ballet ’ s version of Romeo and Juliet ( to the music of Sergei Prokofiev ) employ highly choreographed sword @-@ fight / dance sequences .
Additionally , there is overlap between weapon dance and stylized forms of stage combat , i.e. , choreographed enactments of “ real fights , ” from bar @-@ room brawls to sword @-@ fighting to large @-@ scale battle scenes . Stage combat uses the services of professionals called “ fight directors , ” “ weapon choreographers , ” etc . An early example of this kind of staged combat in Europe was in Italy in the late 19th century , where the term tramagnini came to be used generically in the sense of “ extra ” or “ stunt man ” for those who fought on the stage in enactments of battle scenes in grand opera , for example . Tramagnini was originally a family name in Florence and referred to members of the family who started a gymnastics club and soon wound up appearing on stage in enactments of fighting , both bare @-@ handed and with weapons .
Elsewhere , the kabuki theater tradition in Japan employs ritualized representations of violence on the stage . While kabuki is technically theater and not dance , the movements , for example , of the sword @-@ fighting termed tachimawari in kabuki are gymnastic to the point even of employing somersaults , and elaborate fight scenes are so deliberate and stylized that they provide at least an area of overlap between theater and dance .
Also , the Communist revolution in China produced the view that art — including dance — must support the “ armed struggle of the proletariat . ” By the 1970s , weapons commonly appeared in such works as " Red Detachment of Women , ’ ’ a ballet about a women ’ s revolutionary armed force in the 1930s in China .
Interesting , perhaps , in the use of weapons in these recent “ revolutionary ” works is that they are , generally speaking , not reenactments of traditional folk dances . The introduction of weaponry into Chinese ballet — regardless of the revolutionary message — was , itself , a revolution .
= = Additional reading = =
Highwater , Jamake . ( 1996 ) Dance : Rituals of Experience . Oxford Uni . Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 511205 @-@ 9
Khokar , Ashish Mohan . ( 2003 ) Folk Dance Tribal Ritual and Martial Forms . Rupa . ISBN 81 @-@ 291 @-@ 0097 @-@ 5
Laubin , Reginald . ( 1989 ) " Indian Dances of North America : Their Importance in Indian Life " in Civilization of the American Indian Series . University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8061 @-@ 2172 @-@ 6
Tribbhuwan , Preeti . Tribal Dances of India . Discovery Pub . House . ISBN 81 @-@ 7141 @-@ 443 @-@ 5
National Museum of the American Indian ( ed . Charlotte Heth ) . ( 1993 ) Native American Dance : Ceremonies and Social Traditions . Fulcrum Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 56373 @-@ 021 @-@ 9
Inglehearn . Madeleine . ( 1986 ) " Swedish Sword Dances in the 16th and 17th Centuries " in Early Music , Vol . 14 , No. 3 . ( Aug. , 1986 ) , pp. 367 – 372 .
|
= Pall Mall , London =
Pall Mall / ˌpæl ˈmæl / is a street in the St James 's area of the City of Westminster , Central London . It connects St James 's Street to Trafalgar Square and is a section of the regional A4 road . The street 's name is derived from " pall @-@ mall " , a ball game played there during the 17th century .
The area was built up during the reign of Charles II with fashionable London residences . It became known for high @-@ class shopping in the 18th century , and gentlemen 's clubs in the 19th . The Reform , Athenaeum and Travellers Clubs have survived to the 21st century . The War Office was based on Pall Mall during the second half of the 19th century , and the Royal Automobile Club 's headquarters have been on the street since 1908 .
= = Geography = =
The street is around 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) long and runs east in the St James 's area , from St James 's Street across Waterloo Place , to the Haymarket and continues as Pall Mall East towards Trafalgar Square . The street numbers run consecutively from north @-@ side east to west and then continue on the south @-@ side west to east . It is part of the A4 , a major road running west from Central London . London Bus Route 9 runs westwards along Pall Mall , connecting Trafalgar Square to Piccadilly and Hyde Park Corner .
= = History and topography = =
= = = Early history and pall @-@ mall field = = =
Pall Mall was constructed in 1661 , replacing an earlier highway slightly to the south that ran from the Haymarket ( approximately where Warwick House Street is now ) to the royal residence , St James 's Palace . Historical research suggests a road had been in this location since Saxon times , although the earliest documentary references are from the 12th century in connection with a leper colony at St James 's Hospital . When St. James 's Park was laid out by order of Henry VIII in the 16th century , the park 's boundary wall was built along the south side of the road . In 1620 , the Privy Council ordered the High Sheriff of Middlesex to clear a number of temporary buildings next to the wall that were of poor quality .
Pall @-@ mall , a ball game similar to croquet , was introduced to England in the early @-@ 17th century by James I. The game , already popular in France and Scotland , was enjoyed by James ' sons Henry and Charles . In 1630 , St James 's Field , London 's first pall @-@ mall court , was laid out to the north of the Haymarket – St James road .
After the Restoration and King Charles II 's return to London on 29 May 1660 , a pall @-@ mall court was constructed in St James 's Park just south of the wall , on the site of The Mall . Samuel Pepys 's diary entry for 2 April 1661 records that he " ... went into St. James 's Park , where I saw the Duke of York playing at Pelemele , the first time that I ever saw the sport . " This new court suffered from dust blown over the wall from coaches travelling along the highway . In July 1661 posts and rails were erected , stopping up the old road . The court for pall @-@ mall was very long and narrow , and often known as an alley , so the old court provided a suitable route for relocating the eastern approach to St James 's Palace . A grant was made to Dan O 'Neale , Groom of the Bedchamber , and John Denham , Surveyor of the King 's Works allocating a 1 @,@ 400 by 23 feet ( 427 by 7 m ) area of land for this purpose . The grant was endorsed " Our warrant for the building of the new street to St James 's . "
A new road was built on the site of the old pall @-@ mall court , and opened in September 1661 . It was named Catherine Street , after Catherine of Braganza , wife of Charles II , but was better known as Pall Mall Street or the Old Pall Mall . The pall @-@ mall field was a popular place for recreation and Pepys records several other visits . By July 1665 Pepys used " Pell Mell " to refer to the street as well as the game .
= = = 17th- and 18th @-@ century buildings = = =
In 1662 , Pall Mall was one of several streets " thought fitt immediately to be repaired , new paved or otherwise amended " under the Streets , London and Westminster Act 1662 . The paving commissioners appointed to oversee the work included the Earl of St Albans . The terms of the act allowed commissioners to remove any building encroaching on the highway , with compensation for those at least 30 years old . The commissioners determined that the real tennis court and adjoining house at the northeast corner of Pall Mall and St James 's Street should be demolished , and in 1664 notified Martha Barker , the owner of the Crown lease , to do so . Although Barker initially rejected £ 230 compensation , the court was demolished by 1679 .
The street was developed extensively during 1662 – 1667 . The Earl of St Albans had a lease from the Crown in 1662 on 45 acres ( 18 ha ) of land previously part of St James 's Fields . He laid out the site for the development of St. James 's Square , Jermyn Street , Charles Street , St Albans Street , King Street and other streets now known as St James 's . The location was convenient for the royal palaces of Whitehall and St James and the houses on the east , north and west sides of the square were developed along with those on the north side of Pall Mall , each constructed separately as was usual for the time . Houses were not built along the square 's south side at first , or the adjoining part of Pall Mall . The Earl petitioned the King in late 1663 that the class of occupants they hoped to attract to the new district would not take houses without the prospect of eventually acquiring them outright . Despite opposition from the Lord Treasurer , the Earl of Southampton , on 1 April 1665 the King granted the Earl of St Albans the freehold of the St James 's Square site , along with all the ground on the north side of Pall Mall between St James 's Street and the east side of St James 's Square . The freehold of the north side of Pall Mall subsequently passed to other private owners .
The Crown kept the freehold of the land south of the street except for No. 79 , which was granted to Nell Gwyn 's trustees in 1676 or 1677 by Charles II . The buildings constructed on the south side of Pall Mall in subsequent years were grander than those on the north owing to stricter design and building standards imposed by the crown commissioners . When the main road was relocated further north , some houses suddenly had their backs facing the main road , losing available land for gardening . In 1664 , residents filed a petition to turn the old road into gardens , which was successful . The trustees of the Earl of St Albans received a sixty @-@ year lease on most of this from April 1665 so that trustees could issue sub @-@ leases to their tenants .
Several other portions of the old highway were leased for construction . At the east end , land was leased to Sir Philip Warwick who built Warwick House ( now the location of Warwick House Street ) and to Sir John Denham ; this parcel of land became part of the grounds of Marlborough House . Portions leased at the west end included the land between St James 's Palace and the tennis court at the corner of St James 's Street , and a parcel of land leased to the Duchess of Cleveland that became the site of 8 – 12 Cleveland Row and Stornoway House . The 18th @-@ century London bookseller Andrew Millar also lived in a townhouse designed by Robert Adam , at 34 Pall Mall .
= = = Later history = = =
By the 18th century , Pall Mall was well known for its shops as well as its grand houses . The shops included that of the Vulliamy family who made clocks at No. 68 between 1765 and 1854 . Robert Dodsley ran a bookshop at No. 52 , where he suggested the idea of a dictionary to Samuel Johnson . Writers and artists began to move to Pall Mall during this century ; both Richard Cosway and Thomas Gainsborough lived at Schomberg House at Nos. 80 – 82 .
The street was one of the first in London to be lit by gas after Frederick Albert Winsor set up experimental lighting on 4 June 1807 to celebrate King George III 's birthday . Permanent lighting was installed in 1820 . The eastern end of Pall Mall was widened between 1814 and 1818 ; a row of houses on its north side was demolished to make way for the Royal Opera Arcade .
Pall Mall is known for the various gentlemen 's clubs built there in the 19th and early 20th centuries . The Travellers Club was founded in 1819 and moved to No. 49 Pall Mall in 1822 . Its current premises at No. 106 were built in 1823 by Charles Barry . The Athenaeum Club took its name from the Athenaeum in Rome , a university founded by the Emperor Hadrian . The club moved to No. 107 Pall Mall in 1830 from tenements in Somerset House . Its entrance hall was designed by Decimus Burton . The Reform Club at Nos. 104 – 105 was founded for the British Radicals in 1836 . The Army and Navy Club at Nos. 36 – 39 was founded in 1837 . The name was suggested by the Duke of Wellington in order to accommodate Royal Navy members . Other clubs on Pall Mall include the United Service Club ( now occupied by the Institute of Directors ) , the Oxford and Cambridge Club and the Royal Automobile Club .
Pall Mall was once the centre of London 's fine art scene ; in 1814 the Royal Academy , the National Gallery and Christie 's auction house were all based on the street .
The freehold of much of the southern side of the Pall Mall is owned by the Crown Estate . In addition to St. James 's Palace , Marlborough House , which was once a royal residence , is its neighbour to the east , opening off a courtyard just to the south of the street . It was built for Sarah , Duchess of Marlborough who laid the foundation stone in 1709 , with building complete by 1711 . The house reverted to Crown ownership in 1817 ; the future King George V was born here in 1865 and briefly lived in the house as Prince of Wales during the reign of his father , Edward VII . It became government @-@ owned in 1959 and houses now the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Foundation . The Prince Regent 's Carlton House was built at the eastern end of Pall Mall in 1732 for Frederick , Prince of Wales and later inhabited by his widow , Princess Augusta . A ball was held at the house on 19 June 1811 to celebrate the start of the Prince 's regency , but ultimately he did not decide to stay in the house upon ascending the throne , and it was demolished . John Nash built Carlton House Terrace on its site between 1827 – 32 .
Pall Mall was the location of the War Office from 1855 to 1906 , with which it became synonymous ( just as Whitehall refers to the administrative centre of the UK government ) . The War Office was accommodated in a complex of buildings based on the ducal mansion , Cumberland House . The office subsequently moved to Whitehall .
The street contained two other architecturally important residences . Schomberg House , at Nos. 80 – 82 Pall Mall was built in 1698 for Meinhardt Schomberg , 3rd Duke of Schomberg and divided into three parts in 1769 . The eastern section of the house was demolished in 1850 , but reconstructed in the mid @-@ 1950s for office use . Buckingham House was the London residence of the Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos . It was rebuilt in the 1790s by Sir John Soane and sold by the Buckingham estate in 1847 . The house was demolished in 1908 to make way for the Royal Automobile Club .
The Institute of Directors was founded in 1903 and received a royal charter in 1906 . The former branch of the Midland Bank at Nos. 69 – 70 Pall Mall was designed by Edwin Lutyens and constructed between 1922 and 1927 . The original plan to redevelop No. 70 proved impractical so the two premises were demolished to provide a site for the current premises . The cigarette manufacturer Rothmans have their head office at No 65 Pall Mall , in a building designed by Norman Shaw , while P & O Ferries ' main administrative office is at No 79 .
= = Cultural references = =
When the novelist William Makepeace Thackeray visited Dublin in 1845 , he compared Pall Mall to O 'Connell Street ( then known as Upper Sackville Street ) . In 1870 , Henry Benjamin Wheatley wrote " Round about Piccadilly and Pall Mall " , documenting changes in and around the street over the century . A compilation of Oscar Wilde 's works , A Critic in Pall Mall : Being Extracts From Reviews And Miscellanies , was published in 1919 comprising essays he wrote for newspapers and journals from the 1870s to the 1890s .
Pall Mall is part of a group of three purple squares on the British Monopoly board game , alongside Whitehall and Northumberland Avenue . All three streets converge at Trafalgar Square . Rising house prices across London mean a small flat on Pall Mall , which is in the lowest @-@ priced third of properties on the board , now sells for over £ 1 million .
|
= Islam : The Untold Story =
Islam : The Untold Story is a documentary film written and presented by the English novelist and popular historian Tom Holland . The documentary explores the origins of Islam , an Abrahamic religion that developed in Arabia in the 7th century ; it criticizes the orthodox Islamic account of this history , claiming that it lacks sufficient supporting evidence . It was commissioned by the British television company Channel 4 and first broadcast in August 2012 . Its release followed the publication of Holland 's In the Shadow of the Sword : The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World ( 2012 ) , which also discussed the rise of the Arab Empire and the origins of Islam .
Adopting the theories of academic historian Patricia Crone as a basis , Holland asserted that there was little hard evidence for the origins of Islam and asked why it took several decades after the death of Muhammad for his name to appear on surviving documents or artifacts . Arguing that there was little evidence for how the faith was born , he suggested that the city of Mecca may not have been the real birthplace of Muhammad and Islam , and – while not clearly disputing Muhammad 's existence as a real historical figure – claimed that much of the Islamic origin story was later developed in the early years of the Arab Empire .
The documentary proved controversial . Mainstream media reception was mixed , and it provoked particular criticism from figures within the United Kingdom 's Islamic community , who argued that Holland ignored evidence supporting the orthodox account of early Islamic history . Government @-@ approved regulatory authority Ofcom and the broadcaster Channel 4 received an estimated 1200 complaints regarding the program . Channel 4 eventually cancelled a public screening of the documentary at their London headquarters after numerous threats of violence .
= = Background = =
Possessor of a bachelor 's degree in English and Latin from the University of Cambridge , Holland is an English novelist and popular historian who has published a trio of best @-@ selling histories of the ancient world : Rubicon : The Last Years of the Roman Republic ( 2003 ) , Persian Fire : The First World Empire and the Battle for the West ( 2005 ) , and Millennium : The End of the World and the Forging of Christendom ( 2008 ) . In 2012 , Holland 's fourth work of history , In the Shadow of the Sword : The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World , was published ; it explored the collapse of the Roman and Persian Empires , as well as the rise of the Arab Empire and the accompanying Arabian religion of Islam .
In an interview with The Spectator , he rejected the Islamic belief that the Qur 'an constituted the direct word of God , stating that he believed it to have been " very clearly " written by a human being during Late Antiquity . He highlighted " the lack of sources " that were available with which to analyse the origins of Islam , and that all religious movements come to construct their own back story , in doing so erasing alternative accounts and interpretations of their history .
It was on the basis of In the Shadow of the Sword that public service television Channel 4 commissioned Holland to produce a documentary on the subject of Islam 's origins . A spokeswoman for the company publicly announced that the documentary constituted a part of their " remit to support and stimulate well @-@ informed debate on a wide range of issues " through " challenging established views " and providing access to alternative perspectives and information .
The film 's screening came a month after the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) aired the first episode of television sitcom Citizen Khan . Revolving around the life of a British Muslim of Pakistani descent , the show had been co @-@ written by its star , Adil Ray , himself a British Muslim of Pakistani descent . The BBC received 200 complaints regarding the content of the episode , including accusations that it perpetuated stereotypes about British Asians , ridiculed Islam and disrespected the Qur 'an ; some of these criticisms would be echoed in the furore regarding Holland 's documentary .
= = Synopsis = =
In Islam : The Untold Story , Holland deals with the origins of the religion Islam . Traveling to Saudi Arabia , he visits Arabian Bedouins to hear their orthodox Islamic accounts of the religion 's origins . Holland then talks to Seyyed Hossein Nasr , a practicing Muslim who teaches Islamic studies at the George Washington University , Washington D.C. , and Patricia Crone , a non @-@ Muslim historian of Islamic history at the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton . The former defends the orthodox Islamic account of the faith 's history , citing its development within oral history , but Crone challenges the reliability of oral history , and therefore the traditional account .
Holland looks at the earliest evidence for Muhammad , Mecca and Islam in the first century of the Arab Empire , pointing to a lack of evidence in the historical record to support the traditional account . Highlighting that very little Muslim testimony from the 7th century exists , he considers it suspicious that 30 years after Muhammad 's death , Muawiyah I became leader of the Arab Empire in Jerusalem despite showing little sign of being Muslim , and that no mention of Muhammad or Islam can be found in any of Muawiyah 's inscriptions , coins , or documents . Holland proceeds to note that with the exception of a single ambiguous reference in the Qur 'an , there is no mention of Mecca in any datable text for a century after Muhammed 's death . He points out that in the Qur 'an , the Prophet appears to address farmers and agriculturalists while his opponents are described as keeping cattle and growing olives and vines . This appears to describe an environment foreign to Mecca , where there was no agriculture ; thus Holland posits that the location attributed to Mecca in the Qur 'an more closely fits a city in the Negev desert , in what is now southern Israel .
Holland suggests that under the reign of Arab Emperor Abd al @-@ Malik ibn Marwan , even though only a small percentage of the inhabitants of the Empire was Muslim , Mecca was intentionally yet erroneously portrayed as Muhammad 's home and the birthplace of Islam in order to provide the religion with Arabian origins . Holland argues that in doing so , the faith was unassociated from the Jewish or Christian heritage that would have been self evident at a location in the Negev .
= = Reception = =
= = = Mainstream media = = =
Writing in The Daily Telegraph , Christopher Howse , a commentator on religious issues , was critical of the documentary , awarding it two stars out of five and labelling it " disjointed " . He argued that it placed too much emphasis on historiography but that its " crowning annoyance " was Holland 's habit of pausing mid @-@ sentence . In contrast , Ed West , also of The Daily Telegraph , praised the documentary , stating that it was " atmospheric and intelligent " . Noting it would make many viewers uncomfortable , he argued that the Islamic world had to accept " higher criticism " and " embrace the pain of doubt " in order to improve life for themselves and for their non @-@ Muslim neighbours .
In The Independent , television reviewer Tom Sutcliffe discussed the documentary , noting that it was likely to court controversy and cause problems for Holland . Although remarking that he did not know what devout Muslims would think of Holland 's arguments , he asserted that they did not have " a monopoly on literalist affront " . John Crace reviewed the documentary for The Guardian , noting that Holland was no " attention @-@ seeking , neo @-@ Conservative , Niall Ferguson lookalike " but was probably a social liberal . Crace opined that while most Westerners would find Holland 's findings uncontentious , many devout Muslims would consider it blasphemous . Considering Holland excessively cautious , he thought the presenter " was looking over his shoulder , half expecting a fatwa at any minute . "
= = = Islamic community = = =
The UK @-@ based Islamic Education & Research Academy ( iERA ) proclaimed that the documentary was " historically inaccurate " and " clearly biased " . In their statement , iERA proclaimed that " in an important 74 minutes [ sic ] long full of ' complex arguments ' and ' academic scholarship ' documentary , Holland should have spent a little more time with Islamic historians instead of wasting all those precious minutes in learning the way of the Bedouin . " Similarly , the Muslim Public Affairs Committee ( MPACUK ) stated that the documentary had a " flagrant bias " against Islam , expressing concern that the majority of viewers would " blindly accept " Holland 's conclusions . To counter what they believed to be an anti @-@ Islamic bias in the mainstream media , they called on Muslims to produce documentaries about Islamic history , praising Faris Kermani 's documentary , The Life of Muhammad , presented by Rageh Omaar , as a good example . Hoping that such documentaries would aid in " familiarising the nation with our ideologies " , they urged British Muslims to encourage their children to enter into professions in history , media and politics .
The Huffington Post published a response from practising Muslim Afroze Zaidi @-@ Jivraj , a graduate in English who had recently began a masters degree student in theology at the University of Birmingham . She remarked that Holland 's methodology was flawed because he had neglected to study the corpus of material on early Islamic history found in libraries across the Islamic world , instead using only sources he had obtained in Western libraries . She argued that he did not consult a single Islamic scholar of Islamic history , instead choosing the more " exotic " option of interviewing a Bedouin , and that although he had consulted Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr – " a token Muslim voice " – Nasr was a scholar of Islamic philosophy and not Islamic history . Asserting that Islam : The Untold Story was based on poor scholarship by assuming the superiority of secular Western historical inquiry over Islamic historical traditions , she argued that it would promote negative views of " an already poorly @-@ understood faith and its much @-@ maligned adherents . " This despite Tom Holland explaining within the documentary that " The earliest biographies we have were written nearly 200 years after Mohammed 's lifetime . " These biographies are indeed in libraries across the Islamic world . Copies are available in western libraries .
Another British Muslim to publicly criticise the documentary 's scholarship was Akeel Umar , a spokesman for a protest group assembled outside the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh . Although the demonstration had been assembled to protest against the short film Innocence of Muslims , which asserted that Muhammad was a homosexual and a child @-@ molester , Umar also informed press that he considered Holland 's film to be an academically @-@ flawed work that " wasted everyone 's time and airspace " . He differentiated Islam : The Untold Story – which he considered to be a poor work of scholarship – with Innocence of Muslims , which he deemed to be intentionally offensive and inflammatory .
State media in the Islamic Republic of Iran also criticised the documentary , claiming that it constituted an " insult " to Islam . Several critics attacked Holland on the social media site Twitter , some making personal threats against him . One commented that " You might be a target in the streets . You may recruit some bodyguards , for your own safety . " Another exclaimed that he was a " fool " for suggesting Islam was a " made @-@ up religion " .
= = = Other alternate media = = =
The English Defence League ( EDL ) published an online review of the documentary authored by Pyrus , a member of their LGBT division . Labelling Holland " ludicrously deferential " for praying to Allah alongside the " toothless old bedouins " , they thought that Channel 4 had been far too cautious and should have been more explicit in their denunciation of the Islamic origin story . Believing that such a documentary should have been produced in the 1970s , they argued that the " media , politicians and academics " have spent fifty years hiding the truth about Islam from the British population , and that they doubted whether the documentary would have been made had the EDL not existed to promote anti @-@ Islamic thought .
= = = Holland 's response to critics = = =
Holland initially responded to his critics through the social website of Twitter , where he summed up the public response as " you win some , you lose some . " Then publishing what he described as a " brief response " to his critics on the Channel 4 website , he stressed that the documentary was not created as a critique of Islam but as " a historical endeavour " . Comparing his documentary with others that Channel 4 had produced on religious history , such as The Bible : A History , he noted that Islam : The Untold Story fell within the channel 's remit of sparking " well @-@ informed debate on a wide range of issues " . Admitting that it was impossible to " articulate all the resonances and implications of every argument " in a 74 @-@ minute documentary , he directed those who wanted to learn more to read his recently published book .
Holland 's Twitter critics also came under attack from popular historian Dan Snow , who tweeted " Dear angry mad people on twitter , it is conceivable that you know more than @ holland _ tom & the world 's leading scholars , but very unlikely " .
= = Cancelled public screening = =
After security fears were raised , on 11 September 2012 , Channel 4 cancelled a planned screening of the film for " opinion formers " at its London headquarters . They said they were nevertheless " extremely proud " of the film and would continue to provide access to it on their website , 4oD .
Their decision to cancel was criticised by Jenny Taylor , the founder of Lapido Media , a consultancy specialising in religious literacy in world affairs . Invited to attend the event , Taylor described the documentary as a good historical study and its cancellation as the " appalling " result of protest whipped up by the media . She argued that the right to debate historical events is a core value of the western world , and that Islam should not be exempt from historical inquiry .
The Council of Ex @-@ Muslims of Britain expressed indignation at the cancellation , stating that giving in to the demands of Islamists would have a " catastrophic " effect on " free enquiry and expression where it pertains to Islam " . They urged supporters to write to Channel 4 and Ofcom requesting a repeat screening .
|
= Battle of Port Louis =
The Battle of Port Louis was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars , fought on 11 December 1799 at the mouth of the Tombeau River near Port Louis on the French Indian Ocean island of Île de France , later known as Mauritius . Preneuse had originally been part of a powerful squadron of six frigates sent to the Indian Ocean in 1796 under the command of Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey , but the squadron dispersed in 1798 and by the summer of 1799 Preneuse was the only significant French warship remaining in the region . The battle was the culmination of a three @-@ month raiding cruise by the 40 @-@ gun French Navy frigate Preneuse , commanded by Captain Jean @-@ Matthieu @-@ Adrien Lhermitte . Ordered to raid British commerce in the Mozambique Channel , Lhermitte 's cruise had been eventful , with an inconclusive encounter with a squadron of small British warships in Algoa Bay on 20 September and an engagement with the 50 @-@ gun HMS Jupiter during heavy weather on 9 – 11 October .
Returning to Île de France in December , Lhermitte steered for Port Louis but was intercepted by the British blockade squadron , comprising the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Tremendous and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Adamant . Unable to reach safety , Lhermitte evaded pursuit long enough to drive Preneuse onto a beach at the mouth of the Tombeau . After a brief exchange of fire the wrecked frigate was surrendered and British boarding parties in ship 's boats rowed inshore to Preneuse , removed the survivors and burnt the remains . Watching from the shore as the last of his command burned on the beach , Sercey subsequently retired from military service .
= = Background = =
In 1796 British Royal Navy dominance in the East Indies during the French Revolutionary Wars was challenged by the arrival of a squadron of six French Navy frigates , commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey . Among these ships was the new 40 @-@ gun frigate Preneuse , commanded by Captain Jean @-@ Matthieu @-@ Adrien Lhermitte . Preneuse had not sailed from France with Sercey , instead passing independently through the Atlantic and uniting with the squadron at Port Louis on Île de France . Sercey deployed his squadron to the Dutch East Indies , but suffered frustration at the Action of 9 September 1796 and the Bali Strait Incident of January 1797 and subsequently returned to the base at Port Louis . There the squadron began to fracture , with a succession of ships sent back to France or detached on independent missions .
Preneuse separated in March 1798 , carrying messages of support and 86 military volunteers for the Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore , an enemy of the British in Southern India who sought to form an alliance with France . Lhermitte 's instructions emphasised subtlety in the operation , but on 20 April he attacked the British port of Tellicherry and seized the East Indiaman merchant ships Woodcot and Raymond . This alerted the British to Preneuse 's mission and although the reinforcements were landed safely at Mangalore on 24 April , diplomatic relations between the British and Mysore collapsed , leading to the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War the following year in which Tipu Sultan was killed and his kingdom absorbed into British India .
Lhermitte then sailed to rejoin Sercey and the corvette Brûle @-@ Gueule at Batavia in the Dutch East Indies for a planned junction with an allied Spanish squadron at Manila . This combined force then attacked an East India Company convoy gathering in the Pearl River in January 1799 , but in the ensuing Macau Incident they were driven off by the Royal Navy escort squadron . Dispirited , Sercey returned westwards to Île de France , narrowly avoiding an unequal battle with a large British squadron blockading the port . On arrival he discovered that Preneuse and Brûle @-@ Gueule were the only ships remaining of his original command , the others having returned to France or been lost in battle .
= = Battle of Algoa Bay = =
In September 1799 Sercey dispersed his remaining ships . Brûle @-@ Gueule was sent back to France on 26 September carrying condemned political prisoners ; the corvette was eventually wrecked on the Pointe du Raz with heavy loss of life . Preneuse was ordered to operate against British trade off the coast of Southeast Africa , sailing from Port Louis on 4 August . Lhermitte focused his efforts on the Mozambique Channel and the approaches to the British Cape Colony and on 20 September encountered a squadron anchored in Algoa Bay comprising the 24 @-@ gun naval storeship HMS Camel , the 16 @-@ gun HMS Rattlesnake and the schooner Surprise , the former ships lying with their masts and rigging removed . This force was supporting an expeditionary army under General Francis Dundas fighting the Third Xhosa War . Camel was laden with military supplies but neither ship was prepared for battle , with a 30 of Camel 's sailors and 15 from Rattlesnake trapped on shore by the surf .
Lhermitte approached the anchored ships at 18 : 00 , flying false Danish colours , and anchored nearby . A ship 's boat from Camel approached the new arrival , rapidly realising that Preneuse was a hostile frigate and returning to their ship . Lieutenant William Fothergill , the most senior officer with the convoy , fired warning shots close to the frigate , which Lhermitte ignored . Both British ships then prepared for action . At 20 : 30 , Preneuse began to approach Rattlesnake and Fothergill opened fire immediately , joined by Camel . Lhermitte returned fire , focusing its broadside on Camel . By midnight Camel had taken several shot in the hull causing widespread flooding , and the crew ceased firing to man the pumps . Lhermitte apparently believed that Camel had abandoned the fight and he switched fire towards Rattlesnake , the engagement continuing until 03 : 30 at which point Lhermitte slipped his anchor and pulled out of range . Remaining in the bay until 10 : 00 before standing out to sea . British losses were two killed and twelve wounded , both Camel and Rattlesnake badly damaged . It was later reported in French sources that Lhermitte believed the schooner Surprise to be a well armed naval brig , prompting his withdrawal . Preneuse 's loss in the action was around 40 killed and wounded , and the frigate was reported to be badly damaged ; messages to this effect were hastily sent to the commander at the Cape , Captain George Losack who sent the 50 @-@ gun HMS Jupiter in pursuit .
On 9 October after spending the night with the convoy in Algoa Bay , Jupiter discovered Preneuse at 34 ° 41 ′ S 27 ° 54 ′ E and gave chase . The sea was turbulent due to a strong gale from the northwest and the chase continued into the evening before Captain William Granger was able to fire ranging shot at the French ship . Lhermitte responded with his sternchasers . Granger rapidly gained on the damaged Preneuse but the state of the sea made it impossible for him to safely open his lower deck gunports and a long @-@ range duel continued at high speed throughout the night and much of the following two days . At 14 : 00 on 10 October Granger was finally close enough to bring Lhermitte to action , but found that with his 24 @-@ pounder guns unusable he was restricted to his upper deck 12 @-@ pounder guns , which were no match for Lhermitte 's main battery . As a result , the rigging on Jupiter was rapidly shot away and the British ship fell back for urgent repairs and Preneuse was able to take the opportunity to escape . Granger returned to Table Bay on 16 October .
= = Chase off Port Louis = =
Lhermitte had little subsequent success , and Preneuse returned to Port Louis in early December 1799 . The entrance to the port was blockaded by the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Tremendous under Captain John Osborn and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Adamant under Captain William Hotham . These ships had been sent specifically to intercept Preneuse , arriving at Port Louis on 7 December and successfully intercepting the merchant French vessels Benjamin and Bienfait and the Spanish Nuestra Señora del Carmen . Four days later they sighted the approaching frigate and chased it northeast , Adamant pressing so close that Lhermitte could not escape and was forced to drive the frigate on shore at the mouth of the Tombeau River within range of a large shore battery .
At 15 : 00 Lhermitte ordered the masts on Preneuse to be cut away and the frigate and battery then opened fire on Adamant , which was carefully sailing through the coastal shoals in an effort to engage the beached French ship . For more than two hours Hotham 's ship worked its way inshore until at 17 : 30 it was well positioned to open fire , unleashing its broadside on the wrecked Preneuse . By 17 : 45 it was clear that further resistance was futile and Lhermitte struck his colours . Preneuse had surrendered , but was likely damaged beyond repair .
Hotham and Osborn discussed the situation and determined to destroy the wreck to deny it to the French . To this end , three cutters were gathered and a boarding party under Lieutenant Edward Grey sent in to attack Preneuse at 20 : 00 . This party came under fire from the batteries but was able to successfully access the battered French frigate at 21 : 00 , finding that only the officers and a handful of sailors remained , the others having been given the opportunity to escape to the shore in boats rather than become prisoners of war . Among the captives was Lhermitte , who was permitted to bring his personal baggage with him before he was brought to the British squadron as a prisoner . Grey then set the wrecked ship alight before returning to Adamant , having executed his orders without losing a single man .
= = Aftermath = =
As Preneuse had gone ashore near Port Louis , Sercey had come to observe the engagement and therefore witnessed the destruction of the last of his squadron of 1796 . A commander without a command he subsequently took ship back to France and there retired from his commission , later returning to his family and settling on Île de France . The action temporarily left the French with no naval forces in the East Indies at all , although raiding cruises by privateers still posed a considerable threat to the British Indian Ocean trade routes . The only subsequent reinforcement to arrive in the region during the war was the frigate Chiffone was intercepted and captured at the Battle of Mahé shortly after arrival in 1801 , although substantial reinforcements did reach Île de France before the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 .
Lhermitte subsequently came under criticism from historians for his failure to inflict greater damage on the light force in Algoa Bay : William James described it as " a somewhat discreditable action " . Granger was also heavily criticised for his performance in the action on 11 October : William Laird Clowes considered that " No explanation of the Jupiter 's failure can be given " , while James wrote of the action with Jupiter that " Undoubtedly it was a cause of triumph to Captain L 'Hermite and well calculated to wipe away the disgrace incurred by Preneuse at Algoa bay " .
|
= Vauxhall Bridge =
Vauxhall Bridge is a Grade II * listed steel and granite deck arch bridge in central London . It crosses the River Thames in a south – east north – west direction between Vauxhall on the south bank and Pimlico on the north bank . Opened in 1906 , it replaced an earlier bridge , originally known as Regent Bridge but later renamed Vauxhall Bridge , built between 1809 and 1816 as part of a scheme for redeveloping the south bank of the Thames . The original bridge was itself built on the site of a former ferry .
The building of both bridges was problematic , with both the first and second bridges requiring several redesigns from multiple architects . The original bridge , the first iron bridge over the Thames , was built by a private company and operated as a toll bridge before being taken into public ownership in 1879 . The second bridge , which took eight years to build , was the first in London to carry trams and later one of the first two roads in London to have a bus lane .
In 1963 it was proposed to replace the bridge with a modern development containing seven floors of shops , office space , hotel rooms and leisure facilities supported above the river , but the plans were abandoned because of costs . With the exception of alterations to the road layout and the balustrade , the design and appearance of the current bridge has remained almost unchanged since 1907 . The bridge today is an important part of London 's road system and carries the A202 road across the Thames .
= = Background = =
In the early 13th century , Anglo @-@ Norman mercenary Falkes de Breauté built a manor house in the then empty marshlands of South Lambeth , across the River Thames from Westminster . In 1223 – 24 , de Breauté and others revolted against Henry III ; following a failed attempt to seize the Tower of London , de Breauté 's lands in England were forfeited and he was forced into exile in France and later Rome . The lands surrounding his Lambeth manor house continued to be known as Falkes ' Hall , later Vauxhall .
With the exception of housing around the New Spring Gardens ( later Vauxhall Gardens ) pleasure park , opened in around 1661 , the land at Vauxhall remained sparsely populated into the 19th century , with the nearest fixed river crossings being the bridges at Westminster , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream , and Battersea , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) upstream . In 1806 a scheme was proposed by Ralph Dodd to open the south bank of the Thames for development , by building a new major road from Hyde Park Corner to Kennington and Greenwich , crossing the river upstream of the existing Westminster Bridge . The proprietors of Battersea Bridge , concerned about a potential loss of customers , petitioned Parliament against the scheme , stating that " [ Dodd ] is a well known adventurer and Speculist , and the projector of numerous undertakings upon a large scale most if not all of which have failed " , and the bill was abandoned .
In 1809 a new bill was presented to Parliament , and the proprietors of Battersea Bridge agreed to allow it to pass and to accept compensation . The Bill incorporated the Vauxhall Bridge Company , allowing it to raise up to £ 300 @,@ 000 ( about £ 19 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) by means of mortgages or the sale of shares , and to keep all profits from any tolls raised . From these profits , the Vauxhall Bridge Company was obliged to compensate the proprietors of Battersea Bridge for any drop in revenue caused by the new bridge .
= = Old Vauxhall Bridge = =
Dodd submitted a scheme for a bridge at Vauxhall of 13 arches . However , soon after the 1809 Act was passed , he was dismissed by the Vauxhall Bridge Company and his design was abandoned . John Rennie was commissioned to design and build the new bridge , and a stone bridge of seven arches was approved . On 9 May 1811 , Lord Dundas laid the foundation stone of the bridge on the northern bank .
The Vauxhall Bridge Company ran into financial difficulties and was unable to raise more than the £ 300 @,@ 000 stipulated in the 1809 Act , and a new Act was passed in 1812 permitting the Company to build a cheaper iron bridge . Rennie submitted a new design for an iron bridge of eleven spans , costing far less than the original stone design . Rennie 's design was rejected , and instead construction began on a nine arch iron bridge designed by Samuel Bentham . Concerns were raised about the construction of the piers , and engineer James Walker was appointed to inspect the work . Walker 's report led to the design being abandoned for the second time , and Walker himself was appointed to design and build a bridge of nine 78 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) cast @-@ iron arches with stone piers , the first iron bridge to be built across the Thames .
On 4 June 1816 , over five years after construction began , the bridge opened , initially named Regent Bridge after George , Prince Regent , but shortly afterwards renamed Vauxhall Bridge . The developers failed to pay the agreed compensation to the owners of Battersea Bridge and were taken to court ; after a legal dispute lasting five years a judgement was made in favour of Battersea Bridge , with Vauxhall Bridge being obliged to pay £ 8 @,@ 234 ( about £ 633 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) compensation . As well as the compensation awarded by the courts to Battersea Bridge in 1821 , the 1809 Act also obliged the Vauxhall Bridge Company to pay compensation to the operators of Huntley Ferry , the Sunday ferry service to Vauxhall Gardens , with the level to be decided by " a jury of 24 honest , sufficient and indifferent men " . The bridge cost £ 175 @,@ 000 ( about £ 12 @.@ 1 million in 2016 ) to build ; with the costs of approach roads and compensation payments , the total cost came to £ 297 @,@ 000 ( about £ 20 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) .
= = = Usage = = =
In anticipation of the areas surrounding the bridge becoming prosperous suburbs , tolls were set at relatively high rates on a sliding scale , ranging from a penny for pedestrians to 2s 6d for vehicles drawn by six horses . Exemptions were granted for mail coaches , soldiers on duty and parliamentary candidates during election campaigns . However , the area around the bridge failed to develop as expected . In 1815 John Doulton built the Doulton & Watts ( later Royal Doulton ) stoneware factory at Vauxhall , and consequently instead of the wealthy residents anticipated by the company , the area began to fill with narrow streets of working class tenements to house the factory 's workers . Meanwhile , the large Millbank Penitentiary was built near the northern end of the bridge , discouraging housing development . Consequently , toll revenues were initially lower than expected , and the dividends paid to investors were low .
Usage rose considerably in 1838 when the terminus of the London and South Western Railway was built at nearby Nine Elms . Nine Elms station proved inconvenient and unpopular with travellers , and in 1848 a new railway terminus was built 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) closer to central London , at Waterloo Bridge station ( renamed " Waterloo Station " in 1886 ) , and the terminus at Nine Elms was abandoned .
With the closure of the rail terminus , Vauxhall Bridge 's main source of revenue was visitors to the Vauxhall Gardens pleasure park . In addition to people visiting the Gardens themselves , Vauxhall Gardens were used as a launch point for hot air balloon flights , and large crowds would gather on the bridge and surrounding streets to watch the flights . A large crowd also assembled on the bridge in September 1844 to watch Mister Barry , a clown from Astley 's Amphitheatre , sail from Vauxhall Bridge to Westminster Bridge in a washtub towed by geese .
= = = Public ownership = = =
Despite early setbacks and the construction nearby in the 19th century of three competing bridges ( Lambeth Bridge , Chelsea Bridge and Albert Bridge ) , the rapid urban growth of London made Vauxhall Bridge very profitable . The annual income from tolls rose from £ 4 @,@ 977 ( about £ 329 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in its first full year of operation , to £ 62 @,@ 392 ( about £ 5 @,@ 297 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in 1877 . In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed , allowing the Metropolitan Board of Works ( MBW ) to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith Bridge and Waterloo Bridge and free them from tolls .
In 1879 the bridge was bought by the MBW for £ 255 @,@ 000 ( about £ 23 @,@ 380 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and tolls on the bridge were lifted . Inspections of the bridge by the MBW following the purchase found that the two central piers were badly eroded , exposing the timber cradles on which the piers rested . Large quantities of cement in bags were laid around the wooden cradles as an emergency measure ; however , the cement bags themselves soon washed away . The piers were removed , replaced by a single large central arch . By this time the bridge was in very poor condition , and in 1895 the London County Council ( LCC ) , which had taken over from the MBW in 1889 , sought and gained Parliamentary approval to replace the bridge . Permission was granted by Parliament to raise the projected replacement costs of £ 484 @,@ 000 ( about £ 50 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) from rates across the whole of London rather than only local residents , as a new bridge was considered to be of benefit to the whole of London .
In August 1898 a temporary wooden bridge was moved into place alongside the existing bridge , and the demolition of the old bridge began .
= = New Vauxhall Bridge = =
Sir Alexander Binnie , the resident engineer of the London County Council ( LCC ) , submitted a design for a steel bridge , which proved unpopular . At the request of the LCC , Binnie submitted a new design for a bridge of five spans , to be built in concrete and faced with granite .
Work on Binnie 's design began , but was beset by problems . Leading architects condemned the design , with Arthur Beresford Pite describing it as " a would @-@ be Gothic architectural form of great vulgarity and stupid want of meaning " , and T G Jackson describing the bridge designs as a sign of " the utter apparent indifference of those in authority to the matter of art " . Plans to build large stone abutments had to be suspended when it was found that the southern abutment would block the River Effra , which by this time had been diverted underground to serve as a storm relief sewer and which flowed into the Thames at this point . The Effra had to be rerouted to join the Thames to the north of the bridge . After the construction of the foundations and piers it was then discovered that the clay of the riverbed at this point would not be able to support the weight of a concrete bridge . With the granite piers already in place , it was decided to build a steel superstructure onto the existing piers , and a superstructure 809 feet ( 247 m ) long and 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide was designed by Binnie and Maurice Fitzmaurice and built by LCC engineers at a cost of £ 437 @,@ 000 ( about £ 42 @,@ 390 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
The new bridge was eventually opened on 26 May 1906 , five years behind schedule , in a ceremony presided over by the Prince of Wales and Evan Spicer , Chairman of the LCC . Charles Wall , who had won the contract to build the superstructure of the new bridge , paid the LCC £ 50 for the temporary wooden bridge , comprising 40 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m3 ) of timber and 580 tons of scrap metal .
= = = Sculpture = = =
The new bridge was built to a starkly functional design , and many influential architects had complained about the lack of consultation from any architects during the design process by the engineers designing the new bridge . In 1903 , during the construction of the bridge , the LCC consulted with architect William Edward Riley regarding possible decorative elements that could be added to the bridge . Riley proposed erecting two 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) pylons topped with statues at one end of the bridge , and adding decorative sculpture to the bridge piers . The pylons were rejected on grounds of cost , but following further consultation with leading architect Richard Norman Shaw it was decided to erect monumental bronze statues above the piers , and Alfred Drury , George Frampton and Frederick Pomeroy were appointed to design appropriate statues .
Frampton resigned from the project through pressure of work , and Drury and Pomeroy carried out the project , each contributing four monumental statues , which were installed in late 1907 . On the upstream piers are Pomeroy 's Agriculture , Architecture , Engineering and Pottery , whilst on the downstream piers are Drury 's Science , Fine Arts , Local Government and Education . Each statue weighs approximately two tons . Despite their size , the statues are little @-@ noticed by users of the bridge as they are not visible from the bridge itself , but only from the river banks or from passing shipping .
= = = Usage = = =
The new bridge soon became a major transport artery and today carries the A202 across the Thames . Originally built with tram tracks , New Vauxhall Bridge was the first in central London to carry trams . Initially it carried horse @-@ drawn trams , but shortly after the bridge 's opening it was converted to carry the electric trams of London County Council Tramways ; it continued to carry trams until the ending of tram services in 1951 . In 1968 Vauxhall Bridge and Park Lane became the first roads in London to have bus lanes ; during weekday evening rush hours , the central lane of the bridge was reserved for southbound buses only .
= = Millbank Bridge = =
During the Second World War the government was concerned that Axis bombers would target the bridge , and a temporary bridge known as Millbank Bridge was built parallel to Vauxhall Bridge , 200 yards ( 180 m ) downstream . Millbank Bridge was built of steel girders supported by wooden stakes ; however , despite its flimsy appearance it was a sturdy structure , capable of supporting tanks and other heavy military equipment . In the event , Vauxhall Bridge survived the war undamaged , and in 1948 Millbank Bridge was dismantled . Its girders were shipped to Northern Rhodesia and used to span a tributary of the Zambezi .
= = The Crystal Span = =
In 1963 the Glass Age Development Committee commissioned a design for a replacement bridge at Vauxhall , inspired by the design of the Crystal Palace , to be called the Crystal Span . The Crystal Span was to have been a seven @-@ story building supported by two piers in the river , overhanging the river banks at either end . The structure itself would have been enclosed in an air conditioned glass shell . The lowest floor would have contained two three @-@ lane carriageways for vehicles , with a layer of shops and a skating rink in the centre of the upper floors . The southern end of the upper floors was to house a luxury hotel , whilst the northern end was to house the modern art collection of the nearby Tate Gallery , which at this time was suffering from a severe shortage of display space . The roof was to have housed a series of roof gardens , observation platforms and courtyards , surrounding a large open @-@ air theatre . The entire structure would have been 970 feet ( 300 m ) long and 127 feet ( 39 m ) wide . Despite much public interest in the proposals , the London County Council was reluctant to pay the estimated £ 7 million ( £ 132 million in 2016 ) construction costs , and the scheme was abandoned .
= = Recent history = =
In 1993 , a remnant of the earliest known bridge @-@ like structure in London was discovered alongside Vauxhall Bridge , when shifting currents washed away a layer of silt which had covered it . Dating to between 1550 BC and 300 BC , it consists of two rows of wooden posts , which it is believed would originally have carried a deck of some kind . It is believed that it did not cross the whole river , but instead connected the south bank to an island , possibly used for burial of the dead . As no mention of this or similar structures in the area is made in Julius Caesar 's account of crossing the Thames nor by any other Roman author , it is presumed that the structure had been dismantled or destroyed prior to Caesar 's expedition to Britain in 55 BC . The posts are still visible at extreme low tides .
Following the closure of a number of the area 's industries , in the 1970s and 1980s the land at the southern end of Vauxhall Bridge remained empty , following the failures of multiple redevelopment schemes . The most notable came in 1979 when Keith Wickenden MP , owner of the land at the immediate southern end of the bridge , proposed a large @-@ scale redevelopment of the site . The development was to contain 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space , 100 luxury flats and a gallery to house the Tate Gallery 's modern art collection . The offices were to be housed in a 500 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) tower of green glass , which was nicknamed the " Green Giant " and met with much opposition . The then Secretary of State for the Environment , Michael Heseltine , refused permission for the development and the site remained empty .
In 1988 Regalian Properties purchased the site , and appointed Terry Farrell as architect . Farrell designed a self @-@ contained community of shops , housing , offices and public spaces for the site . Regalian disliked the proposals and requested Farrell design a single large office block . Despite containing 50 % more office space than the rejected Green Giant proposal , the design was accepted . The government then bought the site and design as a future headquarters for the Secret Intelligence Service , and the design was accordingly modified to increase security . In 1995 the SIS Building was opened on the site , and today dominates other buildings in the vicinity of the bridge .
In 2004 the Vauxhall Cross area at the southern end of the bridge was redeveloped as a major transport interchange , combining a large bus station with the existing National Rail and London Underground stations at Vauxhall . Immediately to the east of the southern end of the bridge , a slipway provides access for amphibious buses between the road and river .
The only significant alteration to the structure of the bridge itself since the addition of the sculptures in 1907 came in 1973 , when the Greater London Council ( GLC ) decided to add an extra traffic lane by reducing the width of the pavements . To counter the increased load of extra traffic , the council announced the replacement of the cast @-@ iron balustrades with low box @-@ girder structures . Despite formal objections from both Lambeth and Westminster Councils , the GLC ignored the objections . In 2015 , the extra lane of motor traffic was removed in favour of a kerb @-@ protected two @-@ way cycle track , on the north @-@ east side of the bridge .
The bridge was declared a Grade II * listed structure in 2008 , providing protection to preserve its character from alteration .
|
= McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II in UK service =
The United Kingdom operated the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II as one of its principal combat aircraft from the 1960s to the early 1990s . The UK was the first export customer for the Phantom , which was ordered in the context of political and economic difficulties around indigenous British designs for the roles that it was eventually purchased to undertake . The Phantom was procured to serve in both the Fleet Air Arm and Royal Air Force in several roles including air defence , close air support , low @-@ level strike and tactical reconnaissance .
Although assembled in the United States , the UK 's Phantoms were a special batch built separately and containing a significant amount of British technology as a means of easing the pressure on the domestic aerospace industry in the wake of major project cancellations . Two individual variants were eventually built for the UK ; the F @-@ 4K variant was designed from the outset as an air defence interceptor to be operated by the Fleet Air Arm from the Royal Navy 's aircraft carriers , while the F @-@ 4M version was procured for the RAF to serve in the tactical strike and reconnaissance roles . In the mid @-@ 1980s , a third Phantom variant was obtained when a quantity of second @-@ hand F @-@ 4J aircraft were purchased to augment the UK 's air defences following the Falklands War .
The Phantom entered service with both the Fleet Air Arm and the RAF in 1969 ; while in the Royal Navy it had a secondary strike role in addition to its primary use for fleet air defence , in the RAF it was soon replaced in the strike role by other aircraft designed specifically for strike and close air support missions , and by the mid @-@ 1970s was transferred to become the UK 's principal interceptor , a role in which it continued until the late 1980s .
= = Background = =
In the late 1950s , the British Government began the process of replacing its early second @-@ generation jet combat aircraft then in service with the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm . At the time , the British aerospace industry was still a major source of equipment , with designs from different companies in service in various roles . The 1957 Defence White Paper brought about a significant change in the working practices , with the Government compelling major aerospace manufacturers to amalgamate into two large groups : British Aircraft Corporation ( formed from the merger of English Electric , Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Bristol and Hunting ) and Hawker Siddeley ( formed from the merger of Hawker Siddeley Aviation , Folland , de Havilland and Blackburn ) .
The intention was to rationalise the industry to cut costs , with the government also offering incentives for amalgamation through promises of contracts for new aircraft orders for the armed forces . At the time , the RAF were looking to replace the English Electric Canberra light bomber in the long @-@ range interdictor role and the Hawker Hunter in the close air support role , while the Royal Navy sought an aircraft to assume the fleet air defence role from the de Havilland Sea Vixen . BAC , through its English Electric subsidiary , had begun developing a new high @-@ performance strike aircraft , the TSR @-@ 2 , which was intended to undertake long @-@ range , low @-@ level strike missions with conventional and tactical nuclear weapons as well as to conduct tactical reconnaissance . Hawker Siddeley was also developing a new aircraft , based on its P.1127 V / STOL demonstrator . The P.1154 was proposed as a supersonic version that could be marketed to both the RAF and Royal Navy to fulfil a number of roles : close air support , air superiority and fleet air defence .
During the early 1960s , aircraft development became increasingly expensive , with the result that major projects often became mired in political and economic concerns . The development of TSR @-@ 2 saw increasing cost overruns , combined with the presence of a potentially cheaper alternative then under development in the United States , the F @-@ 111 . The P.1154 was subject to the ongoing inter @-@ service rivalry between the Royal Navy and RAF , which led to two wildly differing specifications being submitted for the aircraft that were impossible to fit within a single airframe .
In 1964 , the Royal Navy withdrew from the P.1154 project , and instead made moves to procure a new fleet air defence interceptor . It eventually selected the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II , then in service with the US Navy as its primary air defence aircraft , intended to be operated from both existing and new @-@ built aircraft carriers . This better suited the Royal Navy , as McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II had two engines ( providing redundancy in the event of an engine failure ) , was cheaper than the P.1154 , and was immediately available . P.1154 was then left as a wholly RAF project . Later the same year , a General Election brought the Labour Party back into power . The new government undertook a defence review , which led to the 1966 Defence White Paper that cancelled several projects , including both the P.1154 and TSR @-@ 2 . As a consequence , the government was forced to order new aircraft to replace the Canberra and Hunter for the RAF , and eventually chose two types – to replace the Canberra in the long @-@ range role ( which was intended for TSR @-@ 2 ) , the F @-@ 111 was selected , with plans for a redesigned variant , while the roles undertaken by the Hunter ( for which P.1154 was to be procured ) would be undertaken by a further purchase of F @-@ 4 Phantoms . As the Phantom had been developed primarily for fleet air defence , the Royal Navy was happy with the choice of the aircraft as its Sea Vixen replacement , given that the type had been operational in that role with the US Navy since 1961 , whilst US aircraft had successfully undertaken touch @-@ and @-@ go landings on both HMS Hermes and HMS Victorious . The RAF was less enthusiastic , as the Phantom was primarily designed to operate in the air defence rather than the close air support role , and had been selected as its Hunter replacement more as a way of decreasing the per @-@ unit cost of the overall UK order .
Partly as a means of guaranteeing employment in the British aerospace industry , agreement was reached that significant amounts of the structure of the UK 's Phantoms would be built domestically . The F @-@ 4J variant , which was then the primary version in service with the US Navy , was taken as the basis for the UK aircraft , with major redesign . The most significant change was the substitution of the larger and more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce Spey turbofan for the GE J79 turbojet to allow operations from the Royal Navy 's carriers . Although several had received major upgrades , all of which were smaller than the USN carriers that J79 @-@ GE @-@ 8 and − 10 powered Phantoms operated from . To accommodate the larger engines , BAC redesigned and built the entire rear fuselage section . The Westinghouse AN / AWG @-@ 10 radar carried by the F @-@ 4J was to be procured and built under licence by Ferranti as the AN / AWG @-@ 11 for Fleet Air Arm aircraft and AN / AWG @-@ 12 for those of the RAF . The overall changes to the aircraft led to the two variants being given their own separate series letters , with the FAA version being designated as the F @-@ 4K and the RAF version as the F @-@ 4M .
Initially , there was an intention to procure up to 400 aircraft for the Royal Navy and the RAF , but the development cost associated with the changes specified by the UK to accommodate the Spey turbofans meant that the per @-@ unit price eventually ended up being three times the price of an F @-@ 4J ; because the government then had a policy of negotiating fixed @-@ price contracts , these costs could not be evened out by a large production run , which left the total order at 170 .
= = Variants = =
= = = Prototypes = = =
The British Government ordered a total of four prototypes ( two F @-@ 4K and two F @-@ 4M ) , together with a pair of pre @-@ production F @-@ 4K aircraft . The first UK Phantom , a prototype F @-@ 4K ( designated as YF @-@ 4K ) , first flew on 27 June 1966 at the McDonnell Douglas plant in St. Louis . The second made its first flight on 30 August 1966 . The two pre @-@ production F @-@ 4K aircraft were constructed alongside the prototypes , and were initially used for fit check trials of the various systems they would be fitted with – the first was used for catapult / arrestor and deck landing trials , while the second was primarily for testing the radar and missile systems . All four were delivered to the UK from 1969 to 1970 for continued use in testing work by both the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment and British Aerospace . One of the pre @-@ production examples was subsequently delivered to the RAF for operational use , but was lost in 1978 . The first F @-@ 4M prototype ( designated YF @-@ 4M ) first flew on 17 February 1967 , with both again used for fit check work before delivery to the UK .
= = = = Operators = = = =
United Kingdom
= = = F @-@ 4K Phantom FG.1 = = =
= = = = Royal Navy = = = =
In 1964 , a total of 140 new build Phantoms were ordered for the Fleet Air Arm to serve as the Royal Navy 's primary fleet air defence aircraft , combined with a secondary strike capability . These were procured to replace the Sea Vixen then in service in the role , with the intention that they operate from the decks of four brand new or modernised aircraft carriers . At the time , the Royal Navy 's carrier force consisted primarily of five fleet or light fleet carriers of differing sizes and ages . Of the five in service , only Eagle and Ark Royal , each displacing approximately 50 @,@ 000 tons , were big enough to accommodate the Phantom in sufficient numbers , and so plans were put in place to rebuild the two ships to enable the operation of the aircraft .
At the same time , plans were in place to construct two new aircraft carriers to a new design , termed as " CVA @-@ 01 " ; the requirements for the intended force of four carriers meant that up to five squadrons of Phantoms were planned to be purchased . However , in its 1966 Defence White Paper the Government decided to cancel CVA @-@ 01 ( as well as cancelling TSR @-@ 2 ) , which led to reductions in the total procurement order for the Royal Navy 's Phantoms ; initially , 143 were ordered , which then went down to 110 , and finally 50 , with options for another seven . The intention was to form a pair of front @-@ line squadrons , each of twelve aircraft , that would operate from the two remaining , heavily modernised fleet carriers , with the remainder of the fleet as a reserve and for training .
The Royal Navy received its first F @-@ 4K Phantoms , which received the British designation FG.1 , in April 1968 . These were assigned to 700P Naval Air Squadron ( NAS ) , which was to serve as Intensive Flying Trials Unit . Upon completion of the successful flight trials , 767 Naval Air Squadron was commissioned in January 1969 as the FAA 's training squadron . This was followed at the end of March 1969 by 892 Naval Air Squadron , which commissioned as the Royal Navy 's first operational Phantom unit , intended to embark in Ark Royal once her three @-@ year refit had completed in 1970 .
At the same time as the Fleet Air Arm was receiving its first aircraft , the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment had three FG.1s delivered to its ' C ' Squadron for flight deck trials aboard Eagle . Two sets of trials were successfully carried out in March and June 1969 ; the first set was a set of approaches and touch and go landings , while the second set of trials involved full up catapult launch and arrested recovery . As a result of the reheat from the Spey turbofans , the ship 's jet blast deflectors ( JBD ) were not used ; instead a steel plate was fixed to the deck to absorb the heat of the engines building to launch , with fire hoses needed after each launch to prevent them melting .
Ark Royal had entered refit to accommodate the Phantom in 1967 ; this involved a major reconstruction , with a number of elements undertaken to allow the ship to operate the aircraft – the flight deck was increased in area , and fully angled to 8 ½ ° ; the arresting gear was replaced with a new water @-@ spray system to allow for the Phantom 's higher weight and landing speed ; while bridle catchers and water @-@ cooled JBDs were fitted to the catapults . Once this work was complete , Eagle was then scheduled to undergo a similar modernization . However , in 1969 , the planned refit of Eagle was cancelled , while the options for seven additional FG.1s was not taken up . As a consequence , it was then decided to further reduce the FAA 's Phantom fleet to just 28 aircraft . The remaining 20 aircraft were then allocated to the Royal Air Force .
In 1970 , Ark Royal embarked 892 NAS , with a total of 12 aircraft , as part of her air group for the first time . However , the first operational use of the Royal Navy 's Phantoms had come in 1969 , when 892 NAS had embarked for training with the US aircraft carrier USS Saratoga in the Mediterranean , and had undertaken air defence missions alongside the ship 's own F @-@ 4Js . This deployment showed the necessity for the modifications fitted to Ark Royal , as the heat from the afterburners of the Spey , combined with the increased AoA resulting from the extendable nosewheel , during the initial launches from Saratoga caused the deck plates to distort , leading to subsequent catapult launches being undertaken at reduced weight without the use of re @-@ heat . During Ark Royal 's first three @-@ year commission , 892 NAS , which had initially used RNAS Yeovilton in Somerset as its home base , moved to RAF Leuchars in Fife where , during the periods when it was not embarked , it undertook Quick Reaction Alert ( QRA ) duties alongside the RAF 's 43 Squadron . The Phantom served in the Fleet Air Arm until 1978 , when Ark Royal was finally withdrawn from service , leaving no ship left in the Royal Navy capable of operating the type . The final catapult launch from Ark Royal was a Phantom of 892 NAS on 27 November 1978 during the disembarkation of the air group following the ship 's final deployment ; the squadron 's aircraft were delivered to RAF St Athan in Wales where they were then handed over to the RAF . During the type 's service with the Royal Navy , a total of 10 of the total FAA fleet of 28 were lost .
= = = = Royal Air Force = = = =
Following the cancellation of the planned refit of HMS Eagle to allow her to operate the Phantom , a total of 20 airframes that had originally been ordered for the Fleet Air Arm were diverted to the Royal Air Force to serve in the air defence role . At the time , the RAF 's primary interceptor was the English Electric Lightning , which suffered badly both in terms of range , loiter time and weapons fit , all of which hampered its effectiveness , especially in long interceptions of Soviet Air Forces and Soviet Naval Aviation bombers and reconnaissance aircraft over the North Sea and North Atlantic . So a new Phantom squadron was formed at RAF Leuchars , the UK 's most northerly air defence base at the time , to take advantage of the improvements that the Phantom provided over the Lightning – it could carry more fuel , and could thus fly further for longer ; it was fitted with a more powerful radar ; and it could carry more missiles ( up to 8 , compared to 2 for the Lightning ) . On 1 September 1969 , 43 Squadron was formed at Leuchars , operating as part of the UK 's northern QRA zone alongside the Lightnings of 11 Squadron and , from 1972 , the Royal Navy Phantoms of 892 Naval Air Squadron .
Upon the withdrawal of HMS Ark Royal in 1978 , the Phantoms of the Fleet Air Arm were turned over to the RAF and used to form a second squadron at Leuchars . At the time , 111 Squadron was stationed there operating the FGR.2 version of the Phantom , having been there since 1975 . In 1979 , to save costs resulting from the differences between the FG.1 and FGR.2 , the squadron converted to the ex @-@ Navy aircraft , dispersing its existing airframes to other Phantom units . Both 43 and 111 Squadrons retained the FG.1 until 1989 , when they converted to the new Tornado F.3. Following the standing down of the two operational squadrons and the final withdrawal of the type from service , the bulk of the RAF 's FG.1 Phantoms were scrapped . The RAF lost a total of eight of their FG.1s in crashes throughout the type 's twenty year service .
= = = = Operators = = = =
United Kingdom
Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment
Royal Navy
700P Naval Air Squadron
767 Naval Air Squadron
892 Naval Air Squadron
Royal Air Force
43 Squadron
64 ( R ) Squadron
111 Squadron
= = = = Gallery ( FG.1 ) = = = =
= = = F @-@ 4M Phantom FGR.2 = = =
= = = = Close air support = = = =
Following the cancellation of both the TSR @-@ 2 and P.1154 programmes , the RAF were still left with a requirement to replace both the Canberra and Hunter in the long @-@ range strike , close air support and reconnaissance roles . This resulted in the procurement of two aircraft , the General Dynamics F @-@ 111K , intended for the long @-@ range interdiction roles carried out by the Canberra , and the F @-@ 4M Phantom , which would be used in the close air support role undertaken by the Hunter . While the F @-@ 111K was cancelled within a year of being ordered , the order for 150 Phantoms went ahead alongside the Phantom order for the Royal Navy . However , the final 32 units of the order were eventually cancelled . The RAF Phantom , given the designation FGR.2 , was broadly similar to the naval version , with some minor variations in terms of engines , avionics and structure , which related to its use as a land @-@ based , rather than carrier @-@ based aircraft .
The first RAF Phantom unit was 228 Operational Conversion Unit , which was stood up in August 1968 . The Phantom entered operational service in May 1969 , when 6 Squadron was formed at RAF Coningsby in the tactical strike role . 54 Squadron was formed in September the same year , while 41 Squadron came in 1972 as a tactical reconnaissance unit . A further four squadrons were formed in RAF Germany on the Phantom in these roles , with 2 , 14 , 17 and 31 Squadrons all formed at RAF Brüggen in 1970 and 1971 . 14 , 17 and 31 Squadrons were assigned , in addition to their conventional strike role , a tactical nuclear strike role under SACEUR , using weapons supplied by the United States . After initial work @-@ up , 2 Squadron moved to and operated from RAF Laarbruch in the tactical reconnaissance role . The aircraft assigned to the two tactical reconnaissance units were fitted with a recce pod containing 4 optical cameras , an infrared linescan and a sideways looking radar .
During the 1970s , the RAF was in the process of developing a new aircraft specifically for the tactical strike and reconnaissance missions , which eventually became the SEPECAT Jaguar . This was introduced into service in 1974 , and led to a re @-@ think in the use of the Phantom as , at the same time , the limitations of the Lightning as an interceptor were becoming more apparent . The conversion of the RAF 's FGR.2 squadrons to operate the Jaguar , combined with the use of the Blackburn Buccaneer , which had been purchased to assume some of the strike roles intended for the F @-@ 111K , meant that it was possible to begin transferring Phantoms to operate purely as interceptors in the air defence role .
= = = = Air defence = = = =
In October 1974 , 111 Squadron converted from the Lightning to the Phantom FGR.2 , becoming the first unit to operate the type in the air defence role ( notwithstanding 43 Squadron , which had used the FG.1 version since 1969 ) . As more Jaguars were delivered , enabling the strike squadrons in the UK and Germany to convert , more Phantoms were released enabling existing Lightning squadrons to be converted ; 19 Squadron and 92 Squadron , the forward deployed air defence units in Germany , converted in 1976 and 1977 respectively , at the same time moving from RAF Gütersloh , which was the closest RAF base to the East German border , to RAF Wildenrath , taking advantage of the Phantom 's superior range over the Lightning . Three further UK based squadrons , 23 , 29 and 56 , were also converted between 1974 and 1976 . 111 Squadron , which had been the first unit to use the FGR.2 as an interceptor , converted to the FG.1 version in 1979 following the transfer of the Royal Navy 's remaining airframes to the RAF . The Phantom subsequently served as the RAF 's primary interceptor for over a decade until the introduction into service of the Panavia Tornado F.3 in 1987 .
When Phantoms were first delivered to interceptor squadrons , they remained in the grey @-@ green camouflage colour scheme more associated with the strike and close air support missions they had undertaken . During the late 1970s , the RAF began experimenting with new colours for its air defence units , with 56 Squadron tasked with trialling proposed new schemes . In October 1978 , a Phantom FGR.2 of 56 Squadron became the first to be painted in the new air superiority grey colour , combined with small , low visibility roundels and markings . However , although the roundel remained in low visibility colours , individual squadron markings eventually returned to more observable sizes and colours .
In May 1982 , three Phantoms from 29 Squadron were forward deployed to RAF Wideawake on Ascension Island to provide air cover during the RAF 's operations as part of Operation Corporate , replacing Harriers of 1 Squadron , which were transiting to the war zone . In August 1982 , following the end of the conflict and the reconstruction of the runway , 29 Squadron detached a number of its aircraft to RAF Stanley to provide air defence for the Falkland Islands . Late the following year , 23 Squadron took up the role , remaining stationed there until October 1988 , when they were replaced by 1435 Flight . To make up for the loss of an entire squadron from the UK Air Defence Region , the RAF procured 15 second @-@ hand F @-@ 4J Phantoms that had previously been used by the US Navy . These aircraft were operated by 74 Squadron from 1984 until 1991 , when they were replaced by FGR.2 Phantoms that had been released by other squadrons following their conversion to the Tornado . Initially , it was intended that Phantoms and Tornados serve alongside each other ; a total of 152 Tornado F.3s were ordered for the RAF , enough to convert four squadrons of Phantoms and two of Lightnings , but insufficient to completely convert every air defence squadron ; both 23 and 29 Squadrons converted from the Phantom FGR.2 to the Tornado between 1987 and 1988 , alongside the conversion of the final two remaining Lightning squadrons ; the intention was to retain a pair of UK based Phantom squadrons at RAF Wattisham alongside a pair of Tornado units at RAF Coningsby to provide air defence cover for the southern half of the UK Air Defence Region , with another two squadrons stationed in Germany . The end of the Cold War however led to a more rapid withdrawal of Phantom units than had originally been planned ; under the Options for Change defence review the Phantom was to be withdrawn from service , with the two Germany based units disbanded as part of the gradual run down of the RAF 's presence , and a reduction in the number of air defence squadrons leading to the two UK based units being disbanded in late 1992 . However , just prior to the final withdrawal of the Phantom , it was recalled operationally as a result of Operation Granby , the UK 's participation in the First Gulf War , when a total of six aircraft from 19 and 92 Squadrons were forward deployed to provide air defence cover at RAF Akrotiri ; this was to replace the Tornados that had been originally deployed there on exercise , and were subsequently sent to the Gulf region . Following their final withdrawal from service , with a few exceptions , the bulk of the RAF 's FGR.2 fleet was scrapped . Over its service life , 37 FGR.2s were lost to crashes .
= = = = Operators = = = =
Royal Air Force
= = = = Gallery ( FGR.2 ) = = = =
= = = F @-@ 4J ( UK ) Phantom F.3 = = =
Following the end of the Falklands War , the UK government began a programme of upgrading the defences of the Falkland Islands to guard against any further potential aggression from Argentina . One of the measures taken was the deployment of an interceptor squadron to the islands themselves , with 23 Squadron forming at RAF Stanley in October 1983 . At the time , the air defence variant of the Panavia Tornado was still in development , meaning that the Phantom was the UK 's primary air defence aircraft ( supported by two remaining squadrons of Lightnings ) . The removal of a squadron of Phantoms to the Falkland Islands left a gap in the UK 's air defences with nothing immediately available to fill it , given that the Tornado was still some years from entering service . As a consequence , the UK government decided to purchase an additional squadron of Phantoms . However , because the aircraft in service with the RAF were the special production batch built to UK specifications , it would not be possible to obtain identical aircraft . So , a total of 15 second @-@ hand airframes were procured from among the best of the ex @-@ US Navy F @-@ 4Js stored at the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center at Davis – Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona and the Naval Air Rework Facility at NAS North Island . The F @-@ 4J was chosen as it was the variant from which the RAF 's F @-@ 4Ks and F @-@ 4Ms had been developed , and thus the closest available to the British aircraft . The 15 that were selected were extensively refurbished and brought to a standard almost equivalent to the F @-@ 4S , which was the last variant in service with the US Navy , with the only differences being the absence of leading @-@ edge slats and a helmet gun sight .
The major difference between the F @-@ 4J and the British Phantoms was the absence of the Rolls @-@ Royce Spey turbofan , with instead the aircraft being fitted with the GE J79 @-@ 10B , which produced less power than the British engine , but had a faster afterburner light up , giving it better performance at high altitude , at the expense of slightly poorer acceleration at low level ; the high altitude performance was helped by the reduced drag from its smaller air intakes . Initially delivered capable of carrying the Sparrow and Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( AAM ) , they were soon made compatible with the Skyflash and SUU @-@ 23A gun pod , bringing them into line with the rest of the RAF 's Phantoms . However , in spite of some modifications to allow them to operate with the rest of the fleet , the F @-@ 4Js retained the vast bulk of the equipment they were originally fitted with , which even led to their crews requiring American flying helmets .
Although the new Phantoms were assigned a British designation as the F.3 , they were generally referred to as the F @-@ 4J ( UK ) . They were assigned to 74 Squadron at RAF Wattisham , which stood up in October 1984 , just two months after the first flight . The aircraft remained in service through the transition to the Tornado , which began entering service in 1987 . In 1990 , thanks to the conversion of F @-@ 4M squadrons to the Tornado , the RAF were able to transfer the best of its remaining FGR.2s to 74 Squadron , which meant that the F.3 was able to be withdrawn in January 1991 . With a couple of exceptions , all of the RAF 's F @-@ 4Js were broken up for scrap . One of the 15 airframes was lost in a crash in 1987 , killing both crew members .
= = = = Operators = = = =
Royal Air Force
74 Squadron
= = = = Gallery ( F.3 ) = = = =
= = Variations = =
= = = FG.1 and FGR.2 = = =
The Phantom FG.1 and FGR.2 as built were similar , being fitted as they were with broadly the same engines and avionics , although in both cases there were minor differences . The FGR.2 was fitted with the Mark 202 version of the Rolls @-@ Royce Spey turbofan , while the FG.1 had the Mark 203 ; this was fundamentally the same , but had a modified control system for the afterburner , which allowed it to light faster , to enable power to be applied quickly in the event of a bolter on the small decks of the Royal Navy 's aircraft carriers . Both variants were fitted with a licence built version of the Westinghouse AN / AWG @-@ 10 avionics package ; the FG.1 was fitted with the AN / AWG @-@ 11 , which differed primarily in having a nose radome that was hinged and able to fold backwards against the aircraft 's fuselage to allow for storage in the hangar of an aircraft carrier ; the system was designed to be integrated with both the AGM @-@ 12 Bullpup missile and WE.177 as required . The AN / AWG @-@ 12 fitted to the FGR.2 was not foldable , and featured a better ground mapping mode , to take into account the strike role for which the type was originally procured ; allied to this was a Ferranti inertial navigation / attack system ( removed when the type converted to the air defence role ) . It was also configured to be able to control the SUU @-@ 23A gun pod , which the Royal Navy 's FG.1s were not fitted with .
= = = British Phantoms and other Phantoms = = =
Although there were some minor differences between the two types of Phantom built for the UK , there were many significant ones between the British Phantoms and those built for the United States . The most obvious one was the substitution of the Rolls @-@ Royce Spey turbofan for the General Electric J79 turbojet . The Spey was shorter in length than the J79 , but wider in diameter , which meant that the intakes had to be redesigned for a higher airflow , making them 20 % larger ( with a consequent increase in drag ) , while the fuselage was widened by 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) . The position of the afterburner also meant that the rear of the fuselage had to be made deeper . In addition auxiliary intake doors were fitted on the rear fuselage .
Estimates on the performance of the Spey engined Phantom as opposed to its American equivalent had the aircraft requiring a 30 % shorter take @-@ off distance , 20 % faster climb to altitude , higher top speed and longer range . The Spey was certainly more efficient at lower altitudes , and had better acceleration at low speed , giving British Phantoms better range and acceleration , which was shown during the deployment of 892 NAS to the Mediterranean aboard USS Saratoga in 1969 , when the F @-@ 4K was repeatedly quicker off the deck than the F @-@ 4J used by the Americans . But , it was less efficient at higher altitudes , with British Phantoms lacking speed compared with J79 powered versions owing to the increased drag of the re @-@ designed fuselage . This discrepancy became apparent when the F @-@ 4J was obtained by the UK in 1984 ; this was regarded as being the best of the three variants to serve in the RAF .
The small size of the aircraft carriers Eagle and Ark Royal , from which the Royal Navy 's Phantoms were intended to operate , compared to the US Navy carriers of the period , meant that the F @-@ 4K version required significant structural changes compared to the F @-@ 4J , from which it was descended , and which performed a similar role . In addition to the folding nose radome to allow for storage in the smaller hangars of the British ships , it had to have a significantly strengthened undercarriage to account for the higher landing weight ( British policy was to bring back unused ordnance ) ; a telescopic nosewheel oleo that extended by 40 inches ( 100 cm ) to provide an increased take @-@ off attitude ( the extension of the nosewheel put the Phantom at a 9 ° attitude ) due to the shorter and less powerful catapults ; and drooping ailerons , enlarged leading edge flaps and a slotted tailplane , increased flap and leading edge blowing , all to improve the lift and handling characteristics of operation from the much smaller carriers of the Royal Navy .
As the Phantom continued in service , other changes were made , most notably the addition of the Marconi ARI.18228 Radar Warning Receiver in an installation mounted on top of the vertical stabiliser , the only Phantom variants to be so fitted . The RWR installation was fitted in the mid @-@ 1970s to both the FG.1 and FGR.2 Phantoms , but was not fitted to the F.3. From 1978 , the Skyflash AAM , derived from the AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow , began to be delivered to RAF Phantom units , and was used concurrently with the Sparrow ; all three UK Phantom variants were eventually fitted to operate the Skyflash .
UK versions compared
= = = List of aircraft = = =
The first batch of Phantoms produced for the UK received serials in the XT range , with a total of 44 production models ( 20 FG.1s and 24 FGR.2s ) , as well as the four prototypes and two pre @-@ production models being given XT serial numbers . The bulk of the UK 's specially built Phantoms were delivered with XV serials ( 94 FGR.2s and 28 FG.1s ) , while the two cancelled sets of airframes ( 32 FGR.2 and 7 FG.1 ) also received XV numbers . The second @-@ hand examples ( 15 F.3 ) obtained in 1984 received serials in the ZE range .
= = = Phantom locations = = =
The RAF operated the Phantom from a number of bases in the UK , Germany and the Falkland Islands during its operational service , while the Royal Navy initially based its Phantom units at its main air station at Yeovilton ; following the disbanding of the Fleet Air Arm 's dedicated training squadron , its sole operational Phantom squadron was subsequently moved to take up residence at the RAF 's base at Leuchars .
= = = Basic specifications = = =
= = = Other UK Phantom proposals = = =
Although the Phantom was ordered in 1966 , the variants that were eventually constructed were not the first to be offered to the UK . McDonnell Aircraft had been conducting studies into the possibility of the Royal Navy using the Phantom on its carriers since 1959 , when they had concluded on the need for more power than could be provided by the J79 turbojet in order to operate from the smaller decks of British carriers , with the company talking to Rolls @-@ Royce about whether the RB @-@ 168 Spey turbofan , then in development for use in the Blackburn Buccaneer , could be fitted to the aircraft . In 1960 , McDonnell approached the RAF with its model number 98CJ , which was an F4H @-@ 1 ( later F @-@ 4B ) with various modifications , including the installation of the Rolls @-@ Royce Spey Mk.101 turbofan . The company continued studies , with afterburning Spey 101 engines proposed in 1962 , while trials of an F @-@ 4B fitted with an extendable nosewheel oleo took place aboard USS Forrestal in 1963 . In 1964 , the model 98FC was proposed , which was identical to the F @-@ 4D variant , but would have been fitted with the RB.168 @-@ 25R version of the Spey engine .
= = = = RF @-@ 4M = = = =
A further proposal came after the order for the F @-@ 4M was being finalized , and was a result of the UK 's need for an aircraft to perform the tactical reconnaissance role . For this , McDonnell offered two options :
The standard F @-@ 4M fitted with a reconnaissance pod in place of the centerline fuel tank
A modified airframe , designated as RF @-@ 4M , with the reconnaissance equipment carried internally
Although the RF @-@ 4M would have had some advantages , it was discounted as the cost would have been greater , with consequently fewer aircraft purchased , while only those that had been modified would have been able to undertake the reconnaissance mission . Ultimately , the RAF chose the standard F @-@ 4M and external pod , which allowed all of its aircraft to perform all designated roles .
= = = = F @-@ 4 ( HL ) = = = =
Another idea that McDonnell proposed was a variation of a carrier @-@ based Phantom , with the goal of improving both catapult performance and lower approach speeds . The F @-@ 4 ( HL ) would have had a longer fuselage and wingspan , with less sweep , stabilators with increased area and air intakes with auxiliary blow @-@ in doors to increase airflow at low speeds . In the event , this proposal was not taken forward .
= = Replacement = =
In the early 1970s , the RAF issued an Air Staff Requirement for the development of a new interceptor intended to replace both the Phantom and the Lightning . One initial proposal was a plan introduced by McDonnell Douglas for a variable geometry wing Phantom . This was rejected by the RAF owing to the fact that there was little apparent improvement in performance over the existing Phantom , and that it might affect the development of the " Multi @-@ Role Combat Aircraft " ( MRCA ) . Another idea that the MRCA concept , which eventually evolved into the Panavia Tornado , could be used in the interceptor role , was ruled out , as both its avionics and engines were optimised for the low level interdictor mission . The UK 's partners in the MRCA project displayed no enthusiasm for the idea of developing an air defence version of the Tornado , so the UK alone began the process , with the authorisation for what came to be known as the Tornado ADV issued in March 1976 . With the aircraft in development , the initial plan was for the Tornado to replace the remaining two squadrons of Lightnings , as well as all seven squadrons of Phantoms . However , while the Tornado was in development , the RAF looked at interim measures to replace the Phantom , which had been in service for over a decade by 1980 , and was beginning to suffer from fatigue issues ; one proposal looked at was the possibility of leasing or purchasing a quantity of F @-@ 15 Eagles to re @-@ equip 19 and 92 Squadrons , the units stationed in Germany . Further suggestions were that up to 80 F @-@ 15s be procured , to replace the Phantom and Lightning squadrons then in service , or even cancel the Tornado entirely and purchase the F @-@ 15 with UK adaptations ( specifically to be fitted with the AI.24 Foxhunter radar developed for the Tornado , and capable of carrying the Skyflash air @-@ to @-@ air missile ) . Ultimately , the F @-@ 15 option was not seriously considered , as it was felt there would not be time or cost savings over this plan against the Tornado . Subsequent to this came a decision that the Tornado , once it had entered service , would only re @-@ equip three of the Phantom squadrons , with two retained in the UK and two in Germany . Eventually , the Tornado accounted for the two FG.1 squadrons at RAF Leuchars ( 43 and 111 Squadrons ) , plus two FGR.2 units ( 23 Squadron and 29 Squadron ) , with 56 and 74 Squadrons remaining with the Phantom .
In the Royal Navy , the withdrawal of the conventional aircraft carrier was envisaged to see the end of fixed @-@ wing aviation at sea . Because of this policy , 892 Naval Air Squadron used a black capital Omega ( Ω ) letter on the tailfins of their aircraft , as it was believed they would be the final fixed @-@ wing squadron to be commissioned . However , in the 1970s the Royal Navy was developing what was known as the " Through Deck Cruiser " , a 20 @,@ 000 ton ship with a full length flight deck intended to embark a squadron of large anti @-@ submarine warfare helicopters . Almost as soon as the first ship , HMS Invincible , was ordered , an additional specification was added to the design ; as well as the helicopters , a small squadron of STOVL aircraft would form part of the air group to act as a deterrent to long range reconnaissance aircraft . To this end , a navalised version of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier was developed – over the design process , the Sea Harrier was given , in addition to its air defence role , responsibility for reconnaissance and maritime strike missions . In March 1980 , 14 months after 892 Naval Air Squadron was decommissioned and its Phantoms turned over to the RAF , 800 Naval Air Squadron was formed as the first operational Sea Harrier squadron .
= = = Aircraft replaced by and replacing the Phantom = = =
Sir Sydney Camm , the Chief Designer at Hawker for many years , once said that no British aircraft could be considered a success until it was able to match the capabilities of the Phantom . The Phantom 's versatility was such that , in the RAF and Royal Navy , it was the direct replacement in squadron service for a total of four different aircraft types , with nine separate variants amongst them . In turn , when the Phantom was replaced in service , its major roles required three separate aircraft ( see table ) :
= = Aircraft on display = =
Phantom aircraft on display that have entered service with the Royal Air Force or Royal Navy . The remaining aircraft were either lost in crashes or scrapped following withdrawal .
= = = YF @-@ 4K ( prototype ) = = =
XT596 Fleet Air Arm Museum , RNAS Yeovilton , Somerset , England .
= = = F @-@ 4K = = =
XT597 Bentwaters Airfield , Woodbridge , Suffolk , England – not on public display .
XT864 Maze @-@ Long Kesh , Lisburn , Ulster Aviation Society , Northern Ireland .
XV582 RAF Leuchars , Fife , Scotland .
XV586 RNAS Yeovilton , Somerset , England – stored not on display .
= = = F @-@ 4M = = =
XT891 RAF Coningsby , Lincolnshire , England .
XT889 Kbely Museum , Czech Republic .
XT905 Bentwaters Airfield , Woodbridge , Suffolk , England – not on public display .
XT907 Bentwaters Airfield , Woodbridge , Suffolk , England
XT914 Wattisham Airfield , Suffolk , England .
XV401 Bentwaters Airfield , Woodbridge , Suffolk , England .
XV406 Soloway Aviation Museum , Carlisle Airport , Cumbria , England .
XV408 Tangmere Military Aviation Museum , West Sussex , England .
XV411 Defence Fire Training and Development Centre , Manston Airport , Kent , England – not on public display .
XV415 RAF Boulmer , Alnwick , Northumberland , England .
XV424 Royal Air Force Museum London , England .
XV470 RAF Akrotiri , Cyprus – stored and not on public display .
XV474 Duxford Aerodrome , Cambridgeshire , England .
XV497 Bentwaters Airfield , Woodbridge , Suffolk , England .
= = = F @-@ 4J ( UK ) = = =
ZE359 American Air Museum , Duxford Aerodrome , Cambridgeshire , England . Painted in United States Navy markings .
ZE360 Defence Fire Training and Development Centre , Manston Airport , Kent , England – not on public display .
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 4M ) = =
Data from Thunder & Lightnings – Phantom History
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 57 ft 7 in ( 17 @.@ 55 m )
Wingspan : 38 ft 4 @.@ 5 in ( 11 @.@ 7 m )
Height : 16 ft 1 in ( 4 @.@ 9 m )
Empty weight : 31 @,@ 000 lb ( 14 @,@ 061 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 56 @,@ 000 lb ( 25 @,@ 402 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Spey 202 / 204 low bypass turbofans , 12 @,@ 140 lbf dry thrust ( 54 kN ) , 20 @,@ 500 lbf in afterburner ( 91 @.@ 2 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 1 @.@ 9 ( 1 @,@ 386 mph ) at 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 190 m )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 750 mi ( 2 @,@ 816 km )
Service ceiling : 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 300 m )
Armament
Air defence
4 × AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow or Skyflash in fuselage recesses plus 4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders on wing pylons ;
1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) M61 Vulcan 6 @-@ barrel Gatling cannon in SUU @-@ 23 gun pod
Strike
Up to 180 SNEB 68mm unguided rockets ;
11 × 1000lb free fall or retarded bombs
B28 / B43 / B57 tactical nuclear weapons
Avionics
Ferranti AN / AWG @-@ 12 Multi @-@ Mode Radar
Marconi ARI18228 Radar Warning Receiver
Marconi AN / ASN @-@ 39A computer
AN / ARN @-@ 91 TACAN bearing / distance navigation system
Cossor IFF
STR @-@ 70P Radio Altimeter
EMI Reconnaissance Pod containing :
2 × F.135 forward facing camera
4 × F.95 oblique facing camera
Texas Instruments RS700 Infra @-@ Red Linescan
MEL / EMI Q @-@ Band Sideways Looking Reconnaissance Radar
|
= Let 's Get Down ( Bow Wow song ) =
" Let 's Get Down " is a song by American rapper Bow Wow , released on June 24 , 2003 as the first single off his third album Unleashed ( 2003 ) . The song was written by Shad Moss , Phalon Alexander , Rahman Griffin and a then @-@ unknown T.I .. It was produced by Jazze Pha and features rapper Birdman under his alias " Baby " . It 's the first song to be released by Bow Wow without the " Lil ' " moniker in his name after making his film debut in 2002 's Like Mike and releasing his cover of " Basketball " for the film 's soundtrack . Bow Wow said that following the name change , he wanted to do the same with his music by contributing more into the songwriting process of the album and release a single that matched his new image .
" Let 's Get Down " garnered a positive reception from critics who credited Bow Wow for displaying some maturity in his music . It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 , his highest charting single on that chart until 2005 's " Like You " and " Let Me Hold You " . It also peaked at numbers 6 , 8 and 12 on the Hot Rap Songs , Rhythmic Top 40 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts respectively . A music video by Bryan Barber was made to promote the single that features Bow Wow getting his driver 's license .
= = Background and development = =
In 2002 , after finishing production on his debut film Like Mike and releasing his cover of " Basketball " for the film 's soundtrack , Bow Wow dropped the " Lil ' " moniker from his name completely . In an interview with MTV , he said he wanted to distinguish himself from the other rappers who had the word in their moniker :
" All these Lil ’ rappers , I ’ m just kind of getting real irritated by it . I said , ' You know what ? Drop the Lil ' . Forget it . I ’ m Bow Wow . ' Besides , I ’ m growing up , I ’ m not little anymore . [ I just decided ] two weeks ago . I really got irritable . It ’ s all these Lil ’ cats , forget it . I ’ m Bow Wow now . Everything is just ' Bow Wow , ' no ' Lil ' Bow Wow . ' "
" Let 's Get Down " was produced by Jazze Pha , who previously did production for other rappers like Erick Sermon and Ludacris . The song was written by Shad Moss , Phalon Alexander , Rahman Griffin and Clifford Harris ( aka then @-@ unknown T.I. ) . Donnie Kwak of Vibe described the song as a clone of Baby 's " Do That ... , " with " youthful flirting replacing sleazy come @-@ ons . " In an interview with Billboard , he commented on wanting to make an impact after changing his name and wanting to work with rapper Baby , saying that he was looking for a single that would grab people 's attention and that Baby 's inclusion almost didn 't happen but then changed his mind to work with him on the song .
In a September 2003 interview with website Whudat , T.I. talked about his contribution to Bow Wow 's third album Unleashed and the song itself :
" Yeah this time around I wrote some songs for him . Even on the single , ' Let 's Get Down ' . I wrote the third verse and the hook . Usually how we did it was [ Jazze Pha ] he 'll write one verse , Bow Wow would write one verse , his homeboy Rocka would write one , and I 'd write a verse and come up with the hook . "
In a 2009 interview with HipHopDX , Bow Wow commented on how getting T.I. to ghostwrite for him on his third album didn 't tarnish his credibility as a rapper , saying that he learned about the songwriting process by contributing about 85 percent to the album while T.I. wrote a full song and a couple verses to a few tracks .
= = Critical reception = =
" Let 's Get Down " received a positive reception from music critics . Rashaun Hall of Billboard praised Jazze Pha 's production and Bow Wow for maturing as an MC . He added that , " [ w ] hile Bow Wow 's more mature stance suits him well , it will be interesting to see how his younger fans and mainstream R & B radio react to the teenage MC 's new image . Either way , Bow Wow has proven that his act is no child 's play . " Steve ' Flash ' Juon of RapReviews was also positive towards the song saying , " Annoying bird calls aside , it is a catchy song about Bow Wow trying to catch a little punani . " In 2004 , it won an award in the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop category at the SESAC 2004 New York Music Awards , along with the second single " My Baby " .
In 2013 , Complex added the song in its list of nineteen great songs made by teenage rappers in the last 19 years . Complex editor Kyle Kramer said " Not only did he have girls trying to get at him , he was boasting of his prowess with the ladies in a PG tone and a teen 's voice , which makes a line like “ I 'll find me another one , more interesting more fun / The man has just begun ” even colder . With a T.I.-esque flow , paired with a killer , clattering faux @-@ Neptunes beat courtesy of Jazze Pha , the kid , the self @-@ proclaimed “ Mr. 106 and Park , ” was unstoppable . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Let 's Get Down " debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of July 5 , 2003 . Six weeks later , it entered the top 40 at number 30 for the week of August 16 , 2003 . It peaked at number 14 for the week of September 20 , 2003 and was present on the chart for a total of seventeen weeks . This gave Bow Wow his third top 20 hit and highest charting single on that chart until 2005 's " Like You " and " Let Me Hold You " . The song was also Birdman 's fourth top 40 hit on that chart ( his third as a featured artist ) . It peaked at number 12 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 6 on the Hot Rap Songs chart and number 8 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart . The song charted in Australia , debuting at number 50 for the week of October 27 , 2003 before leaving the next week .
= = Music video = =
Directed by Bryan Barber , the video takes place at the Atlanta DMV where Bow Wow is getting ready for his driver 's test . Birdman plays his driving instructor and gives him tasks that need to be completed . Intercut are scenes of Bow Wow attracting the attention of various women . It ends with Bow Wow getting his picture taken for his driver 's license . Jazze Pha makes a cameo appearance . The video made its premiere on June 30 , 2003 .
In an interview with MTV , Bow Wow explained how the video relates getting a driver 's license to being able to attract women : " The concept of the video is that I go to the DMV to get my license . I get in the car and Baby ’ s my instructor . We ’ re in Atlanta taking a tour [ and ] Baby is like , ‘ Bow , pull over . Tell this to shorty . ’ He tests me on my speaking game with the ladies . A normal DMV person would be testing you on your right turn , [ saying ] ‘ check your mirrors . ’ Me , I was tested on did I spit game to the girl correctly . "
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unleashed .
Recording
Recorded and mixed at PatchWerk Studios , Atlanta , GA
Personnel
Jazze Pha – producer
Josh Butler – recording engineer
Steve Fisher – recording engineer , assistant mix engineer
Cory Williams – assistant recording engineer
Leslie Brathwaite – mix engineer
Charles Pettaway – guitar
Tameka " Tiny " Cottle – background vocals
Rahman " Rocky " Griffin – vocal arrangements
= = Charts = =
|
= Battle of Savo Island =
The Battle of Savo Island , also known as the First Battle of Savo Island and , in Japanese sources , as the First Battle of the Solomon Sea ( 第一次ソロモン海戦 , Dai @-@ ichi @-@ ji Soromon Kaisen ) , and colloquially among Allied Guadalcanal veterans as The Battle of the Five Sitting Ducks , was a naval battle of the Pacific Campaign of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied naval forces . The battle took place on August 8 – 9 , 1942 and was the first major naval engagement of the Guadalcanal campaign , and the first of several naval battles in the straits later named Ironbottom Sound , near the island of Guadalcanal .
The Imperial Japanese Navy , in response to Allied amphibious landings in the eastern Solomon Islands , mobilized a task force of seven cruisers and one destroyer under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . The task forces sailed from Japanese bases in New Britain and New Ireland down New Georgia Sound ( also known as " the Slot " ) , with the intention of interrupting the Allied landings by attacking the supporting amphibious fleet and its screening force . The Allied screen consisted of eight cruisers and fifteen destroyers under British Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley VC , but only five cruisers and seven destroyers were involved in the battle . In a night action , Mikawa thoroughly surprised and routed the Allied force , sinking one Australian and three American cruisers , while suffering only light damage in return . The battle has often been cited as the worst defeat in a fair fight in the history of the United States Navy .
After the initial engagement , Mikawa , fearing Allied carrier strikes against his fleet upon daybreak , decided to withdraw under cover of night rather than attempt to locate and destroy the Allied invasion transports . The Japanese attacks prompted the remaining Allied warships and the amphibious force to withdraw earlier than planned ( prior to the unloading of all supplies ) , temporarily ceding control of the seas around Guadalcanal to the Japanese . This early withdrawal of the fleet left the Allied ground forces ( primarily United States Marines ) , which had landed on Guadalcanal and nearby islands only two days before , in a precarious situation , with limited supplies , equipment , and food to hold their beachhead .
Mikawa 's decision to withdraw under cover of night rather than attempt to destroy the Allied invasion transports was primarily founded on the high risk of Allied carrier strikes against his fleet upon daybreak . In reality , the Allied carrier fleet , similarly fearing Japanese attack , had already withdrawn beyond operational range . This missed opportunity to cripple ( rather than interrupt ) the supply of Allied forces on Guadalcanal contributed to Japan 's inability to later recapture the island . At this early critical stage of the campaign , it allowed the Allied forces to entrench and fortify themselves in sufficient strength to successfully defend the area around Henderson Field until additional Allied reinforcements arrived later in the year .
The battle was the first of five costly , large scale sea and air @-@ sea actions fought in support of the ground battles on Guadalcanal itself , as the Japanese sought to counter the American offensive in the Pacific . These sea battles took place every few days , with increasing delays on each side to regroup and refit , until the November 30 , 1942 Battle of Tassafaronga ( sometimes referred to as the Fourth Battle of Savo Island or , in Japanese sources , as the Battle of Lunga Point ( ルンガ沖夜戦 ) ) — after which the Japanese , eschewing the costly losses , attempted resupplying by submarine and barges . The final naval battle , the Battle of Rennell Island ( Japanese : レンネル島沖海戦 ) , took place months later on January 29 – 30 , 1943 by which time the Japanese were preparing to withdraw and evacuate their remaining land forces .
= = Background = =
= = = Operations at Guadalcanal = = =
On August 7 , 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. Marines ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Island in the eastern Solomon Islands . The landings were meant to deny their use to the Japanese as bases , especially the nearly completed airfield at Henderson Field that was being constructed on Guadalcanal . If Japanese air and sea forces were allowed to establish forward operating bases in the Eastern Solomons they would be in a position to threaten the supply shipping routes between the U.S. and Australia . The Allies also wanted to use the islands as launching points for a campaign to recapture the Solomons , isolate or capture the major Japanese base at Rabaul , and support the Allied New Guinea campaign , which was then building strength under General Douglas MacArthur . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The overall commander of Allied naval forces in the Guadalcanal and Tulagi operation was U.S. Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher . He also commanded the carrier task groups providing air cover . U.S. Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner commanded the amphibious fleet that delivered the 16 @,@ 000 Allied troops to Guadalcanal and Tulagi . Also under Turner was British Admiral Victor Crutchley 's screening force of eight cruisers , fifteen destroyers , and five minesweepers . This force was to protect Turner 's ships and provide gunfire support for the landings . Crutchley commanded his force of mostly American ships from his flagship , the Australian heavy cruiser HMAS Australia .
The Allied landings took the Japanese by surprise . The Allies secured Tulagi , nearby islets Gavutu and Tanambogo , and the airfield under construction on Guadalcanal by nightfall on August 8 . On August 7 and August 8 , Japanese aircraft based at Rabaul attacked the Allied amphibious forces several times , setting afire the U.S. transport ship George F. Elliott ( which sank later ) and heavily damaging the destroyer USS Jarvis . In these air attacks , the Japanese lost 36 aircraft , while the U.S. lost 19 aircraft , including 14 carrier fighter aircraft .
Concerned over the losses to his carrier fighter aircraft strength , anxious about the threat to his carriers from further Japanese air attacks , and worried about his ships ' fuel levels , Fletcher announced that he would be withdrawing his carrier task forces on the evening of August 8 .
Some historians contend that Fletcher 's fuel situation was not at all critical but that Fletcher used it to justify his withdrawal from the battle area . Fletcher 's biographer notes that Fletcher concluded that the landing was a success and that no important targets for close air support were at hand . Being concerned over the loss of 21 of his carrier fighters , he assessed that his carriers were threatened by torpedo @-@ bomber strikes , and , wanting to refuel before Japanese naval forces arrived , withdrew as he had previously forewarned Turner and Vandegrift . Turner , however , believed that Fletcher understood that he was to provide air cover until all the transports were unloaded on August 9 .
Even though the unloading was going slower than planned , Turner decided that without carrier air cover he would have to withdraw his ships from Guadalcanal . He planned to unload as much as possible during the night and depart the next day .
= = = Japanese response = = =
Unprepared for the Allied operation at Guadalcanal , the initial Japanese response included airstrikes and an attempted reinforcement . Mikawa , commander of the newly formed Japanese Eighth Fleet headquartered at Rabaul , loaded 519 naval troops on two transports and sent them towards Guadalcanal on August 7 . However , when the Japanese learned that Allied forces at Guadalcanal were stronger than originally reported , the transports were recalled .
Mikawa also assembled all the available warships in the area to attack the Allied forces at Guadalcanal . At Rabaul were the heavy cruiser Chōkai ( Mikawa 's flagship ) , the light cruisers Tenryū and Yūbari and the destroyer Yūnagi . En route from Kavieng were four heavy cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 under Rear Admiral Aritomo Goto : Aoba , Furutaka , Kako , and Kinugasa .
The Japanese Navy had trained extensively in night @-@ fighting tactics before the war , a fact of which the Allies were unaware . Mikawa hoped to engage the Allied naval forces off Guadalcanal and Tulagi on the night of August 8 and August 9 , when he could employ his night @-@ battle expertise while avoiding attacks from Allied aircraft , which could not operate effectively at night . Mikawa 's warships rendezvoused at sea near Cape St. George in the evening of August 7 and then headed east @-@ southeast .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
Mikawa decided to take his fleet north of Buka Island and then down the east coast of Bougainville . The fleet would pause east of Kieta for six hours on the morning of August 8 . ( This would avoid daytime air attacks during their final approach to Guadalcanal . ) They would then proceed along the dangerous channel known as " The Slot " , hoping that no Allied plane would sight them in the fading light . The Japanese fleet was in fact sighted in St George Channel , where their column almost ran into USS S @-@ 38 , lying in ambush . She was too close to fire torpedoes , but her captain , Lieutenant Commander H.G. Munson , radioed : " Two destroyers and three larger ships of unknown type heading one four zero true at high speed eight miles west of Cape St George " The warnings , however , were considered vague and the size of the force reported did not suggest an attack was pending .
Once at Bougainville , Mikawa spread his ships out over a wide area to mask the composition of his force and launched four floatplanes from his cruisers to scout for Allied ships in the southern Solomons .
At 10 : 20 and 11 : 10 , his ships were spotted by Royal Australian Air Force Hudson reconnaissance aircraft based at Milne Bay in New Guinea . The first Hudson misidentified them as " three cruisers , three destroyers , and two seaplane tenders " . ( Note : Some accounts state that the first Hudson 's crew identified the enemy ships correctly , but the composition of enemy forces was changed from the aircraft crews ' report by intelligence officers in Milne Bay . ) The Hudson 's crew tried to report the sighting to the Allied radio station at Fall River , New Guinea . Receiving no acknowledgment , they returned to Milne Bay at 12 : 42 to ensure that the report was received as soon as possible . The second Hudson also failed to report its sighting by radio , but completed its patrol and landed at Milne Bay at 15 : 00 . It reported sighting " two heavy cruisers , two light cruisers , and one unknown type " . For unknown reasons , these reports were not relayed to the Allied fleet off Guadalcanal until 18 : 45 and 21 : 30 , respectively , on August 8 . U.S. official historian Samuel Morison wrote in his 1949 account that the RAAF Hudson 's crew failed to report the sighting until after they had landed and even had tea . This claim made international headlines and was repeated by many subsequent historians . Later research has discredited this version of events , and in 2014 , the U.S. Navy 's Naval History and Heritage Command acknowledged in a letter to the Hudson 's radio operator , who had lobbied for decades to clear his crewmates ' name , that Morison 's criticisms were " unwarranted . "
Mikawa 's floatplanes returned by 12 : 00 and reported two groups of Allied ships , one off Guadalcanal and the other off Tulagi . He reassembled his warships and began his run towards Guadalcanal , entering the Slot near Choiseul by 16 : 00 on August 8 . Mikawa communicated the following battle plan to his warships : " On the rush @-@ in we will go from S. ( south ) of Savo Island and torpedo the enemy main force in front of Guadalcanal anchorage ; after which we will turn toward the Tulagi forward area to shell and torpedo the enemy . We will then withdraw north of Savo Island . "
Mikawa 's run down the Slot was not detected by Allied forces . Turner had requested that U.S. Admiral John S. McCain , Sr. , commander of Allied air forces for the South Pacific area , conduct extra reconnaissance missions over the Slot in the afternoon of August 8 . But , for unexplained reasons , McCain did not order the missions , nor did he tell Turner that they were not carried out . Thus , Turner mistakenly believed that the Slot was under Allied observation throughout the day .
To protect the unloading transports during the night , Crutchley divided the Allied warship forces into three groups . A " southern " group , consisting of the Australian cruisers HMAS Australia and HMAS Canberra , cruiser USS Chicago , and destroyers USS Patterson and USS Bagley , patrolled between Lunga Point and Savo Island to block the entrance between Savo Island and Cape Esperance on Guadalcanal . A " northern " group , consisting of the cruisers USS Vincennes , USS Astoria and USS Quincy , and destroyers USS Helm and USS Wilson , conducted a box @-@ shaped patrol between the Tulagi anchorage and Savo Island to defend the passage between Savo and Florida Islands . An " eastern " group consisting of the cruisers USS San Juan and HMAS Hobart and two U.S. destroyers guarded the eastern entrances to the sound between Florida and Guadalcanal Islands . Crutchley placed two radar @-@ equipped U.S. destroyers to the west of Savo Island to provide early warning for any approaching Japanese ships . The destroyer USS Ralph Talbot patrolled the northern passage and the destroyer USS Blue patrolled the southern passage , with a gap of 12 – 30 kilometres ( 8 – 20 mi ) between their uncoordinated patrol patterns . At this time , the Allies were unaware of all of the limitations of their primitive ship @-@ borne radars , such as the effectiveness of the radar could be greatly degraded by the presence of nearby landmasses . Wary of the potential threat from Japanese submarines to the transport ships , Crutchley placed his remaining seven destroyers as close @-@ in protection around the two transport anchorages .
The crews of the Allied ships were fatigued after two days of constant alert and action in supporting the landings . Also , the weather was extremely hot and humid , inducing further fatigue and , in Morison 's words , " inviting weary sailors to slackness . " In response , most of Crutchley 's warships went to " Condition II " the night of August 8 , which meant that half the crews were on duty while the other half rested , either in their bunks or near their battle stations .
In the evening , Turner called a conference on his command ship off Guadalcanal with Crutchley and Marine commander Major General Alexander A. Vandegrift to discuss the departure of Fletcher 's carriers and the resulting withdrawal schedule for the transport ships . At 20 : 55 , Crutchley left the southern group in Australia to attend the conference , leaving Captain Howard D. Bode of Chicago in charge of the southern group . Crutchley did not inform the commanders of the other cruiser groups of his absence , contributing further to the dissolution of command arrangements . Bode , awakened from sleep in his cabin , decided not to place his ship in the lead of the southern group of ships , the customary place for the senior ship , and went back to sleep . At the conference , Turner , Crutchley , and Vandegrift discussed the reports of the " seaplane tender " force reported by the Australian Hudson crew earlier that day . They decided it would not be a threat that night , because seaplane tenders did not normally engage in a surface action . Vandegrift said that he would need to inspect the transport unloading situation at Tulagi before recommending a withdrawal time for the transport ships , and he departed at midnight to conduct the inspection . Crutchley elected not to return with Australia to the southern force but instead stationed his ship just outside the Guadalcanal transport anchorage , without informing the other Allied ship commanders of his intentions or location .
As Mikawa 's force neared the Guadalcanal area , the Japanese ships launched three floatplanes for one final reconnaissance of the Allied ships , and to provide illumination by dropping flares during the upcoming battle . Although several of the Allied ships heard and / or observed one or more of these floatplanes , starting at 23 : 45 on August 8 , none of them interpreted the presence of unknown aircraft in the area as an actionable threat , and no one reported the sightings to Crutchley or Turner .
Mikawa 's force approached in a single 3 kilometre ( 2 mi ) column led by Chōkai , with Aoba , Kako , Kinugasa , Furutaka , Tenryū , Yūbari , and Yūnagi following . Sometime between 00 : 44 and 00 : 54 on August 9 , lookouts in Mikawa 's ships spotted Blue about 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) ahead of the Japanese column .
= = = Action south of Savo = = =
To avoid Blue , Mikawa changed course to pass north of Savo Island . He also ordered his ships to slow to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ) , to reduce wakes that might make his ships more visible . Four minutes later , Mikawa 's lookouts spied either Ralph Talbot about 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) away or a small schooner of unknown nationality . The Japanese ships held their course while pointing more than 50 guns at Blue , ready to open fire at the first indication that Blue had sighted them . When Blue was less than 2 kilometres ( 1 mi ) away from Mikawa 's force , she suddenly reversed course , having reached the end of her patrol track , and steamed away , apparently oblivious to the long column of large Japanese ships sailing by her . Seeing that his ships were still undetected , Mikawa turned back to a course south of Savo Island and increased speed , first to 26 knots ( 48 km / h ) , and then to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . At 01 : 25 , Mikawa released his ships to operate independently of his flagship , and at 01 : 31 , he ordered , " Every ship attack . "
At about this time , Yūnagi detached from the Japanese column and reversed direction , perhaps because she lost sight of the other Japanese ships ahead of her , or perhaps she was ordered to provide a " rear guard " for Mikawa 's force . One minute later , Japanese lookouts sighted a warship to port . This ship was the destroyer Jarvis , heavily damaged the day before and now departing Guadalcanal independently for repairs in Australia . Whether Jarvis sighted the Japanese ships is unknown , since her radios had been destroyed . Furutaka launched torpedoes at Jarvis , which all missed . The Japanese ships passed as close to Jarvis as 1 @,@ 100 meters , close enough for officers on Tenryū to look down onto the destroyer 's decks without seeing any of her crew moving about . If Jarvis was aware of the Japanese ships passing by , she did not respond in any noticeable way .
Two minutes after sighting Jarvis , the Japanese lookouts sighted the Allied destroyers and cruisers of the southern force about 12 @,@ 500 metres away , silhouetted by the glow from the burning George F. Elliott . Several minutes later , at about 01 : 38 , the Japanese cruisers began launching salvos of torpedoes at the Allied southern force ships . At this same time , lookouts on Chōkai spotted the ships of the Allied northern force at a range of 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) . Chōkai turned to face this new threat , and the rest of the Japanese column followed , while still preparing to engage the Allied southern force ships with gunfire .
Patterson 's crew was alert because the destroyer 's captain had taken seriously the earlier daytime sightings of Japanese warships and evening sightings of unknown aircraft , and told his crew to be ready for action . At 01 : 43 , Patterson spotted a ship , probably Kinugasa , 5 @,@ 000 meters dead ahead and immediately sent a warning by radio and signal lamp : " Warning ! Warning ! Strange ships entering the harbor ! " Patterson increased speed to full , and fired star shells towards the Japanese column . Her captain ordered a torpedo attack , but his order was not heard over the noise from the destroyer 's guns .
At about the same moment that Patterson sighted the Japanese ships and went into action , the Japanese floatplanes overhead , on orders from Mikawa , dropped aerial flares directly over Canberra and Chicago . Canberra responded immediately , with Captain Frank Getting ordering an increase in speed , a reversal of an initial turn to port , which kept Canberra between the Japanese and the Allied transports , and for her guns to train out and fire at any targets that could be sighted . Less than one minute later , as Canberra 's guns took aim at the Japanese , Chōkai and Furutaka opened fire on her , scoring numerous hits within a few seconds . Aoba and Kako joined in with gunfire , and within the next three minutes Canberra took up to 24 large caliber hits . Early hits killed her gunnery officer , mortally wounded Getting , and destroyed both boiler rooms , knocking out power to the entire ship before Canberra could fire any of her guns or communicate a warning to other Allied ships . The cruiser glided to a stop , on fire , with a 5- to 10 @-@ degree list to starboard , and unable to fight the fires or pump out flooded compartments because of lack of power . Since all of the Japanese ships were on the port side of Canberra , the damage to the ship 's starboard side occurred either from shells entering low on the port side and exiting below the waterline on the starboard side , or from one or two torpedo hits on the starboard side . If torpedoes did hit Canberra on the starboard side , then they may have come from a nearby Allied ship , and at this time the U.S. destroyer Bagley was the only ship on that side of the Australian cruiser and had fired torpedoes moments earlier .
The crew of Chicago , observing the illumination of their ship by air @-@ dropped flares and the sudden turn by Canberra in front of them , came alert and awakened Captain Bode from " a sound sleep " . Bode ordered his 5 in ( 127 @.@ 0 mm ) guns to fire star shells towards the Japanese column , but the shells did not function . At 01 : 47 , a torpedo , probably from Kako , hit Chicago 's bow , sending a shock wave throughout the ship that damaged the main battery director . A second torpedo hit but failed to explode , and a shell hit the cruiser 's mainmast , killing two crewmen . Chicago steamed west for 40 minutes , leaving behind the transports she was assigned to protect . The cruiser fired her secondary batteries at the trailing ships in the Japanese column and may have hit Tenryū , causing slight damage . Bode did not try to assert control over any of the other Allied ships in the southern force , of which he was still technically in command . More significantly , Bode made no attempt to warn any of the other Allied ships or personnel in the Guadalcanal area as his ship headed away from the battle area .
During this time , Patterson engaged in a gun duel with the Japanese column . Patterson received a shell hit aft , causing moderate damage and killing 10 crew members . Patterson continued to pursue and fire at the Japanese ships and may have hit Kinugasa , causing moderate damage . Patterson then lost sight of the Japanese column as it headed northeast along the eastern shore of Savo Island . Bagley , whose crew sighted the Japanese shortly after Patterson and Canberra , circled completely around to port before firing torpedoes in the general direction of the rapidly disappearing Japanese column ; one or two of which may have hit Canberra . Bagley played no further role in the battle . Yūnagi exchanged non @-@ damaging gunfire with Jarvis before exiting the battle area to the west with the intention of eventually rejoining the Japanese column north and west of Savo Island .
At 01 : 44 , as Mikawa 's ships headed towards the Allied northern force , Tenryū and Yūbari split from the rest of the Japanese column and took a more westward course . Furutaka , either because of a steering problem , or to avoid a possible collision with Canberra , followed Yūbari and Tenryū . Thus , the Allied northern force was about to be enveloped and attacked from two sides .
= = = Action north of Savo = = =
When Mikawa 's ships attacked the Allied southern force , the captains of all three U.S. northern force cruisers were asleep , with their ships steaming quietly at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . Although crewmen on all three ships observed flares or gunfire from the battle south of Savo or else received Patterson 's warning of threatening ships entering the area , it took some time for the crews to go from Condition II to full alert . At 01 : 44 , the Japanese cruisers began firing torpedoes at the northern force . At 01 : 50 , they aimed powerful searchlights at the three northern cruisers and opened fire with their guns .
Astoria 's bridge crew called general quarters upon sighting the flares south of Savo , around 01 : 49 . At 01 : 52 , shortly after the Japanese searchlights came on and shells began falling around the ship , Astoria 's main gun director crews spotted the Japanese cruisers and opened fire . Astoria 's captain , awakened to find his ship in action , rushed to the bridge and ordered a ceasefire , fearful that his ship might be firing on friendly forces . As shells continued to cascade around his ship , the captain ordered firing resumed less than a minute later . Chōkai , however , had found the range , and Astoria was quickly hit by numerous shells and set afire . Between 02 : 00 and 02 : 15 , Aoba , Kinugasa , and Kako joined Chōkai in pounding Astoria , destroying the cruiser 's engine room and bringing the flaming ship to a halt . At 02 : 16 , one of Astoria 's remaining operational main gun turrets fired at Kinugasa 's searchlight , but missed and hit Chōkai 's forward turret , putting the turret out of action and causing moderate damage to the ship .
Quincy had also seen the aircraft flares over the southern ships , received Patterson 's warning , and had just sounded general quarters and was coming alert when the searchlights from the Japanese column came on . Quincy 's captain gave the order to commence firing , but the gun crews were not ready . Within a few minutes , Quincy was caught in a crossfire between Aoba , Furutaka , and Tenryū , and was hit heavily and set afire . Quincy 's captain ordered his cruiser to charge towards the eastern Japanese column , but as she turned to do so Quincy was hit by two torpedoes from Tenryū , causing severe damage . Quincy managed to fire a few main gun salvos , one of which hit Chōkai 's chart room 6 meters ( 20 ft ) from Admiral Mikawa and killed or wounded 36 men , although Mikawa was not injured . At 02 : 10 , incoming shells killed or wounded almost all of Quincy 's bridge crew , including the captain . At 02 : 16 , the cruiser was hit by a torpedo from Aoba , and the ship 's remaining guns were silenced . Quincy 's assistant gunnery officer , sent to the bridge to ask for instructions , reported on what he found :
When I reached the bridge level , I found it a shambles of dead bodies with only three or four people still standing . In the Pilot House itself the only person standing was the signalman at the wheel who was vainly endeavoring to check the ship 's swing to starboard to bring her to port . On questioning him I found out that the Captain , who at that time was laying [ sic ] near the wheel , had instructed him to beach the ship and he was trying to head for Savo Island , distant some four miles ( 6 km ) on the port quarter . I stepped to the port side of the Pilot House , and looked out to find the island and noted that the ship was heeling rapidly to port , sinking by the bow . At that instant the Captain straightened up and fell back , apparently dead , without having uttered any sound other than a moan .
Quincy sank , bow first , at 02 : 38 .
Like Quincy and Astoria , Vincennes also sighted the aerial flares to the south , and furthermore , actually sighted gunfire from the southern engagement . At 01 : 50 , when the U.S. cruisers were illuminated by the Japanese searchlights , Vincennes hesitated to open fire , believing that the searchlight 's source might be friendly ships . Shortly thereafter , Kako opened fire on Vincennes which responded with her own gunfire at 01 : 53 . As Vincennes began to receive damaging shell hits , her commander , U.S. Captain Frederick L. Riefkohl , ordered an increase of speed to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ) , but shortly thereafter , at 01 : 55 , two torpedoes from Chōkai hit , causing heavy damage . Kinugasa now joined Kako in pounding Vincennes . Vincennes scored one hit on Kinugasa causing moderate damage to her steering engines . The rest of the Japanese ships also fired and hit Vincennes up to 74 times , and , at 02 : 03 , another torpedo hit her , this time from Yūbari . With all boiler rooms destroyed , Vincennes came to a halt , burning " everywhere " and listing to port . At 02 : 16 , Riefkohl ordered the crew to abandon ship , and Vincennes sank at 02 : 50 .
During the engagement , the U.S. destroyers Helm and Wilson struggled to see the Japanese ships . Both destroyers briefly fired at Mikawa 's cruisers but caused no damage and received no damage to themselves .
At 02 : 16 , the Japanese columns ceased fire on the northern Allied force as they moved out of range around the north side of Savo Island . Ralph Talbot encountered Furutaka , Tenryū , and Yūbari as they cleared Savo Island . The Japanese ships fixed the U.S. destroyer with searchlights and hit her several times with gunfire , causing heavy damage , but Ralph Talbot escaped into a nearby rain squall , and the Japanese ships left her behind .
= = = Mikawa 's decision = = =
At 02 : 16 Mikawa conferred with his staff about whether they should turn to continue the battle with the surviving Allied warships and try to sink the Allied transports in the two anchorages . Several factors influenced his ultimate decision . His ships were scattered and would take some time to regroup . His ships would need to reload their torpedo tubes , a labor @-@ intensive task that would take some time . Mikawa also did not know the number and locations of any remaining Allied warships and his ships had expended much of their ammunition .
More importantly , Mikawa had no air cover and believed that U.S. aircraft carriers were in the area . Mikawa was probably aware that the Japanese Navy had no more heavy cruisers in production , and thus would be unable to replace any he might lose to air attack the next day if he remained near Guadalcanal . He was unaware that the U.S. carriers had withdrawn from the battle area and would not be a threat the next day . Although several of Mikawa 's staff urged an attack on the Allied transports , the consensus was to withdraw from the battle area . Therefore , at 02 : 20 , Mikawa ordered his ships to retire .
= = Aftermath = =
At 04 : 00 on August 9 Patterson came alongside Canberra to assist the cruiser in fighting her fires . By 05 : 00 , it appeared that the fires were almost under control , but Turner , who at this time intended to withdraw all Allied ships by 06 : 30 , ordered the ship to be scuttled if she was not able to accompany the fleet . After the survivors were removed , the destroyers USS Selfridge and USS Ellet sank Canberra which took some 300 shells and five torpedoes before she succumbed .
Later in the morning of August 9 General Vandegrift advised Admiral Turner that he needed more supplies unloaded from the transports before they withdrew . Therefore , Turner postponed the withdrawal of his ships until mid @-@ afternoon . In the meantime , Astoria 's crew tried to save their sinking ship . Astoria 's fires , however , eventually became completely out of control , and the ship sank at 12 : 15 .
On the morning of August 9 , an Australian coastwatcher on Bougainville radioed a warning of a Japanese airstrike on the way from Rabaul . The Allied transport crews ceased unloading for a time but were puzzled when the airstrike did not materialize . Allied forces did not discover until after the war was over that this Japanese airstrike instead concentrated on USS Jarvis south of Guadalcanal , sinking her with all hands . The Allied transports and warships all departed the Guadalcanal area by nightfall on August 9 .
In the late evening of August 9 , Mikawa on Chōkai released the four cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 to return to their home base at Kavieng . At 08 : 10 on August 10 , Kako was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine USS S @-@ 44 110 kilometers ( 70 mi ) from her destination . The other three Japanese cruisers picked up all but 71 of her crew and went on to Kavieng .
From the time of the battle until several months later , almost all Allied supplies and reinforcements sent to Guadalcanal came by transports in small convoys , mainly during daylight hours , while Allied aircraft from the New Hebrides and Henderson Field and any available aircraft carriers flew covering missions . During this time , Allied forces on Guadalcanal received barely enough ammunition and provisions to withstand the several Japanese drives to retake the islands .
Despite their defeat in this battle , the Allies eventually won the battle for Guadalcanal , an important step in the eventual defeat of Japan . In hindsight , if Mikawa had elected to risk his ships to go after the Allied transports on the morning of August 9 , he could have improved the chances of Japanese victory in the Guadalcanal campaign at its inception , and the course of the war in the southern Pacific could have gone much differently . Although the Allied warships at Guadalcanal that night were completely routed , the transports were unaffected . Many of these same transports were used many times to bring crucial supplies and reinforcements to Allied forces on Guadalcanal over succeeding months . Mikawa 's decision not to destroy the Allied transport ships when he had the opportunity would prove to be a crucial strategic mistake for the Japanese .
A formal United States Navy board of inquiry , known as the Hepburn Investigation , prepared a report of the battle . The board interviewed most of the major Allied officers involved over several months , beginning in December 1942 . The report recommended official censure for only one officer , Captain Howard D. Bode of the Chicago , for failing to broadcast a warning to the fleet of encroaching enemy ships . The report stopped short of recommending formal action against other Allied officers , including Admirals Fletcher , Turner , McCain , and Crutchley , and Captain Riefkohl . The careers of Turner , Crutchley , and McCain do not appear to have been affected by the defeat or the mistakes they made in contributing to it . Riefkohl , however , never commanded ships again . Captain Bode , upon learning that the report was going to be especially critical of his actions , shot himself in his quarters at Balboa , Panama Canal Zone , on April 19 , 1943 , and died the next day . Crutchley was gazetted with the Legion of Merit ( Chief Commander ) in September 1944 . Admiral Yamamoto signaled a congratulatory note to Mikawa on his victory , stating , " Appreciate the courageous and hard fighting of every man of your organisation . I expect you to expand your exploits and you will make every effort to support the land forces of the Imperial army which are now engaged in a desperate struggle . " Later on , though , when it became apparent that Mikawa had missed an opportunity to destroy the Allied transports , he was intensely criticised by his comrades . Admiral Turner later assessed why his forces were so soundly defeated in the battle :
" The Navy was still obsessed with a strong feeling of technical and mental superiority over the enemy . In spite of ample evidence as to enemy capabilities , most of our officers and men despised the enemy and felt themselves sure victors in all encounters under any circumstances . The net result of all this was a fatal lethargy of mind which induced a confidence without readiness , and a routine acceptance of outworn peacetime standards of conduct . I believe that this psychological factor , as a cause of our defeat , was even more important than the element of surprise " .
Historian Richard B. Frank adds that , " This lethargy of mind would not be completely shaken off without some more hard blows to ( U.S. ) Navy pride around Guadalcanal , but after Savo , the United States picked itself up off the deck and prepared for the most savage combat in its history . "
|
= Nebula Award =
The Nebula Awards annually recognize the best works of science fiction or fantasy published in the United States during the previous year . The awards are organized and awarded by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ( SFWA ) , a nonprofit association of professional science fiction and fantasy writers . They were first given in 1966 at a ceremony created for the awards , and are given in four categories for different lengths of literary works . A fifth category for film and television episode scripts was given 1974 – 78 and 2000 – 09 . The rules governing the Nebula Awards have changed several times during the awards ' history , most recently in 2010 .
The Nebula Awards have been termed as one of " the most important of the American science fiction awards " . Winning works have been published in special collections , and winners and nominees are often noted as such on the books ' cover . SFWA numbers the awards by the year prior to the year the award is given in ; the 2012 awards were presented in San Jose , California on May 18 , 2013 .
For lists of winners and nominees for each Nebula category , see the list of categories below .
= = Award = =
The Nebula Awards are given each year by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ( SFWA ) for the best science fiction or fantasy fiction published in the United States during the previous year . The winner receives a trophy but no cash prize ; the trophy is a transparent block with an embedded glitter spiral nebula and gemstones cut to resemble planets . The trophy itself was designed for the first awards by J. A. Lawrence , based on a sketch by Kate Wilhelm , and has remained the same ever since . Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the prior calendar year . There are no written rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy , and the decision of eligibility in that regard is left up to the nominators and voters , rather than to SFWA .
Nebula Award nominees and winners are chosen by members of the SFWA , though the authors of the nominees do not need to be members . Works are nominated each year between November 15 and February 15 by published authors who are members of the organization , and the six works that receive the most nominations then form the final ballot , with additional nominees possible in the case of ties . Members may then vote on the ballot throughout March , and the final results are presented at the Nebula Awards ceremony in May . Authors are not permitted to nominate their own works , though they can decline nominations , and ties in the final vote are broken , if possible , by the number of nominations the works received .
= = History = =
The first Nebulas were given in 1966 , for works published in 1965 . The idea for such an award , funded by the sales of anthologies collecting the winning works , was proposed by SFWA secretary @-@ treasurer Lloyd Biggle , Jr. in 1965 . The idea was based on the Edgar Awards , presented by the Mystery Writers of America , and hosting a ceremony to present them at was prompted by the Edgar and Hugo Awards . The initial ceremony consisted of four literary awards , for Novels , Novellas , Novelettes , and Short Stories , which have been presented every year since . A Script award was also presented from 1974 to 1978 under the names Best Dramatic Presentation and Best Dramatic Writing and again from 2000 through 2009 as Best Script , but after 2009 it was again removed and replaced by SFWA with the Ray Bradbury Award .
Prior to 2009 , the Nebula Awards employed a rolling eligibility system . Each work was eligible to qualify for the ballot for one year following its date of publication . As a consequence of rolling eligibility , there was the possibility for works to be nominated in the calendar year after their publication and then be awarded in the calendar year after that . Works were added to a preliminary list for the year if they had ten or more nominations , which were then voted on to create the final ballot . In 1970 , the option was added for voters to select " no award " if they felt that no nominated work was worthy of winning ; this happened in 1971 in the Short Story category and in 1977 in the Script category .
Beginning in 1980 the eligibility year for nominations was set to the calendar year , rather than December – November as initially conceived , and the SFWA organizing panel was allowed to add an additional work . Authors were also allowed to use the mass @-@ market paperback publication of their books as the beginning of their nomination period , rather than the initial hardback publication . As a consequence of the combination of this rule and the rolling eligibility , the 2007 awards , despite nominally being for works published in 2006 , instead were all given to works initially published in 2005 . Beginning with the 2010 awards , the rolling eligibility system and paperback publication exemption were replaced with the current rules .
= = Categories = =
Beside the Nebulas , several other awards and honors are presented at the Nebula Awards ceremony , though not necessarily every year . Two of them are annual literary awards voted by SFWA members on the Nebula ballot : the Andre Norton Award for Outstanding Young Adult Science Fiction or Fantasy Book , inaugurated 2006 , and the Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation , which replaced the Best Script award in 2010 . The others are the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award since 1975 for " lifetime achievement in science fiction and / or fantasy " , the Author Emeritus since 1995 for contributions to the field , the Kevin O 'Donnell , Jr . Award for service to SFWA , and the Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award since 2009 for significant impact on speculative fiction . All four are discretionary but a Grand Master , selected by the officers and past presidents , has been named every year for more than a decade . The Solstice Award may be presented posthumously ( where only living writers may be named Grand Master or Author Emeritus ) ; in all , twelve have been awarded in five years to 2013 .
= = Recognition = =
The Nebula Awards have been described as one of " the most important of the American science fiction awards " and " the science @-@ fiction and fantasy equivalent " of the Emmy Awards . Along with the Hugo Award , the Nebula Award is also considered one of the premier awards in science fiction , with Laura Miller of Salon terming it " science fiction 's most prestigious award " , and Justine Larbalestier , in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction ( 2002 ) , referring to it and the Hugo Award as " the best known and most prestigious of the science fiction awards " . Brian Aldiss , in his book Trillion Year Spree : The History of Science Fiction , claimed that the Nebula Award provided " more literary judgment " while the Hugo was a barometer of reader popularity , rather than artistic merit , though he did note that the winners of the two awards often overlapped . David Langford and Peter Nicholls stated in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction ( 2012 ) that the two awards were often given to the same works , and noted that some critics felt that the Nebula selection reflected " political as much as literary ability " as it did not seem to focus as much on literary talent over popularity as expected .
Several people within the publishing industry have said that winning or being nominated for a Nebula Award has effects on the author 's career and the sales of that work . Spider Robinson in 1992 , as quoted in Science Fiction Culture ( 2000 ) , said that publishers " pay careful attention " to who wins a Nebula Award . Literary agent Richard Curtis said in his 1996 Mastering the Business of Writing that having the term Nebula Award on the cover , even as a nominee , was a " powerful inducement " to science fiction fans to buy a novel , and Gahan Wilson , in First World Fantasy Awards ( 1977 ) , claimed that noting that a book had won the Nebula Award on the cover " demonstrably " increased sales for that novel .
There have been several anthologies collecting Nebula @-@ winning short fiction . The series Nebula Winners , published yearly by SFWA and edited by a variety of SFWA members and renamed as the Nebula Awards Showcase series since 1999 , was started in 1966 as a collection of short story winners and nominees for that year . The sales of these anthologies were intended to pay for presenting the awards themselves . The anthology The Best of the Nebulas ( 1989 ) , edited by Ben Bova , collected winners of Nebula awards from 1966 through 1986 officially selected by SFWA members . The unofficial anthology Nebula Award Winning Novellas ( 1994 ) , edited by Martin H. Greenberg , contained ten stories which had won the novella award between 1970 and 1989 .
|
= Ready ( Trey Songz album ) =
Ready is the third studio album by American R & B recording artist Trey Songz . It was released on August 31 , 2009 , by Troy Taylor 's record label Songbook , distributed by Atlantic Records . The album serves as the sequel to Trey Day ( 2007 ) . Production for the album took place during from 2008 to 2009 , which contributed by Songz 's longtime collaborator and his mentor Troy Taylor , along with Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , StarGate and Los da Mystro , among others .
The album received generally positive reviews from critics , which positively compared Ready to the work of R. Kelly , but also was criticized for this album 's inconsistency . The album debuted at number 3 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album was a certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , becoming Songz 's first certified album . 4 years later , Ready was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
All five singles have achieved chart success , including the top ten Billboard Hot 100 hit " Say Aah " , and the top five Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs hits " Neighbors Know My Name " and " I Invented Sex " , the latter of which topped the chart . Songz promoted Ready in a number of live appearances , including co @-@ heading the 106 & Live tour , sponsored by 106 & Park , and serving as a support act on Jay @-@ Z 's The Blueprint 3 Tour . Ready earned Songz a Grammy Award nomination for Best Contemporary R & B Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards ; but lost to Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... Sasha Fierce .
= = Background and production = =
When Songz began recording for Ready ; the purpose of the album was to crossover and increase his exposure on radio . The album 's lead single , " I Need a Girl " was released to connect to mainstream radio . Songz said that " [ it ] was a very radio @-@ geared record which would do great and play on radio heavily during whatever time . It wasn 't a record I expected to last forever , or one I was even excited about singing , but it was a record I knew would do well . " Speaking of the following singles , Songz thought that " I Invented Sex " would be a " career @-@ defining record , and I knew ' Say Aah ' would be a monster club record . "
Speaking on his collaborations with the producers , Songz said that on Ready , " we 're breaking down every song , every hook , every chorus , every bridge , and we 're making sure every song is the best song it could be . This album isn 't just going to be a compilation of songs , but a classic body of work . " The album only contained three guest features with Drake , Gucci Mane and Soulja Boy Tell ' Em . Songz wanted to keep the amount of features very limited , and stated that " anybody else I add is going to be very special " . American rapper Fabolous was added as a guest feature on the track , titled " Say Aah " .
Songz said that compared to his previous albums , " this album is very adult , very easygoing and very sexy [ ... ] My first album was very adult @-@ like , but in a different , more soulful , sample @-@ driven kind of way , and my second one was more contemporary and trendy . " To reflect his transition into adulthood and the changes in his music , Songz changed his appearance by cutting off his trademark braids . Songz also began dressing in more sophisticated attire , trading in sneakers and T @-@ shirts for vests , tailored pants , and " tasteful " shoes . On the appearance change , Songz 's mentor , producer , and the head of Songbook Entertainment , Troy Taylor said , " Trey 's from the streets , he 's a hood kid . He wasn 't glamorous and ( didn 't have ) the finer things in life growing up , [ ... ] He didn 't want to lose his street @-@ ism , [ ... ] As he grew into it I think he began to realize , ' Wait a minute , this ain 't that bad after all , ' and then he got the ladies ' opinions . "
After Ready 's success , Songz explained that the album was a result of his growth and new @-@ found maturity . Commenting about the success of his singles , Songz stated that " they 're very strong records and they 're not just radio records . They 're records that embody the person I am as well as the artist I am . I think they 're more definitive of who I am than any other album I 've had . I 've grown as an artist . I 've been doing this for awhile [ sic ] now . As I 've matured , I 've learned how to exude that of which I want to be felt . I 've learned what my fans want from me and things of that nature . "
= = Composition = =
The album contains influences of R & B , hip @-@ hop and pop , with a bit of soul , as much of the work has been compared to vintage R. Kelly . Concerning the album 's lyrical content , Ken Capobianco of the Boston Globe said , " While many male modern R & B vocalists are moving to a more mature vibe , Trey Songz keeps the horndog @-@ with @-@ a @-@ heart tradition alive with his third album . " Sean Fennessey of The Village Voice said , that Ready , featured Songz 's " re @-@ imagining the notion of flow — if not melody — just as his hero Kelly did 15 years ago . " Andrew Rennie of Now Magazine said the production had a 1980s soundtrack vibe . According to Mark Edward Nero of About.com , " I Need A Girl " contains familiar qualities of Songz 's breakout hit " Can 't Help but Wait " , also produced by Stargate . The song is lyrically about finding and pleasing the right woman . The song has also been described to be a mix of Usher and Justin Timberlake
Melanie Bertoli of Billboard said that " Neighbors Know My Name " " employs a knocking bassline and drip @-@ drop effect to provide the ideal erotic backdrop for Songz 's dirty talk . " " Black Roses " is " set to quasi @-@ electronica production , buoyed by a soulful vocal arrangement . " Tyler Lewis of PopMatters said " Be Where You Are " was reminiscent of Jordan Knight 's " Give It to You " , and called it Songz 's purest pop song to date . " Yo Side of the Bed " , containing soul influences , has been called R & B @-@ pop rock similar to some of Beyoncé 's work on I Am ... Sasha Fierce and Brandy on Human . " LOL : - ) " is lyrically about sexting , while featuring a " ringtone @-@ ready " chorus , and heavy percussion .
= = Promotion = =
Promoting the album , a major online campaign was launched , his blog site , SeeFurtherThanIAm.com , on which Songz streams live chats and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos . He also released a track on his Twitter every Monday , some of which was from his mixtape Anticipation , which preceded the album 's release . Songz embarked on a promo tour on July 25 , 2009 , with stops in Chicago , Miami , Atlanta , Dallas and the Carolinas , where he attended radio events and listening sessions . He also toured the House of Blues in September , as well as a college tour that fall . In addition to co @-@ headlining the 106 & Live ! tour with Mario , also featuring Day26 and Sean Garrett , which toured from September 29 , 2009 to October 31 , 2009 , Songz served as a supporting act in 2010 for Jay @-@ Z 's The Blueprint 3 Tour , along with Young Jeezy .
In addition to the online and touring promotion , Songz made an appearance with his mother and younger @-@ half brother , Forrest , to perform at AMBER Ready Back @-@ to @-@ School Safety Weekend at ABC Studios in Times Square on August 16 , 2009 . He appeared on BET 's 106 & Park on August 31 , 2009 , September 1 , 2009 and September 2 , 2009 , performing a medley of " Successful " , " I Need a Girl " and " LOL : - ) " on the latter date . He performed " I Need a Girl " on September 9 , 2009 , on The Wendy Williams Show .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " I Need a Girl " was released via digital download on April 13 , 2009 , with " Brand New " as its B @-@ side . " I Need a Girl " received positive to mixed reviews , with some critics comparing it to " Can 't Help But Wait " and others noting it as generic . The song peaked at 59 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 6 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
Songz appeared as a featured artist on Drake 's single , " Successful " ; the song peaked at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was a success on other charts , while reaching at numbers 3 and 2 on the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop and Top Rap Songs charts , respectively . Although it was not released as a dual single for Songz and Drake , Songz included this track for Ready , and then sans with the other featured guest by Lil Wayne , and the addition of another by himself .
" LOL : - ) " featuring Gucci Mane and Soulja Boy Tell ' Em , was released to airplay as the album 's second single on August 24 , 2009 . The song received generally positive reviews , while peaking at number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
" I Invented Sex " featuring Drake , was released to airplay as the album 's third single on October 13 , 2009 . The song reached at number 42 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and it became Songz 's first number one hit on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The remix to " I Invented Sex " featuring fellow R & B singers Keri Hilson and Usher , was released .
The album 's fourth single , " Say Aah " featuring Fabolous , was released on January 12 , 2010 . The song became the most successful song of Songz 's career , by reaching at number 9 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Additionally it was his first song to impact pop radio , appearing on the Pop Songs chart , and his first to chart internationally , charting on the Canadian Hot 100 .
" Neighbors Know My Name " ; the album 's fifth and final single was released on February 16 , 2010 , and it received generally positive reviews , while reaching at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and number 4 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , giving Songz his third consecutive top five single and fifth top ten single from Ready .
= = = Other songs = = =
Although it did not released as a single , the music video for " Yo Side of the Bed " , in which Keri Hilson portrayed Songz 's love interest , was filmed and released .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 131 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Ready was the second @-@ highest debut of the week , only behind Whitney Houston 's comeback album , I Look To You ( 2009 ) . The album currently remains on the top half of the Billboard 200 and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums charts . On February 16 , 2010 , the album was certified gold in sales , by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , following shipments in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It is Songz 's first RIAA @-@ certified album . As of June 11 , 2014 , Ready was officially certified platinum by the RIAA .
= = = Critical response = = =
Ready received mostly positive reviews from professional critics , which received an aggregate score of 67 out of 100 . The score , indicating " generally favorable reviews " was based on six reviews from website Metacritic . It received many comparisons to the work of R & B artist R. Kelly , while several critics noted it as inconsistent . David Jeffries of Allmusic said that " Even at a whopping 17 like @-@ minded tracks , all @-@ night lovers wouldn 't be caught dead complaining about how overly long it all is " , commenting that Ready " is as entertaining and frivolous as a one @-@ night stand should be . " Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe said that Songz had developed as a vocalist stating his voice was more " elastic " and he used his falsetto " judiciously . " Capobianco commended tracks like " Be Where You Are , " and " Love Lost " , commenting that " tracks like that show that he is indeed ready for the next step . " Andrew Rennie of Now said , " slight deviations from R & B ’ s classic formula allow Trey Songz wiggle room to play with his multi @-@ octave voice . This offering sets him apart from other acts and may secure his spot in the canon of bedroom crooners . " Glenn Gamboa of Newsday said that after making his name for singing hooks on rap songs , that he " shows his smooth R & B vocals can hold the spotlight all on their own . " Rolling Stone gave the album 3 ½ out of 5 stars and wrote that Songz " takes cues from R. Kelly , slyly mocking the self @-@ parodying excesses of boudoir R & B while supplying the utilitarian goods : the sumptuous vocal harmonies and sultry beats upon which long nights beneath ceiling mirrors depend " . A writer for USA Today said the album reflects his broad appeal , and that Songz 's proves " he 's comfortable as a rogue or romantic . Even though the review pointed out that " he occasionally falls back on booty @-@ call clichés , " it did point out that " his song craft shines on the edgy " Black Roses " and regretful " Love Lost . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said , " ' Ready ' is one of the year ’ s most promising R & B albums , and a curious one at that " , commenting , " the results are bawdy but never lecherous ; sometimes all his enthusiastic bedroom talk has an air of childlike goofiness to it , as if he were thrilled to get away with boasting so freely . " Sean Fennesssy of The Village Voice called the album " one of the year 's best ... "
Despite viewing it imperfect and noting Songz had not mastered the balancing act " between being a horny boy and ladies ' man " , Mark Edward Nero of About.com said it was the best album of Songz 's career , commenting , " Trey takes a big step toward establishing himself as an A @-@ list singer . " Nero also commended consistent vocals as a plus , and complimented the eclecticity of the songs , saying no tracks are unlistenable . Tyler Lewis of PopMatters said that Songz continued his tradition of inconsistent albums , commenting that the album is best is when it departs from the R. Kelly template . Lewis recommended that the album needed to be trimmed down and included with some from his mixtape Anticipation for what could have been , " the black pop record of the year . " In his consumer guide for MSN Music , critic Robert Christgau gave to the album a dud ( ) rating , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . At the upper level it may merely be overrated , disappointing , or dull . Down below it may be contemptible " . Ajitpaul Mangat of Tiny Mix Tapes called the album often " generic " and " monotonous " noting how Songz 's work on freestyles and work ethic proves how the album could be better . Mangat did overall compliment the album , " While Ready is far from a perfect album , it seems Trey is learning how to inspirit his original works with the charm and inventiveness found in his freestyles and covers . " The album earned Songz a Grammy Award nomination for Best Contemporary R & B Album in 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
( * ) designates a co @-@ producer .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Ready adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Millwall F.C. – West Ham United F.C. rivalry =
The rivalry between Millwall and West Ham United is one of the longest @-@ standing and most bitter in English football . The two teams , then known as Millwall Athletic and Thames Ironworks , both originated in the East End of London , and were located under three miles apart . Their supporters were predominantly dockers at shipyards on either side of the River Thames . Consequently , each set of fans worked for rival firms who were competing for the same business ; this intensified the tension between the teams .
They first played against each other in the 1899 – 1900 FA Cup . In 1910 Millwall moved south of the River Thames and the teams were no longer East London neighbours . Even so , the derbies retained their passion and both sets of supporters still consider the other club their main rival . Before the First World War the teams met 60 times in just 16 years , mostly in the Southern and Western Football Leagues . The teams have usually competed in different divisions since , spending only 12 seasons in the same tier of the Football League . They have played a total of 39 times in league and cup competitions since 1916 .
The rivalry between the teams has been depicted in films that focused specifically on the animosity between the clubs ' two hooligan firms , the Inter City Firm and the Millwall Bushwackers . Violence has occurred sporadically between the fans , once resulting in the death of a Millwall supporter in 1976 . Most recently in the 2009 Upton Park riot , widespread disorder between supporters in and around West Ham 's Upton Park ground led to numerous injuries and a Millwall fan being stabbed before the match began .
In the last two games between the sides in the 2011 – 12 season , the Metropolitan Police implemented London @-@ wide operations to ensure the games were trouble @-@ free . As of the 2015 – 16 season , West Ham play in the Premier League and Millwall play in the Football League One , two tiers below .
= = History of the rivalry = =
= = = Founding of the clubs : 1885 – 98 = = =
Millwall Rovers Football Club was formed in 1885 by tinsmiths at JT Morton 's canned food factory on the Isle of Dogs in the East End of London . Ten years later , Thames Ironworks Football Club was formed by Dave Taylor , a foreman at Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company , London 's last major shipbuilding firm . Arnold Hills , the company owner , decided to form a football team to improve the morale of his workforce . The two clubs were situated under three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) apart . With each set of players and supporters working for opposing firms , competing for the same contracts , rivalries developed . The earliest meetings between the clubs were reserve games : the first ended in a 6 – 0 home win for Millwall Athletic Reserves on 14 December 1895 over a newly formed Thames Ironworks side . On 23 September 1897 , the two sides played a first @-@ team friendly match at Millwall 's Athletic Grounds , Millwall Athletic won 2 – 0 in front of a crowd of 1 @,@ 200 spectators .
= = = Sixty meetings in sixteen years : 1899 – 1915 = = =
On 9 December 1899 the two teams met for their first competitive fixture – a Fifth Round qualifying match in the FA Cup . Millwall Athletic won 2 – 1 at Thames Ironworks ' Memorial Grounds ; their goal scorers were Hugh Goldie and Bert Banks . Millwall reached the 1899 – 1900 semi @-@ final and lost 3 – 0 to Southampton , but gained the nickname The Lions from a newspaper headline heralding them as " The Lions of the South " for their cup exploits . The teams ' second competitive meeting was a Southern League match that spanned two centuries . A fixture at the Memorial Grounds on 23 December 1899 was abandoned after 69 minutes owing to smog , with Millwall leading 2 – 0 . Instead of replaying the game , the remaining 21 minutes were completed after the return fixture four months later , on 28 April 1900 . After Ironworks won 1 – 0 , the players took a short rest and played the rest of the abandoned game . With no further score , Millwall won the game 2 – 0 .
Thames Ironworks was disbanded in June 1900 owing to disputes over the running of the club . The following month it was relaunched as West Ham United . The club 's nickname is The Hammers , owing to their Ironworks origins . In the 1901 – 02 and 1902 – 03 seasons , Millwall and West Ham competed in the Southern League , London League , Western League and Southern Professional Charity Cup . The two sides met seven times in each of these seasons , the highest number of meetings in a season between the clubs . During this period Millwall were unbeaten in 12 consecutive games against West Ham , with nine wins and three draws over two years . This included a 7 – 1 win in a Southern Professional Charity Cup semi @-@ final on 2 April 1903 , the largest winning margin between the teams . Ben Hulse scored four of the goals at the Memorial Grounds . The run was finally broken on 1 September 1904 , in a 3 – 0 victory at West Ham 's first ever game at Upton Park , with two goals from Billy Bridgeman and one by Jack Flynn .
On 17 September 1906 , in a Western League game , Millwall player Alf Dean was hurled against a metal advertising board by West Ham 's Len Jarvis . Others were stretchered off following heavy tackles . The East Ham Echo reported : " From the very first kick of the ball it was seen likely to be some trouble , but the storm burst when Dean and Jarvis came into collision ( Millwall had two players sent off during the match ) . This aroused considerable excitement among the spectators . The crowds on the bank having caught the fever , free fights were plentiful . " In 1910 Millwall decided to drop Athletic from their name and move out of East London . With limited expansion space on the Isle of Dogs , the club wanted to boost support and attendances . It moved four miles to The Den , in New Cross , South London . The last East London derby between the teams was at Millwall 's North Greenwich ground on 24 September 1910 ; West Ham won 2 – 0 with goals from Danny Shea and Fred Blackburn . Four months later , Millwall travelled to Upton Park as a South London team for the first time . The game ended in a 2 – 2 draw . On 9 March 1912 , 28 @,@ 400 supporters saw West Ham 's first visit to The Den . The Lions won the game 5 – 1 , with their Welsh international striker Wally Davis scoring a hat @-@ trick .
= = = Two World Wars and joining the Football League : 1915 – 45 = = =
A number of friendlies and non @-@ competitive derbies took place during the First and Second World Wars . In total , 33 matches were played between the teams in Wartime Leagues . They both fielded severely depleted sides of juniors , reserves and non @-@ professionals , playing 14 games in the London Combination between 1915 and 1919 . West Ham won nine , Millwall three and two were drawn . After the First World War , the Football League was reintroduced in England by The Football Association and West Ham joined the Second Division for the 1919 – 20 season . Millwall joined the inaugural Third Division in the 1920 – 21 season , in the Football League expansion of 44 clubs to 66 . In 1926 a general strike was observed by workers around the Royal Docks , the majority of whom were West Ham supporters . An unsubstantiated story states that Millwall @-@ supporting shipyard workers of the Isle of Dogs refused to lend their support , provoking outrage . ( At this time , Millwall had already moved away from the Isle of Dogs and were playing in New Cross . )
Between 1919 and 1930 the clubs played each other 12 times in the London Professional Footballers Association Charity Fund , London Challenge Cup and the FA Cup . On 15 February 1930 , West Ham won the Fifth Round FA Cup game 4 – 1 at Upton Park ; Vic Watson scored two goals , and Viv Gibbins and Tommy Yews one each . Harold Wadsworth replied for the Lions . The teams met for the first time in the Football League in the 1932 – 33 season , after West Ham were relegated from the First Division . On 17 September 1932 , West Ham beat Millwall 3 – 0 at Upton Park in the Second Division , two goals being scored by George Watson and one by Jackie Morton .
On 27 December 1938 , 42 @,@ 200 spectators at Upton Park saw a Second Division game between the sides end 0 – 0 . As of 2014 , this remains the record attendance for the fixture . Between 1939 and 1946 the two clubs played non @-@ competitive fixtures in the League South ( A ) Division , South Regional League , London League , Football League South and the Football League War Cup . They played 19 games against each other during the Second World War : Millwall won 3 , West Ham 12 and 4 were drawn . The Den was severely damaged by a German bomb in 1943 , and for a brief time Millwall were invited by their neighbours Charlton Athletic , Crystal Palace and West Ham to play their games at The Valley , Selhurst Park and Upton Park . To offset the shortage of professional players during the Second World War , a guest player system was introduced . Players such as Sailor Brown , Louis Cardwell and Jimmy Jinks played for both clubs during this period . West Ham lost 2 – 1 to Chelsea at White Hart Lane in the 1944 – 45 War Time Cup semi @-@ final , with two Millwall guest @-@ players in their team – both of whom went on to play for Millwall in the South Final , which they lost to Chelsea 2 – 0 .
= = = Different leagues and hooliganism : 1946 – 87 = = =
After the Second World War Millwall 's form was poor and the club dropped into the Third and Fourth Division of the Football League . West Ham have never played below the Second Division in their history and often played a league or two above Millwall . The two sides did not play each other competitively between 13 October 1959 and 7 October 1978 , making the 1960s the only decade the teams have not met . Despite the infrequency of their meetings , both sets of supporters still consider the other club their major rival . During these years , the Hammers enjoyed considerable success , winning the FA Cup in 1964 , 1975 and 1980 . They also won the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1965 . Over four decades the sides were only in the same tier of the Football League for three seasons , in 1946 – 47 , 1947 – 48 and 1978 – 79 . They played two cup games against each other in the Southern Professional Floodlit Cup in 1959 and the Full Members Cup in 1987 .
Football hooliganism reached its height in the 1970s and 80s . West Ham 's Inter City Firm and the Millwall Bushwackers firm were at the forefront of the trouble , not just against each other , but against the police and firms associated with other football teams . In 1972 , the two clubs played each other in a testimonial match for Millwall defender Harry Cripps , who began his career at West Ham . The game was marred by intense fighting between the two club 's hooligan firms , both inside and outside the ground . Four years later , a Millwall supporter , Ian Pratt , died at New Cross railway station after falling out of a train during a fight with some West Ham fans . After the incident West Ham hooligans constructed the chant , " West Ham boys , we 've got brains , we throw Millwall under trains . " Millwall fans waited patiently for two years for revenge , until West Ham were relegated to the Second Division . Prior to their next meeting with the Hammers on 7 October 1978 , leaflets were distributed at Millwall 's home matches bearing the words : " A West Ham fan must die to avenge him . " The police responded with an unprecedented show of force for the game at Upton Park , which West Ham won 3 – 0 . Some 500 officers controlled the crowd , carrying out extensive searches and strict segregation .
The Lions ' 2 – 1 home league victory over the Hammers on 14 May 1979 ended a run of ten games without a win against their rivals , which stretched over 46 years , back to 1933 . Pop Robson had given West Ham a half @-@ time lead , but second half goals from Dave Mehmet and Nicky Chatterton gave Millwall the win . A 2 – 1 victory in the Full Members Cup on 10 November 1987 gave Millwall their first win at Upton Park in 73 years . Alan Dickens gave the Hammers the lead in the second half , but two goals in three minutes from Teddy Sheringham and Tony Cascarino assured Millwall of their first away win in the derby since 1914 . As of 2014 , it stands as the Lions last away win in the fixture .
= = = First top @-@ flight meeting and the Mothers ' Day Massacre : 1988 – 2008 = = =
In 1988 Millwall won the Second Division championship and gained promotion , joining West Ham in the First Division for the first time in the club 's history . Paul Ince scored the only goal at The Den on 3 December 1988 , as West Ham won the game 1 – 0 . They also won 3 – 0 at home on 22 April 1989 , with goals from Julian Dicks , George Parris and Alan Dickens . This is the first and only time either side has completed a Football League double over the other . At the end of the season West Ham finished 19th and were relegated . Millwall finished 10th , the highest league finish in their history . The 1988 – 89 season is the only season both teams have been in the top division of English football . Millwall were relegated from the First Division in the 1989 – 90 season , the last time they appeared in the top tier . During the foundation of the Premier League in 1992 , the two teams competed the tier below in the newly formed First Division . The last game played between the teams at The Den was on 15 November 1992 . It was the featured Sunday game on The London Match , an LWT sports show . Millwall won the game 2 – 1 , with goals from Malcolm Allen and Phil Barber . Mark Robson replied for West Ham .
In the 1993 – 94 season , Millwall moved into the first purpose @-@ built all @-@ seater stadium , after the Taylor Report on the Hillsborough disaster . The Hammers were promoted , spending ten seasons in the Premier League and it was twelve years until they played at Millwall 's new ground , The New Den . On Mothering Sunday , 24 March 2004 , Millwall beat West Ham 4 – 1 , with two goals from Tim Cahill , one from Nick Chadwick and a Christian Dailly own goal . Marlon Harewood scored the West Ham goal . This is the largest winning margin between the sides in the Football League . In an eventful game , Millwall missed one penalty and had another saved by West Ham goalkeeper Stephen Bywater , who was subsequently sent off . Violence also broke out between the opposing fans . Millwall fans and the media named the match " The Mothers ' Day Massacre " .
During an open @-@ air showing in Canada Square , London Docklands of an England game in the 2006 World Cup against Paraguay , 100 West Ham and Millwall supporters fought each other , resulting in injuries to 16 people , one of whom required hospital treatment . The police shutdown the match screen although ten minutes of the game remained to be played .
= = = Upton Park riot and West Ham move stadiums : 2009 – present = = =
In the 2009 – 10 season Millwall were drawn away to West Ham in the League Cup , which was the first meeting between the teams in the competition . The police cut the number of tickets given to travelling Millwall fans from 3 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 , sparking anger among supporters ; Millwall warned police of a higher probability of trouble . West Ham won the game 3 – 1 on 25 August 2009 , their first win over Millwall in seven games played over in 18 years . Neil Harris had given Millwall the lead , but a goal from Junior Stanislas three minutes from the final whistle forced the game into extra @-@ time . Stanislas added another and Zavon Hines a third for the win . Violence marred the match before , during and after kick @-@ off , with multiple pitch invasions by Hammers supporters . Lions fan Alan Baker was stabbed outside the ground and suffered a punctured lung , but made a full recovery . He was one of 20 people injured . The police concluded that the violence , because of its large scale , was organised beforehand . The Football Association brought misconduct charges against both clubs . A disciplinary tribunal fined West Ham £ 115 @,@ 000 for " failing to ensure that their fans did not enter the field of play and refrained from violent , threatening , obscene and provocative behaviour " , but concluded that the allegations against Millwall of " violent , racist behaviour and throwing missiles or dangerous objects on to the pitch " had not been proved .
In a poor 2010 – 11 season , West Ham manager Avram Grant guided his team to only seven wins from 37 games . On 15 May 2011 , the Hammers were finally relegated from the Premier League after a 3 – 2 defeat at Wigan Athletic . As Wigan equalised at 2 – 2 , a light aircraft flew above Wigan 's ground , the DW Stadium , trailing a banner which read " Avram Grant – Millwall Legend " . Grant was sacked after the game . The plane had been hired by Millwall supporters from the fans ' website House of Fun , celebrating Grant 's failure to prevent West Ham 's relegation . Their relegation meant they met the Lions in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship . On 17 September 2011 , their first league meeting for seven years ended in a 0 – 0 draw at The Den . The return fixture and most recent game between the two sides was on 4 February 2012 . West Ham beat Millwall 2 – 1 at Upton Park , despite having their captain Kevin Nolan sent off after only nine minutes for serious foul play . West Ham 's goal scorers were Carlton Cole and Winston Reid . Millwall 's goal was by Liam Trotter .
Fixtures between Millwall and West Ham United are currently categorised by the Metropolitan Police as category C – games which carry a high risk of disorder amongst supporters . For the 2011 – 12 season , the Metropolitan Police implemented London @-@ wide operations to ensure that the games passed by without any incident . In 2013 a member of West Ham 's hooligan Inter City Firm was jailed for 12 months for organising violence between West Ham and Millwall fans during an FA Cup match between Dagenham & Redbridge and Millwall on 7 January 2012 . He chose this game in the belief fewer police would be in attendance at a match in Dagenham , but who instead , turned out in force to prevent trouble . In November 2014 the two sides ' development squads were drawn against each other in the U21 Premier League Cup . The Metropolitan Police took preventative measures against any trouble occurring , demanding the game at Rush Green kick @-@ off at 12pm and be played behind closed doors .
Millwall and West Ham will move a mile closer and be under four miles ( 6 @.@ 23 km ) apart from the 2016 – 17 season , with the Hammers moving into the Olympic Stadium in Stratford , ending 112 years at Upton Park .
The following statistics are as of 4 February 2012 .
= = = By competition = = =
This table only includes competitive first @-@ team games , excluding all pre @-@ season games , friendlies , abandoned matches , testimonials and games played during the First and Second World Wars .
= = = Full list of results = = =
Score lists home team first .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Firsts = = =
First ever meeting : Millwall Athletic 2 – 0 Thames Ironworks ( friendly ) , 23 September 1897
First competitive meeting : Thames Ironworks 1 – 2 Millwall Athletic ( FA Cup ) , 9 December 1899
First league meeting : Thames Ironworks 0 – 2 Millwall Athletic ( Southern League ) , 23 December 1899
First football league meeting : West Ham United 3 – 0 Millwall ( Second Division ) , 17 September 1932
First away victory for Millwall : Thames Ironworks 1 – 2 Millwall Athletic ( FA Cup ) , 9 December 1899
First away victory for West Ham United : Millwall Athletic 0 – 1 Thames Ironworks ( Southern League ) , 28 April 1900
= = = Results = = =
Highest scoring game : 8 goals ( twice )
West Ham United 1 – 7 Millwall Athletic , 2 April 1903
West Ham United 6 – 2 Millwall , 22 September 1912
Largest winning margin ( Millwall ) : 6 goals
West Ham United 1 – 7 Millwall Athletic , 2 April 1903
Largest winning margin ( West Ham United ) : 4 goals ( four times )
West Ham United 4 – 0 Millwall Athletic , 9 September 1901
Millwall Athletic 1 – 5 West Ham United , 26 December 1901
West Ham United 6 – 2 Millwall , 22 September 1912
West Ham United 5 – 1 Millwall , 8 October 1928
League doubles : 1 ( 1988 – 89 season . West Ham beat Millwall home and away . )
= = = Trends = = =
Most consecutive wins ( Millwall ) : 6 , 2 April 1903 – 29 February 1904
Most consecutive wins ( West Ham United ) : 4 , 8 October 1928 – 17 September 1932
Longest undefeated run ( Millwall ) : 12 ( nine wins , three draws ) , 26 April 1902 – 1 September 1904
Longest undefeated run ( West Ham United ) : 10 ( four wins , six draws ) , 21 October 1933 – 14 May 1979
Longest undefeated run in the Football League ( Millwall ) : 7 ( three wins , four draws ) , 15 November 1992 – 17 September 2011
Longest undefeated run in the Football League ( West Ham United ) : 9 ( three wins , six draws ) , 21 October 1933 – 7 October 1978
Home form in the Football League : In 12 attempts Millwall have never won at Upton Park in the Football League . They have attained six draws and six defeats over a period of 80 years , from 1932 to 2012 . West Ham have won twice at the old Den , in 1939 and 1988 . They have never won at the new Den , in three attempts .
Most consecutive draws : 3 ( twice ) , 21 October 1933 – 27 December 1938 ; 25 January 1947 – 1 September 1947
Most consecutive games without a draw : 8 ( twice ) , 9 December 1899 – 26 December 1901 ; 26 October 1907 – 20 September 1909
Most games played against each other in a season : 7 ( twice ) , 9 September 1901 – 26 April 1902 ; 8 November 1902 – 25 April 1903
Longest period without playing each other : 18 years , 11 months , 24 days . 13 October 1959 – 7 October 1978 ( the 1960s is the only decade the teams have not met since they were formed . )
Record highest attendance : 42 @,@ 200 . 27 December 1947 , Upton Park . West Ham United 0 Millwall 0
Record lowest attendance : 200 . 24 November 1902 , North Greenwich . Millwall Athletic 2 West Ham United 1
Record goal scorer : Alf Twigg ( 10 ) , Millwall . Scored his first on 16 April 1906 and his tenth on 26 April 1909 .
= = Crossing the divide = =
= = = Managers and coaches = = =
Billy Bonds is the only manager to have managed both clubs . He was in charge of West Ham from February 1990 to August 1994 , managing the club for 227 games as the team yo @-@ yoed between the First and Second divisions . He guided them to two promotions and one relegation . He resigned in August 1994 . He was appointed as Millwall manager in May 1997 by chairman Theo Paphitis — an unpopular decision with many Lions fans due to his West Ham allegiance . Bonds , from south London , had several family members who were Millwall fans ; a fact which meant some supporters felt he should be given a chance . After a good start , the team narrowly avoided relegation , finishing 18th in the Second Division . Bonds was sacked in May 1998 , having been in charge of the side for only 53 games .
Ted Fenton managed West Ham from 1950 – 61 and was responsible for the establishment of youth development at the club , the Academy of Football . He won the 1957 – 58 Second Division championship , assuring top @-@ flight football for the Hammers for the first time since 1932 . His brother Benny Fenton started his career as a player at West Ham in 1937 , before moving to Millwall in 1939 . After he retired as a footballer , he moved into management , managing Millwall from 1966 – 74 . On 17 January 1967 he was manager of the Lions team that established an English Football League record of 59 games unbeaten at home . The record was eventually taken by Liverpool in 1981 , who went 85 games unbeaten at Anfield in all competitions .
Pat Holland , an FA Cup winner in 1975 with West Ham , served as Millwall assistant manager to Willie Donachie in 2006 . After Donachie was fired in 2007 , he continued on as chief scout until 2009 . In June 2011 former Millwall player Sam Allardyce was appointed as manager of West Ham . In June 2013 Millwall appointed former Hammers captain Steve Lomas as their new manager . Lomas joined ex @-@ West Ham defender Tim Breacker , who was Millwall 's first @-@ team coach . As a former West Ham player , Lomas ' appointment was unpopular with many Millwall fans . Lomas was sacked on 26 December 2013 , after winning only five of his 22 games in charge . In May 2014 , former Millwall and West Ham player , Teddy Sheringham was appointed as an attacking coach with West Ham .
= = = Players = = =
Players who have played for both teams . Sailor Brown , Peter Buchanan , Johnny Burke , Louis Cardwell , Jimmy Jinks and Harold Pearson also played for both sides as wartime guest players .
|
= New Jersey Route 55 =
Route 55 is a state highway in the southern part of New Jersey , United States that is built to freeway standards . Also known as Veterans Memorial Highway , it runs 40 @.@ 54 miles ( 65 @.@ 24 km ) from an intersection with Route 47 in Port Elizabeth north to an interchange with Route 42 in Gloucester County . The Route 55 freeway serves as a main road through Cumberland and Gloucester counties , serving Millville , Vineland , and Glassboro . It is used as a commuter route north to Philadelphia and , along with Route 47 , as a route from the Delaware Valley to the Jersey Shore resorts in Cape May County . Built to Interstate Highway standards , New Jersey Route 55 has a posted speed limit of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) for most of its length .
What is now Route 55 was originally proposed in the 1950s as a toll road called the Cape May Expressway that was to run from the Walt Whitman Bridge to Cape May . In 1962 , the New Jersey Expressway Authority was created to build the Cape May Expressway and the Atlantic City Expressway . However , by 1965 , the road to Cape May was turned over to the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) and designated as Route 55 , which was to run from Westville to Cape May Court House . The first portion of the route opened around Millville in 1969 while the section bypassing Vineland was completed in the 1970s . Route 55 was completed north to Deptford in 1989 .
Meanwhile , the portion between Route 47 in Port Elizabeth and the Garden State Parkway in Middle Township was canceled in 1975 due to the impact the highway would have on the surrounding environment .
= = Route description = =
= = = Cumberland and Salem counties = = =
Route 55 begins at a signalized intersection with Route 47 in the Port Elizabeth section of Maurice River Township , Cumberland County , heading to the north as a two @-@ lane undivided road through wooded areas . At the southern terminus , the road continues south as part of Route 47 . A short distance after beginning , the road widens into a four @-@ lane divided freeway and comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Schooner Landing Road . Past this interchange , Route 55 enters Millville and crosses over the Manantico Creek as it heads into built @-@ up areas . The freeway continues north to an interchange with Route 49 .
Past the Route 49 interchange , Route 55 continues through Millville , passing over County Route 552 Spur ( CR 552 Spur ) . The route passes to the east of WheatonArts , which also home to the Creative Glass Center of America , before turning northwest and crossing into Vineland , where it interchanges with CR 555 .
The freeway turns to the west past the CR 555 interchange and crosses over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before entering Millville again . At this point , the route comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with Route 47 adjacent to the Cumberland Mall . From Route 47 , the freeway enters forested areas again and makes a turn to the north , crossing back into Vineland . In Vineland , it interchanges with CR 552 near the South Jersey Health Care Regional Medical Center . This exit also serves Cumberland County College to the east .
Route 55 continues between rural areas near the Maurice River to the west and development to the east , coming to a cloverleaf interchange with Route 56 . Past this interchange , the route passes over a Winchester & Western Railroad line before crossing over CR 540 . Farther north , a modified cloverleaf interchange serves CR 674 ( Garden Road ) , which provides access to the northern part of Vineland . Past the Garden Road interchange , Route 55 continues through farmland and woodland , passing to the east of Rudys Airport . The freeway crosses Scotland Run and briefly runs through Pittsgrove Township in Salem County .
= = = Gloucester County = = =
Route 55 continues northwest into Franklin Township , Gloucester County , and reaches a cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) . Past this interchange , the freeway heads north , crossing over CR 538 . Route 55 comes to a diamond interchange with Little Mill Road before entering Clayton and turning to the west . A short distance later , Route 55 continues into Elk Township and comes to an interchange with CR 553 .
The route continues north into Glassboro , where it has an interchange with CR 641 . Past this interchange , Route 55 crosses into Harrison Township and meets US 322 and CR 536 at a cloverleaf interchange . US 322 heads east into Glassboro and serves Rowan University .
Past the US 322 interchange , the freeway continues through agricultural areas and enters Mantua Township , where it turns northeast and crosses under CR 553 Alternate . Route 55 passes under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before intersecting CR 553 again at a modified cloverleaf interchange . This interchange provides access to The Broadway Theatre of Pitman .
Past CR 553 , the route turns north again and passes near more suburban surroundings , briefly entering Washington Township before crossing into Deptford Township . In Deptford Township , Route 55 comes to a cloverleaf interchange with Route 47 . Northbound Route 47 heads toward the main campus of Rowan College at Gloucester County in Sewell . It crosses CR 534 before coming to a trumpet interchange with Deptford Center Road that provides access to CR 621 and the Deptford Mall . Past this interchange , Route 55 passes under CR 544 and CR 621 before merging onto Route 42 and coming to an end .
= = History = =
Following the completion of the Walt Whitman Bridge in the 1950s , two toll expressways were proposed to connect the bridge to Atlantic City and to Cape May . In 1962 , the New Jersey Expressway Authority Act was signed into law . This act created the New Jersey Expressway Authority , which was to manage both the Atlantic City and Cape May expressways .
While the Atlantic City Expressway was completed by the authority in 1965 , the Cape May Expressway was turned over to the state about this time . The Cape May Expressway was designated Route 55 and legislated to run from US 130 in Westville to US 9 near Cape May Court House . This proposed freeway was projected to cost $ 90 million ( equivalent to $ 676 million in 2016 ) and be completed in 1975 .
In 1969 , the first segment of Route 55 opened between Maurice River Township and the Vineland @-@ Millville border , connecting to Route 47 at both ends . In the 1970s , the planned northern terminus of Route 55 was moved to Route 42 in Deptford . The portion of Route 55 between Route 47 in Millville and US 40 in Franklin Township was completed in the mid @-@ 1970s while the portion between US 40 and Route 42 was completed in October 1989 . The Route 55 freeway has been instrumental in bringing economic development to southern New Jersey . The most common use of the highway is as a commuting route northward to Philadelphia . Following its completion , residential development in the southern part of Gloucester County has increased .
While the freeway was under construction in 1983 , it was discovered that it ran through Native American burial grounds in Deptford . This revelation led to unsuccessful lawsuits to cease construction of the route . After the lawsuits , a couple of incidents happened to construction workers , including a construction worker being run over by an asphalt truck , another being blown off a bridge by strong winds , and a van carrying five construction workers randomly erupting into flames .
Meanwhile , the portion of freeway south of Route 47 in Maurice River Township was not yet built . In 1972 , NJDOT wanted to provide adequate access to the Cape May Peninsula by extending the freeway southeast from the current terminus to the Garden State Parkway in Middle Township . NJDOT conducted an environmental study on this proposal in 1975 . The route was projected to cost $ 155 million ( equivalent to $ 682 million in 2016 ) and be finished by 1995 . Plans resurfaced for a southern extension in 1993 when a feasibility study was conducted to see if the extension of Route 55 could be built . This study , which estimated the extension would cost between $ 423 million and $ 483 million ( equivalent to $ 693 million and $ 791 million in 2016 ) , concluded that the road should not be built because it crossed too many wetlands .
The Route 55 freeway , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar @-@ powered emergency call boxes every mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; the use of the call boxes became limited due to the increasing popularity of cell phones . To save on maintenance costs , NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .
Despite the fact that the southern extension was held up for decades , it was revisited due to the disturbing images of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita in 2005 in the Gulf states . Route 55 could have been extended in order to provide a proper evacuation route for Cape May Peninsula and surrounding area . In addition , traffic jams along Route 47 during the summer also led to a possible revival of the proposal . There were efforts and studies to consider finishing the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the missing freeway .
In 2009 , State Senator Jeff Van Drew introduced a plan for an extension of Route 55 into Cape May County where the South Jersey Transportation Authority would build the road . In order to reduce the impact on the environment , the freeway would have been elevated . The extension of Route 55 would have been tolled . This effort followed two years of failed attempts for a feasibility study to relieve traffic on Route 47 .
However , all of these efforts faced considerable environmental opposition , which has been successful in blocking these plans , which were estimated to cost as much as $ 2 billion .
= = Public transportation = =
In 1975 , the Delaware River Port Authority proposed that a Port Authority Transit Corporation ( PATCO ) rail line be added along the median of Route 55 between Deptford and Glassboro ; however , plans were canceled . In the 2000s , another proposal resurfaced to add a PATCO line along the Route 55 corridor . The alternative called for park and ride lots to be constructed along the Route 55 corridor , providing access to the line . Phase I would have run to Glassboro ( Rowan University ) and Phase II would have extended down to the Millville area and service the Cumberland Mall area .
New Jersey Governor Jon S. Corzine and the Delaware River Port Authority announced a comprehensive transportation plan for South Jersey on May 12 , 2009 . This plan would introduce express bus service along the Route 55 freeway and the adjacent Route 42 freeway . It would also include a diesel light rail line between Camden and Glassboro via Woodbury over an existing railroad right @-@ of @-@ way ( as opposed to the expanded PATCO line via Route 55 ) , improvements to New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line , and enhanced connections to the Atlantic City International Airport .
= = Exit list = =
|
= Yogo sapphire =
Yogo sapphires are a variety of corundum found only in Yogo Gulch , part of the Little Belt Mountains in Judith Basin County , Montana , United States , on land once inhabited by the Piegan Blackfeet people . Yogos are typically cornflower blue , a result of trace amounts of iron and titanium . They have high uniform clarity and maintain their brilliance under artificial light . Because Yogo sapphires occur within a vertically dipping resistive igneous dike , mining efforts have been sporadic and rarely profitable . It is estimated that at least 28 million carats ( 5 @.@ 6 t or 5 @.@ 5 long tons or 6 @.@ 2 short tons ) of Yogos are still in the ground . Jewelry containing Yogos was given to First Ladies Florence Harding and Bess Truman ; in addition , many gems were sold in Europe , though promoters ' claims that Yogos are in the crown jewels of England or the engagement ring of Princess Diana are dubious . Today , several Yogo sapphires are part of the Smithsonian Institution 's gem collection .
Yogo sapphires were not initially recognized or valued . Gold was discovered at Yogo Creek in 1866 , and though " blue pebbles " were noticed alongside gold in the stream alluvium by 1878 , it was not until 1894 that the " blue pebbles " were recognized as sapphires . Sapphire mining began in 1895 after a local rancher named Jake Hoover sent a cigar box of gems he had collected to an assay office , which in turn sent them to Tiffany 's in New York , where an appraiser pronounced them " the finest precious gemstones ever found in the United States " . Hoover then purchased the original mother lode from a sheepherder , later selling it to other investors . This became the highly profitable " English Mine " , which flourished from 1899 until the 1920s . A second operation , the " American Mine " , was owned by a series of investors in the western section of the Yogo dike , but was less profitable and bought out by the syndicate that owned the English Mine . In 1984 , a third set of claims , known as the Vortex mine , opened .
The term " Yogo sapphire " is the preferred wording for gems found in the Yogo Gulch , whereas " Montana sapphire " generally refers to gems found in other Montana locations . More gem @-@ quality sapphires are produced in Montana than anywhere else in North America . Sapphires were first discovered in Montana in 1865 , in alluvium along the Missouri River . Finds in other locations in the western half of the state occurred in 1889 , 1892 , and 1894 . The Rock Creek location , near Phillipsburg , is the most productive site in Montana , and its gems inspired the name of the nearby Sapphire Mountains . In 1969 , the sapphire was co @-@ designated along with the agate as Montana 's state gemstones .
In the early 1980s , Intergem Limited , which controlled most of the Yogo sapphire mining at the time , rocked the gem world by marketing Yogos as the world 's only guaranteed " untreated " sapphire , exposing a practice of the time wherein 95 percent of all the world 's sapphires were heat @-@ treated to enhance their natural color . Although Intergem went out of business , the gems it mined appeared on the market through the 1990s because the company had paid its salesmen in sapphires during its financial demise . Citibank had obtained a large stock of Yogos as a result of Intergem 's collapse , and after keeping them in a vault for nearly a decade , sold its collection in 1994 to a Montana jeweler . Mining activity today is largely confined to hobby miners in the area ; the major mines are currently inactive .
= = Location = =
Yogo sapphires are mined in Montana at Yogo Gulch ( 46 ° 50 ′ 45 ″ N 110 ° 18 ′ 38 ″ W ) , which is in Judith Basin County , Montana , 12 miles ( 19 km ) southwest of Utica , 45 miles ( 72 km ) west @-@ southwest of Lewistown , and east of Great Falls . The site was in Fergus County when Yogo sapphires were discovered , but in 1920 , because of the re @-@ designation of county boundaries , Judith Basin County was carved out from parts of western Fergus County and eastern Cascade County .
Yogo Gulch and the corresponding natural features of Yogo Peak ( 8 @,@ 625 feet ( 2 @,@ 629 m ) ) , Yogo Creek , and the Yogo dike , where the gems are mined , are all in the Little Belt Mountains within Judith Basin County . The Gulch is located along the lower reaches of Yogo Creek and west of the Judith River . The west end of the Yogo dike outcrops just southwest of Yogo Creek , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) north of Yogo Creek 's confluence with the Middle Fork of the Judith River ; from there it runs east @-@ northeast and ends about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) from the Judith River . Yogo Creek starts just south of Yogo Peak , which is about 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of the Judith River . From there the creek flows southeast into the Middle Fork of the Judith River . The Judith River then flows northeast from the Little Belts toward Utica . East of the Judith River is Pig @-@ Eye Basin , where Jake Hoover , credited as the person who discovered Yogo sapphires , owned a ranch .
= = = Etymology = = =
Because Yogo Gulch lies in a region historically inhabited by the Piegan Blackfeet people , promoters of Yogo sapphires claim that yogo may mean " romance " or " blue sky " in the Blackfoot language , although there is little evidence to support this claim . Other meanings for yogo have been suggested , including " Going over the hill " . The meaning of the word " Yogo " had been lost by 1878 , when placer gold was found in Yogo Creek . Thus , its true meaning is uncertain .
= = Mineralogy and geology = =
Sapphires are a color variety of corundum , a crystalline form of aluminium oxide ( Al
2O
3 ) . Corundum is one of the hardest minerals , rating 9 on the Mohs scale . Corundum gems of most colors are called sapphires , except for red ones , which are called rubies . The term " Yogo sapphire " refers only to sapphires from the Yogo Gulch . The cornflower blue color of the Yogo results from trace amounts of iron and titanium . Yogo sapphires are unique in that they are free of cavities and inclusions , have high uniform clarity , lack color zoning , and do not need heat treating because their cornflower blue coloring is uniform and deep . Unlike Asian sapphires , they maintain their brilliance in artificial light . Yogos present an advantage to gemcutters : since they are found as primary constituent minerals within an igneous bedrock rather than in sedimentary alluvial deposits where most other sapphires are located , they retain a perfect or near perfect crystalline shape , making cutting much easier , as does their lack of inclusions , color zoning , or cloudiness . Yogos also exhibit a triangular pattern on the basal plane of the flattened crystals , with thin rhombohedral crystal faces , a feature absent in sapphires from other parts of Montana .
Yogos tend to be beautiful , small , and very expensive . The United States Geological Survey and many gem experts have stated that Yogos are " among the world 's finest sapphires . " The roughs tend to be small and flat , so cut Yogo gems heavier than 2 carats ( 0 @.@ 40 g ) are rare . Only about 10 percent of cut pieces are over 1 carat ( 0 @.@ 20 g ) . The largest recorded Yogo rough , found in 1910 , weighed 19 carats ( 3 @.@ 8 g ) and was cut into an 8 @-@ carat ( 1 @.@ 6 g ) gem . The largest cut Yogo is 10 @.@ 2 @-@ carat ( 2 @.@ 04 g ) . Because of the rarity of large rough Yogo sapphires , Yogo gem prices begin rising sharply when they are over 0 @.@ 5 carats ( 0 @.@ 10 g ) , and skyrocket when they are over 1 carat ( 0 @.@ 20 g ) .
Montana sapphires in general come in a variety of colors , but Yogos are almost always blue . About two percent of Yogos are purple , due to trace amounts of chromium . A very small number of rubies have been found at Yogo Gulch .
Yogo sapphires were first discovered in alluvial streambed sediments during gold mining operations in Yogo Gulch downstream from the Yogo dike , but were later traced to their source within igneous bedrock . Worldwide , other than the Yogo Gulch deposit and one small site in the Kashmir region , most other corundum is mined from the sand and gravel created by the weathering of metamorphic rock . Alluvial sapphires are found in the Far East , Australia , and in three other Montana locations — the upper Missouri River , Rock Creek , and Dry Cottonwood Creek . The location of most Yogo sapphires within igneous rock rather than from alluvial placer deposits requires difficult hard rock mining . Coupled with American labor costs , this makes their extraction fairly expensive . At least 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 5 @,@ 600 kg ) are estimated to still be in the ground . The Yogo dike is " the only known igneous rock from which sapphire is mined " .
The sapphire bearing Yogo dike is a dark gray to green intrusive rock known as a lamprophyre . The lamprophyre is an unusual igneous rock that contains a low content of silica . The rock has a porphyritic texture with large crystals of orthopyroxene and phlogopite set in a fine grained matrix . The phlogopite crystals have been used to determine the age of the dike and its crystallization temperature ( 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) ) . The dike also contains fragments of other rock types . These xenoliths include pieces of limestone , clastic sedimentary rocks , and gneiss . In some locations , due to the abundance of xenoliths , the dike has the appearance of a limestone breccia in an igneous matrix . One gneiss fragment found as a xenolith contains corundum . The Yogo sapphires themselves are rimmed with a reaction layer of spinel and are etched , indicating that the sapphires were not in chemical equilibrium with their host , the lamprophyre magma . This suggests the sapphire crystals may have originated in an earlier rock , such as a corundum @-@ bearing gneiss , later assimilated by the lamprophyre magma at depth . Earlier investigators had assumed that the sapphire had crystallized from the magma with the necessary high aluminium content provided by assimilation of clay rich shales of the Proterozoic Belt Supergroup sediments which are known to be present at depth in the region .
The Yogo dike is a narrow subvertical sheet @-@ like igneous body . It varies from 2 to 26 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 7 @.@ 92 m ) thick and extends for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , striking at an azimuth of 255 ° . The dike is broken into three offset en echelon segments , and dates to 48 @.@ 6 mya using Ar dating on phlogopite . The dike intrudes Mississippian age ( 360 to 325 mya ) limestone and other sedimentary rocks of the Madison and Big Snowy Groups .
There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains . In the late 1970s and early 1980s , Delmer L. Brown , a geological engineer and gemologist , conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time , concluding that the dike was at least 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit . Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre @-@ existing fault that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation . The overlying shale , the Kibbey Formation , was deposited on an unconformity , an ancient Mississippian @-@ age karst erosion surface , and was not intruded by the dike . This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones . Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock . He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal .
Brown also showed that the unique characteristics of the Yogo sapphires are related to their geological history . Most sapphires are formed under low pressure and temperature over geologically short periods of time , and this is why most non @-@ Yogo sapphires have imperfections and inconsistent coloring . Yogos show crystalline formation under very high temperatures and pressures corresponding to a great depth , over geologically long periods of time . Brown also showed that distribution of gem rough through the dike was not consistent , so using an average " ounces per ton " was misleading . For example , the section which , despite several ownership and name changes over the years , is generally known as the " American Mine , " was developed in an area dominated by post @-@ dike breccia with significantly lower ounces per ton than the English Mine .
= = Montana sapphires = =
" Yogo sapphire " is the preferred term for gems found in the Yogo Gulch , whereas " Montana sapphire " generally refers to gems found in other Montana locations . More gem @-@ quality sapphires are produced in Montana than anywhere else in North America . Montana sapphires come in a variety of colors , though rubies are rare .
The first sapphires found in the United States were discovered on May 5 , 1865 , along the Missouri River , about 14 miles ( 23 km ) east of Helena , in Lewis and Clark County , by Ed " Sapphire " Collins . Collins sent the sapphires to Tiffany 's in New York City , and to Amsterdam for evaluation ; however , those sapphires were of poor coloring and low overall quality , garnering little notice and giving Montana sapphires a poor reputation . Corundum was also found at Dry Cottonwood Creek near Butte in 1889 , Rock Creek near Philipsburg in 1892 , and Quartz Gulch near Bozeman in 1894 . By 1890 , the English @-@ owned Sapphire and Ruby Mining Company had bought several thousand acres of land where Montana sapphires were found , but the venture failed after a few years because of fraudulent practices by the owners .
Sapphires from these three sites are routinely heat @-@ treated to enhance color . While millions of carats of sapphires have been mined from the Missouri River deposits , there has been little commercial activity there since the 1990s because of the high cost of recovery and environmental concerns . Production at Dry Cottonwood Creek has been sporadic and low @-@ yielding . The Rock Creek area , also known as Gem Mountain , continues to be the most productive site in Montana , even more so than Yogo Gulch , producing over 190 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carats ( 38 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 g ) of sapphires since its inception in 1906 . Other than Yogo , Montana sapphire mines have been less successful because they have few blue sapphires and non @-@ blue sapphires have low profit margins .
These gems inspired the names of features : the mountains near Rock Creek are known as the Sapphire Mountains . Garnets are also found at some Montana sapphire sites , inspiring the name of the Garnet Range , which lies to the north of the Sapphire Mountains . In 1969 , the sapphire and agate were jointly declared Montana 's two official state gemstones .
= = History = =
Mining of Yogo sapphires was exceptionally difficult and remains sporadic today . Even so , Yogo sapphire mining turned out to be more valuable than several gold strikes . The Yogo area also produced small amounts of silver , copper , and iron .
Yogo Gulch lies in a region originally inhabited by the Piegan Blackfeet people . Gold was first discovered at Yogo Creek in 1866 , but the small numbers of early prospectors were driven off by local Native Americans . During a Gold Rush in 1878 , about a thousand miners came to Yogo Creek , which was one of the gold @-@ bearing streams in Montana not yet actively mined . " Blue pebbles " were noted along with small quantities of gold . The mining camp at Yogo City only flourished for roughly three years , and eventually the population dwindled to only a few people .
Yogo City was briefly known as Hoover City , after Jake Hoover . Hoover was part of a partnership that had been placer mining for gold and is credited as the discoverer of Yogo Sapphires . For several years , he also owned a ranch in nearby Pig @-@ Eye Basin . He later prospected for gold in Alaska and was a deep @-@ sea fishing guide in Seattle before eventually returning to the Judith Basin . Western painter C.M. Russell arrived in the area in 1880 as a young cowhand and was hired by Hoover . Russell stated that he learned most of his frontier skills from Hoover , and the two men remained lifelong friends . Millie Ringold , a former slave born in 1845 , settled in Fort Benton , Montana after having worked as a nurse and servant for an army general . When gold was discovered at Yogo Creek , Ringold sold her boarding house in Fort Benton and left for the Yogo gold fields , setting up a hotel , restaurant , and saloon in Yogo City where she sang and played music . Ringold later cooked for the English mine , but also worked her own gold claims , even after gold mining was on the decline . She was known as a superb cook and ultimately died in Yogo City in 1906 , the last resident of the community . The nearby town of Utica was featured in Russell 's 1907 painting A Quiet Day In Utica , which was originally known as Tinning a Dog . Hoover , Ringold , store owner Charles Lehman , and Russell himself are all depicted in the painting , placed between the hitching post and door of the general store .
= = = Discovery = = =
In 1894 , the " blue pebbles " were recognized as sapphires . One story credits a local school teacher for recognizing the blue pebbles as sapphires . A variation is that the teacher lived in Maine , but was a friend of a local miner , who had mailed her a small box with some gold and a few " blue pebbles " in it . Another story credits a miner named S.S. Hobson for surmising that the blue stones might be sapphires , and his guess was confirmed by a jeweler in Helena . Ultimately , in 1895 , Jake Hoover sent a cigar box containing those he had collected while mining gold to an assay office , which in turn sent them via regular , uninsured mail to Tiffany 's in New York City for appraisal by Dr. George Frederick Kunz , the leading American gemologist of the time . Impressed by their quality and color , Kunz pronounced them " the finest precious gemstones ever found in the United States " . Tiffany 's sent Hoover a check for $ 3 @,@ 750 ( approximately $ 106 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) , along with a letter that described the blue pebbles as " sapphires of unusual quality " .
= = = Early mining = = =
Yogos were ultimately traced from the alluvium to their source . In February 1896 , a sheepherder named Jim Ettien found the sapphire mother lode : the Yogo dike . Ettien was prospecting for gold , and found sapphires after washing gravel he found in a fissure within a limestone outcrop . Ettien staked two claims . The vein turned out to be 5 miles ( 8 km ) long and several other miners promptly staked claims along it . Ettien sold his claims to Hoover ; Hoover in turn sold his interest in eight original mining stakes , known as the " New Mine Sapphire Syndicate " , to his two partners for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 140 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . This site was 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Yogo City . In 1899 , Johnson , Walker and Tolhurst , Ltd. of London purchased the New Mine Sapphire Syndicate for $ 100 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 2 @.@ 8 million as of 2016 ) . At that point , the operation became unofficially known as the " English Mine " .
On July 4 , 1896 , two other Americans , John Burke and Pat Sweeney , staked six mining claims on the western portion of the Yogo dike — areas Hoover had deemed unfit for mining . These claims were collectively known as the " Fourth of July Claim " , and became known as the " American Mine " . In 1904 , the mine was bought by the American Gem Syndicate , and it sold in 1907 to the American Sapphire Company .
One of the Englishmen who came to the area was Charles Gadsden of Berkhamsted , Hertfordshire . By 1902 , Gadsden was promoted to resident supervisor of the English Mine , and he quickly turned its focus from gold to sapphires . Gadsden 's security measures were very tight , as weight @-@ for @-@ weight , rough sapphires were and continue to be worth much more than gold . The English Mine flourished until the 1920s , but floods on July 26 , 1923 , so severely damaged the mines that they never fully recovered . Between the aftermath of flooding and hard economic times , the English Mine finally failed in 1929 . It had recovered more than 16 million carats ( 3 @.@ 2 t ) of rough sapphires that produced 2 @.@ 5 million carats ( 500 kg ) of finished gems valued at $ 25 million in 1929 dollars ( approximately $ 340 million as of 2016 ) . A series of other firms mined sapphires there , but with marginal success . For much of the 1930s and 1940s Gadsden worked the mine alone and used his own money to pay its property taxes . He remained caretaker of the mines until shortly before his death on March 11 , 1954 .
The American Mine operations were less profitable than those of the English Mine . While the English Mine used superior mining and management techniques on a richer lode , the American Mine suffered from insufficient space and lack of water for ore weathering . Roughs from the English Mine were shipped to London and sold in Europe , often with claims they were sapphires from the Far East , while the American Mine had difficulty marketing its gems within the United States . The American Sapphire Company , which used local gemcutters from Great Falls , went bankrupt in 1909 ; a new firm , the Yogo American Sapphire Company , bought the American Mine , but was bankrupt by 1913 . Gadsden and his wife had convinced the New Mine Sapphire Syndicate to buy out the Yogo American Sapphire Company in 1914 , and in doing so , the English syndicate gained control of all known Yogo deposits . They quickly recouped the purchase price by washing the tailings left behind by previous operators of the American Mine .
= = = 1940s – 1970s = = =
Montana sapphires were heavily mined during World War II for industrial abrasive and cutting purposes . However , because the Yogo mines were still owned by the English , the United States government could not control those operations , so the mines were little affected by the war , even though industrial sapphires were critical to the war effort . The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation of Billings , Montana , was the next company to try to run the English Mine . They made an initial offer in 1946 , and reached a deal by 1949 . However , the purchase was not complete until 1956 because of legal issues . The sale was finally completed for $ 65 @,@ 000 cash and some stock considerations because the company 's capital was exhausted , similar to previous Yogo ventures . The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation then changed its name to be the same as the former English firm 's name : New Mine Sapphire Syndicate . It became informally known as the " American Syndicate " to distinguish it from the previous " English Syndicate " . Production was poor and mining ceased in September 1959 . From 1959 to 1963 , the mine itself was left unattended and unsecured , resulting in hobbyists , picnickers , and rockhounds ' coming from all over the US and Canada to gather loose rough sapphires . The American Syndicate took action to stop this in 1963 , with fences and threats of prosecution . The American Syndicate then tried leasing the mine to several operators . One of these was Siskon , Inc. of Nevada , which lost a significant amount of money . They sued , and in May 1965 the Montana Supreme Court ruled in Siskon 's favor . Siskon bought the mine at a sheriff 's sale and in turn leased it to a group headed by Arnold Baron , who had a background in gemcutting and jewelry . Baron organized German and Thai gemcutters and had success in marketing Yogos in America — the first such success in 50 years . However , owing to the difficulty in mining the hard rock site , he did not exercise his option to buy the mine , and Siskon sold it in August 1968 to Herman Yaras of Oxnard , California , for $ 585 @,@ 000 .
In 1969 , Yaras ' Sapphire Village , Inc. created the Sapphire Village , a nearby homesite development offering buyers limited mining rights to gather their own sapphires with hand tools . Having done no significant mining or marketing , Sapphire Village , Inc. sold in 1973 to one of its investors , Chikara Kunisaki , a celery farmer from Oxnard , California . Kunisaki renamed the business Sapphire International Corporation and attempted to create a commercial mining operation . He built a modern 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) tunnel at the site of the old American Mine , named the " Kunisaki Tunnel " . But operation costs were so high that Sapphire International Corporation shut down in late 1976 . This was the last actual attempt to mine the American Mine section of the Yogo dike , and today , only the locked portal to the tunnel still exists .
In January 1977 , Victor di Suvero and his firm Sapphire @-@ Yogo Mines became the next owner to tackle the Yogo dike . Di Suvero was a native @-@ born Italian who grew up in Tientsin , China , and had been successful with a jade mine in California . Di Suvero 's expertise was in marketing : he formed a company called Sapphire Trading to cut and market the Yogos . He had novel marketing ideas but was not knowledgeable about the mining side of the business . Unable to make payments , his venture folded in late 1979 .
By 1980 , only four American owners had been successful at Yogo Gulch , all early in its mining history . The English syndicate had been the most profitable of any venture , and even that venture was short @-@ lived . At least thirteen American @-@ owned Yogo mining efforts had failed . Besides inherent difficulties with financing and the challenges of hard rock mining , the American owners generally did not understand how to effectively market the gems .
= = = 1980s and beyond = = =
Kunisaki put his mine up for sale , asking $ 6 million to recoup his expenses . Even though mine profits had been poor over the decades , prices of precious gems were very high at the time due to the worldwide oil crises of the 1970s and early 1980s . Four individuals or groups seriously considered Kunisaki 's offer . Relying heavily upon Delmer Brown 's expertise , Harry C. Bullock and J. R. Edington formed the limited partnership American Yogo Sapphire Limited , becoming the 14th American company to work the Yogo dike . Bullock and Brown had Yogo mine experience , as they had worked with di Suvero . Bullock 's plan included mining , cutting , making jewelry , and marketing — the whole spectrum of the business . They paid the $ 6 million asked by Kunisaki and then raised another $ 7 @.@ 2 million in funding by October 1981 . Brown located quality gemcutters in Thailand , and set up the American Yogo Sapphire Company there . Brown also set up a thorough , computerized security system that tracked gems from the mine to the gemcutters . Bigger roughs were sent to American cutters , specialty cuts were done in Germany , a few cuts were done in Hong Kong , and the vast majority were done in Thailand . American Yogo Sapphire Limited secured a $ 5 million line of credit with Citibank . Desiring a more modern name , American Yogo Sapphire Limited changed its name to Intergem Limited in early 1982 . Intergem marketed the Yogo as the " Royal American Sapphire . " Their first line of jewelry appeared in mid @-@ 1982 , first marketed regionally in the American west and later at the national level . Intergem also developed a system of authorized dealers , and found success in its first four years , with sales over $ 3 million in 1984 alone .
Intergem rocked the gem trade by marketing the Yogo as the world 's only guaranteed untreated sapphire . By 1982 , the practice of routinely heat treating gems had become a major issue in the industry . At the time , 95 percent of all the world 's sapphires were being heated to enhance their natural color . Thai traders had even purchased large quantities of naturally colorless Sri Lankan sapphires , known as geuda , and heated them to an artificial blue . A problem with the practice was that heated gems often fade over time , though trained gemologists can detect a heated gem with 95 percent accuracy . Intergem 's marketing of guaranteed untreated Yogos set them against many in the gem industry . In 1985 there was a movement in Pennsylvania to require disclosure that a gem had been treated . Intergem 's strategy resulted in large numbers of gem professionals visiting Yogo Gulch .
Intergem began planning to dig even deeper into the Yogo dike , which held more known reserves than all the world 's other known sapphire deposits combined , albeit deep underground rather than near the surface in the manner of the other known deposits . They also set up a washing plant and maintenance sheds at the site of the former American mine . Intergem had made a $ 1 @.@ 5 million down payment and agreed to make semi @-@ annual payments to Kunisaki 's Sapphire International Corporation , which had been renamed to Roncor . Intergem also had loan and interest payments on the $ 7 @.@ 2 million loan to make to Citibank . While the company 's sales were steadily increasing , their profits were still too low and in May 1985 they missed a $ 250 @,@ 000 payment to Roncor . Simultaneously , their collateral of gems , held by Citibank , declined because the value of their collateral was declining ; as a result , Citibank called in its loan . Intergem had over $ 1 million in sales lined up for the 1985 Christmas season , but could only fill a tiny portion because they did not have enough operating capital to manufacture the Yogo jewelry . In mid @-@ 1986 , Roncor regained full ownership even though Intergem had sold loose gems and jewelry worth millions of dollars .
Various companies attempted to lease the mine from Roncor , but in the meantime , two local couples , Lanny and Joy Perry and Chuck and Marie Ridgeway , discovered a new site at Yogo Gulch in January 1984 by following a trail to an unused section of the dike that had previously been deemed unsuitable . They began mining the site and named it the " Vortex Mine " , forming a company named Vortex Mining . The mine shaft was 280 feet ( 85 m ) deep and contained two Yogo ore @-@ bearing veins . The portion of the dike they had mined was an extension of the main dike . The Vortex Mine , renamed Yogo Creek Mining , was successful for years but eventually declined and closed in 2004 .
In 1992 , Roncor found an 11 @-@ carat ( 2 @.@ 2 g ) rough . AMAX Exploration , operating as the Yogo Sapphire Project , signed a 22 @-@ month lease with Roncor in March 1993 and had some success in the middle and eastern portions of the dike ; it decided not to continue after the end of its lease due to the cost of underground mining , depletion of easily accessible Yogos , and the relatively small size of Yogos then easily accessible . During this time , additional dikes were found in the area using geophysical magnetometer surveys . Low @-@ grade sapphire rough was found in the Eastern Flats Dike , a parallel dike some 500 feet northeast of the main dike . Pacific Cascade Sapphires , a Canadian company , had a mining lease with Roncor in 2000 and 2001 but ran out of funds and their option expired . By this time , most of the easily accessible Yogos had been mined and miners had to dig deeper , further increasing costs .
In 1995 , Intergem 's stock of gems began to reappear on the market because the company had paid its salesmen in sapphires during its financial demise . After Intergem collapsed , many of its salesmen continued to sell Yogos , especially after AMAX ceased operations . Citibank also had obtained a large stock of Yogos , reputedly worth $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( approximately $ 7 @,@ 700 @,@ 600 as of 2016 ) , as a result of Intergem 's collapse : 200 @,@ 000 carats ( 40 @,@ 000 g ) of rough , 22 @,@ 000 carats ( 4 @,@ 400 g ) of cut gems , and 2 @,@ 000 pieces of jewelry , all of which sat in the bank 's vaults until 1991 when Sofus Michelsen , director of the Center for Gemstone Evaluation and creator of the Michelsen Gemstone Index , became interested . In 1992 , he and Jim Adair , a Missoula , Montana , jeweler who is the world 's largest retailer of Yogos , got together , and by October 1994 Adair had purchased Citibank 's four sealed bags of Yogo material . However , only one of the bags was truly valuable . Adair and Michelsen designed custom cutting techniques for Yogos .
A new owner , Michael Duane Roberts , bought the Vortex Mine in 2008 . Its operations were designed to be environmentally friendly , using methods such as recycling all water and not using other chemicals . Roberts died in a mining accident in 2012 . As of 2011 , there was also mining activity by individual hobby miners on small parcels at Sapphire Village , but the Roncor mines remained inactive .
= = Notable specimens = =
Several Yogo sapphires are kept at the Smithsonian Institution . The earliest donations were noted in the museum 's annual report on June 30 , 1899 , when the institution reported that Dr. L. T. Chamberlain gave them two cut Yogos and 21 other sapphires for their Dr. Isaac Lea gem and mineral collection . The record @-@ setting 10 @.@ 2 @-@ carat ( 2 @.@ 04 g ) cut Yogo is also held by the Smithsonian . In 2006 , gemologist Robert Kane of Fine Gems International in Helena , which has the world 's largest selection of Montana sapphires , donated 333 Montana sapphires , weighing a total of 27 @.@ 07 carats ( 5 @.@ 414 g ) , to the Smithsonian 's Gem and Mineral Collection , along with 98 @.@ 48 grams of 18K yellow gold for the creation of a piece of jewelry . A representative of the Smithsonian asked Paula Crevoshay , a jewelry designer from Albuquerque , New Mexico , to create a piece of finished jewelry from these gems . Crevoshay felt that a butterfly motif would best represent America 's natural beauty , honor her mother 's love of butterflies , and display the wide range of colors found in Montana sapphires . Crevoshay named the brooch " Conchita " in honor of her mother ; it is also referred to as the " Sapphire Butterfly Brooch " , " Conchita Sapphire Butterfly " , and the " Montana Butterfly Brooch " . Two of the sapphires used are cabochon cut and the rest are brilliant cut . The majority are from the Rock Creek deposit . The largest one , however , is a blue Yogo used for the butterfly 's head . Other sapphires used included yellow , purple , pink , and orange gems . Crevoshay completed the brooch in 2007 ; she and Kane presented the finished brooch to Smithsonian curator Jeffrey Post on May 7 , 2007 , in Washington , DC .
In the earliest years of Yogo sapphire mining , before Yogos achieved their own reputation , Oriental sapphires were sold in Montana with claims they were Yogos , while in Europe , Yogos were sold as Oriental sapphires . However , Yogos became notable in their own right . Paulding Farnham ( 1859 – 1927 ) used Yogos in several jewelry pieces he designed for the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris , where Yogo sapphires received a silver medal among all gems for color and clarity . An entry of uncut loose Yogo sapphires also won a bronze medal at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis , Missouri . Farnham was the creator of the most elaborate piece of jewelry ever made with Yogos , the life @-@ size Tiffany Iris Brooch , a brooch ornament , which contains 120 Yogo sapphires set in platinum , and sold on March 17 , 1900 , for $ 6 @,@ 906 @.@ 84 . In 1923 , First Lady Florence Harding was given an " all Montana " ring made from a Yogo sapphire and Montana gold . In 1952 , Gadsden gave cut Yogos to President Harry Truman , his wife Bess , and their daughter Margaret . Many Yogos were also sold in Europe , as some Yogo mining was conducted by British interests . Yogos may have been in the personal collections of some members of the British royal family in the 1910s , but promotional claims that Yogos are in any of the crown jewels of England cannot be conclusively proven or disproven . Claims that the gem in the engagement ring of Lady Diana Spencer and Kate Middleton is a Yogo are dubious ; the gem is thought to be of Sri Lankan origin . Its size also indicates it is unlikely to be a Yogo ; the sapphire is large , most often reported as being 9 carats ( 1 @.@ 8 g ) in size , though it has also been described as 12 carats ( 2 @.@ 4 g ) and even 18 carats ( 3 @.@ 6 g ) , however , the latter number is the karat purity of the gold setting . The story that the gem is a Yogo can be traced to a 1984 Los Angeles Times article that described the ring as a 9 @-@ carat ( 1 @.@ 8 g ) sapphire , and quoted Intergem president Dennis Brown 's claim that the gem may have come from a British @-@ owned Yogo mine .
|
= Gunnersbury Triangle =
Gunnersbury Triangle is a 2 @.@ 57 @-@ hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 @-@ acre ) Local nature reserve in the London boroughs of Ealing and Hounslow , immediately to the east of Gunnersbury . It was saved when , for the first time in Britain , a public inquiry in 1983 ruled that a planned development of the land could not go ahead because of its value for nature . It opened as a nature reserve in 1985 .
The area consists mainly of secondary birch woodland , with some locally uncommon willow carr or wet woodland and a small area of acid grassland along the track of the former Acton curve railway . The reserve supports a varied population of plants , birds , amphibians , insects and other wildlife . It is managed by the London Wildlife Trust .
The reserve has free admission . It is maintained by London Wildlife Trust staff with the help of volunteers . There is a varied programme of activities including wildlife walks , fungus forays , open days and talks . The reserve is used regularly by school and community groups , and for team @-@ building work days by corporate groups . Its entrance , with a wooden five @-@ bar gate flanked by hedges , is on the south of Bollo Lane , a few yards from Chiswick Park tube station .
= = History = =
The area is shown on 19th @-@ century maps as orchards and gravel quarries . The triangular area now occupied by the reserve was delineated by three railway lines , two belonging to the District Line ( now part of London Underground 's sub @-@ surface lines ) , and the now defunct London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) . There was once a bridge into the triangle from the west , and in the 1940s it was used as railway allotments ( vegetable gardens ) , but when London Transport 's Acton Works was built , the bridge was abandoned . The area , thus disused , was colonised naturally by grasses and trees in a " secondary succession " .
In 1981 , the site was proposed for commercial development , provoking an energetic campaign by the Chiswick Wildlife Group , formed in March 1982 , which became the local branch of the London Wildlife Trust . The threat to the site was one of the first to be highlighted by the London Wildlife Trust on its formation in October 1981 . The campaign led to a Public Inquiry in July 1983 , which determined that the site should be devoted to nature conservation . This was the first time anywhere in the United Kingdom that a Public Inquiry had ruled in favour of nature in a city , and the Gunnersbury Triangle example became a test case .
According to the New Scientist , writing in 1985 , " the celebrated Gunnersbury Triangle – an undisturbed piece of woodland surrounded by railways including the District Line .. was bought and preserved by Hounslow borough from British Rail with a GLC grant of £ 58 000 . The GLC also gave expert ecological advice when Hounslow council contested a public inquiry to save the Triangle . "
The London Wildlife Trust has managed the Gunnersbury Triangle on behalf of the London Borough of Hounslow since 1985 . The London Borough of Hounslow formally designated the Gunnersbury Triangle as a Local Nature Reserve in 1987 . The London Borough of Ealing formally designated the part of the Gunnersbury Triangle that lies in Ealing as a Local Nature Reserve in 1991 .
In 1993 , recalling the dramatic events , the President of the London Natural History Society , David Bevan said :
On November 19th 1987 , ... The Gunnersbury Triangle was declared by Hounslow Council . The circumstances that led up to this important declaration are vividly described in David Goode 's book . This was emphatically not a rural site . It was surrounded on all three sides by railway lines and had only been in existence for a mere forty years . "
Bevan quoted Goode as saying " It had none of the features which , in traditional nature conservation terms , would make it a place worth preserving " , going on to explain this remark as follows :
Nevertheless , the woodland that had grown up on it provided the only genuinely wild place for miles around and it was greatly cherished by local people . British Rail , who owned the site , had applied for planning permission to put up warehousing over the whole of the triangle . This was refused by Hounslow Council and a public inquiry followed in 1983 . The Inspector ruled that the development should not be allowed because of the considerable local ecological value .
In 2016 , the Triangle 's volunteers won an RE : LEAF Acorn Award for their " particular contribution to promoting or conserving trees " .
= = Reserve = =
Gunnersbury Triangle is a classic " railway triangle " , the 2 @.@ 57 @-@ hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 @-@ acre ) space in between three curving railway lines . To the west is the Richmond branch of the London Overground ; to the south , the District line ; and to the northeast , the disused track of the London and South Western Railway ( there remains the Piccadilly line a little further north , crossing Bollo lane ) . Much of the area is now wooded . It is a Local Nature Reserve and a Site of Metropolitan Importance for Nature Conservation .
= = Habitats = =
The following compartments are identified in the reserve 's management plan :
Compartment 1 : Secondary birch woodland
This covers most of the reserve . Silver birch is dominant , with a few crack willow , goat willow , some wild cherry and sycamore in the canopy . Shrubs include hawthorn , elder , holly , yew and rowan , with garden escapes like buddleia , Oregon grape , cotoneaster , privet . There are some saplings of pedunculate oak , mostly around the edge , and holm oak . The field layer is mainly thick bramble , with ivy in denser shade . Ferns include male fern , broad buckler fern and the less common lady fern .
Compartment 2 : Secondary willow woodland
Willow carr ( locally uncommon wet woodland including the " mangrove swamp " ) with goat willow , grey willow , and some crack willow , with hybrids . The shrubs and field layer are similar to compartment 1 ; there is some honeysuckle and common horsetail , hemlock water dropwort , gypsywort , yellow flag , pendulous sedge .
Compartment 3 : Eastern bank and hedgerow
Rough grassland with false oat @-@ grass , Yorkshire fog , yarrow , cat 's ear , with bracken at the south end . There is an uneven hedge of hawthorn and buckthorn . The sunny south @-@ west aspect encourages butterflies including holly blue , Essex skipper and small skipper .
Compartment 4 : North neutral meadow ( anthill meadow )
Very uneven meadow with mounds formed by the yellow meadow ant Lasius flavus , fox earths , and spoil dumped during former gravel works . Grasses especially false oat @-@ grass , Yorkshire fog ; also cock 's @-@ foot , common bent and sheep 's fescue . Herbs include common vetch , meadow vetchling , white clover , yarrow , ribwort plantain .
Compartment 5 : North acid meadow ( railway track acid grassland )
On the former Acton curve railway , with a substratum of gritty sand and ballast ( hard acidic rock ) . Small fine grasses especially sheep 's fescue , with fine @-@ leaved sheep 's fescue , hard fescue , squirrel @-@ tail fescue , early hair @-@ grass . Herbs include sheep 's sorrel , mouse @-@ eared hawkweed , cat 's ear and yarrow .
Compartment 6 : Southwest meadow ( picnic meadow )
Coarse grasses such as cocksfoot , Yorkshire fog , false oat @-@ grass , annual meadow @-@ grass . Broom has colonised on the site of an accidental fire .
Compartment 7 : Main pond
Main pond , dug in 1986 , with seasonally fluctuating water levels . Most vegetation has colonised naturally , with among others common reed , purple loosestrife , yellow iris , water @-@ plantain , water figwort , soft rush , gypsywort , water starwort , curled pondweed , common duckweed , water forget @-@ me @-@ not , water mint , brooklime .
Compartment 8 : Small pond
Seasonal pond with water plantain , celery @-@ leaved crowfoot , bittersweet , water figwort , and introduced yellow iris .
Compartment 9 : Tall herb meadow ( beside ramp path from entrance )
Small meadow of tall ruderal herbs , changing with natural succession , held back by cutting , with plants such as cow parsley , hogweed , stinging nettle , false oat @-@ grass , garden escape daffodils and irises .
Compartment 10 : Gardens
Entrance yard gardens sown with wild flowers ; hedge mustard , hoary mustard and other ruderal species invading ; hedges with native trees and shrubs ; hops scramble up the hedges .
Compartment 11 : Infrastructure
Hut , sheds .
= = Usage = =
The Gunnersbury Triangle is regularly visited by school parties , totalling some 1500 students per year , mainly in the summer when they can work outside . They study grassland , woodland and pond ecology .
According to the TES ( formerly the Times Educational Supplement ) , " From April , holly blue , peacock and brimstone butterflies abound . Following the illustrated guide , you wind among wild cherry and rowan , under archways of hazel branches to a pond where damsel @-@ flies dance in early summer . A sparrow @-@ hawk nests in a silver birch , a jay comes visiting , bees and wood @-@ mice also live here . " The TES continues : " There are open glades for picnics and , in autumn , blackberries to gather . The aim here is to manage the woodland as a natural piece of countryside in town , and if , from time to time , you glimpse a tube train , you hardly notice it , beyond the trees . "
The reserve is open to the public . The London Wildlife Trust runs guided visits such as Fungus Forays and wildlife walks every year . On open days , staff and volunteers organise activities to enable children and adults to learn more about nature conservation in a relaxed environment .
From time to time , companies provide teams of volunteers to work for a day on tasks such as clearing scrub and repairing paths and fences .
The London Wildlife Trust 's long @-@ term management objective for the site is " to manage the nature reserve to conserve its natural biodiversity , and to conserve its matrix of woodland , wetland and grassland habitats through appropriate management " , which includes coppicing , clearing scrub , mowing , and controlling invasion by non @-@ native species , while " preserving the feeling of ' wilderness ' " .
= = Value = =
The Mayor of London 's Biodiversity Strategy comments " Over the last few decades , many exciting places have been established where city people are able to enjoy the natural world , often on sites which at the outset had seemingly little to offer . These include Camley Street Natural Park in King 's Cross , Gillespie Park in Highbury , Gunnersbury Triangle in Chiswick , ... " and explains " The important message conveyed by these projects , regardless of their size , is that significant achievements for nature conservation are possible even in the most urban of settings , and often on modest budgets , provided there exists a cocktail of goodwill , optimism , commitment and professional back @-@ up . Moreover such projects often yield social benefits , providing a community focus . "
= = = Biodiversity = = =
These photographs , all taken in the Gunnersbury Triangle nature reserve , illustrate a little of its biodiversity .
= = = Activities = = =
These photographs illustrate some of the educational and conservation activity on the reserve .
|
= Tornado =
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that rotates while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or , in rare cases , the base of a cumulus cloud . They are often referred to as twisters or cyclones , although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name any closed low pressure circulation . Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes , but they are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel , whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust . Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour ( 180 km / h ) , are about 250 feet ( 80 m ) across , and travel a few miles ( several kilometers ) before dissipating . The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour ( 480 km / h ) , are more than two miles ( 3 km ) in diameter , and stay on the ground for dozens of miles ( more than 100 km ) .
Various types of tornadoes include the landspout , multiple vortex tornado , and waterspout . Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel @-@ shaped wind current , connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud . They are generally classified as non @-@ supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water , but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes . These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator , and are less common at high latitudes . Other tornado @-@ like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado , dust devil , fire whirls , and steam devil ; downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes , though their action is dissimilar .
Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica . However , the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States , although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America . They also occasionally occur in south @-@ central and eastern Asia , northern and east @-@ central South America , Southern Africa , northwestern and southeast Europe , western and southeastern Australia , and New Zealand . Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse @-@ Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data , such as hook echoes or debris balls , as well as through the efforts of storm spotters .
There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes . The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale . An F0 or EF0 tornado , the weakest category , damages trees , but not substantial structures . An F5 or EF5 tornado , the strongest category , rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers . The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes . Doppler radar data , photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns ( cycloidal marks ) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating .
= = Etymology = =
The word tornado is an altered form of the Spanish word tronada , which means " thunderstorm " . This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare , meaning " to thunder " . It most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar ( " to turn " ) ; however , this may be a folk etymology . A tornado is also commonly referred to as a " twister " , and is also sometimes referred to by the old @-@ fashioned colloquial term cyclone . The term " cyclone " is used as a synonym for " tornado " in the often @-@ aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . The term " twister " is also used in that film , along with being the title of the 1996 tornado @-@ related film Twister .
= = Definitions = =
A tornado is " a violently rotating column of air , in contact with the ground , either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud , and often ( but not always ) visible as a funnel cloud " . For a vortex to be classified as a tornado , it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base . Scientists have not yet created a complete definition of the word ; for example , there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes . Tornado refers to the vortex of wind , not the condensation cloud .
= = = Funnel cloud = = =
A tornado is not necessarily visible ; however , the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds ( as described by Bernoulli 's principle ) and rapid rotation ( due to cyclostrophic balance ) usually causes water vapor in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to adiabatic cooling . This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel .
There is some disagreement over the definition of funnel cloud and condensation funnel . According to the Glossary of Meteorology , a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus , and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition . Among many meteorologists , the funnel cloud term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface , and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud .
Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface , and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes . Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground , so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance .
= = = Outbreaks and families = = =
Occasionally , a single storm will produce more than one tornado , either simultaneously or in succession . Multiple tornadoes produced by the same storm cell are referred to as a " tornado family " . Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large @-@ scale storm system . If there is no break in activity , this is considered a tornado outbreak ( although the term " tornado outbreak " has various definitions ) . A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area ( spawned by multiple weather systems ) is a tornado outbreak sequence , occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Size and shape = = =
Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow funnel , a few hundred yards ( meters ) across , with a small cloud of debris near the ground . Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust . These tornadoes are especially dangerous , as even experienced meteorologists might not see them . Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes .
Small , relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground . Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground , if associated surface winds are greater than 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , the circulation is considered a tornado . A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relative low height is sometimes referred to as a " stovepipe " tornado . Large single @-@ vortex tornadoes can look like large wedges stuck into the ground , and so are known as " wedge tornadoes " or " wedges " . The " stovepipe " classification is also used for this type of tornado , if it otherwise fits that profile . A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds , wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground . Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low @-@ hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance . Many , but not all major tornadoes are wedges .
Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes , and often curl or twist into complex shapes . These tornadoes are said to be " roping out " , or becoming a " rope tornado " . When they rope out , the length of their funnel increases , which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to conservation of angular momentum . Multiple @-@ vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center , or they may be completely obscured by condensation , dust , and debris , appearing to be a single funnel .
In the United States , tornadoes are around 500 feet ( 150 m ) across on average and travel on the ground for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . However , there is a wide range of tornado sizes . Weak tornadoes , or strong yet dissipating tornadoes , can be exceedingly narrow , sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across . One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet ( 2 m ) long . On the other end of the spectrum , wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide or more . A tornado that affected Hallam , Nebraska on May 22 , 2004 , was up to 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) wide at the ground , and a tornado in El Reno , Oklahoma on May 31 , 2013 was approximately 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) wide , the widest on record .
In terms of path length , the Tri @-@ State Tornado , which affected parts of Missouri , Illinois , and Indiana on March 18 , 1925 , was on the ground continuously for 219 miles ( 352 km ) . Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles ( 160 km ) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession ; however , there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri @-@ State Tornado . In fact , modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles ( 24 km ) further west than previously thought .
= = = Appearance = = =
Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors , depending on the environment in which they form . Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible , marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel . Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white . While traveling over a body of water ( as a waterspout ) , tornadoes can turn very white or even blue . Slow @-@ moving funnels , which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt , are usually darker , taking on the color of debris . Tornadoes in the Great Plains can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil , and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow @-@ covered ground , turning white .
Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado . A tornado which is " back @-@ lit " ( viewed with the sun behind it ) appears very dark . The same tornado , viewed with the sun at the observer 's back , may appear gray or brilliant white . Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors , appearing in hues of yellow , orange , and pink .
Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm , heavy rain and hail , and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes . Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous , since only weather radar observations , or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado , serve as any warning to those in the storm 's path . Most significant tornadoes form under the storm 's updraft base , which is rain @-@ free , making them visible . Also , most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon , when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds . Night @-@ time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning .
There is mounting evidence , including Doppler On Wheels mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts , that most tornadoes have a clear , calm center with extremely low pressure , akin to the eye of tropical cyclones . Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado .
= = = Rotation = = =
Tornadoes normally rotate cyclonically ( when viewed from above , this is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern ) . While large @-@ scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the Coriolis effect , thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant , as indicated by their large Rossby numbers . Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected . Low @-@ level mesocyclones and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment .
Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere . Typically , systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically , and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending rear flank downdraft ( RFD ) in a cyclonic supercell . On rare occasions , anticyclonic tornadoes form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell , in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado , or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell .
= = = Sound and seismology = = =
Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms . Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported , mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar . Popularly reported sounds include a freight train , rushing rapids or waterfall , a nearby jet engine , or combinations of these . Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance ; the nature and propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography .
The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies , as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris , contribute to the sounds . Funnel clouds also produce sounds . Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling , whining , humming , or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity , or more or less harmonic , whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous , deep rumbling , or an irregular sound of " noise " .
Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near , sound is not reliable warning of a tornado . Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms ; any strong , damaging wind , a severe hail volley , or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound .
Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures .
Unlike audible signatures , tornadic signatures have been isolated ; due to the long distance propagation of low @-@ frequency sound , efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology , dynamics , and creation . Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature , and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process .
= = = Electromagnetic , lightning , and other effects = = =
Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum , with sferics and E @-@ field effects detected . There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning . Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning . More often than not , overall cloud @-@ to @-@ ground ( CG ) lightning activity decreases as a tornado reaches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado lifts . In many cases , intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges . Electromagnetics and lightning have little or nothing to do directly with what drives tornadoes ( tornadoes are basically a thermodynamic phenomenon ) , although there are likely connections with the storm and environment affecting both phenomena .
Luminosity has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning , city lights , and power flashes from broken lines , as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded . In addition to winds , tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature , moisture , and pressure . For example , on June 24 , 2003 near Manchester , South Dakota , a probe measured a 100 mbar ( hPa ) ( 2 @.@ 95 inHg ) pressure decrease . The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 mbar ( hPa ) ( 25 @.@ 10 inHg ) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away , resulting in a V @-@ shape pressure trace . Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado .
= = Life cycle = =
= = = Supercell relationship = = =
Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells . Supercells contain mesocyclones , an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere , usually 1 – 6 miles ( 2 – 10 km ) across . Most intense tornadoes ( EF3 to EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale ) develop from supercells . In addition to tornadoes , very heavy rain , frequent lightning , strong wind gusts , and hail are common in such storms .
Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle . That begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft ( RFD ) . This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground , and drags the supercell 's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it .
= = = Formation = = =
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base , it begins to take in cool , moist air from the downdraft region of the storm . The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form . The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone 's base , causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground . As the updraft intensifies , it creates an area of low pressure at the surface . This pulls the focused mesocyclone down , in the form of a visible condensation funnel . As the funnel descends , the RFD also reaches the ground , fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado . Usually , the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground ( becoming a tornado ) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground .
= = = Maturity = = =
Initially , the tornado has a good source of warm , moist air flowing inward to power it , and it grows until it reaches the " mature stage " . This can last anywhere from a few minutes to more than an hour , and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage , and in rare cases can be more than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) across . Meanwhile , the RFD , now an area of cool surface winds , begins to wrap around the tornado , cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado .
= = = Dissipation = = =
As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado 's air supply , the vortex begins to weaken , and become thin and rope @-@ like . This is the " dissipating stage " , often lasting no more than a few minutes , after which the tornado ends . During this stage the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm , and can be blown into fantastic patterns . Even though the tornado is dissipating , it is still capable of causing damage . The storm is contracting into a rope @-@ like tube and , due to conservation of angular momentum , winds can increase at this point .
As the tornado enters the dissipating stage , its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well , as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it . Sometimes , in intense supercells , tornadoes can develop cyclically . As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate , the storm 's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone . If a new mesocyclone develops , the cycle may start again , producing one or more new tornadoes . Occasionally , the old ( occluded ) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time .
Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form , live , and die , it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes , such as landspouts , long @-@ lived tornadoes , or tornadoes with multiple vortices . These each have different mechanisms which influence their development — however , most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one .
= = Types = =
= = = Multiple vortex = = =
A multiple @-@ vortex tornado is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotateabout their own axis and at the same time around a common center . A multi @-@ vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation , but is very often observed in intense tornadoes . These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path . This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a satellite tornado , which is a smaller tornado which forms very near a large , strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone . The satellite tornado may appear to " orbit " the larger tornado ( hence the name ) , giving the appearance of one , large multi @-@ vortex tornado . However , a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation , and is much smaller than the main funnel .
= = = Waterspout = = =
A waterspout is defined by the National Weather Service as a tornado over water . However , researchers typically distinguish " fair weather " waterspouts from tornadic waterspouts . Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common , and are similar to dust devils and landspouts . They form at the bases of cumulus congestus clouds over tropical and subtropical waters . They have relatively weak winds , smooth laminar walls , and typically travel very slowly . They occur most commonly in the Florida Keys and in the northern Adriatic Sea . In contrast , tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water . They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes , or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water . Since they form from severe thunderstorms and can be far more intense , faster , and longer @-@ lived than fair weather waterspouts , they are more dangerous . In official tornado statistics , waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land , though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together .
= = = Landspout = = =
A landspout , or dust @-@ tube tornado , is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone . The name stems from their characterization as a " fair weather waterspout on land " . Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics , including relative weakness , short lifespan , and a small , smooth condensation funnel which often does not reach the surface . Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground , due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes . Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes , they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage .
= = = Similar circulations = = =
= = = = Gustnado = = = =
A gustnado , or gust front tornado , is a small , vertical swirl associated with a gust front or downburst . Because they are not connected with a cloud base , there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes . They are formed when fast moving cold , dry outflow air from a thunderstorm is blown through a mass of stationary , warm , moist air near the outflow boundary , resulting in a " rolling " effect ( often exemplified through a roll cloud ) . If low level wind shear is strong enough , the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground . The result is a gustnado . They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight @-@ line wind damage .
= = = = Dust devil = = = =
A dust devil ( also known as a whirlwind ) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air . However , they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes . They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day . If there is enough low level wind shear , the column of hot , rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground . They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds . However , they can , on occasion , result in major damage .
= = = = Fire whirls = = = =
Small @-@ scale , tornado @-@ like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source . Those that occur near intense wildfires are called fire whirls . They are not considered tornadoes , except in the rare case where they connect to a pyrocumulus or other cumuliform cloud above . Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms . They can , however , produce significant damage .
= = = = Steam devils = = = =
A steam devil is a rotating updraft between 50 and 200 meters wide that involves steam or smoke . These formations do not involve high wind speeds , only completing a few rotations per minute . Steam devils are very rare . They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant 's smokestack . Hot springs and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter , faster @-@ rotating steam devil to form . The phenomenon can occur over water , when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water .
= = Intensity and damage = =
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused . The Enhanced Fujita ( EF ) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale , by expert elicitation , using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions . The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating , and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007 . An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures , whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large skyscrapers . The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes . Doppler weather radar data , photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns ( cycloidal marks ) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating .
Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape , size , and location , though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes . The association with track length and duration also varies , although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger . In the case of violent tornadoes , only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity , most of the higher intensity from subvortices .
In the United States , 80 % of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 ( T0 through T3 ) tornadoes . The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength — less than 1 % are violent tornadoes ( EF4 , T8 or stronger ) . Outside Tornado Alley , and North America in general , violent tornadoes are extremely rare . This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall , as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide . A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe , Asia , southern Africa , and southeastern South America , respectively .
= = Climatology = =
The United States has the most tornadoes of any country , nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe , excluding waterspouts . This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent . North America is a large continent that extends from the tropics north into arctic areas , and has no major east @-@ west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas . In the middle latitudes , where most tornadoes of the world occur , the Rocky Mountains block moisture and buckle the atmospheric flow , forcing drier air at mid @-@ levels of the troposphere due to downsloped winds , and causing the formation of a low pressure area downwind to the east of the mountains . Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a dry line when the flow aloft is strong , while the Gulf of Mexico fuels abundant low @-@ level moisture in the southerly flow to its east . This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air , the conditions that breed strong , long @-@ lived storms throughout the year . A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States known as Tornado Alley . This area extends into Canada , particularly Ontario and the Prairie Provinces , although southeast Quebec , the interior of British Columbia , and western New Brunswick are also tornado @-@ prone . Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico .
The United States averages about 1 @,@ 200 tornadoes per year . The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country ( more than 20 , or 0 @.@ 0013 per sq mi ( 0 @.@ 00048 per km2 ) , annually ) , followed by the UK ( around 33 , or 0 @.@ 00035 per sq mi ( 0 @.@ 00013 per km2 ) , per year ) , although those are of lower intensity , briefer and cause minor damage .
Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh , the most in the world . Reasons for this include the region 's high population density , poor construction quality , and lack of tornado safety knowledge . Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa , the La Plata Basin area , portions of Europe , Australia and New Zealand , and far eastern Asia .
Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter , but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur . Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds , wind shear , and atmospheric instability are present . Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of landfalling tropical cyclones , which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn . Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices , which persist until landfall .
Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day , because of solar heating . Worldwide , most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon , between 3 pm and 7 pm local time , with a peak near 5 pm . Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day . The Gainesville Tornado of 1936 , one of the deadliest tornadoes in history , occurred at 8 : 30 am local time .
= = = Associations with climate and climate change = = =
Associations with various climate and environmental trends exist . For example , an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region ( e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea ) increases atmospheric moisture content . Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity , particularly in the cool season .
Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity , which vary by season and region , as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña . Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño , and more occur during La Niña , than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable . Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance .
Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via teleconnections in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns . The climate @-@ tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local , nuanced nature of tornadoes . Although it is reasonable to suspect that global warming may affect trends in tornado activity , any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity , local nature of the storms , and database quality issues . Any effect would vary by region .
= = Detection = =
Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid @-@ 20th century . Before the 1950s , the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground . Often , news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm . However , with the advent of weather radar , areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather . The first public tornado warnings were issued in 1950 and the first tornado watches and convective outlooks in 1952 . In 1953 it was confirmed that hook echoes are associated with tornadoes . By recognizing these radar signatures , meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from dozens of miles away .
= = = Radar = = =
Today , most developed countries have a network of weather radars , which remains the main method of detecting signatures probably associated with tornadoes . In the United States and a few other countries , Doppler weather radar stations are used . These devices measure the velocity and radial direction ( towards or away from the radar ) of the winds in a storm , and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from more than a hundred miles ( 160 km ) away . When storms are distant from a radar , only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled . Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar . Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and on occasion tornado development may occur more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data . Also , most populated areas on Earth are now visible from the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites ( GOES ) , which aid in the nowcasting of tornadic storms .
= = = Storm spotting = = =
In the mid @-@ 1970s , the U.S. National Weather Service ( NWS ) increased its efforts to train storm spotters to spot key features of storms which indicate severe hail , damaging winds , and tornadoes , as well as damage itself and flash flooding . The program was called Skywarn , and the spotters were local sheriff 's deputies , state troopers , firefighters , ambulance drivers , amateur radio operators , civil defense ( now emergency management ) spotters , storm chasers , and ordinary citizens . When severe weather is anticipated , local weather service offices request that these spotters look out for severe weather , and report any tornadoes immediately , so that the office can warn of the hazard .
Usually spotters are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations , and report to them . The organizations activate public warning systems such as sirens and the Emergency Alert System ( EAS ) , and forward the report to the NWS . There are more than 230 @,@ 000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States .
In Canada , a similar network of volunteer weather watchers , called Canwarn , helps spot severe weather , with more than 1 @,@ 000 volunteers . In Europe , several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of Skywarn Europe and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation ( TORRO ) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974 .
Storm spotters are needed because radar systems such as NEXRAD do not detect a tornado ; merely signatures which hint at the presence of tornadoes . Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or imminent tornado , but ground truth from an observer can either verify the threat or determine that a tornado is not imminent . The spotter 's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases , because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar , chiefly due to curvature of Earth , and the beam also spreads out .
= = = Visual evidence = = =
Storm spotters are trained to discern whether a storm seen from a distance is a supercell . They typically look to its rear , the main region of updraft and inflow . Under the updraft is a rain @-@ free base , and the next step of tornadogenesis is the formation of a rotating wall cloud . The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell .
Evidence of a supercell comes from the storm 's shape and structure , and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower , a persistent , large overshooting top , a hard anvil ( especially when backsheared against strong upper level winds ) , and a corkscrew look or striations . Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found , evidence of a supercell and likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands ( particularly when curved ) such as a " beaver tail " , and other clues such as strength of inflow , warmth and moistness of inflow air , how outflow- or inflow @-@ dominant a storm appears , and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud . Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and rear flank downdraft , and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow .
Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes , and usually precede the tornado by five to thirty minutes . Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low @-@ level mesocyclone . Barring a low @-@ level boundary , tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs , which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud . A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly after ; first , a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down , a surface swirl has already developed , signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm . Tornadoes may also occur without wall clouds , under flanking lines , and on the leading edge . Spotters watch all areas of a storm , and the cloud base and surface .
= = Extremes = =
The most record @-@ breaking tornado in recorded history was the Tri @-@ State Tornado , which roared through parts of Missouri , Illinois , and Indiana on March 18 , 1925 . It was likely an F5 , though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era . It holds records for longest path length ( 219 miles , 352 km ) , longest duration ( about 3 @.@ 5 hours ) , and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado ( 73 mph , 117 km / h ) anywhere on Earth . In addition , it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history ( 695 dead ) . The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time ( unadjusted for inflation ) , but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered . When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation , it ranks third today .
The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daultipur @-@ Salturia Tornado in Bangladesh on April 26 , 1989 , which killed approximately 1 @,@ 300 people . Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people , almost half of the total in the rest of the world .
The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak , which spawned 362 confirmed tornadoes over the southeastern United States - 218 of them within a single 24 @-@ hour period . The previous record was the 1974 Super Outbreak which spawned 148 tornadoes .
While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible , since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris , some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units , which can provide a good estimate of the tornado 's winds . The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado , which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet , is 301 ± 20 mph ( 484 ± 32 km / h ) in the F5 Bridge Creek @-@ Moore , Oklahoma , tornado which killed 36 people . Though the reading was taken about 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the ground , this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes .
Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts , sometimes exceeding 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance . A tornado which affected Great Bend , Kansas , in November 1915 , was an extreme case , where a " rain of debris " occurred 80 miles ( 130 km ) from the town , a sack of flour was found 110 miles ( 180 km ) away , and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of Palmyra , Nebraska , 305 miles ( 491 km ) to the northeast . Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of raining fish and other animals .
= = Safety = =
Though tornadoes can strike in an instant , there are precautions and preventative measures that people can take to increase the chances of surviving a tornado . Authorities such as the Storm Prediction Center advise having a pre @-@ determined plan should a tornado warning be issued . When a warning is issued , going to a basement or an interior first @-@ floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival . In tornado @-@ prone areas , many buildings have storm cellars on the property . These underground refuges have saved thousands of lives .
Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado ( such as tornado watches and warnings in the United States and Canada ) . Weather radios provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area , though these are mainly available only in the United States . Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible , meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road ( so as not to block emergency traffic ) , and find a sturdy shelter . If no sturdy shelter is nearby , getting low in a ditch is the next best option . Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes , as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass .
= = Myths and misconceptions = =
Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes , and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather , there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes . It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado . While there is a large drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado , it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode . Opening windows may actually increase the severity of the tornado 's damage . A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed .
Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes . This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the 1991 tornado outbreak near Andover , Kansas , where a news crew and several other people take shelter under an overpass on the Kansas Turnpike and safely ride out a tornado as it passes by . However , a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado : the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events : the storm in question was a weak tornado , did not directly strike the overpass , and the overpass itself was of a unique design . Due to the Venturi effect , tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass . Indeed , in the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3 , 1999 , three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes , and at all three locations there was a fatality , along with many life @-@ threatening injuries . By comparison , during the same tornado outbreak , more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed , with another 7000 damaged , and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes .
An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado . The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado 's direction of approach ( usually the northeast corner ) , or the central @-@ most room on the lowest floor . Taking shelter in a basement , under a staircase , or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases chances of survival .
Finally , there are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes , whether by being in a city , near a major river , hill , or mountain , or even protected by supernatural forces . Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers , climb mountains , affect valleys , and have damaged several city centers . As a general rule , no area is safe from tornadoes , though some areas are more susceptible than others .
= = Ongoing research = =
Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still . Although researched for about 140 years and intensively for around 60 years , there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery . Scientists have a fairly good understanding of the development of thunderstorms and mesocyclones , and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation . However , the step from supercell , or other respective formative processes , to tornadogenesis and the prediction of tornadic vs. non @-@ tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research .
Also under study are the low @-@ level mesocyclone and the stretching of low @-@ level vorticity which tightens into a tornado , in particular , what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm . Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft ( rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis ) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid @-@ level mesocyclone .
In particular , the role of downdrafts , particularly the rear @-@ flank downdraft , and the role of baroclinic boundaries , are intense areas of study .
Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem , as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis . Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with mesovortices within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones .
Scientists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form , and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued . Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile ( surface and aerial ) in @-@ situ and remote sensing ( passive and active ) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions . Numerical modeling also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in computer simulations which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings , many of which are otherwise unattainable . Importantly , development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions .
Research programs , including field projects such as the VORTEX projects ( Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment ) , deployment of TOTO ( the TOtable Tornado Observatory ) , Doppler On Wheels ( DOW ) , and dozens of other programs , hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists . Universities , government agencies such as the National Severe Storms Laboratory , private @-@ sector meteorologists , and the National Center for Atmospheric Research are some of the organizations very active in research ; with various sources of funding , both private and public , a chief entity being the National Science Foundation . The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken ; gaps in information about the wind , pressure , and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere ; and the computing power available for simulation .
Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded , but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts .
= = Gallery = =
|
= Thin Lizzy =
Thin Lizzy are a rock band formed in Dublin , Ireland in 1969 . Two of the founding members , drummer Brian Downey and bass guitarist and vocalist Phil Lynott , met while still in school . Lynott assumed the role of frontman and led them throughout their recording career of twelve studio albums . Thin Lizzy 's most successful songs , " Whiskey in the Jar " , " Jailbreak " and " The Boys Are Back in Town " , were all major international hits . After Lynott 's death in 1986 , various incarnations of the band have emerged over the years based initially around guitarists Scott Gorham and John Sykes , though Sykes left the band in 2009 . Gorham later continued with a new line @-@ up including Downey .
Lynott , Thin Lizzy 's de facto leader , was composer or co @-@ composer of almost all of the band 's songs , and the first black Irishman to achieve commercial success in the field of rock music . Thin Lizzy boasted some of the most critically acclaimed guitarists throughout their history , with Downey and Lynott as the rhythm section , on the drums and bass guitar . As well as being multiracial , the band drew their members not only from both sides of the Irish border but also from both the Catholic and Protestant communities during The Troubles . Their music reflects a wide range of influences , including blues , soul music , psychedelic rock , and traditional Irish folk music , but is generally classified as hard rock or sometimes heavy metal . Rolling Stone magazine describes the band as distinctly hard rock , " far apart from the braying mid @-@ 70s metal pack " .
AllMusic critic John Dougan has written that " As the band 's creative force , Lynott was a more insightful and intelligent writer than many of his ilk , preferring slice @-@ of @-@ life working @-@ class dramas of love and hate influenced by Bob Dylan , Van Morrison , Bruce Springsteen , and virtually all of the Irish literary tradition . " Van Morrison , Jeff Beck and Jimi Hendrix were major influences during the early days of the band , and later influences included the pioneering twin lead guitars found in Wishbone Ash and American artists Little Feat and Bob Seger .
In 2012 , Gorham and Downey decided against recording new material as Thin Lizzy so a new band , Black Star Riders , was formed to tour and produce new releases such as the All Hell Breaks Loose album . Thin Lizzy plan to reunite for occasional concerts .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
Two of the founding members of Thin Lizzy , bass guitarist and vocalist Phil Lynott and drummer Brian Downey , first met while at school in Dublin in the early 1960s . Lynott , born 20 August 1949 in West Bromwich , England to an Irish mother Philomena ( 1930 – ) and Guyanese father Cecil Parris ( 1925 – 2010 ) , was brought up in Dublin from the age of three . Downey , born 27 January 1951 , is a Dublin native . Lynott joined a local band , The Black Eagles , as vocalist in 1963 , and Downey was recruited as their drummer in 1965 . In 1967 , Lynott was asked to join Skid Row by bass guitarist Brush Shiels , who brought teenage Belfast guitarist Gary Moore ( 4 April 1952 – 6 February 2011 ) into the band early in 1968 . After a disappointing television appearance in June 1969 , Shiels fired Lynott , although they remained on good terms and Shiels subsequently taught Lynott to play bass guitar . Lynott then formed Orphanage with Downey on drums after Downey 's previous band , Sugar Shack , had split .
Guitarist Eric Bell , born in Belfast on 3 September 1947 , began his career playing in local bands such as The Deltones , Shades of Blue and The Bluebeats , and the last incarnation of Them to feature Van Morrison , between September and October 1966 . Bell later moved to Dublin and joined an Irish showband named The Dreams , but left in 1969 with a view to forming a rock band . An acquaintance of Bell 's , Belfast organist Eric Wrixon ( 29 June 1947 – 13 July 2015 ) , also a former member of Them , had also moved to Dublin and joined the showband circuit , but had similar plans to progress towards rock music .
= = = Early years ( 1969 – 72 ) = = =
In December 1969 , Bell and Wrixon met by chance in a pub in Dublin and found that they shared similar ideas of forming a band , and decided to visit the Countdown Club where they saw Lynott and Downey perform with Orphanage . Lynott was not playing bass guitar at this time , but Bell was particularly impressed by Downey , and introduced himself to Lynott and Downey during a break . When Bell asked if they would consider forming a band together , Downey was initially sceptical , but both men were aware of Bell 's musical reputation . They agreed on condition that Lynott play bass guitar as well as sing , and that the band would perform some of Lynott 's compositions . Wrixon was also included as organist , making the initial line @-@ up a quartet .
The band 's name came from a character in The Dandy called Tin Lizzie , which they adjusted to Thin Lizzy as a playful reference to the local dialect , in which " thin " would be pronounced as " t 'in " . For some of their early gigs , the band were mistakenly promoted as " Tin Lizzy " or " Tin Lizzie " .
In July 1970 , the band released a single , " The Farmer " / " I Need You " , on EMI with the B @-@ side written by John D 'ardis , who owned Trend Studios where the single was recorded . The single sold just 283 copies and is now a collectors ' item . Wrixon left the band before the single 's release , meaning there was a greater share of income for the three remaining members . He moved to mainland Europe before returning to Belfast , rejoining his old band , Them . Wrixon died on 13 July 2015 .
By the end of the year , Thin Lizzy were signed to Decca Records and they travelled to London in January 1971 to record their debut album , Thin Lizzy . The album sold moderately well but did not chart in the UK despite airplay and support from influential DJs John Peel and Kid Jensen .
Around March 1971 , the band permanently relocated to London , before the release of the unsuccessful " New Day " EP in August . Despite poor sales , Decca agreed to finance the band 's second album Shades of a Blue Orphanage , released in March 1972 . Like the previous LP , the songs were filled with Lynott 's personal anecdotes and references to his life in Dublin and the people he knew there . Musically the style was Celtic , with little warning of the hard rock direction that the band were to take in the future . Again , the album did not chart in the UK .
In mid @-@ 1972 , Thin Lizzy were asked to record an album of Deep Purple covers , which was released under the title Funky Junction Play a Tribute to Deep Purple . No mention was made of Thin Lizzy on the record . Vocals and keyboards were handled by members of another band , Elmer Fudd , and a few instrumental tracks composed by the band were also included on the album . The album was released in January 1973 .
= = = " Whiskey in the Jar " ( 1972 – 74 ) = = =
In late 1972 , the band embarked upon a high @-@ profile tour of the UK with Slade , who were enjoying a string of hit singles at the time , and Suzi Quatro . Around the same time , Decca released Thin Lizzy 's version of a traditional Irish ballad , " Whiskey in the Jar " , as a single . The band was angry at the release , feeling that the song did not represent their sound or their image , but the single topped the Irish chart , and reached no . 6 in the UK in February 1973 , resulting in an appearance on Top of the Pops . It also charted in many countries across Europe . However , the follow @-@ up single , " Randolph 's Tango " , was a return to Lynott 's more obscure work , and it did not chart outside Ireland .
The band 's next album , Vagabonds of the Western World , was released in September 1973 to positive reviews , but again failed to chart . The accompanying single " The Rocker " also found little success outside Ireland , and the momentum gained from their hit single was lost .
Eric Bell suddenly left the band on New Year 's Eve 1973 after a gig at Queen 's University Belfast , due to increasing ill @-@ health and disillusionment with the music industry , and young ex @-@ Skid Row guitarist Gary Moore was recruited to help finish the tour . Moore stayed until April 1974 ; the band recording three songs with him in that time , including the version of " Still in Love with You " that was included on the fourth album Nightlife .
With the departure of Moore , Lynott decided to expand the line @-@ up with two guitarists , and recruited two temporary members to complete a tour of Germany in May 1974 . These were ex @-@ Atomic Rooster and Hard Stuff guitarist John Cann , and Berlin @-@ born Andy Gee , who had played with Peter Bardens and Ellis . Neither was considered as a permanent member , as Lynott and Cann did not get on well personally , and Gee was under contract to another record label . The tour was ended early , and with Thin Lizzy 's contract with Decca coming to an end , a disillusioned Downey quit the band and had to be begged to return .
Auditions were held for new members , and Lynott and Downey eventually settled on Glaswegian guitarist Brian Robertson who was only 18 years old at the time , and Californian Scott Gorham . The new line @-@ up gelled quickly , dropped most of the old songs when they played live , and secured a new record deal with Phonogram , but the resulting album Nightlife was a disappointment for the band due to its soft production and underdeveloped style . Robertson described Ron Nevison 's production as " pretty naff " and Gorham said the record was " ridiculously tame " . Like the previous three albums , it failed to chart .
= = = " The Boys Are Back in Town " ( 1975 – 77 ) = = =
In early 1975 , Thin Lizzy toured the United States for the first time , in support of Bob Seger and Bachman – Turner Overdrive . When BTO toured Europe later in the year to support their hit single " You Ain 't Seen Nothing Yet " , Thin Lizzy again accompanied them on what was a very high @-@ profile tour . They then recorded the Fighting album , which became the first Thin Lizzy album to chart in the UK , reaching no . 60 , although the singles still did not chart . Opening with Seger 's " Rosalie " , the album showed the first real evidence of the twin guitar sound that would lead the band towards their greatest successes , particularly with the dual harmonies of " Wild One " and both guitarists ' soloing on " Suicide " .
After a successful multi @-@ band tour in support of Status Quo , the band recorded the album Jailbreak , which proved to be their breakthrough record . Released on 26 March 1976 , it featured the worldwide hit " The Boys Are Back in Town " which reached no . 8 in the UK , and no . 12 in the US , their first charting record in that country . The twin guitar sound had been fully developed by this time and was in evidence throughout the album , particularly on the hit single , and other tracks such as " Emerald " and " Warriors " . The album also charted well on both sides of the Atlantic , and the follow @-@ up single , " Jailbreak " , also performed well . Thin Lizzy toured the US in support of various bands such as Aerosmith , Rush and REO Speedwagon , and they planned to tour there again in June 1976 , this time with Rainbow . However , Lynott fell ill with hepatitis and the tour was cancelled , which set them back a few months .
While Lynott was ill , he wrote most of the following album , Johnny the Fox . The album was recorded in August 1976 and the sessions began to reveal tensions between Lynott and Robertson ; for example , there was disagreement over the composition credits of the hit single " Don 't Believe a Word " . Lynott was still drawing on Celtic mythology and his own personal experiences for lyric ideas , which dominated Johnny the Fox and the other albums of Thin Lizzy 's successful mid @-@ 1970s period . The tour to support the album was very successful and there were further high @-@ profile TV appearances , such as the Rod Stewart BBC TV Special .
A further tour of the US was planned for December 1976 , but it had to be cancelled when , on 23 November , Brian Robertson suffered a hand injury when trying to protect fellow Glaswegian , singer and friend Frankie Miller in a fracas at the Speakeasy Club in London . Miller had been jamming onstage with the reggae band Gonzalez , but had been drunk , offending Gonzalez guitarist Gordon Hunte . Hunte attacked Miller with a bottle in the dressing room , and Robertson intervened , suffering artery and nerve damage to his hand . Robertson subsequently broke Hunte 's leg , broke the collarbone of another man , and headbutted another , before being hit on the head with a bottle , rendering him unconscious .
Robertson maintains that , contrary to reports at the time , he was not drunk and had only gone to the venue for a meal . Lynott was angry and replaced Robertson with Gary Moore for another tour of the States in January – March 1977 , this time supporting Queen . The tour was a success and Lynott asked Moore to stay on , but he returned to his previous band , Colosseum II . Robertson had not been sacked but was unsure of his position and made plans to start another band with Jimmy Bain of Rainbow . Before the American tour , Lynott had also invited Irish guitarist Jimi Slevin to " try out a few things " with Thin Lizzy , prompting speculation that the ex @-@ Skid Row member could replace Robertson .
Thin Lizzy flew to Canada in May 1977 as a trio to record Bad Reputation , with Gorham handling all the guitar parts . A month into the sessions Robertson joined them , in his own words , " as a session player " and in Lynott 's words , " as a guest " . Robertson added lead guitar tracks to three songs as well as rhythm guitar and keyboards , and was officially reinstated in July . The album was released in September and sold well , reaching no . 4 in the UK , after a successful single , " Dancing in the Moonlight ( It 's Caught Me in Its Spotlight ) " . Also in 1977 , Thin Lizzy headlined the Reading Festival .
= = = The return of Gary Moore ( 1978 – 79 ) = = =
In 1978 , Lizzy released their first live album Live and Dangerous . There is some disagreement over just how much of the album is actually recorded live – producer Tony Visconti claimed that the only parts that were not overdubbed were the drums and the audience . However Brian Robertson has disputed this , saying that he had refused Lynott 's request to re @-@ record a guitar solo , and that the only overdubs were backing vocals and some guitar parts by Gorham . He added , " It 's just not true . The only reason we said that it was recorded all over was obviously for tax reasons ... so everything that Visconti claims is bollocks . " Gorham concurs , stating that he attempted to re @-@ record a solo but could not recreate the live sound , adding , " I re @-@ did one rhythm track and a few backing vocals . But that 's it . " The album was a huge success , reaching no . 2 in the UK , and was ranked as the best live album of all time by Classic Rock Magazine in 2004 . But this success was overshadowed by the permanent departure of Robertson some time after a gig in Ibiza on 6 July 1978 , the disagreements with Lynott having developed to an impossible level . Robertson soon teamed up with Jimmy Bain to front their new band , Wild Horses .
Lynott replaced Robertson with Gary Moore again , and around this time the band loosely joined forces with Steve Jones and Paul Cook of the Sex Pistols , and also Chris Spedding and Jimmy Bain , to form The Greedy Bastards , who played a small number of gigs playing a varied selection of songs . In this way Lynott was able to align his band with the punk movement and avoid being tagged as a ' dinosaur ' as many other 1970s rock bands had been .
In August the band began another tour of the US , followed by a trip to Australia and New Zealand . Brian Downey did not accompany them , having contracted pneumonia and preferring to spend some time in Ireland . He was replaced for the tour by American drummer Mark Nauseef . On their return , Downey rejoined the band and at the beginning of 1979 they recorded Black Rose : A Rock Legend in Paris . The sessions were marked by the increasing drug habits of Lynott and Gorham , and the general presence of drugs around the band . This also showed in the subject matter on the album , in songs such as " Got to Give It Up " . Celtic influences remained , however , particularly in the album closer " Róisín Dubh " , a seven @-@ minute medley of traditional Irish songs given a twin guitar rock veneer . Two singles , " Waiting for an Alibi " and " Do Anything You Want To " , were successful , and the album reached no . 2 in the UK . A third , moderately successful single , " Sarah " was Lynott 's ode to his new @-@ born daughter .
However , on 4 July 1979 , Gary Moore abruptly left Thin Lizzy in the middle of another tour of the US . Years later , Moore said he had no regrets about walking out , " but maybe it was wrong the way I did it . I could 've done it differently , I suppose . But I just had to leave . " He subsequently pursued his solo career , releasing several successful albums . He had collaborated with Lynott and Downey on his 1978 album Back on the Streets and the hit single " Parisienne Walkways " before leaving Thin Lizzy , and in 1985 he and Lynott teamed up again on the UK no . 5 hit single " Out in the Fields " . Gary Moore died of a heart attack in Estepona , Spain on 6 February 2011 , aged 58 .
After Moore 's departure , Thin Lizzy continued the tour for a few nights as a trio before Lynott brought in Midge Ure to replace him on a temporary basis . Ure had prior plans to join Ultravox , but had co @-@ written a song , " Get Out of Here " , with Lynott on Black Rose : A Rock Legend , and agreed to help Thin Lizzy complete their touring commitments . He also contributed guitar parts for The Continuing Saga of the Ageing Orphans , a compilation album of remixed and overdubbed versions of Eric Bell @-@ era tracks . On their return to the UK , the band were to headline the Reading Festival for the second time on 25 August 1979 , but had to cancel due to the disruption within the line @-@ up .
Before a tour of Japan beginning in September , Lynott decided to bring in another guitarist , Dave Flett , who had played with Manfred Mann 's Earth Band , to enable Ure to switch to playing keyboards where necessary . The tour was completed successfully , but the line @-@ up now contained two temporary members , and Lynott was spending a lot of time on projects outside Thin Lizzy , including composing and producing material for other bands , as well as putting together his first solo album , Solo in Soho . Lynott also reactivated The Greedy Bastards , who released a one @-@ off Christmas single , " A Merry Jingle " , in December 1979 as simply The Greedies . With the group now composed of Lynott , Gorham and Downey with Sex Pistols Jones and Cook , the single reached no . 28 in the UK .
= = = Later years and break @-@ up ( 1980 – 83 ) = = =
While Lynott searched for a permanent guitarist , he and the other members of Thin Lizzy , past and present , worked on Solo in Soho which was released in April 1980 , and the next Thin Lizzy album , Chinatown . Lynott got married on 14 February , and his wife gave birth to a second daughter in July . Dave Flett had hoped to be made a permanent member of Thin Lizzy but Lynott chose Snowy White , who had played with Pink Floyd and Peter Green . Midge Ure was still acting as a temporary keyboard player at gigs during early 1980 , but was replaced by Darren Wharton in April , shortly after White joined the band . Wharton was only 17 at the time and was initially hired on a temporary basis . This new line @-@ up completed the Chinatown album between short tours , and two singles were released from it . The first , " Chinatown " , reached no . 21 in the UK , but the second , " Killer on the Loose " , reached the top 10 amid much adverse publicity due to the ongoing activities of serial killer Peter Sutcliffe , known as " The Yorkshire Ripper " .
Chinatown was finally released in October 1980 , and reached no . 7 in the UK , but by this time Thin Lizzy albums were not even reaching the top 100 in the US . After a successful tour of Japan and Australia , the band undertook what was to be their final tour of the US in late 1980 . At the beginning of 1981 , Lynott began work on his second solo album , using Thin Lizzy members among a large group of backing musicians . Around the same time , the band were recording material for the next Thin Lizzy album , and as before , the sessions seemed to merge to the extent that musicians were not always sure which album they were working on . Producer for the Thin Lizzy sessions , Chris Tsangarides , stated , " The feeling of confusion was in the air in that sometimes nobody knew if they were working on a Phil solo record or a Lizzy album . " Snowy White had previously felt that , as a member of Thin Lizzy , he should have been paid as a session player to appear on Lynott 's solo recordings .
In April 1981 , the band 's first ' greatest hits ' album was released , and The Adventures of Thin Lizzy reached no . 6 in the UK , although a stand @-@ alone single , " Trouble Boys " , only reached no . 53 , the band 's worst chart placing since 1975 . According to White and Wharton , Lynott was the only person who wanted to release it , and nobody else liked the song . " Trouble Boys " had even been pencilled in as the title for the new album , but the single 's chart failure resulted in the song being dropped from the album and the title changed to Renegade . One highlight for the band at this time was headlining the first @-@ ever Slane Castle concert on 16 August , with support from Kirsty McColl , Hazel O 'Connor and U2 .
Lynott 's second solo album , The Philip Lynott Album , was delayed until 1982 while Renegade was completed and released in November 1981 . Renegade was not successful , only reaching no . 38 in the UK and no . 157 in the US . A single , " Hollywood ( Down on Your Luck ) " , also flopped , although it did reach no . 24 on the US Mainstream Rock chart . Despite only two songs from the album being written solely by Lynott , and other members of the band contributing more to the compositions , both Gorham and Wharton have since stated their dissatisfaction with some of the songs , such as " Angel of Death " , " Fats " and " Mexican Blood " . Wharton was omitted from the band photos on the back of the record sleeve , despite the fact that he was by this time a permanent member of the band . " It hurt me a great deal " , he said .
= = = = Thunder and Lightning = = = =
The beginning of 1982 was marred by both Downey and Gorham having to take breaks from the European tour to recover from personal problems . Downey was involved in a fight in a nightclub in Denmark in February , and Gorham was suffering from drug @-@ induced exhaustion . Downey missed five concerts , and was replaced by Mark Nauseef again for three of them , and by Mike Mesbur of support band The Lookalikes for the other two . In March , Gorham collapsed and returned home ; eight concerts were performed as a quartet and six others were postponed .
Later in the year , Lynott went on a solo tour and released his second solo album , which did not sell particularly well . Snowy White left the band in August 1982 , having tired of the disorganised schedules and Lynott 's drug problems , although by his own admission he was too restrained and quiet to fit in well with his more raucous bandmates . White went on to achieve top ten chart success in the UK with his single " Bird of Paradise " in 1983 . Long @-@ time co @-@ manager Chris O 'Donnell also left at this time , later stating , " A once @-@ brilliant band was turning to crap before my very eyes . "
Lynott wanted to find a replacement for White before starting to record the next album , which would turn out to be the band 's last . By September 1982 , he had settled on John Sykes who had been a member of Tygers of Pan Tang , and he co @-@ wrote the first single from the album , " Cold Sweat " , although the rest of the album had already been written . Thunder and Lightning was released in March 1983 , and was much more successful than its predecessor , reaching no . 4 in the UK . Sykes ' presence had rejuvenated the band musically , the composing credits were evenly shared , and the style had grown much heavier , veering towards heavy metal .
The tour to support the album was to be a farewell tour , although Lynott was not convinced that this would be the end of the band . Sykes wanted to continue , although Gorham had had enough . The tour was successful , and some concerts were recorded to compile a live album . Partway into the tour , many of Thin Lizzy 's past guitarists were invited onstage to contribute to some of the songs they had originally recorded , the only exception being Snowy White . The album was released in October 1983 as Life , which included an older performance of " Renegade " featuring White , and reached no . 29 in the UK . The tour continued while two more singles were released , the last of them , " The Sun Goes Down " , only reaching no . 52 in August . Lynott also undertook another solo tour , accompanied by Downey and Sykes , under the name of The Three Musketeers .
After a difficult leg of the tour in Japan , where some members of the band had difficulty obtaining heroin , Thin Lizzy played their final UK concert before their break @-@ up at the Reading Festival on 28 August 1983 , which was eventually released in 1992 as their BBC Radio One Live in Concert album . The last concert came in Nuremberg on 4 September , at the Monsters of Rock festival , after which the band members went their separate ways .
= = = Post @-@ Thin Lizzy projects and tributes ( 1985 – 96 ) = = =
Before the end of 1983 , Phil Lynott formed a new band called Grand Slam , but they were never able to secure a contract with a record company and split by the beginning of 1985 . Sykes and Downey initially agreed to be a part of the band , but Sykes joined Whitesnake and Downey also changed his mind . Lynott began to focus more on his solo career and enjoyed a no . 5 hit single " Out in the Fields " with Gary Moore in May 1985 . The song , composed by Moore , was taken from his solo album Run for Cover featuring various contributions from Lynott . Lynott 's solo efforts did not fare so well , and his last single , " Nineteen " , only reached no . 76 in the UK .
Before his death , Lynott was planning a third solo album , and had spoken to Downey about a possible reformation of Thin Lizzy around March 1986 , with Gorham and Sykes , and had booked studio time for January of that year . However , he died in hospital in Salisbury , Wiltshire , on 4 January 1986 , aged 36 , having suffered from internal abscesses , pneumonia and septicaemia , brought on by his drug dependency , which led to multiple organ failure .
On 17 May , Thin Lizzy reformed for the Self Aid concert , with a line @-@ up of Gary Moore , Downey , Gorham , Wharton and Bob Daisley on bass . Bob Geldof and Moore handled most lead vocals , though various singers got onstage for " Whiskey in the Jar " . A compilation album , Soldier of Fortune , was released in 1987 , and also that year , the " Vibe for Philo " tribute concert in Lynott 's memory was organised by Dublin DJ and promoter Smiley Bolger , which continues on an annual basis on the anniversary of Lynott 's death .
The remaining members of Thin Lizzy did not work together until the recording of the single " Dedication " in October 1990 , when a rough demo of Lynott 's was worked into a finished song to commemorate the fifth anniversary of his death . The song dated from the Grand Slam days and had been originally written with guitarist Laurence Archer . Modern recording techniques were used to replace the guitar and drum tracks with new work by Downey and Gorham . Gary Moore had agreed to participate as well , but ultimately did not do so . The song charted in the UK at no . 35 during early 1991 , and no . 2 in Ireland , and featured on another greatest hits compilation album , Dedication : The Very Best of Thin Lizzy , released in February of that year , which reached no . 8 in the UK album chart . However , a follow @-@ up reissue of " The Boys Are Back in Town " only reached no . 63 in the UK , although it peaked at no . 16 in Ireland .
Following this , numerous small reunion projects began to appear . In 1991 , a line @-@ up featuring Robertson and Downey performed with Bobby Tench on lead vocals , ex @-@ Grand Slam member Doish Nagle on guitar and Doug Brockie on bass . They toured Ireland briefly with a series of " An Evening of Thin Lizzy " concerts . In August 1994 , Downey , Bell , Robertson and Wharton held a tribute concert in Wolverhampton , together with tribute bands Limehouse Lizzy , Ain 't Lizzy and Bad Habitz . Another version of Thin Lizzy was formed later that year by John Sykes ( now also performing lead vocals ) with Downey , Gorham and Wharton , and with bass parts played by Marco Mendoza , who had played with Sykes in Blue Murder from 1991 – 93 . The tour was advertised as a tribute to Phil Lynott . This line @-@ up also played at the Vibe for Philo gig on 4 January 1996 , with a number of other notable musicians including Eric Bell , Midge Ure , Henry Rollins , Therapy ? and Joe Elliott and Rick Savage from Def Leppard .
In 1994 , a collection of Thin Lizzy tracks from the BBC Radio 1 Peel Sessions was released , and yet another compilation album was brought out in 1996 , called Wild One : The Very Best Of Thin Lizzy . This was successful , although strangely it did not feature the title track , " Wild One " .
On 20 August 1996 , Rude Awakening bassist Robert Ryder held " A Celebration of the Life of Philip Lynott " at the Palace in Hollywood , California at the request of Lynott 's mother , Philomena , to commemorate both Phil Lynott 's birthday and the tenth year of his passing . Philomena Lynott , her partner Dennis Keeley , and Smiley Bolger ( Ireland 's Vibe for Philo promoter ) were flown to Los Angeles by Ryder to make a personal appearance at the show . It featured concert performances by Rude Awakening , Billy Sheehan , Rudy Sarzo , John Norum , Carmine Appice , Phantom Blue , Soma , producer Roy Z and his band the Tribe of Gypsies , Mark Ferrari , Oslo , Bang Tango , Stash , Iron Cross and Irish singer @-@ songwriter Mark Dignam .
= = = Thin Lizzy without Lynott ( 1996 – present ) = = =
= = = = 1996 – 2010 = = = =
In 1996 John Sykes decided to reactivate Thin Lizzy , presenting the band as a tribute to Phil Lynott 's life and work . He decided to take on the role of lead vocals himself in the absence of Lynott , and persuaded Scott Gorham , Brian Downey and Darren Wharton to return to the fold . To complete the line @-@ up , Marco Mendoza continued in Lynott 's role as bass player . They received criticism for using the Thin Lizzy name without Lynott being present , but the band only played hits from Thin Lizzy 's back catalogue , and did not compose any new material .
In 1997 , Tommy Aldridge filled in on drums when Brian Downey was unable to , and became a full member when Downey left shortly thereafter . This line @-@ up remained stable through to 2000 , when the group recorded a live album , One Night Only . The band went on to tour the US playing clubs in early 2001 , but Wharton had already left the band by the time of the tour . From 2000 to 2003 , Mendoza toured with Ted Nugent , and with Whitesnake in 2004 . Sykes released two solo albums in the gap in between 2002 – 03 , while Gorham worked with his band 21 Guns .
Wharton later stated that Thin Lizzy would have been better suited to playing fewer concerts , in bigger venues . He also felt that after the experience of fronting his own band Dare , it was not satisfying enough to play keyboards behind Gorham and Sykes . Sykes said that all the previous Thin Lizzy members were welcome to play with Thin Lizzy at any time .
In 2004 , Thin Lizzy worked together again , with Sykes and Gorham bringing in ex @-@ Angel bassist Randy Gregg , and drummer Michael Lee , who had played with Robert Plant and The Cult among others . They toured in North America in both the winter and then the summer as special guests of Deep Purple . This line @-@ up proved temporary however , with Mendoza returning in 2005 , and Aldridge returning in 2007 . There were no plans for a new album though Thin Lizzy continued to tour . At the London Hammersmith Apollo concert of 13 December 2007 , the line @-@ up was Sykes , Gorham , Aldridge and Francesco DiCosmo on bass .
Sykes stated that Thin Lizzy was now " more of a tribute thing " and that it would be wrong to record new material under that name . He added that while the existing band members might record together , it would not be as Thin Lizzy . In 2007 , Gorham said that Lynott still received the biggest cheer of the night at concerts , and that the current Thin Lizzy was not active simply for money . " We 'd stop if we thought we were just going through the motions ... I think that has a lot to do with the songs – if they were inferior , then maybe we would have got tired of it all . But they 're not and we haven 't , " he said . In January 2011 , Gorham maintained that Lynott would have approved of the continuation of the band : " He worked long hours and travelled thousands of miles to get it to a certain level . There 's no way he would have said ' No @-@ one should play those songs again . ' "
It had been announced that Thin Lizzy , along with The Answer , were to support AC / DC at stadium shows in England , Ireland and Scotland at the end of June 2009 , but these appearances were cancelled after drummer Aldridge broke his collarbone in an accident . On 30 June , the band 's website announced that Sykes had left Thin Lizzy and all shows for the rest of 2009 were cancelled or postponed . Gorham stated that he would announce Thin Lizzy 's future plans shortly . In a statement , he said , " It 's been a very tough time of late for myself and the band , firstly with drummer Tommy Aldridge 's injury and now the subsequent decision for John and the rest of the group to go their separate ways . I can only apologise to everyone who has supported us over the years , but we will be back up to full speed soon . "
= = = = 2010 – 17 : Ricky Warwick era and Black Star Riders = = = =
In September 2009 , Gorham began to assemble a new version of Thin Lizzy , and in May 2010 a new line @-@ up was announced . Joining Gorham was original drummer Brian Downey , long @-@ standing keyboardist Darren Wharton , Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell , and singer Ricky Warwick from The Almighty , while Marco Mendoza returned to fill the bass guitar role . Ex @-@ Lizzy guitarist Brian Robertson was asked if he wanted to participate but had previous commitments to his own solo career .
In addition to a full UK and European tour beginning in January 2011 , the band initially announced a concert for 4 January at the O2 Arena in Dublin , which was in conflict with the 2011 " Vibe for Philo " . The tour itself started on 6 January at the Music Hall Aberdeen in the UK , with the band finishing the tour in The Olympia , Dublin on 17 February 2011 , having cancelled the O2 show .
It was announced in April 2011 that Vivian Campbell would have to leave Thin Lizzy to rejoin Def Leppard after one final gig on 28 May . He was replaced by Guns N ' Roses guitarist Richard Fortus . On 28 August , it was announced that Damon Johnson of Alice Cooper 's band would be replacing Fortus for Thin Lizzy 's tour of the US with Judas Priest . Fortus returned to tour with Guns N ' Roses for the rest of the year , and Johnson has since replaced Fortus permanently .
In March 2011 , Gorham told Billboard.com that Thin Lizzy may record a new album in the future , saying , " That 's the No. 1 question we 're getting from people – are we gonna record some new material ? The fans seem to trust this line @-@ up , and I don 't blame them . We 've kind of jumped this emotional hurdle together . Ricky 's writing some fucking killer lyrics , and with the kind of talent that 's in Thin Lizzy now I think we can pull off a really cool set of tunes . At least it 's something that we can think about now , where before it wasn 't on the table . " On 25 June 2012 , Thin Lizzy were in the studio recording new material , although it was not clear how many songs would be recorded or released .
On 10 October 2012 , Thin Lizzy announced that the new material would not be released under the Thin Lizzy name , but would be released under a different name in due course . According to Gorham , this was " out of respect to Phil Lynott and the legacy he created " , though he confirmed that the new material would feature the classic Thin Lizzy sound . Ricky Warwick announced that the group would cease regular touring as Thin Lizzy at the end of 2012 , but that this did not necessarily mean they would never play as Thin Lizzy again .
On 20 December 2012 , Gorham announced that the new material would be recorded under the name of Black Star Riders , and that Downey and Wharton had chosen not to participate in the new band project . Downey has decided to take a break from touring , and Wharton will be working on his own band Dare , and a film project . It was also announced that in March 2013 , the band would tour Australia under the Thin Lizzy name , with Downey and Wharton , as the opening act on a triple bill with Mötley Crüe and Kiss . Gorham stressed that Thin Lizzy would still perform together occasionally : " We 'll still go out as Thin Lizzy . There are still certain big festivals that we will do . Thin Lizzy is still on the horizon , we will still go out and do that but in the meantime we have Black Star Riders that we are going to concentrate on also . "
On 19 January 2016 , it was announced that the band will perform a " half dozen or so " dates in mid @-@ 2016 and early 2017 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the band 's formation and the 30th anniversary of Lynott 's death . Two festival dates were initially revealed : the first will be the Ramblin ' Man Fair in Maidstone , Kent on 23 July 2016 , with the other being the Rock Legends Cruise in Fort Lauderdale , Florida on 19 – 23 January 2017 . The lineup for these shows was to be Gorham , Warwick , Johnson and Wharton with Motörhead drummer Mikkey Dee initially confirmed as standing in for Downey . Further dates were announced soon afterwards , at the Monsters of Rock shows in Germany on 17 and 18 June 2016 , in Barcelona on 17 July , and the Skogsrojet Festival in Sweden on 6 August .
On 19 April it was announced that Dee would not be participating after all , and that Judas Priest drummer Scott Travis would be taking Downey 's place for all shows except Sweden on 6 August , when Europe drummer Ian Haugland will play . Also , Aerosmith bass guitarist Tom Hamilton was confirmed as Thin Lizzy 's bassist for these shows .
= = Other Thin Lizzy releases and tributes = =
A boxed set of four CDs of Thin Lizzy material was released in December 2001 as Vagabonds , Kings , Warriors , Angels . It contained all of the band 's major hits , and included some rare songs , such as the first single " The Farmer " , and single B @-@ sides . In 2004 and 2006 , two further greatest hits compilations were released , with 2004 's double CD Greatest Hits climbing all the way to No. 3 in the UK album chart .
On 19 August 2005 , Gary Moore staged a concert at the Point Theatre , Dublin , promoted as " The Boy Is Back in Town " . The concert was staged to mark the unveiling of a bronze statue of Lynott on Dublin 's Harry Street in the city centre . The performance also featured Brian Downey , Eric Bell , Brian Robertson and Scott Gorham , and included many classic Lizzy songs , such as " Whiskey in the Jar " , " Still in Love With You " , " Cowboy Song " , " Emerald " and " The Boys Are Back in Town . " A DVD of the concert was released as One Night in Dublin : A Tribute to Phil Lynott .
On 8 September 2008 , a 15 @-@ track album UK Tour ' 75 was released featuring the band performing at Derby College on 21 November 1975 . The album includes a 20 @-@ page booklet of previously @-@ unseen photos , liner notes written by Brian Downey and extra material of the band jamming during their soundcheck .
In March 2009 , VH1 Classic Records issued the band @-@ authorised Still Dangerous : Live At The Tower Theatre Philadelphia , 1977 , a live CD recorded on the Bad Reputation tour . It was produced by Gorham and Glyn Johns , and Johns also mixed the record . It reached No. 98 in the UK chart . Gorham has suggested there will be further archival releases in the future .
On 24 January 2011 , Universal Music issued remastered and expanded editions of Jailbreak , Johnny the Fox and Live and Dangerous . Jailbreak and Johnny the Fox are double CD editions with the second disc containing outtakes , BBC session recordings and newly remixed versions of two of that particular album 's tracks . Live and Dangerous also comes as a double CD set , with two bonus tracks which are both unused live recordings . Previous CD editions of Live and Dangerous were single discs .
Universal followed this with remasters of Bad Reputation , Black Rose and Chinatown , and in early 2012 , Nightlife and Fighting . Finally , Renegade and Thunder and Lightning were remastered and re @-@ released in 2013 .
= = Style and legacy = =
From 1974 , Thin Lizzy switched from using one lead guitarist to two . Though others had earlier used similar techniques , Thin Lizzy are widely recognised as one of the first hard rock bands to employ double lead guitar harmony sound – a technique pioneered by Peter Green 's Fleetwood Mac and Wishbone Ash in the UK , whilst independently in the US by Lynyrd Skynyrd and The Allman Brothers Band . This style was later refined and popularised in the mid @-@ 1970s by bands like Thin Lizzy and Judas Priest , and later by the emerging new wave of British heavy metal groups such as Iron Maiden and Def Leppard . Iron Maiden covered the song " Massacre " from Thin Lizzy 's Johnny the Fox album , and released it on their 1988 single " Can I Play with Madness " . A cover of Cowboy Song appears on Sound of White Noise by Anthrax as the bonus track for the album 's Japanese release .
Thin Lizzy are also a major inspiration for modern heavy metal bands such as Metallica , Alice in Chains , Mastodon and Testament . Mastodon covered Thin Lizzy 's classic " Emerald " , which was included as a bonus track for the Japanese release of their album Remission . They have played the song live several times , including an acoustic version with Scott Gorham on guitar . Henry Rollins has expressed a fondness for Thin Lizzy , and the Rollins Band covered their song " Are You Ready ? " on their album Get Some Go Again ( 2000 ) . The 2005 release from The Great Divide included a cover of " Cowboy Song " in two parts . Megadeth covered Thin Lizzy 's " Cold Sweat " on their 2013 release , Super Collider .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Thin Lizzy ( 1971 )
Shades of a Blue Orphanage ( 1972 )
Vagabonds of the Western World ( 1973 )
Nightlife ( 1974 )
Fighting ( 1975 )
Jailbreak ( 1976 )
Johnny the Fox ( 1976 )
Bad Reputation ( 1977 )
Black Rose : A Rock Legend ( 1979 )
Chinatown ( 1980 )
Renegade ( 1981 )
Thunder and Lightning ( 1983 )
|
= The Chase ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" The Chase " is the sixteenth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy @-@ drama series , Desperate Housewives , and the 127th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on ABC in the United States on February 28 , 2010 . In the episode , Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) gets a break from the children when one of them catches chickenpox , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) forgets her daughter 's birthday , and Katherine ( Dana Delany ) continues to explore her feelings of lesbianism .
The episode was written by John Pardee and Joey Murphy , and directed by Larry Shaw . It included the third in a string of guest appearances by Julie Benz , a former stripper who serves as a romantic interest for Katherine . The pairing marked the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives . " The Chase " also marked the first appearance of Samuel Page , who plays a mysterious man named Sam Allen who takes an unusually strong interest in Bree ( Marcia Cross ) .
" The Chase " received generally mixed to negative reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 10 @.@ 89 million viewers , making it the second lowest rated Desperate Housewives episode at the time . Viewership for " The Chase " suffered due to competition from the 2010 Winter Olympics closing ceremony .
= = Plot = =
= = = Back story = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents on the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) has encouraged a stripper Robin Gallagher ( Julie Benz ) to quit her job and turn her life around . Robin briefly lived with Susan , but moved out after Susan became jealous of Robin living in the same house as her husband , Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) . Robin moved in with Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) and revealed she was a lesbian , prompting the heterosexual Katherine to start developing romantic feelings for Robin . Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) is pregnant , despite being a middle @-@ aged career woman and already having four children . This has caused strain for Lynette and her husband , Tom Scavo ( Doug Savant ) . Bree ( Marcia Cross ) is the ambitious owner of a catering company , and her son Andrew ( Shawn Pyfrom ) works as her personal assistant . Angie ( Drea de Matteo ) and Nick Bolen ( Jeffrey Nordling ) recently moved onto Wisteria Lane to escape circumstances in their old home of New York City that are yet to be fully explained . Gabrielle and her husband Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) overheard the Bolens arguing about their circumstances , and have grown concerned about their niece Ana ( Maiara Walsh ) dating the Bolens ' son , Danny ( Beau Mirchoff ) . As a result , they convinced Ana to leave Danny and pursue her modeling career in New York City , but Danny has secretly gone into the city to find her .
= = = Episode = = =
Still struggling with her growing feelings of lesbianism , Katherine has a dream in which she seduces Robin . Katherine 's therapist suggests she stop living with Robin because she is interfering with her recovery . Later , while celebrating Robin 's new job , she accidentally spills champagne on her top and takes it off , causing Katherine to blurt out that she wants her to leave because she has feelings for her . Robin agrees to leave , but Katherine follows her upstairs , and they end up in bed together .
Celia Solis ( Daniella Baltodano ) , one of the Solis ' daughters , comes down with chickenpox . Since Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) has never had the illness , she is forced to leave the house . She stays with neighbors Bob ( Tuc Watkins ) and Lee ( Kevin Rahm ) , where she enjoys partying and drinking with them so much she tries to prolong her visit . During a party , Gabrielle accidentally stumbles into a nursery , and learns Bob and Lee have been trying to adopt a baby . With a new appreciation for her children , Gabrielle returns home .
Distracted by her pregnancy , Lynette and Tom are horrified to realize they have forgotten their daughter Penny 's ( Kendall Applegate ) birthday . Lynette tries to organize a last @-@ minute party , but mistakenly has the wrong name written on her cake . Penny runs away and checks into a hotel room , where Lynette tracks her and apologizes . Penny said she is jealous of her unborn sister , but Lynette jokes the women will outnumber the men in the family when the baby is born .
One of Bree 's employees , Tad ( Eric Ian Colton ) , keeps making major mistakes , but Andrew defends him . Later , a mysterious man named Sam Allen ( Samuel Page ) visits Bree , insisting he understands her values and wants to work for her . Although initially hesitant , Bree is impressed and hires him . Later , Andrew gets upset when Bree plans to fire Tad , and Sam correctly assesses that Andrew is having an affair with him . Later , Sam hints to Bree that Andrew should be let go , then secretly drinks coffee from Andrew 's " World 's Greatest Son " mug .
Susan encourages her elderly neighbor Roy ( Orson Bean ) to propose to his girlfriend Karen ( Kathryn Joosten ) , and he does so after Karen indicates she wants to get married . Later , however , Roy laments to Susan about being put in the situation , and fears he will start lusting after other women now that he is engaged . Later , Karen learns she may have lung cancer . Roy tells Susan he is marrying Karen because he now realizes he does not want to lose Karen , and is sure she will beat the cancer .
Danny Bolen leaves a note claiming to be camping with his friend Eddie ( Josh Zuckerman ) , but Angie runs into Eddie at a grocery store and realizes Danny has actually run off to New York City seeking Ana . Fearing a man from their past named Patrick will find Danny , Angie and Nick head to New York to find him .
= = Production = =
" The Chase " was written by John Pardee and Joey Murphy , and directed by Larry Shaw . It originally aired on ABC in the United States on February 28 , 2010 , and was broadcast on CTV in Canada the same day . The episode introduced the character Sam Allen , a mysterious man who starts working for Bree and takes what appears to be an unusually strong interest in her . The character , who is set to appear in several episodes , is played by Samuel Page , an actor best known as the husband of Christina Hendricks ' character Joan Holloway in the AMC drama series Mad Men . " The Chase " marked the third in a string of at least four guest appearances by actress Julie Benz as Robin Gallagher , a former stripper seeking a new life . Benz joined the show soon after her departure as a regular cast member from the Showtime drama series Dexter , where her character Rita Morgan was killed in the fourth season finale , " The Getaway " . Benz said of filming the episode , " ' The girls are all so fun to work with and have welcomed me with open arms . I 'm so thrilled that there is such a buzz about my character 's relationship with Dana 's . "
" The Chase " continued an ongoing storyline of Katherine Mayfair exploring her sexuality . The pairing of Katherine and Robin marks the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives . Actress Dana Delany praised the subplot . She said she did not know if the character would become a lesbian permanently , because the story lines change so often in Desperate Housewives , but that series creator Marc Cherry " is interested in playing the complexity of that " . Delany compared Katherine 's new realizations to that of actress Meredith Baxter , who realized she was a lesbian late in her life after entering into a relationship with a woman . Delany said she believed her character would be taken by surprise by the new feelings she is experiencing : " I think that she ’ s still so emotionally vulnerable from getting out of the loony bin , and I think she and Robin connect on a kind of wounded , emotional level . And I think if anything , she ’ s feeling this kind of emotional solace with her , and that draws her to Robin in a physical way , and that ’ s confusing to her . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Chase " was seen by 10 @.@ 89 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 3 @.@ 6 rating / 9 share , which at the time was the lowest rating for an individual episode of Desperate Housewives in series history . This continued a downward trend in the ratings for the show : each of the previous three episodes had been the lowest rated in series history until the airing of the next episode in the subsequent week . " The Chase " dropped in viewership three percent from the previous episode , " Lovely " . Like that episode , " The Chase " suffered in the ratings partially due to competition from the NBC broadcast of the 2010 Winter Olympics , which drew an estimated 21 @.@ 3 million viewers . Desperate Housewives was also outperformed by the CBS reality series Undercover Boss which , in its fourth episode , drew 15 @.@ 15 million viewers .
The episode received generally mixed to negative reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky was highly critical of the episode , describing the Gabrielle story as predictable , the Susan subplot as boring and the overall Bolen story arc as too slow in developing . Stransky also felt the Katherine and Robin pairing was unbelievable , and questioned whether the show 's audiences of families and midwesterners would respond well to a lesbian pairing . Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC praised Longoria for turning what he said could have been a gloomy story into " a gleeful fantasy " . Cooper said the character was fun and funny but ultimately heartfelt and caring . Conversely , Cooper said the subplots involving the other housewives were " all pretty standard , and dreary , stuff " .
Los Angeles Times writer Gerrick Kennedy said he liked the Robin character 's charm and chemistry with Katherine , and said their story arc " has already grown infinitely more interesting than the Angie Bolen mystery " . He said the relationship made more sense for Katherine than her previous subplots involving her romance with Mike and her mental breakdown following their break @-@ up . Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad said she was glad the episode was centered on the supporting cast , particularly praising the attention to Bob and Lee , but she said that did not like the direction the Andrew character had taken , and felt the relationship between Katherine and Robin had evolved too fast .
|
= Italian cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi ( 1899 ) =
Giuseppe Garibaldi was the lead ship of the her class of armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . The ship often served as a flagship and made several deployments to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant during her career . At the beginning of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 she bombarded Tripoli . Giuseppe Garibaldi bombarded Beirut in early 1912 and sank an Ottoman ironclad there . Several months later she bombarded the defenses of the Dardanelles .
The ship spent several months deployed to Albania after the end of the First Balkan War in 1913 to protect Italian interests there . Giuseppe Garibaldi was sunk by an Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine in the Adriatic Sea shortly after Italy declared war on the Central Powers in 1915 with the loss of 53 crewmen . Her wreck was discovered in 2008 and has been examined by underwater archaeologists in subsequent years .
= = Design and description = =
Giuseppe Garibaldi had an overall length of 111 @.@ 8 meters ( 366 ft 10 in ) , a beam of 18 @.@ 2 meters ( 59 ft 9 in ) and a deep draft ( ship ) of 7 @.@ 3 meters ( 23 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 350 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 230 long tons ) at normal load . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam from 24 coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers . The engines were rated 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and designed to give a speed of approximately 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 September 1900 , Giuseppe Garibaldi failed to reach her designed speed , reaching 19 @.@ 7 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 mph ) from 14 @,@ 713 ihp ( 10 @,@ 971 kW ) . She had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her complement ordinarily consisted of 555 officers and enlisted men and 578 when acting as a flagship .
Her main armament consisted of one 254 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) gun in a turret forward of the superstructure and two 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 in ) guns in a twin turret aft . Ten of the 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) guns that comprised her secondary armament were arranged in casemates amidships ; the remaining four 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the upper deck . Giuseppe Garibaldi also had ten 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) and six 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns to defend herself against torpedo boats . She was fitted with four single 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and tapered to 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the ends of the ship . The conning tower , casemates , and gun turrets were also protected by 150 @-@ millimeter armor . Her protective deck armour was 37 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the 152 @-@ millimeter guns on the upper deck were protected by gun shields 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Giuseppe Garibaldi , named after General Giuseppe Garibaldi , one of the founders of modern Italy , was laid down at the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa @-@ Sestri Ponente on 21 September 1898 and launched on 29 June 1899 . While conducting preliminary steam trials on 12 July 1900 , tubes in two of her boilers burst , killing one crewman and wounding two others . Repairs took until 10 August and she was completed on 1 January 1901 . From 23 July to 2 October 1902 , the ship cruised the Mediterranean , making port calls at Tripoli and in the Aegean Sea . The following year , Giuseppe Garibaldi made port visits to Algiers , Salonica , and Piraeus , Greece . During the 1905 fleet maneuvers , she was assigned to the " hostile " force blockading La Maddalena , Sardinia . The ship was part of the international expeditionary force that occupied Lemnos and Mytilene in November – December 1905 in an failed effort to force the Ottoman Empire to pay its debts to European countries in a timely manner . Together with her sister ships Francesco Ferruccio and Varese , the ship was in Marseilles , France on 15 – 16 September 1906 to participate in a fleet review for Armand Fallières , President of France , on the latter date . Giuseppe Garibaldi was deployed to the Levant in May – July 1907 and again in June 1908 .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War began on 29 September 1911 , she was flagship of the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , commanded by Rear Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , and was one of the ships that bombarded Tripoli on 3 – 4 October . Giuseppe Garibaldi was the first ship to enter the harbor after the conclusion of the bombardment when a small landing party entered Fort Hamidiye and disabled the breech mechanisms of the fort 's guns . The desultory bombardment killed 12 Ottoman soldiers and severely wounded 23 more in addition to 7 dead civilians . On 13 October , the three sisters sailed to Augusta , Sicily to recoal . The ship andVarese were in Tobruk in January 1912 while the bulk of the fleet was refitting in Italy .
Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francesco Ferruccio bombarded Beirut on 24 February 1912 , setting the elderly Ottoman ironclad Avnillâh on fire . Giuseppe Garibaldi later entered the harbor and torpedoed the ironclad , sinking it and killing two officers and 40 enlisted men . Her entry forced the torpedo boat Ankara to scuttle itself . Varese is sometimes credited with participating also in the bombardment . The bombardment killed over 140 civilians and wounded more than 200 . On 18 April , Giuseppe Garibaldi and Varese bombarded the fortifications at the Dardanelles , heavily damaging them . After returning to Italy later that month , the ship began a refit that lasted through mid @-@ June that included replacing her worn @-@ out guns .
After the end of the First Balkan War in May 1913 , Giuseppe Garibaldi was deployed to the Albanian port of Scutari to ensure that it was returned by Montenegro to the Ottoman Empire and to protect Italian interests in the city . She returned home in August before deploying to Benghazi in February – March 1914 .
When Italy declared war on the Central Powers in May 1915 , she was the flagship of the 5th Cruiser Division , commanded by Rear Admiral Eugenio Trifari , and based at Brindisi . On 5 June the division bombarded rail lines near Ragusa , modern Dubrovnik , and departed Brindisi on the evening of 17 July to do the same near Ragusa Vecchia the following morning . Shortly after beginning the bombardment at 04 : 00 , Giuseppe Garibaldi was struck by one torpedo , on the starboard side near the aft boiler rooms , fired by the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine U @-@ 4 . She sank within minutes on an even keel , although only 53 crewmen were killed . The remaining 525 were rescued by three destroyers left behind to rescue survivors as the division immediately retreated to avoid further attacks .
The wreck of the Giuseppe Garibaldi is upside @-@ down and located at coordinates 42 ° 28 @.@ 362 ′ N 18 ° 16 @.@ 758 ′ E south @-@ east of Dubrovnik , Croatia , at the depth of 122 meters ( 400 ft ) . The wreck was initially located by a Czech expedition in 2008 although the death of one diver on 9 September forestalled any investigation of the wreck . The group also lacked any permits to dive on Giuseppe Garibaldi as it is a protected war grave which caused them to be expelled from the country . A follow @-@ up Croatian expedition explored and filmed the wreck in August 2009 using CCR ( Closed Circuit Rebreather ) technology . Official expeditions were made in November 2009 and May 2010 to the wreck by an international team of underwater archaeologists .
|
= Milos Raonic =
Milos Raonic ( / ˈmiːloʊʃ ˈraʊnɪtʃ / MEE @-@ lohsh ROW @-@ nich ; Serbian : Милош Раонић , Miloš Raonić [ mîloʃ râonitɕ ] ; born December 27 , 1990 ) is a Canadian professional tennis player . He reached a career @-@ high world No. 4 singles ranking on May 11 , 2015 , as ranked by the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) . His career highlights include a Grand Slam final at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships ; two Grand Slam semifinals at the 2014 Wimbledon Championships and 2016 Australian Open ; and three ATP World Tour Masters 1000 finals at the 2013 Canadian Open , 2014 Paris Masters , and 2016 Indian Wells Masters .
Raonic first gained international acclaim by reaching the fourth round of the 2011 Australian Open as a qualifier , being referred to as " the real deal " , " a new star " , part of " a new generation " , and " a future superstar " . Coupled with his first ATP World Tour title three weeks later , his world ranking rose from No. 152 to No. 37 in one month . He was awarded the 2011 ATP Newcomer of the Year , and has been ranked continuously inside the top 20 since August 2012 . Raonic is the first player born in the 1990s to win an ATP World Tour title , to be ranked in the top 10 , and to qualify for the ATP World Tour Finals . He has eight ATP World Tour titles .
Raonic is the most successful Canadian singles player in history . He became the highest @-@ ranked Canadian male ever on February 21 , 2011 when he reached world No. 37 . His career @-@ high world No. 4 ranking is the highest by a Canadian man or woman . He is the first Canadian male in the Open Era to reach the Australian Open semifinals , the French Open quarterfinals , and the Wimbledon final . He has more ATP World Tour titles and finals appearances in the Open Era than all other Canadian men combined .
Raonic is frequently described as having one of the best serves among his contemporaries . Statistically , Raonic is among the strongest servers in the Open Era , winning 91 % of service games to rank third all @-@ time . Aided by his serve , he plays an all @-@ court style with an emphasis on short points . Every one of his singles titles has been won on hard courts .
= = Early and personal life = =
Raonic was born on December 27 , 1990 , in Titograd , SFR Yugoslavia ( now Podgorica , Montenegro ) , and is of Serb heritage . Prompted by the political unrest in the Balkans , and seeking more professional opportunities , his family moved to Canada in 1994 when he was three , settling in Brampton , Ontario . His parents are both engineers ; his father , Dušan , holds a Ph.D. in electrical engineering , while his mother , Vesna , has degrees in mechanical and computer engineering , including a master 's . He has two siblings , both significantly older : his sister , Jelena , has a master 's degree in international trade and finance and is eleven years older , while his brother , Momir , has a degree in information technology and business and is nine years older . Raonic 's uncle , Branimir Gvozdenović , is a politician in the Government of Montenegro , where he has served as Deputy Prime Minister . Raonic is fluent in Serbian and English .
His first , brief introduction to tennis came at age six or seven with a week @-@ long tennis camp at the Bramalea Tennis Club in Brampton , followed by weekly hour @-@ long group sessions led by tennis coach Steve Gibson , who recognized his potential . He moved to nearby Thornhill , Ontario soon after , and one or two years passed before he asked his parents if he could play again . His father sought out coach Casey Curtis at the Blackmore Tennis Club in Richmond Hill , Ontario . Curtis was at first reluctant to take on Raonic , but was convinced after Raonic demonstrated his commitment by working with his father and a ball machine daily for two months . Years later , Raonic said he chose tennis because of its " individuality and [ because he ] felt [ he ] could train more alone and on a ball machine with [ his ] dad " .
Raonic and Curtis worked together " twice a day , almost every day , for the next nine years . " Provided that he complete his courses , Raonic was allowed to reduce his hours of attendance at Thornhill Elementary School so that he could practice more , which he did both before and after school . His parents and siblings supported his tennis , taking turns driving him to practice and tournaments , but did not push him to it or interfere with coaching . Rather , they emphasized school throughout , insisting that he maintain academic excellence as a prerequisite to playing tennis . He attended Thornhill Secondary School , and accelerated his course load — achieving an 82 percent average — so that he could graduate a year early . Late in 2007 , at the age of 16 , Raonic moved to Montreal as one of the first group of players at Tennis Canada 's new National Tennis Centre , thus marking the end of his formal relationship with Curtis .
Raonic 's four favourite sports teams are FC Barcelona , the Toronto Blue Jays , the Toronto Maple Leafs , and the Toronto Raptors . He played in the 2016 NBA All @-@ Star Celebrity Game held in Toronto .
He worked for Rogers Sportsnet as an analyst while recovering from injury for their broadcast of the 2011 Canadian Open . In November 2011 , Raonic won an exhibition match against his childhood idol , Pete Sampras , which was dubbed " The Face Off . " In 2012 , he took up residence in Monte Carlo , Monaco in a 50 metre2 ( 538 sq ft ) apartment , located minutes away from the Monte Carlo Country Club — his " home " tennis club and the site of the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters tournament — and Stade Louis II , which he uses for off @-@ court training . Raonic has been dating Canadian model Danielle Knudson since 2014 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 2011 , while recovering from a hip injury sustained at Wimbledon , Raonic decided to become involved with philanthropic work , focusing on helping disadvantaged children . The following year , in 2012 , Raonic launched the Milos Raonic Foundation , which aims to " support children from disadvantaged backgrounds in order to remove economic , physical and other barriers that might prevent them from becoming healthy , productive members of society . ... In the initial stages of its work , the foundation will focus , in particular , on children with physical disabilities . " As of 2016 , the foundation had awarded $ 120 @,@ 000 in grants to the Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital , and $ 30 @,@ 000 to the Canadian Paralympic Committee . Raonic and his parents are the three directors of the foundation , which has partnered with ATP Aces for Charity .
Several celebrity fundraising events have been held in conjunction with the foundation . On November 15 , 2012 , the inaugural " Raonic Race for Kids " was held , with multiple teams competing in quick physical and intellectual challenges . Teams were led by celebrities , including Canadian Football Hall of Fame quarterback Damon Allen and tennis players Eugenie Bouchard and Daniel Nestor . The next night , a second " Face Off " event featured exhibition matches between Raonic and Andy Roddick , and between Serena Williams and Agnieszka Radwańska . In November 2013 , the second " Raonic Race for Kids " featured Davis Cup captain Martin Laurendeau , musician Jim Cuddy , and broadcaster George Stroumboulopoulos . The third " Raonic Race for Kids " in November 2014 featured Tennis Canada CEO Kelly Murumets , soccer player Dwayne De Rosario , and figure @-@ skating champions Patrick Chan , Tessa Virtue , and Scott Moir .
= = Tennis career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Raonic first competed at a junior event sanctioned by the International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) in October 2003 at the age of 12 . Two years later , in October 2005 , he picked up his first singles match victory at age 14 . His first juniors titles in both singles and doubles came at the same Grade 4 tournament in October 2006 . Later that year , he won the Prince Cup doubles title , partnering fellow Canadian Vasek Pospisil for the first time at an ITF event . Pospisil and Raonic partnered at four more junior tournaments , including the 2008 Wimbledon Championships and the 2008 French Open , reaching the semifinals in the latter . His most notable titles as a junior were in doubles , winning two Grade 1 events in 2008 partnered with Bradley Klahn .
Over five years , Raonic compiled a 53 – 30 win – loss record in singles , and a 56 – 24 record in doubles on the ITF Junior Circuit . Except for reaching the semifinals at the 2008 French Open in doubles , Raonic did not advance past the second round of junior Grand Slam events . His career @-@ high combined junior ranking , which considers both singles and doubles results , was No. 35 .
While an amateur , Raonic played in fourteen professional tournaments against adults in North America : ten ITF Futures events at the introductory ( bottom ) tier of professional tennis ; three ATP Challenger Tour events at the middle tier ; and one ATP World Tour event at the top tier . He played his first professional circuit match in the qualifying draw of an ITF Futures tournament in Toronto in October 2005 at the age of 14 ; he won his first professional circuit main draw match at an ITF Futures tournament in Gatineau , Quebec , in March 2007 against Fabrice Martin . With the win , Raonic earned his first world ranking of No. 1518 . He played his first professional circuit doubles match at the same tournament , partnered with Pospisil again . Raonic lost his first ATP Challenger Tour match in Granby , Quebec , in July 2007 against Gary Lugassy . Raonic won his first ITF Futures doubles title in Gatineau , Quebec in March 2008 , and reached his first ITF Futures singles final two weeks later in Sherbrooke , Quebec . He received a wildcard to the qualifying tournament of the 2008 Canadian Open , but lost in the first round to Alexander Kudryavtsev . The match was his first in the ATP World Tour .
By the summer of 2008 , Raonic had received scholarship offers from several colleges , including the University of Michigan , Princeton , and Northwestern University , and committed to play for the University of Virginia that fall while studying finance . Just two weeks before school started , he consulted his parents about his plan to turn professional instead . Raonic and his parents agreed that he would take correspondence courses in finance from Athabasca University while starting a professional tennis career , setting a deadline of two years for reaching the top 100 . During that summer , his world ranking ranged between No. 915 and No. 937 . Raonic reached the top 100 in January 2011 , around five months later than the target deadline . He thus turned down the scholarships and turned professional , agreeing to be represented by the sports agency SFX . University of Virginia men 's tennis coach Brian Boland later commented that " I have only seen two guys turn down scholarships and then succeed quickly on the Tour : Sam Querrey and Milos Raonic . "
= = = 2008 – 2010 : Early professional years = = =
After turning professional in September 2008 until the end of 2010 , Raonic played both singles and doubles , primarily at ITF Futures and ATP Challenger tournaments . He won his first ITF Futures singles title in March 2009 in Montreal . He added three more singles titles and five doubles titles at the ITF Futures level in 2009 and 2010 . He was less successful at the ATP Challenger level , tallying only one title . In his fourth tournament after turning professional , Raonic won the doubles title at the Men 's Rimouski Challenger in November 2008 , partnered with Pospisil .
At the ATP World Tour level , Raonic gained entry into few tournaments , compiling a main draw record of three wins and five losses over nearly two and half years . In 2009 , Raonic again received a wildcard for the qualifying tournament of the Canadian Open . This time , he beat world No. 77 Teymuraz Gabashvili and No. 113 Michaël Llodra to qualify for the main draw of an ATP World Tour tournament for the first time . In the first round , he held a match point , but lost to world No. 10 Fernando Gonzalez in three sets . The matches against Gabashvili and Gonzalez were the first singles matches for Raonic against a top 100 player and top 10 player , respectively .
A year later , at the 2010 Canadian Open , Raonic and Pospisil were given a doubles wildcard to the main draw , marking Raonic 's first ever ATP World Tour doubles match . They won their first round match against Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic . It was first time that the world Nos. 1 and 2 had played together in a tour doubles match since Jimmy Connors and Arthur Ashe did so in 1976 . In the second round , Raonic and Pospisil lost to reigning Wimbledon doubles champions Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner . After the match , Raonic said : " Our goal here is pretty much as ambassadors to Canada . The more players that we can get to come , the more people we can get going to take tennis lessons . "
Less than a month later , Raonic gained entry into a Grand Slam tournament for the first time at the 2010 US Open . He qualified for the main draw , but lost in the first round to Carsten Ball . Raonic 's first ATP main draw singles victory came in September 2010 at the Malaysian Open against world No. 105 Igor Kunitsyn . He followed this with a second round victory over world No. 31 Sergiy Stakhovsky . The following week , Raonic lost in the second round of the 2010 Japan Open to world No. 1 Nadal . This marked his first singles match against a player ranked No. 1 , and his first singles match against a member of the Big Four — a quartet of dominant tennis players including Nadal , Djokovic , Roger Federer , and Andy Murray .
Raonic 's coaching relationship evolved during his early professional years . Since late 2007 , Raonic had been working with Tennis Canada coaches — including Guillaume Marx , Head Boys National Coach — based out of the National Training Centre at Jarry Park in Montreal . In November 2009 , with Raonic 's world ranking at No. 377 , Tennis Canada hired recently retired former player Frédéric Niemeyer to coach Raonic and travel with him for 18 weeks during the 2010 season . Toward the end of 2010 , however , Niemeyer decided to travel less owing to " family considerations . " As a result , Tennis Canada arranged for a two @-@ week trial period with former world No. 40 Galo Blanco in co @-@ operation with Niemeyer , including tournaments in Malaysia and Japan in late September and early October . Over this period , Raonic climbed from No. 237 to No. 155 . Tennis Canada hired Blanco , and Raonic moved to Barcelona to train with Blanco and trainer Tony Estalella . Commenting on the training regiment , Blanco said " the off @-@ season Milos had this winter in Barcelona was amazing . We never saw anything like that before , working the way he worked for six weeks . "
= = = 2011 : Top 25 and first ATP title = = =
The first two months of 2011 represented a significant breakthrough for Raonic , as he rose from No. 156 at the beginning of January to No. 37 by the end of February . In doing so , he became the highest @-@ ranked Canadian male ever . He began this climb by qualifying for the Australian Open main draw . His first round victory over Björn Phau marked his first victory in a main draw Grand Slam match . In the second round , he defeated No. 22 seed Llodra , becoming the first Canadian man in 10 years to reach the third round of a Grand Slam singles tournament . With his career @-@ first victory over a top 10 player ( Mikhail Youzhny ) in the third round , he became the first qualifier to make the fourth round of a major since Marcelo Filippini at the 1999 French Open .
Despite losing in the fourth round to world No. 7 David Ferrer , Raonic received rave reviews for his Australian Open performance . Patrick McEnroe said " Raonic [ is ] the real deal " . BBC Sport referred to Raonic as part of " a new generation " . Martina Navratilova referred to Raonic as " a new star " saying that " the sky is the limit " . The Sydney Morning Herald referred to Raonic as a " future superstar " .
Two weeks later , Raonic won his first ATP title at the Pacific Coast Championships , with victories over No. 45 Xavier Malisse , No. 170 James Blake , No. 74 Ričardas Berankis , and No. 9 Fernando Verdasco . With the victory , he became the first player born in the 1990s to win an ATP title , and the youngest winner since Marin Čilić won the 2008 Connecticut Open at age 19 . Raonic 's victory was the first ATP title by a Canadian since Greg Rusedski in 1995 .
The following week , Raonic reached the final of an ATP 500 tournament for the first time at the U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships . He defeated Verdasco for the second time in three days in the first round , and world No. 17 Mardy Fish in the semifinal . In the final , he lost in three sets to world No. 8 Roddick , with Roddick making a diving forehand to break serve for the match on his fifth championship point . Roddick stated : " That 's the best shot I 've ever hit in my life , considering the circumstance . "
With his improved ranking ( No. 37 ) , Raonic earned direct entry to Grand Slam tournaments and other ATP World Tour events for the first time . He reached the third round at both the Indian Wells Masters and the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters . In May , Raonic rose to a new career @-@ high ranking of No. 25 . He was seeded for the first time at a Grand Slam event at the French Open , but lost in the first round to Michael Berrer . At the Halle Open , Raonic reached his first ATP World Tour doubles final , partnered with Robin Haase . The pair lost to Rohan Bopanna and Aisam @-@ ul @-@ Haq Qureshi in the deciding super tiebreak . During his second round singles match at Wimbledon against Gilles Müller , Raonic retired with an early lead after injuring his right hip when he slipped and fell on the grass . He underwent hip surgery which prevented him from competing until September . His only significant result in the latter half of 2011 after returning from injury was a semifinal appearance at the Stockholm Open , where he lost to Gaël Monfils .
= = = 2012 : Second and third ATP titles = = =
Raonic began 2012 with titles in two of his first three tournaments , starting with his second ATP title at the Chennai Open in India . He had back @-@ to @-@ back wins over top 10 players at a tournament for the first time , beating Nicolás Almagro in the semifinals and Janko Tipsarević in the final . Raonic held serve during the entire tournament , becoming the first player to do so since Federer at the 2008 Halle Open . He lost in the third round of the Australian Open to Lleyton Hewitt . In February , Raonic defended his title at the Pacific Coast Championships , defeating Denis Istomin in the final for his third ATP title . The following week in Memphis , Raonic reached the final of the U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships for the second straight year , but lost to Melzer .
In the spring , Raonic played his first three matches against world No. 3 Federer on three different surfaces : hard court in the third round of the Indian Wells Masters ; clay in the second round at the Madrid Open ; and grass in the quarterfinals at the Halle Open . On each occasion , Raonic won the first set before losing the next two . After the Halle Open match , Federer remarked : " I am happy to have beaten him now because by the end of my career , he ’ ll be serving at 300 km / h . " He defeated world No. 4 Murray in straight sets in the quarterfinals at the Barcelona Open . This marked his first victory over a member of the Big Four . In the semifinal , he lost to world No. 6 Ferrer . Raonic lost to Juan Mónaco in the third round of the French Open , and followed this with a second round loss to Querrey at Wimbledon .
Raonic reached his first ATP 1000 quarterfinals at back @-@ to @-@ back events in August , losing to John Isner at the Canadian Open and Stan Wawrinka at the Cincinnati Masters . His loss to Wawrinka followed his victory over world No. 7 Tomáš Berdych , his fourth top 10 victory of the year . On August 13 , his world ranking was No. 19 , marking his first time in the top 20 . At the US Open , Raonic lost in the fourth round to eventual champion Murray . Raonic was the first Canadian male to reach the fourth round of the US Open since Laurendeau in 1988 . In October at the Japan Open , Raonic reached his third ATP 500 final , defeating Radek Štěpánek , Viktor Troicki , Tipsarević , and Murray , before dropping the final to Japan 's Kei Nishikori in three sets . His victories over Tipsarević and Murray marked the third time he won back @-@ to @-@ back matches against top 10 players .
In 2012 , Raonic led the ATP in points won on 1st serve ( 82 % ) and in service games won ( 93 % ) . He finished the year at a career high singles ranking of No. 13 . His six victories over top 10 players in 2012 , including two over Murray , marks a career @-@ high .
= = = 2013 : Top 10 and fourth and fifth ATP titles = = =
In all four 2013 Grand Slam tournaments , Raonic matched his previous best result . He reached the fourth round of the Australian Open , falling to world No. 2 Federer . At the French Open , he lost in the third round to Kevin Anderson . At Wimbledon , he lost in the second round to Igor Sijsling . At the US Open , he fell to world No. 9 Richard Gasquet in the fourth round , despite a career @-@ high 39 aces .
Raonic again achieved success at ATP 250 and ATP 500 events . In February , Raonic earned his third consecutive title at the Pacific Coast Championships , defeating Tommy Haas in the final . Over three years , he achieved a perfect 12 – 0 match record , and he did not drop a single set . He is the only man in the Open Era to win three consecutive titles at this event . In September , he won the Thailand Open tournament , defeating No. 9 Gasquet in the semifinals and No. 6 Berdych in the final . The titles were Raonic 's fourth and fifth , both coming in ATP 250 events like previous titles . In October , Raonic reached the Japan Open final for the second consecutive year , but lost a close match to No. 7 Juan Martin del Potro . It marked his fourth consecutive loss in the final of an ATP 500 event .
In eight of the nine ATP 1000 events , Raonic matched or improved on his career @-@ best performance . This included his first ATP 1000 series final at the Canadian Open in August . During his third round victory over del Potro , Raonic was awarded a point even though his foot touched the net . He did not report his error to the umpire , and won the last nine points to close out the match . Raonic later admitted that he was wrong not to admit his error at the time : " I made a mistake in the spur of the moment ... I 'm disappointed with myself , how I dealt with it . " After beating Ernests Gulbis in the quarterfinals , Raonic defeated compatriot Pospisil in the semifinals . The match against Pospisil was the first all @-@ Canadian semifinal in an ATP 1000 tournament . In the final , he lost to Nadal in just 68 minutes . Following the tournament , Raonic was ranked No. 10 , becoming the first Canadian player and the first player born in the 1990s to break into the top 10 .
In 2013 , Raonic again led the ATP in points won on first serve ( 82 % ) and in service games won ( 91 % ) . He had 45 match victories for the second consecutive year . His coaching team underwent significant changes in 2013 . In May , Raonic split with his coach of two and half years , Blanco . Less than a month later , Raonic hired former world No. 3 tennis player Ivan Ljubičić as his coach . In December , he hired Riccardo Piatti as a co @-@ coach with Ljubičić .
= = = 2014 : First Grand Slam semifinal = = =
Raonic opened 2014 by reaching the third round of the Australian Open , losing to Grigor Dimitrov . He sustained an ankle injury that kept him out of action for six weeks .
From March through May , Raonic improved on his career @-@ best performance at five consecutive ATP 1000 events . At the Indian Wells Masters , he beat No. 6 Murray to reach the quarterfinals , losing to Alexandr Dolgopolov . He lost in the quarterfinals of the Miami Masters to Nadal . He reached the quarterfinals for the third ATP 1000 tournament in a row at the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters , before falling to Wawrinka . The result garnered Raonic a career @-@ high ranking as world No. 9 . Raonic lost in the third round of the Madrid Open to Nishikori . At the Italian Open , Raonic defeated Jérémy Chardy in the quarterfinals to reach his first Masters 1000 semifinal on clay . After winning the first set , he lost his semifinal match to eventual champion Djokovic . Although he had played Djokovic in the 2013 Davis Cup , this was their first ATP match against one another .
At the French Open , Raonic was seeded in the top eight for the first time at a Grand Slam tournament . He notched victories against Nick Kyrgios , Jiří Veselý , Gilles Simon , and Marcel Granollers to reach the quarterfinals of a major for the first time in his career , becoming the first Canadian man to do so in the Open Era . He lost in the quarterfinals to Djokovic in straight sets . After the match , Raonic commented : " I 've gone farther in a Slam than I have before and I 've learned things even from this loss . "
At Wimbledon , Raonic was again seeded eighth . He defeated Matthew Ebden , Jack Sock , Łukasz Kubot , Nishikori , and Kyrgios to reach his first major semifinal . He became the first Canadian men 's singles player to reach the semifinals at a major since Robert Powell in 1908 . In the quarterfinal victory against Kyrgios , Raonic tied a career @-@ high with 39 aces . In the semifinals , Raonic lost to Federer in straight sets . After the match , Raonic reflected : " There 's a lot of good things to take from it . ... But when you get here to this point , I think it 's just human nature , the greed of human nature , that you want so much more . You feel it in front of you and you want to grab it . " Despite the loss , Raonic saw his world ranking improve to a career @-@ high No. 6 .
In his next tournament , Raonic reached his first final of the year at the Washington Open , facing Pospisil in the first all @-@ Canadian final in ATP history . Raonic won the title in straight sets . It was his first ATP 500 title , after finishing as runner @-@ up in four previous ATP 500 tournaments . After reaching the quarterfinals at the Canadian Open and the semifinals at the Cincinnati Masters , he claimed the men 's 2014 US Open Series .
At the US Open , Raonic was seeded fifth . He won his first three matches to face rival Nishikori in the fourth round . On the morning of September 2 , Raonic and Nishikori tied the all @-@ time latest finish for a match at the US Open , ending at 2 : 26 a.m. This tied previous matches between Mats Wilander and Mikael Pernfors in 1993 , and between Isner and Philipp Kohlschreiber in 2012 . The five set match lasted 4 hours and 19 minutes , with Raonic losing and Nishikori advancing to the quarterfinals . In October , Raonic reached the final of the Japan Open for the third consecutive year , but lost to Nishikori again .
Three years prior , in 2011 , Raonic had set a personal goal of reaching the year @-@ end ATP Finals , where only the top eight players earned a spot . Heading into the last ATP 1000 event of 2014 , the Paris Masters , Raonic trailed Ferrer for the eighth spot , and needed a deep run to surpass him . He beat Sock and Roberto Bautista Agut to set up a quarterfinals match against world No. 2 Federer , who had beaten him in all six previous meetings . Needing a win to avoid being eliminated from contention for the ATP Finals , Raonic won in straight sets . His victory was hailed as " a career @-@ defining win . " In the post @-@ match interview , Raonic was asked to rank this victory in his career . He replied : " Considering all the circumstances around it , I think this was the biggest win for me . " He went on to beat world No. 5 Berdych in the semifinals to earn a spot in the second ATP 1000 final of his career . He lost to Djokovic in the final , but secured his place in the 2014 ATP Finals . He is the first Canadian to reach the ATP Finals , and the first player born in the 1990s to do so . Anticlimactically , Raonic withdrew from the tournament due to a leg @-@ muscle tear prior to his match against Nishikori , after losses to Federer and Murray .
Raonic ended the year at a career @-@ high season @-@ ending ranking of No. 8 . He was one of just three players to reach the quarterfinals or better at seven of the nine ATP 1000 tournaments . Raonic finished with a career @-@ high total of 1107 aces in 2014 . At the time , this was the fifth highest single @-@ year ace total in history . ( It was surpassed by both Ivo Karlović and Isner in 2015 . )
= = = 2015 : Top 4 and injury woes = = =
Raonic began 2015 by reaching the final at the Brisbane International after defeating world No. 5 Nishikori in three sets , all decided in tiebreaks . He lost to world No. 2 Federer in three sets , with Federer recording his 1,000th match win on the professional tour . Later in the month , he reached the quarterfinals of the Australian Open after beating world No. 12 Feliciano López . He lost to Djokovic in straight sets .
At the Indian Wells Masters , Raonic won his quarterfinal match against No. 3 Nadal , after saving three match points from Nadal in the second set tiebreak . It was Raonic 's first career victory over Nadal after five defeats . He lost to Federer in the semifinals .
In April , Raonic opened the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters with a victory over João Sousa . Just one game into his second @-@ round match against Tommy Robredo , Raonic called for a medical timeout due to a right foot injury . Although he went on to win the match , Raonic 's manager indicated that Raonic had made a pre @-@ existing injury worse by playing . In his quarterfinal match against Berdych , he complained of numbness in his right foot during a medical timeout , and retired while trailing 2 – 5 in the opening set . It was diagnosed as a pinched nerve , and Raonic was expected to be healthy for the Madrid Open .
In Madrid , Raonic advanced to the quarterfinals with straight sets victories over Mónaco and Leonardo Mayer . After Raonic lost in the quarterfinals against Murray , Murray observed that Raonic was " struggling [ with injury ] . " Following the match , Raonic announced that he would undergo surgery to repair a nerve in his foot , targeting a return in time for the French Open . Ironically , Raonic 's world ranking reached a new career @-@ high of No. 4 the following week , the highest by a Canadian man or woman .
Following surgery , Raonic withdrew from the Italian Open and the French Open . He returned to play the Queen 's Club Championships and Wimbledon , losing in both tournaments in the third round . After his Wimbledon loss to Kyrgios , Raonic commented that his foot injury had led to problems throughout his body : " There wasn 't a place it wasn 't [ bothering me ] ... First ankle , then the hip , and then the back . Then when those things aren 't working , you just put too much pressure on your shoulder , and then your shoulder hurts . " The cascading injuries led to a withdrawal from Canada 's Davis Cup tie against Belgium ; a withdrawal from the Washington Open , where Raonic was the defending champion ; first round losses at the Canadian Open and Cincinnati Masters ; and a third round loss at the US Open to López .
In September , at the St. Petersburg Open , Raonic won his seventh singles title — and first in Europe — with a three @-@ set victory over Sousa . His serve was broken just once in the entire tournament . After early losses at the China Open and Shanghai Masters , Raonic ended his ATP season by withdrawing from three consecutive tournaments , citing injury . On November 2 , he fell outside the top 10 , dropping to world No. 14 . After six weeks off , Raonic joined the Philippine Mavericks of the exhibition International Premier Tennis League ( IPTL ) in December . After four matches , he withdrew due to back spasms .
In late November , Raonic parted ways with both Ljubičić , who had been his coach since June 2013 , and Austin Nunn , who had been his media manager for nearly four years . Ljubičić was added to Federer 's coaching team two weeks later . Raonic contacted former world No. 1 tennis player Carlos Moya about a coaching relationship , and they trained together and had discussions during the IPTL events . The relationship was subsequently formalized and on January 1 , 2016 , Raonic announced that Moya would join his coaching team alongside Piatti . Raonic said that he chose Moya for three reasons : " Carlos is very laid back and positive [ ... and ] he communicates well . "
= = = 2016 : First Grand Slam final = = =
Raonic reached the final of the Brisbane International against world No. 3 Federer in a rematch of their 2015 final . This time , Raonic upset Federer in straight sets , winning his eighth career title . Asked to talk about Raonic after the match , Federer observed : " [ F ] or a big guy he moves well ... He 's improved his fitness the last few years . Also , tactically , I think he 's better now than he 's ever been . He 's made a conscious effort of playing close to the baseline , which before when he was working with the Spanish coaches he was way back . "
In the fourth round of the Australian Open , he upset world No. 4 Wawrinka in five sets , beating the 2014 champion for the first time in five meetings . He then beat Monfils in the quarterfinals to advance to the semifinals of the Australian Open for the first time in his career . He became the first Canadian man to reach the Australian Open semifinals . In the semifinals , he lost to world No. 2 Murray in five sets , sustaining an adductor injury while leading two sets to one . After the match , he reflected that the loss was " probably the most heartbroken [ he has ] felt on court . "
The adductor injury kept Raonic out of competition for six weeks , during which he withdrew from the Delray Beach Open and the Mexican Open , and Canada 's Davis Cup clash with France . He returned to action at the Indian Wells Masters , reaching the final against world No. 1 Djokovic with a string of four victories over top 20 opponents : Bernard Tomic , Berdych , Monfils , and David Goffin . In the semifinal victory over Goffin , Raonic 's average second serve ( 112 mph ) was faster than Goffin 's average first serve ( 110 mph ) . Before the final , Djokovic said : " Milos is probably playing the best tennis that he has ever played . His serve was phenomenal before the start of this season , but it seems like he has improved even more , especially the second serve . He 's going for it more . He 's not giving you the same look . " Raonic lost a lopsided straight sets match to Djokovic in the final , his third consecutive loss in an ATP 1000 final .
Raonic followed Indian Wells by reaching the quarterfinals at the next three ATP 1000 events in Miami , Monte Carlo , and Madrid , eventually losing to Kyrgios , Murray , and Djokovic , respectively . On May 2 , he re @-@ entered the top 10 at No. 10 . Raonic continued the clay court season with a second @-@ round loss at the Italian Open to Kyrgios . At the French Open , he was the eighth seed , but fell in the fourth round in straight sets to world No. 55 Albert Ramos @-@ Vinolas . During the French Open , former world No. 1 and 3 @-@ time Wimbledon champion John McEnroe announced that he would join Raonic 's team as a consultant for the grass court season . Commenting on McEnroe joining Moya and Piatti on his coaching team , Raonic said : " I was sort of just looking for another set of eyes to be a bit more efficient on grass " and he said it was about " generally improving . "
Raonic began the grass court season by advancing to his first grass court final at the Queen 's Club Championships without dropping serve in victories over Kyrgios , Veselý , Bautista Agut , and Tomic , but lost the final in three sets to Murray . At Wimbledon , Raonic won his first three matches in straight sets against Pablo Carreño Busta , Andreas Seppi , and Sock . In the fourth round against Goffin , Raonic came back from from a two set deficit to win in five sets for the first time in his career . In ten previous best @-@ of @-@ five matches where he lost the first two sets , he also lost the third set . Raonic then beat Querrey in the quarterfinals and Federer in the semifinals , marking Federer 's first defeat in 11 Wimbledon semifinals . With the victory , Raonic reached his first Grand Slam final , becoming the first Canadian man to do so . In the final , he lost to Murray in straight sets , though he made the fastest serve of the tournament at 147 miles per hour ( 237 km / h ) .
= = National representation = =
Early in his career , Raonic was questioned about whether he would follow the example of Rusedski , the last prominent Canadian tennis player , who decided to represent Great Britain instead . Raonic declared that he would play for Canada .
Raonic embraced his role as Canada 's top singles player , intent on growing the game in Canada . He stated in 2010 : " I want to make a difference in Canada with [ my career ] . I feel if I were to achieve my goals it could make a great difference to the growth of tennis in Canada and help to produce more top players in the future . " Before a Davis Cup tie with Japan in 2015 , he said : " I 'm here because I want to be here . I don 't have anybody telling me I need to be here . I want to succeed at this event , and I want to succeed representing Canada . "
= = = Davis Cup = = =
From 2010 to 2016 , Canada competed in 15 Davis Cup ties . Raonic represented Canada in 11 of those ties , missing four due to injury : Ecuador in 2011 , Japan in 2014 , Belgium in 2015 , and France in 2016 . Overall , Raonic has 16 match wins in 22 Davis Cup matches ( 14 – 5 in singles ; 2 – 1 in doubles ) . He is one of the most successful players in Canadian Davis Cup history , tied for the six most match wins overall and tied for third in singles match wins .
Raonic made his Davis Cup debut in Bogota against Colombia in 2010 at the age of 19 . Raonic lost both of his singles matches ( against Santiago Giraldo and Juan Sebastián Cabal ) , but won his doubles match partnered with Nestor , who was then the top ranked doubles player in the world . His first singles match victory came in Canada 's next tie against the Dominican Republic , when he beat Víctor Estrella Burgos in five sets . This marked the first five set match of Raonic 's career . Competing against Mexico in 2011 , Raonic won three rubbers in a tie for the first time , beating both Manuel Sánchez and Daniel Garza in singles and partnering with Pospisil to win in doubles as well .
In the 2013 Davis Cup World Group first round , Raonic won singles rubbers over Ramos @-@ Viñolas and Guillermo García @-@ López to lead Canada over top @-@ seeded Spain . He repeated this feat with victories over Fabio Fognini and Seppi to help Canada defeat Italy in the quarterfinals , sending Canada into the Davis Cup semifinals for the first time since 1913 . In the semifinal against Serbia , Raonic won his singles match over Tipsarević , but lost to world No. 1 Djokovic as Canada was eliminated . The defeat marked Raonic 's first singles match against Djokovic .
= = = Olympics = = =
Raonic represented Canada at the London 2012 Olympics and competed in the singles competition as an unseeded player . He won his first round match over Japan 's Tatsuma Ito in straight sets . In the second round , Raonic lost to French player Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga 3 – 6 , 6 – 3 , 23 – 25 , breaking three Olympic tennis records . The match holds the records for the most games played in a best @-@ of @-@ three sets match ( 66 games ) and the most games played in a single set ( 48 games ) in Olympic history . At the time , it was the longest Olympic match by time played ( 3 hours 57 minutes ) , but this record was broken three days later in the semifinal match between Federer and del Potro ( 4 hours 26 minutes ) .
Raonic decided not to play in the 2016 Summer Olympics citing health concerns and the Zika virus .
= = = Hopman Cup = = =
In 2014 , Raonic partnered with Bouchard to represent Canada in the Hopman Cup . Raonic won two of three singles matches , and paired with Bouchard to win two of three doubles matches . Canada finished in second place in their pool — behind top @-@ seeded Poland — and were eliminated .
= = Playing style = =
The most distinctive part of Raonic 's game is his powerful and accurate serve , from which his " Missile " nickname is derived . He is frequently cited as having one of the best serves among his contemporaries , along with Karlović and Isner . Some consider Raonic 's serve to be among the best of all time . Sampras , Raonic 's childhood idol , describes the Canadian 's serve as " bigger than big . " After a match against Raonic , Djokovic commented " I can 't recall the last time I was feeling so helpless returning . Even his second serve . " Statistically , Raonic is among the strongest servers in the Open Era , winning 91 % of service games to rank third all @-@ time . Raonic has one of the fastest recorded serves of all time .
Aided by his serve , Raonic employs an all @-@ court style with an emphasis on short points . His groundstrokes are both good , but his forehand is stronger than his backhand . Because of this , he has been known to run around his backhand and hit inside @-@ out forehands instead . He attempts to dictate play and is generally more aggressive than his opponent , as evidenced by usually having more winners and more unforced errors . To finish points quickly , Raonic occasionally approaches the net , with either a serve and volley or chip and charge strategy .
Raonic prefers playing on hard courts , where he has been more successful than on clay or grass courts . All but two of the tournaments where Raonic has reached the final have been played on hard courts , and all but three of his victories over top 10 players have been on hard courts as well .
When he was twenty , the National Post described Raonic as a " hothead whose on @-@ court demeanour was holding him back . " As he grew older , commentators came to see him as " stoic " , " robotic " , and " emotionless " , with The Daily Telegraph referring to him as " an analytical character who questions everything he does in practice " . In 2014 , Raonic explained : " I 'm the son of two engineers , so everything is a numbers and calculation game . " In 2016 , he added : " I am very systematic in how [ I ] need to go about things to bring out the best tennis for myself , and maybe that comes off as mechanical and robotic and those kind of things , but I don 't know if I 'd ever change that because I feel that 's the way I get the best out of myself when it comes to my tennis . "
Aspects of Raonic 's game which have been criticized include his return of serve , quickness and mobility , backhand , short game , and the use of backspin or sidespin . His above @-@ average height — 196 cm ( 6 ft 5 in ) — is linked to his strong serve , but is said to limit his movement around the court .
= = Equipment and apparel = =
Raonic endorses the Wilson BLX Blade 98 18x20 tennis racket , and uses LUXILON M2 Pro 1 @.@ 25 16L strings . In January 2013 , Raonic became the first tennis player to endorse New Balance clothing and shoes , in a deal reported to be worth " US $ 1 million annually over a five @-@ year term . " Roughly two and a half years later , this deal was extended " for the length of [ Raonic 's ] career and beyond , " and stipulates that New Balance will increase its support of the Milos Raonic Foundation . The lifelong nature of this contract was described by Tennis Canada as " unique . "
Since March 2014 , Raonic has donned a sleeve on his right arm while playing . At first , he wore a fisherman 's sleeve to cover a rash he had due to an allergic reaction to massage cream . This was replaced with an athletic compression sleeve , often colour @-@ coordinated with his on @-@ court apparel . The sleeve is worn for comfort , and wearing it became a habit for Raonic . The sleeve has become a distinctive part of Raonic 's image , and has spawned a Twitter account . The motto " Believe in the Sleeve " has become synonymous with Raonic in the media and among Raonic 's fans . Serena Williams described the sleeve as " super cool and different . "
Raonic is represented by CAA Sports , a division of Creative Artists Agency . His other sponsorship deals include AVIVA ( insurance ) , Canada Goose ( apparel ) , Commerce Court ( real estate ) , Lacoste ( apparel ) , Rolex ( watches ) , SAP ( software ) , and Zepp ( sports metrics ) .
= = Rivals and contemporaries = =
= = = Raonic and the Big Four = = =
Raonic holds a combined 7 – 29 record ( 19 % ) against the Big Four , including 0 – 7 against Djokovic , 1 – 6 against Nadal , 3 – 9 against Federer , and 3 – 7 against Murray .
Each of Raonic 's deepest runs in significant tournaments ( i.e. majors and ATP 1000 tournaments ) have ended with a loss to a member of the Big Four : Nadal in the 2013 Canadian Open final , Federer in the 2014 Wimbledon semifinal , Djokovic in the 2014 Paris Masters final , Murray in the 2016 Australian Open semifinal , Djokovic in the 2016 Indian Wells Masters final , and Murray in the 2016 Wimbledon final . At majors , Raonic has a 1 – 7 record against the Big Four , losing the first five matches in straight sets . He has met only one of the four in Davis Cup play : he lost to Djokovic in the 2013 semifinals .
Raonic 's most frequent opponent , either inside or outside the Big Four , is Federer ( 12 matches ) . His first victory over Federer in the 2014 Paris Masters quarterfinal was hailed as " a career @-@ defining win . " His second victory over Federer — at the 2016 Brisbane International — was his first in a final against the Big Four . A third victory over Federer — in the 2016 Wimbledon semifinal — marked Raonic 's first victory at a Grand Slam tournament against the Big Four .
= = = Raonic and Nishikori = = =
Nishikori is often cited as Raonic 's primary rival . The two have very different strengths ; according to The Globe and Mail , Raonic uses his " size and his serve " , while Nishikori uses his " savvy and speed . " Both are the first from their respective countries to achieve a top 10 ranking , and both have a career @-@ high ranking of world No. 4 . In May 2015 , they were the two youngest players in the top 10 . Nishikori holds a 5 – 2 advantage in seven close matches , including two wins in the Japan Open final ( 2012 , 2014 ) . Of the twenty @-@ five sets they have played , ten have required a tiebreak . Only one of their matches has been a straight sets victory . Five matches have required the maximum number of sets . One of these was a marathon US Open five @-@ set match that equalled the record for latest finish ever at 2 : 26 a.m.
Nishikori and Raonic are among a group of players whom tennis pundits suggest could be the successors of the Big Four . The members of this group vary , but have included Dimitrov , Gulbis , Čilić , and Dominic Thiem .
= = = Raonic and Pospisil = = =
Pospisil is more of a contemporary rather than a rival of Raonic . Owing to their similarity in age — Pospisil is six months older — and the fact that both are successful products of Tennis Canada 's development programs , they have been linked as the leaders of a new generation of Canadian tennis players . They partnered in doubles frequently early in their careers , winning doubles titles together in junior and ATP Challenger events . Between 2011 and 2015 , Raonic and Pospisil have been the two top @-@ ranked Canadian men in year @-@ end rankings . As well as four ATP Challenger and Futures matches , they have played each other in two ATP World Tour matches : Raonic beat Pospisil in the first all @-@ Canadian semifinal at an ATP 1000 tournament , and in the first all @-@ Canadian final in ATP history . They are frequent Davis Cup teammates , and they planned to play doubles together at the 2016 Rio Olympics until Raonic withdrew .
= = = Raonic , Isner , and Karlović = = =
Raonic is often compared to Isner and Karlović . The trio possess statistically dominant serves , leading the ATP in service games won and in aces per match in the period between 2012 and 2015 . They have played each other infrequently , however . Raonic is 1 – 1 against Karlović and 0 – 3 against Isner . Karlović holds a 3 – 2 head @-@ to @-@ head advantage over Isner .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Grand Slam performance timeline = = =
This table is current through the 2016 Wimbledon Championships .
= = = Grand Slam finals : 1 ( 1 runner @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Records = = =
These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis ( post @-@ 1968 ) .
= = Awards = =
2011 – ATP Newcomer of the Year
2011 – Tennis Canada male player of the year
2012 – QMI Agency Canadian Male Athlete of the Year
2012 – Tennis Canada male player of the year
2013 – Tennis Canada male player of the year
2013 – Lionel Conacher Award
2014 – Emirates ATP Top 10 Trophy
2014 – Tennis Canada male player of the year
2014 – Lionel Conacher Award
2014 – Canadian Club of Toronto 's Canadian of the Year
2015 – Tennis Canada male player of the year
2016 – Toronto Sports Hall of Honour male athlete of the year
|
= Palladium =
Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46 . It is a rare and lustrous silvery @-@ white metal discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston . He named it after the asteroid Pallas , which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena , acquired by her when she slew Pallas . Palladium , platinum , rhodium , ruthenium , iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals ( PGMs ) . These have similar chemical properties , but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them .
More than half the supply of palladium and its congener platinum is used in catalytic converters , which convert as much as 90 % of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust ( hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , and nitrogen dioxide ) into harmless substances ( nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapor ) . Palladium is also used in electronics , dentistry , medicine , hydrogen purification , chemical applications , groundwater treatment , and jewelry . Palladium is a key component of fuel cells , which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity , heat , and water .
Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are rare . The most extensive deposits have been found in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South Africa , the Stillwater Complex in Montana , United States , the Thunder Bay District of Ontario , Canada , and the Norilsk Complex in Russia . Recycling is also a source , mostly from scrapped catalytic converters . The numerous applications and limited supply sources result in considerable investment interest .
= = Characteristics = =
Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic table , but the configuration in the outermost electron shells is atypical for group 10 ( see also niobium ( 41 ) , ruthenium ( 44 ) , and rhodium ( 45 ) ) . Fewer electron shells are filled than the elements directly preceding it ( a phenomenon unique to palladium ) . The valence shell has eighteen electrons – ten more than the eight found in the valence shells of the noble gases from neon onward .
Palladium is a soft silver @-@ white metal that resembles platinum . It is the least dense and has the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals . It is soft and ductile when annealed and is greatly increased in strength and hardness when cold @-@ worked . Palladium dissolves slowly in concentrated nitric acid , in hot , concentrated sulfuric acid , and when finely ground , in hydrochloric acid .
Common oxidation states of palladium are 0 , + 1 , + 2 and + 4 . Relatively few compounds are known with palladium unambiguously in the + 3 oxidation state , though such compounds have been proposed as intermediates in many palladium @-@ catalyzed cross @-@ coupling reactions . Palladium ( VI ) was first observed in 2002 .
Palladium films with defects produced by alpha particle bombardment at low temperature exhibit superconductivity having Tc = 3 @.@ 2 K.
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring palladium is composed of seven isotopes , six of which are stable . The most stable radioisotopes are 107Pd with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 5 million years ( found in nature ) , 103Pd with 17 days , and 100Pd with 3 @.@ 63 days . Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 90 @.@ 94948 ( 64 ) u ( 91Pd ) to 122 @.@ 93426 ( 64 ) u ( 123Pd ) . These have half @-@ lives of less than thirty minutes , except 101Pd ( half @-@ life : 8 @.@ 47 hours ) , 109Pd ( half @-@ life : 13 @.@ 7 hours ) , and 112Pd ( half @-@ life : 21 hours ) .
For isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope , 106Pd , the primary decay mode is electron capture with the primary decay product being rhodium . The primary mode of decay for those isotopes of Pd with atomic mass greater than 106 is beta decay with the primary product of this decay being silver .
Radiogenic 107Ag is a decay product of 107Pd and was first discovered in 1978 in the Santa Clara meteorite of 1976 . The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron @-@ cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event . 107Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies , which have been melted since accretion of the solar system , must reflect the presence of short @-@ lived nuclides in the early solar system .
= = Compounds = =
Palladium does not react with oxygen at standard temperatures ( and thus does not tarnish in air ) . Palladium heated to 800 ° C will produce a layer of palladium ( II ) oxide ( PdO ) . It tarnishes lightly in a moist atmosphere containing sulfur . Palladium primarily exists in the 0 , + 2 , and + 4 oxidation states , though + 4 is comparatively rare . One major example of palladium ( IV ) is hexachloropalladate ( IV ) , [ PdCl6 ] 2 − .
Elemental palladium reacts with chlorine to give palladium ( II ) chloride ; it dissolves in nitric acid and precipitates palladium ( II ) acetate on addition of acetic acid . These two compounds and the bromide are reactive and relatively inexpensive , making them convenient entry points to palladium chemistry . All three are not monomeric ; the chloride and bromide often must be refluxed in acetonitrile to obtain the more reactive acetonitrile complex monomers , for example :
PdX2 + 2 MeCN → PdX2 ( MeCN ) 2 ( X = Cl , Br )
Palladium ( II ) chloride is the principal starting material for many other palladium catalysts . It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts : palladium on barium sulfate , palladium on carbon , and palladium chloride on carbon . It reacts with triphenylphosphine in coordinating solvents to give bis ( triphenylphosphine ) palladium ( II ) dichloride , a useful catalyst . Where desired , the catalyst may be formed in situ .
PdCl2 + 2 PPh3 → PdCl2 ( PPh3 ) 2
Reduction of this phosphine complex with hydrazine with more phosphine gives tetrakis ( triphenylphosphine ) palladium ( 0 ) , one of the two major palladium ( 0 ) complexes :
2 PdCl2 ( PPh3 ) 2 + 4 PPh3 + 5 N2H4 → 2 Pd ( PPh3 ) 4 + N2 + 4 N2H5 + Cl −
The other major palladium ( 0 ) complex , tris ( dibenzylideneacetone ) dipalladium ( 0 ) ( Pd2 ( dba ) 3 ) , is prepared by reducing sodium tetrachloropalladate in the presence of dibenzylideneacetone .
Mixed valence palladium complex of Pd4 ( CO ) 4 ( OAc ) 4Pd ( acac ) 2 forms an infinite Pd chain structure , with alternatively interconnected Pd4 ( CO ) 4 ( OAc ) 4 and Pd ( acac ) 2 units .
The many reactions catalyzed by palladium compounds are collectively known as palladium @-@ catalyzed coupling reactions . Prominent examples include the Heck , Suzuki , and Stille reactions . Palladium ( II ) acetate , tetrakis ( triphenylphosphine ) palladium ( 0 ) ( Pd ( PPh3 ) 4 , and tris ( dibenzylideneacetone ) dipalladium ( 0 ) ( Pd2 ( dba ) 3 ) serve either as catalysts or as starting materials for catalysts .
= = History = =
William Hyde Wollaston noted the discovery of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab @-@ book and named it palladium in August of the same year . Wollaston purified enough of the material and offered it , without naming the discoverer , in a small shop in Soho in April 1803 . After harsh criticism from Richard Chenevix that palladium is an alloy of platinum and mercury , Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of 20 British pounds for 20 grains of synthetic palladium alloy . Chenevix received the Copley Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium . Wollaston published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium . He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805 .
It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid Pallas , which had been discovered two months earlier . Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia , neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide , and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride . He added mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium ( II ) cyanide , which was heated to extract palladium metal .
Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0 @.@ 065 g per day ( approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight ) . This treatment had many negative side @-@ effects , and was later replaced by more effective drugs .
Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in the automobile industry . In the run up to year 2000 , the Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted because for political reasons , the export quota was not granted on time . The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all @-@ time high of $ 1100 per troy ounce in January 2001 . Around that time , the Ford Motor Company , fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage , stockpiled the metal . When prices fell in early 2001 , Ford lost nearly US $ 1 billion .
World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000 . The global production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to the United States Geological Survey . Many are concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia 's military maneuvers in Ukraine , partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports ; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports would exacerbate what is already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014 .
= = Occurrence = =
With a 44 % world share of palladium in 2007 , Russia was the top producer , followed by South Africa with 40 % . Canada with 6 % and the U.S. with 5 % are the other substantial producers of palladium .
Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum @-@ group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains , Australia , Ethiopia , North and South America . For the production of palladium , these deposits play only a minor role . The most important commercial sources are nickel @-@ copper deposits found in the Sudbury Basin , Ontario , and the Norilsk – Talnakh deposits in Siberia . The other large deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South Africa . The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States . Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite and polarite .
Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent nuclear fuel ( see synthesis of precious metals ) , though this source for palladium is not used . None of the existing nuclear reprocessing facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the high @-@ level radioactive waste .
= = Applications = =
The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters . Palladium is also used in jewelry , dentistry , watch making , blood sugar test strips , aircraft spark plugs , surgical instruments , and electrical contacts . Palladium is also used to make professional transverse ( concert or classical ) flutes . As a commodity , palladium bullion has ISO currency codes of XPD and 964 . Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes , the others being gold , silver and platinum . Because it absorbs hydrogen , palladium is a key component of the controversial cold fusion experiments that began in 1989 .
= = = Catalysis = = =
When it is finely divided , as with palladium on carbon , palladium forms a versatile catalyst ; it speeds hydrogenation , dehydrogenation , and petroleum cracking . A large number of carbon – carbon bonding reactions in organic chemistry ( such as the Heck reaction and Suzuki coupling ) are facilitated by palladium compound catalysts . ( See Palladium Compounds and palladium @-@ catalyzed coupling reactions . )
When dispersed on conductive materials , palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media . In 2010 , palladium @-@ catalysed organic reactions were recognised by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Palladium is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis , used in combination with a broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations . A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for carbon @-@ fluoride bonds .
Palladium is essential to the Lindlar catalyst , also called Lindlar 's Palladium .
= = = Electronics = = =
The second greatest application of palladium in electronics is in multilayer ceramic capacitors in which palladium ( and palladium @-@ silver alloy ) is used for electrodes . Palladium ( sometimes alloyed with nickel ) is used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics and in soldering materials . The electronic sector consumed 1 @.@ 07 million troy ounces ( 33 @.@ 2 tonnes ) of palladium in 2006 , according to a Johnson Matthey report .
= = = Technology = = =
Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium , and membrane reactors with Pd membranes are used in the production of high purity hydrogen . Palladium is used in palladium @-@ hydrogen electrodes in electrochemical studies . Palladium ( II ) chloride readily catalyzes carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide and is useful in carbon monoxide detectors .
= = = Hydrogen storage = = =
Palladium readily absorbs hydrogen at room temperatures , forming palladium hydride PdHx with x less than 1 . While this property is common to many transition metals , palladium has a uniquely high absorption capacity and does not lose its ductility until x approaches 1 . This property has been investigated in designing an efficient , inexpensive , and safe hydrogen fuel storage medium , though palladium itself is currently prohibitively expensive for this purpose . The content of hydrogen in palladium can be linked to magnetic susceptibility , which decreases with the increase of hydrogen and becomes zero for PdH0.62. At any higher ratio , the solid solution becomes diamagnetic .
= = = Dentistry = = =
Palladium is used in small amounts ( about 0 @.@ 5 % ) in some alloys of dental amalgam to decrease corrosion and increase the metallic lustre of the final restoration .
= = = Jewelry = = =
Palladium has been used as a precious metal in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called " white gold " , where the naturally white color of palladium does not require rhodium plating . Palladium is much less dense than platinum . Similar to gold , palladium can be beaten into leaf as thin as 100 nm ( 1 ⁄ 250 @,@ 000 in ) . Unlike platinum , palladium may discolor at temperatures above 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) ; it is relatively brittle .
Palladium is one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold ( nickel and silver can also be used ) . Palladium @-@ gold is more expensive than nickel @-@ gold , but seldom causes allergic reactions ( though certain cross @-@ allergies with nickel may occur ) .
When platinum was declared a strategic government resource during World War II , many jewelry bands were made out of palladium . As recently as September 2001 , palladium was more expensive than platinum and rarely used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of casting . Currently , the casting problem has been resolved and use in jewelry has increased because platinum has increased in price while palladium decreased .
Prior to 2004 , the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold . In early 2004 , when gold and platinum prices rose steeply , China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry , consuming 37 tonnes in 2005 . Changes in the relative price of platinum after 2008 lowered demand for palladium to 17 @.@ 4 tonnes in 2009 .
In January 2010 , hallmarks for palladium were introduced by assay offices in the United Kingdom , and hallmarking became mandatory for all jewelry advertising pure or alloyed palladium . Articles can be marked as 500 , 950 , or 999 parts of palladium per thousand of the alloy .
Fountain pen nibs made from gold are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver ( rather than gold ) appearance is desired . Sheaffer has used palladium plating for decades , either as an accent on otherwise gold nibs or coverING the gold completely .
= = = Photography = = =
In the platinotype printing process , photographers make fine @-@ art black @-@ and @-@ white prints using platinum or palladium salts . Often used with platinum , palladium provides an alternative to silver .
= = Toxicity = =
Palladium is a metal with low toxicity . It is poorly absorbed by human body when digested . Plants such as the water hyacinth are killed by low levels of palladium salts , but most other plants tolerate it , although tests show that at levels above 0 @.@ 0003 % growth is affected . High doses of palladium could be poisonous ; tests on rodents suggest it may be carcinogenic , no clear evidence indicates the element harms humans .
= = Precautions = =
Finely divided palladium metal can be pyrophoric . As a platinum @-@ group metal , the bulk material is quite inert . Although contact dermatitis has been reported , the amount of data on the effects of exposure to palladium is limited . It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel , making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic .
Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with catalytic converters . Between 4 and 108 ng / km of palladium particulate is released by such cars , while the total uptake from food is estimated to be less than 2 µg per person a day . The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration , from which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15 µg per person per day . People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake . For soluble compounds such as palladium chloride , 99 % is eliminated from the body within 3 days .
The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200 mg / kg for oral and 5 mg / kg for intravenous administration .
|
= USS Minnesota ( BB @-@ 22 ) =
USS Minnesota ( BB @-@ 22 ) , the fifth of six Connecticut @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , was the second ship of the United States Navy in honor of the 32nd state . She was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News , Virginia in October 1903 , launched in April 1905 , and commissioned into the US fleet in March 1907 , just four months after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought entered service . Minnesota was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and a secondary battery of twenty 7 and 8 in ( 178 and 203 mm ) guns , unlike Dreadnought , which carried an all @-@ big @-@ gun armament that rendered ships like Minnesota obsolescent .
Shortly after she entered service , Minnesota joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe in 1908 – 09 . The years from 1909 to 1912 were uneventful , but thereafter the ship began to become involved in conflicts in the Caribbean . She supported efforts to put down an insurrection in Cuba in 1912 and patrolled the coast of Mexico in 1913 – 14 during the Mexican Revolution . In 1916 , the ship was placed in reserve , though she quickly returned to service when the United States entered World War I in April 1917 . During the war , she trained naval personnel ; while cruising off the eastern coast of the United States in September 1918 , she struck a naval mine laid by a German U @-@ boat . The extensive damage required lengthy repairs that kept her out of service for the rest of the war . She helped to return American soldiers from Europe in 1919 before resuming her training ship duties in 1920 – 21 , before being decommissioned in December 1921 and broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1924 .
= = Design = =
Minnesota was 456 @.@ 3 ft ( 139 @.@ 1 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 @.@ 9 ft ( 23 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 24 @.@ 5 ft ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 666 long tons ( 17 @,@ 949 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 827 officers and men , though this increased to 881 and later to 896 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . She also carried four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Minnesota carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
Minnesota 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The secondary turrets had 7 in ( 180 mm ) of frontal armor . The conning tower had 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Minnesota was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News , Virginia on 27 October 1903 . The completed hull was launched on 8 April 1905 ; at the launching ceremony she was christened by Rose Marie Schaller , the daughter of a member of the Minnesota Senate . The ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 9 March 1907 , with Captain John Hubbard as her first commanding officer . The ship then conducted a shakedown cruise off the coast of New England before attending the Jamestown Exposition , the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony , the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . She was present at the ceremony from 22 April to 3 September .
On 16 December , Minnesota steamed out of Hampton Roads with the Great White Fleet for a circumnavigation of the globe . The cruise was intended as a show of force to Japan , the United States ' rival in the Pacific , to assert the United States ' status as a global naval power , and to convince Congress of the need to support increased naval expenditures . The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland .
The fleet then turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt .
Upon her return , Minnesota was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . She spent the following three years on the eastern coast of the United States conducting a peacetime routine of training cruises , apart from one voyage to the English Channel . Starting in 1912 , the ship began to operate in the Caribbean , particularly after unrest began to break out in several countries in the region . For the first six months of 1912 , she patrolled Cuban waters ; she went to the US base at Guantanmo Bay to support the suppression of an insurrection on the island from 7 to 22 June . In mid 1913 , she patrolled the eastern coast of Mexico during the Mexican Revolution . She returned in 1914 , with stints there from 26 January to 7 August and 11 October to 19 December . During the first period , the United States occupied Veracruz to protect US interests . In 1915 , Minnesota returned to the United States and resumed her previous routine of training exercises with occasional cruises to the Caribbean . In November 1916 , she was placed in reserve as the flagship of the Reserve Force , Atlantic Fleet .
Minnesota returned to active service after the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , entering World War I. She was assigned to Division 4 of the Battleship Force , based at Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay . She spent the war as a training ship for gunners and engine room personnel . During this time , Vice Admiral Albert W. Grant , the commander of Battleship Force 1 , instituted a program to reinforce the bulkheads of the ships under his command . This improved their ability to absorb underwater damage and remain afloat . On 29 September 1918 , while cruising off Fenwick Island with the destroyer USS Israel , she struck a naval mine that had been laid by the U @-@ boat U @-@ 117 , which inflicted serious damage but caused no casualties . The explosion tore a gaping hole in the hull from frame 5 to frame 16 , and from the keel to the bottom edge of the armor belt . The bow flooded , but the repaired bulkheads prevented the flooding from spreading . Reduced to a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , Minnesota made it back to the Philadelphia Navy Yard where repairs were effected . The work lasted for five months , by which time Germany had signed the Armistice that ended the war .
On 11 March 1919 , Minnesota returned to service with the Cruiser and Transport Force , making three trips to Brest , France to bring American soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe . In the course of the voyages , she brought back over 3 @,@ 000 men ; this duty ended on 23 July . The ship spent the next two years as a training ship for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy . She conducted two summer cruises in 1920 and 1921 before being decommissioned on 1 December 1921 . She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day and was sold for scrap on 23 January 1924 . Minnesota was thereafter broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard .
|
= Hurricane Norma ( 1981 ) =
Hurricane Norma was the one of two hurricanes to make landfall during the 1981 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on October 8 , strengthening into a tropical storm and later a hurricane . Norma moved slowly to the northwest and strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm recurved and accelerated to the northeast on October 11 and weakened to a Category 2 . The next day , Norma made landfall near Mazatlán on October 12 and soon dissipated . The hurricane 's remnants continued northeastward and entered the United States , crossing into central Texas before being absorbed by a frontal system on October 14 . Norma caused $ 24 million in crop damage and one death in Mexico , as well as up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) . In Texas , the storm produced flooding rains that killed five people , $ 50 million in damage and caused many tornadoes . Rainfall was also reported as far inland as Kansas .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on October 8 , a tropical depression had developed far from land . Initially , the storm moved west @-@ northwest , but it turned to the northwest six hours after forming . Over sea surface temperatures of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , the storm intensified into Tropical Storm Norma at 0600 UTC . By midday on October 9 , the winds had reached 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and on 1800 UTC October 9 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center upgraded the storm into a hurricane and a well @-@ defined eye became visible via satellite imagery .
Upon reaching hurricane strength , Norma began to undergo a period rapid intensification ; it reached Category 2 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale six hours later . Later that that , the storm reached major hurricane status , a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . . The storm reached its peak of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) at 1800 UTC on October 10 . Passing east of Socorro Island , the storm turned north and shortly thereafter north @-@ northeast due to southwesterly flow over northwestern Mexico .
The storm began to accelerate while continuing to weaken ; by 1200 UTC on October 11 , the storm had weakened into a mid @-@ level Category 2 hurricane . After briefly re @-@ intensifying that night , Hurricane Norma made landfall just northeast of Mazatlan with winds of 105 mph ( 155 km / h ) at 1000 UTC on October 12 . Two hours later , advisories were discontinued as the center dissipated 46 @.@ 5 mi ( 75 km ) north of Mazatlan . However , a second area of low pressure formed over western Texas early on October 13 . After producing heavy rains , the system was absorbed by a frontal system on October 14 .
= = Impact and Aftermath = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Four days before Norma moved through Sinaloa , Tropical Storm Lidia made landfall north of the area . Lidia killed 73 people and caused $ 60 million ( 1981 USD ) in damage . This prompted evacuations of 5 @,@ 000 people , and limited the death toll of Hurricane Norma to one person , a fisherman drowned when his boat capsized in the storm . The hurricane caused more devastation in the flood @-@ ravaged region . Six soldiers were guarding a government helicopter , five of these soldiers were washed away during a flash flood . Agriculture was disrupted , and cattle were killed , causing at least $ 24 million ( 1981 USD ) dollars in crop damage . The highest Mexican rainfall was 10 @.@ 9 in ( 280 mm ) in Plomosas / Rosario , Mexico . Torrential rains caused serious flooding north of Mazatlan. as well as ten nearby towns . Due to the damage from the storm , Antonio Toledo Corro , the Governor of Sinaloa , declared a state of emergency . Red Cross spokesperson noted that 5 @,@ 000 residents need to be evacuated from low @-@ lying areas .
= = = United States = = =
The remnants of the storm moved into Texas and Oklahoma . The heavy rainfall caused two rivers , the Red River and Cedar Creek to reach flood @-@ stage . A total of five people were killed in the United States , three of these deaths occurred when floodwaters swept their car off the road in Fort Worth . Nearby , flooding forced thousands of people to evacuate their homes , including 1 @,@ 000 people in the cities of Lindsay and Breckenridge . Several tornadoes were reported in six counties , including a F2 tornado in McLennan that injured four people and caused $ 25 million in damage . A F3 tornado was also reported in Navarro Country , causing $ 25 @,@ 000 in property damage . During October 13 and 14 , a total of 13 tornadoes were reported in northern Texas and southern Oklahoma .
Cedar Creek overflowed its banks and homes in low @-@ lying areas of Abilene , Texas were covered in 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water . In Gainesville , floodwaters swept a train off its track and an elephant was killed in a local zoo . In the same area , 200 people were evacuated due to the flooding . Waco reported power losses for two hours and $ 2 @.@ 8 million ( 1981 USD ) in damage for churches and businesses . In Oklahoma , 60 bridges were washed away due to flooding , but no injures or deaths were reported . In addition , a tornado struck a small town , causing minor damage to farms . The town of Bells reported winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Total damage in Texas was estimated at $ 50 million ( 1981 USD ) .
Across Texas , 13 in ( 330 mm ) fell between Bridgeport and Denton and up to 20 in ( 510 mm ) fell in areas near Abilene and Gainesville . The storm produced 17 @.@ 9 in ( 450 mm ) of rain in a three @-@ day period , thus causing Madill to have its wettest October on record . In addition , 20 @.@ 1 inches ( 510 mm ) of rain fell in Breckenridge , Texas . In eastern Kansas light rain fell , including .7 in ( 18 mm ) near Perry Lake within a 24 ‑ hour period .
Due to the damage from the hurricane in the United States , the Salvation Army disaster units were sent throughout the devastated area . To prevent looting , residents in Breckenridge organized watches ; the National Guard soon patrolled the streets . In Abilene , the United States Red Cross worked to feed the homeless and supply them with drinking water until city water services was restored .
|
= Julianne Moore =
Julianne Moore ( born Julie Anne Smith ; December 3 , 1960 ) is an American – British actress , prolific in films since the early 1990s . She is particularly known for her portrayals of emotionally troubled women , in independent , art house and Hollywood films , and has received many accolades including the Academy Award for Best Actress .
After studying theatre at Boston University , Moore began her career with a series of television roles . From 1985 to 1988 , she was a regular in the soap opera As the World Turns , earning a Daytime Emmy for her performance . Her film debut was in Tales from the Darkside : The Movie ( 1990 ) , and she continued to play small roles for the next four years – including in the thriller The Hand That Rocks the Cradle ( 1992 ) . Moore first received critical attention with Robert Altman 's Short Cuts ( 1993 ) , and successive performances in Vanya on 42nd Street ( 1994 ) and Safe ( 1995 ) continued this acclaim . Starring roles in the blockbusters Nine Months ( 1995 ) and The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) established her as a leading actress in Hollywood , although she continued to take supporting roles .
Moore received considerable recognition in the late 1990s and early 2000s , earning Oscar nominations for Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , The End of the Affair ( 1999 ) , Far from Heaven ( 2002 ) and The Hours ( 2002 ) . In the first of these she played a 1970s pornographic actress , while the other three featured her as an unhappy , mid @-@ 20th century housewife . She also had success with the films The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , Hannibal ( 2001 ) , Children of Men ( 2006 ) , A Single Man ( 2009 ) , The Kids Are All Right ( 2010 ) , and Crazy , Stupid , Love ( 2011 ) , and won several awards for her portrayal of Sarah Palin in the television film Game Change ( 2012 ) . The year 2014 was key for Moore , as she gave an Oscar @-@ winning performance as an Alzheimer 's patient in Still Alice , was named Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival for Maps to the Stars , and joined the lucrative Hunger Games series . In 2015 , Time magazine named Moore one of the 100 most influential people in the world on the annual Time 100 list .
In addition to acting , Moore wrote a series of children 's books about a character named " Freckleface Strawberry " . She is married to director Bart Freundlich , with whom she has two children .
= = Early life = =
Moore was born Julie Anne Smith on December 3 , 1960 , at the Fort Bragg army installation in North Carolina . Her father , Peter Moore Smith , was a paratrooper in the United States Army during the Vietnam War , who later attained the rank of colonel and became a military judge . Her mother , Anne ( née Love ; 1940 – 2009 ) , was a psychologist and social worker from Greenock , Scotland , who emigrated to the United States in 1951 with her family . Moore has a younger sister , Valerie , and a younger brother , the novelist Peter Moore Smith . She considers herself half Scottish and claimed British citizenship in 2011 to honor her deceased mother .
Moore frequently moved around the United States as a child , due to her father 's occupation . She was close to her family as a result , but said that she never had the feeling of coming from one particular place . The family lived in multiple locations , including Alabama , Georgia , Texas , Panama , Nebraska , Alaska , New York , and Virginia , and Moore attended nine different schools . The constant relocating made her an insecure child , and she struggled to establish friendships . Despite these difficulties , Moore later remarked that an itinerant lifestyle was beneficial to her future career : " When you move around a lot , you learn that behavior is mutable . I would change , depending on where I was ... It teaches you to watch , to reinvent , that character can change . "
When Moore was 16 , the family moved to Frankfurt , Germany , where she attended Frankfurt American High School . She was clever and studious , a self @-@ proclaimed " good girl " , and she planned to become a doctor . She had never considered performing , or even attended the theatre , but she was an avid reader and it was this hobby that led her to begin acting at the school . She appeared in several plays , including Tartuffe and Medea , and with the encouragement of her English teacher she chose to pursue a theatrical career . Moore 's parents supported her decision , but asked that she train at university to provide the added security of a college degree . She was accepted to Boston University and graduated with a BFA in Theatre in 1983 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early roles ( 1983 – 93 ) = = =
Moore moved to New York City after graduating , and worked as a waitress . After registering her stage name with Actors ' Equity , she began her career in 1983 with off @-@ Broadway theatre . Her first screen role came in 1984 , in an episode of the soap opera The Edge of Night . Her break came the following year , when she joined the cast of As the World Turns . Playing the dual roles of half @-@ sisters Frannie and Sabrina Hughes , she found this intensive work to be an important learning experience , and she said of it fondly : " I gained confidence and learned to take responsibility . " Moore performed on the show until 1988 , when she won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Ingenue in a Drama Series . Before leaving As the World Turns , she had a role in the 1987 CBS miniseries I 'll Take Manhattan . Once she had finished the soap opera , she turned to the stage to play Ophelia in a Guthrie Theater production of Hamlet opposite Željko Ivanek . The actress returned intermittently to television over the next three years , appearing in the TV movies Money , Power , Murder ( 1989 ) , The Last to Go ( 1991 ) , and Cast a Deadly Spell ( 1991 ) .
In 1990 , Moore began working with stage director Andre Gregory on a workshop theatre production of Chekhov 's Uncle Vanya . Described by Moore as " one of the most fundamentally important acting experiences I ever had " , the group spent four years exploring the text and giving intimate performances to friends . Also in 1990 , Moore made her cinematic debut as a mummy 's victim in Tales from the Darkside : The Movie , a low @-@ budget horror that she later described as " terrible " . Her next film role , in 1992 , introduced her to a wide audience . The thriller The Hand That Rocks the Cradle — in which she played the main character 's ill @-@ fated friend — was number one at the US box office , and Moore caught the attention of several critics with her performance . She followed it the same year with the crime comedy The Gun in Betty Lou 's Handbag , appearing as the protagonist 's kooky sister . Moore continued to play supporting roles throughout 1993 , first featuring in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence as Madonna 's love rival . The film was a failure and widely mocked , and she later regretted her involvement . She had greater success in a 1993 romantic comedy with Johnny Depp . In Benny & Joon , she played a gentle waitress who falls for Aidan Quinn 's character , Benny . Moore also appeared briefly as a doctor in one of the year 's biggest hits , the Harrison Ford thriller The Fugitive .
= = = Rise to prominence ( 1993 – 97 ) = = =
The filmmaker Robert Altman saw Moore in the Uncle Vanya production , and was sufficiently impressed to cast her in his next project : the ensemble drama Short Cuts ( 1993 ) , based on short stories by Raymond Carver . Moore was pleased to work with him , as his film 3 Women ( 1977 ) gave her a strong appreciation for cinema when she saw it in college . Playing artist Marian Wyman was an experience she found difficult , as she was a " total unknown " surrounded by established actors , but this proved to be Moore 's breakout role . Variety magazine described her as " arresting " and noted that her monologue , delivered naked from the waist down , would " no doubt be the most discussed scene " of the film . Short Cuts was critically acclaimed , and received awards for Best Ensemble Cast at the Venice Film Festival and the Golden Globe Awards . Moore received an individual nomination for Best Supporting Female at the Independent Spirit Awards , and the monologue scene earned her a degree of notoriety .
Short Cuts was one of a trio of successive film appearances that boosted Moore 's reputation . It was followed in 1994 with Vanya on 42nd Street , a filmed version of her ongoing Uncle Vanya workshop production , directed by Louis Malle . Moore 's performance of Yelena was described as " simply outstanding " by Time Out , and she won the Boston Society of Film Critics award for Best Actress . Following this , Moore was given her first leading role , playing an unhappy suburban housewife who develops multiple chemical sensitivity in Todd Haynes ' low @-@ budget film Safe ( 1995 ) . She had to lose a substantial amount of weight for the role , which made her ill , and she vowed never to change her body for a film again . In their review , Empire magazine writes that Safe " first established [ Moore 's ] credentials as perhaps the finest actress of her generation . " The film historian David Thomson later described it as " one of the most arresting , original and accomplished films of the 1990s , " and the performance earned Moore an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Actress . Reflecting on these three roles , Moore stated , " They all came out at once , and I suddenly had this profile . It was amazing . "
Moore 's next appearance was a supporting role in the comedy – drama Roommates ( 1995 ) , playing the wife of Peter Falk . Her following film , Nine Months ( 1995 ) , was crucial in establishing her as a leading lady in Hollywood . The romantic comedy , directed by Chris Columbus and co @-@ starring Hugh Grant , was poorly reviewed but a box office success ; it remains one of her highest @-@ grossing films . Her next release was also a Hollywood production , as Moore appeared alongside Sylvester Stallone and Antonio Banderas in the thriller Assassins ( 1995 ) . Despite negativity from critics , the film earned $ 83 @.@ 5 million worldwide . Moore 's only appearance of 1996 came in the Merchant Ivory film Surviving Picasso , where she played the artist Dora Maar opposite Anthony Hopkins . The period drama met with poor reviews .
A key point in Moore 's career came when she was cast by Steven Spielberg to star as paleontologist Dr. Sarah Harding in The Lost World : Jurassic Park — the sequel to his 1993 blockbuster Jurassic Park . Filming the big @-@ budget production was a new experience for Moore , and she said that she enjoyed herself " tremendously " . It was a physically demanding role , she said : " There was so much hanging everywhere . We hung off everything available , plus we climbed , ran , jumped off things ... it was just non @-@ stop . " The Lost World ( 1997 ) finished as one of the ten highest @-@ grossing films in history to that point , and was pivotal in making Moore a sought @-@ after actress : " Suddenly I had a commercial film career , " she said . The Myth of Fingerprints was her second film released in 1997 . During its production she met her future husband in director Bart Freundlich . Later that year , Moore made a cameo appearance in the dark comedy Chicago Cab .
= = = Widespread recognition ( 1997 – 2002 ) = = =
The late 1990s and early 2000s saw Moore achieve significant industry recognition . Her first Academy Award nomination came for the critically acclaimed Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which centers on a group of individuals working in the 1970s pornography industry . Director Paul Thomas Anderson was not a well known figure before its production , with only one feature credit to his name , but Moore agreed to the film after being impressed with his " exhilarating " script . The ensemble piece featured Moore as Amber Waves , a leading porn actress and mother @-@ figure who longs to be reunited with her real son . Martyn Glanville of the BBC commented that the role required a mixture of confidence and vulnerability , and was impressed with Moore 's effort . Time Out called the performance " superb " , while Janet Maslin of The New York Times found it " wonderful " . Alongside her Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress , Moore was nominated at the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild awards , and several critics groups named her a winner .
Moore followed her success in Boogie Nights with a role in the Coen brothers ' dark comedy The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) . The film was not a hit at the time of release but subsequently became a cult classic . Her role was Maude Lebowski , a feminist artist and daughter of the eponymous character who becomes involved with " The Dude " ( Jeff Bridges , the film 's star ) . At the end of 1998 , Moore had a flop with Gus Van Sant 's Psycho , a remake of the classic Alfred Hitchcock film of the same name . She played Lila Crane in the film , which received poor reviews and is described by The Guardian as one of her " pointless " outings . The review in Boxoffice magazine regretted that " a group of enormously talented people wasted several months of their lives " on the film .
After reuniting with Robert Altman for the dark comedy Cookie 's Fortune ( 1999 ) , Moore starred in An Ideal Husband — Oliver Parker 's adaptation of the Oscar Wilde play . Set in London at the end of the 19th century , her performance of Mrs. Laura Cheverly earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy . She was also nominated in the Drama category that year for her work in The End of the Affair ( 1999 ) . Based on the novel by Graham Greene , Moore played opposite Ralph Fiennes as an adulterous wife in 1940s Britain . The critic Michael Sragow was full of praise for her work , writing that her performance was " the critical element that makes [ the film ] necessary viewing . " Moore received her second Academy Award nomination for the role — her first for Best Actress — as well as nominations at the British Academy ( BAFTA ) and Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) awards .
In between her two Golden Globe @-@ nominated performances , Moore was seen in A Map of the World , supporting Sigourney Weaver , as a bereaved mother . Her fifth and final film of 1999 was the acclaimed drama Magnolia , a " giant mosaic " chronicling the lives of multiple characters over one day in Los Angeles . Paul Thomas Anderson , in his follow @-@ up to Boogie Nights , wrote a role specifically for Moore . His primary objective was to " see her explode " , and he cast her as a morphine @-@ addicted wife . Moore said that it was a particularly difficult role , but she was rewarded with a SAG nomination . She was subsequently named Best Supporting Actress of 1999 by the National Board of Review , in recognition of her three performances in Magnolia , An Ideal Husband , and A Map of the World .
Apart from a cameo role in the comedy The Ladies Man , Moore 's only other appearance in 2000 was in a short @-@ film adaptation of Samuel Beckett 's play Not I. In early 2001 , she appeared as FBI Agent Clarice Starling in Hannibal , a sequel to the Oscar winning film The Silence of the Lambs . Jodie Foster had declined to reprise the role , and director Ridley Scott eventually cast Moore , over Angelina Jolie , Cate Blanchett , Gillian Anderson and Helen Hunt . The change in actress received considerable attention from the press , but Moore claimed she was not interested in upstaging Foster . Despite negative reviews , Hannibal earned $ 58 million in its opening weekend and finished as the tenth highest @-@ grossing film of the year . Moore starred in three more 2001 releases : with David Duchovny in the science fiction – comedy Evolution , in her husband 's dramatic film World Traveler , and with Kevin Spacey , Judi Dench , and Cate Blanchett in The Shipping News . All three films were poorly received .
The year 2002 marked a high point in Moore 's career , as she became the ninth performer to be nominated for two Academy Awards in the same year . She received a Best Actress nomination for the melodrama Far from Heaven , in which she played a 1950s housewife whose world is shaken when her husband reveals he is gay . The role was written specifically for her by Todd Haynes , the first time the pair had worked together since Safe , and Moore described it as " a very , very personal project ... such an incredible honor to do . " David Rooney of Variety praised her " beautifully gauged performance " of a desperate woman " buckling under social pressures and putting on a brave face " . Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " what Moore does with her role is so beyond the parameters of what we call great acting that it nearly defies categorization . " The role won Moore the Best Actress award from 19 different organizations , including the Venice Film Festival and the National Board of Review .
Moore 's second Oscar nomination that year came for The Hours , which she co @-@ starred in with Nicole Kidman and Meryl Streep . She again played a troubled 1950s housewife , prompting Kenneth Turan to write that she was " essentially reprising her Far from Heaven role " . Moore said it was an " unfortunate coincidence " that the similar roles came at the same time , and claimed that the characters had differing personalities . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the performance " wrenching " , while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised a " superbly controlled , humane performance " . The Hours was nominated for nine Academy Awards , including Best Picture . Moore also received BAFTA and SAG Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress , and was jointly awarded the Silver Bear for Best Actress with Kidman and Streep at the Berlin Film Festival .
= = = Established actress ( 2003 – 09 ) = = =
Moore did not make any screen appearances in 2003 , but returned in 2004 with three films . There was no success in her first two ventures of the year : Marie and Bruce , a dark comedy co @-@ starring Matthew Broderick , did not get a cinematic release ; Laws of Attraction followed , where she played opposite Pierce Brosnan in a courtroom @-@ based romantic comedy , but the film was panned by critics . Commercial success returned to Moore with The Forgotten , a psychological thriller in which she played a mother who is told her dead son never existed . Although the film was unpopular with critics , it opened as the US box office number one .
In 2005 , Moore worked with her husband for the third time in the comedy Trust the Man , and starred in the true story of a 1950s housewife , The Prize Winner of Defiance , Ohio . Her first release of 2006 was Freedomland , a mystery co @-@ starring Samuel L. Jackson . The response was overwhelmingly negative but her follow @-@ up , Alfonso Cuarón 's Children of Men ( 2006 ) , was highly acclaimed . Moore had a supporting role in the dystopian drama , playing the leader of an activist group . It is listed on Rotten Tomatoes as one of the best reviewed films of her career , and was named by Peter Travers as the second best film of the decade .
Moore made her Broadway debut in the world premiere of David Hare 's play The Vertical Hour . The production , directed by Sam Mendes and co @-@ starring Bill Nighy , opened in November 2006 . Moore played the role of Nadia , a former war correspondent who finds her views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq challenged . Ben Brantley of The New York Times was unenthusiastic about the production , and described Moore as miscast : in his opinion , she failed to bring the " tough , assertive " quality that Nadia required . David Rooney of Variety criticized her " lack of stage technique " , adding that she appeared " stiffly self @-@ conscious " . Moore later confessed that she found performing on Broadway difficult and had not connected with the medium , but was glad to have experimented with it . The play closed in March 2007 after 117 performances .
Moore played an FBI agent for the second time in Next ( 2007 ) , a science fiction action film co @-@ starring Nicolas Cage and Jessica Biel . Based on a short story by Philip K. Dick , the response from critics was highly negative . Manhola Dargis wrote , " Ms. Moore seems terribly unhappy to be here , and it 's no wonder . " The actress later described it as her worst film . Next was followed by Savage Grace ( 2007 ) , the true story of Barbara Daly Baekeland — a high @-@ society mother whose Oedipal relationship with her son ended in murder . Moore was fascinated by the role , but the film was considered controversial for its explicit depiction of incest . She told an interviewer , " Obviously you do have some trepidation about that kind of stuff , but it 's not being celebrated . This is presented as a tragedy . " Savage Grace had a limited release , and received predominantly negative reviews . Peter Bradshaw , however , called it a " coldly brilliant and tremendously acted movie . "
I 'm Not There ( 2007 ) saw Moore work with Todd Haynes for the third time . The film explored the life of Bob Dylan , with Moore playing a character based on Joan Baez . In 2008 , she starred with Mark Ruffalo in Blindness , a dystopian thriller from the director Fernando Meirelles . The film was not widely seen , and critics were generally unenthusiastic . Moore was not seen on screen again until late 2009 , with three new releases . She had a supporting role in The Private Lives of Pippa Lee , and then starred in the erotic thriller Chloe with Amanda Seyfried and Liam Neeson . Shortly afterwards , she appeared in the well @-@ received drama A Single Man . Set in 1960s Los Angeles , the film starred Colin Firth as a homosexual professor who wishes to end his life . Moore played his best friend , " a fellow English expat and semi @-@ alcoholic divorcee " , a character that Tom Ford , the film 's writer – director , created with her in mind . Leslie Felperin of Variety commented that it was Moore 's best role in " some time " , and was impressed by the " extraordinary emotional nuance " of the performance . A Single Man was named one of the 10 best films of the year by the American Film Institute , and Moore received a fifth Golden Globe nomination for her work .
= = = Television and comedy ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
Moore returned to television for the first time in 18 years when she played a guest role in the fourth season of 30 Rock . She appeared in five episodes of the Emmy @-@ winning comedy , playing Nancy Donovan , a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's character Jack Donaghy . She later appeared in the series finale in January 2013 . She also returned to As the World Turns , making a cameo appearance as Frannie Hughes when the show was cancelled in 2010 . Her first big @-@ screen appearance of the new decade was Shelter ( 2010 ) , a film described as " heinous " by Tim Robey of The Telegraph . The psychological thriller received negative reviews and did not have a US release until 2013 ( retitled 6 Souls ) .
Moore next starred with Annette Bening in the independent film The Kids Are All Right ( 2010 ) , a comedy – drama about a lesbian couple whose teenage children locate their sperm donor . The role of Jules Allgood was written for her by writer – director Lisa Cholodenko , who felt that Moore was the right age , adept at both drama and comedy , and confident with the film 's sexual content . The actress was drawn to the film 's " universal " depiction of married life , and committed to the project in 2005 . The Kids Are All Right was widely acclaimed , eventually garnering an Oscar nomination for Best Picture . The critic Betsy Sharkey praised Moore 's performance of Jules , who she called an " existential bundle of unrealized need and midlife uncertainty " , writing , " There are countless moments when the actress strips bare before the camera — sometimes literally , sometimes emotionally ... and Moore plays every note perfectly . " The Kids Are All Right earned Moore a sixth Golden Globe Award nomination and a second BAFTA nomination for Best Actress .
For her next project , Moore actively looked for another comedy . She had a supporting role in Crazy , Stupid , Love , playing the estranged wife of Steve Carell , which was favorably reviewed and earned $ 142 @.@ 8 million worldwide . Moore was not seen on screens again until March 2012 , with a performance that received considerable praise and recognition . She starred in the HBO television film Game Change , a dramatization of Sarah Palin 's 2008 campaign to become Vice President . Portraying a well @-@ known figure was something she found challenging ; in preparation , she conducted extensive research and worked with a dialect coach for two months . Although the response to the film was mixed , critics were highly appreciative of Moore 's performance . For the first time in her career , she received a Golden Globe , a Primetime Emmy , and a SAG Award .
Moore made two film appearances in 2012 . The drama Being Flynn , in which she supported Robert De Niro , had a limited release . Greater success came for What Maisie Knew , the story of a young girl caught in the middle of her parents ' divorce . Adapted from Henry James 's novel and updated to the 21st century , the drama earned near @-@ universal critical praise . The role of Susanna , Maisie 's rock @-@ star mother , required Moore to sing on camera , which was a challenge she embraced despite finding it embarrassing . She called Susanna a terrible parent , but said the role did not make her uncomfortable as she fully compartmentalized the character : " I know that that 's not me " .
Following her well @-@ received performance in What Maisie Knew , Moore began 2013 with a supporting role in Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt 's comedy Don Jon , playing an older woman who helps the title character to appreciate his relationships . Reviews for the film were favorable , and Mary Pols of Time magazine wrote that Moore was a key factor in its success . Her next appearance was a starring role in the comedy The English Teacher ( 2013 ) , but this outing was poorly received and earned little at the box office . In October 2013 , she played the demented mother Margaret White in Carrie , an adaptation of Stephen King 's horror novel . Coming 37 years after Brian De Palma 's well @-@ known take on the book , Moore stated that she wanted to make the role her own . By drawing on King 's writing rather than the 1976 film , Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that she managed to " [ suggest ] a history – one never told , just hinted at – of serious damage in [ Margaret 's ] past . " The film was a box office success , but was generally considered an unsuccessful and unnecessary adaptation .
= = = Awards success ( 2014 – present ) = = =
At 53 years old , Moore enjoyed a considerable degree of critical and commercial success in 2014 . Her first release of the year came alongside Liam Neeson in the action – thriller Non @-@ Stop , set aboard an airplane . The response to the film was mixed but it earned $ 223 million worldwide . She followed this by winning the Best Actress award at the Cannes Film Festival for her portrayal of Havana Segrand , an ageing actress receiving psychotherapy in David Cronenberg 's black comedy Maps to the Stars . Described by The Guardian as a " grotesque , gaudy and ruthless " character , Moore based her role on " an amalgam of Hollywood casualties she ha [ d ] encountered " and drew upon her early experiences in the industry . Peter Debruge of Variety criticized the film but found Moore to be " incredible " and " fearless " in it . Moore 's success at Cannes made her the second actress in history , after Juliette Binoche , to win at the " Big Three " film festivals ( Cannes , Venice , and Berlin ) . She also received a Golden Globe nomination for the performance .
Moore played the supporting role of President Alma Coin , the leader of a rebellion against The Capitol , in the third installment of the lucrative Hunger Games film series , Mockingjay – Part 1 . The film ranks as her highest @-@ grossing to date . Her final appearance of 2014 was one of the most acclaimed of her career . In the drama Still Alice , Moore played the leading role of a linguistics professor diagnosed with early onset Alzheimer 's disease . She spent four months training for the film , by watching documentaries on the disease and interacting with patients at the Alzheimer 's Association . Critic David Thomson wrote that Moore was " extraordinary at revealing the gradual loss of memory and confidence " , while according to Kenneth Turan she was " especially good at the wordless elements of this transformation , allowing us to see through the changing contours of her face what it is like when your mind empties out . " Several critics commented that it was her finest performance to date , and Moore was awarded with the Oscar , Golden Globe , SAG and BAFTA for Best Actress .
Moore began 2015 by appearing as an evil queen in Seventh Son , a poorly received fantasy – adventure film co @-@ starring Jeff Bridges . She also appeared opposite Ellen Page in Freeheld , a drama based on a true story about a detective and her same @-@ sex partner , and in the romantic comedy Maggie 's Plan , with Greta Gerwig and Ethan Hawke . Both films were presented at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival in September 2015 . In Maggie 's Plan , Moore played a pretentious Danish professor , a comic role which critic Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair deemed as the film 's " chief pleasure " . Later that year , she reprised her role as Alma Coin in The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 2 , the final film of the series .
As of May 2016 , Moore is filming with Michelle Williams for Wonderstruck , a film adaptation of Brian Selznick 's historical novel of the same name , which reteams her with director Todd Haynes . She has also committed to star as the antagonist in a sequel to the spy film Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 2015 ) , subtitled The Golden Circle , co @-@ starring Taron Egerton , Channing Tatum and Halle Berry . In addition , she will feature opposite Matt Damon in Suburbicon , a thriller written by the Coen brothers and directed by George Clooney .
= = Reception and acting style = =
Moore has been described in the media as one of the most talented and accomplished actresses of her generation . As a woman in her 50s , she is unusual in being an older actress who continues to work regularly and in prominent roles . She enjoys the variety of appearing in both low @-@ budget independent films and large @-@ scale Hollywood productions . In 2004 , an IGN journalist wrote of this " rare ability to bounce between commercially viable projects like Nine Months to art house masterpieces like Safe unscathed " , adding , " She is respected in art houses and multiplexes alike . " She is noted for playing in a range of material , and the director Ridley Scott , who worked with Moore on Hannibal , praised her versatility . In October 2013 , Moore was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . She has been included in People magazine 's annual beauty lists on four occasions ( 1995 , 2003 , 2008 , 2013 ) .
Moore is particularly known for playing troubled women , and specializes in " ordinary women who suppress powerful emotions " . Oliver Burkeman of The Guardian writes that her characters are typically " struggling to maintain a purchase on normality in the face of some secret anguish or creeping awareness of failure " . Suzie Mackenzie , also of The Guardian , identified a theme of " characters in a state of alienation ... women who have forgotten or lost themselves . People whose identity is a question . " Her performances often include small hints at emotional turmoil , until there comes a point when the character breaks . The journalist Kira Cochrane identified this as a " trademark moment " in many of her best films , while it led Burkeman to call her the " queen of the big @-@ screen breakdown " . " When she does finally crack , " writes journalist Simon Hattenstone , " it 's a sight to behold : nobody sobs from the soul quite like Moore . " Ben Brantley of The New York Times praised Moore 's ability to subtly reveal the inner @-@ turmoil of her characters , writing that she is " peerless " in her " portraits of troubled womanhood . " When it comes to more authoritative roles , Brantley believes she is " a bit of a bore " . " Emotional nakedness is Ms. Moore 's specialty , " he says , " and it 's here that you sense the magic she is capable of . "
An interest in portraying " actual human drama " led Moore to these roles . She is particularly moved by the concept of an individual repressing their troubles and striving to maintain dignity . Parts where the character achieves an amazing feat are of little interest to her , because " we 're just not very often in that position in our lives . " Early in her career , Moore established a reputation for pushing boundaries , and she continues to be praised for her " fearless " performances and for taking on difficult roles . When asked if there were any roles that she avoided , she replied , " Nothing within the realm of human behaviour . " She is known for her willingness to perform nude and appear in sex scenes , although she said she will only do so if she feels it fits the role .
Regarding her approach to acting , Moore said in a 2002 interview that she leaves 95 percent of the performance to be discovered on set : " I want to have a sense of who a character is , and then I want to get there and have it happen to me on camera . " The aim , she said , is to " try to get yourself in a position to let the emotion [ happen ] to you , that you don 't bring the emotion to it ... and when it happens , there 's nothing better or more exciting or more rewarding . "
= = Writing = =
Alongside her acting work , Moore has established a career as a children 's author . Her first book , Freckleface Strawberry , was published in October 2007 and became a New York Times Best Seller . Described by Time Out as a " simple , sweet and semi @-@ autobiographical narrative " , it tells the story of a girl who wishes to be rid of her freckles but eventually accepts them . Moore decided to write the book when her young son began disliking aspects of his appearance ; she was reminded of her own childhood , when she was teased for having freckles and called " Freckleface Strawberry " by other children .
The book has turned into a series with four follow @-@ ups as of 2015 : Freckleface Strawberry and the Dodgeball Bully was published in 2009 , and Freckleface Strawberry : Best Friends Forever in 2011 . Both carry the message that children can overcome their own problems . In 2015 , Freckleface Strawberry : Backpacks ! and Freckleface Strawberry : Lunch , or What 's That ? were released as part of Random House publishers ' " Step Into Reading " program . Moore is contracted to write two more books for the company .
Freckleface Strawberry has been adapted into a musical , written by Rose Caiola and Gary Kupper , which premiered at the New World Stages , New York , in October 2010 . Moore had an input in the production , particularly through requesting that it retain the book 's young target audience . The show has since been licensed and performed at several venues , which she calls " extremely gratifying and extremely flattering " .
Moore has written one children 's book separate from the Freckleface Strawberry series . Released in 2013 , My Mom is a Foreigner , But Not to Me is based on her experiences of growing up with a mother from another country . The book had a negative reception from Publishers Weekly and Kirkus Reviews ; while recognizing it as well @-@ intentioned , Moore 's use of verse and rhyme was criticised .
= = Personal life = =
Actor and stage director John Gould Rubin was Moore 's first husband , whom she met in 1984 and married two years later . They separated in 1993 , and their divorce was finalized in August 1995 . " I got married too early and I really didn 't want to be there " , she later explained . Moore began a relationship with Bart Freundlich , her director on The Myth of Fingerprints , in 1996 . The couple have a son , Caleb ( born December 1997 ) and a daughter , Liv ( born April 2002 ) . They wed in August 2003 and live in Greenwich Village , New York City . Moore commented , " We have a very solid family life , and it is the most satisfying thing I have ever done . " She tries to keep her family close when working and picks material that is practical for her as a parent .
Moore is politically liberal and supported Barack Obama at the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections . She is a pro @-@ choice activist and sits on the board of advocates for Planned Parenthood . She is also a campaigner for gay rights and gun control , and since 2008 she has been an Artist Ambassador for Save the Children . Moore is an atheist ; when asked on Inside the Actors Studio what God might say to her upon arrival at heaven , she gave God 's response as , " Well I guess you were wrong , I do exist . "
Moore said she finds little value in the concept of celebrity and is concerned with living a " normal " life . Upon meeting her , the journalist Suzie Mackenzie described Moore as " the most unostentatious of stars " , and she attracts little gossip or tabloid attention . She is humble about her profession , saying she is " just a person with a job " , and casual in her appearance . Known for maintaining a natural image , Moore has spoken out against botox and plastic surgery .
= = Filmography = =
As of April 2016 , Moore has appeared in 62 feature films , four television movies , and four television series . Her most acclaimed films , according to review @-@ aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes , include Short Cuts ( 1993 ) , Children of Men ( 2006 ) , The Kids Are All Right ( 2010 ) , Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , Far from Heaven ( 2002 ) , Vanya on 42nd Street ( 1994 ) , What Maisie Knew ( 2012 ) , Still Alice ( 2014 ) , Safe ( 1995 ) , A Single Man ( 2009 ) , and Magnolia ( 2000 ) . Her films that have earned the most at the box office are The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 ( 2014 ) , The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) , Hannibal ( 2001 ) , Non @-@ Stop ( 2014 ) , The Hand That Rocks the Cradle ( 1992 ) , Crazy , Stupid , Love . ( 2011 ) , Nine Months ( 1995 ) , The Forgotten ( 2004 ) , The Hours ( 2002 ) , Evolution ( 2001 ) and Carrie ( 2013 ) .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Moore has received five Academy Award nominations , nine Golden Globe nominations , seven SAG nominations , and four BAFTA nominations . From these , she has won an Academy Award , two Golden Globes , a BAFTA , and two SAG Awards ; she also has a Primetime Emmy and a Daytime Emmy . In addition , she has been named Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival , Berlin Film Festival , and Venice Film Festival – the fourth person , and second female , in history to achieve this . Her recognized roles came in As the World Turns , Boogie Nights , An Ideal Husband , The End of the Affair , Magnolia , Far From Heaven , The Hours , A Single Man , The Kids Are All Right , Game Change , Maps to the Stars , and Still Alice .
= = Published works = =
Moore , Julianne ( 2007 ) . Freckleface Strawberry . Illustrated by LeUyen Pham . New York : Bloomsbury Juvenile US . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59990 @-@ 107 @-@ 7 .
Moore , Julianne ( 2009 ) . Freckleface Strawberry And The Dodgeball Bully . Illustrated by LeUyen Pham . New York : Bloomsbury Juvenile US . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59990 @-@ 316 @-@ 3 .
Moore , Julianne ( 2011 ) . Freckleface Strawberry Best Friends Forever . Illustrated by LeUyen Pham . New York : Bloomsbury Juvenile US . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59990 @-@ 782 @-@ 6 .
Moore , Julianne ( 2013 ) . My Mom Is a Foreigner , But Not to Me . Illustrated by Meilo So . San Francisco : Chronicle Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4521 @-@ 0792 @-@ 9 .
Moore , Julianne ( 2015 ) . Freckleface Strawberry : Backpacks ! ( Step into Reading ) . Illustrated by LeUyen Pham . New York : Random House Books for Young Readers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 39194 @-@ 8 .
Moore , Julianne ( 2015 ) . Freckleface Strawberry : Lunch , or What 's That ? ( Step into Reading ) . Illustrated by LeUyen Pham . New York : Random House Books for Young Readers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 39191 @-@ 7 .
|
= Stonewall riots =
The Stonewall riots ( also referred to as the Stonewall uprising or the Stonewall rebellion ) were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay ( LGBT ) community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28 , 1969 , at the Stonewall Inn , located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan , New York City . They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States .
Gay Americans in the 1950s and 1960s faced an anti @-@ gay legal system . Early homophile groups in the U.S. sought to prove that gay people could be assimilated into society , and they favored non @-@ confrontational education for homosexuals and heterosexuals alike . The last years of the 1960s , however , were very contentious , as many social / political movements were active , including the African American Civil Rights Movement , the counterculture of the 1960s , and the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement . These influences , along with the liberal environment of Greenwich Village , served as catalysts for the Stonewall riots .
Very few establishments welcomed openly gay people in the 1950s and 1960s . Those that did were often bars , although bar owners and managers were rarely gay . At the time , the Stonewall Inn was owned by the Mafia . It catered to an assortment of patrons and was known to be popular among the poorest and most marginalized people in the gay community : drag queens , transgender people , effeminate young men , butch lesbians , male prostitutes , and homeless youth . Police raids on gay bars were routine in the 1960s , but officers quickly lost control of the situation at the Stonewall Inn . They attracted a crowd that was incited to riot . Tensions between New York City police and gay residents of Greenwich Village erupted into more protests the next evening , and again several nights later . Within weeks , Village residents quickly organized into activist groups to concentrate efforts on establishing places for gays and lesbians to be open about their sexual orientation without fear of being arrested .
After the Stonewall riots , gays and lesbians in New York City faced gender , race , class , and generational obstacles to becoming a cohesive community . Within six months , two gay activist organizations were formed in New York , concentrating on confrontational tactics , and three newspapers were established to promote rights for gays and lesbians . Within a few years , gay rights organizations were founded across the U.S. and the world . On June 28 , 1970 , the first Gay Pride marches took place in New York , Los Angeles , San Francisco and Chicago commemorating the anniversary of the riots . Similar marches were organized in other cities . Today , Gay Pride events are held annually throughout the world toward the end of June to mark the Stonewall riots .
The Stonewall National Monument was established at the site in 2016 .
= = Background = =
= = = Homosexuality in 20th @-@ century United States = = =
Following the social upheaval of World War II , many people in the United States felt a fervent desire to " restore the prewar social order and hold off the forces of change " , according to historian Barry Adam . Spurred by the national emphasis on anti @-@ communism , Senator Joseph McCarthy conducted hearings searching for communists in the U.S. government , the U.S. Army , and other government @-@ funded agencies and institutions , leading to a national paranoia . Anarchists , communists , and other people deemed un @-@ American and subversive were considered security risks . Homosexuals were included in this list by the U.S. State Department on the theory that they were susceptible to blackmail . In 1950 , a Senate investigation chaired by Clyde R. Hoey noted in a report , " It is generally believed that those who engage in overt acts of perversion lack the emotional stability of normal persons " , and said all of the government 's intelligence agencies " are in complete agreement that sex perverts in Government constitute security risks . " Between 1947 and 1950 , 1 @,@ 700 federal job applications were denied , 4 @,@ 380 people were discharged from the military , and 420 were fired from their government jobs for being suspected homosexuals .
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) and police departments kept lists of known homosexuals , their favored establishments , and friends ; the U.S. Post Office kept track of addresses where material pertaining to homosexuality was mailed . State and local governments followed suit : bars catering to homosexuals were shut down , and their customers were arrested and exposed in newspapers . Cities performed " sweeps " to rid neighborhoods , parks , bars , and beaches of gay people . They outlawed the wearing of opposite gender clothes , and universities expelled instructors suspected of being homosexual . Thousands of gay men and women were publicly humiliated , physically harassed , fired , jailed , or institutionalized in mental hospitals . Many lived double lives , keeping their private lives secret from their professional ones .
In 1952 , the American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ( DSM ) as a mental disorder . A large @-@ scale study of homosexuality in 1962 was used to justify inclusion of the disorder as a supposed pathological hidden fear of the opposite sex caused by traumatic parent – child relationships . This view was widely influential in the medical profession . In 1956 , however , the psychologist Evelyn Hooker performed a study that compared the happiness and well @-@ adjusted nature of self @-@ identified homosexual men with heterosexual men and found no difference . Her study stunned the medical community and made her a hero to many gay men and lesbians , but homosexuality remained in the DSM until 1973 .
= = = Homophile activism = = =
In response to this trend , two organizations formed independently of each other to advance the cause of homosexuals and provide social opportunities where gays and lesbians could socialize without fear of being arrested . Los Angeles area homosexuals created the Mattachine Society in 1950 , in the home of communist activist Harry Hay . Their objectives were to unify homosexuals , educate them , provide leadership , and assist " sexual deviants " with legal troubles . Facing enormous opposition to its radical approach , in 1953 the Mattachine shifted their focus to assimilation and respectability . They reasoned that they would change more minds about homosexuality by proving that gays and lesbians were normal people , no different from heterosexuals . Soon after , several women in San Francisco met in their living rooms to form the Daughters of Bilitis ( DOB ) for lesbians . Although the eight women who created the DOB initially came together to be able to have a safe place to dance , as the DOB grew they developed similar goals to the Mattachine , and urged their members to assimilate into general society .
One of the first challenges to government repression came in 1953 . An organization named ONE , Inc. published a magazine called ONE . The U.S. Postal Service refused to mail its August issue , which concerned homosexuals in heterosexual marriages , on the grounds that the material was obscene despite it being covered in brown paper wrapping . The case eventually went to the Supreme Court , which in 1958 ruled that ONE , Inc. could mail its materials through the Postal Service .
Homophile organizations — as homosexual groups were called — grew in number and spread to the East Coast . Gradually , members of these organizations grew bolder . Frank Kameny founded the Mattachine of Washington , D.C. He had been fired from the U.S. Army Map Service for being a homosexual , and sued unsuccessfully to be reinstated . Kameny wrote that homosexuals were no different from heterosexuals , often aiming his efforts at mental health professionals , some of whom attended Mattachine and DOB meetings telling members they were abnormal . In 1965 , Kameny , inspired by the Civil Rights Movement , organized a picket of the White House and other government buildings to protest employment discrimination . The pickets shocked many gay people , and upset some of the leadership of Mattachine and the DOB . At the same time , demonstrations in the Civil Rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War all grew in prominence , frequency , and severity throughout the 1960s , as did their confrontations with police forces .
= = = Compton 's Cafeteria riot = = =
On the outer fringes of the few small gay communities were people who challenged gender expectations . They were effeminate men and masculine women , or people assigned male at birth who dressed and lived as women and people assigned female at birth who dressed as men , respectively , either part or full @-@ time . Contemporary nomenclature classified them as transvestites , and they were the most visible representatives of sexual minorities . They belied the carefully crafted image portrayed by the Mattachine Society and DOB that asserted homosexuals were respectable , normal people . The Mattachine and DOB considered the trials of being arrested for wearing clothing of the opposite gender as a parallel to the struggles of homophile organizations : similar but distinctly separate . Gay and transgender people staged a small riot in Los Angeles in 1959 in response to police harassment .
In a larger event in 1966 in San Francisco , drag queens , hustlers , and transvestites were sitting in Compton 's Cafeteria when the police arrived to arrest men dressed as women . A riot ensued , with the patrons of the cafeteria slinging cups , plates , and saucers , and breaking the plexiglass windows in the front of the restaurant , and returning several days later to smash the windows again after they were replaced . Professor Susan Stryker classifies the Compton 's Cafeteria riot as an " act of anti @-@ transgender discrimination , rather than an act of discrimination against sexual orientation " and connects the uprising to the issues of gender , race , and class that were being downplayed by homophile organizations . It marked the beginning of transgender activism in San Francisco .
= = = Greenwich Village = = =
The Manhattan neighborhoods of Greenwich Village and Harlem were home to a sizable homosexual population after World War I , when men and women who had served in the military took advantage of the opportunity to settle in larger cities . The enclaves of gays and lesbians , described by a newspaper story as " short @-@ haired women and long @-@ haired men " , developed a distinct subculture through the following two decades . Prohibition inadvertently benefited gay establishments , as drinking alcohol was pushed underground along with other behaviors considered immoral . New York City passed laws against homosexuality in public and private businesses , but because alcohol was in high demand , speakeasies and impromptu drinking establishments were so numerous and temporary that authorities were unable to police them all .
The social repression of the 1950s resulted in a cultural revolution in Greenwich Village . A cohort of poets , later named the Beat poets , wrote about the evils of the social organization at the time , glorifying anarchy , drugs , and hedonistic pleasures over unquestioning social compliance , consumerism , and closed mindedness . Of them , Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs — both Greenwich Village residents — also wrote bluntly and honestly about homosexuality . Their writings attracted sympathetic liberal @-@ minded people , as well as homosexuals looking for a community .
By the early 1960s , a campaign to rid New York City of gay bars was in full effect by order of Mayor Robert F. Wagner , Jr . , who was concerned about the image of the city in preparation for the 1964 World 's Fair . The city revoked the liquor licenses of the bars , and undercover police officers worked to entrap as many homosexual men as possible . Entrapment usually consisted of an undercover officer who found a man in a bar or public park , engaged him in conversation ; if the conversation headed toward the possibility that they might leave together — or the officer bought the man a drink — he was arrested for solicitation . One story in the New York Post described an arrest in a gym locker room , where the officer grabbed his crotch , moaning , and a man who asked him if he was all right was arrested . Few lawyers would defend cases as undesirable as these , and some of those lawyers kicked back their fees to the arresting officer .
The Mattachine Society succeeded in getting newly elected Mayor John Lindsay to end the campaign of police entrapment in New York City . They had a more difficult time with the New York State Liquor Authority ( SLA ) . While no laws prohibited serving homosexuals , courts allowed the SLA discretion in approving and revoking liquor licenses for businesses that might become " disorderly " . Despite the high population of gays and lesbians who called Greenwich Village home , very few places existed , other than bars , where they were able to congregate openly without being harassed or arrested . In 1966 the New York Mattachine held a " sip @-@ in " at a Greenwich Village bar named Julius , which was frequented by gay men , to illustrate the discrimination homosexuals faced .
None of the bars frequented by gays and lesbians were owned by gay people . Almost all of them were owned and controlled by organized crime , who treated the regulars poorly , watered down the liquor , and overcharged for drinks . However , they also paid off police to prevent frequent raids .
= = = Stonewall Inn = = =
The Stonewall Inn , located at 51 and 53 Christopher Street , along with several other establishments in the city , was owned by the Genovese crime family . In 1966 , three members of the Mafia invested $ 3 @,@ 500 to turn the Stonewall Inn into a gay bar , after it had been a restaurant and a nightclub for heterosexuals . Once a week a police officer would collect envelopes of cash as a payoff ; the Stonewall Inn had no liquor license . It had no running water behind the bar — used glasses were run through tubs of water and immediately reused . There were no fire exits , and the toilets overran consistently . Though the bar was not used for prostitution , drug sales and other " cash transactions " took place . It was the only bar for gay men in New York City where dancing was allowed ; dancing was its main draw since its re @-@ opening as a gay club .
Visitors to the Stonewall Inn in 1969 were greeted by a bouncer who inspected them through a peephole in the door . The legal drinking age was 18 , and to avoid unwittingly letting in undercover police ( who were called " Lily Law " , " Alice Blue Gown " , or " Betty Badge " ) , visitors would have to be known by the doorman , or look gay . The entrance fee on weekends was $ 3 , for which the customer received two tickets that could be exchanged for two drinks . Patrons were required to sign their names in a book to prove that the bar was a private " bottle club " , but rarely signed their real names . There were two dance floors in the Stonewall ; the interior was painted black , making it very dark inside , with pulsing gel lights or black lights . If police were spotted , regular white lights were turned on , signaling that everyone should stop dancing or touching . In the rear of the bar was a smaller room frequented by " queens " ; it was one of two bars where effeminate men who wore makeup and teased their hair ( though dressed in men 's clothing ) could go . Only a few transvestites , or men in full drag , were allowed in by the bouncers . The customers were " 98 percent male " but a few lesbians sometimes came to the bar . Younger homeless adolescent males , who slept in nearby Christopher Park , would often try to get in so customers would buy them drinks . The age of the clientele ranged between the upper teens and early thirties , and the racial mix was evenly distributed among white , black , and Hispanic patrons . Because of its even mix of people , its location , and the attraction of dancing , the Stonewall Inn was known by many as " the gay bar in the city " .
Police raids on gay bars were frequent — occurring on average once a month for each bar . Many bars kept extra liquor in a secret panel behind the bar , or in a car down the block , to facilitate resuming business as quickly as possible if alcohol was seized . Bar management usually knew about raids beforehand due to police tip @-@ offs , and raids occurred early enough in the evening that business could commence after the police had finished . During a typical raid , the lights were turned on , and customers were lined up and their identification cards checked . Those without identification or dressed in full drag were arrested ; others were allowed to leave . Some of the men , including those in drag , used their draft cards as identification . Women were required to wear three pieces of feminine clothing , and would be arrested if found not wearing them . Employees and management of the bars were also typically arrested . The period immediately before June 28 , 1969 , was marked by frequent raids of local bars — including a raid at the Stonewall Inn on the Tuesday before the riots — and the closing of the Checkerboard , the Tele @-@ Star , and two other clubs in Greenwich Village .
= = Riots = =
= = = Police raid = = =
At 1 : 20 a.m. on Saturday , June 28 , 1969 , four plainclothes policemen in dark suits , two patrol officers in uniform , and Detective Charles Smythe and Deputy Inspector Seymour Pine arrived at the Stonewall Inn 's double doors and announced " Police ! We 're taking the place ! " Stonewall employees do not recall being tipped off that a raid was to occur that night , as was the custom . According to Duberman ( p . 194 ) , there was a rumor that one might happen , but since it was much later than raids generally took place , Stonewall management thought the tip was inaccurate . Days after the raid , one of the bar owners complained that the tipoff had never come , and that the raid was ordered by the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , and Firearms , who objected that there were no stamps on the liquor bottles , indicating the alcohol was bootlegged .
Historian David Carter presents information indicating that the Mafia owners of the Stonewall and the manager were blackmailing wealthier customers , particularly those who worked in the Financial District . They appeared to be making more money from extortion than they were from liquor sales in the bar . Carter deduces that when the police were unable to receive kickbacks from blackmail and the theft of negotiable bonds ( facilitated by pressuring gay Wall Street customers ) , they decided to close the Stonewall Inn permanently . Two undercover policewomen and two undercover policemen had entered the bar earlier that evening to gather visual evidence , as the Public Morals Squad waited outside for the signal . Once inside , they called for backup from the Sixth Precinct using the bar 's pay telephone . The music was turned off and the main lights were turned on . Approximately 205 people were in the bar that night . Patrons who had never experienced a police raid were confused . A few who realized what was happening began to run for doors and windows in the bathrooms , but police barred the doors . Michael Fader remembered ,
Things happened so fast you kind of got caught not knowing . All of a sudden there were police there and we were told to all get in lines and to have our identification ready to be led out of the bar .
The raid did not go as planned . Standard procedure was to line up the patrons , check their identification , and have female police officers take customers dressed as women to the bathroom to verify their sex , upon which any men dressed as women would be arrested . Those dressed as women that night refused to go with the officers . Men in line began to refuse to produce their identification . The police decided to take everyone present to the police station , after separating those cross @-@ dressing in a room in the back of the bar . Maria Ritter , then known as Steve to her family , recalled , " My biggest fear was that I would get arrested . My second biggest fear was that my picture would be in a newspaper or on a television report in my mother 's dress ! " Both patrons and police recalled that a sense of discomfort spread very quickly , spurred by police who began to assault some of the lesbians by " feeling some of them up inappropriately " while frisking them .
The police were to transport the bar 's alcohol in patrol wagons . Twenty @-@ eight cases of beer and nineteen bottles of hard liquor were seized , but the patrol wagons had not yet arrived , so patrons were required to wait in line for about 15 minutes . Those who were not arrested were released from the front door , but they did not leave quickly as usual . Instead , they stopped outside and a crowd began to grow and watch . Within minutes , between 100 and 150 people had congregated outside , some after they were released from inside the Stonewall , and some after noticing the police cars and the crowd . Although the police forcefully pushed or kicked some patrons out of the bar , some customers released by the police performed for the crowd by posing and saluting the police in an exaggerated fashion . The crowd 's applause encouraged them further : " Wrists were limp , hair was primped , and reactions to the applause were classic . "
When the first patrol wagon arrived , Inspector Pine recalled that the crowd — most of whom were homosexual — had grown to at least ten times the number of people who were arrested , and they all became very quiet . Confusion over radio communication delayed the arrival of a second wagon . The police began escorting Mafia members into the first wagon , to the cheers of the bystanders . Next , regular employees were loaded into the wagon . A bystander shouted , " Gay power ! " , someone began singing " We Shall Overcome " , and the crowd reacted with amusement and general good humor mixed with " growing and intensive hostility " . An officer shoved a transvestite , who responded by hitting him on the head with her purse as the crowd began to boo . Author Edmund White , who had been passing by , recalled , " Everyone 's restless , angry , and high @-@ spirited . No one has a slogan , no one even has an attitude , but something 's brewing . " Pennies , then beer bottles , were thrown at the wagon as a rumor spread through the crowd that patrons still inside the bar were being beaten .
A scuffle broke out when a woman in handcuffs was escorted from the door of the bar to the waiting police wagon several times . She escaped repeatedly and fought with four of the police , swearing and shouting , for about ten minutes . Described as " a typical New York butch " and " a dyke – stone butch " , she had been hit on the head by an officer with a baton for , as one witness claimed , complaining that her handcuffs were too tight . Bystanders recalled that the woman , whose identity remains unknown ( Stormé DeLarverie has been identified by some , including herself , as the woman , but accounts vary ) , sparked the crowd to fight when she looked at bystanders and shouted , " Why don 't you guys do something ? " After an officer picked her up and heaved her into the back of the wagon , the crowd became a mob and went " berserk " : " It was at that moment that the scene became explosive . "
= = = Violence breaks out = = =
The police tried to restrain some of the crowd , and knocked a few people down , which incited bystanders even more . Some of those handcuffed in the wagon escaped when police left them unattended ( deliberately , according to some witnesses ) . As the crowd tried to overturn the police wagon , two police cars and the wagon — with a few slashed tires — left immediately , with Inspector Pine urging them to return as soon as possible . The commotion attracted more people who learned what was happening . Someone in the crowd declared that the bar had been raided because " they didn 't pay off the cops " , to which someone else yelled " Let 's pay them off ! " Coins sailed through the air towards the police as the crowd shouted " Pigs ! " and " Faggot cops ! " Beer cans were thrown and the police lashed out , dispersing some of the crowd who found a construction site nearby with stacks of bricks . The police , outnumbered by between 500 and 600 people , grabbed several people , including folk singer Dave Van Ronk — who had been attracted to the revolt from a bar two doors away from the Stonewall . Though Van Ronk was not gay , he had experienced police violence when he participated in antiwar demonstrations : " As far as I was concerned , anybody who 'd stand against the cops was all right with me , and that 's why I stayed in ... Every time you turned around the cops were pulling some outrage or another . " Ten police officers — including two policewomen — barricaded themselves , Van Ronk , Howard Smith ( a writer for The Village Voice ) , and several handcuffed detainees inside the Stonewall Inn for their own safety .
Multiple accounts of the riot assert that there was no pre @-@ existing organization or apparent cause for the demonstration ; what ensued was spontaneous . Michael Fader explained ,
We all had a collective feeling like we 'd had enough of this kind of shit . It wasn 't anything tangible anybody said to anyone else , it was just kind of like everything over the years had come to a head on that one particular night in the one particular place , and it was not an organized demonstration ... Everyone in the crowd felt that we were never going to go back . It was like the last straw . It was time to reclaim something that had always been taken from us .... All kinds of people , all different reasons , but mostly it was total outrage , anger , sorrow , everything combined , and everything just kind of ran its course . It was the police who were doing most of the destruction . We were really trying to get back in and break free . And we felt that we had freedom at last , or freedom to at least show that we demanded freedom . We weren 't going to be walking meekly in the night and letting them shove us around — it 's like standing your ground for the first time and in a really strong way , and that 's what caught the police by surprise . There was something in the air , freedom a long time overdue , and we 're going to fight for it . It took different forms , but the bottom line was , we weren 't going to go away . And we didn 't .
The only photograph taken during the first night of the riots shows the homeless youth who slept in nearby Christopher Park , scuffling with police . The Mattachine Society newsletter a month later offered its explanation of why the riots occurred : " It catered largely to a group of people who are not welcome in , or cannot afford , other places of homosexual social gathering ... The Stonewall became home to these kids . When it was raided , they fought for it . That , and the fact that they had nothing to lose other than the most tolerant and broadminded gay place in town , explains why . "
Garbage cans , garbage , bottles , rocks , and bricks were hurled at the building , breaking the windows . Witnesses attest that " flame queens " , hustlers , and gay " street kids " — the most outcast people in the gay community — were responsible for the first volley of projectiles , as well as the uprooting of a parking meter used as a battering ram on the doors of the Stonewall Inn . Sylvia Rivera , a self @-@ identified street queen who had been in the Stonewall during the raid , remembered :
You 've been treating us like shit all these years ? Uh @-@ uh . Now it 's our turn ! ... It was one of the greatest moments in my life .
The mob lit garbage on fire and stuffed it through the broken windows as the police grabbed a fire hose . Because it had no water pressure , the hose was ineffective in dispersing the crowd , and seemed only to encourage them . When demonstrators broke through the windows — which had been covered by plywood by the bar owners to deter the police from raiding the bar — the police inside unholstered their pistols . The doors flew open and officers pointed their weapons at the angry crowd , threatening to shoot . The Village Voice writer Howard Smith , in the bar with the police , took a wrench from the bar and stuffed it in his pants , unsure if he might have to use it against the mob or the police . He watched someone squirt lighter fluid into the bar ; as it was lit and the police took aim , sirens were heard and fire trucks arrived . The onslaught had lasted 45 minutes .
= = = Escalation = = =
The Tactical Patrol Force ( TPF ) of the New York City Police Department arrived to free the police trapped inside the Stonewall . One officer 's eye was cut , and a few others were bruised from being struck by flying debris . Bob Kohler , who was walking his dog by the Stonewall that night , saw the TPF arrive : " I had been in enough riots to know the fun was over ... The cops were totally humiliated . This never , ever happened . They were angrier than I guess they had ever been , because everybody else had rioted ... but the fairies were not supposed to riot ... no group had ever forced cops to retreat before , so the anger was just enormous . I mean , they wanted to kill . " With larger numbers , police detained anyone they could and put them in patrol wagons to go to jail , though Inspector Pine recalled , " Fights erupted with the transvestites , who wouldn 't go into the patrol wagon . " His recollection was corroborated by another witness across the street who said , " All I could see about who was fighting was that it was transvestites and they were fighting furiously . "
The TPF formed a phalanx and attempted to clear the streets by marching slowly and pushing the crowd back . The mob openly mocked the police . The crowd cheered , started impromptu kick lines , and sang to the tune of Ta @-@ ra @-@ ra Boom @-@ de @-@ ay : " We are the Stonewall girls / We wear our hair in curls / We don 't wear underwear / We show our pubic hair . " Lucian Truscott reported in The Village Voice : " A stagnant situation there brought on some gay tomfoolery in the form of a chorus line facing the line of helmeted and club @-@ carrying cops . Just as the line got into a full kick routine , the TPF advanced again and cleared the crowd of screaming gay power [ - ] ites down Christopher to Seventh Avenue . " One participant who had been in the Stonewall during the raid recalled , " The police rushed us , and that 's when I realized this is not a good thing to do , because they got me in the back with a nightstick . " Another account stated , " I just can 't ever get that one sight out of my mind . The cops with the [ nightsticks ] and the kick line on the other side . It was the most amazing thing ... And all the sudden that kick line , which I guess was a spoof on the machismo ... I think that 's when I felt rage . Because people were getting smashed with bats . And for what ? A kick line . "
Craig Rodwell , owner of the Oscar Wilde Memorial Bookshop , reported watching police chase participants through the crooked streets , only to see them appear around the next corner behind the police . Members of the mob stopped cars , overturning one of them to block Christopher Street . Jack Nichols and Lige Clarke , in their column printed in Screw , declared that " massive crowds of angry protesters chased [ the police ] for blocks screaming , ' Catch them ! ' "
By 4 : 00 in the morning the streets had nearly been cleared . Many people sat on stoops or gathered nearby in Christopher Park throughout the morning , dazed in disbelief at what had transpired . Many witnesses remembered the surreal and eerie quiet that descended upon Christopher Street , though there continued to be " electricity in the air " . One commented : " There was a certain beauty in the aftermath of the riot ... It was obvious , at least to me , that a lot of people really were gay and , you know , this was our street . " Thirteen people had been arrested . Some in the crowd were hospitalized , and four police officers were injured . Almost everything in the Stonewall Inn was broken . Inspector Pine had intended to close and dismantle the Stonewall Inn that night . Pay phones , toilets , mirrors , jukeboxes , and cigarette machines were all smashed , possibly in the riot and possibly by the police .
= = = A second night of rioting = = =
During the siege of the Stonewall , Craig Rodwell called The New York Times , the New York Post , and the Daily News to inform them what was happening . All three papers covered the riots ; the Daily News placed coverage on the front page . News of the riot spread quickly throughout Greenwich Village , fueled by rumors that it had been organized by the Students for a Democratic Society , the Black Panthers , or triggered by " a homosexual police officer whose roommate went dancing at the Stonewall against the officer 's wishes " . All day Saturday , June 28 , people came to stare at the burned and blackened Stonewall Inn . Graffiti appeared on the walls of the bar , declaring " Drag power " , " They invaded our rights " , " Support gay power " , and " Legalize gay bars " , along with accusations of police looting , and — regarding the status of the bar — " We are open . "
The next night , rioting again surrounded Christopher Street ; participants remember differently which night was more frantic or violent . Many of the same people returned from the previous evening — hustlers , street youths , and " queens " — but they were joined by " police provocateurs " , curious bystanders , and even tourists . Remarkable to many was the sudden exhibition of homosexual affection in public , as described by one witness : " From going to places where you had to knock on a door and speak to someone through a peephole in order to get in . We were just out . We were in the streets . "
Thousands of people had gathered in front of the Stonewall , which had opened again , choking Christopher Street until the crowd spilled into adjoining blocks . The throng surrounded buses and cars , harassing the occupants unless they either admitted they were gay or indicated their support for the demonstrators . Sylvia Rivera saw a friend of hers jump on a nearby car trying to drive through ; the crowd rocked the car back and forth , terrifying its occupants . Another of Rivera 's friends , Marsha P. Johnson , an African @-@ American street queen , climbed a lamppost and dropped a heavy bag onto the hood of a police car , shattering the windshield . As on the previous evening , fires were started in garbage cans throughout the neighborhood . More than a hundred police were present from the Fourth , Fifth , Sixth , and Ninth Precincts , but after 2 : 00 a.m. the TPF arrived again . Kick lines and police chases waxed and waned ; when police captured demonstrators , whom the majority of witnesses described as " sissies " or " swishes " , the crowd surged to recapture them . Street battling ensued again until 4 : 00 a.m.
Beat poet and longtime Greenwich Village resident Allen Ginsberg lived on Christopher Street , and happened upon the jubilant chaos . After he learned of the riot that had occurred the previous evening , he stated , " Gay power ! Isn 't that great ! ... It 's about time we did something to assert ourselves " , and visited the open Stonewall Inn for the first time . While walking home , he declared to Lucian Truscott , " You know , the guys there were so beautiful — they 've lost that wounded look that fags all had 10 years ago . "
= = = Leaflets , press coverage , and more violence = = =
Activity in Greenwich Village was sporadic on Monday and Tuesday , partly due to rain . Police and Village residents had a few altercations , as both groups antagonized each other . Craig Rodwell and his partner Fred Sargeant took the opportunity the morning after the first riot to print and distribute 5 @,@ 000 leaflets , one of them reading : " Get the Mafia and the Cops out of Gay Bars . " The leaflets called for gays to own their own establishments , for a boycott of the Stonewall and other Mafia @-@ owned bars , and for public pressure on the mayor 's office to investigate the " intolerable situation " .
Not everyone in the gay community considered the revolt a positive development . To many older homosexuals and many members of the Mattachine Society who had worked throughout the 1960s to promote homosexuals as no different from heterosexuals , the display of violence and effeminate behavior was embarrassing . Randy Wicker , who had marched in the first gay picket lines before the White House in 1965 , said the " screaming queens forming chorus lines and kicking went against everything that I wanted people to think about homosexuals ... that we were a bunch of drag queens in the Village acting disorderly and tacky and cheap . " Others found the closing of the Stonewall Inn , termed a " sleaze joint " , as advantageous to the Village .
On Wednesday , however , The Village Voice ran reports of the riots , written by Howard Smith and Lucian Truscott , that included unflattering descriptions of the events and its participants : " forces of faggotry " , " limp wrists " , and " Sunday fag follies " . A mob descended upon Christopher Street once again and threatened to burn down the offices of The Village Voice . Also in the mob of between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 were other groups that had had unsuccessful confrontations with the police , and were curious how the police were defeated in this situation . Another explosive street battle took place , with injuries to demonstrators and police alike , looting in local shops , and arrests of five people . The incidents on Wednesday night lasted about an hour , and were summarized by one witness : " The word is out . Christopher Street shall be liberated . The fags have had it with oppression . "
= = Aftermath = =
The feeling of urgency spread throughout Greenwich Village , even to people who had not witnessed the riots . Many who were moved by the rebellion attended organizational meetings , sensing an opportunity to take action . On July 4 , 1969 , the Mattachine Society performed its annual picketing in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia , called the Annual Reminder . Organizers Craig Rodwell , Frank Kameny , Randy Wicker , Barbara Gittings , and Kay Lahusen , who had all participated for several years , took a bus along with other picketers from New York City to Philadelphia . Since 1965 , the pickets had been very controlled : women wore skirts and men wore suits and ties , and all marched quietly in organized lines . This year Rodwell remembered feeling restricted by the rules Kameny had set . When two women spontaneously held hands , Kameny broke them apart , saying , " None of that ! None of that ! " Rodwell , however , convinced about ten couples to hold hands . The hand @-@ holding couples made Kameny furious , but they earned more press attention than all of the previous marches . Participant Lilli Vincenz remembered , " It was clear that things were changing . People who had felt oppressed now felt empowered . " Rodwell returned to New York City determined to change the established quiet , meek ways of trying to get attention . One of his first priorities was planning Christopher Street Liberation Day .
= = = Gay Liberation Front = = =
Although the Mattachine Society had existed since the 1950s , many of their methods now seemed too mild for people who had witnessed or been inspired by the riots . Mattachine recognized the shift in attitudes in a story from their newsletter entitled , " The Hairpin Drop Heard Around the World . " When a Mattachine officer suggested an " amicable and sweet " candlelight vigil demonstration , a man in the audience fumed and shouted , " Sweet ! Bullshit ! That 's the role society has been forcing these queens to play . " With a flyer announcing : " Do You Think Homosexuals Are Revolting ? You Bet Your Sweet Ass We Are ! " , the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) was soon formed , the first gay organization to use " gay " in its name . Previous organizations such as the Mattachine Society , the Daughters of Bilitis , and various homophile groups had masked their purpose by deliberately choosing obscure names .
The rise of militancy became apparent to Frank Kameny and Barbara Gittings — who had worked in homophile organizations for years and were both very public about their roles — when they attended a GLF meeting to see the new group . A young GLF member demanded to know who they were and what their credentials were . Gittings , nonplussed , stammered , " I 'm gay . That 's why I 'm here . " The GLF borrowed tactics from and aligned themselves with black and antiwar demonstrators with the ideal that they " could work to restructure American society " . They took on causes of the Black Panthers , marching to the Women 's House of Detention in support of Afeni Shakur , and other radical New Left causes . Four months after they formed , however , the group disbanded when members were unable to agree on operating procedure .
= = = Gay Activists Alliance = = =
Within six months of the Stonewall riots , activists started a city @-@ wide newspaper called Gay ; they considered it necessary because the most liberal publication in the city — The Village Voice — refused to print the word " gay " in GLF advertisements seeking new members and volunteers . Two other newspapers were initiated within a six @-@ week period : Come Out ! and Gay Power ; the readership of these three periodicals quickly climbed to between 20 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 .
GLF members organized several same @-@ sex dances , but GLF meetings were chaotic . When Bob Kohler asked for clothes and money to help the homeless youth who had participated in the riots , many of whom slept in Christopher Park or Sheridan Square , the response was a discussion on the downfall of capitalism . In late December 1969 , several people who had visited GLF meetings and left out of frustration formed the Gay Activists Alliance ( GAA ) . The GAA was to be entirely focused on gay issues , and more orderly . Their constitution started , " We as liberated homosexual activists demand the freedom for expression of our dignity and value as human beings . " The GAA developed and perfected a confrontational tactic called a zap , where they would catch a politician off guard during a public relations opportunity , and force him or her to acknowledge gay and lesbian rights . City councilmen were zapped , and Mayor John Lindsay was zapped several times — once on television when GAA members made up the majority of the audience .
Raids on gay bars had not stopped after the Stonewall riots . In March 1970 , Deputy Inspector Seymour Pine raided the Zodiac and 17 Barrow Street . An after @-@ hours gay club with no liquor or occupancy licenses called The Snake Pit was soon raided , and 167 people were arrested . One of them was Diego Vinales , an Argentinian national so frightened that he might be deported as a homosexual that he tried to escape the police precinct by jumping out of a two @-@ story window , impaling himself on a 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) spike fence . The New York Daily News printed a graphic photo of the young man 's impalement on the front page . GAA members organized a march from Christopher Park to the Sixth Precinct in which hundreds of gays , lesbians , and liberal sympathizers peacefully confronted the TPF . They also sponsored a letter @-@ writing campaign to Mayor Lindsay in which the Greenwich Village Democratic Party and Congressman Ed Koch sent pleas to end raids on gay bars in the city .
The Stonewall Inn lasted only a few weeks after the riot . By October 1969 it was up for rent . Village residents surmised it was too notorious a location , and Rodwell 's boycott discouraged business .
= = = Gay Pride = = =
Christopher Street Liberation Day on June 28 , 1970 marked the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots with an assembly on Christopher Street ; with simultaneous Gay Pride marches in Los Angeles and Chicago , these were the first Gay Pride marches in U.S. history . The next year , Gay Pride marches took place in Boston , Dallas , Milwaukee , London , Paris , West Berlin , and Stockholm . The march in New York covered 51 blocks , from Christopher Street to Central Park . It took less than half the scheduled time due to the excitement of the marchers , but because they were wary about walking through the city with gay banners and signs . Although the parade permit was delivered only two hours before the start of the march , the marchers encountered little resistance from onlookers . The New York Times reported ( on the front page ) that the marchers took up the entire street for about 15 city blocks . Reporting by The Village Voice was positive , describing " the out @-@ front resistance that grew out of the police raid on the Stonewall Inn one year ago " .
By 1972 the participating cities included Atlanta , Buffalo , Detroit , Washington D.C. , Miami , Minneapolis , and Philadelphia , as well as San Francisco .
Frank Kameny soon realized the pivotal change brought by the Stonewall riots . An organizer of gay activism in the 1950s , he was used to persuasion , trying to convince heterosexuals that gay people were no different than they were . When he and other people marched in front of the White House , the State Department , and Independence Hall only five years earlier , their objective was to look as if they could work for the U.S. government . Ten people marched with Kameny then , and they alerted no press to their intentions . Although he was stunned by the upheaval by participants in the Annual Reminder in 1969 , he later observed , " By the time of Stonewall , we had fifty to sixty gay groups in the country . A year later there was at least fifteen hundred . By two years later , to the extent that a count could be made , it was twenty @-@ five hundred . "
Similar to Kameny 's regret at his own reaction to the shift in attitudes after the riots , Randy Wicker came to describe his embarrassment as " one of the greatest mistakes of his life " . The image of gays retaliating against police , after so many years of allowing such treatment to go unchallenged , " stirred an unexpected spirit among many homosexuals " . Kay Lahusen , who photographed the marches in 1965 , stated , " Up to 1969 , this movement was generally called the homosexual or homophile movement ... Many new activists consider the Stonewall uprising the birth of the gay liberation movement . Certainly it was the birth of gay pride on a massive scale . " David Carter , in his article " What made Stonewall different " , explained that even though there were several uprisings before Stonewall , the reason Stonewall was so historical was that thousands of people were involved , the riot lasted a long time ( six days ) , it was the first to get major media coverage , and it sparked the formation of many gay rights groups .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Unlikely community = = =
Within two years of the Stonewall riots there were gay rights groups in every major American city , as well as Canada , Australia , and Western Europe . People who joined activist organizations after the riots had very little in common other than their same @-@ sex attraction . Many who arrived at GLF or GAA meetings were taken aback by the number of gay people in one place . Race , class , ideology , and gender became frequent obstacles in the years after the riots . This was illustrated during the 1973 Stonewall rally when , moments after Barbara Gittings exuberantly praised the diversity of the crowd , feminist activist Jean O 'Leary protested what she perceived as the mocking of women by cross @-@ dressers and drag queens in attendance . During a speech by O 'Leary , in which she claimed that drag queens made fun of women for entertainment value and profit , Sylvia Rivera and Lee Brewster jumped on the stage and shouted " You go to bars because of what drag queens did for you , and these bitches tell us to quit being ourselves ! " Both the drag queens and lesbian feminists in attendance left in disgust .
O 'Leary also worked in the early 1970s to exclude trans people from gay rights issues because she felt that rights for trans people would be too difficult to attain . Sylvia Rivera left New York City in the mid @-@ 1970s , relocating to upstate New York , but later returned to the city in the mid @-@ 1990s to advocate for homeless members of the gay community . The initial disagreements between participants in the movements , however , often evolved after further reflection . O 'Leary later regretted her stance against the drag queens attending in 1973 : " Looking back , I find this so embarrassing because my views have changed so much since then . I would never pick on a transvestite now . " " It was horrible . How could I work to exclude transvestites and at the same time criticize the feminists who were doing their best back in those days to exclude lesbians ? "
O 'Leary was referring to the Lavender Menace , a description by second wave feminist Betty Friedan for attempts by members of the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) to distance themselves from the perception of NOW as a haven for lesbians . As part of this process , Rita Mae Brown and other lesbians who had been active in NOW were forced out . They staged a protest in 1970 at the Second Congress to Unite Women , and earned the support of many NOW members , finally gaining full acceptance in 1971 .
The growth of lesbian feminism in the 1970s at times so conflicted with the gay liberation movement that some lesbians refused to work with gay men . Many lesbians found men 's attitudes patriarchal and chauvinistic , and saw in gay men the same misguided notions about women as they saw in heterosexual men . The issues most important to gay men — entrapment and public solicitation — were not shared by lesbians . In 1977 a Lesbian Pride Rally was organized as an alternative to sharing gay men 's issues , especially what Adrienne Rich termed " the violent , self @-@ destructive world of the gay bars " . Veteran gay activist Barbara Gittings chose to work in the gay rights movement , rationalizing " It 's a matter of where does it hurt the most ? For me it hurts the most not in the female arena , but the gay arena . "
Throughout the 1970s gay activism had significant successes . One of the first and most important was the " zap " in May 1970 by the Los Angeles GLF at a convention of the American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) . At a conference on behavior modification , during a film demonstrating the use of electroshock therapy to decrease same @-@ sex attraction , Morris Kight and GLF members in the audience interrupted the film with shouts of " Torture ! " and " Barbarism ! " They took over the microphone to announce that medical professionals who prescribed such therapy for their homosexual patients were complicit in torturing them . Although 20 psychiatrists in attendance left , the GLF spent the hour following the zap with those remaining , trying to convince them that homosexuals were not mentally ill . When the APA invited gay activists to speak to the group in 1972 , activists brought John E. Fryer , a gay psychiatrist who wore a mask , because he felt his practice was in danger . In December 1973 — in large part due to the efforts of gay activists — the APA voted unanimously to remove homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual .
Gay men and lesbians came together to work in grassroots political organizations responding to organized resistance in 1977 . A coalition of conservatives named Save Our Children staged a campaign to repeal a civil rights ordinance in Dade County , Florida . Save Our Children was successful enough to influence similar repeals in several American cities in 1978 . However , the same year a campaign in California called the Briggs Initiative , designed to force the dismissal of homosexual public school employees , was defeated . Reaction to the influence of Save Our Children and the Briggs Initiative in the gay community was so significant that it has been called the second Stonewall for many activists , marking their initiation into political participation .
= = = Rejection of gay subculture = = =
The Stonewall riots marked such a significant turning point that many aspects of prior gay and lesbian culture , such as bar culture formed from decades of shame and secrecy , were forcefully ignored and denied . Historian Martin Duberman writes , " The decades preceding Stonewall ... continue to be regarded by most gays and lesbians as some vast neolithic wasteland . " Historian Barry Adam notes , " Every social movement must choose at some point what to retain and what to reject out of its past . What traits are the results of oppression and what are healthy and authentic ? " In conjunction with the growing feminist movement of the early 1970s , roles of butch and femme that developed in lesbian bars in the 1950s and 1960s were rejected , because as one writer put it : " all role playing is sick . " Lesbian feminists considered the butch roles as archaic imitations of masculine behavior . Some women , according to Lillian Faderman , were eager to shed the roles they felt forced into playing . The roles returned for some women in the 1980s , although they allowed for more flexibility than before Stonewall .
Author Michael Bronski highlights the " attack on pre @-@ Stonewall culture " , particularly gay pulp fiction for men , where the themes often reflected self @-@ hatred or ambivalence about being gay . Many books ended unsatisfactorily and drastically , often with suicide , and writers portrayed their gay characters as alcoholics or deeply unhappy . These books , which he describes as " an enormous and cohesive literature by and for gay men " , have not been reissued and are lost to later generations . Dismissing the reason simply as political correctness , Bronski writes , " gay liberation was a youth movement whose sense of history was defined to a large degree by rejection of the past . "
= = = Lasting impact and recognition = = =
The riots spawned from a bar raid became a literal example of gays and lesbians fighting back , and a symbolic call to arms for many people . Historian David Carter remarks in his book about the Stonewall riots that the bar itself was a complex business that represented a community center , an opportunity for the Mafia to blackmail its own customers , a home , and a place of " exploitation and degradation " . The true legacy of the Stonewall riots , Carter insists , is the " ongoing struggle for lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender equality " . Historian Nicholas Edsall writes ,
Stonewall has been compared to any number of acts of radical protest and defiance in American history from the Boston Tea Party on . But the best and certainly a more nearly contemporary analogy is with Rosa Parks ' refusal to move to the back of the bus in Montgomery , Alabama , in December 1955 , which sparked the modern civil rights movement . Within months after Stonewall radical gay liberation groups and newsletters sprang up in cities and on college campuses across America and then across all of northern Europe as well .
Before the rebellion at the Stonewall Inn , homosexuals were , as historians Dudley Clendinen and Adam Nagourney write ,
a secret legion of people , known of but discounted , ignored , laughed at or despised . And like the holders of a secret , they had an advantage which was a disadvantage , too , and which was true of no other minority group in the United States . They were invisible . Unlike African Americans , women , Native Americans , Jews , the Irish , Italians , Asians , Hispanics , or any other cultural group which struggled for respect and equal rights , homosexuals had no physical or cultural markings , no language or dialect which could identify them to each other , or to anyone else ... But that night , for the first time , the usual acquiescence turned into violent resistance .... From that night the lives of millions of gay men and lesbians , and the attitude toward them of the larger culture in which they lived , began to change rapidly . People began to appear in public as homosexuals , demanding respect .
Historian Lillian Faderman calls the riots the " shot heard round the world " , explaining , " The Stonewall Rebellion was crucial because it sounded the rally for that movement . It became an emblem of gay and lesbian power . By calling on the dramatic tactic of violent protest that was being used by other oppressed groups , the events at the Stonewall implied that homosexuals had as much reason to be disaffected as they . "
Joan Nestle co @-@ founded the Lesbian Herstory Archives in 1974 , and credits " its creation to that night and the courage that found its voice in the streets . " Cautious , however , not to attribute the start of gay activism to the Stonewall riots , Nestle writes ,
I certainly don 't see gay and lesbian history starting with Stonewall ... and I don 't see resistance starting with Stonewall . What I do see is a historical coming together of forces , and the sixties changed how human beings endured things in this society and what they refused to endure ... Certainly something special happened on that night in 1969 , and we 've made it more special in our need to have what I call a point of origin ... it 's more complex than saying that it all started with Stonewall .
The events of the early morning of June 28 , 1969 were not the first instances of homosexuals fighting back against police in New York City and elsewhere . Not only had the Mattachine Society been active in major cities such as Los Angeles and Chicago , but similarly marginalized people started the riot at Compton 's Cafeteria in 1966 , and another riot responded to a raid on Los Angeles ' Black Cat Tavern in 1967 . However , several circumstances were in place that made the Stonewall riots memorable . The location of the raid was a factor : it was across the street from The Village Voice offices , and the narrow crooked streets gave the rioters advantage over the police . Many of the participants and residents of Greenwich Village were involved in political organizations that were effectively able to mobilize a large and cohesive gay community in the weeks and months after the rebellion . The most significant facet of the Stonewall riots , however , was the commemoration of them in Christopher Street Liberation Day , which grew into the annual Gay Pride events around the world .
Stonewall ( officially Stonewall Equality Limited ) is an LGBT rights charity in the United Kingdom , founded in 1989 , and named after the Stonewall Inn because of the Stonewall riots . The Stonewall Awards is an annual event by Stonewall held since 2006 to recognize people who have affected the lives of British lesbian , gay , and bisexual people .
The middle of the 1990s was marked by the inclusion of bisexuals as a represented group within the gay community , when they successfully sought to be included on the platform of the 1993 March on Washington for Lesbian , Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation . Transgender people also asked to be included , but were not , though trans @-@ inclusive language was added to the march 's list of demands . The transgender community continued to find itself simultaneously welcome and at odds with the gay community as attitudes about binary and fluid sexual orientation and gender developed and came increasingly into conflict . In 1994 , New York City celebrated " Stonewall 25 " with a march that went past the United Nations Headquarters and into Central Park . Estimates put the attendance at 1 @.@ 1 million people . Sylvia Rivera led an alternate march in New York City in 1994 to protest the exclusion of transgender people from the events . Attendance at LGBT Pride events has grown substantially over the decades . Most large cities around the world now have some kind of Pride demonstration . Pride events in some cities mark the largest annual celebration of any kind . The growing trend towards commercializing marches into parades — with events receiving corporate sponsorship — has caused concern about taking away the autonomy of the original grassroots demonstrations that put inexpensive activism in the hands of individuals .
A " Stonewall Shabbat Seder " was first held at B ’ nai Jeshurun , a synagogue on New York ’ s Upper West Side , in 1995 .
In June 1999 the U.S. Department of the Interior designated 51 and 53 Christopher Street and the surrounding streets as a National Historic Landmark , the first of significance to the lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender community . In a dedication ceremony , Assistant Secretary of the Department of the Interior John Berry stated , " Let it forever be remembered that here — on this spot — men and women stood proud , they stood fast , so that we may be who we are , we may work where we will , live where we choose and love whom our hearts desire . " The Stonewall Inn itself was named a National Historic Landmark in 2000 , and it is located in the Greenwich Village Historic District , a preserved area .
On June 1 , 2009 , President Barack Obama declared June 2009 Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgender Pride Month , citing the riots as a reason to " commit to achieving equal justice under law for LGBT Americans " . The year marked the 40th anniversary of the riots , giving journalists and activists cause to reflect on progress made since 1969 . Frank Rich in The New York Times noted that no federal legislation exists to protect the rights of gay Americans . An editorial in the Washington Blade compared the scruffy , violent activism during and following the Stonewall riots to the lackluster response to failed promises given by President Obama ; for being ignored , wealthy LGBT activists reacted by promising to give less money to Democratic causes . Two years later , the Stonewall Inn served as a rallying point for celebrations after the New York Senate voted to pass same @-@ sex marriage . The act was signed into law by Governor Andrew Cuomo on June 24 , 2011 . Individual states continue to battle with homophobia . The Missouri Senate passed a measure its supporters characterize as a religious freedom bill that could change the state 's constitution despite Democrats ' objections , and their 39 @-@ hour filibuster . This bill allows the " protection of certain religious organizations and individuals from being penalized by the state because of their sincere religious beliefs or practices concerning marriage between two persons of the same sex " discriminating against homosexual patronage .
Obama also referenced the Stonewall riots in a call for full equality during his second inaugural address on January 21 , 2013 :
We , the people , declare today that the most evident of truths — that all of us are created equal — is the star that guides us still ; just as it guided our forebears through Seneca Falls , and Selma , and Stonewall .... Our journey is not complete until our gay brothers and sisters are treated like anyone else under the law — for if we are truly created equal , then surely the love we commit to one another must be equal as well .
This was a historic moment , being the first time that a president mentioned gay rights or the word " gay " in an inaugural address .
In 2014 a marker dedicated to the Stonewall riots was included in the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display in Chicago celebrating LGBT history and people .
On May 29 , 2015 , the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission announced it would officially consider designating the Stonewall Inn as a landmark , making it the first city location to be considered based on its LGBT cultural significance alone . On June 23 , 2015 , the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission unanimously approved the designation of the Stonewall Inn as a city landmark , making it the first landmark honored for its role in the fight for gay rights .
The Stonewall Book Award is a set of three literary awards that annually recognize " exceptional merit relating to the gay / lesbian / bisexual / transgender experience " in English @-@ language books published in the U.S.
= = = National monument = = =
On June 24 , 2016 , President Obama announced the establishment of the Stonewall National Monument , a 7 @.@ 7 @-@ acre site to be administered by the National Park Service . The designation , which followed transfer of city parkland to the federal government , protects Christopher Park and adjacent areas totaling more than seven acres ; the Stonewall Inn is within the boundaries of the monument but remains privately owned . The National Park Foundation formed a new nonprofit organization to raise funds for a ranger station and interpretive exhibits for the monument .
= = Media representations = =
= = = Film = = =
Before Stonewall : The Making of a Gay and Lesbian Community ( 1984 ) , a documentary of the decades leading up to Stonewall
Stonewall ( 1995 ) , a fictionalized presentation of the events leading up to the riots
After Stonewall ( 1999 ) , a documentary of the years from Stonewall to century 's end
Stonewall Uprising ( 2010 ) , a documentary presentation using archival footage , photographs , documents and witness statements
Stonewall ( 2015 ) , another fictionalized drama about the days leading up to the riots
Happy Birthday , Marsha ! ( scheduled to be released in 2016 ) , a short , experimental film about transgender rights pioneers Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera , set on the night of the riots
|
= Sparty =
Sparty is the mascot of Michigan State University . Sparty is usually depicted as a muscular male Spartan warrior / athlete dressed in stylized Greek costume . After changing the team name from " Aggies " to " Spartans " in 1925 , various incarnations of a Spartan warrior with a prominent chin appeared at university events and in university literature . In 1943 , MSU art professor Leonard D. Jungwirth designed a statue for the university , which had to be cast in terra cotta because of World War II rationing . In 2005 , the university replaced Jungwirth 's original statue with a bronze replica , moving the original indoors to protect it from the elements .
Sparty appears in several other incarnations . In printed literature , the university uses a copyrighted cartoon Spartan , usually drawn with a grimace and several days worth of whiskers , lending the nickname of " Gruff " Sparty . Finally , Sparty appears as a foam rubber mascot with an oversized head . The mascot costume , worn by an anonymous student , appears at most university sporting , alumni , and fundraising events ; he is often portrayed in MSU notices and materials .
= = History = =
Though MSU is now a large university , in the 19th century it was a small agricultural college known as the State Agricultural College of Michigan . Thus , when the college fielded its first intercollegiate sports teams in the 1880s , the teams were appropriately named the " Aggies " . By 1925 , the school had expanded beyond agriculture , becoming Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science . To reduce the emphasis on agriculture , the college held a contest to choose a new team name . The chosen entry was the " Michigan Staters . " George S. Alderton , then sports editor of the Lansing State Journal , and Dale Stafford , sportswriter for the Lansing Capitol News , felt the name was too unwieldy for newspaper headlines and searched the contest entries for a better choice . They settled on the " Spartans " , a name submitted by former Aggie athlete Perry J. Fremont . Alderton and Stafford began using the name in their game accounts , and it soon caught on as the de facto team name . Michigan State 's teams have been the Spartans ever since .
= = Costumed mascot = =
While MSU students and alumni often refer to the Spartan statue as Sparty , the incarnation of Sparty with national visibility is that of a costumed mascot who appears at athletic events and other university @-@ related functions . The costume , with a cartoonishly oversized head , bulging muscles , and a facial expression that treads a fine line between cute and pugnacious , was introduced to MSU fans during the 1989 football season . Sparty was an immediate hit , in part because the foam @-@ rubber body parts , vinyl breastplate , and skirt have a freedom of movement that allow the anonymous student who portrays Sparty to be quite expressive despite the costume 's fixed stare . The student that portrays Sparty is a volunteer , despite rumors of financial compensation or a full scholarship . Early every calendar year , tryouts are held for the student to portray Sparty for the upcoming school year . Sparty represents an ancient Spartan warrior , but wears a late Imperial @-@ style Roman legionary 's helmet , which was not invented until several centuries after Sparta was subdued by the Roman Republic .
Sparty can be found entertaining MSU sporting event crowds with his antics during games . He is even lifted upon the shoulders of cheerleaders and does one @-@ handed push ups . Besides sporting events , Sparty also attends many events around campus , the community , and the country throughout the year : alumni functions , charity events , weddings , bar mitzvahs , parades , and many other university events . Any revenues generated go to the upkeep of the Sparty Mascot Program , which is funded mainly by the MSU Alumni Association with some support from the MSU Department of Athletics .
Sparty came to national prominence in the mid @-@ 1990s with his appearance in a series of television ads promoting ESPN 's SportsCenter . One advertisement depicted Sparty carrying gymnast Kerri Strug in the manner of Beauty and the Beast — or , more to the point , Béla Károlyi , who carried the injured Strug to the medal platform to accept her team gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . He also appeared in ESPN ads with background cameos , such as eating in a diner booth or browsing the shelves of a bookstore . In 2004 , Sparty won the Best Mascot National Championship at the Universal Cheer Association / Universal Dance Association College Nationals , becoming the first Big Ten Conference mascot to do so . He won Best Mascot for the second year in a row after securing the honor again the following year . In addition to his title of " best mascot " , Sparty was voted the " Buffest Mascot " by Muscle and Fitness magazine . Sparty was even found in the refrigerators of local stores and many alumni when Sparty was featured on a series of Jones Soda bottles in late 2004 , and he appeared again in 2005 . Sparty was one of six college mascots nominated for the Mascot Hall of Fame in July 2006 . In the summer of 2006 , Alltel Wireless aired a commercial featuring ESPN 's Lee Corso and Sparty .
Three years after winning top honors for the first time , Sparty was again named best mascot . It was Sparty 's third title in just four years . His skit , " Sparty 's Spectacular " , featured music from many different genres , including rock , country , and Riverdance . To qualify for nationals , Sparty submitted a video showcasing his performances at athletic events and community service events .
Sparty appears on the cover of the Wii version of NCAA Football 09 , the first time a non @-@ athlete has graced the cover . EA Sports had a poll to see which mascot would grace the cover , and Sparty won by over 75 @,@ 000 votes .
= = Statues = =
When John Hannah became president of Michigan State College in 1941 , he commissioned assistant professor of art Leonard D. Jungwirth to design a statue of an athletic Spartan warrior . Jungwirth sculpted a statue known simply as The Spartan , which soon gained the nickname of " Sparty " . Though Jungwirth originally designed The Spartan as a bronze statue , it had to be cast in terra cotta due to World War II rationing of bronze . The terra cotta statue stood on the banks of the Red Cedar River , until 2005 , when the university replaced it with a bronze replica . The original Spartan was moved into the stadium , where it remains on display to this day .
= = = 1945 terra cotta statue = = =
Dedicated on June 9 , 1945 , the terra cotta Spartan is made of five large glazed terra cotta sections fired from red Ohio clay . These pieces were joined by mortar joints , with a poured concrete core over a steel frame . The statue stands 9 ’ 7 " high and weighs approximately 3 @,@ 000 pounds . When the statue was erected , popular media claimed that it was the tallest free @-@ standing ceramic sculpture in the world , though that record remains unconfirmed . Though the statue 's pose recalls classic Greek sculpture , Jungwirth 's stylized design is closer to the mid @-@ 20th century modernist design , borrowing heavily from Cubism , Futurism , and depression @-@ era civic art .
= = = 2005 bronze statue = = =
By the late 20th century , Michigan 's harsh winters had taken a toll on the terra cotta statue , as had vandalism by fans of MSU 's rival school , the University of Michigan . While annual repair work helped stem the damage done by precipitation , extreme cold , and vandalism , the statue needed more intensive repair .
In 1989 , the Save Our Sparty ( SOS ) campaign helped restore the statue . When they finished , restorers made fiberglass molds of the refurbished " Sparty " . New molds were made in 2004 , because the 1989 molds had deteriorated , to cast an identical bronze replica that will better stand up to bad weather and vandalism .
The terra cotta Spartan was removed from its base on May 12 , 2005 . During MSU 's 2005 summer semester , the intersection at which the statue stood was completely redesigned to allow for safer traffic interaction with pedestrians . On Thursday , August 25 , 2005 , an unveiling of the new bronze Spartan took place . In addition , a Sesquicentennial parade on Saturday , October 8 , 2005 , concluded with a dedication ceremony at the statue . Meanwhile , the original terra cotta Spartan was moved to a new Spartan Stadium annex where it could be displayed safely indoors . Though most members of the MSU community agree that the original statue needs to be sheltered , some alumni and faculty have criticized the inaccessibility of the original statue .
= = = Traditions = = =
It is tradition for some alumni and other Spartan fans to have a picture taken with the Spartan statue to mark major life events . During graduation season there is a steady stream of recent graduates and their families posing with the statue . On weekends it is not uncommon to see newlywed couples doing the same . During the week before the annual football game against the University of Michigan Wolverines , members of the marching band take turns each guarding the statue against vandalism by fans of the rival school . The tradition is known as " Sparty Watch " ; a similar vigil takes place at the Michigan Diag , where the inlaid " M " is defended against MSU fans . During the full team walk from Kellogg Center to Spartan Stadium that takes place prior to each home football game , players and coaches toss or place pennies at the statue as they proceed past it . After the final home football game the Spartan Marching Band circles the statue once before heading home to Adams Field .
|
= Parents Television Council =
The Parents Television Council ( PTC ) is a United States @-@ based censorship advocacy group founded by conservative Catholic activist L. Brent Bozell III in 1995 . Through publications on its website including staff reviews , ( non peer @-@ reviewed ) research reports , and web @-@ based newsletters , the Council proclaims television programs or other entertainment products to be beneficial or harmful to the development of children and actively works to ensure broadcasters and content producers conform to the council 's advice .
Council activities include attempts to hold advertisers accountable for the content of the programs they sponsor , encouraging the development of what the council considers to be responsible , family @-@ friendly entertainment , pressuring broadcasters to stop and / or limit television content the council claims to be harmful to children , as well as pressuring cable operators to unbundle cable channels so consumers can pick and pay for only the channels they want to watch .
The council launches several media campaigns a year against the producers and advertisers of television programs they perceive to be indecent . A typical campaign involves press releases declaring a particular program harmful ( often with a tally of " unacceptable " character behavior or situations ) , the organized mass mailing of form letters and emails to advertising sponsors of unapproved programs , organized mass filing of complaints via the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) website complaint form , and direct threats of long , potentially costly FCC license challenges to local network affiliates planning to broadcast what the council considers harmful network programming .
In 2004 the FCC revealed the Parents Television Council as the primary source of most content complaints received . Throughout its existence , the Parents Television Council has been accused of promoting censorship .
= = History = =
In 1989 , the Media Research Center ( MRC ) began monitoring the entertainment industry for alleged liberal bias through its Entertainment Division and newsletter TV , etc . MRC founder and president L. Brent Bozell III later felt that decency was declining on most prime @-@ time television programming . The PTC began operations in 1995 following private planning meetings with Charlton Heston , Michael Medved , and others in the entertainment industry , who would eventually make up the Advisory Board of the PTC . After the release of its first annual Family Guide to Prime @-@ Time Television following the 1995 @-@ 1996 television season , the PTC hoped to hold the entertainment industry accountable for the indecency that it perceived to be prominent on prime @-@ time television . By 1996 , the organization had the support of several members of the U.S. Congress , including Joe Lieberman and Lamar S. Smith , and an estimated annual budget of $ 142 @,@ 000 .
By 1998 , with an estimated membership of 120 @,@ 000 , comedian and former The Tonight Show host Steve Allen joined PTC as its Honorary Chairman , and PTC released a report questioning the accuracy of the TV Parental Guidelines ratings system and campaigning for advertisers to stop sponsoring programs that the PTC claimed were offensive . Allen launched a newspaper advertisement campaign promoting the PTC , which was published in many outlets including The New York Times . The PTC was noted for criticizing such shows as Ally McBeal , Dawson 's Creek , Ellen , Friends , and Spin City . Its website was also introduced that year , and its annual budget had already surpassed $ 1 million . PTC rolled out another round of full @-@ page newspaper advertisements in 1999 ; San Francisco Examiner television columnist Tim Goodman perceived Allen and the PTC of advocating complete censorship of television to allow only what PTC considered " Family @-@ Safe TV " .
The PTC lost nearly $ 1 million in 2008 and in 2009 received $ 2 @.@ 9 million in revenue , a 29 percent drop from the previous year . In 2009 and 2010 , the PTC cut its staff by 38 percent to save money .
= = Leadership = =
PTC was founded in 1995 by longtime political activist L. Brent Bozell III . Bozell is a prominent conservative activist who has , among other things , served as Executive Director of the Conservative Victory Committee , a political action committee that has supported the election of dozens of conservative candidates over the past ten years . He was also National Finance Chairman for Pat Buchanan 's 1992 presidential campaign , and later president of the National Conservative Political Action Committee . Bozell was succeeded as PTC President by Timothy F. Winter . Winter served as Executive Director of the PTC for three years prior to becoming president . Prior to joining the PTC , Mr. Winter 's 20 @-@ year career as a media executive included positions with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and NBC . Until 2015 when his position was terminated , Dan Isett , Director of Corporate and Government Affairs of the PTC , represented the PTC on the Consumer Advisory Committee of the Federal Communications Commission .
= = Advisory Board = =
The PTC also has an Advisory Board consisting of politicians and entertainers working to assist the council in their goal of protecting children against profanity and violence in the media . Notable members of the advisory board include singer Pat Boone , former football player Mel Renfro , writer @-@ producer Coleman Luck , country musician Billy Ray Cyrus , comedian and actor Tim Conway of CBS 's The Carol Burnett Show , former U.S. Senator from Kansas and 2008 presidential candidate Sam Brownback , film critic Michael Medved , star of 1980s soap opera Dallas Susan Howard , and ION Television producer Gary Johnson . In addition , the PTC has established numerous local chapters for most American media markets . Notable former Advisory Board members include - both of whom are now deceased - comedian Steve Allen , original host of NBC 's The Tonight Show , and C. Delores Tucker , participant in the Civil Rights Movement and activist against gangsta rap music ; Allen is now given the title of National Honorary Chairman @-@ Emeritus . Bahçeşehir University associate professor Christian Christiansen questioned the backgrounds of certain PTC advisory board members as not consistent with their stance on morality .
= = Publications = =
= = = Columns and reports = = =
The website of the PTC features reports on what the group finds to be harmful content on television and regular writings from its staff . Their research is done with the support of their Entertainment Tracking System , an archive of prime @-@ time television programming that they claim is the largest in the world . Such publications include :
" Culture Watch " - Throughout 2005 and 2006 , the PTC published columns under this series authored by Christopher Gildemeister , covering the influence on American culture by entertainment as well as exposing the increase in sex , violence , and profanity in cable television and the methods used by advertisers and broadcasting companies to attract young audiences . In a December 2005 column of his , Advertising Age columnist Simon Dumenco claimed that the PTC is " very very afraid of gay TV characters " . Culture Watch columnist Christopher Gildemeister defended the PTC as being " not homophobic " but simply opposed to " sexual references or innuendo ( of any variety , hetero , homo or other ) aired where children might be exposed to them . "
" Parenting and the Media " authored by Rod Gustafson , where he offers advice on parenting children who frequent the media .
" TV Trends " - Another column by Christopher Gildemeister , published since October 2007 intending to inform parents and TV viewers in general about what he perceives to be " harmful or questionable prime @-@ time programming . " Hartford Courant television critic Roger Catlin quoted Gildemeister as criticizing ABC for having an " apparent fetish for transsexuals " in certain programs .
Former president Bozell 's weekly entertainment column , which it links to within the home page
In 2000 , PTC 's report What a Difference a Decade Makes allegedly stated that there was an increase in profanity , sex , and violence on television during the 1990s . The report also claimed that references to homosexuality increased the most during that decade - by 24 @-@ fold . In 2002 , the PTC released a report claiming that there was an increase in profanity on network programming shown during the first hour of prime time . In a 2006 report titled Wolves in Sheep 's Clothing , analyst Kristen Fyfe perceived an increase in violent , profane , and sexual content in children 's programming . Among its results , based on research during summer 2005 , the PTC stated that Teen Titans was the most violent program , and claimed Cartoon Network had the most violent incidents . Richard Huff of the New York Daily News criticized the report for misinterpreting an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants , " Sailor Mouth " , over its intent to satirize profanity implicitly .
Following the 2005 – 06 television season , PTC issued a report Faith in a Box that analyzed depictions of religion in primetime television . The study stated that most positive references to religion were on reality shows such as Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , while claiming that scripted shows tended to be more negative towards it . The report also ranked Fox as the " most anti @-@ religious network " , followed by NBC , UPN , ABC , CBS , and the WB . In 2008 , PTC published a report titled Happily Never After , using analysis of several primetime shows early in the 2007 @-@ 2008 television season to assert that extramarital sex is favored on television shows . Ian O 'Doherty of The Irish Independent asked regarding the PTC 's marriage depiction study : " After all , would you rather watch people having fun or would you rather watch a realistic depiction of marriage , which ... would simply be an hour of two people sullenly chewing their food , pausing occasionally only to throw each other filthies and occasionally grumbling under their breath how the biggest regret of their life was ever setting eyes on you and that their mother was right all along ? " PTC released a report in October 2009 stating that prime @-@ time television shows on broadcast networks had twice as many depictions of violence against women in 2009 than in 2004 .
In November 2010 , the PTC released a study , Habitat for Profanity : Broadcast TV 's Sharp Increase in Foul Language , which claims that there was a sharp rise in the usage of profanity between 2005 and 2010 — during the 8PM to 9PM ET / PT time period commonly referred to them as the Family Viewing Hour , the PTC claimed that there were 111 instances of profanity during this hour in 2010 versus 10 in 2005 ; during all of prime time , 276 instances in 2010 against 11 in 2005 . The study claimed that there was a 69 @.@ 3 % increase in prime time in general between 2005 and 2010 , with the Fox network being heavily accused of bringing a 269 % increase for the network during that period . The study also claimed instances in which there was profanity , but the offending word was bleeped out .
= = = Entertainment reviews and analysis = = =
The PTC 's activities extend to evaluation , rating , and educating around broadcast TV programs according to a traffic light system across three categories of sex , violence and profanity , accumulating to an overall rating based on the ratings of these three categories . The guide has been in use since the 1995 – 96 season using the traffic light system . In the PTC 's definition of its traffic light system , green light indicates that the program is " appropriate for all ages " , a yellow light indicates that the program " would be unsuitable for children under the age of 14 " , and a red light indicates that the program is " appropriate for adult audiences only " .
Every television season since 1995 – 96 , the council has released a list of the best and worst prime @-@ time television programs for family viewing . The PTC 's website includes the guide from the 1996 @-@ 97 season at the earliest . Starting with the 2005 – 2006 season , their list was based on their traffic light system as well as Nielsen Media Research ratings of viewership among children ages 2 – 17 of certain shows . Popular shows that have frequently been praised as the most family @-@ friendly programs on television include George Lopez , 7th Heaven , Touched by an Angel , Home Improvement , Family Matters , Sabrina the Teenage Witch , Boy Meets World , Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , American Idol , Dancing with the Stars , NBC Sunday Night Football , Deal or No Deal , and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire . Popular shows frequently named " Worst of the Season " include American Dad ! , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , House , Two and a Half Men , Ally McBeal , Dawson 's Creek , Grey 's Anatomy , The Drew Carey Show , Family Guy , Friends , The O.C. , Spin City , That ' 70s Show and Will and Grace .
On a weekly basis , the PTC publishes reviews of what they consider to be the best and worst television programming for family viewing , authored by the various entertainment analysts at the council . Seth MacFarlane , creator of Family Guy , compared the PTC 's frequent negative reviews of the series to " hate mail from Hitler " and " They 're literally terrible human beings . I 've read their newsletter , I 've visited their website , and they 're just rotten to the core . For an organization that prides itself on ' Christian ' values ... they spend their entire day hating people . " MacFarlane became a target again when the PTC protested the Academy Awards ' decision to have him host the 85th ceremony . " So You Think You Can Rate a TV Show ? " , the title being a play on the title of Fox television series So You Think You Can Dance , is a weekly column the PTC began in July 2007 to claim that networks inaccurately rate their shows based on the TV Parental Guidelines , whether the network applied the improper age @-@ based rating ( such as TV @-@ PG or TV @-@ 14 ) or failed to include the proper content descriptors ( such as " L " for language or " V " for violence ) .
= = = Seal of Approval = = =
To recognize excellence in the media , the Parents Television Council awards its Seal of Approval to television shows , movies , home products , and advertisers that provide or sponsor content it deems to be " family @-@ friendly " . It is divided into two categories : Entertainment and Advertiser . Popular television shows that have been awarded include 7th Heaven , American Idol , Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , Everybody Loves Raymond , George Lopez , JAG , Reba , Smallville , Touched by an Angel , The West Wing , and Wonderful World of Disney . Also receiving the Entertainment Seal of Approval are TiVo 's KidZone television filtering service , the Sky Angel Christian television service , and the CleanFlicks DVD filtering product .
= = Activism = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation campaign and lawsuit = = =
In 1999 , the PTC launched a campaign against the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , now World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , complaining that their SmackDown ! program contained levels of sexuality and violence unbecoming prime time programming . In the campaign , Bozell said that four children had been killed by peers emulating professional wrestling moves learned from the program . With these allegations , Bozell and various PTC members began meeting with representatives of the advertising departments of various companies that advertised on SmackDown ! to persuade them to withdraw sponsorship . The PTC also suggested that between 30 and 40 advertisers had pulled their commercials from WWF programming , an assertion that was not true .
On November 9 , 2000 , the WWF filed a lawsuit against the PTC in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York , claiming that the PTC 's statements were false and constituted defamation . The WWF also filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against the PTC for using clips from WWF programs in their promotional videos . The PTC filed for dismissal of the suit , but on May 24 , 2001 , U.S. district court Judge Denny Chin denied the PTC 's motion on the basis that the WWF 's lawsuit had merit . The PTC and the WWF settled out of court and , as part of the settlement agreement , the PTC paid the WWF $ 3 @.@ 5 million USD and Bozell issued a public apology , stating that it was wrong to blame the World Wrestling Federation or any of its programs for the deaths of children and that the original statements had been based on what was later found to be false information designed by people close to the Lionel Tate case to blame the death of Tiffany Eunick on the WWF .
During the conflict the WWF created the Right to Censor ( RTC ) stable , a group of wrestlers that parodied the PTC by portraying them as self @-@ righteous moral crusaders .
= = = Broadcast indecency = = =
In 2003 , the PTC unsuccessfully campaigned for the FCC to take action against the NBC television network in response to the use of the word " fucking " by Bono , lead singer for the rock band U2 , during the network 's January 2003 telecast of the Golden Globe Awards . Among an audience of nearly 20 million , the FCC received only 234 complaints , 217 of which came from the PTC . In October 2003 , the FCC decided not to fine NBC because Bono 's obscenity was ruled as fleeting and not describing sexual or excretory functions , the FCC 's standard for fining a network for indecency . After the PTC filed an Application for Review to the FCC , in March 2004 the FCC decided that the word was indecent by law but still decided not to fine NBC ; however , the ruling was to serve as a warning to networks that there would be a " zero tolerance " policy towards obscene language willfully used during the daytime . However , the PTC 's complaints about profanity used by presenter Nicole Richie in the December 10 , 2003 broadcast of the Billboard Music Awards led the FCC to conclude that the language violated decency law .
The PTC began attracting more attention after it filed around 65 @,@ 000 complaints to the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) about the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , in which one of performer Janet Jackson 's nipple shielded breasts , was exposed for 9 / 16ths of a second . FCC chairman Michael Powell stated that the number of indecency complaints to the FCC had risen from 350 in the years 2000 and 2001 , to 14 @,@ 000 in 2002 and 240 @,@ 000 in 2003 . It was also found that the PTC had generated most of the indecency complaints received by the Federal Communications Commission . In July 2008 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit voided the fine .
After the halftime show , the PTC launched five more FCC complaint drives , starting March 2004 with an episode of Fox 's That ' 70s Show titled " Happy Jack " , which revolved around character Eric Forman being caught masturbating . The beginning of the 2004 – 2005 television season sparked four new campaigns , the first being against NBC 's animated series Father of the Pride , stating that it contained a " barrage of sexual innuendo and profanity " while being promoted " from the creators of Shrek " , which they felt would potentially attract children to watching the series . That campaign led to over 11 @,@ 000 email complaints to the FCC . Later , shortly after CBS broadcast the word " fuck " during an airing of Big Brother 5 , the PTC took action again , this time claiming that CBS ignored a warning from the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) that there would be zero tolerance toward unbleeped profanity . However , those complaints became moot when Viacom , then @-@ owners of CBS , settled with the FCC for $ 3 @.@ 5 million regarding all allegedly indecent programming broadcast in the years around 2003 and 2004 , including the Big Brother 5 episode in question . In March 2006 , the FCC ruled that Father of the Pride was not indecent . Following were complaints about an October 2004 episode of ABC 's short @-@ lived teen drama Life As We Know It , which the PTC felt was sexually charged .
The PTC started off 2005 with their campaign against the Without a Trace episode " Our Sons and Daughters " , leading to CBS being fined for indecency in March 2006 ; the PTC objected to the depiction of teenagers participating in an orgy in that episode . CBS argued that the episode " featured an important and socially relevant storyline warning parents to exercise greater supervision of their teenagers . " The FCC fined CBS $ 3 @.@ 63 million in March 2006 for this episode , but after a court settlement , the network agreed to pay $ 300 @,@ 000 in fines . At the end of January 2005 , the FCC rejected a set of complaints that PTC filed between October 2001 and February 2004 for allegedly indecent programs such as NBC 's Friends , the WB 's Gilmore Girls , and Fox 's The Simpsons . The FCC received complaints from the PTC in the summer over an unedited broadcast of the lyric " who the fuck are you ? " in The Who 's song " Who Are You " from the Live 8 concert broadcast July 2 , 2005 on ABC stations in the East Coast .
In 2006 , PTC requested that the FCC deny broadcast license renewal for Salt Lake City CBS station KUTV because they felt that the broadcast of the Without a Trace episode that was ruled indecent violated community standards and that CBS failed to take action to reduce indecent content following the FCC fines . Subsequently , CBS agreed to pay the FCC $ 300 @,@ 000 to settle the KUTV license challenge . Starting from December 2007 , the organization demanded that CBS cancel its plan to rebroadcast an edited version of the Showtime drama Dexter , whose title character was a serial killer and police forensics analyst , because it felt that the program would glorify murder even with the edits . By early February 2008 , the Council claimed to have collected 17 @,@ 000 complaints to CBS .
On January 25 , 2008 , the FCC proposed an estimated $ 1 @.@ 4 million fine against ABC for a scene of female nudity in the NYPD Blue episode " Nude Awakening " aired on February 25 , 2003 . Because the episode aired outside the indecency " safe harbor " in the Central and Mountain Time Zones , the fine applied only to ABC stations in those zones . The PTC praised the FCC 's action . However , PTC president Winter condemned ABC 's decision to appeal the fine in federal court . PTC has also criticized the Third Circuit Court of Appeals ' decision to void the FCC 's fine for the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show . TV series that the PTC has targeted for FCC complaints in 2008 have included NBC 's Today morning show and CBS primetime programs Big Brother 10 , Survivor : Gabon , and Two and a Half Men . Profanity was the main concern for Today and Big Brother 10 , the extremely brief exposure of contestant Marcus Lehman 's penis for Survivor : Gabon , and a " lap @-@ dance " scene for Two and a Half Men . The PTC 's first complaint in 2009 was over sexual content in an episode of Family Guy titled " Family Gay " . Later in 2009 , the PTC urged affiliates of The CW Television Network to pre @-@ empt a Gossip Girl episode to be aired November 9 ; the episode would reportedly contain a threesome scene . In response to Adam Lambert 's performance of his song " For Your Entertainment " at the end of the 2009 American Music Awards broadcast on ABC , PTC urged viewers to complain to the FCC if living in an area where the performance was shown before 10 p.m. local time . PTC complained that the performance contained a simulation of oral sex . Lambert 's performance reportedly was broadcast around 11 p.m. Eastern and Pacific time , " outside the FCC 's usual 6am @-@ 10pm time frame prohibiting the broadcast of indecent material " . ABC also received about 1 @,@ 500 telephoned complaints .
In January 2010 , the PTC launched a complaint campaign after the American Dad ! episode " Don 't Look a Smith Horse in the Mouth " aired in January 2010 . The FCC fined Fox $ 25 @,@ 000 on June 4 , stating that they failed to respond to an inquiry of 100 @,@ 000 complaints about the episode . A month later , Fox slammed the decision , claiming that it was " unconstitutional " . On May 20 , 2010 , the PTC announced that it plans to target CBS and its affiliates after the network announced that the new sitcom $ # * ! My Dad Says was added to the 2010 @-@ 2011 fall TV lineup . The PTC cites both the show 's title and its Thursday 8 : 30PM timeslot as reasons . The series is based on the popular Twitter account created by Justin Halpern , who will also serve as one of the co @-@ producers on the show . CBS defended its decision and says that it is working with the account 's creator and its content will be toned down for the program before the series debuts in September .
In October 2010 , the PTC targeted an episode of the Fox series Glee , stating that the episode featured outfits that were scantily clad and guest @-@ star Britney Spears going shopping in lingerie , calling it , " an endorsement of narcotics abuse , public masturbation , and school @-@ sanctioned burlesque . " They were also criticizing it for making an episode idolizing Britney in the first place , stating : " Perhaps most troubling is the deification of a troubled popstar into a symbol of empowerment and self @-@ esteem . " On October 20 , PTC criticized GQ magazine for featuring three Glee stars posing in risque outfits ; the PTC statement said that the photoshoot " borders on pedophilia . "
The PTC called on the United States Department of Justice and the Judiciary Committees of both houses of Congress to investigate whether MTV violated child pornography laws in casting teenaged actors in Skins , a remake of the British TV series of the same name . MTV rated Skins " TV @-@ MA " , meaning the show is not suitable for audiences under 17 . The Los Angeles Times responded in an editorial : " ... looking for government remedies is ineffective and unwise ; we suspect the network 's editors are smart enough to skirt prosecution . The Federal Communications Commission doesn 't regulate the content of cable networks , and even if it did , a crackdown on shows like " Skins " would be a bad idea , because adults should be able to watch whatever they like on cable and federal attempts to protect kids from adult programming have never been successful . "
= = = Advertising = = =
In May 2005 Carl 's Jr. introduced its " Spicy BBQ Six Dollar Burger " in a television advertisement featuring celebrity Paris Hilton in a swimsuit , soaping up a Bentley Arnage while leaning on it , and then eating the burger . A similar ad with Hilton for Hardee 's hamburger chain was aired in June 2005 . The Parents Television Council and other media watchdog groups criticized the commercial for being shown during programs that were very likely to be watched by children . Melissa Caldwell , PTC research director , said , " This commercial is basically soft @-@ core porn . The way she moves , the way she puts her finger in her mouth — it 's very suggestive and very titillating . " The group mobilized more than one million members to contact the restaurant chain and voice their concern and claimed that " [ i ] f this television commercial were to go unchallenged it would set a new standard for acceptable television commercial content . " Caldwell , then @-@ president Bozell , and then @-@ executive director Winter appeared on various news programs such as Good Morning America , Today , The Early Show , American Morning , and The O 'Reilly Factor to discuss this issue . Andy Puzder , CEO of Carl 's Jr . , says the group needs to " get a life ... This isn 't Janet Jackson — there is no nipple shield in this , " referring to the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show . He continued , " There is no nudity , there is no sex act — it 's a beautiful model in a swimsuit washing a car . " In addition to featuring the ad on their web site , Carl 's Jr. also set up another website playing a longer version of the commercial .
PTC accused television commercials for Hardee 's " biscuit holes " food product of suggesting double entendres . The commercial featured consumers suggesting " A @-@ holes " and " B @-@ holes " as nicknames for the biscuit holes . Boddie @-@ Noell Enterprises , which owned 350 Hardee 's restaurants in four states , refused to show the ads in its respective markets . Ben Mayo Boddie , chairman of Boddie @-@ Noell , wrote a letter to the PTC condemning the ads as well .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
In September 2007 , the PTC launched a campaign to get airlines in America to reduce the number of " PG @-@ 13 " and " R " -rated films shown as in @-@ flight entertainment . Consequently , Heath Shuler , Democratic representative of North Carolina , introduced the Family Friendly Flights Act of 2007 bill to require airlines to set aside " child @-@ safe " viewing areas for families to sit in planes . The bill never became law .
= = = YouTube = = =
Twice has the PTC targeted video @-@ hosting website YouTube in its campaigns and statements . PTC called for NBC to reconsider uploading the uncensored clip of the Saturday Night Live novelty song " Dick in a Box " on NBC 's site and YouTube channel . In 2008 , the PTC released a report The " New " Tube : A Content Analysis of YouTube — the Most Popular Online Video Destination , which praised YouTube for filtering adult content but criticized the site for not filtering profanity and other explicit content from comments sections or videos .
= = = Ethics controversy = = =
In October 2010 , The New York Times reported that former PTC vice president of development Patrick W. Salazar had accused PTC of mishandling hundreds of thousands of mailings to donors and members . Based on Internal Revenue Service filings , the American Institute of Philanthropy rated PTC " C + " on financial efficiency . Salazar also disputed the PTC 's official membership figure of 1 @.@ 3 million and estimated that at most 12 @,@ 000 people respond to annual fundraisers . Although Salazar stated that he left the PTC in November 2009 , the PTC said that it fired Salazar and that Salazar was trying to extort money from the organization .
= = = Other = = =
The PTC also criticized The Muppets for not meeting " family viewing " guidelines and suggested a boycott , based on the mockumentary format of the series including mentions of plastic surgery , " inside " business language being used in a crude manner , and the Muppets in a bar consuming alcoholic beverages .
The PTC also criticized the U.S. version of Sex Box , due it being a live sex show on basic cable .
The PTC also blasted Of Kings and Prophets for including sex and violence .
= = Viewpoints = =
On its website , PTC states that its mission is to " promote and restore responsibility and decency to the entertainment industry in answer to America 's demand for positive , family @-@ oriented television programming . " The PTC believes that the entertainment industry — not only television but also music , movies , and video games as well — and its sponsors share responsibility with parents for children 's television viewing habits . It therefore believes that television is harming children through a perceived " gratuitous " amount of sex , violence , and profanity . Its activism has influenced the removal of potentially objectionable content from certain shows , such as the fourth season of the popular CBS crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation . Increased government regulation of broadcasting is another viewpoint supported by PTC . PTC considers itself nonpartisan ; others have considered the PTC to be bipartisan or socially conservative . Robyn Blumner of the St. Petersburg Times called the PTC " the Gladys Kravitz of public advocacy " in a column of hers and believed the PTC supported a federal policy on broadcast decency she called " Big Nanny run amok " .
= = = V @-@ Chip = = =
Since the V @-@ Chip was established in conjunction with the TV Parental Guidelines ratings system , PTC has frequently accused the guidelines of having inaccuracy and low standards . In 1997 , PTC was twice as likely to rate a show with the toughest rating classification , " red light " in the PTC 's case , and " TV @-@ 14 " in the Guidelines . Bill Berkowitz quoted PTC president Bozell as stating , based on PTC research , that " the current ratings system and V @-@ chip are failures . " In response to a V @-@ Chip advertising campaign in the summer of 2006 , Bozell proposed instead that cable companies either apply FCC @-@ style broadcast television standards or offer choice in ordering channels . Television Watch considers PTC 's reporting on the V @-@ chip inaccurate and ideologically charged .
= = = Cable choice = = =
The PTC is an avid supporter of " a la carte " cable television services to allow families to choose only the cable television channels that are appropriate for their children , and also impose the same decency standards already in place on broadcast television on cable channels . Frequently , the Council has criticized programs on BET , Comedy Central , E ! , FX , MTV , Spike , TNT , and VH1 because they claim some of the content aired on those channels are inappropriate for younger viewers . On the other side of the issue , the PTC has awarded its " Seal of Approval " to cable networks Disney Channel and Hallmark Channel for their original programs several years ago .
On June 14 , 2007 , United States Representatives Dan Lipinski ( Democratic , Illinois ) and Jeff Fortenberry ( Republican , Nebraska ) introduced into legislation the Family and Consumer Choice Act of 2007 , which intends to allow families to choose and pay for only the cable television channels that they want to watch . In September 2007 , the PTC launched a new website , HowCableShouldBe.com , to allow cable customers to see how much they are paying for their monthly cable bill currently .
In August 2013 , the PTC released a statement criticizing MTV for the airing of a performance by Miley Cyrus during its Video Music Awards and urged Congress to pass the Television Consumer Freedom Act .
= = Popular music = =
In April 2008 , PTC released The Rap on Rap , a study covering hip @-@ hop and R & B music videos rotated on programs 106 & Park and Rap City , both shown on BET , and Sucker Free on MTV . PTC urged advertisers to withdraw sponsorship of those programs , whose videos PTC stated targeted children and teenagers " with adult content ... once every 38 seconds " . PTC also warned radio stations about playing the Britney Spears song " If U Seek Amy " over concerns it contained an audible use of an obscenity . In response to music video to Miley Cyrus ' song " Who Owns My Heart " , the PTC stated that it felt it was " unfortunate that she would participate in such a sexualized video like this one " ; Miley Cyrus ' father Billy Ray Cyrus sat on the PTC Advisory Board at the time .
In May 2011 , the PTC took issue with Rihanna 's music video for her song " Man Down . " In the video Rihanna portrays a woman who resorts to killing the man who had previously raped her . They claimed the video promoted gun crime and murder , while the pop star said she wanted to be a voice to victims . After the video became the most viewed YouTube video that week , she sarcastically used Twitter to thank the PTC in helping her make the video such a success .
= = Criticism = =
The PTC has been frequently criticized for hypocrisy , slanted reporting and only criticizing shows that are aimed at adults . Critics of the PTC have alleged that it supports increased governmental censorship of television by lobbying the FCC for indecency enforcement for certain television shows and inaccurately reporting on the V @-@ Chip in order to further their agenda .
Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane , who is frequently criticized by the PTC , said in The Advocate
In January 2005 , Bahçeşehir University associate professor Christian Christiansen questioned the backgrounds of certain PTC Advisory Board members ( L. Brent Bozell III as ' National Finance Chairman for the 1992 " Buchanan for President " campaign ' of " neo @-@ fascist Pat Buchanan " ; Susan Howard 's portrayal of adulterous Donna Culver Krebbs on TV series Dallas , which series " was soaked in scantily @-@ clad women , emotional cruelty , violence , alcoholism , and martial infidelity " ; Coleman Luck as ' writer and producer ' ... ' on " Otherworld , " " The Equalizer , " " [ Gabriel 's ] Fire , " " Matrix , " and " The Burning Zone " [ which ] ... included a fair amount of death and violence ' ; William Bennett as ' a very popular guest at a number of Las Vegas casinos ... gambling ' ; Bruce Jarchow appearing in ' less family @-@ friendly products ... such as " The Puppet Masters " ( R @-@ rated horror ) , " Mad Dog and Glory " ( R @-@ rated comedy ) and " Married ... With Children " ( crude Fox sitcom packed with blatant sexual banter ) ' ; Billy Ray Cyrus , who ' starred in the TV pilot " Mulholland Drive " made by erotic , anti @-@ family values filmmaker David Lynch ' and ' had the lead in the independent film mega @-@ flop , " Radical Jack , " the synopsis of which highlights the lunacy of Cyrus being on the board of the PTC : " CIA agent Jack Reynolds ( Billy Ray Cyrus ) has a score to settle . Five years ago , his family was slaughtered after he tried to break up an illegal arms ring . But now he 's discovered the location of the gunrunner who killed his family--and he 's going undercover and taking on a whole crooked town in order to get his man ! " ' ; and John Carvelli , ' who , in 1987 , " took part in a fact @-@ finding mission in Nicaragua and Honduras with the National Conservative Foundation during the Nicaraguan civil war . " ' ) , as not consistent with their stance on morality .
In a December 2005 column of his , Advertising Age columnist Simon Dumenco claimed that the PTC is " very very afraid of gay TV characters " . Culture Watch columnist Christopher Gildemeister defended the PTC as being " not homophobic " but simply opposed to " sexual references or innuendo ( of any variety , hetero , homo or other ) aired where children might be exposed to them . "
|
= Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Posen =
The Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Posen ( German : Provinziallandtag des Großherzogthums Posen , Polish : Sejm Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego ) was the parliament in the 19th century Grand Duchy of Posen and the Province of Posen , seated in Poznań / Posen . It existed from 1823 to 1918 . In the history of the Polish parliament , it succeeded the general sejm and local sejmik on part of the territories of the Prussian partition . Originally retaining a Polish character , it acquired a more German character in the second half of the 19th century .
= = History = =
The province of Greater Poland was acquired by Kingdom of Prussia following the Congress of Vienna , when it was detached from the Duchy of Warsaw and given to Prussia , where it became reorganized as the Grand Duchy of Posen . The King of Prussia gave the Grand Duchy the right to call a parliament in 1823 , with specific decrees defining its competences in 1826 . The parliament carried the traditions of the General Sejmik of Greater Poland , and insisted on using the Polish word sejm in its name . The Sejm met for the first time on 24 December 1827 . The second sejm session begun on 30 January 1830 .
Following the suppression of the Sejm of the Congress Poland in the aftermath of the November Uprising , the Sejm of the Grand Duchy was the last vestige of the Polish parliamentary tradition on Polish soil . Only Christian men owning landed property for at least ten years were enfranchised to vote . Until 1869 Jews generally remained excluded , unlike in Prussia proper .
So immigrants who had newly acquired land were not enfranchised as were not most of the rural ethnically Polish farmers , who still held land by way of lease or feudal fief only like serfs or vassals of their landlords , unlike Prussia proper where serfdom had been abolished in 1807 and 1810 . Immigrant farmers from the Holy Roman Empire ( such as the Bambrzy ) or later from member states of the German Confederation , had usually remained free peasants , causing their stronger representation within the eight members elected by peasants , of a total of 48 . With regard to ethnicity , most of the nobility representatives were Polish , peasantry representatives were balanced , and the townsfolk representatives were mostly German . The first sejm included 22 Poles and 26 Germans , and most of the subsequent elections produced an almost even split between the Poles and the Germans . A major issue of the Sejm was the abolition of serfdom , which would enlarge the number of Polish speaking landowners and after ten years allow their participation in Sejm elections .
The Grand Duchy 's population was 65 % Polish but with its exclusion of serfs and underrepresentation of landless rural commoners the electoral law was designed to favor the German inhabitants . The proportion of Polish representatives diminished further after the events of 1848 , and Jacek Jędruch notes that due to growing discrimination against Polish representatives that date marks the end of the period in which this legislative body can be seen as continuing the Polish parliamentary tradition . Also , while the proceedings of the first sejms were published in Polish , since 1877 they were published in German .
The political factions of the sejm were divided between liberals , supporting the German constitutional movement , and conservatives , like Edward Raczyński , who predicted that this movement would abolish the Grand Duchy 's autonomy . During the two or so decades of its existence , the major issues of concern of the Sejm were the abolition of serfdom and relations between the inhabitants of Polish and German ethnicity , particularly the discrimination against the Poles by the Prussian government , which increasingly excluded the Polish majority from administration and judiciary . The last petition issued by the Sejm in 1841 demanded equal rights for the Poles and stopping of the Germanization campaign . As most of the Sejm petitions were simply ignored by the King of Prussia , this contributed to dissent in the province , which eventually resulted in an uprising in 1848 in the midst of the revolutions of 1848 in the German states . The Sejm met the total of seven times before the revolutions of 1848 ( in 1827 , 1830 , 1834 , 1837 , 1841 , 1843 and 1845 ) . Following the revolutions , the Sejm of the Grand Duchy , like other provincial Prussian assemblies , gained the right to elect deputies to the Prussian Parliament . The Sejm continued its sessions till 1918 , with a total of 49 Sejms being held .
In the aftermath of World War I , popular protests against the electoral law discriminating against Poles led to new elections in 1918 , in which 521 deputies were elected in the Grand Duchy ; that Sejm would support the integration of the Grand Duchy territories to the newly formed Second Polish Republic .
= = Composition = =
The sejm was unicameral . Only Christian men subject to no other monarch but the king in personal union the grand duke and of at least 30 years of age were enfranchised to vote . For the nobility deputies , initially two , later four deputies held their seats due to privileges tied with other aristocratic status ( heads of Grand Duchy magnate families ) , the rest were elected by landholders .
The sejm had 48 deputies . The representatives were grouped into three benches , with 24 men to represent the landed nobility ( nobles not holding a feudal fief manor were excluded , if they owned private land or urban real estate , they would qualify for the election of one of the two other benches ) , 16 being elected by the cities ' burghers , if they owned real estate , and eight by landed free peasants . Similarly , certain levels of wealth were required for election of the peasantry representatives .
Deputies term of office was set for 6 years , with elections for the half of the deputies held every three years . For the first renewal election the to @-@ be @-@ replaced or reelected members had been chosen by lot . The Sejm was to meet every two years , but in reality the gatherings happened less often , between every two and three years . Sessions lasted two months .
= = = Marshals of the Sejm = = =
One of the noble representatives held the position of the Marshal of the Sejm ( speaker ) . Marshals of the Sejm of the Grand Duchy included Antoni Paweł Sułkowski ( the speaker of the first sejm ) and Hans Wilhelm von Unruhe @-@ Bomst , marshall as of 1874 .
= = = Notable members = = =
Notable politicians of the Sejm of the Grand Duchy included :
Louis Aronsohn
Theodor von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg
Walther Buresch
Julian von Chelmicki
Dezydery Chłapowski
Stanisław Chłapowski
Tytus Działyński
Dagobert Friedlaender
Józef I. Grabowski
Heinrich von Heydebrand und der Lasa
Stanisław Kurnatowski
Mieczysław Kwilecki
Wojciech Lipski
Maciej Mielżyński
Franciczek von Morawski
Andrezj Niegolewski
Władysław M. Niegolewski
Gustaw Potworowski
Heinrich von Pückler
Edward Raczyński
Bogusław Fryderyk Radziwiłł
Emil Ritter
Julius Ritter
Karl Schmidt
Antoni Paweł Sułkowski , Sejm Marshall as of 1824
Hippolyt von Turno
Hans Wilhelm von Unruhe @-@ Bomst , Sejm Marshall as of 1874
= = Competences = =
The Sejm had mostly advisory powers , although it could legislate on some strictly local matters , such as communal self @-@ government and spending of some local taxes . It could opine legal acts relevant to the Grand Duchy . Its deputies had the right to file petitions and complaints to the King of Prussia , who could consent or reject ( as was often the case ) the Sejm proposals . Proposals from and to the King required a two @-@ thirds majority ; other proposals required a simple majority .
|
= Back to the Pilot =
" Back to the Pilot " is the fifth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 13 , 2011 . In " Back to the Pilot " , two of the show 's main characters , baby genius Stewie and anthropomorphic dog Brian , both voiced by series creator Seth MacFarlane , use a time machine to travel back in time to the first episode of the series , " Death Has a Shadow " . Trouble ensues however , when Brian tells his former self about the September 11 attacks , causing the present to be dramatically changed , and ultimately resulting in a second civil war . The two must then prevent themselves from going back to the past in the first place , but soon realize that it will be much more difficult than they had originally thought .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Dominic Bianchi . It received high praise from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving some criticism for its portrayal of the September 11 attacks , an example of 9 / 11 humor despite being self @-@ aware . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 01 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Lacey Chabert , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , Christine Lakin , Phil LaMarr and Fred Tatasciore , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
When Brian approaches Stewie about helping him find a tennis ball he has buried , Stewie asks if Brian remembers the date that he lost it . Brian tells him that he buried it on January 31 , 1999 ( the day that the first episode of Family Guy originally aired ) . Using Stewie 's time machine to travel back to that date , the two soon come upon the Griffin family , but notice that their past looks more strange than they remembered it : the family continually pauses for cutaways , the animation style is different , Peter 's right eye inexplicably pops out over his nose when he turns his head slightly , television sets are unplugged from the wall , and Meg 's voice sounds different . Stewie comments that " She sounds like someone who 's about to give up a huge opportunity . "
Telling Brian that he must not alter the past by getting the tennis ball and that he should instead memorize its location , Stewie goes into his room to set up their return to the present before Past Stewie suddenly enters . The two Stewies then meet , and Stewie tells Brian to come out from his hiding place after explaining himself to Past Stewie . However , hanging outside the window , Brian falls onto past Peter 's car as he drives to the stag party at Past Quagmire 's house . Stewie finds Brian and the two then attempt to return to the present , but find that the transportation device 's batteries are running low and moved only a bit forward in time towards their destination ( Stewie converted the return pad to run on batteries instead of uranium because of their situation in Germany ) .
Later , the two manage to take advantage of Past Peter dumping his extra welfare money out of a blimp above Super Bowl XXXIII to collect the money needed to purchase new batteries . Before their return , they have an encounter with the Kool @-@ Aid Man and ruin his entry during the " Oh yeah ! " part at Past Peter 's court session . Brian and Stewie return to the present .
Upon their return , Stewie discovers that Brian intentionally disobeyed his instructions and warned his past self about the upcoming September 11 attacks ahead of time allowing Past Brian to stop the event and alter the timeline as a result , much to Stewie 's frustration . While watching the local news with footage on Brian stopping the terrorists , Brian is honored as a hero . The news also revealed that former President George W. Bush returned to Texas after losing the 2004 election and reformed the confederacy , along with eight other states from the southern United States resulting in a Second Civil War . On a side note , it turns out that Pat Tillman ( who in this timeline is still alive as he never went off to fight in the War on Terror ) was " tackled by his own team " .
Brian insists that things will still be better in the end , but when they travel five years into the future they find a computer generated post @-@ apocalyptic future caused by nuclear attacks all across the United States , which also hands everything to the viewers on a silver platter which Stewie finds to be lazy . Cleveland is back in Quahog , Joe is a robotic policeman , and Quagmire is a mutant frog called Frogmire before being obliterated by Joe for breaking a law . Stewie discovers online that the civil war escalated to a nuclear attack across the entire Eastern Seaboard , killing over 17 million people , including Cesar Millan . Brian admits that he made a mistake , and the two return to the past to prevent Brian from telling his past self about the attacks . They then return to the present , whereupon Stewie learns that Brian has instead taken credit for the Harry Potter series instead of J.K. Rowling .
Seeing that Brian has learned nothing from Stewie 's warnings , they again go back to prevent themselves from telling any future events . Before they do , however , a Stewie and Brian from the further future arrive to tell them not to stop their past selves from talking about the future . This in turn causes dozens of Stewies and Brians ( one including a confused Peter as well ) to appear , each pair telling the previous ones not to do what they are about to do . Having had enough of this , Stewie tells his numerous future selves to take their respective Brians and return to their time after they all decide to allow 9 / 11 to historically take place for obvious reasons . From there , Stewie takes Brian back a minute before their past selves arrive and demands for them to return to their time by shooting Past Brian in the knee . With that , the altered timeline ceases to exist along with its corresponding Stewie and Brian , and everything goes back to normal .
At home , the original Brian and Stewie mull over what has just happened , unaware of how they would have affected the timeline but grateful that they have returned to their own time without changing anything , but they get confused when Peter arrives with Quagmire , and the rest of his friends from the stag party in 1999 with Peter mentioning them unplugging the TV .
= = Production and development = =
Series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane first announced the episode at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California on July 23 , 2011 . It was directed by series regular Dominic Bianchi , in his second episode of the season . Bianchi also previously served as director for the series 's landmark 150th episode " Brian & Stewie " . The episode was written by series showrunner and executive producer Mark Hentemann , who joined the show as a writer in its third season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter serving as executive story editors , and Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Back to the Pilot " . The episode was originally intended to be the seventh installation in the series 's hallmark Road to ... episodes , but it was changed before airing . The episode featured several examples of the old animation style that was used in the episode 's pilot episode , with the Griffin family all appearing in the lesser quality animation style in the past universe that Stewie and Brian travel to .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , and actress Christine Lakin guest starred in the episode . Archival recordings of actress Lacey Chabert , and voice actors Phil LaMarr and Fred Tatasciore from " Death Has a Shadow " were used , although they still received credit . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Chabert 's role in the episode was that of Meg Griffin in the pilot episode . Chabert had previously voiced Meg , before eventually being replaced by actress Mila Kunis , who had a role on the television series That ' 70s Show during Family Guy 's first season . Chabert left the series after completing the first production of episodes in order to focus on her schoolwork , as well as her participation in the television series Party of Five , with Kunis taking over the role after the first season .
= = Reception = =
" Back to the Pilot " was broadcast on November 13 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , preceded by The Simpsons and Allen Gregory and followed by Family Guy MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 6 @.@ 01 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Good Wife on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 1 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Allen Gregory and American Dad ! , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased by nearly 200 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous week 's episode , " Stewie Goes for a Drive " .
Reviews of the episode by television critics were positive , with Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club calling it " an episode of Family Guy that rewards every viewer who liked the show in the past . " McFarland also gave high praise to the episode , writing , " At first , I was simply pleased that ' Back to the Pilot ' didn 't screw things up at the beginning , but as the episode went , I kept looking at the clock and being amazed that it hadn 't dropped the ball yet . It used short cutaways and a plethora of self @-@ referential jokes the writers must have stockpiled for years about the animation quality , voice quality , and structure of the pilot to every possible advantage . " He continued , " It wasn 't perfect by any stretch of the imagination , and it 's not on the same level as the occasional brilliance that South Park reaches on about one occasion per season nowadays , but it 's the most fun I 've had watching the show that didn 't involve a Star Wars parody in many years . " McFarland concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of A- . Kate Moon of TV Fanatic also enjoyed the episode , noting , " ' Back to the Pilot ' was a great meta episode of Family Guy . From poking fun at its own flaws in the original series to acknowledging how silly the cutaway gags can be , Family Guy shone at its layered best tonight . " She continued , " Treating its animated characters like real actors was a nice touch as well . Watching the original family showed how much the characters evolved and changed throughout the series ' long run . " Moon concluded her review by giving the episode a 4 @.@ 2 out of 5 .
The episode was also the subject of criticism for its portrayal of the September 11 attacks , in which Brian and Stewie go back in time to make the attacks happen again , ultimately resulting in a high five when they are successful ( despite Stewie immediately remarking that would sound terrible out of context ) . The Daily Mail reported on the episode writing , " Nothing is ever off limits for Family Guy and its creator Seth MacFarlane . No topic is taboo , not the Holocaust , not drunk driving and not even abortion , but last night 's episode may finally have crossed the line . " Terri Pous of Time also wrote of the episode , " It sounds custom @-@ made for a ' too soon ' label , and it probably is . But avid Family Guy viewers live for " too soon " moments , no matter how sensitive the material . " Other news organizations , including Aly Semigran of Entertainment Weekly , also thought the show had gone too far with the reference . Nellie Andreeva of Deadline also commented that it " squeaked past the Fox standards and practices department but is sure to raise as many eyebrows . " MacFarlane was scheduled to be on one of the planes that hit the Twin Towers but overslept allegedly due to being hungover .
|
= Stephen Hopkins ( politician ) =
Stephen Hopkins ( March 7 , 1707 – July 13 , 1785 ) was a governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , a Chief Justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court , and a signer of the Declaration of Independence . From a prominent Rhode Island family , Hopkins was a grandson of William Hopkins who served the colony for 40 years as Deputy , Assistant , Speaker of the House of Deputies , and Major . His great grandfather , Thomas Hopkins , was an original settler of Providence , sailing from England in 1635 with his first cousin , Benedict Arnold , who became the first governor of the Rhode Island colony under the Royal Charter of 1663 .
As a child Stephen Hopkins was a voracious reader , becoming a serious student of the sciences , mathematics , and literature . He became a surveyor and astronomer , and was involved in taking measurements during the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun . Hopkins began his public service at the early age of 23 as a justice of the peace in the newly established town of Scituate , Rhode Island . He soon became a justice of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas , while also serving at times as the Speaker of the House of Deputies and President of the Scituate Town Council . While active in civic affairs , he also was part owner of an iron foundry and was a successful merchant who was portrayed in John Greenwood 's 1750s satirical painting , Sea Captains Carousing in Surinam . In May 1747 Hopkins was appointed as a justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court , and in 1751 became the third Chief Justice of this body . In 1755 he was elected to his first term as governor of the colony , and served a total of nine of the next 15 years in this capacity . One of the most contentious political issues of his day was the use of paper money versus hard currency . His bitter political rival , Samuel Ward championed hard currency , whereas Hopkins advocated the use of paper money . The rivalry between the two men became so heated , that Hopkins sued Ward for £ 40 @,@ 000 , but lost the case and had to pay costs . By the mid @-@ 1760s the contention between the two men became a serious distraction to the government of the colony , and realizing this they attempted to placate each other , but initially without success . Ultimately , in 1768 , both agreed to not run for office , and Josias Lyndon was elected governor of the colony as a compromise candidate .
In 1770 Hopkins once again became Chief Justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court , and during this tenure became a principal player in the colony 's handling of the 1772 Gaspee Affair , when a group of irate Rhode Island citizens boarded a British revenue vessel , and burned it to the waterline . In 1774 he was given an additional important responsibility as one of Rhode Island 's two delegates to the First Continental Congress , Samuel Ward being the other . Hopkins had become well known in the 13 colonies ten years earlier when he published a pamphlet entitled " The Rights of Colonies Examined , " which was critical of British Parliament and its taxation policies . In the summer of 1776 , with worsening palsy in his hands , Hopkins signed the Declaration of Independence while holding his right hand with his left , saying , " my hand trembles , but my heart does not . " He served in the Continental Congress until September 1776 when failing health forced him to resign . A strong backer of the College of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations ( later named Brown University ) , Hopkins was one of the school 's most ardent supporters , and became the institution 's first chancellor . He died in Providence in 1785 at the age of 78 , and is buried in the North Burial Ground there . Hopkins has been called Rhode Island 's greatest statesman .
= = Ancestry and early life = =
Born in Providence in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , Hopkins was the second of nine children of William and Ruth ( Wilkinson ) Hopkins . His grandfather , also named William Hopkins , was very prominent in colonial affairs , having served for more than 40 years as a Deputy from Providence , Assistant , Speaker of the House of Deputies , and Major . His grandmother , Abigail Whipple Hopkins , was a daughter of Providence settler John Whipple , sister of the wealthy Providence merchant , Joseph Whipple , and aunt to Deputy Governor Joseph Whipple , Jr . Stephen Hopkins ' great grandfather was Thomas Hopkins , who was baptized in Yeovilton , Somerset , England in 1616 , the son of William and Joanne ( Arnold ) Hopkins . Orphaned at an early age , Thomas Hopkins was raised by his uncle William Arnold , and sailed to New England in 1635 with his Arnold relatives , including his first cousin , Benedict Arnold , who became the first governor of the colony under the Royal Charter of 1663 .
The early part of Stephen Hopkins ' life was spent in the wooded northern part of Providence known as Chopmist Hill , an area that became Scituate , Rhode Island . There were no schools in this area at the time , but the books belonging to the family , supplemented by a small circulating collection , provided Hopkins with reading material , which he consumed voraciously . Richman called Hopkins " a close and severe student , filling up all the spare hours of his life with reading , " while Sanderson wrote , " He attached himself in early youth to the study of books and men . " Besides reading , Hopkins also gained skills in surveying from his grandfather , Samuel Wilkinson . He used his surveying skills to revise the streets and create a map of Scituate , and later did the same for Providence . Because of his responsibility as a youth , at the age of 19 Hopkins was given 70 acres ( 28 ha ) of land by his father , after which his grandfather Hopkins bestowed an additional 90 acres ( 36 ha ) upon him .
Hopkins ' interest in surveying spilled over into an interest in astronomy and other scientific endeavors as well , which was illustrated by an event when he was much older . Before the American Revolutionary War , on June 3 , 1769 , Hopkins was involved in the observation of a rare astronomical event , the transit of Venus across the face of the sun . This event was used to determine the distance of the earth from the sun , and also in this case to improve the measure of the latitude of Providence . Joseph Brown , noted for his scientific accomplishments as well as his commercial enterprise , was able to obtain a complete set of necessary instruments , including a reflecting telescope , a micrometer , and a sextant . An observatory was erected on a hill in Providence where a street , later named " Transit Street " in honor of the event , was laid out . Brown was assisted by a group of individuals , including Hopkins , Dr. Benjamin West , and others who were also interested in science . The observation was able to very accurately determine the latitude of Providence ( to the nearest second of arc ) , after which the longitude was determined by comparing observations of the moons of Jupiter with similar observations made in Cambridge , England .
= = Political and mercantile pursuits = =
Hopkins began his public service at the age of 23 , when in 1730 he became a justice of the peace from the newly formed town of Scituate , a position he held continuously until 1735 . Also , in 1731 he became the clerk of Scituate , which position he held for 11 years , until moving to Providence in 1742 . Following his tenure as justice of the peace , Hopkins became a justice of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas and General Sessions , sitting on this court from 1736 to 1746 , and being the clerk of this body for the last five of these years . Other positions he held during this time period include President of the Town Council , Deputy , and Speaker of the House of Deputies . In 1744 he was elected as a Deputy from Providence , which position he held for seven years , also being the Speaker of the House of Deputies during two of those years .
In 1742 Hopkins sold his farm in Scituate and moved to the settled part of Providence . Here he devoted much energy to commercial interests which would help small Providence grow . He became a merchant who built , owned , and outfitted ships , and in 1745 he was part owner of the privateering vessel Reprisal , in partnership with John Mawney , Sheriff of Providence , and son of Colonel Peter Mawney . In the mid @-@ 1750s , the Boston portraitist , John Greenwood , was commissioned by a group of sea captains and merchants , including Hopkins , to create a satirical painting . The men were stopped at a major trading port in Suriname on the north coast of South America where Greenwood was living at the time . Greenwood concocted a 22 @-@ figure tavern scene , showing himself among the affluent traders , many of whom were intoxicated .
One of Hopkins ' enterprises later in life was as a manufacturer , and he became a partner with the four brothers , Moses , Nicholas , Joseph , and John Brown in establishing the Hope Furnace . This enterprise was concerned with iron works which made pig iron and cannons for use during the Revolutionary War . After its establishment , Hopkins ' son , Rufus , managed the business for four decades .
= = = Governorships = = =
In 1755 Hopkins was elected to his first term as governor , defeating his predecessor , William Greene by a small margin . The year was mostly occupied with legislation and work related to the pending war with France . Braddock 's defeat and the occupation of Crown Point led the colony to send forces to Albany . Late in the previous year Hopkins and his Attorney @-@ General , Daniel Updike , were delegates from Rhode Island to a meeting in New York called the Albany Congress , which convened to discuss the common defense of the collective colonies , and to hold a conference with the five nations of Indians to secure their assistance in thwarting French encroachment . Here , he and others considered Benjamin Franklin 's early plan for uniting the colonies , but the principles of the plan were rejected in both the colonies and Great Britain . As the war with France developed , in February 1756 the General Assembly ordered the raising of 500 Rhode Island men for the expedition to Lake George in New York .
After two years in office Hopkins was defeated by William Greene for the governorship , but Greene died in office in February 1758 , and Hopkins once again became governor . The most divisive political issue of the day was the use of hard money , or specie , versus the use of paper money , and Hopkins sided with the latter group . Another issue was Newport interests versus Providence interests . For several years , Hopkins was locked in a bitter rivalry with Samuel Ward of Westerly , a strong supporter of hard currency , and also a champion of Newport , his town of origin . So bitter was the animosity between these two men that Hopkins commenced an action for slander against Ward , putting damages at £ 40 @,@ 000 . The case was moved to Massachusetts for a fair trial , and in 1759 the judgment went against Hopkins by default , and he paid the costs .
For ten years the two men , each at the head of a powerful party , went back and forth as Governor of the colony . Ward led the wealth and conservatism of Newport , Narragansett , and Kent County , while Hopkins represented the growing strength of Providence and Bristol Counties . The two men had been likened to gladiators in an arena , thirsting for each others ' life . Hopkins eventually lost to Ward , who was finally elected Governor in 1762 .
In 1763 Hopkins won back the governorship , and signs of reason between the two men appeared the following year when Ward wrote to Hopkins proposing that both resign their " pretensions to the chief seat of government . " On the same day , without the knowledge of this letter , Hopkins wrote to Ward inviting him to accept the position of deputy governor , which had just been vacated by the death of John Gardner . Neither man accepted the proposal of the other , but the stage had been set for future cooperation .
Towards the end of Hopkins ' term one of the most contentious issues of the age arose , uniting the divided elements into a common cause . In early 1765 the Stamp Act was passed by both houses of Parliament in England . This act was a scheme for taxing the colonies , directing that all commercial and legal documents , to be valid in a court of law , must be written on stamped paper sold at fixed prices by governmental officers , and also directing that a duty be applied to newspapers . Parliament , assuming the right to tax the colonies , put additional duties on sugar , coffee and other articles , and required that lumber and iron from the colonies only be exported to England .
The news of the act infuriated the colonists , and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts invited all the colonies to a congress of delegates to meet in New York to discuss relief from the unjust taxes . In August 1765 , with Ward once again governor , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed resolutions following the lead of Patrick Henry of Virginia . Rhode Island 's appointed stamp distributor , Attorney General Augustus Johnson , refused to execute his office " against the will of our Sovereign Lord the People . " The Rhode Island General Assembly met again at East Greenwich in September 1765 , choosing delegates to the New York congress , and appointing a committee to consider the Stamp Act . The committee reported six resolutions that pointed to the absolution of allegiance to the British Crown unless the grievances were removed . Ultimately , the act was repealed , with news reaching the colonies in May 1766 to public rejoicing . The conflict for independence was delayed , but not abandoned .
Another event of great importance to the future of the Rhode Island colony also found agreement between Ward and Hopkins . In 1764 the act incorporating the college in Rhode Island was passed . Both men strongly supported an institution of higher learning within the colony , and both became trustees , with the name Stephen Hopkins appearing first on the list of 36 trustees , and that of Samuel Ward being third . Hopkins also became one of the school 's most generous supporters , and became the school 's first chancellor , which position he held until his death in 1785 .
Rhode Island 's election of 1767 was as hotly contested as ever , but Hopkins beat Ward by the widest margin of any of their previous elections . In 1768 Hopkins proposed to Ward that the two men should relinquish their claims on the elections and agree to a compromise candidate . Ward accepted the proposal , Josias Lyndon was elected as governor , and the two adversaries , Ward and Hopkins , met and united in a cordial friendship for the remainder of their lives .
= = = The Rights of Colonies Examined = = =
In November 1764 a pamphlet by Hopkins entitled The Rights of Colonies Examined , was published by the Rhode Island General Assembly . This pamphlet , with its broad distribution and criticism of taxation and Parliament , was directed primarily at the Stamp Act , and helped build Hopkins ' reputation as a revolutionary leader . The text begins with the words , " Liberty is the greatest blessing that men enjoy , and slavery the heaviest curse that human nature is capable of , " and goes on to present a clear and logical review of the relationship of the American colonies to the mother country . The paper received widespread circulation and brought hearty approval from throughout the colonies . Historian Thomas Bicknell called it " the most remarkable document that was issued during the period preceding the War of the Revolution . " Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson wrote of the paper , " it was conceived in a higher strain than any that were sent out by other colonies . " With this paper Hopkins became to Rhode Island what Samuel Adams was to Massachusetts and what Thomas Jefferson was to Virginia . The paper was printed widely , and Hopkins became recognized as one of the leaders of public opinion in the colonies .
= = = Chief Justice = = =
In May 1747 Hopkins was first appointed as a Justice of the Rhode Island Superior Court , whose long title was the " Superior Court of Judicature , Court Of Assize , and General Gaol Delivery . " In 1751 he became the third Chief Justice of this court , which position he held until 1755 when he became governor . Following a total of nine years as governor over the next 15 years , Hopkins was once again appointed as Chief Justice of the court in 1770 , and served until October 1775 , while simultaneously serving as a delegate to the Continental Congress .
One of the most important events with which Hopkins dealt during his final tenure as Chief Justice was the Gaspee Affair . In March 1772 Deputy Governor Darius Sessions , working in Providence , sent a letter of concern to Governor Joseph Wanton in Newport , having consulted with Chief Justice Hopkins . Sessions expressed alarm that the British schooner Gaspee had been cruising the Narragansett Bay , disrupting the traffic by stopping and searching commercial ships . In the letter Sessions wrote :
" I have consulted with the Chief Justice [ Hopkins ] thereon , who is of the opinion that no commander of any vessel has any right to use any authority in the Body of the Colony without previously applying to the Governor and showing his warrant for so doing and also being sworn to a due exercise of his office--and this he informs me has been the common custom in this Colony . "
Sessions went on to request that the governor take measures to bring the ship 's commander to account . A chain of threatening correspondence ensued between the governor and the commander of the Gaspee , Lieutenant William Dudingston , and the commander 's superior , Admiral John Montagu . On the night of June 9 – 10 , a party of incensed colonists attacked the vessel , and burned it to the waterline . Officially , Sessions was outraged at the incident , and offered the colony 's assistance in bringing the perpetrators to justice . To ameliorate retribution by the British authorities , Rhode Island officials took visible steps to find the culprits who burned the ship . Behind the scenes , however , Sessions and Hopkins did all they could to thwart any attempts to identify and find the attackers . When a royal commission was appointed by the British to investigate the incident , they demanded that any indicted person be sent to England for trial . This agregious threat to local liberty prompted the colonists to form the Committees of Correspondence . Loyalist Massachusetts Governor Hutchinson further aggravated the colonists sensitivities by urging Britain to rescind the Rhode Island charter .
Sessions conferred with Chief Justice Hopkins and lawyer John Cole , and with Moses Brown the four men drafted a letter to Massachusetts ' statesman Samuel Adams , who replied , urging Rhode Island to remain defiant , or at least to stall matters by appealing the creation of the royal commission . Governor Wanton was put at the head of this commission , but was compliant with Sessions ' and Hopkins ' attempts to frustrate the aims of the commission . Sessions , Hopkins , and others coordinated their efforts to lose evidence , threaten potential witnesses , and discredit those who testified . The vast majority of Rhode Island 's citizens were supportive of the attackers , and kept quiet about their identities . A year after the incident , the royal commission was terminated without a single indictment .
= = = Continental Congress = = =
In 1774 , the First Continental Congress convened , and both Ward and Hopkins were chosen as the delegates from Rhode Island . Hopkins , at age 68 , was senior to every delegate there , and was the only one of the 55 delegates who had attended the Albany Congress 20 years earlier . Over the previous several years Hopkins had developed palsy in his hands , and this greatly affected his ability to write . At the seating of this congress , Henry Arniett Brown wrote , " yonder sits the oldest of them all . His form is bent , his thin locks , fringing a forehead bowed with age and honorable service , and his hands shake tremulously as he folds them in his lap . It is Stephen Hopkins . "
The congress was called to protest the actions of Great Britain , and to secure the rights and privileges of the 13 colonies . Both Hopkins and Ward had already predicted that independence would only come with war . To his associates in congress Hopkins said , " Powder and ball will decide this question . The gun and bayonet alone will finish the contest in which we are engaged , and any of you who cannot bring your minds to this mode of adjusting the quarrel , had better retire in time . "
Hopkins was again elected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress , which met on May 10 , 1775 following the April attacks on Concord and Lexington . This congress convened to manage the war effort , and eventually declare independence from Great Britain . In July 1775 a national postal system , devised by William Goddard , was adopted , with Benjamin Franklin appointed as the first Postmaster General . This was an idea that had already been implemented in Rhode Island a month earlier . In December 1775 Hopkins was on a committee to report a plan for furnishing the colonies with naval armament . His knowledge of the shipping business made him particularly useful as a member of the naval committee established by Congress to purchase , outfit , man and operate the first ships of the new Continental Navy . Through his participation on that committee , Hopkins was instrumental in framing naval legislation and drafting the rules and regulations necessary to govern the fledgling organization during the American War for Independence . The first American naval squadron was launched on February 18 , 1776 . Hopkins used his influence to secure the position of commander in chief of the new navy for his brother Esek Hopkins , an appointment that proved to be unfortunate .
On May 4 , 1776 , by a nearly unanimous vote of the Rhode Island General Assembly , the Rhode Island colony declared its absolute independence from Great Britain . Exactly two months later , on July 4 , 1776 , the Continental Congress performed its supreme act by adopting the United States Declaration of Independence . The aged Stephen Hopkins had to support his palsied right hand with his left as he signed the document , remarking , " my hand trembles , but my heart does not . " The gathering of the founding fathers was depicted in John Trumbull 's famous Declaration of Independence where Hopkins is easily distinguishable as the gentleman standing in the back wearing a hat .
Future United States President John Adams appreciated Hopkins ' contributions during the congressional sessions , writing :
" ... Governor Hopkins of Rhode Island , above seventy Years of Age kept us all alive . Upon Business his Experience and judgment were very Useful . But when the Business of the Evening was over , he kept Us in Conversation till Eleven and sometimes twelve O Clock . His Custom was to drink nothing all day nor till Eight O Clock , in the Evening , and then his Beveredge was Jamaica Spirit and Water . It gave him Wit , Humour , Anecdotes , Science and Learning . He had read Greek , Roman and British History : and was familiar with English Poetry particularly Pope , Tompson [ Thomson ] and Milton . And the flow of his Soul made all his reading our own , and seemed to bring to recollection in all of Us all We had ever read . I could neither eat nor drink in those days . The other Gentlemen were very temperate . Hopkins never drank to excess , but all he drank was immediately not only converted into Wit , Sense , Knowledge and good humour , but inspired Us all with similar qualities . "
= = Hopkins and slavery = =
Stephen Hopkins , like several of the signers of the Declaration of Independence , was a slave owner , and he mentioned five in his 1760 will . His five slaves consisting of a negro man , woman , lad , and two little boys , were bequeathed to close members of his family with tender instructions for their care that were highly unusual coming from any slave owner . His negro woman , Fibbo ( Phibo / Phebe ) , was to go to his wife Anne and treated " so that Servitude may not be a Burthen to her , " and his negro man , Saint Jago , was to go to his oldest son , Rufus , and treated " so that his Life may be rendered easy and comfortable . " The will was never proved , because Hopkins lived another 25 years , and circumstances changed the instrument 's provisions .
On October 28 , 1772 , Hopkins manumitted Saint Jago , and wrote the following in the manumission document :
" But , principally , and most of all finding that the merciful and beneficent goodness of Almighty God ; by the blessed Gospel of Jesus Christ our Lord : hath by the blessed Spirit taught all , who honestly obey its Divine Dictates , that , the keeping any of his rational Creatures in Bondage , who are capable of taking care of , and providing for themselves in a State of Freedom : is , altogather [ sic ] inconsistent with his Holy and Righteous Will . "
While Hopkins felt that the bondage of self @-@ sufficient " rational creatures " was against God 's will , he also thought that unconditional freedom for some slaves would be an abrogation of responsibility . To this end , he refused to manumit his slave woman , even though it cost him his membership in the Quaker meeting . His rationale was simple : " She had Children that needed the Immediate Care of a Mother ... " It appears that Hopkins ' remaining slaves were not freed until after his death , but at least two of them , Primus and Bonner Jr . , had been living semi @-@ independently for several years before his death .
In 1774 , while serving in the Rhode Island Assembly , Hopkins introduced a bill that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony . This became one of the first anti @-@ slavery laws in the new United States . There were several pressures occurring in the colony which led to greater restrictions on the slave trade , the greatest of which was the pressure applied by the Quakers , who comprised a large percentage of Rhode Island 's population . Hopkins ' second wife was a Quaker , and as a consequence he became an active follower of this faith . Admonition from the Quakers was likely a compelling reason for Hopkins to begin freeing his slaves and introduce his antislavery bill . Other forces acting against this institution included the influence of the Congregationalist minister , Samuel Hopkins , and also the poor profit margin derived from the trade in New England .
= = Death and legacy = =
In September 1776 , poor health forced Hopkins to resign from the Continental Congress and return to his home in Rhode Island , though he remained an active member of Rhode Island 's general assembly from 1777 to 1779 . He died at his home in Providence on July 13 , 1785 , at the age of 78 and is buried in the North Burial Ground there .
Hopkins helped to found a subscription library , the Providence Library Company , in 1753 , and was a member of the Philosophical Society of Newport . The town of Hopkinton , Rhode Island , was later named after him . Also , the SS Stephen Hopkins , a liberty ship named in his honor , was the first U.S. ship to sink a German surface warship in World War II .
Although largely self @-@ educated , Hopkins was instrumental in the establishment of the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations ( now Brown University ) as a founding trustee or fellow along with the Reverend James Manning , Samuel Ward , John Brown , Nicholas Brown , Sr. , Moses Brown , the Baptist Reverend Isaac Backus , the Baptist Reverend Samuel Stillman , and the Congregationalist Reverend Ezra Stiles . Hopkins served as Brown 's first chancellor from 1764 to 1785 . His home , the Governor Stephen Hopkins House , originally located at the corner of Hopkins and South Main Streets in Providence , was moved twice after his death , both times to other locations on Hopkins Street . It is now located at 15 Hopkins Street , at the corner of Benefit Street , on the edge of the Brown University campus , and is a U.S. National Historic Landmark .
In his diary , the Reverend Ezra Stiles wrote of Hopkins , " I well knew Gov. Hopkins . He was a man of penetrating astutious [ sic ] Genius , full of Subtlety , deep Cunning , intriguing & enterprizing ... " adding that he was a " man of a Noble fortitude & resolution " and " a glorious Patriot ! " Hopkins , has been given strong accolades from numerous historians including Sanderson , Arnold and Bicknell , but was simply called by Richman " the greatest statesman of Rhode Island . "
= = In fiction = =
In the musical 1776 , which tells the story of the drafting and signing of the Declaration of Independence , Stephen Hopkins is a main character , played by veteran character actor Roy Poole . He is depicted as a well @-@ meaning , but cantankerous , maverick politician who readily partakes of alcoholic refreshment , owns a loyal hound @-@ dog ( which is intolerantly allowed to wait for Hopkins inside Independence Hall ) , and whose force of personality helps keep the Continental Congress together . When asked for his vote on opening debate on Virginia 's resolution on independence , the representative from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress declares : " I 've never seen , heard , nor smelled an issue that was so dangerous it couldn 't be talked about . Hell yes , I 'm for debating anything ! "
Hopkins was present when the Providence mob decided to attack Joseph Curwen in H.P. Lovecraft 's The Case of Charles Dexter Ward .
= = Family = =
In 1726 , at the age of 19 , Hopkins married Sarah Scott , the daughter of Sylvanus Scott and Joanna Jenckes , and a great great granddaughter of early Providence settler Richard Scott whose wife was Katharine Marbury , the youngest sister of the famed Puritan dissident minister Anne Hutchinson . Richard Scott was said to be the first Quaker in Providence . Hopkins and Sarah had seven children , five of whom lived to maturity . Sarah died on September 9 , 1753 at the age of 46 , and following her death , Hopkins married Anne Smith , the daughter of Benjamin Smith , and the widow of an unrelated Benjamin Smith . Hopkins and Anne did not have children together . Hopkins ' younger brother , Esek Hopkins , became the first commander in chief of the Continental Navy , and another brother , William , became a celebrated merchant .
Hopkins ' seven children with his first wife included his oldest child , Rufus ( 1727 @-@ 1813 ) , who married first on October 18 , 1747 Abigail Angell , a great granddaughter of Thomas Angell who was one of five men who came with Roger Williams to found Providence . Rufus married second Sarah Olney . John ( 1728 @-@ 1753 ) married a cousin , Mary Gibbs , and died of smallpox at St. Andrews , Spain . His wife was a daughter of Robert and Amey ( Whipple ) Gibbs , a granddaughter of wealthy Providence merchant Joseph Whipple , and a great granddaughter of early Providence settler John Whipple . Ruth died in infancy in 1731 , and Lydia ( 1733 @-@ after 1785 ) married Daniel Tillinghast , a great @-@ grandson of early Providence Baptist minister Pardon Tillinghast . Sylvanus , ( 1734 @-@ 1753 ) was killed by Indians at St. Peter 's Island in Cape Breton , Nova Scotia . Simon ( 1736 @-@ 1743 ) died as a boy , and George ( born in 1739 ) married Ruth Smith , the daughter of his father 's second wife .
= = Ancestry = =
Most of this ancestry of Stephen Hopkins comes from John O. Austin 's Genealogical Dictionary of Rhode Island . Hopkins descends from King Edward I of England through his mother and her great grandmother Mary Conyers .
|
= Crater Lake =
Crater Lake ( Klamath : giiwas ) is a caldera lake in the western United States , located in south @-@ central Oregon . It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is famous for its deep blue color and water clarity . The lake partly fills a nearly 2 @,@ 148 @-@ foot ( 655 m ) -deep caldera that was formed around 7 @,@ 700 ( ± 150 ) years ago by the collapse of the volcano Mount Mazama . There are no rivers flowing into or out of the lake ; the evaporation is compensated for by rain and snowfall at a rate such that the total amount of water is replaced every 250 years . With a depth of 1 @,@ 949 feet ( 594 m ) , the lake is the deepest in the United States . In the world , it ranks tenth for maximum depth , and third for mean ( average ) depth .
Crater Lake is also known for the " Old Man of the Lake " , a full @-@ sized tree which is now a stump that has been bobbing vertically in the lake for over a century . The low temperature of the water has slowed the decomposition of the wood , hence the longevity of the bobbing tree .
Two islands are in Crater Lake : Wizard Island , formed from a cinder cone that erupted after Crater Lake began to fill with water , and the smaller Phantom Ship , which has seven trees living on it . There are also colonies of violet @-@ green swallows and several varieties of wildflowers and lichens living there .
While having no indigenous fish population , the lake was stocked from 1888 to 1941 with a variety of fish . Several species have formed self @-@ sustaining populations . Since 2002 , one of the state 's regular @-@ issue license plate designs has featured Crater Lake . The commemorative Oregon State Quarter , which was released by the United States Mint in 2005 , features an image of Crater Lake on its reverse .
= = Location = =
Crater Lake is located in Klamath County , approximately 60 miles ( 97 km ) northwest of the county seat of Klamath Falls , and about 80 miles ( 130 km ) northeast of the city of Medford .
In June 1853 , John Wesley Hillman became the first non @-@ Native American explorer to report sighting the lake he named the " Deep Blue Lake . " The lake was renamed at least three times , as Blue Lake , Lake Majesty , and finally Crater Lake .
= = Dimensions and depth = =
The lake is 5 by 6 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 by 9 @.@ 7 km ) across , with a caldera rim ranging in elevation from 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 400 m ) and an average lake depth of 1 @,@ 148 feet ( 350 m ) . The lake 's maximum depth has been measured at 1 @,@ 949 feet ( 594 m ) , which fluctuates slightly as the weather changes . On the basis of maximum depth , Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States , the second deepest in North America ( after Great Slave Lake in Canada ) , and the tenth deepest lake in the world ( Lake Baikal is the deepest ) . Crater Lake is often cited as the seventh deepest lake in the world , but this ranking excludes Lake Vostok in Antarctica , which is situated under about 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) of ice , and the recent soundings of O 'Higgins / San Martín Lake , which is located on the border of Chile and Argentina .
When considering the mean , or average depth of lakes , Crater Lake becomes the deepest lake in the Western Hemisphere and the third deepest in the world . Crater Lake Institute Director and limnologist Owen Hoffman states " Crater Lake is the deepest , when compared on the basis of average depth among lakes whose basins are entirely above sea level . The average depths of Lakes Baikal and Tanganyika are deeper than Crater Lake ; however , both have basins that extend below sea level . "
= = Geology = =
Mount Mazama , part of the Cascade Range volcanic arc , was built up mostly of andesite , dacite , and rhyodacite over a period of at least 400 @,@ 000 years . The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption between 6 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama . About 50 cubic kilometers ( 12 cu mi ) of rhyodacite was erupted in this event . Since that time , all eruptions on Mazama have been confined to the caldera .
Lava eruptions later created a central platform , Wizard Island , Merriam Cone , and other , smaller volcanic features , including a rhyodacite dome that was eventually created atop the central platform . Sediments and landslide debris also covered the caldera floor .
Eventually , the caldera cooled , allowing rain and snow to accumulate and form a lake . Landslides from the caldera rim thereafter formed debris fans and turbidite sediments on the lake bed . Fumaroles and hot springs remained common and active during this period . Also after some time , the slopes of the lake 's caldera rim more or less stabilized , streams restored a radial drainage pattern on the mountain , and dense forests began to revegetate the barren landscape . It is estimated that about 720 years was required to fill the lake to its present depth of 594 m ( 1 @,@ 949 ft ) . Much of this occurred during a period when the prevailing climate was less moist than at present .
Some hydrothermal activity remains along the lake floor , suggesting that at some time in the future Mazama may erupt once again .
= = Climate = =
Crater Lake is a subalpine climate , with the extremely rare Köppen classification Dsc owing to its high elevation and – like all of Oregon – the strong summer influence of the North Pacific High . In the summer , the weather is mild and dry , but in the winter is cold and the powerful influence of the Aleutian Low allows for enormous snowfalls averaging 488 inches ( 12 @.@ 40 m ) per year and maximum snow cover averaging 139 inches or 3 @.@ 53 meters . This snow does not usually melt until mid @-@ July , and allows for substantial glaciers on adjacent mountains . In the winter of 1949 / 1950 as much as 885 @.@ 1 inches ( 22 @.@ 48 m ) of snow fell , whilst the less complete snow cover records show cover as high as 192 inches or 4 @.@ 88 meters occurred during another particularly unsettled winter in 1981 / 1982 . The heaviest daily snowfall was 37 @.@ 0 inches ( 94 @.@ 0 cm ) , which occurred as recently as February 28 , 1971 ; 20 in ( 51 cm ) or more in one storm has occurred in both June and September . Hard frost is possible even into the summer , and the average window for freezing temperatures is August 19 through July 7 , while for measurable ( ≥ 0 @.@ 1 inches or 0 @.@ 25 centimeters ) snowfall , October 1 through June 15 .
= = Water quality = =
Due to several unique factors , mainly that the lake has no inlets or tributaries , the waters of Crater Lake are some of the purest in the world because of the absence of pollutants . Clarity readings from a Secchi disk have consistently been in the high @-@ 30 meter to mid @-@ 20 meter ( 80 to 115 @-@ foot ) range , which is very clear for any natural body of water . In 1997 , scientists recorded a record clarity of 53 @.@ 3 m ( 175 ft ) .
The lake has relatively high levels of dissolved salts , total alkalinity , and conductivity . The average pH has generally ranged between 7 and 8 .
= = Sacred significance = =
The Klamath tribe of Native Americans , whose ancestors may have witnessed the collapse of Mount Mazama and the formation of Crater Lake , have long regarded the lake as a sacred site . Their legends tell of a battle between the sky god Skell and the god of the underworld Llao . Mount Mazama was destroyed in the battle , creating Crater Lake , called giiwas in the Klamath language . The Klamath people used Crater Lake in vision quests , which often involved climbing the caldera walls and other dangerous tasks . Those who were successful in such quests were often regarded as having more spiritual powers . The tribe still holds Crater Lake in high regard as a spiritual site .
|
= Walls of Dubrovnik =
The Walls of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Dubrovačke gradske zidine ) are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the citizens of the afterward proclaimed maritime city @-@ state of Dubrovnik ( Ragusa ) , situated in southern Croatia , since the city 's founding prior to the 7th century as a Byzantium castrum on a rocky island named Laus ( Ragusia or Lave ) . With numerous additions and modifications throughout their history , they have been considered to be amongst the great fortification systems of the Middle Ages , as they were never breached by a hostile army during this time period . In 1979 , the old city of Dubrovnik , which includes a substantial portion of the old walls of Dubrovnik , joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites .
The oldest systems of fortifications around the town were likely wooden palisades . Today 's intact city walls , constructed mainly during the 12th – 17th centuries , mostly a double line , have long been a source of pride for Dubrovnik . The walls run an uninterrupted course of approximately 1 @,@ 940 metres ( 6 @,@ 360 ft ) in length , encircling most of the old city , and reach a maximum height of about 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . The bulk of the existing walls and fortifications were constructed during the 14th and 15th centuries , but were continually extended and strengthened up until the 17th century .
This complex structure , amongst the largest and most complete in Europe , protected the freedom and safety of a " civilised " and " sophisticated " republic that flourished in peace and prosperity for some five centuries . The walls were reinforced by three circular and 14 quadrangular towers , five bastions ( bulwarks ) , two angular fortifications and the large St. John 's Fortress . Land walls were additionally reinforced by one larger bastion and nine smaller semicircular ones , like the casemate Fort Bokar , the oldest preserved fort of that kind in Europe . The moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls , which were armed by more than 120 cannons , provided superb city defense capabilities .
= = Former city walls = =
The construction of the first limestone forts around the city began in the Early Middle Ages , towards the end of the 8th century . But , the " old chronicles " say that some sort of castle reliably existed on the Lave peninsula quite a long time prior to that . It is certain that the early town on Laus Island was also surrounded by defensive walls , probably mainly by wooden palisades . The fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long invasion by the Saracens in the 9th century proves how well the city was fortified .
The city first spread towards the uninhabited eastern part of the islet , which explains why the current name for the southeast part of the city , near St. John 's Fortress , is called Pustijerna . The name " Pustijerna " comes from the Latin statement " post terra " , which means " outside the town " . In the 9th and 10th centuries , the defensive wall enclosed the eastern portion of the city . When the sea channel separating the city from mainland was filled with earth in the 11th century , the city merged with the settlement on land , and soon , a single wall was built around the area of the present @-@ day city core .
During this same time period , Dubrovnik and the surrounding area were described as a part of the Croatian ( Grwasiah ) entity , in one of the works by the famous Arab geographer Muhammad al @-@ Idrisi . In his book Nuzhat al @-@ Mushataq fi ikhtiraq al @-@ afaq ( English : Joy for those who wish to sail over the world ) from 1154 , he mentioned Dubrovnik as the southernmost city of " the country of Croatia and Dalmatia " .
The basic city plan dates from 1292 , when the port was rebuilt following a fire . The whole city was entirely enclosed in the 13th century , except for the Dominican monastery , which came under its protection later on , during the 14th century .
= = Modern @-@ day city walls = =
The city walls have been preserved to the present day , not only because of the knowledge of the skilled construction workers and the constant care provided by city dwellers that maintained and rebuilt the structures as needed , but also because of the brilliantly reputed diplomacy in Ragusa , which managed on many occasions to avoid dangerous measures taken by enemies against the Republic of Ragusa .
The present shape of the walls was defined in the 14th century after the city gained its full independence from Venetian suzerainty , but the peak of its construction lasted from the beginning of the 15th century until the latter half of the 16th century . Being constructed very solidly , the walls were generally unaffected by a strong earthquake occurring in 1667 . The largest stimulus for continued development and emergency repairs and works of the Ragusan fortresses came as a result of the danger of unexpected attack by Turkish military forces , especially after they conquered Constantinople in 1453 . The city was also under latent danger of attack by the Venetians . For centuries the people of Dubrovnik were able to preserve their city @-@ republic by skillful maneuvering between East and West . A strategic treaty with Turkey protracted Ragusa ’ s liberty and maintained the opportunity for a major trading role between the Ottoman Empire and Europe .
The irregular parallelogram surrounding Dubrovnik consists of four strong fortresses at its most significant points . To the north is the strong circular Minčeta Tower , and to the east side of the city port is the Revelin Fortress . The western city entrance is protected by the strong and nicely @-@ shaped Fort Bokar , and the strong , freestanding , St. Lawrence Fortress ( also known as Lovrijenac ) , protects the western side of the city from possible land and sea assaults . The large and complex St. John Fortress is located on the southeast side of the city .
= = = Land Walls = = =
The main wall on the landside is 4 metres ( 13 ft ) to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) thick , and , at certain locations , the walls reach up to 25 meters ( 80 feet ) in height . The land walls stretch from Fort Bokar in the west to the detached Revelin Fortress in the east . On the landside , the wall is protected with an additional range of slanted supporting walls as defense against artillery fire , especially against possible Ottoman attacks .
= = = = Gates = = = =
The town has four city gates : two that lead to the harbor and two ( with drawbridges ) that lead to the mainland . During the time period when the Austrian Empire controlled the city , two more gates were opened in the wall .
Communication with the outside world on the land side was maintained with the city through two main well @-@ protected city gates , one placed on the western side of the city and the other placed on the eastern side . These entrances were constructed so that communications with the city could not be carried out directly ; the messenger had to enter through multiple doors and walk down a winding passageway , which is evidence of the security measures taken as a last defense against the possibility of a surprise breach or entrance of unexpected visitors .
= = = = = Gate of Pile = = = = =
The Pile Gates are a well @-@ fortified complex with multiple doors , defended by Fort Bokar and the moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls . At the entrance gate to the Old Town , on the western side of the land walls , there is a stone bridge between two Gothic arches , which were designed by the esteemed architect Paskoje Miličević in 1471 . That bridge connects to another bridge , a wooden drawbridge which can be pulled up . During the republican era , the wooden drawbridge to the Pile Gate was hoisted each night with considerable pomp in a ceremony which delivered the city 's keys to the Ragusan rector . Today , it spans a dry moat whose garden offers respite from crowds . Above the bridges , over the arch of town 's principal gateway , there is a statue of city patron Saint Blaise ( Croatian : Sveti Vlaho ) , with a model of the Renaissance city . After passing the Pile Gate 's original Gothic inner gateway , it is possible to reach one of a three access points to the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ploče = = = = =
On the eastern side of the land walls stands the second major entrance to the city , the Gate of Ploče . This gate is protected by the freestanding Revelin Fortress , which are connected by a wooden drawbridge and a twin @-@ spanned stone bridge spanning a protective ditch . The Outer Gate of Ploče was designed and constructed by architect Mihajlo Hranjac in 1628 , while the two bridges to the Revelin Fortress were built in the 15th century by Paskoje Miličević . Miličević was also designed the Pile Gate bridges , which explains the similarities between the bridges . Over the bridge , just like with the Gate of Pile , there is the statue of Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik .
= = = = = Gate of Buža = = = = =
The Gate of Buža ( meaning " hole " ) is located on the northern side of the land walls . This gate is relatively new compared to the other gates , as it was constructed during the early 1900s .
= = = Sea Walls = = =
The main wall on the sea @-@ facing side of Dubrovnik stretches from Fort Bokar in the west to St. John Fortress in the south , and to the Revelin Fortress on the land @-@ side . These walls are 1 @.@ 5 to 5 meters ( 5 – 16 feet ) thick , depending on their location and its strategic importance . The purpose of these walls were to help defend the city from sea @-@ based attacks , particularly from the Republic of Venice , which was often considered a threat to Dubrovnik 's safety .
= = = = City Harbour = = = =
One of the oldest sectors of Dubrovnik was constructed around a Late Antique castle by the sea , which stretched landwards a bit more than it does today . It was constructed on the site of the Pre @-@ Romanesque cathedral and the Rector 's Palace , thus encircling the city 's harbour . The harbour was designed and constructed by engineer Paskoje Miličević in the late 15th century . Notably , the harbour was noticeably painted on the palm of St. Blaise in a triptych painted by the artist Nikola Božidarević around 1500 .
The most prominent portion of the harbour is the three enormous arches ( the fourth original arch was walled in ) of a large arsenal built in the late 12th century and enlarged in the latter part 15th century . The harbour is also the oldest shipyard within the city and is still in use today .
Porporela was built in 1873 , next to St. John Fortress . The Kase jetty ( Kaše Breakwater ) was built in 1485 , according to the design of Paskoje Miličević , in order to defend the harbour and protect it from south @-@ eastern winds and waves . The breakwater thus shortened the harbour 's bulky chain stretched in the night from the St. John Fortress to St. Luke 's tower . It was constructed of huge stone blocks laid over wooden foundations without binder .
Today , the arsenal hosts the City Café and a movie theatre , whereas both the harbour and Porporela have become pleasant promenades and tourist attractions .
= = = = Gates = = = =
In the city port area , one of the most significant areas of the maritime trade city , there were two entrances : the Gate of Ponte ( port ) and the Fishmarket Gate . The entire layout of the Dubrovnik streets , as well as a range of expansions , was intended for fast and effective communication with the forts of the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ponte = = = = =
Constructed in 1476 , the Gate of Ponte is situated westwards from the Great Arsenal . The city wall , built at the same period , leads from the Gate to St. John Fortress . The present @-@ day street of Damjan Juda was formed in the 15th century when the sewage system was completed , and building houses against the western city wall was no longer allowed .
= = = = = The Fishmarket Gate = = = = =
The Fishmarket Gate , built in 1381 , stands eastward from the Great Arsenal . The three arches of the 15th century Small Arsenal , where small boats were repaired , are situated a bit further . The old tower of St. Luke 's protects the harbour in the east , and the harbour entrance is encircled and guarded by the Revelin Fortress .
= = Forts = =
= = = Forts within walls = = =
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottomans was a clear sign to the cautious citizens of Dubrovnik that ample defensive measures were quickly needed , the strengthening of its defensive structures the foremost of the issues . The fall of Bosnia , which followed soon in 1463 , only hastened the works . As a result , the Republic invited the architect Michelozzo di Bartolomeo of Florence to direct the improvement of the city 's defenses . His work in Dubrovnik resulted in the construction and expansion of numerous buildings of key importance for the defense of Dubrovnik .
= = = = Minčeta Tower = = = =
The Minčeta Tower was built by a local builder named Nicifor Ranjina and Italian engineers sent by Pope Pius II in 1463 , at the height of the Turkish threat . Originally as a strong four @-@ sided fort , it is the most prominent point in the defensive system towards the land . The tower 's name derives from the name of the Menčetić family , who owned the ground upon which the tower was built . By its height and impressive volume , the tower dominates the northwestern high part of the city and its walls . In the middle of the 15th century , around the earlier quadrilateral fort , Michelozzo built a new round tower using new warfare technique and joined it to the new system of low scarp walls . The full six @-@ meter ( 20 feet ) thick walls of the new tower had a series of protected gun ports . The architect and sculptor Giorgio da Sebenico of Zadar continued the work on the Minčeta tower . He designed and built the high narrow round tower while the battlements are a later addition . The tower was completed in 1464 and became the symbol of the unconquerable city of Dubrovnik .
After a long excavation , a 16th @-@ century cannon foundry was discovered under Minčeta Tower in Gornji ugao ( Upper Tower ) . It is now a museum .
Since Minčeta Tower is the highest point of the wall , it is considered to offer a seemingly " unforgettable " view on the city .
= = = = Fort Bokar = = = =
The Fort Bokar , often called " Zvjezdan " , is considered to be amongst the most beautiful instances of harmonious and functional fortification architecture . Built as a two @-@ story casemate fortress by Michelozzo from 1461 to 1463 , while the city walls were being reconstructed , it stands in front of the medieval wall face protruding into space almost with its whole cylindrical volume . It was conceived as the key point in the defense of the Pila Gate , the western fortified entrance of the city ; and after the Minčeta Tower , it is the second key point in the defense of the western land approach to the city . It is said to be the oldest casemented fortress in Europe , which contains a small lapidary collection and numerous cannons .
= = = = St. John Fortress = = = =
The St. John Fortress ( Croatian : Sveti Ivan ) , often called Mulo Tower , is a complex monumental building on the southeastern side of the old city port , controlling and protecting its entrance . The first fort was built in the mid 14th century , but it was modified on several occasions in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries , which can be seen in the triptych made by the painter Nikola Božidarević in the Dominican monastery . The painting shows Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik . Dominant in the port ambiance , the St. John Fortress prevented access of pirates and other enemy ships . Always cautious at the first sign of danger , the inhabitants of Dubrovnik used to close the entry into the port with heavy chains stretched between the St. John Fortress and the Kase jetty , and they also used to wall up all the port entries to the Great Arsenal .
Today , the fortress houses an aquarium on the ground floor , stocked with fishes from various parts of the Adriatic Sea . On the upper floors there is an ethnographic and a maritime museum devoted to the Republic Maritime Period , the Age of Steam , the Second World War , and the section of techniques of sailing and navigation .
= = = Detached forts = = =
= = = = Revelin Fortress = = = =
In the period of unmistakable Turkish danger and the fall of Bosnia under Turkish rule , a detached fortress providing additional protection to the land approach to the eastern Ploče Gate was built to the east of the city in 1462 . The name Revelin derives from rivelino ( ravelin ) , a term in military architecture which refers to work built opposite the city gate in order to afford better protection from enemy attack . Danger of Venetian assault suddenly increased in the times of the First Holy League , and it was necessary to strengthen this vulnerable point of the city fortifications . The Senate hired Antonio Ferramolino , an experienced builder of fortresses in the service of the Spanish admiral Doria , a trusted friend of the Republic . In 1538 the Senate approved his drawings of the new , much stronger Revelin Fortress . It took 11 years to build it , and during that time all other construction work in the city had stopped in order to finish this fortress as soon as possible .
The new Revelin became the strongest of the city fortresses , safeguarding the eastern land approach to the city . Shaped in the form of an irregular quadrilateral with one of its sides descending towards the sea , it is protected by a deep ditch on the other . One bridge crosses the protective ditch and connects it to the Ploče Gate , while another bridge connects it to the eastern suburb . The construction work was executed so perfectly so that the devastating earthquake of 1667 did not damage Revelin . Divided into three large vaulted rooms in its interior , Revelin became the administrative center of the Republic .
= = = = St. Lawrence Fortress = = = =
St. Lawrence Fortress ( Croatian : Lovrijenac ) , often called Dubrovnik 's Gibraltar , is located outside the western city walls , 37 metres ( 121 ft ) above sea level . The fortress has a quadrilateral court with mighty arches and , as its height is uneven , it has 3 terraces with powerful parapets with the broadest one looking south towards the sea . Lovrijenac was defended with 10 large cannons , being the largest and most famous called " Lizard " ( Croatian : Gušter ) . The walls exposed to enemy fire are almost 12 meters ( 39 feet ) thick , but the large wall surface facing the city does not exceed 60 centimetres ( 2 feet ) . Two drawbridges lead to the fort , there being the inscription " Non Bene Pro Toto Libertas Venditur Auro " – " Freedom is not to be sold for all the treasures in the world . " above the gate . To ensure loyalty , the troops in St. Lawrence Fortress were rotated every 30 days . And to ensure complete loyalty , they were given only 30 days of rations when they went into the fort . According to old scripts it was built in only three months .
Today its interior is one of the most dignified stages in Europe , and a well @-@ known place for William Shakespeare 's Hamlet performances .
= = Fortifications around Dubrovnik = =
= = = Walls of Ston = = =
The Walls of Ston are originally a series of defensive stone walls of more than 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Despite its small size , the well protected Republic of Ragusa decided to use Pelješac to build another line of defense . At Pelješac 's narrowest point , just before joining the mainland , a wall from Ston to Mali Ston was built .
Today 's 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long wall that links these two small communities has the shape of a pentagon . It was completed in the 15th century along with other 40 towers and 5 fortresses . The " wall " meant protection to the precious salt pans that greatly contributed to Dubrovnik 's wealth , which are still being worked today . It is the second longest wall in Europe , surpassed only by the Hadrian 's Wall between Scotland and England .
= = = Falcon Fortress = = =
The Falcon Fortress ( Croatian : Soko Grad ) was one of the largest and most important fortresses on the territory of the Republic of Ragusa , due to its position in the mountainous region near the Bosnian inland . It was built at the location of earlier Illyrian and later Roman fortifications , evident from the remains of ceramics and Roman bricks in its walls . In 1391 , the Sanković brothers , at that time the rulers of Konavle , gave to the Republic of Rag full authority over the Falcon Fortress , while it came under republic 's final possession only in 1423 .
Due to its strategic importance , the Republic of Ragusa constantly invested in the maintenance of the fortress , which contained a cistern , a powder storage , wine and food cellars , sentry @-@ boxes , military barracks , and sanctuary buildings to accommodate refugees from nearby villages in the event of war .
= = = Imperial Fortress = = =
The Fortress is placed at the top of the mountain Srđ , just above the city of Dubrovnik . It was built in 1806 by Marshal Marmont , called the Imperial , in honor of emperor Napoleon . The fortress was strategically important to defend the northern side of the city .
= = = Prevlaka Fortress = = =
This fortress is placed at Ponta Oštro , at the very end of Prevlaka peninsula . It was built in the mid @-@ 19th century , between 1856 and 1862 , as part of the fortification system of the Bay of Kotor at the time of the Austrian Empire . By its monumentality and unique structure , it presents an exceptional example of military architecture of its time . Today , the fortress is out of use and badly damaged by various destructions during history .
= = City walls during sieges = =
= = = Saracen siege in 866 – 867 = = =
In 866 , a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor , and then laid siege to Dubrovnik in 867 . The city appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian , who responded by sending over one hundred ships . Finally , the 866 – 867 Saracens ' siege of Dubrovnik , which lasted fifteen months , was raised due to the intervention of Basil I , who sent a fleet under the command of Niketas Oryphas in relief of the city . After this successful intervention , the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities . The damage done by Saracens is not known , but the fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long siege , proves how well the city was fortified .
= = = Venetian siege in 948 = = =
With the weakening of Byzantium , Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival who needed to be brought under her control , but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed . The citizens of the city attributed this to Saint Blaise , whom they adopted as the patron saint of the city .
= = = Nemanja 's siege in 1185 = = =
After some territorial disputes , war broke out between Stefan Nemanja , Grand prince of Raška , and the city of Dubrovnik , at that time under Norman suzerainty . In 1185 , Nemanja attacked the city and laid siege to it , but a Ragusan counter @-@ attack drove Nemanja 's forces back . According to chronicles from Dubrovnik , which are accepted by most historians , the siege ultimately failed . How much help Dubrovnik received from the Normans while repelling the siege is also not known exactly .
= = = Venetian and Fourth Crusades siege in 1205 = = =
In 1205 , the Republic of Venice invaded Dalmatia with the forces of the Fourth Crusade . Ragusa was forced to pay a tribute , eventually becoming a source of supplies for Venice , thus saving itself from being sacked like Zadar in the Siege of Zara , used as Venice 's naval base in the southern Adriatic Sea . In the 14th century , after liberation from Venetian supremacy , extensive work was done on the walls to ensure the republic 's liberty .
= = = Siege by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača in 1451 = = =
In 1451 , the very powerful Bosnian regional lord Herzeg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača attacked Dubrovnik , and laid siege to the city . He had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman and , consequently , the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor . A reward of 15 @,@ 000 ducats , a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2 @,@ 000 ducats , and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him , along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed . Stjepan was so scared by the threat that he finally raised the siege .
= = = Russian siege in 1806 = = =
By 1800 , the Republic had a highly organized network of consulates and consular offices in more than eighty cities and ports around the world . In 1806 , the Republic surrendered to the forces of the First French Empire to end a months @-@ long siege by the Russian and Montenegrin fleet during which 3 @,@ 000 cannonballs fell on the city . The French lifted the siege and Ragusa was saved . The French army , led by Napoleon Bonaparte , entered Dubrovnik in 1806 . In 1808 , Marshal Auguste de Marmont abolished the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamated its territory into the French Illyrian Provinces , himself becoming the " Duke of Ragusa " ( Duc de Raguse ) .
= = = Anglo @-@ Austrian siege in 1814 = = =
Austria declared war on France in August 1813 and by the Autumn the Royal Navy enjoyed unopposed domination over the Adriatic sea . Working in conjunction with the Austrian armies now invading the Illyrian Provinces and Northern Italy Rear Admiral Thomas Fremantle 's ships were able to rapidly transport British and Austrian troops from one point to another , forcing the surrender of the strategic ports one after another December . Captain William Hoste with his ship HMS Bacchante ( 38 guns ) along with HMS Saracen an 18 gun brig , arrived at Ragusa already blockaded by Pro Austrian Croat forces led by Todor Milutinović . The British with the Austrians were able to take the Imperial fortress and positions on Lokrum island . By hauling cannon up to Srđ hill they bombarded the city until the French General Joseph de Montrichard decided it was best to surrender . British and Croat troops entered the city via the Pile gates shutting the Ragusan rebels out .
= = = Yugoslav army siege in 1991 – 1992 = = =
The Siege of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Opsada Dubrovnika ) is a term marking the battle and siege of the city of Dubrovnik and the surrounding area in Croatia as part of the Croatian War of Independence . Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked by forces of the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in late 1991 , with the major fighting ending in early 1992 , and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid @-@ 1992 . At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , the prosecution alleged that , " It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro . "
In 1991 , the American Institute of Architects condemned the bombardment of the city 's buildings . The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments , in conjunction with UNESCO , found that , of the 824 buildings in the Old Town , 563 ( or 68 @.@ 33 percent ) had been hit by projectiles during the siege . Of these 563 , nine buildings had been completely destroyed by one of several major fires that occurred during the siege . In 1993 , the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public , private , and religious buildings , streets , squares , fountains , ramparts , gates , and bridges at $ 9 @,@ 657 @,@ 578 . By the end of 1999 , over $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 had been spent on restoration . It is a testament to the resilience of the ancient walls that more buildings in the old town were not destroyed during the bombardment ; the ancient walls in fact were more effective at resisting modern weaponry than contemporary structures in the city 's periphery .
= = Main sources = =
|
= Okapi =
The okapi / oʊˈkɑːpiː / ( Okapia johnstoni ) , is a giraffid artiodactyl mammal native to the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa . Although the okapi bears striped markings reminiscent of zebras , it is most closely related to the giraffe . The okapi and the giraffe are the only living members of the family Giraffidae . The okapi stands about 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) tall at the shoulder and has an average body length of about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . Its weight ranges from 200 to 350 kg ( 440 to 770 lb ) . It has a long neck , and large , flexible ears . Its coat is a chocolate to reddish brown , much in contrast with the white horizontal stripes and rings on the legs and white ankles . Male okapis have short , hair @-@ covered horns called ossicones , less than 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length . Females possess hair whorls , and ossicones are absent .
Okapis are primarily diurnal but may be active for a few hours in darkness . They are essentially solitary , coming together only to breed . Okapis are herbivores , feeding on tree leaves and buds , grasses , ferns , fruits , and fungi . Rut in males and estrus in females does not depend on the season . In captivity , estrous cycles recur every 15 days . The gestational period is around 440 to 450 days long , following which usually a single calf is born . The juveniles are kept in hiding , and nursing takes place infrequently . Juveniles start taking solid food from three months , and weaning takes place at six months .
Okapis inhabit canopy forests at altitudes of 500 – 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . They are endemic to the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo , where they occur across the central , northern and eastern regions . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies the okapi as Endangered . Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement . Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to a decline in populations . The Okapi Conservation Project was established in 1987 to protect okapi populations .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the okapi is Okapia johnstoni . It was first described by British zoologist Ray Lankester in 1901 . The generic name Okapia derives from the Lese Karo name o 'api , while the specific name ( johnstoni ) is in recognition of the British Governor of Uganda , Sir Harry Johnston , who first acquired an okapi specimen for science from the Ituri Forest while repatriating a group of Pygmies to the Belgian Congo . The animal was brought to prominent European attention by speculation on its existence found in press reports covering Henry Morton Stanley 's journeys in 1887 . Remains of a carcass were later sent to London by the English adventurer and colonial administrator Harry Johnston and became a media event in 1901 .
In 1901 , zoologist Philip Sclater presented a painting of the okapi before the Zoological Society of London that depicted its physical features with some clarity . There was much confusion regarding the taxonomical status of this newly discovered animal . Sir Harry Johnston himself called it a Helladotherium , or a relative of other extinct giraffids . Based on the description of the okapi by Pygmies , who referred to it as a " horse " , Sclater named the species Equus johnstoni . Subsequently , Lankester declared that the okapi represented an unknown genus of Giraffidae , which he placed in its own genus Okapia , and assigned the name Okapia johnstoni to the species .
In 1902 , Swiss zoologist Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major suggested the inclusion of O. johnstoni in the extinct giraffid subfamily Palaeotraginae . However , the species was placed in its own subfamily Okapiinae , by Swedish palaeontologist Birger Bohlin in 1926 , mainly due to the lack of a cingulum , a major feature of the palaeotragids . In 1986 , Okapia was finally established as a sister genus of Giraffa on the basis of cladistic analysis . The two genera together with Palaeotragus constitute the tribe Giraffini .
= = = Evolution = = =
The earliest members of Giraffidae first appeared in the Early Miocene in Africa , having diverged from the superficially deer @-@ like climacoceratids . Giraffids spread into Europe and Asia by the middle Miocene in a first radiation . Another radiation began in the Pliocene but was terminated by a decline in diversity in the Pleistocene . Several important primitive giraffids existed more or less contemporaneously in the Miocene ( 23 @-@ 10 million years ago ) , including Canthumeryx , Giraffokeryx , Palaeotragus and Samotherium . According to palaeontologist and author Kathleen Hunt , Samotherium split into Okapia ( 18 million years ago ) and Giraffa ( 12 million years ago ) . However , another author J. D. Skinner argued that Canthumeryx gave rise to the okapi and giraffe through the latter three genera and that the okapi is the extant form of Palaeotragus . The okapi is sometimes referred to as an example of a living fossil , as it has existed as a species over a long geological time period , and morphologically resembles more primitive forms ( e.g. Samotherium ) .
A study published in 2016 found that the common ancestor of giraffe and okapi lived about 11 @.@ 5 million years ago .
= = Characteristics = =
The okapi is a medium @-@ sized giraffid , standing 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) tall at the shoulder . Its average body length is about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) and its weight ranges from 200 to 350 kg ( 440 to 770 lb ) . It has a long neck , and large and flexible ears . The coat is a chocolate to reddish brown , much in contrast with the white horizontal stripes and rings on the legs and white ankles . The striking stripes make it resemble a zebra . These features serve as an effective camouflage amidst dense vegetation . The face , throat and chest are greyish white . Interdigital glands are present on all four feet , and are slightly larger on the front feet . Male okapis have short , hair @-@ covered horns called ossicones , less than 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length . The okapi exhibits sexual dimorphism , with females 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) taller on average , slightly redder and lacking prominent horns , instead possessing hair whorls .
The okapi shows several adaptations to its tropical habitat . The large number of rod cells in the retina facilitate night vision , and there is an efficient olfactory system . The large auditory bullae lead to a strong sense of hearing . The dental formula of the okapi is 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 . Teeth are low @-@ crowned , fine @-@ cusped and efficiently cut tender foliage . The large caecum and colon help in microbial digestion , and a quick rate of food passage allows for lower cell wall digestion than in other ruminants .
The okapi can be easily distinguished from its nearest extant relative , the giraffe . It is much smaller and shares more external similarities with the deer and bovids than with the giraffe . While both sexes possess horns in the giraffe , only males bear horns in the okapi . The okapi has large palatine sinuses , unique among the giraffids . Morphological similarities shared between the giraffe and the okapi include a similar gait - both use a pacing gait , stepping simultaneously with the front and the hind leg on the same side of the body , unlike other ungulates that walk by moving alternate legs on either side of the body - and a long black tongue ( longer in the okapi ) useful in plucking buds and leaves as well as for grooming .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Okapis are primarily diurnal but may be active for a few hours in darkness . They are essentially solitary , coming together only to breed . They have overlapping home ranges and typically occur at densities of about 0 @.@ 6 animals per square kilometre . Male home ranges average 13 km2 ( 5 @.@ 0 sq mi ) while female home ranges average 3 – 5 km2 ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) . Males migrate continuously , while females are sedentary . Males often mark territories and bushes with their urine , while females use common defecation sites . Grooming is a common practice , focused at the earlobes and the neck . Okapis often rub their neck against trees , leaving a brown exudate .
The male is protective of his territory , but allows females to pass through the domain to forage . Males visit female home ranges at the time of breeding . Although generally tranquil , the okapi can kick and butt with its head to show aggression . As the vocal cords are poorly developed , vocal communication is mainly restricted to three sounds - " chuff " ( contact calls used by both sexes ) , " moan " ( by females during courtship ) and " bleat " ( by infants under stress ) . Individuals may engage in Flehmen response , a visual expression in which the animals curls back its upper lips , displays the teeth and inhales through the mouth for a few seconds . The leopard is the main predator of the okapi .
= = = Diet = = =
Okapis are herbivores , feeding on tree leaves and buds , grasses , ferns , fruits , and fungi . They prefer to feed in treefall gaps . The staple food comprises shrubs and lianas . The main constituents of the diet are woody , dicotyledonous species ; monocotyledonous plants are not eaten regularly . In the Ituri forest , the okapi feeds mainly upon the plant families Acanthaceae , Ebenaceae , Euphorbiaceae , Flacourtiaceae , Loganiaceae , Rubiaceae and Violaceae .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Female okapis become sexually mature when about one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year old , while males reach maturity after two years . Rut in males and estrus in females does not depend on the season . In captivity , estrus cycles recur every 15 days . The male and the female begin courtship by circling , smelling and licking each other . The male shows his dominance by extending his neck , tossing his head and protruding one leg forward . This is followed by mounting and copulation .
The gestational period is around 440 to 450 days long , following which usually a single calf is born , weighing 14 – 30 kg ( 31 – 66 lb ) . The udder of the pregnant female starts swelling two months before parturition , and vulval discharges may occur . Parturition takes 3 – 4 hours , and the female stands throughout this period , though she may rest during brief intervals . The mother consumes the afterbirth , and extensively grooms the infant . The milk of the female is very rich in proteins and has low fat content . As in other ruminants , the infant can stand within 30 minutes of birth . Although generally similar to adults , newborn calves have false eyelashes , a long dorsal mane and long white hairs in the stripes . These features gradually disappear and give way to the general appearance within a year . The juveniles are kept in hiding , and nursing takes place infrequently . The growth rate of calves is appreciably high in the first few months of birth , after which it gradually declines . Juveniles start taking solid food from three months , and weaning takes place at six months . Horn development in males takes one year after birth . The okapi 's average lifespan is 20 to 30 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Okapis inhabit canopy forests at altitudes of 500 – 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . They are endemic to the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . They do not occur in gallery forests , habitats disturbed by human settlement and swamp forests , but may occasionally use seasonally inundated areas . In the wet season , they visit rocky inselbergs that offer forage uncommon elsewhere . A study found that the population density of the okapi averaged 0 @.@ 53 animals per square kilometre in mixed Cynometera forests .
The okapi occurs across central , northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo , and north and east of the Congo river . The species ranges from the Maiko forest northward to the Ituri forest , then through the river basins of the Rubi , Lake Tele and Ebola to the west and the Ubangi river further north . Smaller populations exist west and south of the Congo river . They are also common in the Wamba and Epulu areas . The okapi is extinct in Uganda .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies the okapi as Endangered . It is fully protected under Congolese law . The Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Maiko National Park support significant populations of the okapi , though there has been a steady decline in numbers due to several threats . Other areas of occurrence are the Rubi Tele Hunting Reserve and the Abumombanzi Reserve . Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement . Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to population declines . A threat that has emerged quite recently is the presence of illegal armed groups around protected areas , inhibiting conservation and monitoring actions . A small population occurs north of the Virunga National Park , but is bereft of protection due to the presence of armed groups in the vicinity . In June 2012 , a gang of poachers attacked the headquarters of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve , killing six guards and other staff as well as 13 of the captive okapi .
The Okapi Conservation Project , established in 1987 , works towards the conservation of the okapi as well as the growth of the indigenous Mbuti people . In November 2011 , the White Oak Conservation center and Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens hosted an international meeting of the Okapi Species Survival Plan ( SSP ) and the Okapi European Endangered Species Programme ( EEP ) at Jacksonville , which was attended by representatives from zoos from the USA , Europe and Japan . The aim was to discuss the management of captive okapis and arrange support for okapi conservation . Many zoos in North America and Europe currently have okapis in captivity .
|
= Love in Several Masques =
Love in Several Masques , a play by Henry Fielding , was first performed on 16 February 1728 at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . The moderately received play comically depicts three lovers trying to pursue their individual beloveds . The beloveds require their lovers to meet their various demands , which serves as a means for Fielding to introduce his personal feelings on morality and virtue . In addition , Fielding introduces criticism of women and society in general .
The play marks Fielding 's early approach to theatre and how he begins to create his own take on tradition 18th @-@ century theatre conventions . Critics have emphasised little beyond how the play serves as Fielding 's first play among many . The possible sources of the play including a possible failed pursuit of a lover by Fielding , or the beginnings of Fielding 's reliance on the topic of gender , identity , and social ethics .
= = Background = =
Love in Several Masques was Fielding 's first play . It was advertised on 15 January 1728 in the London Evening Post and first ran on 16 February 1728 at the Theatre Royal . Performances were held on 17 , 19 and 20 February , with the third night being the author 's benefit . The play was never revived . The cast included four members among some of the most talented of the Theatre Royal actors . Although it only ran for four nights , this was a great feat because John Gay 's popular The Beggar 's Opera was performed during the same time and dominated the theatrical community during its run . It was first printed on 23 February 1728 by John Watts , and a Dublin edition appeared in 1728 . The play was later collected by John Watts in the 1742 and 1745 Dramatick Works and by Andrew Millar in the 1755 edition of Fielding 's works . It was later translated and printed in German as Lieb unter verschiedenen Larven in 1759 .
Most of the information on the play and its run is known because of Fielding 's preface in the printed edition of the play . The printed Love in Several Masques is dedicated " To the Right Honourable the Lady Mary Wortley Montague " , his cousin . It is probable that she read the original draft of the play , which is alluded to in the dedication . Information on her reading the draft comes from a letter written in approximately September 1727 . In the letter , Fielding writes :
I have presum 'd to send your Ladyship a Copy of the Play which you did me the Honor of reading three Acts of last spring : and hope it may meet as light a Censure from your Ladyship 's Judgment as then : for while your Goodness permits me ( what I esteem the greatest and indeed only Happiness of my Life ) to offer my unworthy Performances to your Perusal , it will be entirely from your Sentence that they will be regarded or disesteem 'd by Me .
The play was completed during September 1727 and it was listed in the British Journal of 23 September 1727 as being scheduled . There is little information on Fielding 's editing of the work , and none to support that anyone suggested corrections except Anne Oldfield , who he thanked in the Preface for supplying corrections . The prologue , dedication , and preface were probably composed during January or February 1728 , with the dedication and preface most likely composed between the last nights of the show , 20 and 21 February , and its publication , 23 February .
= = Cast = =
The cast according to the original printed billing :
Wisemore – lover of Lady Matchless , played by John Mills
Merital – lover of Helena , played by Robert Wilks
Malvil – lover of Vermilia , played by Bridgwater
Lord Formal – rival to Wisemore , played by Griffin
Rattle – fop and rival to Merital , played by Colley Cibber
Sir Apish Simple – rival to Malvil , played by Josias Miller
Lady Matchless – played by Anne Oldfield
Vermilia – played by Mrs Porter
Helena – played by Mrs Booth
Sir Positive Trap – husband of Lady Trap , care taker of Helena , played by John Harper
Lady Trap – played by Mrs. Moor
Catchit – maid to Lady Trap , played by Mrs. Mills
Prologue spoken by John Mills
Epilogue spoken by Miss Robinson , child actress
= = Plot = =
The plot is traditional in regards to Restoration theatre and includes three female characters , three respectable males , three non @-@ respectable males , and three side characters . Each respectable male meets their female counterpart three times , and each has a parallel incident with letters and an unmasking . The primary plot of the play deals with Wisemore and his pursuit of Lady Matchless . With the help of his friend Merital , Wisemore is able to overcome other lovers and various struggles in order to prove his worth to Matchless and win her love .
A secondary plot involves Merital and his desire to marry a woman named Helena , cousin to Matchless . He is kept from doing so externally by her uncle , Sir Positive Trap , by the workings of her aunt , and internally by themselves . Against her uncles wishes , Helena and Merital elope . Although Trap is angered by this , Lady Matchless steps in and defends the marriage by saying that she too will marry like her cousin . The play ends with a song about beauty , virtue , and lovers .
= = = Preface = = =
The printed version of the play included a self @-@ conscious preface :
I believe few plays have ever adventured into the world under greater disadvantage than this . First , as it succeeded a comedy which , for the continued space of twenty @-@ eight nights , received as great ( and as just ) applauses , as ever were bestowed on the English Theatre . And secondly , as it is co @-@ temporary with an entertainment which engrosses the whole talk and admiration of the town . These were difficulties which seemed rather to require the superior force of a Wycherley , or a Congreve , than of a raw and unexperienced pen ; for I believe I may boast that none ever appeared so early upon the stage . However , such was the candour of the audience , the play was received with greater satisfaction than I should have promised myself from its merit , had it even preceded the Provoked Husband .
He continued by thanking his cast , especially Anne Oldfield , for the effort that they put into their roles . This preface served as a model for Fielding 's later prefaces included in his novels , such as Joseph Andrews or Tom Jones .
= = Themes = =
Love in Several Masques is a traditional comic drama that incorporates morality . The theme of the play is the relationship of disguises and courtship with a discussion of the nature of love . Fielding focuses on men and how they deal with love and marriage . Also , the gentlemen must prove their worth before they can be justified in their marriage , which allows Fielding to describe the traits required in successful male suitors . The first act deals primarily with the gentlemen in order to establish a focus on their characteristics . Fielding 's first play serves as a representation for his belief in the relationship of morality and libertine beliefs and introduces character types that he would use throughout his plays and novels . However , all negative characteristics are very apparent to the audience , and those characters who are immoral are unable to accomplish their goals . The main characters are still decent individuals who are able to help another , even though they sometimes get in each other 's way . At no time is the audience able to believe that vice will conquer , which undermines part of the satire . Regardless , Harold Pagliaro is still able to conclude that " Fielding 's satire on the marriage market , however , is effective , if not biting . "
Wisemore 's character introduces feelings about the London community and criticises various problems . However , his reflections are portrayed as both correct and lacking , and that he is focused only on the bad aspects of life . His ideas result from removing himself from society in preference to the company of classical books . Although he does not realise it , the play suggests that there are virtuous people . Merital , in response to Wisemore , believes that Wisemore 's philosophical inclinations are foolish . As the play later reveals , Wisemore 's views are only a mask to hide from his own feelings and views on love .
Wisemore is not the only one to serve as a means to comment on society ; the characters Vermilia and Lady Matchless are used to discuss the proper role of females within society by serving as housewives . The dialogue between the two reveals that females are only in control of the domestic sphere because men have allowed them to dominate in the area . This is not to suggest that Fielding supports the repression of females ; instead , women are used as a way to discuss the internal aspects of humans including both emotions and morality . However , feminist critic Jill Campbell points out that Fielding does mock women who abuse their relationship with the internal , emotions , and morality in order to dominate and assume power . Tiffany Potter , another feminist critic , sees gender within the play in a different light ; Merital 's actions and words show a moderate approach to females , and " Women are neither victims of deceitful men nor overdefensive virgins , but individuals who can choose to ' bestow ' their favours on a man who will ' enjoy ' them . "
The image of the masque within the play deals with hiding one 's identity . Fielding , like many other playwrights , focuses on how the masque genre deals with the social acceptability of altering identities within the format . However , Fielding extends the image to discuss society and those who impersonate social and gender roles that they do not fill . Fielding also has a problem with those who act viciously with license even though he is willing to accept some of the lesser libertine actions . Merital , for instance , is a sexual type of libertine and is treated differently than those like Sir Positive Trap , Lord Formal , and Sir Apish Simple who are criticised as being part of the corrupted order . Trap and Formal are part of old families , and their attachment to the age of their families and their attempts to use that to justify their beliefs over what is proper is ridiculed within the play . In particular , Merital is the one able to point out their flaws .
= = Critical response = =
Love in Several Masques was " neither a success nor a fiasco " , and Fielding writes in the preface , " the Play was received with greater Satisfaction than I should have promised myself from its Merit " . The play was later quoted in The Beauties of Fielding more than any of Fielding 's other plays , according to Thomas Lockwood , " because for anthology reading purposes it supplied far more extractably witty bits than other Fielding plays more representative or still holding the stage . "
Eighteenth and nineteenth century critics did little to discuss the play . David Erskine Baker simply lists the play in Companion to the Playhouse ( 1764 ) , Charles Dibdin 's History of the Stage ( 1800 ) makes a short comment on the dialogue , and John Genest said that the play was " moderate " in Some Account of the English Stage ( 1832 ) . A page is devoted to Love in Several Masques in Edwin Percy Whipple 's review of a collection of Fielding 's works , which calls the play " a well @-@ written imitation " that has " smart and glib rather than witty " dialogue even though it contains " affected similes and ingenious comparisons , which the author forces into his dialogue to make it seem brilliant . " Frederick Lawrence , in his Life of Henry Fielding ( 1855 ) , connected the play with those of Congreve and enjoyed some of the dialogue .
Twentieth century critics tend to range in opinions on the play . F. Homes Dudden argues that " The dialogue is smart ; the plot , though insufficiently compact , is fairly ingenious ; the characters [ ... ] are conventional comic types [ ... ] It deserved what in fact it achieved — a qualified success . " Robert Hume believes that " The play is not , in truth , very good " , that " Fielding offers three minimally intertwined love plots " , and that the narrative is " clumsy " . However , Rivero believes that this characterisation is " unjust " and that the play deserves more merit . The play , as Rivero argues , " evinces what critics have identified as the quintessence of Fielding 's art : its clear moral purpose , its conspicuous moral tone . " Thomas Lockwood argues that the play " has been noticed mainly as it was Fielding 's first play , or else as the example of that imitation of Congrevean form which supposedly marked his beginning in dramatic authorship . Beyond these impressions of the play , there is no real tradition of critical discussion . " Pagliaro , one of Fielding 's biographers , simply states that " By the standards of the day , the play neither failed nor succeeded , running four nights as it did . "
|
= Worker policing =
Worker policing is a behavior seen in colonies of social hymenopterans ( ants , bees , and wasps ) whereby worker females eat or remove eggs that have been laid by other workers rather than those laid by a queen . Worker policing ensures that the offspring of the queen will predominate in the group . In certain species of bees , ants and wasps , workers or the queen may also act aggressively towards fertile workers . Worker policing has been suggested as a form of coercion to promote the evolution of altruistic behavior in eusocial insect societies .
Proposed mechanisms for the recognition of worker @-@ laid eggs or active reproductive workers include marker hydrocarbons on the surface of queen @-@ laid eggs , cuticle hydrocarbons on reproductive workers , and recognition of nest @-@ mates . In rare cases , worker @-@ laid eggs carry mimicked queen hydrocarbons and escape policing , a condition known as the anarchic syndrome .
Not all forms of policing require the presence of a queen ; it also occurs in a few species of ants which establish a dominance hierarchy of reproductive female workers , where top @-@ ranking individuals reproduce .
= = Evolutionary basis = =
In many social insect communities , sex is determined through haplodiploidy . Haploid male drones develop from unfertilized eggs while diploid females develop from fertilized eggs . Queens of a colony may mate with one or several drones . On average , a queen shares half of her genes with her sons , but only shares a quarter of her genes with the sons of fertile female workers . Therefore , it is in the queen 's best interests to have her own sons raised , and not the sons of workers . Workers can reproduce in many ants , bees , and wasps because male offspring come from unfertilized eggs .
By contrast , the worker shares half of her genes with her sons and only a quarter with her brothers . Furthermore , the workers in colonies with a single once @-@ mated queen are related to their nephews by three eighths , higher than they are related to brothers . This results in a conflict where the queen and worker females are at odds over the proportion of male offspring they contribute , since each side tries to maximize its reproductive fitness . Queens favor production of their own sons while workers favor production of their own sons , and do not stop their sisters from laying because of the favorable relatedness to nephews .
Worker policing occurs when worker bees in the colony are genetically more closely related to the queen than the reproductive female . In many instances , the eggs of the female worker are eaten , or she is repeatedly attacked by other workers . This mechanism of egg removal ensures that the queen 's sons predominate .
Experiments confirming the role of kin selection in worker policing demonstrate the effects of multiple matings , which can lead to lower average relatedness between workers . Queens of the social wasp Dolichovespula saxonica mate singly or multiply . Researchers who study these wasps have observed a strong positive correlation between worker relatedness and male production . After controlling for the absolute number of eggs laid , these scientists conclude that the queen 's multiple matings favor mutual worker policing .
Although early theories of worker policing focused on the kin selection component , evidence from honey bees suggests that altruism is sometimes enforced . Fewer workers reproduce as policing effectiveness rises , and policing effectiveness decreases with increasing relatedness except in colonies with no queen . This suggests that worker policing is a social sanction imposed on selfish individuals .
= = Proposed mechanisms for kin recognition = =
Mechanisms suggested for egg discrimination in worker policing include queen hydrocarbons , fertile worker hydrocarbons , and nestmate recognition .
= = = Queen hydrocarbons = = =
A study on the carpenter ant Camponotus floridanus found a special surface hydrocarbon on queen @-@ laid eggs . Workers in the colony with the queen 's eggs refrained from egg @-@ laying , whereas other groups that did not have queen @-@ laid eggs showed worker reproduction . Thus , the hydrocarbon could act as a signal to alert workers to halt reproduction . More generally , however , the authors concluded that the hydrocarbons were a fertility signal . It is still unknown as to how the decision to restrain reproduction occurs or what minimum threshold of fertility in the queen is needed to reduce worker reproduction .
= = = Fertile worker hydrocarbons = = =
The study of cuticle hydrocarbons has also been applied to the reproductive workers . In some colonies of the ponerine ant Platythyrea punctata , the presence of CHCs in new reproductive workers triggered aggressive behavior from the rest of the colony , often between new and old reproductive workers . Specifically , the old reproductive workers rubbed a marker hydrocarbon on the antennae of the new females , identifying them as rivals and targets for aggression .
= = = Nestmate recognition = = =
In contrast to the other ant species , worker policing in the ant Formica fusca appears to incorporate nestmate recognition in addition to the queen hydrocarbons . Workers displayed higher levels of aggression toward non @-@ nest mates and also removed some queen @-@ laid eggs . Thus , queen hydrocarbons were not the only contributor to discrimination of the eggs .
= = Examples from social Hymenoptera = =
Worker policing has evolved convergently in several social insect species . The following cases are examples :
= = = Bees = = =
One of the first examples of worker policing to be discovered was in the honey bee , Apis mellifera . Worker policing is prevalent in most honey bee colonies , and worker reproduction is minimal ( 0 @.@ 12 % ) in this species . Worker policing occurs via egg @-@ eating ( oophagy ) in Apis mellifera colonies . In many of these hives , the activation of ovaries in fertile females is diminished , suggesting that there are disincentives to laying eggs .
Workers in colonies of the Asian honey bee , Apis florea , are also reported to engage in oophagy . Using microsatellite analysis , researchers concluded that no mature drones had non @-@ queen alleles in the colonies they investigated . Thus , even though workers had activated ovaries and were capable of laying eggs , worker policing ensured the functional sterility of otherwise fertile workers .
A higher percentage of female workers of the bee species Apis cerana are reported to activate their ovaries than those of Apis mellifera or Apis florea . When queens were removed , up to 40 % of the workers activated their ovaries in subsequent days . However , policing workers continued to eat the worker @-@ laid eggs , suggesting that the mechanism of policing in this species does not involve direct intervention from the queen .
The observation that all these Apis species engage in polyandry has led researchers to conclude that worker policing is plesiomorphic for the Apis genus .
Worker policing also occurs in the primitively eusocial bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris .
= = = Ants = = =
In colonies of the ponerine ant , Pachycondyla inversa , workers eat the eggs of fertile female workers and display aggressive behavior towards egg @-@ laying females .
In colonies of the ant Gnamptogenys menadensis , workers will sometimes mate and lay eggs while others remain as virgins to lay trophic eggs that are consumed as nourishment . In a display of policing , workers can immobilize female reproductive workers by biting their limbs ; it is reported that 50 % of the victims die from this treatment . The attacking workers may also drag offending workers outside the colony . Since workers can lay both male and female eggs , worker policing could be favored since the cost to the community is large .
The ant species Aphaenogaster smythiesi japonica also display evidence of policing . When researchers separated and then reunited workers from colonies that did or did not have queens , workers from the queen @-@ containing colonies attacked the workers with activated ovaries from the queenless colonies .
= = = Wasps = = =
The tree wasp Dolichovespula sylvestris also displays worker policing . Both egg @-@ eating and aggression are reported in these wasp communities , and the queen also engages in the policing process . Similar behavior has been observed in the closely related species Dolichovespula media .
In colonies of the paper wasp , Polistes chinensis antennalis , workers can lay up to a quarter of the male eggs in the colony . The number of eggs that survived to hatching , however , was minimal compared to the number produced by the queen . Analysis of the microsatellite markers showed that both queens and workers contributed to policing of worker and queen @-@ laid eggs even in monogynous and monandrous colonies .
The common wasp , Vespula vulgaris , engages in worker policing , and it is known that a significant number of workers have active ovaries . However , studies by researchers have suggested that relatedness may not be the key factor in the development of worker policing . Rather , it is hypothesized that worker policing has been selected due to conflict suppression in the colony .
In a test of worker policing , researchers examined the removal of worker @-@ laid eggs in Vespula rufa , a wasp that has low paternity . Under the testing conditions , worker policing was not as efficient , and some of the drones appeared to be from worker @-@ laid eggs .
The European Hornet , Vespa crabro , was previously thought to be under reproductive pheromone control by the queen , thus explaining why the other females didn 't reproduce , even though they were capable of doing so . Experiments by Foster showed that the workers were instead regulating sterility in each other , thus instead exhibiting worker policing . While each worker is capable of reproducing , the colony as a whole is more efficient and organized if the workers allow only the queen to lay larvae .
Synoeca cyanea also engage in worker policing during times when queen repopulation is not needed . They will prevent females from laying eggs through aggressive behavior and egg @-@ eating .
= = Exceptions = =
= = = Anarchic syndrome = = =
Very rarely , female worker bees lay eggs that escape worker policing , in a process known as the anarchic syndrome . Female reproductive workers in these colonies activate their ovaries even in the presence of a queen . The worker eggs are allowed as they mimic queen hydrocarbons . Thus , female workers can maximize their reproductive fitness at the expense of the colony . Anarchic syndrome is an example of selection working in opposite directions at individual and group levels .
= = = Selfish worker policing = = =
Temnothorax unifasciatus , a myrmicinid ant , has been shown not to have collective worker policing . However , when a queen is removed , a rank order for reproduction appears , where top ranking reproductives display aggression towards lower @-@ order female workers . Thus , reductions in egg laying are created by dominance hierarchies . Individuals do not act in benefit of the colony , instead opting to increase their own fitness by laying their eggs and reducing the contributions of opponents .
This type of policy is common in Dolichovespula norwegica wasps where despite being more related to other workers ’ sons , worker @-@ laid eggs were consumed by other workers .
= = = Worker policing without genetic conflict = = =
In the thelytokous ant Platythyrea punctata , colonies are clonal ; therefore , workers are all equally related genetically , and worker policing is not expected as there is no genetic conflict . However , one would expect severe effects on the condition of the colony if reproductive workers were left unchecked . For example , more time spent on individual reproduction would be predicted to detract from care of the queen 's offspring . In studies of these ants , workers did actually display worker policing , as evidenced by increased aggression towards reproductive workers . Worker policing here is favored for group efficiency .
|
= Citizen Kane =
Citizen Kane is a 1941 American mystery drama film by Orson Welles , its producer , co @-@ author , director and star . The picture was Welles 's first feature film . Nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories , it won an Academy Award for Best Writing ( Original Screenplay ) by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Welles . Considered by many critics , filmmakers , and fans to be the greatest film of all time , Citizen Kane was voted as such in five consecutive Sight & Sound polls of critics , until it was displaced by Vertigo in the 2012 poll . It topped the American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list in 1998 , as well as AFI 's 2007 update . Citizen Kane is particularly praised for its cinematography , music , and narrative structure , which were innovative for its time .
The quasi @-@ biographical film examines the life and legacy of Charles Foster Kane , played by Welles , a character based in part upon the American newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst , Chicago tycoons Samuel Insull and Harold McCormick , and aspects of Welles 's own life . Upon its release , Hearst prohibited mention of the film in any of his newspapers . Kane 's career in the publishing world is born of idealistic social service , but gradually evolves into a ruthless pursuit of power . Narrated principally through flashbacks , the story is told through the research of a newsreel reporter seeking to solve the mystery of the newspaper magnate 's dying word : " Rosebud . "
After the Broadway successes of Welles 's Mercury Theatre and the controversial 1938 radio broadcast " The War of the Worlds " on The Mercury Theatre on the Air , Welles was courted by Hollywood . He signed a contract with RKO Pictures in 1939 . Unusual for an untried director , he was given the freedom to develop his own story , to use his own cast and crew , and to have final cut privilege . Following two abortive attempts to get a project off the ground , he wrote the screenplay for Citizen Kane , collaborating on the effort with Herman Mankiewicz . Principal photography took place in 1940 and the film received its American release in 1941 .
While a critical success , Citizen Kane failed to recoup its costs at the box office . The film faded from view after its release but was subsequently returned to the public 's attention when it was praised by such French critics as André Bazin and given an American revival in 1956 . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 13 , 2011 , for a special 70th anniversary edition .
= = Plot = =
In a mansion in Xanadu , a vast palatial estate in Florida , the elderly Charles Foster Kane is on his deathbed . Holding a snow globe , he utters a word , " Rosebud " , and dies ; the globe slips from his hand and smashes on the floor . A newsreel obituary tells the life story of Kane , an enormously wealthy newspaper publisher . Kane 's death becomes sensational news around the world , and the newsreel 's producer tasks reporter Jerry Thompson with discovering the meaning of " Rosebud " .
Thompson sets out to interview Kane 's friends and associates . He approaches Kane 's second wife , Susan Alexander Kane , now an alcoholic who runs her own nightclub , but she refuses to talk to him . Thompson goes to the private archive of the late banker Walter Parks Thatcher . Through Thatcher 's written memoirs , Thompson learns that Kane 's childhood began in poverty in Colorado .
In 1871 , after a gold mine was discovered on her property , Kane 's mother Mary Kane sends Charles away to live with Thatcher so that he would be properly educated . While Thatcher and Charles ' parents discuss arrangements inside , the young Kane plays happily with a sled in the snow outside his parents ' boarding @-@ house and protests being sent to live with Thatcher .
Years later , after gaining full control over his trust fund at the age of 25 , Kane enters the newspaper business and embarks on a career of yellow journalism . He takes control of the New York Inquirer and starts publishing scandalous articles that attack Thatcher 's business interests . After the stock market crash in 1929 , Kane is forced to sell controlling interest of his newspaper empire to Thatcher .
Back in the present , Thompson interviews Kane 's personal business manager , Mr. Bernstein . Bernstein recalls how Kane hired the best journalists available to build the Inquirer 's circulation . Kane rose to power by successfully manipulating public opinion regarding the Spanish – American War and marrying Emily Norton , the niece of a President of the United States .
Thompson interviews Kane 's estranged best friend , Jedediah Leland , in a retirement home . Leland recalls how Kane 's marriage to Emily disintegrates more and more over the years , and he begins an affair with amateur singer Susan Alexander while he is running for Governor of New York . Both his wife and his political opponent discover the affair and the public scandal ends his political career . Kane marries Susan and forces her into a humiliating operatic career for which she has neither the talent nor the ambition .
Back in the present , Susan now consents to an interview with Thompson , and recalls her failed opera career . Kane finally allows her to abandon her singing career after she attempts suicide . After years spent dominated by Kane and living in isolation at Xanadu , Susan leaves Kane . Kane 's butler Raymond recounts that , after Susan leaves him , Kane begins violently destroying the contents of her bedroom . He suddenly calms down when he sees a snow globe and says , " Rosebud . "
Back at Xanadu , Kane 's belongings are being cataloged or discarded . Thompson concludes that he is unable to solve the mystery and that the meaning of Kane 's last word will forever remain an enigma . As the film ends , the camera reveals that " Rosebud " is the trade name of the sled on which the eight @-@ year @-@ old Kane was playing on the day that he was taken from his home in Colorado . Thought to be junk by Xanadu 's staff , the sled is burned in a furnace .
= = Cast = =
The beginning of the film 's ending credits state that " Most of the principal actors in Citizen Kane are new to motion pictures . The Mercury Theatre is proud to introduce them . " The cast is listed in the following order :
Joseph Cotten as Jedediah Leland , Kane 's best friend and a reporter for The Inquirer . Cotten also appears ( hidden in darkness ) in the News on the March screening room .
Dorothy Comingore as Susan Alexander Kane , Kane 's mistress and second wife .
Agnes Moorehead as Mary Kane , Kane 's mother .
Ruth Warrick as Emily Monroe Norton Kane , Kane 's first wife .
Ray Collins as Jim W. Gettys , Kane 's political rival and the incumbent governor of New York .
Erskine Sanford as Herbert Carter , editor of The Inquirer . Sanford also appears ( hidden in darkness ) in the News on the March screening room .
Everett Sloane as Mr. Bernstein , Kane 's friend and employee at The Inquirer .
William Alland as Jerry Thompson , a reporter for News on the March . Alland also voices the narrator of the News on the March newsreel .
Paul Stewart as Raymond , Kane 's butler .
George Coulouris as Walter Parks Thatcher , a banker who becomes Kane 's legal guardian .
Fortunio Bonanova as Signor Matiste , vocal coach of Susan Alexander Kane .
Gus Schilling as John , headwaiter at the El Rancho nightclub . Schilling also appears ( hidden in darkness ) in the News on the March screening room .
Philip Van Zandt as Mr. Rawlston , News on the March producer .
Georgia Backus as Bertha Anderson , attendant at the library of Walter Parks Thatcher .
Harry Shannon as Jim Kane , Kane 's father .
Sonny Bupp as Charles Foster Kane III , Kane 's son .
Buddy Swan as Charles Foster Kane , age eight .
Orson Welles as Charles Foster Kane , a wealthy newspaper publisher .
Additionally , Charles Bennett appears as the entertainer at the head of the chorus line in the Inquirer party sequence , and cinematographer Gregg Toland makes a cameo appearance as an interviewer depicted in part of the News on the March newsreel .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Development = = =
Hollywood had shown interest in Welles as early as 1936 . He turned down three scripts sent to him by Warner Bros. In 1937 , he declined offers from David O. Selznick , who asked him to head his film company 's story department , and William Wyler , who wanted him for a supporting role in Wuthering Heights . " Although the possibility of making huge amounts of money in Hollywood greatly attracted him , " wrote biographer Frank Brady , " he was still totally , hopelessly , insanely in love with the theater , and it is there that he had every intention of remaining to make his mark . "
Following " The War of the Worlds " broadcast of his CBS radio series The Mercury Theatre on the Air , Welles was lured to Hollywood with a remarkable contract . RKO Pictures studio head George J. Schaefer wanted to work with Welles after the notorious broadcast , believing that Welles had a gift for attracting mass attention . RKO was also uncharacteristically profitable and was entering into a series of independent production contracts that would add more artistically prestigious films to its roster . Throughout the spring and early summer of 1939 , Schaefer constantly tried to lure the reluctant Welles to Hollywood . Welles was in financial trouble after failure of his plays Five Kings and The Green Goddess . At first he simply wanted to spend three months in Hollywood and earn enough money to pay his debts and fund his next theatrical season . Welles first arrived on July 20 , 1939 and on his first tour , he called the movie studio " the greatest electric train set a boy ever had " .
Welles signed his contract with RKO on August 21 . This legendary contract stipulated that Welles would act in , direct , produce and write two films . Mercury would get $ 100 @,@ 000 for the first film by January 1 , 1940 , plus 20 % of profits after RKO recouped $ 500 @,@ 000 , and $ 125 @,@ 000 for a second film by January 1 , 1941 , plus 20 % of profits after RKO recouped $ 500 @,@ 000 . The most controversial aspect of the contract was granting Welles complete artistic control of the two films so long as RKO approved both project 's stories and so long as the budget did not exceed $ 500 @,@ 000 . RKO executives would not be allowed to see any footage until Welles chose to show it to them , and no cuts could be made to either film without Welles ’ s approval . Welles was allowed to develop the story without interference , select his own cast and crew , and have the right of final cut . Granting final cut privilege was unprecedented for a studio since it placed artistic considerations over financial investment . The contract was deeply resented in the film industry , and the Hollywood press took every opportunity to mock RKO and Welles . Schaefer remained a great supporter and saw the unprecedented contract as good publicity . Film scholar Robert L. Carringer wrote : " The simple fact seems to be that Schaefer believed Welles was going to pull off something really big almost as much as Welles did himself . "
Welles spent the first five months of his RKO contract trying to get his first project going , without success . " They are laying bets over on the RKO lot that the Orson Welles deal will end up without Orson ever doing a picture there , " wrote The Hollywood Reporter . It was agreed that Welles would film Heart of Darkness , previously adapted for The Mercury Theatre on the Air , which would be presented entirely through a first @-@ person camera . After elaborate pre @-@ production and a day of test shooting with a hand @-@ held camera — unheard of at the time — the project never reached production because Welles was unable to trim $ 50 @,@ 000 from its budget . Schaefer told Welles that the $ 500 @,@ 000 budget could not be exceeded ; revenue was declining sharply in Europe by the fall of 1939 .
He then started work on the idea that became Citizen Kane . Knowing the script would take time to prepare , Welles suggested to RKO that while that was being done — " so the year wouldn 't be lost " — he make a humorous political thriller . Welles proposed The Smiler with a Knife , from a novel by Cecil Day @-@ Lewis . When that project stalled in December 1939 , Welles began brainstorming other story ideas with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz , who had been writing Mercury radio scripts . " Arguing , inventing , discarding , these two powerful , headstrong , dazzlingly articulate personalities thrashed toward Kane " , wrote biographer Richard Meryman .
= = = Screenplay = = =
One of the long @-@ standing controversies about Citizen Kane has been the authorship of the screenplay . Welles conceived the project with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz , who was writing radio plays for Welles 's CBS Radio series , The Campbell Playhouse . Mankiewicz based the original outline on the life of William Randolph Hearst , whom he knew socially and came to hate after he was exiled from Hearst 's circle .
In February 1940 Welles supplied Mankiewicz with 300 pages of notes and put him under contract to write the first draft screenplay under the supervision of John Houseman , Welles 's former partner in the Mercury Theatre . Welles later explained , " I left him on his own finally , because we 'd started to waste too much time haggling . So , after mutual agreements on storyline and character , Mank went off with Houseman and did his version , while I stayed in Hollywood and wrote mine . " Taking these drafts , Welles drastically condensed and rearranged them , then added scenes of his own . The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz 's contribution to the script , but Welles countered the attacks by saying , " At the end , naturally , I was the one making the picture , after all — who had to make the decisions . I used what I wanted of Mank 's and , rightly or wrongly , kept what I liked of my own . "
The terms of the contract stated that Mankiewicz was to receive no credit for his work , as he was hired as a script doctor . Before he signed the contract Mankiewicz was particularly advised by his agents that all credit for his work belonged to Welles and the Mercury Theatre , the " author and creator " . As the film neared release , however , Mankiewicz began threatening Welles to get credit for the film — including threats to place full @-@ page ads in trade papers and to get his friend Ben Hecht to write an exposé for The Saturday Evening Post . Mankiewicz also threatened to go to the Screen Writers Guild and claim full credit for writing the entire script by himself .
After lodging a protest with the Screen Writers Guild , Mankiewicz withdrew it , then vacillated . The question was resolved in January 1941 when the studio , RKO Pictures , awarded Mankiewicz credit . The guild credit form listed Welles first , Mankiewicz second . Welles 's assistant Richard Wilson said that the person who circled Mankiewicz 's name in pencil , then drew an arrow that put it in first place , was Welles . The official credit reads , " Screenplay by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles " . Mankiewicz 's rancor toward Welles grew over the remaining 12 years of his life .
Questions over the authorship of the Citizen Kane screenplay were revived in 1971 by influential film critic Pauline Kael , whose controversial 50 @,@ 000 @-@ word essay " Raising Kane " was commissioned as an introduction to the shooting script in The Citizen Kane Book , published in October 1971 . The book @-@ length essay first appeared in February 1971 , in two consecutive issues of The New Yorker magazine . In the ensuing controversy Welles was defended by colleagues , critics , biographers and scholars , but his reputation was damaged by its charges . The essay was later discredited and Kael 's own scholarship was called into question .
Any question of authorship was resolved with Carringer 's 1978 essay , " The Scripts of Citizen Kane " . Carringer studied the collection of script records — " almost a day @-@ to @-@ day record of the history of the scripting " — that was then still intact at RKO . He reviewed all seven drafts and concluded that " the full evidence reveals that Welles 's contribution to the Citizen Kane script was not only substantial but definitive . "
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Citizen Kane was a rare film in that its principal roles were played by actors new to motion pictures . Ten were billed as Mercury Actors , members of the skilled repertory company assembled by Welles for the stage and radio performances of the Mercury Theatre , an independent theater company he founded with Houseman in 1937 . " He loved to use the Mercury players , " wrote biographer Charles Higham , " and consequently he launched several of them on movie careers . "
The film represents the feature film debuts of William Alland , Ray Collins , Joseph Cotten , Agnes Moorehead , Erskine Sanford , Everett Sloane , Paul Stewart , and Welles himself . Despite never having appeared in feature films , some of the cast members were already well known to the public . Cotten had recently become a Broadway star in the hit play The Philadelphia Story with Katharine Hepburn and Sloane was well known for his role on the radio show The Goldbergs . Mercury actor George Coulouris was a star of the stage in New York and London .
Not all of the cast came from the Mercury Players . Welles cast Dorothy Comingore as Susan Alexander Kane . Comingore had never appeared in a film and was a discovery of Charlie Chaplin . Chaplin recommended Comingore to Welles , who then met Comingore at a party in Los Angeles and immediately cast her .
Welles had met stage actress Ruth Warrick while visiting New York on a break from Hollywood and remembered her as a good fit for Emily Norton Kane , later saying that she looked the part . Warrick told Carringer that she was struck by the extraordinary resemblance between herself and Welles 's mother when she saw a photograph of Beatrice Ives Welles . She characterized her own personal relationship with Welles as motherly .
" He trained us for films at the same time that he was training himself , " recalled Agnes Moorehead . " Orson believed in good acting , and he realized that rehearsals were needed to get the most from his actors . That was something new in Hollywood : nobody seemed interested in bringing in a group to rehearse before scenes were shot . But Orson knew it was necessary , and we rehearsed every sequence before it was shot . "
When The March of Time narrator Westbrook Van Voorhis asked for $ 25 @,@ 000 to narrate the News on the March sequence , Alland demonstrated his ability to imitate Van Voorhis and Welles cast him .
Welles later said that casting character actor Gino Corrado in the small part of the waiter at the El Rancho broke his heart . Corrado had appeared in many Hollywood films , often as a waiter , and Welles wanted all of the actors to be new to films .
Other uncredited roles went to Thomas A. Curran as Teddy Roosevelt in the faux newsreel ; Richard Baer as Hillman , a man at Madison Square Garden , and a man in the News on the March screening room ; and Alan Ladd , Arthur O 'Connell and Louise Currie as reporters at Xanadu . When Kathryn Trosper Popper died on March 6 , 2016 , at the age of 100 she was believed to have been the film 's last surviving cast member . Warrick was the last surviving member of the principal cast at the time of her death in 2005 . Sonny Bupp , who played Kane 's young son , was the last surviving credited cast member of Citizen Kane when he died in 2007 .
= = = Filming = = =
Production advisor Miriam Geiger quickly compiled a handmade film textbook for Welles , a practical reference book of film techniques that he studied carefully . He then taught himself filmmaking by matching its visual vocabulary to The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari , which he ordered from the Museum of Modern Art , and films by Frank Capra , René Clair , Fritz Lang , King Vidor and Jean Renoir . The one film he genuinely studied was John Ford 's Stagecoach , which he watched 40 times . " As it turned out , the first day I ever walked onto a set was my first day as a director , " Welles said . " I 'd learned whatever I knew in the projection room — from Ford . After dinner every night for about a month , I 'd run Stagecoach , often with some different technician or department head from the studio , and ask questions . ' How was this done ? ' ' Why was this done ? ' It was like going to school . "
Welles 's cinematographer for the film was Gregg Toland , described by Welles as " just then , the number @-@ one cameraman in the world . " To Welles 's astonishment , Toland visited him at his office and said , " I want you to use me on your picture . " He had seen some of the Mercury stage productions ( including Caesar ) and said he wanted to work with someone who had never made a movie . RKO hired Toland on loan from Samuel Goldwyn Productions in the first week of June 1940 .
" And he never tried to impress us that he was doing any miracles , " Welles recalled . " I was calling for things only a beginner would have been ignorant enough to think anybody could ever do , and there he was , doing them . " Toland later explained that he wanted to work with Welles because he anticipated the first time director 's inexperience and reputation for audacious experimentation in the theater would allow the cinematographer to try new and innovative camera techniques that typical Hollywood films would never have allowed him to do . Unaware of filmmaking protocol , Welles adjusted the lights on set as he was accustomed to doing in the theater ; Toland quietly re @-@ balanced them , and was angry when one of the crew informed Welles that he was infringing on Toland 's responsibilities . During the first few weeks of June , Welles had lengthy discussions about the film with Toland and art director Perry Ferguson in the morning , and in the afternoon and evening he worked with actors and revised the script .
On June 29 , 1940 — a Saturday morning when few inquisitive studio executives would be around — Welles began filming Citizen Kane . After the disappointment of having Heart of Darkness cancelled , Welles followed Ferguson 's suggestion and deceived RKO into believing that he was simply shooting camera tests . " But we were shooting the picture , " Welles said , " because we wanted to get started and be already into it before anybody knew about it . "
At the time RKO executives were pressuring him to agree to direct a film called The Men from Mars , to capitalize on " The War of the Worlds " radio broadcast . Welles said that he would consider making the project but wanted to make a different film first . At this time he did not inform them that he had already begun filming Citizen Kane .
The early footage was called " Orson Welles Tests " on all paperwork . The first " test " shot was the News on the March projection room scene , economically filmed in a real studio projection room in darkness that masked many actors who appeared in other roles later in the film . " At $ 809 Orson did run substantially beyond the test budget of $ 528 — to create one of the most famous scenes in movie history , " wrote Barton Whaley .
The next scenes were the El Rancho nightclub scenes and the scene in which Susan attempts suicide . Welles later said that the nightclub set was available after another film had wrapped and that filming took 10 to 12 days to complete . For these scenes Welles had Comingore 's throat sprayed with chemicals to give her voice a harsh , raspy tone . Other scenes shot in secret included those in which Thompson interviews Leland and Bernstein , which were also shot on sets built for other films .
During production , the film was referred to as RKO 281 . Most of the filming took place in what is now Stage 19 on the Paramount Pictures lot in Hollywood . There was some location filming at Balboa Park in San Diego and the San Diego Zoo .
In the end of July , RKO approved the film and Welles was allowed to officially begin shooting , despite having already been filming " tests " for several weeks . Welles leaked stories to newspaper reporters that the tests had been so good that there was no need to re @-@ shoot them . The first official scene to be shot was the breakfast montage sequence between Kane and his first wife Emily . To strategically save money and appease the RKO executives who opposed him , Welles rehearsed scenes extensively before actually shooting and filmed very few takes of each shot set @-@ up . Welles never shot master shots for any scene after Toland told him that Ford never shot them . To appease the increasingly curious press , Welles threw a cocktail party for selected reporters , promising that they could watch a scene being filmed . When the journalists arrived Welles told them they had “ just finished ” shooting for the day but still had the party . Welles told the press that he was ahead of schedule ( without factoring in the month of " test shooting " ) , thus discrediting claims that after a year in Hollywood without making a film he was a failure in the film industry .
Welles usually worked 16 to 18 hours a day on the film . He often began work at 4 a.m. since the special effects make @-@ up used to age him for certain scenes took up to four hours to apply . Welles used this time to discuss the day 's shooting with Toland and other crew members . The special contact lenses used to make Welles look elderly proved very painful , and a doctor was employed to place them into Welles 's eyes . Welles had difficulty seeing clearly while wearing them , which caused him to badly cut his wrist when shooting the scene in which Kane breaks up the furniture in Susan 's bedroom . While shooting the scene in which Kane shouts at Gettys on the stairs of Susan Alexander 's apartment building , Welles fell ten feet ; an X @-@ ray revealed two bone chips in his ankle . The injury required him to direct the film from a wheelchair for two weeks . He eventually wore a steel brace to resume performing on camera ; it is visible in the low @-@ angle scene between Kane and Leland after Kane loses the election . For the final scene , a stage at the Selznick studio was equipped with a working furnace , and multiple takes were required to show the sled being put into the fire and the word " Rosebud " consumed . Paul Stewart recalled that on the ninth take the Culver City Fire Department arrived in full gear because the furnace had grown so hot the flue caught fire . " Orson was delighted with the commotion " , he said .
When " Rosebud " was burned , Welles choreographed the scene while he had composer Bernard Herrmann 's cue playing on the set .
Unlike Schaefer , many members of RKO 's board of governors did not like Welles or the control that his contract gave him . However such board members as Nelson Rockefeller and NBC chief David Sarnoff were sympathetic to Welles . Throughout production Welles had problems with these executives not respecting his contract ’ s stipulation of non @-@ interference and several spies arrived on set to report what they saw to the executives . When the executives would sometimes arrive on set unannounced the entire cast and crew would suddenly start playing softball until they left . Before official shooting began the executives intercepted all copies of the script and delayed their delivery to Welles . They had one copy sent to their office in New York , resulting in it being leaked to press .
Principal shooting wrapped October 24 . Welles then took several weeks off of the film for a lecture tour , during which he also scouted additional locations with Toland and Ferguson . Filming resumed November 15 with some re @-@ shoots . Toland had to leave due to a commitment to shoot Howard Hughes ' The Outlaw , but Toland 's camera crew continued working on the film and Toland was replaced by RKO cinematographer Harry J. Wild . The final day of shooting on November 30 was Kane 's death scene . Welles boasted that he only went 21 days over his official shooting schedule , without factoring in the month of " camera tests . " According to RKO records , the film cost $ 839 @,@ 727 . Its estimated budget had been $ 723 @,@ 800 .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Citizen Kane was edited by Robert Wise and assistant editor Mark Robson . Both would become successful film directors . Wise was hired after Welles finished shooting the " camera tests " and began officially making the film . Wise said that Welles " had an older editor assigned to him for those tests and evidently he was not too happy and asked to have somebody else . I was roughly Orson ’ s age and had several good credits . ” Wise and Robson began editing the film while it was still shooting and said that they “ could tell certainly that we were getting something very special . It was outstanding film day in and day out . ” Welles gave Wise detailed instructions and was usually not present during the film 's editing . The film was very well planned out and intentionally shot for such post @-@ production techniques as slow dissolves . The lack of coverage made editing easy since Welles and Toland edited the film " in camera " by leaving few options of how it could be put together . Wise said the breakfast table sequence took weeks to edit and get the correct " timing " and " rhythm " for the whip pans and over @-@ lapping dialogue . The News on the March sequence was edited by RKO 's newsreel division to give it authenticity . They used stock footage from Pathé News and the General Film Library .
During post @-@ production Welles and special effects artist Linwood G. Dunn experimented with an optical printer to improve certain scenes that Welles found unsatisfactory from the footage . Whereas Welles was often immediately pleased with Wise 's work , he would require Dunn and post @-@ production audio engineer James G. Stewart to re @-@ do their work several times until he was satisfied .
Welles hired Bernard Herrmann to compose the film 's score . Where most Hollywood film scores were written quickly , in as few as two or three weeks after filming was completed , Herrmann was given 12 weeks to write the music . He had sufficient time to do his own orchestrations and conducting , and worked on the film reel by reel as it was shot and cut . He wrote complete musical pieces for some of the montages , and Welles edited many of the scenes to match their length .
= = = Trailer = = =
Written and directed by Welles at Toland 's suggestion , the theatrical trailer for Citizen Kane differs from other trailers in that it did not feature a single second of footage of the actual film itself , but acts as a wholly original , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , pseudo @-@ documentary piece on the film 's production . Filmed at the same time as Citizen Kane itself , it offers the only existing behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the film . The trailer , shot by Harry J. Wild instead of Toland , follows an unseen Welles as he provides narration for a tour around the film set , introductions to the film 's core cast members , and a brief overview of Kane 's character . The trailer also contains a number of trick shots , including one of Everett Sloane appearing at first to be running into the camera , which turns out to be the reflection of the camera in a mirror .
At the time , it was almost unprecedented for a film trailer to not actually feature anything of the film itself ; and while Citizen Kane is frequently cited as a ground @-@ breaking , influential film , Simon Callow argues its trailer was no less original in its approach . Callow writes that it has " great playful charm ... it is a miniature documentary , almost an introduction to the cinema ... Teasing , charming , completely original , it is a sort of conjuring trick : without his face appearing once on the screen , Welles entirely dominates its five [ sic ] minutes ' duration . "
= = Style = =
Film scholars and historians view Citizen Kane as Welles 's attempt to create a new style of filmmaking by studying various forms of film making , and combining them all into one . However , Welles stated that his love for cinema began only when he started the work on the film . When asked where he got the confidence as a first @-@ time director to direct a film so radically different from contemporary cinema , he responded , " Ignorance , ignorance , sheer ignorance — you know there 's no confidence to equal it . It 's only when you know something about a profession , I think , that you 're timid or careful . "
David Bordwell wrote that " The best way to understand Citizen Kane is to stop worshiping it as a triumph of technique . " Bordwell argues that the film did not invent any of its famous techniques such as deep focus cinematography , shots of the ceilings , chiaroscuro lighting and temporal jump @-@ cuts , and many of these stylistics had been used in German Expressionist films of the 1920s , such as The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari . But Bordwell asserts that the film did put them all together for the first time and perfected the medium in one single film . In a 1948 interview D. W. Griffith said " I loved Citizen Kane and particularly loved the ideas he took from me . "
Arguments against the film 's cinematic innovations were made as early as 1946 when French historian Georges Sadoul wrote that " the film is an encyclopedia of old techniques . " Sadoul pointed out such examples as compositions that used both the foreground and the background in the films of Auguste and Louis Lumière , special effects used in the films of Georges Méliès , shots of the ceiling in Erich von Stroheim 's Greed and newsreel montages in the films of Dziga Vertov .
French film critic André Bazin defended the film and wrote that " In this respect , the accusation of plagiarism could very well be extended to the film 's use of panchromatic film or its exploitation of the properties of gelatinous silver halide . " Bazin disagreed with Sadoul 's comparison to Lumière 's cinematography since Citizen Kane used more sophisticated lenses , but acknowledged that the film had similarities to such previous works as The 49th Parallel and The Power and the Glory . Bazin stated that " even if Welles did not invent the cinematic devices employed in Citizen Kane , one should nevertheless credit him with the invention of their meaning . " Bazin championed the techniques in the film for its depiction of heightened reality , but Bordwell believes that the film 's use of special effects contradict some of Bazin 's theories .
= = = Storytelling techniques = = =
Citizen Kane eschews the traditional linear , chronological narrative , and tells Kane 's story entirely in flashback using different points of view , many of them from Kane 's aged and forgetful associates , the cinematic equivalent of the unreliable narrator in literature . Welles also dispenses with the idea of a single storyteller and uses multiple narrators to recount Kane 's life . The use of multiple narrators was unheard of in Hollywood films . Each narrator recounts a different part of Kane 's life , with each story partly overlapping . The film depicts Kane as an enigma , a complicated man who , in the end , leaves viewers with more questions than answers as to his character , such as the newsreel footage where he is attacked for being both a communist and a fascist .
The technique of using flashbacks had been used in earlier films — most notably in The Power and the Glory ( 1933 ) — but no film was as immersed in this technique as Citizen Kane . The use of the reporter Thompson acts as a surrogate for the audience , questioning Kane 's associates and piecing together his life .
At that time films typically had an " omniscient perspective " , which Marilyn Fabe says give the audience the " illusion that we are looking with impunity into a world which is unaware of our gaze , Hollywood movies give us a feeling of power . " The film begins in this fashion up until the News on the March sequence , after which we the audience see the film through the perspectives of others . The News on the March sequence gives an overview of Kane 's entire life ( and the film 's entire story ) at the beginning of the film , leaving the audience without the typical suspense of wondering how it will end . Instead the film 's repetitions of events compels the audience to analyze and wonder why Kane 's life happened the way that it did , under the pretext of finding out what " Rosebud " means . The film then returns to the omniscient perspective in the final scene , when only the audience discovers what " Rosebud " is .
= = = Cinematography = = =
The most innovative technical aspect of Citizen Kane is the extended use of deep focus . In nearly every scene in the film , the foreground , background and everything in between are all in sharp focus . Cinematographer Toland did this through his experimentation with lenses and lighting . Toland described the achievement , made possible by the sensitivity of modern speed film , in an article for Theatre Arts magazine :
New developments in the science of motion picture photography are not abundant at this advanced stage of the game but periodically one is perfected to make this a greater art . Of these I am in an excellent position to discuss what is termed “ Pan @-@ focus ” , as I have been active for two years in its development and used it for the first time in Citizen Kane . Through its use , it is possible to photograph action from a range of eighteen inches from the camera lens to over two hundred feet away , with extreme foreground and background figures and action both recorded in sharp relief . Hitherto , the camera had to be focused either for a close or a distant shot , all efforts to encompass both at the same time resulting in one or the other being out of focus . This handicap necessitated the breaking up of a scene into long and short angles , with much consequent loss of realism . With pan @-@ focus , the camera , like the human eye , sees an entire panorama at once , with everything clear and lifelike .
Both this article and a May 1941 Life magazine article with illustrated examples helped popularize deep focus cinematography and Toland 's achievements on the film .
Another unorthodox method used in the film was the way low @-@ angle shots were used to display a point of view facing upwards , thus allowing ceilings to be shown in the background of several scenes . Breaking with studio convention , every set was built with a ceiling — many constructed of fabric that ingeniously concealed microphones . Welles felt that the camera should show what the eyes see , and that it was a bad theatrical convention to pretend there was no ceiling — " a big lie in order to get all those terrible lights up there , " he said . He became fascinated with the look of low angles , which made even dull interiors look interesting . One extremely low angle is used to photograph the encounter between Kane and Leland after Kane loses the election . A hole was dug for the camera , which required drilling into the concrete floor .
Welles credited Toland on the same title card as himself and said " It 's impossible to say how much I owe to Gregg . He was superb . " He called Toland " the best director of photography that ever existed . "
= = = Sound = = =
Citizen Kane 's sound was recorded by Bailey Fesler and re @-@ recorded in post @-@ production by audio engineer James G. Stewart , both of whom had worked in radio . Stewart said that Hollywood films never deviated from a basic pattern of how sound could be recorded or used , but with Welles " deviation from the pattern was possible because he demanded it . " Although the film is known for its complex soundtrack , much of the audio is heard as it was recorded by Fesler and without manipulation .
Welles used techniques from radio like overlapping dialogue . The scene in which characters sing " Oh , Mr. Kane " was especially complicated and required mixing several soundtracks together . He also used different " sound perspectives " to create the illusion of distances , such as in scenes at Xanadu where characters speak to each other at far distances . Welles experimented with sound in post @-@ production , creating audio montages , and chose to create all of the sound effects for the film instead of using RKO 's library of sound effects .
Welles used an aural technique from radio called the " lightning @-@ mix " . Welles used this technique to link complex montage sequences via a series of related sounds or phrases . For example , Kane grows from a child into a young man in just two shots . As Thatcher hands eight @-@ year @-@ old Kane a sled and wishes him a Merry Christmas , the sequence suddenly jumps to a shot of Thatcher fifteen years later , completing the sentence he began in both the previous shot and the chronological past . Other radio techniques include using a number of voices , each saying a sentence or sometimes merely a fragment of a sentence , and splicing the dialogue together in quick succession , such as the projection room scene . The film 's sound cost $ 16 @,@ 996 , but was originally budgeted at $ 7 @,@ 288 .
Film critic and director François Truffaut wrote that " Before Kane , nobody in Hollywood knew how to set music properly in movies . Kane was the first , in fact the only , great film that uses radio techniques . … A lot of filmmakers know enough to follow Auguste Renoir 's advice to fill the eyes with images at all costs , but only Orson Welles understood that the sound track had to be filled in the same way . " Cedric Belfrage of The Clipper wrote " of all of the delectable flavours that linger on the palate after seeing Kane , the use of sound is the strongest . "
= = = Make @-@ up = = =
The make @-@ up for Citizen Kane was created and applied by Maurice Seiderman ( 1907 – 1989 ) , a junior member of the RKO make @-@ up department . Seiderman 's family came to the United States from Russia in 1920 , escaping persecution . As a child Seiderman had won a drawing competition and received an apprenticeship at the Moscow Art Theatre , where his father was a wigmaker and make @-@ up artist . In New York his uncle was a theatrical scenic painter , and he helped Seiderman get into the union . He worked on Max Reinhardt 's 1924 production of The Miracle and with the Yiddish Art Theatre , and he studied the human figure at the Art Students League of New York . After he moved to Los Angeles he was hired first by Max Factor and then by RKO . Seiderman had not been accepted into the union , which recognized him as only an apprentice , but RKO nevertheless used him to make up principal actors .
" Apprentices were not supposed to make up any principals , only extras , and an apprentice could not be on a set without a journeyman present , " wrote make @-@ up artist Dick Smith , who became friends with Seiderman in 1979 . " During his years at RKO I suspect these rules were probably overlooked often . " By 1940 Seiderman 's uncredited film work included Winterset , Gunga Din , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , Swiss Family Robinson and Abe Lincoln in Illinois . " Seiderman had gained a reputation as one of the most inventive and creatively precise up @-@ and @-@ coming makeup men in Hollywood , " wrote biographer Frank Brady .
On an early tour of RKO , Welles met Seiderman in the small make @-@ up lab he created for himself in an unused dressing room . " Welles fastened on to him at once , " wrote biographer Charles Higham . " With his great knowledge of makeup — indeed , his obsession with it , for he hated his flat nose — Welles was fascinated … Seiderman had an intimate knowledge of anatomy and the process of aging and was acquainted with every line , wrinkle and accretion of fat in aging men and women . Impatient with most makeup methods of his era , he used casts of his subjects in order to develop makeup methods that ensured complete naturalness of expression — a naturalness unrivaled in Hollywood . "
" When Kane came out in script form , Orson told all of us about the picture and said that the most important aspect was the makeup , " Seiderman recalled . " I felt that I was being given an assignment that was unique — so I worked accordingly . And there was a lot of work to do . Straight makeups were done in the makeup department by staff , but all the trick stuff and the principal characters were my personal work ; nobody else ever touched them . They could not have handled it . "
Seiderman developed a thorough plan for aging the principal characters , first making a plaster cast of the face of each of the actors who aged , except Joseph Cotten who was unavailable at that time . He made a plaster mold of Welles 's body down to the hips .
" My sculptural techniques for the characters ' aging were handled by adding pieces of white modeling clay , which matched the plaster , onto the surface of each bust , " Seiderman told visual arts historian Norman Gambill . When Seiderman achieved the desired effect he cast the clay pieces in a soft plastic material that he formulated himself . These appliances were then placed onto the plaster bust and a four @-@ piece mold was made for each phase of aging . The castings were then fully painted and paired with the appropriate wig for evaluation .
Before the actors went before the cameras each day , the pliable pieces were applied directly to their faces to recreate Seiderman 's sculptural image . Welles was allergic to Max Factor 's gum , so Seiderman invented an alternative that also photographed more realistically . The facial surface was underpainted in a flexible red plastic compound ; Cotten recalled being instructed to puff out his cheeks during this process . Later , seeing the results in the mirror , Cotten told Seiderman , " I am acting the part of a nice old gentleman , not a relief map of the Rocky Mountains . " Seiderman replied , " You 'd be surprised at what the camera doesn 't see unless we place it within its view . How about some more coffee ? "
The red ground resulted in a warmth of tone that was picked up by the sensitive panchromatic film . Over that was applied liquid greasepaint , and then finally a colorless translucent talcum . Seiderman created the effect of skin pores on Kane 's face by stippling the surface with a negative cast he made from an orange peel .
Welles was just as heavily made up as young Kane as he was for old Kane , and he often arrived on the set at 2 : 30 a.m. Application of the sculptural make @-@ up for the oldest incarnation of the character took three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . The make @-@ up included appliances to age Welles 's shoulders , breast and stomach . " In the film and production photographs , you can see that Kane had a belly that overhung , " Seiderman said . " That was not a costume , it was the rubber sculpture that created the image . You could see how Kane 's silk shirt clung wetly to the character 's body . It could not have been done any other way . "
Seiderman worked with Charles Wright on the wigs . These went over a flexible skull cover that Seiderman created and sewed into place with elastic thread . When he found the wigs too full he untied one hair at a time to alter their shape . Kane 's mustache was inserted into the makeup surface a few hairs at a time , to realistically vary the color and texture .
Seiderman made scleral lenses for Welles , Dorothy Comingore , George Coulouris and Everett Sloane , to dull the brightness of their young eyes . The lenses took a long time to fit properly , and Seiderman began work on them before devising any of the other makeup . " I painted them to age in phases , ending with the blood vessels and the Aurora Senilis of old age . "
" Cotten was the only principal for whom I had not made any sculptural casts , wigs or lenses , " Seiderman said . When Cotten 's old @-@ age scenes needed to be shot out of sequence due to Welles 's injured ankle , Seiderman improvised with appliances made for Kane 's make @-@ up . A sun visor was chosen to conceal Cotten 's low hairline and the lenses he wore — hastily supplied by a Beverly Hills ophthalmologist — were uncomfortable .
Seiderman 's tour de force , the breakfast montage , was shot all in one day . " Twelve years , two years shot at each scene , " he said . " Please realize , by the way , that a two @-@ year jump in age is a bit harder to accomplish visually than one of 20 years . "
As they did with art direction , the major studios gave screen credit for make @-@ up to only the department head . When RKO make @-@ up department head Mel Berns refused to share credit with Seiderman , who was only an apprentice , Welles told Berns that there would be no make @-@ up credit . Welles signed a large advertisement in the Los Angeles newspaper :
THANKS TO EVERYBODY WHO GETS SCREEN CREDIT FOR " CITIZEN KANE "
AND THANKS TO THOSE WHO DON 'T
TO ALL THE ACTORS , THE CREW , THE OFFICE , THE MUSICIANS , EVERYBODY
AND PARTICULARLY TO MAURICE SEIDERMAN , THE BEST MAKE @-@ UP MAN IN THE WORLD
" To put this event in context , remember that I was a very low man , " Seiderman recalled . " I wasn 't even called a make @-@ up man . I had started their laboratory and developed their plastic appliances for make @-@ up . But my salary was $ 25 a week . And I had no union card . "
Seiderman told Gambill that after Citizen Kane was released , Welles was invited to a White House dinner where Frances Perkins was among the guests . Welles told her about the Russian immigrant who did the make @-@ up for his film but could not join the union . Seiderman said the head of the union received a call from the Labor Department the next day , and in November 1941 he was a full union member .
= = = Sets = = =
Although credited as an assistant , the film 's art direction was done by Perry Ferguson . Welles and Ferguson got along during their collaboration . In the weeks before production began Welles , Toland and Ferguson met regularly to discuss the film and plan every shot , set design and prop . Ferguson would take notes during these discussions and create rough designs of the sets and story boards for individual shots . After Welles approved the rough sketches , Ferguson made miniature models for Welles and Toland to experiment on with a periscope in order to rehearse and perfect each shot . Ferguson then had detailed drawings made for the set design , including the film 's lighting design . The set design was an integral part of the film 's overall look and Toland 's cinematography .
In the original script the Great Hall at Xanadu was modeled after the Great Hall in Hearst Castle and its design included a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles . " The Hearstian element is brought out in the almost perverse juxtaposition of incongruous architectural styles and motifs , " wrote Carringer . Before RKO cut the film 's budget , Ferguson 's designs were more elaborate and resembled the production designs of early Cecil B. DeMille films and Intolerance . The budget cuts reduced Ferguson 's budget by 33 percent and his work cost $ 58 @,@ 775 total , which was below average at that time . To save costs Ferguson and Welles re @-@ wrote scenes in Xanadu 's living room and transported them to the Great Hall . A large staircase from another film was found and used at no additional cost . When asked about the limited budget , Ferguson said " Very often — as in that much @-@ discussed ' Xanadu ' set in Citizen Kane — we can make a foreground piece , a background piece , and imaginative lighting suggest a great deal more on the screen than actually exists on the stage . " According to the film 's official budget there were 81 sets built , but Ferguson said there were between 106 and 116 .
Still photographs of Oheka Castle in Huntington , New York , were used in the opening montage , representing Kane 's Xanadu estate . Ferguson also designed statues from Kane 's collection with styles ranging from Greek to German Gothic . The sets were also built to accommodate Toland 's camera movements . Walls were built to fold and furniture could quickly be moved . The film 's famous ceilings were made out of muslin fabric and camera boxes were built into the floors for low angle shots . Welles later said that he was proud that the film production value looked much more expensive than the film 's budget . Although neither worked with Welles again , Toland and Ferguson collaborated in several films in the 1940s .
= = = Special effects = = =
The film 's special effects were supervised by RKO department head Vernon L. Walker . Welles pioneered several visual effects to cheaply shoot things like crowd scenes and large interior spaces . For example , the scene in which the camera in the opera house rises dramatically to the rafters , to show the workmen showing a lack of appreciation for Susan Alexander Kane 's performance , was shot by a camera craning upwards over the performance scene , then a curtain wipe to a miniature of the upper regions of the house , and then another curtain wipe matching it again with the scene of the workmen . Other scenes effectively employed miniatures to make the film look much more expensive than it truly was , such as various shots of Xanadu .
Some shots included rear screen projection in the background , such as Thompson 's interview of Leland and some of the ocean backgrounds at Xanadu . Bordwell claims that the scene where Thatcher agrees to be Kane 's guardian used rear screen projection to depict young Kane in the background , despite this scene being cited as a prime example of Toland 's deep focus cinematography . A special effects camera crew from Walker 's department was required for the extreme close @-@ up shots such as Kane 's lips when he says " Rosebud " and the shot of the typewriter typing Susan 's bad review .
Optical effects artist Dunn claimed that “ up to 80 percent of some reels was optically printed . ” These shots were traditionally attributed to Toland for years . The optical printer improved some of the deep focus shots . One problem with the optical printer was that it sometimes created excessive graininess , such as the optical zoom out of the snow globe . Welles decided to superimpose snow falling to mask the graininess in these shots . Toland said that he disliked the results of the optical printer , but acknowledged that " RKO special effects expert Vernon Walker , ASC , and his staff handled their part of the production — a by no means inconsiderable assignment — with ability and fine understanding . "
Any time deep focus was impossible — as in the scene in which Kane finishes a negative review of Susan 's opera while at the same time firing the person who began writing the review — an optical printer was used to make the whole screen appear in focus , visually layering one piece of film onto another . However , some apparently deep @-@ focus shots were the result of in @-@ camera effects , as in the famous scene in which Kane breaks into Susan 's room after her suicide attempt . In the background , Kane and another man break into the room , while simultaneously the medicine bottle and a glass with a spoon in it are in closeup in the foreground . The shot was an in @-@ camera matte shot . The foreground was shot first , with the background dark . Then the background was lit , the foreground darkened , the film rewound , and the scene re @-@ shot with the background action .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's music was composed by Bernard Herrmann . Herrmann had composed for Welles for his Mercury Theatre radio broadcasts . Because it was Herrmann 's first motion picture score , RKO wanted to pay him only a small fee , but Welles insisted he be paid at the same rate as Max Steiner .
The score established Herrmann as an important new composer of film soundtracks and eschewed the typical Hollywood practice of scoring a film with virtually non @-@ stop music . Instead Herrmann used what he later described as ' " radio scoring " , musical cues typically 5 – 15 seconds in length that bridge the action or suggest a different emotional response . The breakfast montage sequence begins with a graceful waltz theme and gets darker with each variation on that theme as the passage of time leads to the hardening of Kane 's personality and the breakdown of his first marriage .
Herrmann realized that musicians slated to play his music were hired for individual unique sessions ; there was no need to write for existing ensembles . This meant that he was free to score for unusual combinations of instruments , even instruments that are not commonly heard . In the opening sequence , for example , the tour of Kane 's estate Xanadu , Herrmann introduces a recurring leitmotiv played by low woodwinds , including a quartet of alto flutes .
For Susan Alexander Kane 's operatic sequence , Welles suggested that Herrmann compose a witty parody of a Mary Garden vehicle , an aria from Salammbô . " Our problem was to create something that would give the audience the feeling of the quicksand into which this simple little girl , having a charming but small voice , is suddenly thrown , " Herrmann said . Writing in the style of a 19th @-@ century French Oriental opera , Herrmann put the aria in a key that would force the singer to strain to reach the high notes , culminating in a high D , well outside the range of Susan Alexander . Soprano Jean Forward dubbed the vocal part for Comingore . Houseman claimed to have written the libretto , based on Jean Racine ’ s Athalie and Phedre , although some confusion remains since Lucille Fletcher remembered preparing the lyrics . Fletcher , then Herrmann 's wife , wrote the libretto for his opera Wuthering Heights .
Music enthusiasts consider the scene in which Susan Alexander Kane attempts to sing the famous cavatina " Una voce poco fa " from Il barbiere di Siviglia by Gioachino Rossini with vocal coach Signor Matiste as especially memorable for depicting the horrors of learning music through mistakes .
In 1972 , Herrmann said , " I was fortunate to start my career with a film like Citizen Kane , it 's been a downhill run ever since ! " Welles loved Herrmann 's score and told director Henry Jaglom that it was 50 percent responsible for the film 's artistic success .
Some incidental music came from other sources . Welles heard the tune used for the publisher 's theme , " Oh , Mr. Kane " , in Mexico . Called " A Poco No " , the song was written by Pepe Guízar and special lyrics were written by Herman Ruby .
" In a Mizz " , a 1939 jazz song by Charlie Barnet and Haven Johnson , bookends Thompson 's second interview of Susan Alexander Kane . " I kind of based the whole scene around that song , " Welles said . " The music is by Nat Cole — it 's his trio . " Later — beginning with the lyrics , " It can 't be love " — " In a Mizz " is performed at the Everglades picnic , framing the fight in the tent between Susan and Kane . Musicians including bandleader Cee Pee Johnson ( drums ) , Alton Redd ( vocals ) , Raymond Tate ( trumpet ) , Buddy Collette ( alto sax ) and Buddy Banks ( tenor sax ) are featured .
All of the music used in the newsreel came from the RKO music library , edited at Welles 's request by the newsreel department to achieve what Herrmann called " their own crazy way of cutting " . The News on the March theme that accompanies the newsreel titles is " Belgian March " by Anthony Collins , from the film Nurse Edith Cavell . Other examples are an excerpt from Alfred Newman 's score for Gunga Din ( the exploration of Xanadu ) , Roy Webb 's theme for the film Reno ( the growth of Kane 's empire ) , and bits of Webb 's score for Five Came Back ( introducing Walter Parks Thatcher ) .
= = = Editing = = =
One of the editing techniques used in Citizen Kane was the use of montage to collapse time and space , using an episodic sequence on the same set while the characters changed costume and make @-@ up between cuts so that the scene following each cut would look as if it took place in the same location , but at a time long after the previous cut . In the breakfast montage , Welles chronicles the breakdown of Kane 's first marriage in five vignettes that condense 16 years of story time into two minutes of screen time . Welles said that the idea for the breakfast scene " was stolen from The Long Christmas Dinner of Thornton Wilder … a one @-@ act play , which is a long Christmas dinner that takes you through something like 60 years of a family 's life . " The film often uses long dissolves to signify the passage of time and its psychological effect of the characters , such as the scene in which the abandoned sled is covered with snow after the young Kane is sent away with Thatcher .
Welles was influenced by the editing theories of Sergei Eisenstein by using jarring cuts that caused " sudden graphic or associative contrasts " , such as the cut from Kane 's deathbed to the beginning of the News on the March sequence and a sudden shot of a shrieking bird at the beginning of Raymond 's flashback . Although the film typically favors mise @-@ en @-@ scène over montage , the scene in which Kane goes to Susan Alexander 's apartment after first meeting her is the only one that is primarily cut as close @-@ ups with shots and counter shots between Kane and Susan . Fabe says that " by using a standard Hollywood technique sparingly , [ Welles ] revitalizes its psychological expressiveness . "
= = Themes = =
= = = Political themes = = =
In her 1992 monograph for the British Film Institute , critic Laura Mulvey explored the anti @-@ fascist themes of Citizen Kane . The News on the March newsreel presents Kane keeping company with Hitler and other dictators while he smugly assures the public there will be no war . Mulvey wrote that the film reflects " the battle between intervention and isolationism " then being waged in the United States ; the film was released six months before the attack on Pearl Harbor , while President Franklin D. Roosevelt was laboring to win public opinion for entering World War II . " Not only was the war in Europe the burning public issue of the time , " Mulvey wrote , " it was of passionate personal importance to Orson Welles … In the rhetoric of Citizen Kane , the destiny of isolationism is realised in metaphor : in Kane 's own fate , dying wealthy and lonely , surrounded by the detritus of European culture and history . "
Journalist Ignacio Ramonet has cited the film as an early example of mass media manipulation of public opinion and the power that media conglomerates have on influencing the democratic process . Ramonet believes that this early example of a media mogul influencing politics is outdated and that " today Citizen Kane would be a dwarf . He owned a few papers in one country . The forces that dominate today have integrated image with text and sound and the world is their market . There are media groups with the power of a thousand Citizen Kanes . " Media mogul Rupert Murdoch is sometimes labeled as a latter @-@ day Citizen Kane .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release controversy = = =
To ensure that Citizen Kane 's influence from Hearst 's life was a secret , Welles limited access to dailies and managed the film 's publicity . A December 1940 feature story in Stage magazine compared the film 's narrative to Faust and made no mention of Hearst .
The film was scheduled to premiere at RKO 's flagship theater Radio City Music Hall on February 14 , but in early January 1941 Welles was not finished with post @-@ production work and told RKO that it still needed its musical score . Writers for national magazines had early deadlines and so a rough cut was previewed for a select few on January 3 , 1941 for such magazines as Life , Look and Redbook . Gossip columnist Hedda Hopper ( and Parsons ' arch rival ) showed up to the screening uninvited . Most of the critics at the preview said that they liked the film and gave it good advanced reviews . Hopper wrote negatively about it , calling the film a “ vicious and irresponsible attack on a great man ” and criticizing its corny writing and old fashioned photography . Friday magazine ran an article drawing point @-@ by @-@ point comparisons between Kane and Hearst and documented how Welles had led on Parsons , Hollywood correspondent for Hearst papers . Up until this Welles had been friendly with Parsons . The magazine quoted Welles as saying that he couldn ’ t understand why she was so nice to him and that she should “ wait until the woman finds out that the picture ’ s about her boss . ” Welles immediately denied making the statement and the editor of Friday admitted that it may be false . Welles apologized to Parsons and assured her that he had never made that remark .
Shortly after Friday 's article , Hearst sent Parsons an angry letter complaining that he had learned about Citizen Kane from Hopper and not her . The incident made a fool of Parsons and compelled her to start attacking Welles and the film . Parsons demanded a private screening of the film and personally threatened Schaefer on Hearst ’ s behalf , first with a lawsuit and then with a vague threat of consequences for everyone in Hollywood . On January 10 Parsons and two lawyers working for Hearst were given a private screening of the film . James G. Stewart was present at the screening and said that she walked out of the film . Soon after , Parsons called Schaefer and threatened RKO with a lawsuit if they released Kane . She also contacted the management of Radio City Music Hall and demanded that they not screen it . The next day , the front page headline in Daily Variety read , " HEARST BANS RKO FROM PAPERS . " Hearst began this ban by suppressing promotion of RKO 's Kitty Foyle , but in two weeks the ban was lifted for everything except Kane .
When Schaefer did not submit to Parsons she called other studio heads and made more threats on behalf of Hearst to expose the private lives of people throughout the entire film industry . Welles was threatened with an exposé about his romance with the married actress Dolores del Rio , who wanted the affair kept secret until her divorce was finalized . In a statement to journalists Welles denied that the film was about Hearst . Hearst began preparing an injunction against the film for libel and invasion of privacy , but Welles 's lawyer told him that he doubted Hearst would proceed due to the negative publicity and required testimony that an injunction would bring .
The Hollywood Reporter ran a front @-@ page story on January 13 that Hearst papers were about to run a series of editorials attacking Hollywood 's practice of hiring refugees and immigrants for jobs that could be done by Americans . The goal was to put pressure on the other studios to force RKO to shelve Kane . Many of those immigrants had fled Europe after the rise of fascism and feared losing the safe haven of the United States . Soon afterwards , Schaefer was approached by Nicholas Schenck , head of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer 's parent company , with an offer on the behalf of Louis B. Mayer and other Hollywood executives to RKO Pictures of $ 805 @,@ 000 to destroy all prints of the film and burn the negative . Once RKO 's legal team reassured Schaefer , the studio announced on January 21 that Kane would be released as scheduled , and with one of the largest promotional campaigns in the studio 's history . Schaefer brought Welles to New York City for a private screening of the film with the New York corporate heads of the studios and their lawyers . There was no objection to its release provided that certain changes , including the removal or softening of specific references that might offend Hearst , were made . Welles agreed and cut the running time from 122 minutes to 119 minutes . The cuts satisfied the corporate lawyers .
= = = Hearst 's response = = =
Hearing about Citizen Kane enraged Hearst so much that he banned any advertising , reviewing , or mentioning of it in his papers , and had his journalists libel Welles . Welles used Hearst 's opposition as a pretext for previewing the film in several opinion @-@ making screenings in Los Angeles , lobbying for its artistic worth against the hostile campaign that Hearst was waging . A special press screening took place in early March . Henry Luce was in attendance and reportedly wanted to buy the film from RKO for $ 1 million to distribute it himself . The reviews for this screening were positive . A Hollywood Review headline read , " Mr. Genius Comes Through ; ' Kane ' Astonishing Picture " . The Motion Picture Herald reported about the screening and Welles 's intention to sue RKO . Time magazine wrote that " The objection of Mr. Hearst , who founded a publishing empire on sensationalism , is ironic . For to most of the several hundred people who have seen the film at private screenings , Citizen Kane is the most sensational product of the U.S. movie industry . " A second press screening occurred in April .
When Schaefer rejected Hearst 's offer to suppress the film , Hearst banned every newspaper and station in his media conglomerate from reviewing — or even mentioning — the film . He also had many movie theaters ban it , and many did not show it through fear of being socially exposed by his massive newspaper empire . The Oscar @-@ nominated documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane lays the blame for the film 's relative failure squarely at the feet of Hearst . The film did decent business at the box office ; it went on to be the sixth highest grossing film in its year of release , a modest success its backers found acceptable . Nevertheless , the film 's commercial performance fell short of its creators ' expectations . Hearst 's biographer David Nasaw points out that Hearst 's actions were not the only reason Kane failed , however : the innovations Welles made with narrative , as well as the dark message at the heart of the film ( that the pursuit of success is ultimately futile ) meant that a popular audience could not appreciate its merits .
Hearst 's attacks against Welles went beyond attempting to suppress the film . Welles said that while he was on his post @-@ filming lecture tour a police detective approached him at a restaurant and advised him not to go back to his hotel . A 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl had reportedly been hidden in the closet of his room , and two photographers were waiting for him to walk in . Knowing he would be jailed after the resulting publicity , Welles did not return to the hotel but waited until the train left town the following morning . " But that wasn 't Hearst , " Welles said , " that was a hatchet man from the local Hearst paper who thought he would advance himself by doing it . "
In March 1941 Welles directed a Broadway version of Richard Wright 's Native Son ( and , for luck , used a " Rosebud " sled as a prop ) . Native Son received positive reviews , but Hearst @-@ owned papers used the opportunity to attack Welles as a communist . The Hearst papers vociferously attacked Welles after his April 1941 radio play , " His Honor , the Mayor " , produced for The Free Company radio series on CBS .
Welles described his chance encounter with Hearst in an elevator at the Fairmont Hotel on the night Citizen Kane opened in San Francisco . Hearst and Welles 's father were acquaintances , so Welles introduced himself and asked Hearst if he would like to come to the opening . Hearst did not respond . " As he was getting off at his floor , I said , ' Charles Foster Kane would have accepted . ' No reply " , recalled Welles . " And Kane would have you know . That was his style — just as he finished Jed Leland 's bad review of Susan as an opera singer . "
In 1945 Hearst journalist Robert Shaw wrote that the film got " a full tide of insensate fury " from Hearst papers , " then it ebbed suddenly . With one brain cell working , the chief realized that such hysterical barking by the trained seals would attract too much attention to the picture . But to this day the name of Orson Welles is on the official son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch list of every Hearst newspaper . "
Despite Hearst 's attempts to destroy the film , since 1941 references to his life and career have usually included a reference to Citizen Kane , such as the headline ' Son of Citizen Kane Dies ' for the obituary of Hearst 's son . In 2012 the Hearst estate agreed to screen the film at Hearst Castle in San Simeon , breaking Hearst 's ban on the film .
= = = Release = = =
Radio City Music Hall 's management refused to screen Citizen Kane for its premiere . A possible factor was Parsons 's threat that The American Weekly would run a defamatory story on the grandfather of major RKO stockholder Nelson Rockefeller . Other exhibitors feared being sued for libel by Hearst and refused to show the film . In March Welles threatened the RKO board of governors with a lawsuit if they did not release the film . Schaefer stood by Welles and opposed the board of governors . When RKO still delayed the film 's release Welles offered to buy the film for $ 1 million and the studio finally agreed to release the film on May 1 .
Schaefer managed to book a few theaters willing to show the film . Hearst papers refused to accept advertising . RKO 's publicity advertisements for the film erroneously promoted it as a love story .
Kane opened at the RKO Palace Theatre on Broadway in New York on May 1 , 1941 , in Chicago on May 6 , and in Los Angeles on May 8 . Welles said that at the Chicago premiere that he attended the theater was almost empty . It did well in cities and larger towns but fared poorly in more remote areas . RKO still had problems getting exhibitors to show the film . For example , one chain controlling more than 500 theaters got Welles 's film as part of a package but refused to play it , reportedly out of fear of Hearst . Hearst 's disruption of the film 's release damaged its box office performance and , as a result , it lost $ 160 @,@ 000 during its initial run . The film earned $ 23 @,@ 878 during its first week in New York . By the ninth week it only made $ 7 @,@ 279 . Overall it lost money in New York , Boston , Chicago , Los Angeles , San Francisco and Washington , D.C. , but made a profit in Seattle .
= = = Contemporary responses = = =
Citizen Kane received good reviews from several critics . New York Daily News critic Kate Cameron called it " one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio " . New York World @-@ Telegram critic William Boehnel said that the film was " staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements " . Time magazine wrote that " it has found important new techniques in picture @-@ making and story @-@ telling . " Life magazine 's review said that " few movies have ever come from Hollywood with such powerful narrative , such original technique , such exciting photography . " John C. Mosher of The New Yorker called the film 's style " like fresh air " and raved " Something new has come to the movie world at last . " Anthony Bower of The Nation called it " brilliant " and praised the cinematography and performances by Welles , Comingore and Cotten . John O 'Hara 's Newsweek review called it the best picture he 'd ever seen and said Welles was " the best actor in the history of acting . " Welles called O 'Hara 's review " the greatest review that anybody ever had . "
The day following the premiere of Citizen Kane , The New York Times critic Bosley Crowther wrote that " ... it comes close to being the most sensational film ever made in Hollywood . "
Count on Mr. Welles : he doesn 't do things by halves . ... Upon the screen he discovered an area large enough for his expansive whims to have free play . And the consequence is that he has made a picture of tremendous and overpowering scope , not in physical extent so much as in its rapid and graphic rotation of thoughts . Mr. Welles has put upon the screen a motion picture that really moves .
In the UK C. A. Lejeune of The Observer called it " The most exciting film that has come out of Hollywood in twenty @-@ five years " and Dilys Powell of The Sunday Times said the film 's style was made " with the ease and boldness and resource of one who controls and is not controlled by his medium . " Edward Tangye Lean of Horizon praised the film ’ s technical style , calling it " perhaps a decade ahead of its contemporaries . "
A few reviews were mixed . Otis Ferguson of The New Republic said it was " the boldest free @-@ hand stroke in major screen production since Griffith and Bitzer were running wild to unshackle the camera " , but also criticized its style , calling it a " retrogression in film technique " and stating that " it holds no great place " in film history . In a rare film review , filmmaker Erich von Stroheim criticized the film 's story and non @-@ linear structure , but praised the technical style and performances , and wrote " Whatever the truth may be about it , Citizen Kane is a great picture and will go down in screen history . More power to Welles ! "
Some prominent critics wrote negative reviews . In his 1941 review for Sur , Jorge Luis Borges famously called the film " a labyrinth with no center " and predicted that its legacy would be a film " whose historical value is undeniable but which no one cares to see again . " The Argus Weekend Magazine critic Erle Cox called the film " amazing " but thought that Welles 's break with Hollywood traditions was " overdone . " Tatler 's James Agate called it " the well @-@ intentioned , muddled , amateurish thing one expects from high @-@ brows " and " a quite good film which tries to run the psychological essay in harness with your detective thriller , and doesn 't quite succeed . " Eileen Creelman of The New York Sun called it " a cold picture , unemotional , a puzzle rather than a drama " . Other people who disliked the film were W. H. Auden and James Agee .
= = = Awards = = =
Citizen Kane received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Picture . The National Board of Review voted it Best Film of 1941 , and recognized Welles and Coulouris for their performances .
Citizen Kane received nine nominations at the 1941 Academy Awards :
Outstanding Motion Picture – RKO Radio Pictures
Best Director – Orson Welles
Best Actor – Orson Welles
Best Writing ( Original Screenplay ) – Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles
Best Art Direction @-@ Interior Decoration ( Black @-@ and @-@ White ) – Perry Ferguson , Van Nest Polglase , A. Roland Fields , Darrell Silvera
Best Film Editing – Robert Wise
Best Cinematography ( Black @-@ and @-@ White ) – Gregg Toland
Best Music ( Score of a Dramatic Picture ) – Bernard Herrmann
Best Sound Recording – John O. Aalberg
It was widely believed the film would win most of its Oscar nominations , but it received only the award for Best Writing ( Original Screenplay ) , shared by Welles and Mankiewicz . Variety reported that block voting by screen extras deprived Citizen Kane of Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Actor ( Welles ) , and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards .
= = Legacy = =
Citizen Kane was the only film made under Welles 's original contract with RKO Pictures , which gave him complete creative control . Welles 's new business manager and attorney permitted the contract to lapse . In July 1941 , Welles reluctantly signed a new and less favorable deal with RKO under which he produced and directed The Magnificent Ambersons ( 1942 ) , produced Journey into Fear ( 1943 ) , and began It 's All True , a film he agreed to do without payment . In the new contract Welles was an employee of the studio and lost the right to final cut , which later allowed RKO to modify and re @-@ cut The Magnificent Ambersons over his objections . In June 1942 Schaefer resigned the presidency of RKO Pictures and Welles 's contract was terminated by his successor .
= = = Release in Europe = = =
During World War II , Citizen Kane was not seen in most European countries . It was shown in France for the first time on July 10 , 1946 at the Marbeuf theatre in Paris . Initially most French film critics were influenced by the negative reviews of Jean @-@ Paul Sartre in 1945 and Georges Sadoul in 1946 . At that time many French intellectuals and filmmakers shared Sartre 's negative opinion that Hollywood filmmakers were uncultured . Sartre criticized the film 's flashbacks for its nostalgic and romantic preoccupation with the past instead of the realities of the present and said that " the whole film is based on a misconception of what cinema is all about . The film is in the past tense , whereas we all know that cinema has got to be in the present tense . "
André Bazin , a little @-@ known film critic working for Sartre 's Les Temps modernes , was asked to give an impromptu speech about the film after a screening at the Colisée Theatre in the autumn of 1946 and changed the opinion of much of the audience . This speech led to Bazin 's 1947 article " The Technique of Citizen Kane " , which directly influenced public opinion about the film . Carringer wrote that Bazin was " the one who did the most to enhance the film ’ s reputation . " Both Bazin 's critique of the film and his theories about cinema itself centered around his strong belief in mise en scène . These theories were diametrically opposed to both the popular Soviet montage theory and the politically Marxist and anti @-@ Hollywood beliefs of most French film critics at that time . Bazin believed that a film should depict reality without the filmmaker imposing their " will " on the spectator , which the Soviet theory supported . Bazin wrote that Citizen Kane 's mise en scène created a " new conception of filmmaking " and that the freedom given to the audience from the deep focus shots was innovative by changing the entire concept of the cinematic image . Bazin wrote extensively about the mise en scène in the scene where Susan Alexander attempts suicide , which was one long take while other films would have used four or five shots in the scene . Bazin wrote that the film 's mise en scène " forces the spectator to participate in the meaning of the film " and creates " a psychological realism which brings the spectator back to the real conditions of perception . "
In his 1950 essay " The Evolution of the Language of Cinema " , Bazin placed Citizen Kane center stage as a work which ushered in a new period in cinema . One of the first critics to defend motion pictures as being on the same artistic level as literature or painting , Bazin often used the film as an example of cinema as an art form and wrote that " Welles has given the cinema a theoretical restoration . He has enriched his filmic repertory with new or forgotten effects that , in today ’ s artistic context , take on a significance we didn ’ t know they could have . " Bazin also compared the film to Roberto Rossellini 's Paisà for having " the same aesthetic concept of realism " and to the films of William Wyler shot by Toland ( such as The Little Foxes and The Best Years of Our Lives ) , all of which used deep focus cinematography that Bazin called " a dialectical step forward in film language . "
Bazin 's praise of the film went beyond film theory and reflected his own philosophy towards life itself . His metaphysical interpretations about the film reflected humankind ’ s place in the universe . Bazin believed that the film examined one person 's identity and search for meaning . It portrayed the world as ambiguous and full of contradictions , whereas films up until then simply portrayed people ’ s actions and motivations . Bazin 's biographer Dudley Andrew wrote that :
The world of Citizen Kane , that mysterious , dark , and infinitely deep world of space and memory where voices trail off into distant echoes and where meaning dissolves into interpretation , seemed to Bazin to mark the starting point from which all of us try to construct provisionally the sense of our lives .
Bazin went on to co @-@ found Cahiers du cinéma , whose contributors ( including future film directors François Truffaut and Jean @-@ Luc Godard ) also praised the film . The popularity of Truffaut 's auteur theory helped the film 's and Welles 's reputation .
= = = Re @-@ evaluation = = =
By 1942 Citizen Kane had run its course theatrically and , apart from a few showings at big city arthouse cinemas , it largely vanished and both the film 's and Welles 's reputation fell among American critics . In 1949 critic Richard Griffith in his overview of cinema , The Film Till Now , dismissed Citizen Kane as " ... tinpot if not crackpot Freud . "
In the United States , it was neglected and forgotten until its revival on television in the mid @-@ 1950s . Three key events in 1956 led to its re @-@ evaluation in the United States : first , RKO was one of the first studios to sell its library to television , and early that year Citizen Kane started to appear on television ; second , the film was re @-@ released theatrically to coincide with Welles 's return to the New York stage , where he played King Lear ; and third , American film critic Andrew Sarris wrote " Citizen Kane : The American Baroque " for Film Culture , and described it as " the great American film " and " the work that influenced the cinema more profoundly than any American film since Birth of a Nation . " Carringer considers Sarris 's essay as the most important influence on the film 's reputation in the US .
During Expo 58 , a poll of over 100 film historians named Kane one of the top ten greatest films ever made ( the group gave first @-@ place honors to The Battleship Potemkin ) . When a group of young film directors announced their vote for the top six , they were booed for not including the film .
In the decades since , its critical status as the greatest film ever made has grown , with numerous essays and books on it including Peter Cowie 's The Cinema of Orson Welles , Ronald Gottesman 's Focus on Citizen Kane , a collection of significant reviews and background pieces , and most notably Kael 's essay , " Raising Kane " , which promoted the value of the film to a much wider audience than it had reached before . Despite its criticism of Welles , it further popularized the notion of Citizen Kane as the great American film . The rise of art house and film society circuits also aided in the film 's rediscovery . David Thomson said that the film ' grows with every year as America comes to resemble it . "
The British magazine Sight & Sound has produced a Top Ten list surveying film critics every decade since 1952 , and is regarded as one of the most respected barometers of critical taste . Citizen Kane was a runner up to the top 10 in its 1952 poll but was voted as the greatest film ever made in its 1962 poll , retaining the top spot in every subsequent poll until 2012 , when Vertigo displaced it .
The film has also ranked number one in the following film " best of " lists : Julio Castedo 's The 100 Best Films of the Century , Cahiers du cinéma 's 100 films pour une cinémathèque idéale , Kinovedcheskie Zapiski , Time Out magazine 's Top 100 Films ( Centenary ) , The Village Voice 's 100 Greatest Films , and The Royal Belgian Film Archive 's Most Important and Misappreciated American Films .
Roger Ebert called Citizen Kane the greatest film ever made : " But people don 't always ask about the greatest film . They ask , ' What 's your favorite movie ? ' Again , I always answer with Citizen Kane . "
In 1989 , the United States Library of Congress deemed the film " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . Citizen Kane was one of the first 25 films inducted into the registry .
On February 18 , 1999 , the United States Postal Service honored Citizen Kane by including it in its Celebrate the Century series . The film was honored again February 25 , 2003 , in a series of U.S. postage stamps marking the 75th anniversary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Art director Perry Ferguson represents the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes craftsmen of filmmaking in the series ; he is depicted completing a sketch for Citizen Kane .
Citizen Kane was ranked number one in the American Film Institute 's polls of film industry artists and leaders in 1998 and 2007 . " Rosebud " was chosen as the 17th most memorable movie quotation in a 2005 AFI poll . The film 's score was one of 250 nominees for the top 25 film scores in American cinema in another 2005 AFI poll .
The film currently has a 100 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes , based on 70 reviews by approved critics , with an average rating of 9 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : " Orson Welles 's epic tale of a publishing tycoon 's rise and fall is entertaining , poignant , and inventive in its storytelling , earning its reputation as a landmark achievement in film . "
= = = Influence = = =
Citizen Kane has been called the most influential film of all time . Richard Corliss has asserted that Jules Dassin 's 1941 film The Tell @-@ Tale Heart was the first example of its influence and the first pop culture reference to the film occurred later in 1941 when the spoof comedy Hellzapoppin ' featured a " Rosebud " sled . The film 's cinematography was almost immediately influential and in 1942 American Cinematographer wrote " without a doubt the most immediately noticeable trend in cinematography methods during the year was the trend toward crisper definition and increased depth of field . "
The cinematography influenced John Huston 's The Maltese Falcon . Cinematographer Arthur Edeson used a wider @-@ angle lens than Toland and the film includes many long takes , low angles and shots of the ceiling , but it did not use deep focus shots on large sets to the extent that Citizen Kane did . Edeson and Toland are often credited together for revolutionizing cinematography in 1941 . Toland 's cinematography influenced his own work on The Best Years of Our Lives . Other films influenced include Gaslight , Mildred Pierce and Jane Eyre . Cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa said that his use of deep focus was influenced by " the camera work of Gregg Toland in Citizen Kane " and not by traditional Japanese art .
Its cinematography , lighting , and flashback structure influenced such film noirs of the 1940s and 1950s as The Killers , Keeper of the Flame , Caught , The Great Man and This Gun for Hire . David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson have written that “ For over a decade thereafter American films displayed exaggerated foregrounds and somber lighting , enhanced by long takes and exaggerated camera movements . ” However , by the 1960s filmmakers such as those from the French New Wave and Cinéma vérité movements favored " flatter , more shallow images with softer focus " and Citizen Kane 's style became less fashionable . American filmmakers in the 1970s combined these two approaches by using long takes , rapid cutting , deep focus and telephoto shots all at once . Its use of long takes influenced films such as The Asphalt Jungle , and its use of deep focus cinematography influenced Gun Crazy , The Whip Hand , The Devil 's General and Justice Is Done . The flashback structure in which different characters have conflicting versions of past events influenced La commare secca and Man of Marble .
The film 's structure influenced the biographical films Lawrence of Arabia and Mishima : A Life in Four Chapters — which begin with the subject 's death and show their life in flashbacks — as well as Welles 's thriller Mr. Arkadin . Rosenbaum sees similarities in the film 's plot to Mr. Arkadin , as well as the theme of nostalgia for loss of innocence throughout Welles 's career , beginning with Citizen Kane and including The Magnificent Ambersons , Mr. Arkadin and Chimes at Midnight . Rosenbaum also points out how the film influenced Warren Beatty 's Reds . The film depicts the life of Jack Reed through the eyes of Louise Bryant , much as Kane 's life is seen through the eyes of Thompson and the people who he interviews . Rosenbaum also compared the romantic montage between Reed and Bryant with the breakfast table montage in Citizen Kane .
Akira Kurosawa 's Rashomon is often compared to the film due to both having complicated plot structures told by multiple characters in the film . Welles said his initial idea for the film was " Basically , the idea Rashomon used later on , " however Kurosawa had not yet seen the film before making Rashomon in 1950 . Nigel Andrews has compared the film 's complex plot structure to Rashomon , Last Year at Marienbad , Memento and Magnolia . Andrews also compares Charles Foster Kane to Michael Corleone in The Godfather , Jake LaMotta in Raging Bull and Daniel Plainview in There Will Be Blood for their portrayals of " haunted megalomaniac [ s ] , presiding over the shards of [ their ] own [ lives ] . "
The films of Paul Thomas Anderson have been compared to it . Variety compared There Will Be Blood to the film and called it " one that rivals Giant and Citizen Kane in our popular lore as origin stories about how we came to be the people we are . " The Master has been called " movieland ’ s only spiritual sequel to Citizen Kane that doesn ’ t shrivel under the hefty comparison " and the film 's loose depiction of L. Ron Hubbard has been compared to Citizen Kane 's depiction of Hearst . The Social Network has been compared to the film for its depiction of a media mogul and by the character Erica Albright being similar to " Rosebud " . The controversy of the Sony hacking before the release of The Interview brought comparisons of Hearst 's attempt to suppress the film . The film 's plot structure and some specific shots influenced Todd Haynes 's Velvet Goldmine . Abbas Kiarostami 's The Traveler has been called " the Citizen Kane of the Iranian children ’ s cinema . " The film 's use of overlapping dialogue has influenced the films of Robert Altman and Carol Reed . Reed 's films Odd Man Out , The Third Man ( in which Welles and Cotten appeared ) and Outcast of the Islands were also influenced by the film 's cinematography .
Many directors have listed it as one of the greatest films ever made , including Woody Allen , Michael Apted , Les Blank , Kenneth Branagh , Paul Greengrass , Michel Hazanavicius , Michael Mann , Sam Mendes , Jiri Menzel , Paul Schrader , Martin Scorsese , Denys Arcand , Gillian Armstrong , John Boorman , Roger Corman , Alex Cox , Milos Forman , Norman Jewison , Richard Lester , Richard Linklater , Paul Mazursky , Ronald Neame , Sydney Pollack and Stanley Kubrick . Yasujirō Ozu said it was his favorite non @-@ Japanese film and was impressed by its techniques . François Truffaut said that the film " has inspired more vocations to cinema throughout the world than any other " and recognized its influence in The Barefoot Contessa , Les Mauvaises Rencontres , Lola Montès , and 8 1 / 2 . Truffaut 's Day for Night pays tribute to the film in a dream sequence depicting a childhood memory of the character played by Truffaut stealing publicity photos from the film . Numerous film directors have cited the film as influential on their own films , including Theo Angelopoulos , Luc Besson , the Coen brothers , Francis Ford Coppola , Brian De Palma , John Frankenheimer , Stephen Frears , Sergio Leone , Michael Mann , Ridley Scott , Martin Scorsese , Bryan Singer and Steven Spielberg . Ingmar Bergman disliked the film and called it " a total bore . Above all , the performances are worthless . The amount of respect that movie has is absolutely unbelievable ! "
William Friedkin said that the film influenced him and called it " a veritable quarry for filmmakers , just as Joyce 's Ulysses is a quarry for writers . " The film has also influenced other art forms . Carlos Fuentes 's novel The Death of Artemio Cruz was partially inspired by the film and the rock band The White Stripes paid unauthorized tribute to the film in the song " The Union Forever " .
= = = Film memorabilia = = =
In 1982 , film director Steven Spielberg bought a " Rosebud " sled for $ 60 @,@ 500 ; it was one of three balsa sleds used in the closing scenes and the only one that was not burned . After the Spielberg purchase , it was reported that retiree Arthur Bauer claimed to own another " Rosebud " sled . In early 1942 when Bauer was 12 he won an RKO publicity contest and selected the hardwood sled as his prize . In 1996 , Bauer 's estate offered the painted pine sled at auction through Christie 's . Bauer 's son told CBS News that his mother had once wanted to paint the sled and use it as a plant stand , but Bauer told her to " just save it and put it in the closet . " The sled was sold to an anonymous bidder for $ 233 @,@ 500 .
Welles 's Oscar for Best Original Screenplay was believed to be lost until it was rediscovered in 1994 . It was withdrawn from a 2007 auction at Sotheby 's when bidding failed to reach its estimate of $ 800 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @.@ 2 million . Owned by the charitable Dax Foundation , it was auctioned for $ 861 @,@ 542 in 2011 to an anonymous buyer . Mankiewicz 's Oscar was sold at least twice , in 1999 and again in 2012 , the latest price being $ 588 @,@ 455 .
In 1989 , Mankiewicz 's personal copy of the Citizen Kane script was auctioned at Christie 's . The leather @-@ bound volume included the final shooting script and a carbon copy of American that bore handwritten annotations — purportedly made by Hearst 's lawyers , who were said to have obtained it in the manner described by Kael in " Raising Kane " . Estimated to bring $ 70 @,@ 000 to $ 90 @,@ 000 , it sold for a record $ 231 @,@ 000 .
In 2007 , Welles 's personal copy of the last revised draft of Citizen Kane before the shooting script was sold at Sotheby 's for $ 97 @,@ 000 . A second draft of the script titled American , marked " Mr. Welles ' working copy " , was auctioned by Sotheby 's in 2014 for $ 164 @,@ 692 . A collection of 24 pages from a working script found in Welles 's personal possessions by his daughter Beatrice Welles was auctioned in 2014 for $ 15 @,@ 000 .
In 2014 , a collection of approximately 235 Citizen Kane stills and production photos that had belonged to Welles was sold at auction for $ 7 @,@ 812 .
= = Rights and home media = =
The composited camera negative of Citizen Kane was destroyed in a New Jersey film laboratory fire in the 1970s . Subsequent prints were derived from a master positive ( a fine @-@ grain preservation element ) made in the 1940s and originally intended for use in overseas distribution . Modern techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical reissue in 1991 which Paramount released for then @-@ owner Turner Broadcasting System , which earned $ 1 @.@ 6 million in North America .
In 1955 , RKO sold the American television rights to its film library , including Citizen Kane , to C & C Television Corp. In 1960 , television rights to the pre @-@ 1956 RKO library were acquired by United Artists . RKO kept the non @-@ broadcast television rights to its library .
In 1976 , when home video was in its infancy , entrepreneur Snuff Garrett bought cassette rights to the RKO library for what United Press International termed " a pittance . " In 1978 The Nostalgia Merchant released the film through Media Home Entertainment . By 1980 the 800 @-@ title library of The Nostalgia Merchant was earning $ 2 @.@ 3 million a year . " Nobody wanted cassettes four years ago , " Garrett told UPI . " It wasn 't the first time people called me crazy . It was a hobby with me which became big business . " RKO Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax in 1985 .
In 1984 , The Criterion Collection released the film as its first LaserDisc . It was made from a fine grain master positive provided by the UCLA Film and Television Archive . When told about the then @-@ new concept of having an audio commentary on the disc , Welles was skeptical but said " theoretically , that ’ s good for teaching movies , so long as they don ’ t talk nonsense . " In 1992 Criterion released a new 50th Anniversary Edition LaserDisc . This version had an improved transfer and additional special features , including the documentary The Legacy of Citizen Kane and Welles 's early short The Hearts of Age .
Turner Broadcasting System acquired broadcast television rights to the RKO library in 1986 and the full worldwide rights to the library in 1987 . The RKO Home Video unit was reorganized into Turner Home Entertainment that year . In 1991 Turner released a 50th Anniversary Edition on VHS and as a collector 's edition that includes the film , the documentary Reflections On Citizen Kane , Harlan Lebo 's 50th anniversary album , a poster and a copy of the original script . In 1996 , Time Warner acquired Turner and Warner Home Video absorbed Turner Home Entertainment . Today , Time Warner 's Warner Bros. unit has distribution rights for the film .
In 2001 , Warner Home Video released a 60th Anniversary Collectors Edition DVD . The two @-@ disc DVD included feature @-@ length commentaries by Roger Ebert and Peter Bogdanovich , as well as The Battle Over Citizen Kane . It was simultaneously released on VHS . The DVD was criticized for being " too bright , too clean ; the dirt and grime had been cleared away , but so had a good deal of the texture , the depth , and the sense of film grain . "
In 2003 , Welles 's daughter Beatrice Welles sued Turner Entertainment , claiming the Welles estate is the legal copyright holder of the film . She claimed that Welles 's deal to terminate his contracts with RKO meant that Turner 's copyright of the film was null and void . She also claimed that the estate of Orson Welles was owed 20 % of the film 's profits if her copyright claim was not upheld . In 2007 she was allowed to proceed with the lawsuit , overturning the 2004 decision in favor of Turner Entertainment on the issue of video rights .
In 2011 , it was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in a 70th anniversary box set . The San Francisco Chronicle called it " the Blu @-@ ray release of the year . " Supplements included everything available on the 2001 Warner Home Video release , as well as RKO 281 and packaging extras that include a hardcover booklet and a folio containing a reproduction of the original souvenir program , miniature lobby cards and other memorabilia . The Blu @-@ ray DVD was scanned as 4K resolution from three different 35mm prints and rectified the quality issues of the 2001 DVD .
= = = Colorization controversy = = =
In the 1980s , Citizen Kane became a catalyst in the controversy over the colorization of black @-@ and @-@ white films . One proponent of film colorization was Ted Turner , whose Turner Entertainment Company owned the RKO library . A Turner Entertainment spokesperson initially stated that Citizen Kane would not be colorized , but in July 1988 Turner said , " Citizen Kane ? I 'm thinking of colorizing it . " In early 1989 it was reported that two companies were producing color tests for Turner Entertainment . Criticism increased when filmmaker Henry Jaglom stated that shortly before his death Welles had implored him " don 't let Ted Turner deface my movie with his crayons . "
In February 1989 , Turner Entertainment president Roger Mayer announced that work to colorize the film had been stopped due to provisions in Welles 's 1939 contract with RKO that " could be read to prohibit colorization without permission of the Welles estate . " Mayer added that Welles 's contract was " quite unusual " and " other contracts we have checked out are not like this at all . " Turner had only colorized the final reel of the film before abandoning the project . In 1991 one minute of the colorized test footage was included in the BBC Arena documentary The Complete Citizen Kane .
The colorization controversy was a factor in the passage of the National Film Preservation Act in 1988 which created the National Film Registry the following year . ABC News anchor Peter Jennings reported that " one major reason for doing this is to require people like the broadcaster Ted Turner , who 's been adding color to some movies and re @-@ editing others for television , to put notices on those versions saying that the movies have been altered " .
|
= Battle of the Samichon River =
The Battle of the Samichon River ( 24 – 26 July 1953 ) was fought during the final days of the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and American — and the Chinese communist People 's Volunteer Army . The fighting took place on a key position on the Jamestown Line known as The Hook and saw the defending UN troops , including the 2nd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 2 RAR ) from the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade and the US 7th Marine Regiment , fight off numerous assaults by the Chinese 137th Division during two concerted night attacks , inflicting numerous casualties on the Chinese with heavy artillery and small arms fire . The action was part of a larger , divisional @-@ sized Chinese attack against the US 1st Marine Division , with diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians . With the peace talks in Panmunjom reaching a conclusion , the Chinese had been eager to gain a last @-@ minute victory over the UN forces and the battle was the last of the war before the official signing of the Korean Armistice .
During the action the Chinese had attempted to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary between the US 1st Marine Division and the 1st Commonwealth Division in order to turn the Marine division 's flank . Yet with well @-@ coordinated indirect fires from the divisional artillery , including 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery , and support from British Centurion tanks of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment , 2 RAR successfully thwarted both assaults , holding a key position known as The Hook . Later , it was estimated that Chinese casualties numbered between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 killed , with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners . Meanwhile , on the left flank , US Marines had endured the brunt of the attack , repelling the Chinese onslaught with their infantry and artillery but suffering casualties in the process . Only a few hours later the Armistice Agreement was signed , ultimately ending the war . Both sides subsequently withdrew 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) within 72 hours to create a 4 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) demilitarised zone .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Following the Battle of Maryang San in early October 1951 the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade remained in defence for the rest of the month . Amid heavy fighting on the afternoon of 4 November the Chinese recaptured Hill 317 , which was by then held by the 1st Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers , in an action for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross . The hill remained in Chinese hands until the end of the war . Operation Commando subsequently proved to be one of the last UN actions in the war of manoeuvre , and with peace talks ongoing the fighting was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences , trench lines , bunkers , patrols , wiring parties and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . Construction of defensive localities sited in all @-@ round defence with interlocking arcs of fire began almost immediately , although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire which made such operations hazardous . Patrolling and ambushing by both sides also began in order to prevent the other from gaining control of no man 's land . The 1st Commonwealth Division , which included British , Australian , Canadian , New Zealand and Indian troops , subsequently occupied part of the Jamestown Line — a UN defensive position which extended 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) across central Korea — in the US I Corps sector on the US Eighth Army 's left flank . The war was no less bloody though , and the division remained in the line for all but two of the remaining nineteen months of the war .
From 19 January 1952 , the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) was in defence on the Jamestown Line as part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade before going into reserve on 18 April , where they remained until the end of June . Meanwhile , in early 1952 the Australian government had agreed to an American request to increase its forces in Korea , dispatching a second infantry battalion to join 3 RAR which had been fighting since September 1950 . The 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 1 RAR ) arrived in Korea on 6 April 1952 , with both battalions forming part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade under the command of an Australian brigadier . The brigade re @-@ entered the line on 30 June and 1 RAR spent the following fourteen weeks patrolling , ambushing and raiding , before the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade again went into reserve on 5 October . The brigade returned to the Jamestown Line in early November , with 1 RAR taking over the defences on Hill 355 from the Canadians . The Australians were subsequently forced to clean up large quantities of rubbish left by the Canadians as well as repairing and camouflaging the defences which had recently been attacked by the Chinese . 1 RAR implemented an aggressive patrol program in an effort to regain control of no @-@ man 's land from the Chinese , which had been allowed to establish hides close to the perimeter . Several Chinese outposts were subsequently destroyed during raids of up to company @-@ size .
3 RAR took over the defences on Hill 355 on 28 December 1952 and remained there until the 1st Commonwealth Division went into reserve at the end January 1953 . On 21 March , 1 RAR was replaced in Korea by the 2nd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 2 RAR ) , after nearly twelve months operational service . Heavy fighting occurred in March , with the Chinese moving back over to a limited offensive in the US I Corps sector , in an attempt to regain the initiative following the winter . Heavy fighting occurred around The Hook , which was by then held by the US 2nd Division following the relief of the 1st Commonwealth Division , the Old Baldy and Porkchop Hill features held by the US 7th Division and in the western sector held by the US 1st Marine Division around the Vegas and Reno outposts . Peace talks finally resumed at Panmunjom on 6 April and an agreement was soon made to exchange sick and wounded prisoners . Consequently , 648 UN and 6 @,@ 670 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently repatriated as part of Operation Little Switch on 20 April , including five Australians For a while the tempo of operations slackened , returning to the small @-@ scale raids and probes of the winter months . Yet during the final three months of the war the Chinese launched a series of offensives prior to the signing of a ceasefire agreement .
In early April 1953 the 1st Commonwealth Division returned to the Jamestown Line . By this time the division was commanded by Major General Michael West , a British officer who had taken over command in September the previous year . The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently occupied the north @-@ eastern sector . 2 RAR occupied Hill 159 during 5 May to 16 June , while 3 RAR held Hill 355 during the period 7 – 27 May . 3 RAR then relieved 2 RAR on 16 June , and remained on Hill 159 until 10 July . Meanwhile , The Hook was a key position on the left flank of the line held by the 1st Commonwealth Division , and was the division 's most threatened sector on the Jamestown Line . Held by the 29th British Infantry Brigade , the position consisted of a group of hills west of the Samichon River which dominated the Imjin River , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south , and provided observation and fields of fire over a bend in the river as it turned towards Seoul . Loss of The Hook would force the UN troops to withdraw nearly 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to the next tenable defensive line on the high ground south of the Imjin River . As a result , the Chinese had made repeated attacks against it , with the 1st Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry repulsing the first Chinese attempt in late @-@ March 1952 . The 1st Battalion , The Black Watch did so again in November 1952 , while the 1st Battalion , Duke of Wellington 's Regiment had fought the heaviest battle there in May 1953 during the Third Battle of the Hook .
In the western sector , American outposts such as Detroit , Berlin , East Berlin , Reno , Carson , Elko and Vegas had been bitterly contested over the previous months by the US 1st Marine Division and the Turkish Brigade but by June the Reno , Elko and Vegas positions had been captured by Chinese . The front subsequently returned to its usual defensive routine , but following a temporary break @-@ down in negotiations after the unilateral release of 25 @,@ 000 anti @-@ communist Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war by South Korean President Syngman Rhee , the Chinese had renewed large @-@ scale attacks on 24 June . Concentrating on the South Korean divisions in the eastern and central sectors , the Chinese launched another offensive in June in an attempt to convince the South Korean leader to come to terms . The fighting continued until the end of the month as the Chinese successively drove back elements of ROK 9th Division in the US IX Corps sector and the ROK 1st Division in the US I Corps sector .
By early July the Chinese launched a major offensive in the ROK II Corps and US X Corps sectors . The Americans and South Koreans subsequently responded with a series of counter @-@ attacks to regain the ground lost , yet these met with only limited success . On 6 July the Chinese attacked elements of the US 7th Division on Porkchop Hill on the US I Corps right flank , and succeeded in gaining the crest . The Americans were reinforced and counter @-@ attacked over the following days , although again without success . Following another Chinese assault on 9 July the Americans again counter @-@ attacked , yet neither side gained a clear advantage . The following day the Chinese launched a series of company and battalion @-@ sized assaults , but were repulsed . Yet , with the Americans unprepared to accept further casualties for limited tactical gain , they evacuated Porkchop Hill on 11 July .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
The peace talks resumed in early July as Rhee 's position apparently softened , yet this proved the impetus for a final Chinese offensive as they sought to further influence the talks and improve their defensive positions at the same time . On 14 July elements of five Chinese armies struck six South Korean divisions around the Kumsong salient . By 20 July the ROK Capitol Division and much of the ROK 3rd Division had been practically destroyed , exposing serious weaknesses despite two years of American training . The South Koreans fell back and the UN line was penetrated to a depth of 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) . Only American intervention restored the situation and ultimately nine South Korean and US divisions were required to stem the Chinese offensive and regain some of the lost ground . Following a counter @-@ attack by ROK II Corps a new defensive line was established south of the Kumsong River . Meanwhile , in conjunction with the main offensive at Kumsong , the Chinese 19th Army Group had conducted a series of limited offensives against US I Corps , with the 46th Army conducting five separate assaults against the US 1st Marine Division from 25 June to 27 July . Chinese losses were heavy nonetheless , and they sustained more than 28 @,@ 000 casualties for only temporary gain .
During the second week of July , West had re @-@ shuffled his brigades to allow the 29th British Infantry Brigade to recuperate in the 1st Commonwealth Division 's central sector . The reliable 28th British Commonwealth Brigade , under the command of an Australian officer , Brigadier John Wilton , subsequently took over the battered defences on The Hook on 9 – 10 July 1953 , on the division 's left . The brigade was the strongest in the division , consisting of the two Australian battalions — 2 RAR and 3 RAR — and two British battalions — the 1st Battalion , Durham Light Infantry ( 1 DLI ) and 1st Battalion , Royal Fusiliers ( 1 RF ) — as well as supporting artillery and armour in direct support . Among the later was the 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery ( 16 RNZA ) and C Squadron of the British 1st Royal Tank Regiment equipped with Centurion tanks . The 25th Canadian Brigade was subsequently handed the responsibility for the equally exposed positions on Hills 355 and 159 on the right . The ROK 1st Division held the line on the 1st Commonwealth Division 's right flank , while the US 1st Marine Division , under the overall command of Major General Randolph Pate , held the Nevada Complex on the left flank , having taken over the line on 7 – 8 July . On the American right , the US 7th Marine Regiment under Colonel Glenn C. Funk occupied a linear defensive position , with two battalions forward and one back . The US 5th Marine Regiment occupied the central sector , while the US 1st Marine Regiment held the rear in divisional reserve . Indirect fire support was provided by the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment . Meanwhile , by May 1953 the Chinese 1st , 46th , 63rd , 64th and 65th Armies of the 19th Army Group were operating against the US I Corps under the overall command of Huang Yongsheng .
Wilton deployed the stronger Australian battalions forward , with 2 RAR occupying the left forward position on The Hook , while 3 RAR was deployed on the right , overlooking the Samichon River . 1 DLI was on the opposite side of the Samichon , while 1 RF was held in reserve as a brigade counter @-@ penetration force . 2 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Larkin , while 3 RAR was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur MacDonald . Larkin deployed 2 RAR with three companies forward , and one back in reserve as a counter @-@ attack force . In the centre , The Hook was held by B Company , while C Company held the left and A Company the right , with D Company in reserve . MacDonald deployed 3 RAR with two companies forward and two in depth . A Company occupied Hill 146 , on the boundary with 2 RAR , B Company held the south @-@ eastern tip of the ridge , and C and D Companies were held in reserve . British Centurion tanks were also deployed forward to support the Australians . Directly confronting the Australians on The Hook was the 137th Division of the Chinese 46th Army which had been in the line since February 1953 , under the command of Cheng Dengzhi .
The positions occupied by the Australians had been badly damaged by the Chinese assaults and bombardments in May and June , and recent rain had also collapsed some trenches and weakened many of the wire obstacles . Yet the extensive tunnel system — dug by the Canadians the previous winter — remained intact and afforded some protection . Efforts to repair the defences and assert control in no man 's land began immediately , with an aggressive patrolling program by the Australians leading to numerous clashes with Chinese patrols , while they also endured heavy shelling during this time . By day it was hot and humid making conditions in the bunkers uncomfortable , while by night the defenders worked hard digging , wiring and laying minefields . The Chinese focused most of their attention on the US 7th Marine Regiment , which was occupying positions south @-@ west of 2 RAR after having relieved the Turkish Brigade there , and thereby allowed the Australians some time to prepare . Light mortaring hit 2 RAR on 11 July , while one 3 RAR soldier was killed instantly by a 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) shell when he was observed walking along the crest @-@ line by a Chinese position less than 200 metres ( 220 yd ) from the Australian perimeter . The gun crew was subsequently silenced by Australian sniper fire .
Patrolling by the Australians continued in order to prevent the Chinese from harassing their forward positions . Small clashes occurred on the nights of 15 / 16 , 21 / 22 , 22 / 23 and 23 / 24 July , suggesting that the Chinese were preparing for a major attack . Aerial reconnaissance subsequently detected a build up of Chinese forces and supplies west of the Samichon River . In response the Australians and US Marines stepped up their defensive preparations , while at the same time rumours from the peace talks started to spread of a ceasefire . Regardless , Chinese harassing artillery and mortar fire intensified , causing a constant stream of casualties among the Australians . Intense Chinese shelling struck Hill 121 and The Hook on the night of 19 / 20 July , with more than 300 rounds wounding four members of C Company , 2 RAR and further damaging the defences . That night the US Marines were driven off the Berlin and East Berlin features on the left flank , further exposing The Hook , which became a salient . Yet on 21 July an expected Chinese assault in the US 5th Marine Regiment sector failed to occur , while sightings of Chinese troops across the US 1st Marine Division front declined as the fighting entered a lull .
On 22 July B Company , 2 RAR was relieved on The Hook by D Company , and subsequently moved into reserve . The following day , with the ceasefire believed to be imminent , Wilton limited patrols to only those considered essential for the security of his forward positions . Rumours spread quickly among the troops that the truce was expected to be signed on 26 July . However , by 24 July the Chinese shelling had once again grown in intensity , while large bodies of Chinese infantry were increasingly seen on the forward slopes by the Australians . Meanwhile , similar concentrations of Chinese were also reported by the US Marines . With the Chinese eager to gain a last @-@ minute victory over the UN forces and the tactical advantage offered to the side that held The Hook after the truce , simultaneous attacks were soon launched against 2 RAR and the US 7th Marine Regiment on the left flank , in two major actions on the nights of 24 / 25 and 25 / 26 July .
= = Battle = =
= = = First night , 24 / 25 July 1953 = = =
On the evening of 24 July a 50 @-@ strong Chinese force probed 2 RAR 's forward outposts after dark , attacking C Company on Hill 121 and surrounding a bunker on the left flank , while the US Marines had a similar contact on the left flank . A forward Australian standing patrol from D Company subsequently clashed heavily with the Chinese probe , losing five wounded before directing tank and artillery fire which dispersed their attackers . These attacks had been preceded by heavy artillery and mortar fire , with the Chinese subjecting C and D Companies , 2 RAR and the 2 RAR Mortar Platoon to a heavy bombardment . Waves of Chinese attacked the Australians at 20 : 50 , penetrating between C Company on Hill 121 and the nearest US Marines on Hill 111 , before being turned back amidst the driving rain . A further attack followed another barrage at 23 : 25 , but was again repelled and faltered before reaching the wire during fierce fighting with grenades and small @-@ arms , with the assault failing largely due to the weight of defensive artillery fire . More than 2 @,@ 000 Chinese mortar and artillery rounds fell on the Australian positions during the night . Two Australians were killed and 14 wounded during the night attack which was later estimated to have been made by a Chinese regiment of up to 4 @,@ 000 men . The defenders were soaking wet and exhausted , but had held their positions . Yet despite the weight of the Chinese attack against the Australians their main objective had been Hill 119 , another strong point in the American sector 500 metres ( 550 yd ) to the south @-@ west of Hill 111 , known as Boulder City , held by the US 7th Marine Regiment .
The Chinese engaged the US Marines on Boulder City with preparatory fire from mortars and artillery at 19 : 30 . Ten minutes later Chinese troops were observed massing for an assault north @-@ west of the Berlin feature and were subsequently shelled by the Americans . At 20 : 30 the Chinese probed the right flank held by the 3rd Battalion , 7th Marines , first striking Hill 111 and then at Boulder City . After infiltrating forward , the Chinese had hid in the paddy fields immediately in front of the American positions during the barrage , and had then rapidly assaulted as soon as the artillery had lifted . The attack coincided with the ongoing relief in place of the defenders by the US 1st Marine Regiment under the command of Colonel Wallace M. Nelson , and it subsequently succeeded in temporarily penetrating the American positions on Hill 111 . Yet the Chinese main effort fell on Boulder City , and two battalions subsequently succeeded in occupying a portion of the American trench line . From these positions the Chinese threatened to cut @-@ off Company G , 3rd Battalion , 1st Marines on Hill 119 , repeatedly assaulting the Berlin Gate feature on the company 's left flank and the East Berlin Gate on its right in an effort to exploit their gains . Throughout the fighting the Marines were strongly supported by heavy mortar , artillery and tank fire ; however , due to the prevailing weather conditions no spotter aircraft were able to fly during the night which limited the effectiveness of the indirect fire available to them .
In support of the US Marines on Hill 111 at 21 : 10 Wilton had ordered one company of the 1 DLI to occupy a reserve position on the left of 2 RAR , in the rear of the US 1st Marine Division where they ultimately remained for the rest of the evening . A reserve company from 3 RAR was also embussed in order to be ready to respond to any emergency . The Americans eventually drove off the Chinese probes after their artillery broke up the attack , but not before they were forced to abandon some of their forward positions . With the attack likely only a diversionary effort , by 21 : 20 the bulk of the Chinese had begun to withdraw from Hill 111 . Meanwhile , the fighting on Hill 119 continued . A heavy bombardment fell on the American positions at 21 : 00 , followed by a second assault on Hill 119 by two Chinese companies which succeeded in penetrating the US Marine perimeter . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat developed across the forward trenches and in the ensuing fighting Company G was reduced to half @-@ strength , while their ammunition began to run low . Under pressure , by midnight the Americans were forced back another 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) to the reverse slope . 3 RAR was subsequently left exposed , with the forward Chinese elements moving to within 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) of the battalion 's A Echelon area . Almost surrounded , the position was at risk of becoming untenable . At 00 : 15 Company I , 3rd Battalion , 1st Marines was ordered to reinforce Boulder City ; they lost heavily after the Chinese intercepted a coded message and adjusted mortar and artillery fire onto the Marines as they approached the rear of Hill 119 . In response the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment launched an intense counter @-@ battery barrage .
The Chinese also launched several assaults in the central sector against the US 5th Marine Regiment , commanded by Colonel Harvey C. Tschirgi . Successively striking outposts on the regimental right flank from 21 : 15 , a reinforced Chinese company from the 408th Regiment then concentrated against outpost Esther , held by Marines from Company H. Amid heavy fighting both sides were reinforced . By early morning the Chinese had seized parts of the forward American trench @-@ line and moved to isolate the position with indirect fire and patrols which penetrated between the outpost and the main defensive position to the rear ; the Marines still controlled the rear trenches and , reorganising their defence , succeeded in checking the Chinese assault . Defending strongly , the Marines used flamethrowers , machine @-@ guns and mortars , supported by M46 Patton tanks and artillery fire and following several hours of fighting the Chinese attack was finally broken up by indirect fire . An entire Chinese battalion had been committed piecemeal to the attack , yet by 06 : 40 the following day the US Marines reported Esther secure . More than 4 @,@ 000 artillery and mortar rounds had fallen on the outpost during the night ; Marine casualties included 12 killed and 35 wounded , while Chinese loses included 85 dead which were counted around the position , 110 more believed killed and an estimated 250 wounded .
In the US 7th Marine Regiment 's sector , heavy shelling , small arms fire and hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting continued around Boulder City into the early morning on 25 July . Chinese infantry had succeeded in breaking through and occupying a large part of the trench @-@ line on the forward slopes , and for a while even temporarily occupied the crest . At 01 : 30 Companies G and I , 3rd Battalion , 1st Marines launched a rapid counter @-@ attack and by 03 : 30 the American perimeter had been re @-@ established , and was subsequently reinforced . By 05 : 30 Hill 119 was secured by the US Marines , although scattered groups of Chinese remained on the forward slopes , while others attempted to reinforce the left flank . Sporadic fighting and heavy shelling also continued on Hill 111 in the early morning hours , and at 04 : 00 another fight developed ; by 05 : 30 the position was also controlled by the Americans . Four M46 Patton tanks on Boulder City dispersed the Chinese concentrations with high explosive and machine @-@ gun fire , while Marine infantry assault teams with flamethrowers and 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch rocket launchers subsequently cleared the remaining Chinese from their former bunkers . In total , more the 3 @,@ 000 Chinese troops had assaulted the front held by the US 1st Marine Division during the night of 24 / 25 July .
Throughout the night the US 11th Marine Artillery Regiment had been heavily engaged , with the regiment and the 10 battalions under its operational control in the US 1st Marine Division sector firing a total of 23 @,@ 725 rounds , including those from batteries of the US 25th Division Artillery , the US I Corps Artillery and the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery . The weight of indirect fire available to the defenders had been significant and the whole of the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery ( 80 guns ) had also been engaged during the fighting , firing in support of both the Australians on Hill 121 and the US Marines on their left flank , defending Hill 111 and Boulder City . Unhindered by the restrictions on ammunition usage which had applied to the Marines during this period , the supporting fires of the British @-@ Commonwealth 3 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 88 mm ) 25 @-@ pounder field guns proved of considerable assistance . A liaison officer from 16 RNZA was sent subsequently over to the US Marine artillery regiment during the night to establish communication . More than 13 @,@ 000 rounds were fired by the British and New Zealand gunners that night , with the close defensive fire having a devastating effect on the assaulting Chinese infantry . The artillery had also effectively halted the Chinese assault against Hill 121 , resulting in a fair degree of frustration among the Australian infantry , some of whom later expressed disappointment at being prevented from getting to grips with the Chinese by the accurate New Zealand artillery fire .
Before the battle , a section from the 2 RAR Medium Machine Gun Platoon had been stationed within the American perimeter near Hill 111 to provide covering fire across the area between the positions occupied by the US Marines and the Australians . Commanded by Sergeant Brian Cooper they soon found themselves in the thick of the fighting , firing their Vickers machine @-@ guns in support of the Australian positions and to defend themselves from the weight of the Chinese main attack which fell on the Marines . Three men were wounded during the night but the machine @-@ gunners continued to fire in support , while the remainder of the section repelled Chinese assaults from the left . Ultimately the Chinese were unable to dislodge them , with the Australians calling @-@ in artillery on to their own positions during repeated Chinese attempts to overrun them as the US Marines withdrew past their position , leaving them isolated . When dawn came dozens of Chinese bodies were found strewn in front of the Australian machine @-@ gunners . As the US Marines worked to clear the Chinese stragglers from their position the Australians had endeavoured to coax a Chinese soldier from a bunker , yet when he resisted they were forced to kill him with a grenade . Cooper was later awarded the Military Medal for his leadership , with the stubborn defence of the Australians contributing to the break @-@ up of the Chinese attack which at one stage had threatened to overrun the Marine position . Large groups of Chinese remained though , occupying a number bunkers and trenches , and they were not finally dislodged by the Marines until the following afternoon .
= = = Second night , 25 / 26 July 1953 = = =
At 08 : 20 on the morning of 25 July the Chinese again assaulted the US Marines on Hill 119 in company strength but were soon halted by American artillery and mortar fire which inflicted heavy losses ; skirmishing continued for the remainder of the day . While no major assaults against Hill 111 occurred , a heavy barrage by the Chinese targeted the position at 11 : 00 . F9F Panthers provided air support to the Marines throughout the day , while American tanks continued to engage Chinese targets in support of the defenders on Hill 111 and Boulder City . Finally , at 13 : 35 the last of the Chinese infantry were forced off the forward slopes of Boulder City by the US Marines . Chinese casualties were estimated by the Americans to have included another 75 killed and 425 wounded . The Chinese continued to heavily shell the American positions , and by late afternoon 13 @,@ 500 mortar and artillery rounds had fallen on the sector held by US 7th Marine Regiment . The Americans fired many counter @-@ battery missions in response , firing 36 @,@ 794 rounds . The ongoing relief of the US 7th Marine Regiment continued throughout the day . Meanwhile , the Australian positions on The Hook were also heavily shelled throughout the day , forcing many of the defenders underground into the network of tunnels then being extended by a team of New Zealand sappers .
Realising that they had only faced a series of probes the previous night , rather than a major attack , and as these actions may have been in preparation for a heavier attack , a vigorous defence was subsequently prepared by the Australians with the reserve companies moved into blocking positions to strengthen the forward defences . The defenders endured steady shelling and harassing fire , while after dark The Hook was probed again , this time by a group of about 20 Chinese . The force was subsequently engaged by an Australian standing patrol from D Company at 21 : 00 and forced to withdraw , leaving behind one dead at a cost of one Australian killed and one wounded . At 21 : 20 the Chinese fire became more intense , and a heavy blow was launched by the Chinese against the Marines on Hill 119 shortly after . Beginning at 21 : 30 , elements of the 1st and 7th Marines were attacked by two Chinese companies . A heavy concentration by the entire US I Corps artillery was fired in response , and the Chinese were forced to withdraw . At 23 : 00 the Chinese shelling intensified to thirty @-@ rounds per minute , and was followed fifteen minutes later by another determined charge by the Chinese infantry against the US Marines on the left flank on Hill 111 and Boulder City during a furious attack . The Australian positions were not directly attacked during the night , although C Company engaged the Chinese in no man 's land sporadically at long range in support of the Americans . As on the previous night , 3 RAR was not attacked . In total more than 4 @,@ 200 mortar and artillery rounds were fired by the Chinese at 2 RAR during the night , and three Australians were killed and nine wounded .
In contrast , the US Marines were more heavily engaged , with the fighting occurring at close quarters for more than an hour before they repelled their attackers and counter @-@ attacked . An Australian bunker between the US Marines on Hill 111 and C Company , 2 RAR on Hill 121 was also the scene of heavy fighting , after the Chinese penetrated the undefended space between the two positions . Manned by just six Australians under the command of Lance Corporal Kenneth Crockford , the position was attacked by the Chinese simultaneously from several sides following a determined charge at 23 : 40 . During bitter hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in the trenches around the bunker the under @-@ strength Australian section ejected the Chinese and prevented them from advancing any further . They then directed artillery fire onto their position to break up subsequent attacks . Further Chinese probes were launched against Hills 111 and 119 in the early hours of 26 July , and they succeeded in temporarily seizing parts of the American trench line . Between 01 : 30 and 03 : 00 heavy fighting continued before the Chinese were driven from the position by the US Marines . Meanwhile , Wilton ordered D Company , 3 RAR to move across to occupy the position behind B Company , 2 RAR to support the US Marines if required , while at 02 : 18 he placed A Company , 1 DLI on five minutes notice to move to another blocking position . American casualties were 19 killed and 125 wounded , while Chinese losses included 30 men countered dead , and another 84 estimated to have been killed and 310 wounded .
The 2 RAR Machine Gun Platoon on Hill 111 again found itself heavily engaged , suffering five badly wounded . The Chinese had managed to establish an artillery forward observer on Hill 111 and US Marine casualties were particularly heavy as a result . Eight critically injured Americans were subsequently evacuated through 2 RAR for urgent medical treatment . Small @-@ arms fire continued to be exchanged between the US Marines and the Chinese for the next two hours , only subsiding by 03 : 00 , with the Marines finally driving out the Chinese . D Company , 3 RAR was subsequently released and it returned to battalion 's main defensive position . The Australian outpost section also succeeded in holding through the night and the following morning they found 35 Chinese dead around their positions . During the fighting Crockford had repeatedly exposed himself to Chinese fire , and had even run across no man 's land to provide situation reports to the US Marine command post on Hill 111 . He was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions . By dawn the only activity in front of The Hook were Chinese stretcher bearers collecting their wounded , which were subsequently allowed to do so unmolested by the Australians . In the US 1st Marine Division 's sector the fighting had also ceased , while small groups of Chinese moved to reinforce their positions and were engaged with rifle and machine @-@ gun fire .
As with the first night , indirect fire had again played a crucial role in the defence , with the New Zealand gunners firing another 5 @,@ 700 rounds ( out of a divisional total of 9 @,@ 500 rounds ) in support of the Australians and the US Marines . Dug @-@ in to the east , 16 RNZA had been forced to fire with minimum crest clearance over the Australian lines in order to bring effective fire to bear on the assaulting Chinese from their 25 @-@ pounders . Using both variable time proximity and time @-@ set fuses , the New Zealand gunners used air bursts to break up the Chinese assaults , causing heavy casualties . Despite the risk of causing casualties among their own soldiers no serious casualties were incurred by the Australians , although one suffered a broken shoulder after a brass nose cone from a faulty time @-@ of @-@ flight fused shell exploded over his position . High explosive was also provided by C Company 's 60 mm mortar which operated against the Chinese in no man 's land despite being exposed and unprotected from fire , while the mortars also provided battlefield illumination which had allowed the Australian riflemen and machine @-@ gunners to bring accurate fire to bear on the Chinese crossing 2 RAR 's front to attack Hills 111 and 121 . The Chinese had suffered heavily during the fighting , with over 300 dead counted in front of Hill 111 alone . Throughout the following day the Australians observed a steady stream of Chinese casualties evacuating Hill 111 and crossing the paddy fields on the left flank . Later , a group of 20 armed Chinese had also attempted to withdraw but were engaged by the 2 RAR Anti @-@ Tank Platoon , resulting in at least six casualties . In the area held by the US 1st Marine Division , Chinese shelling continued sporadically , while at 13 : 30 the US 1st Marine Regiment assumed operational control of the right sector .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The battle illustrated the power of concentrated artillery fire and the wastefulness of massed attacks by infantry against modern firepower . Hundreds of Chinese dead lay in front of the UN positions , with the valley floor " almost covered with dead Chinese " . Wilton later recounted that on " the approaches to 2 RAR the bodies literally carpeted the ground sometimes two deep " . Later , it was estimated that Chinese casualties numbered between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 killed , with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners . At least nine Chinese battalions were believed to have been involved in the attacks . The fighting between 24 – 26 July had cost the Australians five killed and 24 wounded , while during the previous two weeks on The Hook 2 RAR had lost a total of 17 men killed and 31 wounded . It had been a bitter struggle to the very end and as a testimony to the ferocity of the fighting , the Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honour " The Samichon " . Many Australians were later awarded bravery decorations for their actions . The New Zealand gunners had played a crucial role in stemming the Chinese assault and during these final actions the commander of 163 Battery , 16 RNZA — Major James Spence — had positioned himself well @-@ forward in order to effectively co @-@ ordinate the indirect fires of his guns . Spence was subsequently awarded the Military Cross , while a member of his tactical party , Gunner Arthur Bolton , was later Mentioned in Despatches . In total over the three nights more than 23 @,@ 000 rounds were fired by the Commonwealth Divisional Artillery .
During the final month of the war heavy fighting had occurred across the central and eastern fronts . Yet in the Commonwealth sector itself the only Chinese attacks had been made against 2 RAR holding The Hook on the nights of 24 – 25 and 25 – 26 July . The action was part of a larger attack against the US 1st Marine Division , with only diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians . 1st Commonwealth Division intelligence staff believed that the Chinese had been attempting to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary in order to turn the US 1st Marine Division 's flank , yet with well @-@ coordinated indirect fires from the divisional artillery and support from the British tanks , 2 RAR had been able to successfully thwart both assaults . Meanwhile , the US Marines had endured the brunt of a divisional @-@ size attack , repelling the Chinese onslaught for the loss of 43 killed and 316 wounded over the two nights ; total Marine casualties for July included 181 killed and 1 @,@ 430 wounded . Indeed , with the Chinese determined to gain local territorial advantage prior to signing the ceasefire , the United Nations Command had suffered 65 @,@ 000 casualties during the final three months of the war , while the Chinese lost at least 135 @,@ 000 more .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On 26 July Wilton had ordered Lieutenant Colonel Peter Jeffreys to prepare a counter @-@ attack by 1 DLI to recover some of the ground lost to the Chinese the night before , but after preparatory fire failed to clear the Chinese from the objective the assault was cancelled . The Chinese subsequently made another attempt against the US Marines on Hill 119 on the night of 26 / 27 July , but it lacked the weight of those of the previous nights and was easily repelled . In a final attempt to capture Boulder City at 21 : 30 a Chinese platoon had advanced on the wire at Hill 119 , defended by Company E , 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines . Just after midnight another Chinese platoon @-@ sized assault was also halted by the Marines . At 00 : 45 a Chinese platoon probed the US Marines on Hill 111 , yet after an hour and twenty minutes it was also checked . Meanwhile , despite the clashes nearby on Hill 111 the Australians suffered no more casualties . The Armistice Agreement was subsequently signed at 10 : 00 on 27 July . Sporadic fighting continued , and the New Zealand gunners fired several counter @-@ battery tasks , engaging several Chinese guns . The Commonwealth Divisional Artillery fired 1 @,@ 300 rounds during the day ; by evening the front was largely silent . In the last four hours of the war the Chinese fired 44 @,@ 000 artillery rounds into the US Eighth Army positions , although none against the 1st Commonwealth Division . There were no further attacks and the ceasefire came into effect at 22 : 00 the same day . The following day some soldiers from both sides moved forward into no man 's land to exchange greetings , although relatively few Australians did so and the Marines were under orders not to fraternise or communicate with the Chinese .
With the war over both sides were required to withdraw 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) within 72 hours to create a 4 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) demilitarised zone , and preparations began to hastily evacuate the forward positions . During August and September sappers from the 1st Commonwealth Division were subsequently engaged clearing minefields and demolishing many of their former defended localities and field defences , while new battle positions were established to the rear . A similar process occurred across the entire front . Meanwhile , under the terms of the agreement all prisoners who wished to be repatriated were to be returned , and 12 @,@ 773 UN and 75 @,@ 000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently exchanged during this period , including 21 Australians and one New Zealander . The period that followed proved uneventful , yet the UN forces were required to maintain combat readiness and the ability to react quickly in case the North Koreans violated the ceasefire . In April 1954 , 2 RAR returned to Australia and was replaced by 1 RAR which remained in South Korea until March 1956 . 3 RAR finally returned to Australia in September 1954 after four years of continuous service in Korea and five years before that in Japan . British Commonwealth forces remained in Korea until they were finally withdrawn in August 1957 . Meanwhile , the last Chinese elements did not leave Korea until 1958 .
|
= After Hours ( The Office ) =
" After Hours " is the sixteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 168th episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on February 23 , 2012 . " After Hours " was written by co @-@ executive producers Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein and directed by Brian Baumgartner , who portrays Kevin Malone on the series , marking his directorial debut .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Dwight Shrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) compete for a job . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has to deal with Cathy 's sexual advances in his hotel room . Also , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) has everyone stay late to cover for their co @-@ workers in Florida .
" After Hours " received mixed reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " After Hours " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , marking a 16 % rise in the ratings from the series low ratings of the previous episode , " Tallahassee " . The episode also ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night .
= = Plot = =
Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) and Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) compete to become VP under Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) by seducing her after work at the hotel bar . For most of the night , Packer seems to be the most successful , so Dwight has Gabe ( Zach Woods ) spike Packer 's beer with his asthma inhaler , which causes Packer to vomit and leaves Dwight alone with Nellie . Dwight eventually succeeds in seducing Nellie as she asks for a key to his room . Dwight scratches off the magnetic strip on his hotel card before giving it to Nellie , stating the seduction was only to gain approval and that he doesn 't intend to have sex with her .
Andy ( Ed Helms ) has everyone stay late to cover for their co @-@ workers in Florida , which turns into an awkward situation when Val 's ( Ameenah Kaplan ) boyfriend , Brandon ( Jerry Minor ) , arrives and accuses Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) of having an affair with her , after having read Darryl 's text messages to her . Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) demands that Darryl read them aloud out of voyeuristic interest . Upon hearing them , most of the staff agree that his text messages , particularly an extended ellipsis at the end of one , are suggestive of Darryl wanting to be with Val . Val protests that the idea of her being romantically involved with Darryl is ridiculous . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) suggests that he try a bold step , saying that if Jim hadn 't made romantic advances while she was still engaged to Roy , she never would have ended up marrying him . Darryl follows her advice and tells Val that a potential relationship is not ridiculous .
Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) confides in Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) that she 's intending to stay in Tallahassee . Ryan interprets this as an invitation to hook up with her , so he attempts to seduce her by taking her to the kitchen to help her make a waffle . They hide under a table when the chefs come back . After Ryan compliments Erin , she suggests that they could become roommates in Florida and possibly start dating in six months if things go well between them . Not wanting that long timeline , he resorts to saying he loves Kelly .
Meanwhile , Jim ( John Krasinski ) has started spending more time with Cathy ( Lindsey Broad ) because Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) keeps trying to rope Jim into having an affair . During the night at the hotel , Cathy asks to hang out for a while in Jim 's room under the pretext that the heat in her room is malfunctioning . She repeatedly makes seductive signals , making Jim uncomfortable , so he calls Dwight saying he has bed bugs . Dwight arrives and forces Cathy off Jim 's bed so he can lure out the bed bugs with his nearly naked body . This fails to sufficiently disgust Cathy , who merely steps into the bathroom to take a shower until Dwight leaves . Cathy gets out of the shower wearing only a bath robe . After ordering some desserts from room service and asking Jim to touch her legs , he finally comes out saying that he 's happily married , and doesn 't want to be with her . Cathy gets defensive and insists that she did not have any romantic intentions whatsoever , so Jim relents , but Cathy immediately resumes her seductive technique . After Jim goes to the bathroom , he comes out to find her in only her underwear under his blanket . Fed up , he demands that she leave and lets Dwight , armed with spray chemicals , into the room . Jim claims to see a bed bug near Cathy , making her flee from Dwight 's spraying . However , because of the chemicals , Dwight suggests Jim sleep in Cathy 's room . Jim instead spends the night with Dwight in his room , eating Cathy 's desserts and watching TV , while a drunken Nellie is outside , trying unsuccessfully to get in .
= = Production = =
" After Hours " was written by co @-@ executive producers Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein . It was directed by Brian Baumgartner , who portrays Kevin Malone on the series , marking his directorial debut . The episode features a guest appearance from David Koechner , who appears as Todd Packer in the series . He recently made a deal with NBC to do more episodes for the series and also possibly join the cast of series developer Greg Daniels 's next series , Friday Night Dinner , an adaption of the British series of the same name . The episode marks the third appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her second consecutive appearance . Her character , Nellie will work with several of the office workers on a special project for Sabre in a six episode arc . The episode also marks the tenth appearance of Lindsey Broad who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season , after she initially appeared in " Pam 's Replacement " . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Nellie establishing boundaries for flirtation , Nellie and Dwight confessing peculiar secrets to each other , and Pam and Andy calling Jim for advice , only to have Cathy answer the phone .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" After Hours " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 23 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 13 @-@ percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Tallahassee " . The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode beat The CW drama series The Secret Circle and the Fox drama series The Finder . Despite this , " After Hours " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night . It was also the last episode of The Office to be viewed by more than 5 million viewers until the series finale a year later .
= = = Reviews = = =
" After Hours " received mixed reviews from critics . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall called it the best episode of a " disappointing " season . He was mainly positive towards the focus of the episode with both story @-@ lines in Tallahassee and Scranton taken place after hours and for the several plot lines in the episode . He praised the pairing of Darryl and Val , saying that they are better matched to be the series ' " new " Jim and Pam than Andy and Erin . Cindy White of IGN said that the episode proved the series was " on a hot streak " . She mainly liked the storylines taking place in Tallahassee and said that the end of the Dwight @-@ Nellie storyline was a " nice bit of character development " . She was also very positive to Baumgarter 's directing in the episode , saying he " nailed " the documentary format of the episode . She went on to slightly criticize the Scranton storyline and wrote that she hoped the writers would wait before putting Val and Darryl together . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 .
Not all reviews were positive . The A. V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt wrote that the episode was too crowded and that while all four plotlines had " potential " , they weren 't given enough time to develop . Despite this , he did compliment the Dwight scenes , due to their ability to gain a " comic rhythm " . He also complimented the Dwight @-@ Nellie @-@ Todd storyline , saying that his decision to not sleep with Nellie was a " nicely human moment " and also wrote that the character was more grounded when he was more self @-@ aware . He ultimately gave the episode a C + .
Many critics commented on the plot featuring Cathy attempting to seduce Jim . White noted that , " Jim did bumble it a bit in the face of Cathy ( sic ) taking insincere offense at his accusation , but the outcome wasn 't hard to predict . Of course Jim would stay true to his real soulmate . " Sepinwall noted Dwight 's cartoonish behavior in the episode , although he called it a good addition to the Jim @-@ Cathy story @-@ line . McNutt wrote that due to the " choppy storytelling " , the Jim @-@ Cathy storyline wasn 't able to feel awkward enough to " feel Jim 's struggle " .
|
= North American XF @-@ 108 Rapier =
The North American XF @-@ 108 Rapier was a proposed long @-@ range , high @-@ speed interceptor aircraft designed by North American Aviation intended to defend the United States from supersonic Soviet strategic bombers . The aircraft would have cruised at speeds around Mach 3 ( 2 @,@ 300 mph ; 3 @,@ 700 km / h ) with an unrefueled combat radius over 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) , and was equipped with radar and missiles offering engagement ranges up to 100 miles ( 160 km ) against bomber @-@ sized targets .
To limit development costs , the program shared engine development with the North American XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie strategic bomber program , and used a number of elements of earlier interceptor projects . The program had progressed only as far as the construction of a single wooden mockup when it was cancelled in 1959 , due to a shortage of funds and the Soviets ' adoption of ballistic missiles as their primary means of nuclear attack . Had it flown , the F @-@ 108 would have been the heaviest fighter of its era .
= = Development = =
During the early 1950s , the USAF proposed a very high @-@ performance , long @-@ range interceptor . On 20 July 1955 , formal development of what became known as the Long @-@ Range Interceptor , Experimental ( LRI @-@ X ) was approved , planned as a F @-@ 102 Delta Dagger / F @-@ 106 Delta Dart replacement . The specification was laid down on 6 October 1955 , calling for an interceptor that could fly at 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) at a speed of Mach 1 @.@ 7 ( 1 @,@ 122 mph ( 1 @,@ 806 km / h ) , with a range of 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . It was to have a two @-@ man crew and at least two engines . A further consideration was that an integrated fire @-@ control system would be fitted , allowing the interception of a bomber at 60 nmi ( 110 km ) and three targets to be destroyed during a single mission .
Of the eight interested companies , contracts for preliminary studies were issued to North American Aviation , Lockheed and Northrop on 11 October 1955 , five days after the specification 's release . Of the paper designs , the North American proposal , dubbed " NA @-@ 236 " , seemed the most promising . The NA @-@ 236 shared some similarities with the XF @-@ 108 , although the most obvious differences were the additions of two finlets at the midspan of the horizontal stabilizers , and canards . Political and budgetary difficulties led to the cancellation of the program on 9 May 1956 .
After considerable confusion , the program was reinstated on 11 April 1957 with North American awarded a contract for two prototypes . The designation F @-@ 108 was issued , also known as " Weapon System 202A " ( WS @-@ 202A ) . North American 's company designation was " NA @-@ 257 " , although it was basically identical to the NA @-@ 236 . At the time , Air Defense Command anticipated an order for 480 aircraft .
The resulting design went through considerable evolution , owing to both its cutting @-@ edge technology and continual redefinition of the USAF requirements . Early revisions prominently featured canards , with a span of 19 ft 10 in ( 6 @.@ 04 m ) , and a wing of 53 @.@ 5 ° sweep . The aircraft in this configuration would have had a maximum takeoff weight of 99 @,@ 400 lb ( 45 @,@ 088 kg ) with a 72 @,@ 550 feet ( 22 @,@ 113 m ) operational ceiling . In addition to the F @-@ 108 's interceptor role , North American proposed it as an escort fighter for its own B @-@ 70 Valkyrie supersonic bomber prototype . Commonality between the B @-@ 70 bomber and the F @-@ 108 included the escape capsule and General Electric YJ93 engines . Another role considered was for the F @-@ 108 to be " gap @-@ fillers " for the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) system ; because of its great speed , the F @-@ 108 could have scanned up to 278 @,@ 000 square miles ( 720 @,@ 000 km2 ) per hour .
From September 1958 , substantial engineering and design changes were implemented ; however , SAC had lost interest in the escort fighter concept . To accompany the B @-@ 70 all the way to its target and back , the F @-@ 108 in its initial concept would have , at best , marginal range . On 30 December 1958 , YF @-@ 108A preproduction aircraft on order were reduced from 31 to 20 test aircraft and the first test flight was delayed from February to April 1961 . The eventual design , which was built as a full @-@ sized XF @-@ 108 mockup , was displayed to Air Force officials on 17 – 20 January 1959 . The project was given the name " Rapier " on 15 May 1959 , following a contest by the Air Defense Command asking airmen for suggestions .
= = = Cancellation = = =
Even as the XF @-@ 108 program was progressing well , there were signs that would ultimately lead to its eventual cancellation . Unconfirmed Soviet bomber threats , the overwhelming trend toward offensive and defensive nuclear missiles in the late 1950s and early 1960s , as well as rising costs , contributed to the termination of the XF @-@ 108 . The cancellation was announced on 23 September 1959 . North American continued refining the design through 1960 in hopes that the program might be revived . Despite the extra money and time spent on the Rapier , it was not wholly in vain ; the North American A @-@ 5 Vigilante supersonic reconnaissance bomber developed for the U.S. Navy retained the fuselage / weapon package and systems design of the Rapier . In many ways the Vigilante could be seen as the successful application of the Rapier design principles in a Mach 2 supersonic design .
Hughes Aircraft would continue the development of the advanced fire control system and the GAR @-@ 9 missile . Development of the F @-@ 108 radar and missiles was continued by the USAF and the system was eventually used in the Lockheed YF @-@ 12 program . The final configuration for the rear cockpit in the YF @-@ 12A looked similar to that of the F @-@ 108 since it incorporated the same displays and controls required for the Hughes ASG @-@ 18 fire control system .
= = Design = =
The initial F @-@ 108 configuration featured a very large " cranked " delta wing . There were fixed ventral stabilizers on the wings , mounted at mid @-@ span , and a tall all @-@ moving vertical tailfin , supplemented by two ventral stabilizers that extended when the landing gear retracted . Although some earlier versions of the design had separate tailplanes or forward canards , both were abandoned in the final design . The large fuselage and wing had two and five fuel tanks , respectively , giving an estimated combat radius of some 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km ) . Top speed was estimated at 1 @,@ 980 miles per hour ( 3 @,@ 190 km / h ) , about Mach 3 , at 81 @,@ 800 feet ( 24 @,@ 900 m ) . The aircraft was powered by two General Electric J93 turbojet engines , also used in North American 's XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie bomber , in the fuselage .
The F @-@ 108 was intended to carry the Hughes AN / ASG @-@ 18 radar , the U.S. ' s first pulse @-@ Doppler radar set . It was to have look @-@ down / shoot @-@ down capability , but could track only one target at a time . The radar was paired with an infra @-@ red search and tracking ( IRST ) system on the wing leading edges . The radar was used to guide the Hughes GAR @-@ 9 ( later redesignated AIM @-@ 47 ) air @-@ to @-@ air missile , three of which would be carried on a rotary launcher in an internal weapons bay . The GAR @-@ 9 was a very large , long @-@ range weapon with its own radar set for terminal homing . It was intended to fly at Mach 6 , with a range of almost 112 miles ( 180 km ) .
= = XQ @-@ 11 target drone = =
As part of WS @-@ 202A , a design for a high @-@ speed ( Mach 3 + ) aerial target for use in testing the F @-@ 108 's weapons system was proposed . The Wright Air Development Center requested the designation XQ @-@ 11 for the target design ; the request was denied due to the early stage of development , and the F @-@ 108 program was cancelled before further work was undertaken .
= = Specifications ( XF @-@ 108 ) = =
Data from National Museum of the United States Air Force
General characteristics
Crew : two
Length : 89 @.@ 2 ft ( 27 @.@ 2 m )
Wingspan : 57 @.@ 4 ft ( 17 @.@ 5 m )
Height : 22 @.@ 1 ft ( 6 @.@ 7 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 865 ft ² ( 173 @.@ 4 m ² )
Empty weight : 50 @,@ 907 lb ( 23 @,@ 098 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 102 @,@ 000 lb ( 46 @,@ 508 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric YJ93 @-@ GE @-@ 3AR afterburning turbojet
Dry thrust : 20 @,@ 900 lbf ( 93 @.@ 0 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 29 @,@ 300 lbf ( 130 @.@ 3 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 3 + , 1 @,@ 980 mph ( 1 @,@ 720 kn , 3 @,@ 190 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 271 mi ( 1 @,@ 104 nmi , 2 @,@ 033 km ) combat
Ferry range : 2 @,@ 488 mi ( 2 @,@ 162 nmi , 4 @,@ 004 km )
Service ceiling : 80 @,@ 100 ft ( 24 @,@ 400 m )
Wing loading : 55 @.@ 9 lb / ft ² ( 183 @.@ 4 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 56
Armament
Guns : 4 x 20 mm cannon
Missiles : 3 × Hughes GAR @-@ 9A air @-@ to @-@ air missiles in a rotary weapons bay
Bombs : 4 @,@ 000 lbs
|
= Pennsylvania Route 332 =
Pennsylvania Route 332 ( PA 332 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The route runs 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) from PA 263 in Hatboro , Montgomery County east to PA 32 in Yardley , Bucks County . PA 332 runs through suburban areas to the north of Philadelphia , serving Warminster , Ivyland , Richboro , and Newtown . The route is two lanes wide most of its length , with the bypass around Newtown a four @-@ lane divided highway . PA 332 intersects PA 132 in Warminster , PA 232 in Richboro , PA 413 and PA 532 in Newtown ( all three run concurrently on the Newtown Bypass ) , and Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) in Lower Makefield Township .
What would become PA 332 between Newtown and Yardley was designated part of Legislative Route 252 in 1911 . PA 332 was created in 1928 to run from PA 263 in Hatboro east to Ivyland with the road between Newtown and Yardley designated as part of PA 532 . By 1940 , PA 332 was extended to PA 113 in Newtown . The route was extended to Yardley by 1947 , replacing PA 532 . PA 332 was routed to bypass Newtown in 1991 when the eastern portion of the Newtown Bypass was completed .
= = Route description = =
PA 332 begins at an intersection with PA 263 ( York Road ) in Hatboro , Montgomery County , heading east on Montgomery Avenue , a two @-@ lane undivided roadway . The road passes through residential areas , crossing SEPTA 's Warminster Line . Immediately after crossing the railroad tracks , the route turns northeast on Jacksonville Road and runs through industrial areas with some homes .
PA 332 intersects County Line Road and it enters Warminster Township in Bucks County , passing between the Warminster train station to the west and the neighborhood of Warminster Heights to the east . The route widens to four lanes and intersects PA 132 as it continues near industrial parks . The road narrows back to two lanes past the Johnsville Boulevard intersection and enters Ivyland , heading past homes . The route becomes the border between Ivyland to the northwest and Warminster Township to the southeast prior to crossing Bristol Road into Northampton Township . PA 332 continues between industrial areas to the northwest and residential areas to the southeast , reaching an intersection with Almshouse Road .
PA 332 turns southeast onto Almshouse Road and runs through a mix of farm fields and residences . Past the Hatboro Road intersection , the road curves to the east and gains a center left @-@ turn lane , heading into Richboro . In Richboro , the route passes through business areas and intersects PA 232 . Upon crossing PA 232 , PA 332 changes its name to Newtown Richboro Road and continues past more homes as a two @-@ lane road . The road forms the southern boundary of Tyler State Park , running between areas of fields and woods in the park to the north and residential subdivisions to the south . The route curves northeast and then east before crossing the Neshaminy Creek into Newtown Township . In this area , the road briefly widens into a divided highway before it comes to an intersection with PA 413 and PA 532 at the Newtown Bypass , a road that provides a bypass of the borough of Newtown .
At this point , PA 332 turns south on the four @-@ lane divided Newtown Bypass , forming a concurrency with PA 413 and PA 532 . The road heads through wooded areas with nearby residential development , with PA 532 splitting southwest onto Buck Road toward Holland . PA 332 and PA 413 curve east and come to a bridge over the abandoned Fox Chase / Newtown railroad line , with PA 413 turning south onto Newtown Langhorne Road toward Langhorne . PA 332 continues east near residential and commercial development a short distance to the north of the border between Newtown Township and Middletown Township . The road curves to the northeast before turning east past the intersection with Newtown Yardley Road .
Upon intersecting Lindenhurst Road , the route enters Lower Makefield Township and becomes Newtown Yardley Road . It passes through farmland before heading north of an office park and reaching an interchange with I @-@ 95 . Following this interchange , PA 332 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road and enters residential areas . The route turns northeast onto Yardley Langhorne Road and crosses into Yardley , where it is known as Afton Avenue . The road heads into the downtown area and crosses the Delaware Canal . PA 332 comes to its eastern terminus at an intersection with PA 32 , which runs along the Delaware River .
= = History = =
What would become PA 332 between Newtown and Yardley was designated as part of Legislative Route 252 in 1911 , which continued southeast from Yardley to Morrisville . In 1928 , PA 332 was designated to run from PA 263 in Hatboro east to Ivyland , with the portion of road between Newtown and Yardley designated as part of PA 532 . Between Ivyland and Newtown , the road remained an unnumbered road that was paved with the exception of a portion west of Newtown . PA 332 was extended east to end at PA 113 ( State Street ) in Newtown by 1940 , with the entire route paved by that time . PA 332 entered Newtown from the west on Newtown @-@ Richboro Road .
By 1947 , PA 332 was extended east to Yardley , replacing that portion of PA 532 . The route continued north from its previous eastern terminus on PA 413 ( former PA 113 , State Street ) before turning east on Washington Street and leaving Newtown on Newtown Yardley Road . The portion of the Newtown Bypass carrying PA 332 west of PA 413 ( Newtown Langhorne Road ) was completed as part of a western bypass of Newtown for PA 413 in 1977 . In September 1989 , construction began to extend the Newtown Bypass east to the interchange between PA 332 and I @-@ 95 . Construction on this bypass was completed in November 1991 at a cost of $ 16 @.@ 6 million . With the completion of this bypass , PA 332 was routed to bypass Newtown .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Bank Markazi v. Peterson =
Bank Markazi v. Peterson , 578 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2016 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case that found that a law which only applied to a specific case , identified by docket number , and eliminated all of the defenses one party had raised does not violate the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative ( Congress ) and judicial branches of government . The plaintiffs in the trial court , respondents in the Supreme Court , were several parties who had obtained judgments against Iran for its role in supporting state @-@ sponsored terrorism , particularly the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and 1996 Khobar Towers bombing , and sought execution against a bank account in New York held , through European intermediaries , on behalf of Bank Markazi , the state @-@ owned Central Bank of Iran . The initial plaintiffs obtained court orders preventing the transfer of funds from the account in 2008 and initiated their lawsuit in 2010 . Bank Markazi raised several defenses against the execution against the account , including that the account was not an asset of the bank , but rather an asset of its European intermediary , under both New York state property law and § 201 ( a ) of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act . In response to concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments , Congress included a section within a 2012 bill , codified after enactment as 22 U.S.C. § 8772 , that identified the pending lawsuit by docket number , applied only to the assets in the identified case , and essentially abrogated every legal basis available to Bank Markazi to prevent the plaintiffs from executing their claims against the account . Bank Markazi then argued that § 8772 was an unconstitutional breach of the separation of power between the legislative and judicial branches of government , because it effectively directed a particular result in a single case without changing the generally applicable law . The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and , on appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and cleared the way for the plaintiffs to execute their judgments against the account , which held about $ 1 @.@ 75 billion in cash .
The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and heard oral arguments in the case in January 2016 , releasing their opinion in April 2016 . A 6 – 2 majority found that § 8772 was not unconstitutional , because it " changed the law by establishing new substantive standards " — essentially , that if Iran owns the assets , they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran — for the district court to apply to the case . Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , writing for the majority , explained that the federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress ' legislative power and that the Supreme Court had previously upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) . The majority also upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress ' authority over foreign affairs . Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) in 1976 , Congress and the Executive branch had authority to determine the immunity of foreign states from lawsuits . Despite transferring the authority to determine immunity to the courts through the FSIA , the majority contended that " it remains Congress ' prerogative to alter a foreign state 's immunity . "
Chief Justice John Roberts , joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor , dissented and harshly criticized the majority 's holding . After providing historical context for the separation of powers between the legislature and judiciary found in Article III of the United States Constitution , the Chief Justice explained that § 8772 is a type of unconstitutional breach of the separation of powers between Congress and the judiciary " whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance . " In his view , § 8772 is no different than a hypothetical law applying to a case Smith v. Jones in which the legislature says simply " Smith wins " . In the Chief Justice 's view , § 8772 was not a valid exercise of Congress ' foreign affairs authority ; he contended that Congress and the Executive branch have sufficient authority that they do not need to " seize " the judiciary 's power to " make a political decision look like a judicial one . " Quoting James Madison in Federalist No. 48 , the Chief Justice lamented that this case " will indeed become a blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power at the judiciary 's expense , feeding Congress 's tendency to ' extend [ ] the sphere of its activity and draw [ ] all power into its impetuous vortex . ' "
The decision came as Iran was seeking access to the world financial market just three months after many sanctions were lifted as a result of Iran 's compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program . Various Iranian officials denounced the decision as " theft , " " a ridicule of law and justice , " and " open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people . " Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to " plunder " assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs , although it is not clear if the ICJ would have jurisdiction to entertain the case .
= = Background = =
= = = State immunity = = =
Foreign states generally enjoy immunity from lawsuits in the United States under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) . The FSIA is the exclusive basis for U.S. courts to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign government . Prior to enactment of the FSIA in 1976 , the executive branch was responsible for determining the immunity of foreign states on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . By enacting the FSIA , Congress codified the guidelines for the immunity of foreign states and transferred responsibility for determining a foreign state 's immunity from the executive branch to the judiciary .
The FSIA contains an exception to the immunity of foreign states for victims of state @-@ sponsored terrorism . Prior to 2002 , if a judgment was awarded against a foreign government , only assets of the foreign government that were located in the U.S. and " used for commercial activity " could have been seized to satisfy the judgment . To make judgments easier to enforce , Congress enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 ( TRIA ) which allows judgments to be executed against " the blocked assets of [ a ] terrorist party . " Blocked assets include assets that may be seized by the President pursuant to his authority granted by Congress .
= = = Litigation before § 8772 was enacted = = =
The suit involved more than 1300 individuals who had won several separate judgments against Iran for its supportive role in the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings , the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing , several other bombings , an assassination , and a kidnapping . After winning judgments by default , based on a clear evidentiary basis for Iran 's liability , they sought writs of execution against a Citibank account in New York connected with Iran 's central bank . The suits for execution against the Citibank account were consolidated into one case through various procedural mechanisms .
The named plaintiff in the case , Deborah Peterson , is the sister of a victim of the Beirut barracks bombings ; joined by victims and other relatives of victims , she had won a default judgment in 2003 against Iran for its role in the bombings . Because of the large number of plaintiffs in the case — almost 1 @,@ 000 — the judge appointed special masters to determine each plaintiff 's right to collect damages and appropriate amount of damages ; in 2007 , the judge entered a default judgment against Iran for $ 2 @,@ 656 @,@ 944 @,@ 877 in damages .
In 2008 , the plaintiffs first learned of the interests of the Central Bank of Iran ( Bank Markazi ) in a Citibank bank account in New York and obtained orders restraining the transfer of funds from the account . The account consisted of bonds and belonged to a Luxembourg @-@ based bank , Clearstream Banking , S.A. , which held the account on behalf of Bank Markazi and deposited interest from the bonds into Bank Markazi 's Clearstream account . At some point in 2008 , an account for Bank Markazi was opened with Italian bank Banca UBAE to place the interest payments from the Clearstream account , placing a second intermediary between Bank Markazi and the Citibank account . By the time of the Supreme Court hearing , the Citibank account held about $ 1 @.@ 75 billion in cash , as the last of the bonds had matured in April 2012 . In 2010 , the plaintiffs initiated their lawsuit against Bank Markazi , Clearstream , Banca UBAE , and Citibank , jointly , seeking to execute against the Citibank account their judgments for damages against Iran , based on § 201 ( a ) of the TRIA , which provides that when " a person has obtained a judgment against a terrorist party ... the blocked assets of that terrorist party ( including the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party ) shall be subject to execution or attachment . "
In February 2012 , President Obama froze all assets of the Iranian government in the U.S. , which included the Citibank account alleged to be controlled by Bank Markazi . However , there were concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments . Bank Markazi claimed that the account was not an asset of Bank Markazi , but its intermediary , Clearstream , in relation to both TRIA and New York state property law .
= = = Section 8772 = = =
Due to the issues raised in the case , Congress included a section within the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act , codified as 22 U.S.C. § 8772 , that preempted any state law and provided that :
a financial asset that is —
( A ) held in the United States for a foreign securities intermediary doing business in the United States ;
( B ) a blocked asset ( whether or not subsequently unblocked ) that is property described in subsection ( b ) ; and
( C ) equal in value to a financial asset of Iran , including an asset of the central bank or monetary authority of the Government of Iran or any agency or instrumentality of that Government , that such foreign securities intermediary or a related intermediary holds abroad
shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution in order to satisfy any judgment to the extent of any compensatory damages awarded against Iran for damages for personal injury or death caused by an act of torture , extrajudicial killing , aircraft sabotage , or hostage @-@ taking , or the provision of material support or resources for such an act .
In response to concerns the banking industry had to early drafts of the legislation , § 8772 specified the assets that the section pertains to as :
The financial assets described in this section are the financial assets that are identified in and the subject of proceedings in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al . , Case No. 10 Civ . 4518 ( BSJ ) ( GWG ) , that were restrained by restraining notices and levies secured by the plaintiffs in those proceedings , as modified by court order dated June 27 , 2008 , and extended by court orders dated June 23 , 2009 , May 10 , 2010 , and June 11 , 2010 , so long as such assets remain restrained by court order .
Section 8772 also specified that the courts needed to identify " whether Iran holds equitable title to , or the beneficial interest in , the assets ... and that no other person possesses a constitutionally protected interest in the assets ... under the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . " If another person held a constitutionally protected interest in the assets , their interest in the assets would not be infringed by the law .
= = = After § 8772 was enacted = = =
Section 8772 eliminated all of Bank Markazi 's defenses to the seizure of the account 's assets , valued at approximately $ 1 @.@ 75 billion . Bank Markazi conceded that they held " equitable title to , or beneficial interest in , the assets " , per § 8772 ( a ) ( 2 ) ( A ) , but then claimed that § 8772 violated the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative ( Congress ) and judicial branches of government . The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and , on appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and awarded the assets to the plaintiffs .
= = Appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States = =
On December 29 , 2014 , Bank Markazi filed a petition for certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States , requesting the Court to consider the question : Does § 8772 violate the separation of powers by purporting to change the law for , and directing a particular result in , a single pending case ? The certiorari petition was circulated to the Justices for their conference on April 3 , 2015 , after a brief by the respondents ( Peterson ) opposing certiorari and a reply brief from the petitioner ( Bank Markazi ) were filed in March . Following the April 3rd conference , the Court called for the Solicitor General to file a brief expressing the views of the federal government , which was filed on August 19 . In May and June , the Supreme Court meets only to issue orders and opinions and does not hear oral arguments until the next term begins . The Court granted certiorari following its conference on September 28 .
Oral arguments were held on January 13 , 2016 with appearances by Jeffrey Lamken for the petitioner , Theodore Olson for the respondents , and Deputy Solicitor General Edwin Kneedler for the United States as amicus curiae . Justice Antonin Scalia was present during oral arguments . He passed away in February , voiding his vote in the initial vote on the case 's outcome and precluding any draft opinion he may have written from being published by the Court . The Court 's 6 @-@ 2 opinion was delivered on April 20 , 2016 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion , which held that § 8772 does not infringe on the separation of powers between the legislative and judicial branches of government , considering also that the law is an exercise of congressional authority regarding foreign affairs . Justice Anthony Kennedy , Justice Clarence Thomas , Justice Stephen Breyer , Justice Samuel Alito , and Justice Elena Kagan joined the majority opinion ( however , Justice Thomas did not join as to Part II @-@ C of the opinion ) .
The majority began by explaining that judiciary 's authority under Article III of the United States Constitution is to " ' say what the law is ' " , quoting Marbury v. Madison ( 1803 ) . " Congress , no doubt , may not usurp a court 's power to interpret and apply the law to the circumstances before it " by , for example , saying in a hypothetical case Smith v. Jones that Smith wins or compelling the courts to reexamine a case after final judgment has been issued .
Bank Markazi relied on United States v. Klein ( 1871 ) for much of its argument . In Klein , the Court questioned whether " ' the legislature may prescribe rules of decision to the Judicial Department ... in cases pending before it . ' " The majority found that " [ o ] ne cannot take this language from Klein at face value " because the power of Congress to make retroactive laws applicable to pending cases has long been recognized . The majority explained that the contemporary significance of Klein is that " Congress may not exercise its authority , including its power to regulate federal jurisdiction , in a way that requires [ federal courts ] ... to become active participants in violating the Constitution . " The unfairness of any retroactive legislation is " ' not a sufficient reason for a court to fail to give that law its intended scope . ' " The Constitution contains only limited constraints on the enactment of retroactive legislation :
The Ex Post Facto Clause flatly prohibits retroactive application of penal legislation . Article I , § 10 , cl . 1 , prohibits States from passing ... laws ' impairing the Obligation of Contracts . ' The Fifth Amendment 's Takings Clause prevents the Legislature ( and other government actors ) from depriving private persons of vested property rights except for a ' public use ' and upon payment of ' just compensation . ' The prohibitions of ' Bills of Attainder ' in Art . I , § § 9 – 10 , prohibit legislatures from singling out summary punishment for past conduct . The Due Process Clause also protects the interests in fair notice and repose that may be compromised by retroactive legislation ; a justification sufficient to validate a statute 's prospective application under the Clause ' may not suffice ' to warrant its retroactive application .
The majority affirmed that " Congress may indeed direct courts to apply newly enacted , outcome @-@ altering legislation in pending civil cases , " citing its previous decisions in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm , Inc . ( 1995 ) , Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) , and Landgraf v. USI Film Products ( 1994 ) . Accordingly , the majority found that § 8772 " changed the law by establishing new substantive standards " — essentially , that if Iran owns the assets , they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran — for the district court to apply to the case . Section 8772 left several issues for the District Court to adjudicate : it did not define its key terms " beneficial interest " and " equitable title " ; whether any other party had a constitutionally protected interest in the account ; and whether the assets were " held in the United States " ( Clearstream argued the assets were located in Luxembourg , not New York ) .
The fact that the law only applied to one case does not change its validity , although the majority conceded that a narrowly crafted law affecting just one person or a limited number of people may violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment " if arbitrary or inadequately justified . " The federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress ' legislative power , and the Supreme Court upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) .
The final portion of the majority 's opinion , in which Justice Thomas did not join , upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress ' authority to regulate foreign affairs . Citing Dames & Moore v. Regan ( 1981 ) , a case which also involved the availability of Iranian assets for execution of judgments against Iran , the majority points out that regulating foreign @-@ state assets — e.g. by blocking them or regulating their availability for execution against judgments — has never been found to violate the judiciary 's authority . Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) , the Executive branch routinely made case @-@ specific determinations of the scope of immunity for foreign states . Those decisions were not rejected as infringements on the judiciary 's authority . Although the enactment of the FSIA in 1976 transferred authority to the courts to determine foreign @-@ state immunity , the majority held that " it remains Congress ' prerogative to alter a foreign state 's immunity . " When Congress enacted § 8772 , it " acted comfortably within the political branches ' authority over foreign sovereign immunity and foreign @-@ state assets . "
= = = Chief Justice Roberts ' dissenting opinion = = =
Chief Justice John Roberts , joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor , dissented from the majority 's ruling . It was the first time that Roberts and Sotomayor were the only two dissenters in a case ; they had been on the court together since 2009 .
Roberts began his argument with an analogy :
Imagine your neighbor sues you , claiming that your fence is on his property . His evidence is a letter from the previous owner of your home , accepting your neighbor 's version of the facts . Your defense is an official county map , which under state law establishes the boundaries of your land . The map shows the fence on your side of the property line . You also argue that your neighbor 's claim is six months outside the statute of limitations .
Now imagine that while the lawsuit is pending , your neighbor persuades the legislature to enact a new statute . The new statute provides that for your case , and your case alone , a letter from one neighbor to another is conclusive of property boundaries , and the statute of limitations is one year longer . Your neighbor wins . Who would you say decided your case : the legislature , which targeted your specific case and eliminated your specific defenses so as to ensure your neighbor 's victory , or the court , which presided over the fait accompli ?
That question lies at the root of the case the Court confronts today .
In the Chief Justice 's view , § 8772 violates the separation of powers in Article III " [ n ] o less than if [ Congress ] had passed a law saying ' respondents win . ' " The majority responded that a more appropriate analogy to the case is if a legislature enacts a law specifying that a 2000 map supersedes a 1990 map in an ongoing property dispute in which the parties are contesting whether an ambiguous statute makes a 1990 or 2000 county map the authoritative source for establishing property boundaries .
The Chief Justice proceeded to detail the origin , purpose , and case law history of the separation of powers . Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes an independent judiciary with " distinct and inviolable authority . " Such separation of powers " safeguards individual freedom . " As Alexander Hamilton wrote in Federalist No. 78 , quoting Montesquieu , " ' there is no liberty if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers . ' " The separation of powers between the judiciary and legislative branches was examined in detail in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm , Inc . ( 1995 ) , in which the Supreme Court found unconstitutional a statute that reopened a case after a final judgment . At the time of the framing of the Constitution , judicial and legislative powers were often intermingled . The colonial legislatures often performed many of the functions of the judiciary , such as functioning as the court of last resort , granting new trials , and providing original review , appellate review , stays of judgments , and providing other types of relief " in an effort to do what is agreeable to Right and Justice . " The colonial charters of Massachusetts , Connecticut , and Rhode Island gave the legislatures the authority of court of last resort . In New Hampshire , judicial appeals were directed to the governor and his council , but routinely referred to the legislature for discussion . And for over half a century , the colonial assembly of Virginia could review court judgments . The involvement of legislatures in judicial matters " intensified during the American Revolution , " which " soon prompted a sense of a sharp necessity to separate the legislative from the judicial power . " The interference of the legislatures in judicial matters " figur [ ed ] prominently in the Framers ' decision to devise a system for securing liberty through the division of power . " This resulted in Article Three of the United States Constitution , which forms the " central pillar of judicial independence " and places " ' [ t ] he judicial Power of the United States ' ... in ' one supreme Court ' , and in such ' inferior Courts ' " as Congress may establish . This judicial power extends " to all Cases , in Law and Equity , arising under this Constitution , the Laws of the United States , and Treaties made , or which shall be made , under their Authority . "
The Chief Justice explained that there are three types of unconstitutional restrictions on the power of the judiciary . " ' Congress cannot vest review of the decisions of Article III courts in officials of the Executive Branch ' " , or " ' retroactively command the federal courts to reopen final judgments . ' " In the Chief Justice 's view , this case is a third type of unconstitutional interference with the judiciary 's authority , " whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance , " which he believes is precisely what § 8772 does . Section 8772 foreclosed Bank Markazi 's defenses that it was immune from prosecution under the FSIA , a separate juridical entity under both U.S. federal common law and international law and thus not liable for Iran 's debts , and that New York state law did not permit execution of the plaintiff 's judgments against its assets . " And lest there be any doubt that Congress ' sole concern was deciding this particular case ... § 8772 provided that nothing in the statute ' shall be construed ... to affect the availability , or lack thereof , of a right to satisfy a judgment in any other action against a terrorist party in any proceedings other than ' [ this case ] . "
In the hypothetical case of Smith v. Jones in which Congress enacted a statute that says " Smith wins " , the majority would find it unconstitutional because it " would create no new substantive law . " In the Chief Justice 's view , it would : before the passage of the hypothetical statute , the law did not provide that Smith wins ; after passage of the hypothetical statute , it does . For the Chief Justice , " the question is whether its action constitutes an exercise of judicial power . " Both the hypothetical " Smith wins " statute and § 8772 both have the same effect , which is essentially the legislature 's " ' policy judgment ' " that one side in the case wins . He compared the majority 's opinion , which found that § 8772 left plenty of issues for the District Court to adjudicate , to " a constitutional Maginot Line , easily circumvented by the simplest maneuver of taking away every defense against Smith 's victory , without saying ' Smith wins . ' " Section 8772 only required the courts to make two decisions — that Bank Markazi had an equitable interest in the assets and no one else did — that were both already clear before § 8772 was enacted . By the majority 's view of " plenty " , the Chief Justice contended that , in the hypothetical case Smith v. Jones , the majority would uphold a judgment for Smith if the court finds that Jones was served notice of the lawsuit and the case was within the statute of limitations . Strongly criticizing the majority , the Chief Justice , quoting Federalist No. 48 , concluded that the majority 's " failure to enforce [ the boundary between the judicial and legislative branches ] in a case as clear as this reduces Article III to a mere ' parchment barrier against the encroaching spirit ' of legislative power . "
Finally , the Chief Justice distinguished this case from Dames & Moore . The actions of the president that Dames & Moore upheld did not dictate the outcome of the case , but merely specified that the claims be handled by a different tribunal . The court 's decision in Dames & Moore was based on the " longstanding practice of settling the claims of U.S. nationals against foreign countries by treaty or executive agreement . " In contrast with the majority 's interpretation of Dames & Moore , " those dispositions , crucially , were not exercises of judicial power . " The Chief Justice critiqued the majority 's position on Dames & Moore by contending that the political branches of the government — Congress and the executive branch — have sufficient power of their own to address the issues in this case and do not need to " commandeer [ ] the courts to make a political decision look like a judicial one . "
The Chief Justice concluded with a strong criticism of the majority 's decision :
At issue here is a basic principle , not a technical rule . Section 8772 decides this case no less certainly than if Congress had directed entry of judgment for respondents . As a result , the potential of the decision today ' to effect important change in the equilibrium of power ' is ' immediately evident . ' Morrison v. Olson , 487 U.S. 654 , 699 ( 1988 ) ( Scalia , J. , dissenting ) Hereafter , with this Court 's seal of approval , Congress can unabashedly pick the winners and losers in particular pending cases . Today 's decision will indeed become a ' blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power ' at the Judiciary 's expense , Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of Aircraft Noise , Inc . , 501 U.S. 252 , 277 ( 1991 ) , feeding Congress 's tendency to ' extend [ ] the sphere of its activity and draw [ ] all power into its impetuous vortex , ' The Federalist No. 48 ... ( J. Madison )
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Payout to plaintiff @-@ respondents = = =
The ruling clears the way for the plaintiff @-@ respondents to collect from the roughly $ 1 @.@ 75 billion bank account , which will be enough to satisfy about 70 % of their collective $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in judgments . They will not be eligible to collect from a $ 1 billion fund — the Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism Fund — established by Congress in 2015 to pay victims of state @-@ sponsored terrorism . That fund pays 30 % of judgments until all applicants have received that amount ; remaining funds will not be distributed until all claimants have received 30 % of their judgment .
= = = Legal community reactions = = =
Attorney and law professor Alan Morrison , writing for the The George Washington Law Review , remarked that :
To a non @-@ lawyer trying to decide who should win just on the equity , the Bank ’ s chances did not look very good , and on April 20 , 2016 , the Supreme Court ... upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 , thereby removing a major barrier to the victims collecting at least some of their judgments . Those were the atmospherics , but on the legal issues , there was substantial agreement between the two opinions , although in their conclusions they were very far apart . All of the Justices agreed that Congress could pass laws changing the existing law and make those changes generally applicable to pending cases , provided it did so clearly . They also agreed that Congress could not pass a law in a pending case that said something along the lines of , “ The Court is directed to enter judgment for the plaintiff , ” or that “ The plaintiff wins and defendant loses . ” To do so would usurp the judicial role and improperly expand that of Congress . Nor could Congress change the law in a way that re @-@ opened a case in which there was a final judgment not subject to further appeal . There was also agreement that Congress could write laws that applied to a limited category of cases , at least in those cases in which only the Government was adversely affected by the change in the law . The issue here was where § 8772 fell on that spectrum .
Morrison expressed " concern ... that what happened here will repeat itself in other circumstances in which the equities [ are ] quite different " . Although Morrison suggested that an individual aggrieved by such a law could bring a claim for relief under theEqual Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , he argued that such a claim is unlikely to be successful because the law will likely be upheld when reviewed under the rational basis test . The rational basis test asks " there is some rational relationship between disparity of treatment and some legitimate governmental purpose . "
According to Stuart Newberger , an attorney who represents terror victims , the ruling could hinder foreign governments from using the judiciary to override determinations by Congress and the President regarding the availability of their assets to satisfy judgments against them . Newberger praised the ruling as " a message for any country that if Congress and the president take steps to freeze assets , make assets available to victims , that the courts are going to defer . "
= = = U.S. reactions = = =
The decision was praised in the U.S. by the litigants , their counsel , and politicians . Theodore Olson , counsel for the respondents , praised the ruling , saying it " will bring long @-@ overdue relief to ... victims of Iranian terrorism and their families , many of whom have waited decades for redress . " Praising the court 's decision , lead plaintiff Deborah Peterson found solace that " in the eyes of the law , we know who is responsible , and those who are responsible have been brought to the justice that we are capable of bringing them to here on earth . "
Law professor Jimmy Gurulé said the decision " sends a powerful message to rogue states and state sponsors of terrorism that if you , directly or indirectly , provide material support for terrorism , you will be held accountable " — sentiment echoed by Mark Dubowitz , director of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies — and that " hopefully , it 's also going to have a deterrent effect , or least cause Iran to think twice about supporting terrorist activity going forward . " The decision was also praised by Senator Bob Menendez , who authored § 8772 , and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan .
= = = Iranian reactions = = =
A spokesman for Iran 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemned the ruling as " theft " , " incompatible with international law " , " a ridicule of justice and law " and stated that Iran " totally reject [ s ] " the ruling . The Iranian Foreign Ministry summoned the Swiss ambassador to Iran , who represents U.S. interests in Iran , to receive diplomatic notes , to be forwarded to the US , protesting the ruling . A week after the decision was announced , Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif wrote a letter to Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Ban Ki @-@ moon urging him to use his good offices to intervene in securing the release of frozen funds and to stop interfering with Iran 's international financial transactions . A U.S. State Department spokesman rejected Iran 's claims , stating that the State Department " believe [ s ] the U.S. laws and the application of those laws by the courts of the United States comport with international law . "
Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to " plunder " assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs . However , the ICJ may not be able to hear the case . The U.S. withdrew its general recognition of the ICJ 's jurisdiction in response to the ICJ 's ruling in Nicaragua v. United States , but a 1955 friendship treaty between Iran and the U.S. gives the ICJ jurisdiction to rule on disputes arising from provisions of the treaty . A working group has been established in the Iranian Cabinet to investigate the ruling and determine ways of reestablishing Iran 's rights to the account .
Less than a month after the Supreme Court decision , Iran 's parliament overwhelmingly approved — 181 votes for , 6 votes against , 8 abstentions — an " emergency bill " requiring the government to seek compensation from the U.S. for actions the U.S. has taken against Iran , including the 1953 Iranian coup d 'état , which the U.S. helped restore the monarch ; the Nojeh coup plot in 1980 ; United States support for Iraq during the Iran – Iraq war , including compensation for over 800 @,@ 000 Iranians who died or were injured during the conflict ; U.S. espionage in Iran ; U.S. support of Israel ; the alleged death of 17 @,@ 000 Iranians at the hands of U.S.-supported terrorist groups ; and the confiscation of Iranian assets . The bill requires the government to take " appropriate legal action " for the violation of Iranian state immunity , including the pursuit of U.S. assets in third countries , and to provide regular updates to parliament on its actions against the US .
Some Iranian officials , including the chief of the Central Bank of Iran ( CBI ) , have placed some blame for the Citibank account 's seizure on the previous administration of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , who was president of Iran from 2005 to 2013 . The Foreign Ministry 's director for political and security affairs , Hamid Baidinejad , said it was " reckless " for the previous administration to have invested in U.S. securities . In a post on the CBI 's website , its chief pointed out that : " Although CBI experts and senior officials had warned against investing in dollar denominated securities , the government of president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad went ahead and purchased it , thus paving the way for the damage done to our assets . " Hamid Baeidinejad , a senior Foreign Ministry official , criticized the former head of the CBI for investing in a " hostile country " .
= = = Impact on US @-@ Iran relations = = =
The decision came at a delicate time for relations between Iran and Western nations , which were removing sanctions on Iran after its compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program . The agreement stipulated that once Iranian compliance with the terms of the agreement was verified , most sanctions against Iran would be lifted , including all sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council as well as nuclear @-@ related European Union and U.S. sanctions ; U.S. sanctions against Iran for terrorism , human rights abuses , and ballistic missiles would not be affected . In mid @-@ January 2016 , most sanctions were lifted . In March , the District Court for the Southern District of New York found , by default , that Iran had provided support to certain terrorist groups and individuals responsible for the September 11 attacks and awarded $ 10 @.@ 5 billion in damages to the plaintiffs , which consisted of $ 3 billion to reimburse insurance companies for paid claims and $ 7 @.@ 5 billion for victims and their families ( $ 2 million for pain and suffering and $ 6 @.@ 88 million in punitive damages per victim ) . The same judge ruled just six months earlier that there was insufficient evidence linking Saudi Arabia — which has sour relations with Iran — to the 9 / 11 attacks to overcome , under the terrorism exemption , Saudi Arabia 's immunity under the FSIA .
The Supreme Court 's decision was announced while Iran 's Foreign Minister , Mohammad Javad Zarif , was visiting the United States . The week before the decision was announced , the head of the Central Bank of Iran had visited Washington , during the spring meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund , to discuss with U.S. and foreign officials problems that remained with Iranian access to international banking , despite the lifting of sanctions . Javad Zarif criticized the Bank Markazi decision and the " even more absurd " 9 / 11 decision by the New York as " the height of absurdity " . Iranian President Hassan Rouhani called the decisions " open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people . "
Under the nuclear agreement , an important policy objective was to ensure that the Iranian economy benefits from suspending its nuclear weapons program . In the view of commentators Ali Omidi , a professor of international relations at the University of Isfahan , and Saam Borhani , an attorney and commentator on US @-@ Iran relations and sanctions law , the Bank Markazi decision and the 9 / 11 case threaten to undermine the nuclear deal and American credibility in negotiations with Iran . The head of the Nuclear Committee in Iran 's parliament , Ibrahim Karkhaneh , decried the rulings as " cooperation between the American Congress , the government and courts to steal Iranian property . "
|
= American Gangster ( film ) =
American Gangster is a 2007 American biographical crime film directed and produced by Ridley Scott and written by Steven Zaillian . The film is based on the criminal career of Frank Lucas , a gangster from La Grange , North Carolina who smuggled heroin into the United States on American service planes returning from the Vietnam War , before being detained by a task force led by detective Richie Roberts . The film stars Russell Crowe and Denzel Washington in their first lead acting roles together since 1995 's Virtuosity . The film also co @-@ stars Ted Levine , John Ortiz , Josh Brolin , Chiwetel Ejiofor , Norman Reedus , Ruby Dee , Lymari Nadal and Cuba Gooding , Jr .
Development for the film initially began in 2000 , when Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment purchased the rights to a New York magazine story about the rise and fall of Lucas . Two years later , screenwriter Steven Zaillian introduced a 170 @-@ page scriptment to Scott . Original production plans were to commence in Toronto for budget purposes ; however , production eventually relocated permanently to New York City . Because of the film 's rising budget Universal canceled production in 2004 . After negotiations with Terry George , it was later revived with Scott at the helm in March 2005 . Principal photography commenced over a period of five months from July to December 2006 ; filming took place throughout New York City and concluded in Thailand .
American Gangster premiered in New York on October 20 , 2007 , and was released in the United States and Canada on November 2 . The film was well received by most film critics , and grossed over US $ 266 @.@ 5 million worldwide , with domestic grosses standing at $ 130 @.@ 1 million . Many of the people portrayed , including Roberts and Lucas , have stated that the film took a lot of creative license with the story , and three former DEA agents sued Universal claiming the agency 's portrayal was demoralizing . American Gangster was nominated for twenty @-@ one awards , including two Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction and Best Supporting Actress ( Ruby Dee ) , and won three including a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role for Dee .
= = Plot = =
In 1968 , Frank Lucas is the right @-@ hand man of Harlem gangster Ellsworth " Bumpy " Johnson . When Johnson dies of a heart attack , Lucas takes control of the Harlem crime scene .
After handing in almost $ 1 million that he found in a mobster 's car , Newark detective Richie Roberts is ostracized in his precinct . After his exiled and addicted partner overdoses on a potent brand of heroin called " Blue Magic " , Captain Lou Toback puts Roberts in charge of a task force that targets local suppliers . Lucas buys Blue Magic directly from producers in Thailand and smuggles it into the U.S. through returning Vietnam War servicemen . His low overhead allows him to eventually wholesale Blue Magic to most the dealers in the New York area . With this monopoly , Lucas expands his control to nightclubs , casinos , and prostitution . He buys a mansion for his mother and recruits his five brothers , including Huey and Turner , as lieutenants to spread his empire . During his rise to becoming Harlem 's crime boss , Lucas falls in love with Eva , a Puerto Rican beauty queen .
As Lucas ' business prospers , he makes a point of operating quietly and dressing with a modest conservatism both as a sign of strength and to avoid attracting police attention . Also , he stays away from the drugs to avoid making hard decisions under the influence . However , Lucas violates these principles when he attends the Fight of the Century with Eva , sporting gaudy clothes that were a present by Eva ; Roberts attends the fight , notices the previously unknown Lucas with even better seats than the Italian mobsters , and investigates him . Meanwhile , Lucas needs to deal with Lucchese mafia boss Dominic Cattano , who threatens to destroy Lucas ' family unless he gets in on a deal , and corrupt NYPD detectives led by Nick Trupo , who attempts to extort and blackmail him to give them a cut . Lucas must also compete with local crime figure Nicky Barnes , a young gun trying to take over Harlem who has been diluting Lucas ' Blue Magic and selling it under the same brand name . After the Fall of Saigon cuts off Lucas ' supply , he is forced to rely on the other crime rings .
Roberts ' detectives witness Frank Lucas ' cousin and driver shoot a woman and then use the threat of a long sentence to get him to wear a wire . The gathered information allows Roberts and his task force to identify and search one of the last planes carrying Lucas ' stock , discovering Blue Magic in the coffins of dead returning servicemen . With this evidence they obtain a warrant to follow the drugs into Newark 's projects and Lucas ' heroin processing facility . In the ensuing shootout , Steve Lucas , Frank Lucas ' young nephew who gave up a promising career for the New York Yankees to join Lucas ' crime family , is killed . Meanwhile , Trupo , whose prized Shelby Mustang Lucas had destroyed , and his men break into Lucas ' mansion to steal his emergency cash supply hidden under the doghouse , killing the dog . As Lucas gets ready to go after Trupo , his mother dissuades him from killing a cop , warning him that she and Eva will leave him if he does . Lucas is arrested after Roberts ' team conducts a raid on the shops run by his brothers .
In the police station , Lucas offers to bribe Roberts , but is rebuffed . Instead , Roberts offers Lucas a chance at a shorter jail sentence if he aids his investigation of dirty cops in the NYPD and Lucas duly provides Roberts with the names . In the end , three quarters of the New York DEA are arrested and convicted , and a distraught Trupo commits suicide . Roberts , having just passed the bar exam , defends Lucas as his first client . Lucas is sentenced to 70 years in prison , of which he serves 15 years and is released in 1991 .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
In 2000 , Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment purchased the rights to " The Return of Superfly " , a New York magazine story by Mark Jacobson about the rise and fall of the 1970s heroin kingpin Frank Lucas . In 2002 , screenwriter Steven Zaillian brought a 170 @-@ page script to director Ridley Scott , who expressed interest in making two films from it . However , Scott did not immediately pursue the project , choosing to make Kingdom of Heaven instead . In November 2003 , Universal and Imagine entered negotiations with Brian De Palma to direct Tru Blu , with a script by Zaillian based on Frank Lucas . Zaillian interpreted the story as one of " American business and race " , focusing the script thematically on corporate business . Production was initially slated for a spring 2004 start . In March 2004 , the studio entered new negotiations with Antoine Fuqua to direct , as well as Denzel Washington to star in the film as Frank Lucas . The following May , Benicio del Toro entered negotiations to star as Detective Richie Roberts , who brought down Lucas . Production of Tru Blu was reset to begin in early fall 2004 , with the film slated for a release date of June 3 , 2005 . In September 2004 , Dania Ramirez entered negotiations to join the cast of the film , now titled American Gangster .
Universal Pictures reported that it greenlit American Gangster with a budget of $ 80 million , which escalated to $ 93 million , with $ 10 million for development costs and $ 3 million for the delay of the production start date . Sources close to the director insist that the budget was $ 93 million from the beginning . The studio also sought for American Gangster to be produced in Toronto rather than New York City to save money , but Fuqua resisted the re @-@ location . The studio 's parent company General Electric received tax credits in New York City , so production was moved to the city . The move , however , inflated the budget to $ 98 million . Fuqua 's camp insisted that it was seeking ways to reduce the budget , but the studio contended several aspects of the project under him . The director had wanted to film a Vietnam sequence in Thailand and to cast notable names such as Ray Liotta and John C. Reilly in minor roles . To add to the studio 's budgetary concerns , Fuqua was rewriting the script during the preproduction process . The director also did not have a shot @-@ list , final locations , and supporting actors signed to initiate production .
Fuqua was fired on October 1 , 2004 , four weeks before principal photography would begin . The studio cited creative differences for the director 's departure . After Fuqua 's departure , the studio met with Peter Berg to take over directing the film , and Denzel Washington had approved of the choice . Due to the search potentially escalating a budget already in the US $ 80 million range and the difficulty in recouping the amount based on the film 's subject matter , Universal canceled production of American Gangster , citing time constraints and creative elements for its reason . The cancellation cost the studio $ 30 million , of which $ 20 million went to Washington and $ 5 million went to del Toro due to their pay or play contracts .
In March 2005 , American Gangster was revived as Universal and Imagine entered negotiations with Terry George to revise Zaillian 's script and direct the film , which was to be financed with a target budget of US $ 50 million . Will Smith was approached to replace Washington as Frank Lucas , though an offer would be held off until George completed his revision of the script . George cut many key scenes , characters and Asian locations to reduce costs , but the project failed to progress given financial problems and Grazer feeling they " couldn 't make it right " without the removed material .
After a meeting between Scott and Zaillian on another project , Zaillian brought the project up again with Scott , who decided he was ready to do it . Producer Brian Grazer and Imagine executive Jim Whitaker decided against pursuing George 's attempt and to return to Zaillian 's vision . In February 2006 , Ridley Scott entered talks with the studio to take over American Gangster from George , returning to Zaillian 's draft as the film 's basis . Washington returned to his role as Lucas , and Russell Crowe was attached to star as Roberts . Crowe was drawn to the project based on his previous work with the director on Gladiator and A Good Year , while Washington wanted to work with Crowe again , after 1995 's Virtuosity . Production was slated in summer 2006 .
Scott had discussed the script with Crowe as they worked on A Good Year in France , and they sought to take on the project . The director reviewed Zaillian 's script , Terry George 's rewrite , and a revision by Richard Price during the project 's incarnation with director Antoine Fuqua . Scott preferred Zaillian 's approach and chose to follow it . In realizing the project , the director encountered a challenge in the script since the characters Frank Lucas and Richie Roberts do not encounter each other until twenty minutes before the end of the film . The director sought to flesh out the private universes of the characters that would evolve and have scenes cut between the two characters to provide a balance . Elements like Frank Lucas 's interaction with his family and Richie Roberts ' dysfunctional marriage were written to add to the characters ' backgrounds . The rappers T.I. , RZA and Common were added to the cast to appeal to younger audiences .
Scott chose to direct American Gangster based on the paradoxical values of Frank Lucas and Richie Roberts . The film somewhat focuses on the comparatively ethical business practices of the " wicked gangster " and the womanizing and failed marriage of the " do @-@ gooder " police detective . Washington , who was not normally a fan of gangster films , chose to portray Lucas when he saw " the arc of the character " had ended with prices that Lucas paid for his actions . To prepare for their roles , the actors met their real @-@ life counterparts . Washington acquired Lucas 's Southern accent , and Crowe practiced to match Roberts 's manner of speaking and body language , requesting tape recordings of Roberts to assist in his preparation . The following March , the studio rehired Zaillian to rewrite the script for American Gangster . It was rumored that Washington got paid another $ 20 million for when the project was greenlit again ; that rumor proved to be false , as he signed on for his gross . The budget had escalated to $ 100 million , which Grazer stated was unexpected given " It 's not a high @-@ concept comedy , it 's not a fantasy movie , it 's not a four @-@ quadrant movie " . Grazer and Scott still had to pay back the studio $ 3 million for a budget overrun .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in July 2006 in New York City . American Gangster was filmed over a period of approximately four months in over 180 different locations , most of them across New York ; it set the record for containing the highest number of filming locations of a movie . Two months were spent in New York , with all the city 's five boroughs being used . Approximately fifty to sixty locations were set in Harlem alone . While in the neighbourhood , Scott stated that he found several interiors that had been untouched since the 1940s . According to production designer Arthur Max , exhaustive location scouting was done to find parts of New York that could still resemble the city of the early 1970s , filming Lucas ' headquarters at 116th Street 20 blocks north , on 136th Street . In his interview with ComingSoon.net , Scott stated that " [ he ] just walked in [ ... ] and [ ... ] just sho [ o ] t in the house . " Several gas masks were brought by producers due to health hazards and sanitary concerns existing in the buildings . Scott found filming in Harlem to be difficult , commenting that the rapid gentrification in Harlem provided poor opportunities for shooting angles . Hand @-@ held cameras were extensively used to depict a " guerrilla filmmaking " style .
Other locations for principal photography include the Brooklyn Navy Yard , the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum , Old Westbury Gardens , a segment of the George Washington Bridge , and the Brooklyn Supreme Courthouse . Briarcliff Manor in upstate New York had the locations for both the Lucas farm and the estate Lucas buys for his family . Filming locations began setting up in Thailand in November 2006 , after Branko Lustig consulted with Suvit Yodmanee , the country 's tourism minister . Filming for American Gangster concluded in Chiang Mai the following month .
Using his experience from visiting New York in the same time period in which the film 's story took place , Scott sought to downplay a " Beatles " atmosphere to the film and to instead create a shabbier atmosphere , saying that " Harlem was really , really shabby , beautiful brownstones falling apart . " Production and costume design was emphasized , transforming the location into the rundown streets of upper Manhattan from the late 1960s and early 1970s . Denzel Washington , as Frank Lucas , went through 64 different costume changes .
= = = Music = = =
In 2006 , Greg Calloway was approached by producers to produce a soundtrack for the film . He presented the idea to Atlantic Records chairman Craig Kallman , and one of the company 's artists , T.I. , got an acting role in the film . However , the deal did not go further because Universal Pictures owned the rights to the film ; " It was a Universal film and they were not going to give the soundtrack to WMG " ( Atlantic 's parent company ) . Thus Scott brought back Marc Streitenfeld , who had worked with him in A Good Year . The composer stated that " the overall tone needed to be something bigger and darker " given the characters ' strong personalities , and while not being the original intention , he added shades of blues and soul music to fit the 1970s setting . The musical score for American Gangster was recorded between April and May 2007 by Streitenfeld , with the help of orchestrator Bruce Fowler and conductor Mike Nowak , using an 80 @-@ piece orchestra recorded in sections as well as acoustic pre @-@ records , performed by Streitenfeld himself . Additional score material was composed and recorded by Hank Shocklee .
The official soundtrack album for American Gangster was released by Def Jam Recordings within a week of the film 's release . In addition to Streitenfeld and Shocklee 's score material , the soundtrack album also features songs influenced by music in the 1960s and 1970s , including from blues and soul musicians such as Bobby Womack , The Staple Singers , Sam & Dave , and John Lee Hooker . Grazer stated that " I wanted to introduce a visual and sonic world that is a contained entity of the ' 70s " , and Scott felt it was vital to have " the brand of music that was Harlem at the time . "
Denzel Washington pressed Grazer into inviting rapper Jay @-@ Z to write the film 's score , but the producer " just didn 't think there 'd be enough for Jay @-@ Z to do " given the intentions to do a soundtrack filled with 1970s music . The film 's trailer had already used Jay @-@ Z 's " Heart of the City ( Ain 't No Love ) " , and the rapper was invited to an advanced screening . The film had a profound resonance on the musician , who decided to create a concept album , also entitled American Gangster . The rapper recorded tracks that were prompted by specific scenes in the film . It was speculated that the album 's release in conjunction with the film would attract a young audience and help Universal Pictures generate profits to recover from the film 's troubled development history . According to Jay @-@ Z :
" It was like I was watching the film , and putting it on pause , and giving a back story to the story . It immediately clicked with me . Like Scarface or any one of those films , you take the good out of it , and you can see it as an inspiring film . "
= = Release = =
American Gangster premiered in Harlem at the Apollo Theater on October 20 , 2007 . Over two weeks before the release of American Gangster , a screener for the film leaked online . The film debuted in the United States and Canada on November 2 , 2007 in 3 @,@ 054 theaters .
= = = Box office = = =
In its opening weekend in the United States and Canada , it grossed an estimated $ 43 @.@ 6 million , averaging $ 14 @,@ 264 per theater , placing the film first in the weekend box office . It marked the biggest opening weekend out of any film in both Washington and Crowe 's careers . In its second week , grosses declined by 44 @.@ 8 percent to $ 24 million , being beaten out by Bee Movie . In contrast by its third week , screenings for American Gangster increased to 3 @,@ 110 theaters as the film surpassed the $ 100 million mark . American Gangster finished its box office run in North America with $ 130 @,@ 164 @,@ 645 .
The film experienced similar success overseas . American Gangster was released in the United Kingdom on November 16 , and became the highest @-@ grossing film of the week , garnering £ 2 @.@ 6 million ( $ 5 @.@ 3 million ) in the box office . It repeated the feat in its second week , grossing an estimated £ 1 @.@ 82 million ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) at the box office and beating out Beowulf two consecutive times . The weekend of November 16 – 18 saw American Gangster take $ 14 @.@ 7 million from fourteen territories internationally . At the same time , American Gangster expanded in the European market ; it received $ 2 @.@ 8 million from 366 theaters in Germany and $ 3 @.@ 6 million from 366 screens in France during its opening weekend . Releases followed in Norway and Sweden the succeeding week , where it earned $ 392 @,@ 608 and $ 465 @,@ 238 from thirty @-@ seven and fifty @-@ nine theaters , respectively . The film was released in the United Arab Emirates during the film 's sixth week , and grossed a modest $ 281 @,@ 922 at the box office during its first week in the emirate . Similarly , it earned $ 6 @.@ 9 million in international markets during its sixth week , adding the total at the time to $ 40 @.@ 9 million .
By January 25 , 2008 , American Gangster opened in thirty @-@ seven markets , bringing international grosses to $ 93 million . In February , screenings for the film debuted in Mexico — with a modest $ 820 @,@ 482 opening weekend — and Japan , where it opened at the box office with $ 2 @.@ 3 million , landing in second place . American Gangster grossed over $ 266 @.@ 5 million worldwide at the box office , with international grosses making up 51 percent ( $ 136 @.@ 3 million ) . It ranked as the 19th highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 both domestically and worldwide .
= = = Home media = = =
American Gangster was released in DVD and HD DVD format on February 19 , 2008 . The home release included an unrated extended version of the film , featuring 18 additional minutes and an alternate ending . The film topped both the DVD sales charts with 4 million units during its first week in stores , more than three times as many copies as second place Michael Clayton , and the rental charts . American Gangster ended up as the 14th best @-@ selling DVD of 2008 . It also topped the high @-@ definition charts despite being released in the same week Toshiba announced it would discontinue the HD DVD format . On October 14 , the film saw its release on Blu @-@ ray .
A mobile game based on the film was released by Gameloft on November 1 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 80 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 206 reviews , with a rating average of 7 out of 10 , with the consensus being : " American Gangster is a gritty and entertaining throwback to classic gangster films , with its lead performers firing on all cylinders . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean score out of 100 to reviews from film critics , has a score of 76 based on 38 reviews .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film a perfect four star rating and opined , " This is an engrossing story , told smoothly and well . " Ebert also praised Crowe 's performance , saying that his contribution to the storytelling was " enormous " . Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald felt that American Gangster was " one of the most intelligent gangster films in years " and expressed that the film offers " the spectacle of grand themes and two bigger @-@ than @-@ life characters played by two of the best actors in cinema . " Concluding his review , Byrnes gave the film four out of four stars . IGN 's Jim " Stax " Vejvoda rated the film four out of five stars , praising the acting — particularly of the two protagonists , " both dynamic presences on @-@ screen , with neither actor outweighing the other 's importance to the story " — and declaring that despite being preceded by other gangster stories such as Scarface and The Sopranos , American Gangster managed to justify its existence with " emphasis on the human and class elements of the story " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times strongly commended the film , opining that " greatness hovers just outside American Gangster . " She continued : " It 's a seductive package , crammed with all the on @-@ screen and off @-@ screen talent that big @-@ studio money can buy , and filled with old soul and remixed funk that evoke the city back in the day , when heroin turned poor streets white and sometimes red . " These sentiments were echoed by Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph , who asserted that the storyline was " amazing " .
In comparison , some reviewers were more critical of American Gangster . Jonathan Crocker of Time Out London was polarized with the film , criticizing its aesthetics . In his review , he wrote , " Scott 's meticulous aesthetics can ’ t touch the urban texture and deep focus of The French Connection , The Godfather , Serpico and Prince of the City – all looming heavily in intertextual nods . " In contrast , Crocker praised Washington 's acting , writing , " He 's immense : centering every scene with tractor @-@ beam charisma , that dangerous , easy charm hovering between a luxury smile or blazing violence . " In conclusion , Crocker gave the film three out of five stars . Similarly , Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' C- ' grade , expressing that American Gangster is " never dull , but it could have used more good old @-@ fashioned melodramatic intrigue . " Gleiberman found Washington 's performance to have " a ghastly ingenuity " . Empire 's Ian Freer rated the film three stars out of five ; he stated that it was " undeniably enjoyable " and praised the cast , but also noted that he felt that " very little in the movie feels fresh , re @-@ treading scenes , riffs and imagery from the whole history of crime flicks " and that the film did not explore enough of Lucas ' story and Scott 's visual imagination . Slant Magazine journalist Nick Schager harshly criticized the film , giving the film a one out of four stars . Schager remarked that the film was " dumb as a rock " , and that it was " far too convinced of its import to be any fun . " Giving American Gangster a two out of five stars , Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was disappointed with Washington 's acting , asserting , " He doesn 't seem to relax and enjoy himself in the role , or even inhabit it very satisfyingly . " He resumed : " He never has the menace of his dirty cop in Training Day , and we don 't see anything like the transformation from street @-@ hustler to leader in Malcolm X. That shoulder @-@ shimmying swagger is rarely seen , and the brand @-@ classic robes of American Gangster sit on him heavily . "
= = = = Accuracy of the film = = = =
In an interview with MSNBC , Lucas expressed his excitement about the film and amazement at Denzel Washington 's portrayal . However , Lucas admitted to several news outlets that only a small portion of the film was true , and that much of it was fabricated for dramatic effect . In addition , Richie Roberts criticized the film for portraying him in a custody battle while in real life he never had a child . Roberts criticized the portrayal of Lucas , describing it as " almost noble " .
Sterling Johnson , Jr . , a federal judge who served as a special narcotics prosecutor for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York and assisted the arrest and trial of Lucas , described the film as " one percent reality and ninety @-@ nine percent Hollywood . " In addition , Johnson described the real life Lucas as " illiterate , vicious , violent , and everything Denzel Washington was not . " Former DEA agents Jack Toal , Gregory Korniloff , and Louis Diaz filed a lawsuit against Universal saying that the events in the film were fictionalized and that the film defamed them and hundreds of other agents . The lawsuit was eventually dismissed by US District Judge Colleen McMahon . While McMahon noted that the intertitle that appears at the end of the film , stating that Lucas ' collaboration led to the arrest of many corrupt DEA agents , was " wholly inaccurate " , in that Lucas ' cooperation did not lead to the convictions , and admonished that " It would behoove a major corporation like Universal ( which is owned by a major news organization , NBC ) not to put inaccurate statements at the end of popular films " , she stated that the film failed to meet legal standards of defamation because it failed to " show a single person who is identifiable as a DEA agent " .
Many of Lucas ' other claims , as presented in the film , have also been called into question , such as being the right @-@ hand man of Bumpy Johnson , rising above the power of the mafia and Nicky Barnes , and that he was the mastermind behind the Golden Triangle heroin connection of the 1970s . Ron Chepesiuk , a biographer of Frank Lucas , deemed the story as a myth . Associated Press entertainment writer Frank Coyle noted that " this mess happened partly because journalists have been relying on secondary sources removed from the actual events . "
= = = Accolades = = =
American Gangster earned various awards and nominations , in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its screenplay and music , to the performances of Ruby Dee and Denzel Washington . Prior to the film 's release , it was observed as a candidate for the Academy Awards based on its style and the performances of its actors , including the possibility of an Academy Award for Best Director for Ridley Scott . It received two Academy Award nominations — Ruby Dee was nominated for Best Supporting Actress , and Arthur Max and Beth A. Rubino ( set decoration ) were up for Best Art Direction . At the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards , the film received two nominations , of which Dee won the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role , and the cast 's overall performances earned the nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Cast . At the 12th Satellite Awards , Pietro Scalia attained an award for Best Editing .
American Gangster was nominated for three Golden Globe Awards , including a nomination for Best Motion Picture – Drama . At the 61st British Academy Film Awards , the film was nominated for five awards , but ultimately lost out . The film was up for four Satellite Awards , winning Best Editing . American Gangster was awarded Best Thriller at the 13th Empire Awards , and recognized as a candidate for best film by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Broadcast Film Critics Association . In addition , the film was included on 54 reviewer lists of the ten best films of 2007 , three of them at the top spot . Among the lists ranking American Gangster as one of the best of the year were those of The Miami Herald , Rolling Stone and the Associated Press .
|
= Magnum Rolle =
Magnum Rolle ( born February 23 , 1986 ) is a Bahamian professional basketball player for the Nakhorn Phantom Mad Goat of the Thailand Basketball League . Born in Freeport , Bahamas , Rolle did not play basketball until his freshman year of high school and was taught by his coach at St. George 's High School , Darrel Sears . After his senior year at St. George 's , Rolle transferred to the Laurinburg Institute in North Carolina , where he was an integral part in leading the team to an undefeated record and the national prep school championship . He was considered a five @-@ star prospect out of Laurinburg , and committed to play at Louisiana State University ( LSU ) .
Rolle came off the bench on a team that reached the Final Four in his freshman campaign . After his sophomore year , he transferred to Louisiana Tech in 2007 and was forced to skip the 2007 – 08 season as a redshirt . While a junior , Rolle tripled his points @-@ per @-@ game average from 4 @.@ 0 to 12 @.@ 2 . He was named to the All @-@ WAC ( Western Athletic Conference ) Defensive Team and All @-@ WAC Newcomer Team . In his senior year , he led the WAC in blocks and finished fourth in career blocked shots at Louisiana Tech despite playing only two seasons .
He was drafted with the 51st overall pick in the 2010 NBA Draft by the Oklahoma City Thunder and was subsequently traded to the Indiana Pacers . Rolle was waived by the Pacers on October 25 , at the end of training camp and was later chosen with the third overall pick in 2010 NBA Development League Draft by the Maine Red Claws .
= = Early life = =
Rolle was born on February 23 , 1986 in Freeport , Bahamas . His mother is Maryse Rolle , a painter , and he has one sibling . He was named after Tom Selleck 's TV show Magnum , P.I. He can trace his ancestry to freed slaves and is a distant cousin of National Football League ( NFL ) players Myron , Antrel , and Samari Rolle .
Originally a soccer player , Rolle did not play basketball until he was 15 , when local coach Darrel Sears saw him walking across a basketball court and saw Rolle 's great height . Sears asked if he knew how to play ; Rolle said no . Sears asked him to try shooting from the foul line . His first shot , according to Rolle , completely missed the backboard and fell into the bushes behind it . At the time Rolle was not interested in the game and only attended Sears ' practices because free fried chicken was provided .
= = High school and prep school career = =
At St. George 's High School in Freeport , Rolle quickly developed his basketball skills and also competed in track and field events . He averaged 20 @.@ 3 points and 13 @.@ 6 rebounds per game while enrolled at that school . Rolle first dreamed of playing in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) when he was 16 years old , after he came back from a basketball camp in Arkansas , but had some academic issues to work out . Rolle 's grade point average ( GPA ) was 1 @.@ 0 early in his career at St. George 's , forcing him to repeat ninth and tenth grade . Due to a drive to succeed academically and athletically , he eventually raised his GPA to 3 @.@ 0 .
In 2003 , following his senior year at St. George 's , Rolle attended the Nike All @-@ America Camp and convinced his mother to let him attend a preparatory school in the United States , where he could showcase his abilities and hone his talents . They eventually settled on the Laurinburg Institute , a small school in North Carolina founded in 1904 . Due to an unrepaired leak , the school 's gymnasium was condemned in 1997 , and the basketball team was forced to play home games as far as 30 miles ( 48 km ) away . In Rolle 's only year at the institute , his team went 40 – 0 and won the national prep school championship . Under head coach Chris Chaney , Rolle recorded a per @-@ game average of 10 @.@ 1 points , 10 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 5 blocked shots and had a field goal and free throw percentage of 64 percent and 76 percent , respectively .
Rolle also played with the Arkansas Wings on the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) circuit while at the Laurinburg Institute . He received scholarship offers from Arizona , Florida State , Kansas , Kentucky , LSU , and North Carolina . After verbally committing to Florida State in March 2004 , Rolle reopened his recruitment in July . He decided on LSU , to which fellow Laurinburg teammate Chris Johnson had already committed , and signed his letter of intent on November 18 , 2004 . Rolle was listed as the eighth @-@ best power forward in the class of 2005 and 32nd overall recruit by Rivals.com.
= = College career = =
= = = LSU = = =
= = = = Freshman = = = =
On November 18 , 2005 , in an 84 – 56 defeat of Southern University , Rolle made his collegiate debut , playing 14 minutes and scoring six points while also grabbing three rebounds . Rolle shot 4 @-@ of @-@ 8 from the field and contributed season bests in rebounds ( 10 ) and points ( 8 ) to help lead LSU past Nicholls State . He equaled his season high in points against the Vanderbilt Commodores on February 2 , 2006 , in only nine minutes of playing time . The Tigers surprised many with a Final Four run , and in that game Rolle led the team in rebounds with eight , recorded two points from 1 @-@ of @-@ 1 shooting , and blocked a shot , all in 14 minutes of playing time . Despite this performance , LSU 's opponent UCLA ultimately prevailed , 59 – 45 . During the 2005 – 06 season , Rolle averaged 2 @.@ 2 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 8 @.@ 7 minutes per game as a freshman , picking up 21 blocks on the year .
= = = = Sophomore = = = =
Coming into the 2006 – 07 season , the Tigers returned four starters , including Glen " Big Baby " Davis , and LSU fans hoped that Rolle would replace the shot blocking skills of Tyrus Thomas , who had left early for the NBA . As such , Andy Katz of ESPN named them the fifth best team in the nation in the preseason . Rolle 's averages improved slightly to 4 @.@ 0 points , 4 @.@ 1 rebounds , and 16 @.@ 7 minutes per contest , with nine starts and 31 blocks . He had a season @-@ best nine rebounds against Tulane on December 22 , and recorded his first double @-@ digit scoring night against the Tennessee Volunteers on March 8 , 2007 , in the SEC Tournament , when he shot 5 @-@ for @-@ 7 from the field in 18 minutes for 10 points . However , two herniated discs in his back impeded further progress . The Tigers finished the year 17 – 15 and 5 – 11 in SEC play .
Rolle left the LSU program on May 23 . LSU coach John Brady claimed this was due to concerns over Rolle 's development . Darrel Sears , his former high school coach , said Rolle had been unhappy with LSU since December 2006 , and that Brady had been making snide comments about Rolle for a while . After Rolle left LSU , he was courted by Division I schools Wyoming , Marshall , Oral Roberts , Delaware , Louisiana Tech , and South Florida . Although initially interested in South Florida due to its proximity to his Bahamas home , Rolle chose to transfer to Louisiana Tech to play under Kerry Rupp .
= = = Louisiana Tech = = =
= = = = Junior = = = =
Rolle was forced to redshirt the 2007 – 08 season due to transfer rules . In his first game as a Bulldog , on November 15 , 2008 , he registered nine rebounds and eight points , including four consecutive points within the last minute , to propel Louisiana Tech past Louisiana @-@ Lafayette , 61 – 59 . Rolle 's first double @-@ double came against Grambling State on November 18 , with 12 points and 14 rebounds . He led the team in scoring with a then @-@ career high of 17 points in a blowout 78 – 55 loss to # 10 UCLA on December 28 , while also contributing seven rebounds . On January 29 , 2009 , Rolle had a perfect night from the field , shooting 11 @-@ for @-@ 11 with 23 points . In a 60 – 52 defeat at the hands of Utah State on February 7 , Rolle fell and injured his hip early in the game , but he came back later to finish with eight points . He had a season high 25 points to go along with 11 rebounds and four blocked shots in leading the Bulldogs to a victory over Murray State 69 – 60 on February 21 . In the next game , an 80 – 71 win over New Mexico State , Rolle equalled his season high in points ( 25 ) and grabbed 12 rebounds .
During the 2008 – 09 season , Rolle started 30 games for the Bulldogs and averaged 12 @.@ 2 points , 7 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 1 @.@ 7 blocks per game . He registered five double @-@ doubles while scoring in excess of 10 points on 18 occasions . After the season , Rolle was named to the All @-@ WAC Defensive Team and All @-@ WAC Newcomer Team . In addition , the Louisiana Sports Writers Association recognized Rolle as a member of the All @-@ Louisiana third team . Louisiana Tech teammate Kyle Gibson was named to its first team .
Rolle briefly flirted with the 2009 NBA Draft . He declared for early entry in the draft , but did not hire an agent . After talking to NBA spokespeople , who said he was a borderline second @-@ round selection , Rolle considered staying in college an extra year to earn a degree . He eventually pulled his name out of the draft , thus ensuring his college eligibility .
= = = = Senior = = = =
The WAC preseason polls were released on October 29 , and Louisiana Tech was predicted to finish sixth in the media poll and fifth in the coaches poll . Fellow senior Gibson was named to the preseason All @-@ WAC second team , but Rolle was not honored by any preseason award . In the Bulldogs ' home opener against Arkansas @-@ Little Rock , Rolle was the leader in scoring with 23 points in crushing the Trojans 86 – 66 . Gibson and Olu Ashaolu also scored more than 20 points to push Louisiana Tech to a 4 – 1 start , their best since 2001 . Rolle 's career high in points was 29 , scored against Houston in a 99 – 94 defeat of the Cougars on December 29 ; Rolle also grabbed 10 boards . In the semifinal of the WAC tournament , against the # 1 seeded Utah State Aggies , Rolle injured his ankle less than three minutes into the game , a factor in the Bulldogs ' 30 @-@ point loss . They finished the regular season 23 – 10 , including a 9 – 7 record in conference . That was good enough for an invitation to the 2010 CollegeInsider.com Tournament ( CIT ) , in which Louisiana Tech defeated Southern Miss in the first round despite missing Rolle . In Rolle 's final collegiate game , he contributed nine points off the bench despite a 69 – 40 rout of the Bulldogs by Missouri State in the CIT 's quarterfinals .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Rolle started 33 games , in 24 of which he scored in double figures and in 11 of which he had double @-@ doubles . He rejected more shots than anyone else in the WAC , averaging 2 @.@ 1 blocks per game , and finished fourth in career blocked shots at Louisiana Tech despite playing there for only two seasons . Rolle also posted averages of 8 @.@ 4 rebounds per game , third in the WAC ( behind Luke Babbitt of Nevada and Chis Oakes of San Jose State ) , and 13 @.@ 9 points per game , 12th in the WAC . His field goal percentage was 51 @.@ 1 , tied with Babbitt for third in conference and behind Tai Wesley of Utah State and Ike Okoye of Boise State . At the conclusion of the season , Rolle was named to the Lefty Driesell All @-@ America Defensive Team , All @-@ WAC Defensive Team , All @-@ WAC Second Team , and All @-@ Louisiana Second Team . He graduated from Louisiana Tech with a bachelor 's degree in sociology in March 2010 , becoming the first person in his family to earn a degree .
= = Professional career = =
= = = NBA Draft = = =
Prior to the 2010 NBA Draft , Rolle hired Fletcher Cockrell to be his agent . ESPN , NBADraft.net , and DraftExpress.com projected him to be a possible mid @-@ to @-@ late second @-@ round selection . He worked out with the Washington Wizards , Phoenix Suns , Milwaukee Bucks , Charlotte Bobcats , and Indiana Pacers . Dave @-@ Te ' Thomas of CBS Sports said that Rolle had a good wingspan and was very athletic . He added while larger NBA forwards might push him around , he was an intense player and would not back down if challenged . Thomas compared Rolle to former LSU teammate Tyrus Thomas .
On June 25 , Rolle was chosen with the 51st overall pick by the Oklahoma City Thunder . His rights were traded to the Pacers for Ryan Reid , who was the 57th overall pick , along with undisclosed cash considerations . Rolle was the first NBA player drafted out of Louisiana Tech since Paul Millsap was picked by the Utah Jazz with the 47th pick of the 2006 NBA Draft . In addition , he was the first Grand Bahamian selected in the draft . Bahamas Minister of Youth Sports and Culture Charles Maynard and Minister of Works and Transport Neko C Grant congratulated Rolle on his historic achievement .
= = = Indiana Pacers = = =
= = = = Summer League = = = =
Rolle played well in the 2010 Orlando Summer League , garnering averages of 28 minutes , 13 @.@ 4 points , seven rebounds , and two blocked shots per game . On opening day of the summer league , the Pacers beat the Orlando Magic 86 – 77 behind Rolle 's 13 points , five rebounds , two blocks , and a steal . In the second game , an 80 – 69 loss to the New Jersey Nets , Rolle scored nine points , brought down three rebounds , and rejected three shots . Against the Utah Jazz , Rolle 's 10 points , eight rebounds , and four blocks facilitated an 83 – 74 Pacers win . The fourth game , which The Bahamas Tribune said was the most thrilling of the summer league , featured a 27 @-@ point deficit erased by Indiana for a comeback win over the Boston Celtics . Rolle had a double @-@ double , with 19 points and 11 boards . The Pacers and him wrapped up the Orlando Summer League with a 77 – 73 defeat by the Oklahoma City Thunder , in which Rolle posted 16 points , eight rebounds and two blocks .
= = = = Training camp = = = =
Rolle , along with fellow Pacer rookie Lance Stephenson , was named one of the " steals of the draft " by The Boston Globe . Rolle was invited to the Pacers ' training camp , where he injured his head , requiring stitches . On September 28 , the Pacers announced they had officially signed Rolle to a two @-@ year contract , but his salary was not disclosed . In five preseason games , he averaged 1 @.@ 8 points per game and 1 @.@ 4 rebounds per game .
However , he was waived on October 25 , at the end of training camp , in order to shrink the roster to NBA @-@ mandated 15 players . The Pacers tried to trade Dahntay Jones and Solomon Jones to keep Rolle , but the trade fell through and the Pacers were reluctant to drop Solomon Jones due to a lack of depth in the frontcourt . Had he made the roster , Rolle would have earned $ 510 @,@ 000 , but instead he made $ 50 @,@ 000 in a buyout .
= = = Maine Red Claws = = =
In the 2010 NBA Development League Draft , held on November 1 , Rolle was chosen with the third overall pick by the Maine Red Claws . The Red Claws were the affiliated team of the Boston Celtics and the Charlotte Bobcats . According to Red Claws general manager Jon Jennings , several D @-@ League teams thought he had the most upside of anyone on the draft .
On November 26 , Rolle was waived by the Red Claws because of a knee injury which was due to keep Rolle out ' indefinitely ' . In two games with the Red Claws , Rolle averaged 7 @.@ 5 points , 3 @.@ 5 rebounds and 3 @.@ 5 blocks per game . His rights were retained by the Red Claws .
On March 3 , 2011 , he returned to the Red Claws . He played 13 more games with the Red Claws before he was called up to the Atlanta Hawks . Overall , he averaged 14 @.@ 1 points and 5 @.@ 5 rebounds in 25 @.@ 9 minutes per game with the Red Claws .
= = = Atlanta Hawks = = =
On April 11 , 2011 , Rolle signed with the Atlanta Hawks but did not play a game with Atlanta during the 2010 @-@ 11 season . During the 2011 NBA lockout , he signed with South Korean team Changwon LG Sakers but also did not appear in a game with Changwon .
After the lockout ended , Rolle returned to the Hawks for the training camp . However , he was released before the start of the season .
= = = Orlando Magic = = =
In July 2012 , Rolle joined the Orlando Magic for the 2012 NBA Summer League .
= = = Japan = = =
In August 2012 , Rolle signed with the Mitsubishi Diamond Dolphins of the Japanese Basketball League for the 2012 – 13 season .
In 2013 , he re @-@ signed with the Dolphins for the 2013 – 14 season. in just his second year became an NBL Allstar and led his team to the playoff 's . Rolle also led the league in scoring in the Emperors Cup tournament , Advancing to the final Four top teams .
= = = Thailand = = =
On June 2016 , Rolle signed with MadGoats Basketball Club of the Thailand Basketball League .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = NCAA = = =
|
= Route Trident =
Route Trident ( known locally as the New or Big Road ) was built by the British Army 's Royal Engineers in Helmand Province , Afghanistan . The construction of the road was codenamed Operation Lar Jarowel by the Ministry of Defence . Route Trident ( named after the Regimental emblem of 28 Engineer Regiment — the Amphibious Engineers who have the Trident as their emblem ) replaced an older road that was vulnerable to attack by insurgents on convoys supplying three patrol bases established in the Gholam Dastagir Kalay area as part of Operation Panther 's Claw . In the immediate aftermath of operation the Light Dragoons Battlegroup were suffering casualties as they tried to secure the area and resupply their patrol bases . The attacks resulted in the deaths of two British servicemen and led to the cancellation of the convoys , forcing the bases to be resupplied by air .
Following a meeting between the Commanding Officer of the Light Dragoons ( Lt Col Fair ) and Commanding Officer of 28 Engineer Regiment ( Lt Col MTG Bazeley ) it was decided that a new and easier to protect road would be constructed by the Royal Engineers . 28 Engineer Regiment had used a new road construction material called NeoWeb geosynthetic cellular confinement system on an exercise in the UK prior to deployment and this was considered to be a practical option to reduce cost aggregate and provide a barrier to the implanting of lethal IEDS . Lt Col Bazeley contacted the Sales Director of PRS ( who was at that time on holiday ) and talked him into providing a small amount of Neoweb to trial in Afghan conditions which PRS agreed to do free of charge . The trial proved successful and Bazeley undertook to use funds originally designated to buy aggregate to purchase in excess of £ 2m of NeoWeb material . The NeoWeb was shipped to Cyprus by PRS and Bazeley convinced the RAF to re @-@ route a flight via Cyprus to pick it up . Construction began in December 2009 and was completed in March 2010 , during which time the construction teams and security forces came under frequent attack . This was the first road to be built under fire since British operations in the Dhofar Rebellion in the early 1970s , the completed road allowed resupply convoys to travel its length in about 30 minutes , compared to 36 hours along the old road . The success of the project led to the approval of plans for an extension to connect the provincial capital Lashkar Gah with the economic capital of Gereshk . Construction of the extension began in July 2010 and was completed in April 2011 .
= = Background = =
Route Trident was constructed to connect three patrol bases and a number of checkpoints in the area around Gholam Dastagir Kalay , which lies between Lashkar Gah and Gereshk , in Helmand Province , Afghanistan . The patrol bases had been built by the Light Dragoons Battle Group in the aftermath of the Operation Panther 's Claw advance in Summer 2009 . The patrol bases were garrisoned by the Coldstream Guards during Op HERRICK XI ( Sept 09 - Mar 10 ) and were initially resupplied by land transport on the old Babaji Road ( Route MARS , which was a dirt track . The Babaji area was one of the most violent parts of Helmand and the road was targeted by the Taliban with Improvised Explosive Devices ( IEDs ) . The poor security was partly a result of the lack of a significant Afghan security force presence and the absence of a functioning local government .
During 2009 two British soldiers were killed and 17 injured while completing a resupplying patrol to Patrol Base 4 . The land convoys were subsequently stopped and replaced by aerial resupply with helicopters and Hercules transport aircraft . The use of aircraft used up valuable resources of the local British logistics system and the Coldstream Guards were often forced to fight to reach the air dropped supplies . The British Army decided to construct a road to allow better resupply of their patrol bases , to stimulate local markets and social movement , to provide greater stability , and to facilitate reconstruction in the area .
= = Design = =
Major now Lt Col Adam Foley of the 64 Headquarters and Support Squadron , 28 Engineer Regiment of the Royal Engineers was appointed to be the project designer . The project was the first of its kind to be undertaken in Afghanistan and was allocated a budget of £ 3 @.@ 5 million . The road designed was 7 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long and 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) wide . One design constraint was that the patrol bases had to be able to see straight along the route to prevent insurgents gaining unmonitored access to the road . Another factor was a 300 @-@ metre ( 980 ft ) wide wadi known as the Suf Mandah that consisted of two water bearing channels . This provided agricultural irrigation for the local people and so could not be interrupted during construction because of its economic importance . The design for this section included a floating roadway over the waterlogged ground and two box culverts for the irrigation channels . The 17 smaller culverts along the route were made from reinforced concrete and stone gabions . The road itself was designed to be of unbound aggregate that could in the future be overlain with an asphalt surfacing .
The cost of construction aggregate in Afghanistan is high ( around $ 250 to $ 650 per cubic metre ) because of security and transport costs , therefore Foley attempted to minimise its use . A series of trials using various foundation systems was carried out at Camp Bastion to assess the capacity of a geosynthetic cell system called Neoweb . Neoweb is supplied flat but unfolds to form a hollow honeycomb structure that can be backfilled with aggregate and overlain with a wearing course . The specification of Neoweb allowed a 75 percent reduction in aggregate and a two @-@ thirds cost saving compared to traditional road @-@ building methods . The Neoweb layer acts as a semi @-@ rigid slab foundation and is designed to allow the surfacing layer to hold together under heavy vehicles and in harsh weather . The foundation also makes it harder for insurgents to plant IEDs under or in the road .
= = Construction = =
The construction of Route Trident was begun by the British Army during the second half of Op HERRIcK XI . The project manager appointed for the construction phase was Captain Dick Gale , who had deployed to Afghanistan specifically for this task . The works were carried out by troops from 23 Amphibious Engineer Squadron from 28 Engineer Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Helen Ladd , which had been in the theatre since October 2009 . The management team also included Major Brian Johnston and Staff Sergeant Darren Winter , who acted as foreman of plant . A team of 70 local labourers and plant operators were employed under the " cash @-@ for @-@ work " scheme to supplement the sappers from 23 Squadron .
Construction began at Gholam Dasagir Kalay in mid @-@ December 2009 and progressed to the neighbouring village of Hajji Jamal Kalay and towards the patrol bases through agricultural land and desert . The project took three months to complete and soon came under attack ; becoming the first road to be built by the Royal Engineers under fire since British operations against rebel forces in the Dhofar Rebellion in southern Oman in the early 1970s . Methods of attack included small arms , rocket propelled grenades and IEDs ; and the construction team came under attack , on average , every few days . The attacks meant that the engineers had to carry full arms , body armour and camouflage their surveying equipment when setting out and undertaking reconnaissance for the road . In addition units from the 1st Battalion Coldstream Guards Battle Group and the Afghan National Army were brought in to provide protection . International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) and Afghan patrols in the area were also stepped up and unmanned drones engaged enemy combatants preparing to attack construction personnel .
The project encountered several problems not typically associated with road construction . Materials had to be brought in for the road from as far away as Kandahar , Quetta , in Pakistan , and the United Kingdom ; and the work was carried out in 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) heat . The design was altered as a result of consultations with local Afghans , who wanted , for example , to route the road through villages where possible , to minimise the loss of agricultural land . The Taliban carried out direct attacks and used intimidation to deter workers ; at least one was beaten and kidnapped . Despite these difficulties the first supply convoy travelled along the road on 10 March 2010 , completing a journey that took 36 hours on the old road in just 30 minutes . The road was officially declared completed on 12 March 2010 , and another convoy made the trip that day in just 25 minutes .
= = Impact = =
Completion of the road meant that supply aircraft could be replaced by land convoys and reallocated to other areas . In addition to its military benefit the road improved the local quality of life with shops , markets , a doctors surgery and a school being built alongside it . There was also an improved sense of security for people in the area , and more patrols were able to move along the road . Such was the feeling that one building contractor felt safe enough to return to Babaji from Lashkar Gah to offer his services to construct a permanent vehicle checkpoint for the route . The design and construction techniques used in the road were so successful that they are being rolled out to engineering projects across Helmand .
= = Extension = =
There are plans to extend Route Trident north and south into the area secured by 11 Light Brigade during Operation Moshtarak . The extended road would link with existing routes to connect Gereshk , the economic heart of Helmand , to the provincial capital of Lashkar Gah . This has been designated as provincial governor Mohammad Gulab Mangal 's third highest priority for any activity in Helmand . The route would also provide access for Afghans to the hospitals in Gereshk and Lashkar Gah and has been described as a " critical route to further operations in South Helmand " . The extension will connect the region to the main Highway 1 road that connects many of Afghanistan 's main cities .
As of 7 July 2010 the two construction battlegroups , working from each end of the new extension , were just 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) apart . The work proved to be challenging , with a large number of culverts having to be installed and high levels of insurgent activity in the area . One local contractor refused to work because of security issues , which resulted in the project being delayed from its original finish date of July to October 2010 .
Responsibility for security of the road and its extension passed from the Coldstream Guards to the 1st Battalion Royal Gurkha Rifles Battle Group ( RGR ) in April 2010 . The battle group suffered a loss on 5 July 2010 when Trooper James Leverett of the Royal Dragoon Guards ( RDG ) , attached to the RGR battle group , was killed after the Viking armoured vehicle he was travelling in was struck by an IED . Leverett was providing security for the road expansion when he was killed . Two further soldiers were killed during Route Trident security operations on 21 July 2010 . The casualties were Corporal Matthew Stenton , also of the RDG , and Lance Corporal Stephen Monkhouse , of the 1st Battalion Scots Guards . Their deaths occurred near Basharan , north of Lashkar Gah , after insurgents opened fire on a group of Coyote and Viking vehicles protecting an IED disposal and casualty evacuation .
By September there was said to be " steady progress " on the extension of the road with elements of 1 Troop of the 1st Armoured Engineer Squadron , 21 Engineer Regiment being brought in from Ripon , Yorkshire to assist . Insurgent attacks had become an almost daily occurrence and halting work was said to be " the insurgents ' main effort in [ the ] area " . Operation Oqab Jarawel ( in English : Eagle 's Build ) was launched in October 2010 to provide security for the extension of the route over the Loy Mandeh river . The operation involved elements of 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Scotland and the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment working alongside Afghan forces to clear three villages of insurgents and set up new checkpoints to secure the area . The operation was highly successful , resulting in a 90 % reduction in attacks in the area and allowing the new bridge to be built by the start of January 2011 .
By early October 2010 Route Elephant , which will link with Trident and runs from Highway 1 to Lashkar Gah , was said to be very successful with a sixfold increase in traffic . As of mid @-@ November 2010 Route Trident was still under construction .
The Route Trident extension between Lashkar Gah and Gereshk was reported as complete on April 15 , 2011 and has cut journey times between the two centres from two weeks to just two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours and seen insurgent attacks drop by 90 per cent .
|
= Passer predomesticus =
Passer predomesticus is a fossil passerine bird in the sparrow family Passeridae . First described in 1962 , it is known from two premaxillary ( upper jaw ) bones found in a Middle Pleistocene layer of the Oumm @-@ Qatafa cave in Palestine . The premaxillaries resemble those of the house and Spanish sparrows , but differ in having a deep groove instead of a crest on the lower side . Israeli palaeontologist Eitan Tchernov , who described the species , and others have considered it to be close to the ancestor of the house and Spanish sparrows , but molecular data point to an earlier origin of modern sparrow species . Occurring in a climate Tchernov described as similar to but rainier than that in Palestine today , it was considered by Tchernov as a " wild " ancestor of the modern sparrows which have a commensal association with humans , although its presence in Oumm @-@ Qatafa cave may indicate that it was associated with humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
The known material of Passer predomesticus consists of two premaxillary bones in the collections of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . The bones were described by Israeli palaeontologist Eitan Tchernov in 1962 and reviewed by South African zoologist Miles Markus two years later . Tchernov did not unambiguously identify a type specimen and his paper was said by Robert M. Mengel , the editor of The Auk , to contain " many troublesome lapses and contradictions " . In 1975 , French palaeontologist Cécile Mourer @-@ Chauviré reported on fossil sparrows from a cave at Saint @-@ Estève @-@ Janson in southeastern France , which could not be identified as either P. predomesticus or the house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) . Because no premaxillae were found , the bones could not be distinguished from those of the house sparrow .
Tchernov argued that the house sparrow and related species have undergone considerable morphological changes in adapting to a commensal relationship with humans , with the beak becoming longer and narrower . He wrote that P. predomesticus was intermediate between the house sparrow and Spanish sparrow ( Passer hispaniolensis ) , and suggested that it may be a primitive relative of the ancestor of the house sparrow that did not become dependent on humans . In a 1984 paper , Tchernov suggested that the period in which the house sparrow and P. predomesticus could have separated was the Würm glaciation 70 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Markus found that the fossil species was closest to living house sparrows from Palestine and to the great sparrow ( P. motitensis ) , and proposed that the house sparrow evolved in Africa . In a 1977 account of the evolution of the house sparrow , American zoologists Richard F. Johnston and William J. Klitz considered that the house sparrow evolved with the beginning of agriculture , dating any fossils that could even be assigned to the common ancestor of the house and Spanish sparrows as more recent than P. predomesticus . In his 1988 work The Sparrows , British ornithologist J. Denis Summers @-@ Smith considered that P. predomesticus was roughly contemporary with the common ancestor of the house and Spanish sparrows and that all present @-@ day Palaearctic Passer species evolved later . Drawing on more recent studies of molecular data , Ted R. Anderson stated in his 2006 Biology of the Ubiquitous House Sparrow that all Passer species have a long evolutionary history , with speciation possibly occurring as early as the Miocene .
= = Description = =
Premaxillae , the only bones from which Passer predomesticus is known , are generally relatively easy to determine in birds . Tchernov found that the two premaxillae of P. predomesticus most closely resembled the house and Spanish sparrows , but were distinct from either . In P. predomesticus , there is a central , longitudinal groove with raised margins running along the lower ( ventral ) side of the premaxilla . In contrast , the house and Spanish sparrows have a narrow crest in this position , which is more prominent in the house sparrow . In the great sparrow , Cape sparrow ( Passer melanurus ) , and southern grey @-@ headed sparrow ( Passer diffusus ) , this crest is more poorly developed , and they may even have a shallow groove at the front of the premaxilla , not nearly as well @-@ developed as the groove in P. predomesticus . In P. predomesticus , the premaxilla has a maximum width of 8 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) and the length from the tip of the premaxilla to the back of the nasal bones is 12 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) .
= = Distribution = =
According to Tchernov 's 1962 paper , Passer predomesticus was found in the middle Acheulean ( middle Pleistocene , probably more than 400 @,@ 000 years old ) layer E1 of the Oumm @-@ Qatafa cave in Wadi Khareitoun near Bethlehem . In 1984 , however , Tchernov wrote that P. predomesticus was about 140 @,@ 000 years old , from the Yabrudian . Layer E1 contained remains of about 40 bird species , including a premaxilla Tchernov described as a precursor of the Dead Sea sparrow ( Passer moabiticus ) and a tarsometatarsus and humerus tentatively allied with the house sparrow . An undetermined Acheulean layer of the same cave also contained fossils Tchernov described as precursors of both the house and Spanish sparrows .
Although interpretations of the palaeoclimate at Oumm @-@ Qatafa have differed , Tchernov suggested that the deposits are from a Mediterranean climate , although one rainier than that today . Tchernov considered P. predomesticus a " wild " sparrow , but Anderson considered that the occurrence of P. predomesticus and the other Passer fossils in Oumm @-@ Qatafa indicates that these species lived in association with early Palaeolithic humans .
|
= California State Route 14 =
State Route 14 ( SR 14 ) is a north – south state highway in the U.S. state of California , largely in the Mojave Desert . The southern portion of the highway is signed as the Antelope Valley Freeway . The route connects Interstate 5 , or Golden State Freeway , on the border of the city of Santa Clarita to the north and the Los Angeles neighborhoods of Granada Hills and Sylmar to the south , with U.S. Route 395 near Inyokern . Legislatively , the route extends south of I @-@ 5 to State Route 1 in the Pacific Palisades area of Los Angeles , however the portion south of the junction with I @-@ 5 has not been constructed . The southern part of the constructed route is a busy commuter freeway serving and connecting the cities of Santa Clarita , Palmdale , and Lancaster with the rest of the Greater Los Angeles area . The northern portion , from Vincent ( south of Palmdale ) to Route 395 , is legislatively named the Aerospace Highway , as the highway serves Edwards Air Force Base , once one of the primary landing strips for NASA 's Space Shuttle . This section is rural , following the line between the hot Mojave desert and the forming Sierra Nevada mountain range . Most of Route 14 is loosely paralleled by a main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad , used for the Antelope Valley Line of the Metrolink commuter rail system as well as a connection between Los Angeles and the Central Valley via Tehachapi Pass .
Linked with US 395 , this road connects Los Angeles with such places as Mammoth Mountain , Mono Lake , Yosemite National Park and Reno , Nevada . Route 14 was part of U.S. Route 6 prior to truncation in 1964 , when U.S. 6 was a coast @-@ to @-@ coast route from Long Beach to Provincetown , Massachusetts . The non @-@ freeway segment of SR 14 from Silver Queen Road north of Rosamond to Mojave is known as Sierra Highway , as is the old routing between Interstate 5 and Silver Queen Road where SR 14 has been moved to a newer freeway alignment . Portions of Route 14 remain signed with names associated with US 6 , including Midland Trail , Theodore Roosevelt Highway and Grand Army of the Republic Highway . This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System .
= = Route description = =
= = = Antelope Valley Freeway = = =
The southern portion of the freeway , from Interstate 5 to the Avenue D exit near Lancaster , has been designated the Antelope Valley Freeway by the state legislature . The Antelope Valley Freeway begins in the Santa Susana Mountains at the Newhall Pass interchange by splitting from the Golden State Freeway ( Interstate 5 ) . This is the busiest portion of the route with an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) count of 169 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The freeway forms the eastern boundary of Santa Clarita along its route . Past Santa Clarita , the road continues to the northeast and crosses the Sierra Pelona Mountains and western San Gabriel Mountains via the canyon of the seasonal Santa Clara River . The ascent is mostly rugged and rural terrain , with only two small towns along the ascent , first Agua Dulce and later Acton . Between the two towns the freeway forms the southern boundary of Vasquez Rocks Park , a county park . Just past Acton , the highway crests the San Gabriel mountains via Soledad Pass , at an elevation of 3 @,@ 225 feet ( 983 m ) . The route of the highway through the mountains loosely parallels that of the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad , which is also used for the Metrolink Antelope Valley Line .
After cresting the pass , the highway descends into the Antelope Valley , a large valley within the Mojave Desert . The highway crosses Angeles Forest Highway and the California Aqueduct in the descent . Route 14 serves as the primary north – south thoroughfare for the communities of Palmdale and Lancaster . Between Palmdale Boulevard ( County Route N2 ) and Avenue D in Lancaster , SR 14 runs concurrently with SR 138 .
= = = Aerospace Highway = = =
From the Pearblossom Highway exit south of Palmdale to its northern terminus at Route 395 near Inyokern , SR 14 has been designated the Aerospace Highway . Between Pearblossom Highway and Avenue S , there is a vista point overlooking Lake Palmdale , which features a historic plaque that honors aviation accomplishments including the space shuttle , breaking the sound barrier and the speed record . The freeway passes the Los Angeles / Kern County line at Avenue A , and continues to run north through Rosamond and Mojave . In Rosamond , the highway passes close to Edwards Air Force Base , which was often used as one of the main landing strips for NASA 's Space Shuttle , and as the base for the X @-@ 15 and many other air and spacecraft .
The freeway portion terminates just south of Mojave , where SR 14 serves as the main street and runs through the downtown area . To the east of the route is Mojave Air & Space Port , home to the National Test Pilot School and SpaceShipOne , the first privately funded human spaceflight , as well as a vast airplane graveyard ; all are visible from Route 14 .
State Route 58 was formerly routed concurrent with SR 14 through Mojave , before it was rerouted onto a bypass running north and east of the town .
The character of the highway changes as it leaves Mojave . The road , now a divided highway with at @-@ grade intersections , departs the corridor of the main Southern Pacific Line , to follow the crest of the forming Sierra Nevada mountains . The route continues to follow a branch line of the Southern Pacific used as a connector for the Trona Railway . The main line of the railroad proceeds towards the Central Valley via Tehachapi Pass . Though Route 14 heads away from the pass , the highway has views of the mountains and the Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm . The scenery also changes , as the highway departs the Mojave Desert and crosses Red Rock Canyon State Park . Traffic counts drop dramatically as the highway becomes more rural , with an AADT of 3200 vehicles at the northern terminus . SR 14 continues north toward U.S. Route 395 in Inyokern , much of its routing as an expressway . Towards its northern terminus , SR 14 runs briefly concurrent with State Route 178 . At its northern terminus , SR 14 merges with US 395 as it turns into an expressway heading north to Bishop . As US 395 the route continues to follow the crest of the Sierra Nevada , serving Owens Valley , Mammoth Mountain , Yosemite National Park and Mono Lake .
= = History = =
= = = Trails = = =
The first road to use the general alignment of modern Route 14 was called the El Camino Sierra , or Sierra Highway , which extended from Los Angeles to Lake Tahoe . A dirt road was completed in the 1910s from what had been a pack trail . The Los Angeles Times declared El Camino Sierra complete in 1931 , when the portion from Mojave to the Owens Valley , along modern US 395 , was paved .
During the late 19th century , the corridor of modern Route 14 was also in use by the Southern Pacific Railroad for two lines . The first is a line to connect Los Angeles with the Central Valley , via Tehachapi Pass . While significantly longer than the more direct Ridge Route ( east of modern Interstate 5 ) , Tehachapi Pass is lower than Tejon Pass along the Ridge Route , with a longer , less steep grade on the descent into the Central Valley . This rail line remains the primary rail line to connect southern and northern California in use today , now owned and operated by the Union Pacific Railroad . The second resulted when the Southern Pacific acquired the un @-@ finished Carson and Colorado Railroad in 1900 . The Southern Pacific built a standard gauge connector to the narrow gauge Carson and Colorado line from their main at Mojave . Although plans were to eventually convert this acquired line to standard gauge , most of the line was abandoned before the conversion was complete . However , the southern portion of this line is still active and used for connections to the Trona Railway .
The Midland Trail was one of the first organized coast @-@ to @-@ coast trails in the United States . In the trail 's infancy , its routing changed numerous times . By 1925 , the Midland Trail was established along what is modern State Route 168 , joining El Camino Sierra in Big Pine . Other named trails that would eventually follow this route included the Theodore Roosevelt highway , and Grand Army of the Republic Highway . Parts of modern Route 14 continue to be signed with these names , and north of Los Angeles County is still officially designated " El Camino Sierra / Midland Trail " as well as the aforementioned " Aerospace Highway " .
= = = U.S. Route 6 = = =
U.S. Route 6 was extended from Greeley , Colorado to Long Beach , California on June 21 , 1937 . Most of this extension used the Midland Trail , although the route entered California from Nevada slightly north of the previous route of the Midland Trail , instead passing through Bishop . While being designated US 6 , parts of modern Route 14 began to be upgraded to freeway standards .
As part of the 1964 state highway renumbering , US 6 was truncated at Bishop . The portion of US 6 from Inyokern to Los Angeles was designated State Route 14 . Previously the Route 14 designation was used for Artesia Boulevard and Lincoln Avenue , in the Los Angeles area , a portion of modern State Route 91 .
Between 1963 and 1975 significant portions of US 6 / SR 14 were moved to a freeway alignment . The former routing south of Mojave ( and the current routing to the north ) is still known as Sierra Highway . The first freeway section , from just east of Solemint Junction to Red Rover Mine Road , was completed in 1963 . Further portions in the intercanyon areas of Acton to Soledad Pass were completed by 1965 . By 1966 the freeway was complete as far north as Avenue P @-@ 8 in Palmdale . The freeway was completed to Mojave by 1972 .
= = = Incidents = = =
The Newhall Pass interchange , where I @-@ 5 , Sierra Highway , Foothill Boulevard , San Fernando Road and the southern terminus of Route 14 meet , has been the site of a number of catastrophic incidents . The interchange has partially collapsed twice due to earthquakes ; the 1971 Sylmar earthquake and the 1994 Northridge earthquake . As a result of the 1994 collapse this intersection was renamed the " Clarence Wayne Dean Memorial Interchange " , honoring a Los Angeles Police Department motorcycle officer killed when he was unable to stop in time and drove off the collapsed flyover ramp from SR 14 south to I @-@ 5 south . After both earthquakes , the collapsed portions were rebuilt and surviving portions reinforced .
In 2007 , two tractor @-@ trailer trucks collided in a tunnel along the truck lanes for southbound I @-@ 5 at the interchange . A resulting fire started , soon encompassing the entire tunnel along with 30 other trucks and one passenger vehicle that were in the tunnel at the time . The truck tunnel was closed for several days for structural damage inspections and repairs .
= = = Cancelled plans = = =
Route 14 is an unfinished route , as the definition in the California Streets and Highways Code states that the route begins at State Route 1 ( Pacific Coast Highway ) , near Sunset Blvd. in the Pacific Palisades area of Los Angeles . Between the constructed end and legislative end of Route 14 is the area of Los Angeles called Reseda and Topanga State Park . There is no paved road that directly connects these two points , with State Route 27 or Interstate 405 being the nearest through roads in this area .
The intersection of Route 14 with Via Princessa in Santa Clarita is an unusual design , with long flyover ramps for the connections . This is the result of a freeway revolt by the residents of Santa Clarita , that canceled plans for a freeway extension of Route 126 . While the Via Princessa alignment of Route 126 was canceled , a different alignment is being constructed with proposed connections to Route 14 .
= = Future = =
Rapid exurban growth in Santa Clarita , Lancaster , and Palmdale has made the Antelope Valley Freeway one of the most congested in southern California , with average rush hour speeds well below 20 miles per hour ( 30 km / h ) . Future predictions call for continued growth along the Route 14 corridor , including predictions of a tripling of the population of Palmdale by 2030 . In response , multiple government agencies have proposed adding more transportation arteries between Los Angeles and the Antelope Valley , as well expanding the capacity of the existing Route 14 and rail corridors .
Several proposals have been made to bypass the Antelope Valley Freeway by boring a tunnel under the San Gabriel Mountains and extending the Glendale Freeway through it to the Antelope Valley . In 2003 , Caltrans published a map showing potential improvements to the transportation infrastructure of southern California . The proposal showed both the unconstructed portion of Route 14 and new routes over or under the mountains to Antelope Valley . In 2005 , the idea was advanced as a combination toll tunnel and surface highway . Preliminary studies estimated costs around $ 3 billion and suggested charging a varying toll , adjusted for the time of day , averaging around $ 8 for one @-@ way passage .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
|
= Live and Let Die ( novel ) =
Live and Let Die is the second novel in Ian Fleming 's James Bond series of stories , and is set in London , the US and Jamaica . It was first published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1954 . Fleming wrote the novel at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica before his first book , Casino Royale , was published ; much of the background came from Fleming 's travel in the US and knowledge of Jamaica .
The story centres on Bond 's pursuit of " Mr Big " , a criminal who has links to the American criminal network , the world of voodoo and SMERSH — an arm of the Russian secret service — all of which are threats to the West . Bond becomes involved in the US through Mr Big 's smuggling of 17th @-@ century gold coins from British territories in the Caribbean . The novel deals with the themes of the ongoing East @-@ West struggle of the Cold War — including British and American relations , Britain 's position in the world , race relations and the struggle between good and evil .
As with Casino Royale , Live and Let Die was broadly well received by the critics . The initial print run of 7 @,@ 500 copies quickly sold out and a second print run was ordered within the year . US sales , when the novel was released there a year later , were much slower . Following a comic @-@ strip adaptation in 1958 – 59 by John McLusky in the Daily Express , the novel was adapted in 1973 as the eighth film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the first to star Roger Moore as Bond . Major plot elements from the novel were also incorporated into the Bond films For Your Eyes Only in 1981 and Licence to Kill in 1989 .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is sent by his superior , M , to New York City to investigate " Mr Big " , real name Buonaparte Ignace Gallia . Bond 's target is an agent of the Soviet counterintelligence organisation SMERSH , and an underworld voodoo leader who is suspected of selling 17th @-@ century gold coins in order to finance Soviet spy operations in America . These gold coins have been turning up in Harlem and Florida and are suspected of being part of a treasure that was buried in Jamaica by the pirate Sir Henry Morgan .
In New York Bond meets up with his counterpart in the CIA , Felix Leiter . The two visit some of Mr Big 's nightclubs in Harlem , but are captured . Bond is interrogated by Mr Big , who uses his fortune @-@ telling employee , Solitaire ( so named because she excludes men from her life ) , to determine if Bond is telling the truth . Solitaire lies to Mr Big , supporting Bond 's cover story . Mr Big decides to release Bond and Leiter , and has his henchman Tee @-@ Hee break one of Bond 's fingers . On leaving , Bond kills Tee @-@ Hee and several more of Mr Big 's men , while Leiter is released with minimal physical harm by a gang member , sympathetic because of a shared appreciation of jazz .
Solitaire later leaves Mr Big and contacts Bond ; the couple travel by train to St. Petersburg , Florida , where they meet Leiter . While Bond and Leiter are scouting one of Mr Big 's warehouses used for storing exotic fish , Solitaire is kidnapped by Mr Big 's minions . Leiter later returns to the warehouse by himself , but is either captured and fed to a shark or tricked into standing on a trap door over the shark tank through which he falls ; he survives , but loses an arm and a leg . Bond finds him in their safe house with a note pinned to his chest " He disagreed with something that ate him " . Bond then investigates the warehouse himself and discovers that Mr Big is smuggling gold by placing it in the bottom of fish tanks holding poisonous tropical fish , which he is bringing into the US . He is attacked in the warehouse by the Robber , another of Mr Big 's men ; during the resultant gunfight , Bond outwits the Robber and causes him to fall into the shark tank .
Bond continues his mission in Jamaica , where he meets a local fisherman , Quarrel , and John Strangways , the head of the local MI6 station . Quarrel gives Bond training in scuba diving in the local waters . Bond swims through shark- and barracuda @-@ infested waters to Mr Big 's island and manages to plant a limpet mine on the hull of his yacht before being captured once again by Mr Big . Bond is reunited with Solitaire ; the following morning Mr Big ties the couple to a line behind his yacht and plans to drag them over the shallow coral reef and into deeper water so that the sharks and barracuda that he attracts to the area with regular feedings will eat them .
Bond and Solitaire are saved when the limpet mine explodes seconds before they are dragged over the reef : though temporarily stunned by the explosion and injured on the coral , they are protected from further harm by the reef and Bond watches as Mr Big , who survived the explosion , is killed by the sharks and barracuda . Quarrel then rescues the couple .
= = Background = =
Between January and March 1952 the journalist Ian Fleming wrote Casino Royale , his first novel , at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . Fleming conducted research for Live and Let Die , and completed the novel before Casino Royale was published in January 1953 , four months before his second book was published . Fleming and his wife Ann flew to New York before taking the Silver Meteor train to St. Petersburg in Florida and then flying on to Jamaica . In doing so they followed the same train route Fleming had taken with his friend Ivar Bryce in July 1943 , when Fleming had first visited the island .
Once Fleming and his wife arrived at Goldeneye , he started work on the second Bond novel . In May 1963 he wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " As he had done with Casino Royale , Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend , the writer William Plomer , who reacted favourably to the story , telling Fleming that " the new book held this reader like a limpet mine & the denouement was shattering " . On a trip to the US in May 1953 Fleming used his five @-@ day travelling time on RMS Queen Elizabeth to correct the proofs of the novel .
Fleming intended the book to have a more serious tone than his debut novel , and he initially considered making the story a meditation on the nature of evil . The novel 's original title , The Undertaker 's Wind , reflects this ; the undertaker 's wind , which was to act as a metaphor for the story , describes one of Jamaica 's winds that " blows all the bad air out of the island " .
The literary critic Daniel Ferreras Savoye considers the titles of Fleming 's novels to have importance individually and collectively ; Live and Let Die , he writes , " turns an expression of collective wisdom , in this case fraternal and positive , into its exact opposite , suggesting a materialistic epistemological outlook , individualistic and lucid " . This is in keeping with the storyline in that Bond brings order without which " the world would quickly turn into the dystopian , barbarian reality feared by [ Thomas ] Hobbes and celebrated by [ Marquis ] de Sade . "
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Live and Let Die in 1952 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in January and February that year .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
Much of the novel draws from Fleming 's personal experiences : the opening of the book , with Bond 's arrival at New York 's Idlewild Airport was inspired by Fleming 's own journeys in 1941 and 1953 , and the warehouse at which Leiter is attacked by a shark was based on a similar building Fleming and his wife had visited in St. Petersburg , Florida on their recent journey . He also used his experiences on his two journeys on the Silver Meteor as background for the route taken by Bond and Solitaire .
Some of Fleming 's friends had their names used in the story , with Ivar Bryce giving his name to the alias used by Bond , while another friend , Tommy Leiter , found his surname being used for Felix Leiter ; Ivar Bryce 's middle name of Felix was used for Leiter 's first name , while John Fox @-@ Strangways saw part of his surname being used for the name of the MI6 station chief in Jamaica . Fleming also used the name of the local Jamaican Rufous @-@ throated solitaire bird as the name of the book 's main female character .
Fleming 's experiences on his first scuba dive with Jacques Cousteau in 1953 provided much of the description of Bond 's swim to Mr Big 's boat , while the concept of limpet @-@ mining is probably based on the wartime activities of the elite 10th Light Flotilla , a unit of Italian navy frogmen . Fleming also used , and extensively quoted , information about voodoo from his friend Patrick Leigh Fermor 's 1950 book The Traveller 's Tree , which had also been partly written at Goldeneye .
Fleming had a long @-@ held interest in pirates , from the novels he read as a child , through to films such as Captain Blood ( 1935 ) with Errol Flynn , which he enjoyed watching . From his Goldeneye home on Jamaica 's northern shore , Fleming had visited Port Royal on the south of the island , which was once the home port of Sir Henry Morgan , all of which stimulated Fleming 's interest . For the background to Mr Big 's treasure island , Fleming appropriated the details of Cabritta Island in Port Maria Bay , which was the true location of Morgan 's hoard .
= = = Characters = = =
Fleming builds the main character in Live and Let Die to make Bond come across as more human than in Casino Royale , becoming " a much warmer , more likeable man from the opening chapter " , according to the American novelist Raymond Benson , who between 1997 and 2002 wrote a series of Bond novels and short stories . Savoye sees the introduction of a vulnerable side to Bond , identifying the agent 's tears towards the end of the story as evidence of this . Similarly , over the course of the book , the American character Leiter develops and also emerges as a more complete and human character and his and Bond 's friendship is evident in the story . Despite the relationship , Leiter is again subordinate to Bond . While in Casino Royale his role was to provide technical support and money to Bond , in Live and Let Die the character is secondary to Bond , and the only time he takes the initiative , he loses an arm and a leg , while Bond wins his own battle with the same opponent . Although Fleming had initially intended to kill Leiter off in the story , his American literary agent protested , and the character was saved .
Quarrel was Fleming 's ideal concept of a black person , and the character was based on his genuine liking for Jamaicans , whom he saw as " full of goodwill and cheerfulness and humour " . The relationship between Bond and Quarrel was based on a mutual assumption of Bond 's superiority . Fleming described the relationship as " that of a Scots laird with his head stalker ; authority was unspoken and there was no room for servility " .
Fleming 's villain was physically abnormal — as many of Bond 's later adversaries were . Mr Big is described as being intellectually brilliant , with a " great football of a head , twice the normal size and very nearly round " and skin which was " grey @-@ black , taut and shining like the face of a week @-@ old corpse in the river " . For Benson , " Mr Big is only an adequate villain " , with little depth to him . According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th century British spy novels , Live and Let Die showed a departure from the " gentleman crook " that showed in much earlier literature , as the intellectual and organisational skills of Mr Big were emphasised , rather than the behavioural . Within Mr Big 's organisation , Panek identifies Mr Big 's henchmen as " merely incompetent gunsels " when compared with Bond , who the latter can eliminate with relative ease .
= = Style = =
Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic point that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson felt that the " Fleming Sweep never achieves a more engaging rhythm and flow " than in Live and Let Die . The writer and academic Kingsley Amis — who also subsequently wrote a Bond novel — disagrees , and thinks that the story has " less narrative sweep than most " . Parker considers the novel possibly Fleming 's best , as it has a tight plot and is well paced throughout ; he thinks the book " establishes the winning formula " for the stories that follow .
Savoye , comparing the structure of Live and Let Die with Casino Royale , believes that the two books have open narratives which allow Fleming to continue with further books in the series . Savoye finds differences in the structure of the endings , with Live and Let Die 's promise of future sexual encounters between Bond and Solitaire to be more credible than Casino Royale 's ending , in which Bond vows to battle a super @-@ criminal organisation .
Within the novel Fleming uses elements that are " pure Gothic " , according to the essayist Umberto Eco . This includes the description of Mr Big 's death by shark attack , in which Bond watches as " Half of The Big Man 's left arm came out of the water . It had no hand , no wrist , no wrist watch . " Eco considers that this is " not just an example of macabre sarcasm ; it is an emphasis on the essential by the inessential , typical of the école du regard . " Benson considers that Fleming 's experiences as a journalist , and his eye for detail , add to the verisimilitude displayed in the novel .
= = Themes = =
Live and Let Die , like other Bond novels , reflects the changing roles of Britain and America during the 1950s and the perceived threat from the Soviet Union to both nations . Unlike Casino Royale , where Cold War politics revolve around British @-@ Soviet tensions , in Live and Let Die Bond arrives in Harlem to protect America from Soviet agents working through the Black Power movement . In the novel America was the Soviet objective and Bond comments " that New York ' must be the fattest atomic @-@ bomb target on the whole face of the world ' . "
Live and Let Die also gave Fleming a chance to outline his views on what he saw as the increasing American colonisation of Jamaica — a subject that concerned both him and his neighbour Noël Coward . While the American Mr Big was unusual in appropriating an entire island , the rising number of American tourists to the islands was seen by Fleming as a threat to Jamaica ; he wrote in the novel that Bond was " glad to be on his way to the soft green flanks of Jamaica and to leave behind the great hard continent of Eldollarado . "
Bond 's briefing also provides an opportunity for Fleming to offer his views on race through his characters . " M and Bond ... offer their views on the ethnicity of crime , views that reflected ignorance , the inherited racialist prejudices of London clubland " , according to the cultural historian Jeremy Black . Black also points out that " the frequency of his references and his willingness to offer racial stereotypes [ was ] typical of many writers of his age " . The writer Louise Welsh observes that " Live and Let Die taps into the paranoia that some sectors of white society were feeling " as the civil rights movements challenged prejudice and inequality . That insecurity manifested itself in opinions shared by Fleming with the intelligence industry , that the American National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was a communist front . The communist threat was brought home to Jamaica with the 1952 arrest of the Jamaican politician Alexander Bustamante by the American authorities while he was on official business in Puerto Rico , despite the fact that he was avowedly anti @-@ communist . During the course of the year local Jamaican political parties had also expelled members for being communists .
Friendship is another prominent element of Live and Let Die , where the importance of male friends and allies shows through in Bond 's relationships with Leiter and Quarrel . The more complete characters profiles in the novel clearly showed the strong relationship between Bond and Leiter . In turn this provides a strengthened motive for Bond to chase Mr Big as revenge for the shark attack on Leiter .
Live and Let Die continues the theme Fleming examined in Casino Royale , that of evil or , as Fleming 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , describes it , " the banality of evil " . Fleming uses Mr Big as the vehicle to voice opinions on evil , particularly when he tells Bond that " Mister Bond , I suffer from boredom . I am prey to what the early Christians called ' accidie ' , the deadly lethargy that envelops those who are sated . " This allowed Fleming to build the Bond character as a counter to the accidie , in what the writer saw as a Manichaean struggle between good and evil . Benson considers evil as the main theme of the book , and highlights the discussion Bond has with René Mathis of the French Deuxième Bureau in Casino Royale , in which the Frenchman predicts Bond will seek out and kill the evil men of the world .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Live and Let Die was published in hardback by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1954 and , as with Casino Royale , Fleming designed the cover , which again featured the title lettering prominently . It had an initial print run of 7 @,@ 500 copies which sold out , and a reprint of 2 @,@ 000 copies was soon undertaken ; by the end of the first year , a total of over 9 @,@ 000 copies had been sold . In May 1954 Live and Let Die was banned in Ireland by the Irish Censorship of Publications Board . Lycett observed that the ban helped the general publicity in other territories . In October 1957 Pan Books issued a paperback version which sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in the first year .
Live and Let Die was published in the US in January 1955 by Macmillan ; there was only one major change in the book , which was that the title of the fifth chapter was changed from " Nigger Heaven " to " Seventh Avenue " . Sales in the US were poor , with only 5 @,@ 000 copies sold in the first year of publication .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Philip Day of The Sunday Times noted " How wincingly well Mr Fleming writes " , while the reviewer for The Times , thought that " [ t ] his is an ingenious affair , full of recondite knowledge and horrific spills and thrills – of slightly sadistic excitements also – though without the simple and bold design of its predecessor " . Elizabeth L Sturch , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , observed that Fleming was " without doubt the most interesting recent recruit among thriller @-@ writers " and that Live and Let Die " fully maintains the promise of ... Casino Royale . " Tempering her praise of the book , Sturch thought that " Mr Fleming works often on the edge of flippancy , rather in the spirit of a highbrow " , although overall she felt that the novel " contains passages which for sheer excitement have not been surpassed by any modern writer of this kind " . The reviewer for The Daily Telegraph felt that " the book is continually exciting , whether it takes us into the heart of Harlem or describes an underwater swim in shark @-@ infested waters ; and it is more entertaining because Mr Fleming does not take it all too seriously himself " . George Malcolm Thompson , writing in The Evening Standard , believed Live and Let Die to be " tense ; ice @-@ cold , sophisticated ; Peter Cheyney for the carriage trade " .
Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — a critic described by Fleming 's biographer , John Pearson , as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — thought that the " high @-@ spots are all effectively described ... but the narrative is loose and jerky " . Boucher concluded that Live and Let Die was " a lurid meller contrived by mixing equal parts of Oppenheim and Spillane " . In June 1955 Raymond Chandler was visiting the poet Stephen Spender in London when he was introduced to Fleming , who subsequently sent Chandler a copy of Live and Let Die . In response , Chandler wrote that Fleming was " probably the most forceful and driving writer of what I suppose still must be called thrillers in England " .
= = Adaptations = =
Live and Let Die was adapted as a daily comic strip which was published in The Daily Express newspaper and syndicated around the world . The adaptation ran from 15 December 1958 to 28 March 1959 . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , whose drawings of Bond had a resemblance to Sean Connery , the actor who portrayed Bond in Dr. No three years later .
Before Live and Let Die had been published , the producer Alexander Korda had read a proof copy of the novel . He thought it was the most exciting story he had read for years , but was unsure whether it was suitable for a film . Nevertheless , he wanted to show the story to the directors David Lean and Carol Reed for their impressions , although nothing came of Korda 's initial interest . In 1955 , following the television broadcast of an adaptation of Fleming 's earlier novel Casino Royale , Warner Bros. expressed an interest in Live and Let Die , and offered $ 500 for an option , against $ 5 @,@ 000 if the film was made . Fleming thought the terms insufficient and turned them down .
Live and Let Die , a film based loosely on the novel starring Roger Moore as Bond , was released in 1973 , which played on the cycle of blaxploitation films produced at the time . The film was directed by Guy Hamilton , produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , and is the eighth in the Eon Productions Bond series . Some scenes from the novel were depicted in later Bond films , including the sequence of Bond and Solitaire being dragged behind Mr Big 's boat , which was used in the film For Your Eyes Only , while Felix Leiter was not fed to a shark until Licence to Kill , which also faithfully adapts Live and Let Die 's shoot @-@ out in the warehouse .
|
= Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot , BWV 39 =
Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot ( Break your bread for the hungry ) , BWV 39 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig and first performed it on 23 June 1726 , the first Sunday after Trinity . About three years earlier , on the first Sunday after Trinity of 1723 , Bach had taken office as Thomaskantor and started his first cycle of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year , and on the first Sunday after Trinity 1724 he began his second cycle , consisting of chorale cantatas . As he composed no new work for the first Sunday after Trinity 1725 , Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot is regarded as part of his third cantata cycle .
The text is from a 1704 collection attributed to Duke Ernst Ludwig von Sachsen @-@ Meiningen . The symmetrical structure of seven movements is typical for this collection , beginning with a quotation from the Old Testament , culminating in a central quotation from the New Testament and ending with a chorale . The theme is an invocation to be grateful for God 's gifts and to share them with the needy .
Bach set the opening movement as a complex choral structure , but the central movement as a simple solo for the bass voice , traditionally considered the voice of Jesus . The instrumentation is for woodwinds and strings , including recorders as a symbol of poverty , need and humility . It is possibly the last time that Bach scored recorders in his cantatas .
= = History and text = =
Bach composed the cantata for the first Sunday after Trinity . This Sunday marks the beginning of the second half of the liturgical year , " in which core issues of faith and doctrine are explored " . Bach had taken office as Thomaskantor in Leipzig on that occasion in 1723 , responsible for the education of the Thomanerchor , performances in the regular services in the main churches of the town including Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche . He had started the project of composing one cantata for each Sunday and holiday of the liturgical year , termed by Christoph Wolff " an artistic undertaking on the largest scale " . In 1724 he started a project on the first Sunday after Trinity to exclusively compose chorale cantatas , based on the main Lutheran hymn for the respective occasion . After two years of regular cantata composition , Bach performed a cantata by his relative Johann Ludwig Bach for the first Sunday after Trinity in 1725 , and it was not until one year later , at the start of his fourth year in the office , that he composed Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot for the occasion .
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of John , ( the " God is Love " verses , 1 John 4 : 16 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke ( the parable of the Rich man and Lazarus , Luke 16 : 19 – 31 ) . While Bach 's first cantata for the occasion , Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 ( 1723 ) , had concentrated on the contrast of rich and poor , and his second one , the chorale cantata O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 ( 1724 ) , had reflected on repentance , the theme of Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot was to be grateful for God 's gifts and share them with the needy .
According to Christoph Wolff and Klaus Hofmann , the cantata text is taken from a 1704 collection which is attributed to Duke Ernst Ludwig von Sachsen @-@ Meiningen . Works from this collection had been set to music by the court composer Johann Ludwig Bach , whose cantatas Bach had frequently performed in 1725 . They all start with an Old Testament quotation , then focus on a New Testament passage in a central movement . The librettist organized the text in seven poetic movements , divided into two distinct parts . Both parts begin with a quotation from the Bible , but not , as in several other Bach cantatas , taken from the prescribed readings . Part I starts with a quotation from the Book of Isaiah ( Isaiah 58 : 7 – 8 ) , Part II begins with a quotation from the Epistle to the Hebrews ( Hebrews 13 : 16 ) , which forms the text for the central fourth movement . The first part derives from the words of the prophet a call to love one 's neighbour and to share God 's gifts , the second part similarly deals with thanks for God 's gifts and makes a promise to love one 's neighbour and share . The poet closed the cantata with stanza 6 from David Denicke 's hymn " Kommt , laßt euch den Herren lehren " ( 1648 ) , which summarizes the ideas . This hymn is sung to the melody of " Freu dich sehr , o meine Seele " , which was codified by Louis Bourgeois when setting the Geneva Psalm 42 in his collection of Psaumes octante trios de David ( Geneva , 1551 ) . Bourgeois seems to have been influenced by the secular song " Ne l 'oseray je dire " contained in the Manuscrit de Bayeux published around 1510 .
Bach first performed the cantata on 23 June 1726 . It is considered to be part of Bach 's third annual cantata cycle in Leipzig . While the first and second cycle lasted one year , according to Christoph Wolff , the cantatas of the third cycle date from a period beginning on the first Sunday after Trinity , 3 June 1725 , and lasting for about three years . Musicologist Julian Mincham notes that " Bach attached personal significance to this particular day and consequently sought to parade a work of considerable substance " .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata is in two parts , to be performed before and after the sermon . The first part begins with a chorus , followed by a recitative and aria . The second begins with the central movement , a biblical quotation sung by the bass as the vox Christi , followed by an aria , recitative and a concluding chorale . Bach scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir SATB , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two alto recorders ( Fl ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The recorders ( flauti dolci ) represent poverty , need and a " mood of humility " . It is possibly the last time that Bach scored recorders in his cantatas .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The cantata is symmetrically centred around the fourth movement on the words from the New Testament . Movements 1 and 7 are choral , movements 2 and 6 recitatives , 3 and 5 arias in two sections each , neither utilizing the da capo form .
The Old Testament text of the first movement is long and " multifaceted " . The opening chorus follows these words in a complex architecture of three sections , the first and the third section further composed of three parts . The first section begins with a two @-@ part ritornello and climaxes in a fugal exposition in all four voices . The second section starts with the shift to common time ; it is characterized by a full texture and fluid melody . The chorus then returns to triple meter for the final section , which includes two four @-@ part fugati . The movement combines elements of the motet which follows the text , with composition in polyphony , elaborating on its different ideas . Seth Lachterman explains the beginning of the movement :
The text of the movement is a paraphrase of Isaiah 58 : 7 – 8 in which the giving of food , shelter , and clothing to the needy is seen as a divine , transforming act of charity ... The first section ... literally depicts the distribution of bread to the hungry by ' distributing ' staccato chords to differing musical forces ( recorders , oboes , then strings ) .
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000 , notes : " The opening chorus is multi @-@ sectional and , at 218 bars , immense " . He continues :
After ninety @-@ three bars the time signature changes to common time : the basses begin unaccompanied , and are then answered by all voices and instruments very much in the old style of Bach 's Weimar cantatas , with a florid counter @-@ subject to suggest the ' clothing ' of the naked . At bar 106 the time changes of 3 / 8 ( again a Weimar feature ) and the tenors lead off in the first of two fugal expositions separated by an interlude with a coda . The sense of relief after the stifling pathos of the opening sections is palpable and comes to a sizzling homophonic conclusion with ' und deine Besserung wird schnell wachsen ' ( ' and thy health shall spring forth speedily ' ) . The basses now instigate the second fugal exposition , ' the glory of the Lord shall be thy reward ' . After so much pathos , the final coda led by the sopranos ' und die Herrlichkeit des Herrn wird dich zu sich nehmen ' releases the pent @-@ up energy in an explosion of joy .
A secco bass recitative leads into the alto aria with obbligato oboe and violin that concludes Part I. The aria conveys three main images : " imitation , ultimate celestial ecstasy , and the scattering of fertile seeds " .
The fourth movement is sung by the bass , the vox Christi ( voice of Jesus ) , as if Jesus said the words himself which Paul wrote to the Hebrews : " Wohlzutun und mitzuteilen vergesset nicht " ( To do good and to communicate forget not ) . The style is typical for Bach 's treatment of such words , between arioso and aria . The accompaniment is asymmetrical and repetitive , almost a ground bass .
The soprano aria is accompanied by two unison obbligato recorders . The ritornello is simple and fluid , while the vocal line " has , at times , the quality of a folk song " . The penultimate movement , an alto recitative , is accompanied by dense chordal strings .
The closing choral , " Selig sind , die aus Erbarmen " ( Blessed are those who , out of mercy ) is a four @-@ part setting , " symmetrical and predictable until the last two phrases " of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half measures each .
Gardiner summarizes that all later movements are " dwarfed by the immensity , vigour , flexibility and imagination of the opening chorus , every phrase of its text translated into music of superb quality " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
|
= Pindus National Park =
Pindus National Park ( Greek : Εθνικός Δρυμός Πίνδου Ethnikós Drymós Píndou ) , also known as Valia @-@ Kalda , is a national park in mainland Greece , situated in an isolated mountainous area at the periphery of West Macedonia and Epirus , in the northeastern part of the Pindus mountain range . It was established in 1966 and covers an area of 6 @,@ 927 hectares ( 17 @,@ 120 acres ) . The park 's core zone , 3 @,@ 360 hectares ( 8 @,@ 300 acres ) , covers the greatest part of the Valia Kalda valley and the slopes of the surrounding peaks .
The national park has an elevation range from 1 @,@ 076 to 2 @,@ 177 metres ( 3 @,@ 530 to 7 @,@ 142 ft ) and is characterized by dense forests of European black pine and common beech , rocky ridges , several peaks over 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) , rapid streams and mountain lakes . The area belong to the wider Pindus Mountains mixed forests ecoregion and is a representative part of Pindus mountain range . Moreover , it belongs to the Natura 2000 ecological network of protected areas and is one of the three places in Greece that hosts a population of bears .
= = Geography = =
The park lies on the borders of Grevena and Ioannina regional unit , north of the town of Metsovo and near the villages of Vovousa , Perivoli and Milea . There are no settlements or any facilities inside the protected area 's borders .
Several peaks reach an altitude of over 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) ; these include Avgo , 2 @,@ 177 m ( 7 @,@ 142 ft ) , Kakoplevri , 2 @,@ 160 m ( 7 @,@ 090 ft ) , Flegga , 2 @,@ 159 m ( 7 @,@ 083 ft ) , Tria Sinora , 2 @,@ 050 m ( 6 @,@ 730 ft ) and Aftia , 2 @,@ 082 m ( 6 @,@ 831 ft ) .
The underlying rock formations are mainly serpentine and they support a specialized range of plants .
= = Climate = =
The park 's climate is montane and varies according to elevation and aspect . Annual rainfall ranges 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 39 to 71 in ) , whereas mean monthly temperatures vary between 0 @.@ 9 to 21 @.@ 4 ° C ( 33 @.@ 6 to 70 @.@ 5 ° F ) .
= = Biology = =
= = = Flora = = =
The park was established in 1966 and is considered one of the most important protected areas for the maintenance of mountainous biodiversity and ecosystem integrity at the national level . Forests of European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) cover the park 's lower and middle altitudes 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 600 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 200 ft ) , with several of these trees being more than 700 years old . At higher altitudes 1 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 900 m ( 5 @,@ 200 to 6 @,@ 200 ft ) , Bosnian pine ( Pinus heldreichii ) woodland is dominant , while at the greatest heights 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 177 m ( 6 @,@ 234 to 7 @,@ 142 ft ) , only certain types of bushes are found in the treeless alpine meadows . Additionally , the dry places and the lower parts of the valley are characterized by the domination of Buxus sempervirens , while some individuals of Abies borisii @-@ regis are scattered among the Pinus nigra and Fagus sylvatica forests .
In total , 415 types of plants and 86 species of mushroom are recorded in the area . A number of local flower types are considered endemic to the Balkans , such as Dianthus deltoides and Allium breviradum . On the other hand , many endemic plants of central and northern Greece grow also in the park , like the Centaurea vlachorum . Moreover , rare species of the forests of Pindus mountains , typical of the lower geological layers , are Minuartia baldaci , Bornmuellera tymphaea , Campanula hawkinsiana , Viola dukadjinica and Silene pindicola . The most important places for the gathering of rare plants are the northern slopes of the peaks of Aftia , Flegga and Kapetan Kleidi . All the above places are very steep and difficult for grazing animals and therefore natural regeneration of the forest in this area is progressing normally and many rare plants are conserved . The serpentine soil , which is dominant in the area of the Pindus National Park also favors the growing of rare endemic plant species .
= = = Fauna = = =
The national park is one of three areas in Greece that hosts a population of Eurasian brown bears ( Ursus arctos arctos ) , which is considered a conservation priority species . The region itself is also called " bear park " . Other large mammals that live in the park are lynxes , deers and wild cats , with the last two being found in the area of Flegga forest . Additionally wolves , beech martens , wild boars and red squirrels are present in the area all year round . On the other hand , the Balkan chamois , a Balkan endemic species , is found on the steep and rocky parts of the park , as well as in areas with beech forests . Its population density fluctuates between 3 @-@ 5 and even 20 individuals per 100 ha ( 250 acres ) depending on the habitat productivity . The three small rivers crossing the area of the park have very clear water and are the well conserved habitat of the otter .
In the area of the national park up to five types of bat have been reported , with most common being niktovatis ( Nyctalys noctula ) . Moreover , it provides shelter for than 80 species of birds , such as 10 types of rare bird species including the eastern imperial eagle , golden eagle , Levant sparrowhawk and the lanner falcon , which indicates the ornithological importance of the area . One of the rare birds found in the park is the shore lark ( Eremophilla alpestris ) , found in the alpine meadows , and the great grey shrike ( Lanius excubitor ) , which migrates in the summer from Africa . The dense and mature forests of the area host eight types of woodpecker , including the white @-@ backed , the middle spotted , the lesser spotted and the black woodpecker .
= = Management = =
Since 2003 , the park is under the administrative authority of the ' Northern Pindus Management Body ' . This authority is responsible for the ecological management of a much larger region that includes eight protected areas in Greece , also part of the Natura 2000 , an initiative by the governments of the European Union that aims to protect the most seriously threatened habitats and species across Europe . The ' Northern Pindus Management Body ' , together with the local forest service , is responsible for regulating human activities and maintaining the ecological value of the protected area . However , until now this target remains elusive , because of a lack of expertise and of a science @-@ based management plan . A great need therefore exists to conduct conservation @-@ oriented research that can be translated directly into practical management proposals .
The core of the national park has been declared a ' biogenetic reserve ' zone by the European Council with human activities such as woodcutting , grazing , hunting , fishing and access by car prohibited . In the park 's buffer zone activities are also controlled in general . The most serious danger the park faced in the past were extensive fires caused by cattle breeders to create meadows for grazing . These fires have destroyed large parts of the Pinus nigra and P. heldreichii forests . However , since 1960 , no fire has occurred due to improved protection measures by opening up many forest roads . Furthermore , an observation post was established near Avgo peak . A potential threat for the national park is a state initiative to divert the Arkoudorema river for the construction of a hydroelectric power plant . This initiative will have a negative impact on the park since a great part of the existing forest area will be covered by water , resulting in the reduction of the core zone . Another danger is the high grazing pressure in the core area , while a number of small coal @-@ producing units at the outskirts of the park have raised a lot of concern .
= = Recreation = =
Pindus National Park is considered as one of the least visited and least known national parks in Europe and it is not signposted from the main roads of the region . The area offers opportunities for hiking with its dirt roads being in good condition except in winter . The park can be best accessed from north , from the village of Perivoli , while there is also a track from the west side , near Milia . A climbing resort lies near Mavrovouni peak , at a height of 1 @,@ 950 metres ( 6 @,@ 400 ft ) , which is an ideal base for excursions to the park 's area . According to the local legislation , the collection of any kind of organism is not allowed , while camping and staying in the park 's core after the setting of the sun is prohibited . Additional restrictions include the lighting of fires , while activities such as kayaking and rafting need a special clearance from the local forestry .
|
= Choe Bu =
Choe Bu ( 1454 – 1504 ) was a Korean official during the early Joseon Dynasty ( 1392 – 1910 ) . He is most well known for the account of his shipwrecked travels in China from February to July 1488 , during the Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) . He was eventually banished from the Joseon court in 1498 and executed in 1504 during two political purges . However , in 1506 he was exonerated and given posthumous honors by the Joseon court .
Choe 's diary accounts of his travels in China became widely printed in the 16th century in both Korea and Japan . Modern historians also refer to his written works , since his travel diary provides a unique outsider 's perspective on Chinese culture in the 15th century and valuable information on China 's cities and regional differences . The attitudes and opinions expressed in his writing represent in part the standpoints and views of the 15th century Confucian Korean literati , who viewed Chinese culture as compatible with and similar to their own . His description of cities , people , customs , cuisines , and maritime commerce along China 's Grand Canal provides insight into the daily life of China and how it differed between northern and southern China during the 15th century .
= = Official career = =
Choe Bu of the Tamjin Choe clan was born in 1454 in the prefectural town of Naju in Jeollanam @-@ do , Korea . Choe passed the jinsa examinations in 1477 , which was a lower examination that did not immediately ensure a post in government ; rather , it permitted enrollment in the National Academy , or Seonggyungwan , where he could study further for the higher mungwa examinations . In preparation for the exams , he studied the Five Classics as Confucian students had for centuries , but he also was taught the emphasis of the Four Books of Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) , which was in line with the Neo @-@ Confucian doctrine first accepted in mainstream Chinese education during the mid @-@ 13th century . He passed his first civil service examination in 1482 and a second civil service examination in 1486 , qualifying him for an immediate post in government . In a career as a graduate scholar @-@ official that spanned 18 years , Choe was privileged with various positions . He held posts in the Hodang Library , printing office , and the National Academy . He also held posts involving the military , such as on the military supplies commission , with the office of the inspector @-@ general , and with the Yongyang garrison . The culmination of his career was his promotion as a minister of the Directorate of Ceremonies in the capital , a distinguished office . Choe Bu was also one of the scholars who aided in the compilation of the Dongguk Tonggam in 1485 , a history of Korea from ancient times . Choe was learned in Confucian ethics , Chinese letters , Chinese poetry , and well versed in Korean history , geography , and famous people ; all this later helped him to dispel the notion of Chinese that he was a Japanese pirate instead of a Korean official who had unfortunately shipwrecked in China . In 1487 , Choe Bu was sent to Jeju Island to check the registers for escaped slaves from the mainland .
= = A castaway in China , 1488 = =
= = = Southern China = = =
While serving his post in Jeju as the Commissioner of Registers for the island , a family slave from Naju arrived on February 12 , 1488 to alert Choe that his father had died . In keeping with his Confucian values , Choe prepared to leave his post immediately and begin the period of mourning for the loss of his father . However , while setting sail for mainland Korea with a crew of 43 Koreans , Choe 's ship was blown far off course during a violent storm that lasted 14 days , his ship aimlessly drifting off towards China until reaching the Chinese coast off of Taizhou , Zhejiang , near Ningbo . Before reaching the shores of Zhejiang , Choe wrote on the fifth day of his travel at sea during the storm :
This day a dense fog obscured everything . Things a foot away could not be made out . Towards evening , rain streamed down heavily , abating somewhat with night . The frightening waves were like mountains . They would lift the ship up into the blue sky and then drop it as if down an abyss . They billowed and crashed , the noise splitting heaven from earth . We might all be drowned and left to rot at any moment .
Upon the urging of his crewmen , Choe changed his clothes in a ritual fashion in preparation for death , although he prayed to the heavens to spare him and his crew , asking what sins they had committed to deserve this fate . On the sixth day , during fairer weather , their ship came upon a group of islands in the Yellow Sea where Chinese pirates were moored . The pirates robbed their ship of spare goods and rations , threw away the Koreans ' oars and anchor , and left them to drift aimlessly into the sea .
Although it was still raining heavily , Choe 's crew spotted a near @-@ deserted strip of Zhejiang coastline on February 28 . Almost immediately , his ship was surrounded by six Chinese boats , the crews of which did not attempt to board Choe 's ship until the following day . Although he could not speak Chinese , Choe was able to communicate with the Chinese by using their written character system in what was dubbed " brush conversations " . Through writing , he questioned these Chinese sailors on how far the nearest official road and courier route was . When given three different estimates of the distance from there to the Taizhou prefectural capital , Choe was convinced that his hosts were deceiving him ; historian Timothy Brook notes that it was more likely ignorance and inexperience of traveling inland than mere deception on behalf of the Chinese sailors . Regardless , the Chinese sailors began robbing the Korean ship of its remaining goods , convinced that they were Japanese pirates . When heavy rains inundated the region once more , the Chinese sailors returned to their ships ; Choe 's party , fearing for their lives should the sailors board their ship again , saw this as an opportune moment and made a dash for the shore under cover of rain . After traveling several days overland looking for the nearest courier route , Choe 's party was found by Chinese authorities and taken to Taizhou Battalion . Like in the previous incident with the Chinese sailors and villagers along the shore , the Koreans were almost killed when they were first encountered by Chinese soldiers . Employing his wit and intellect in these dangerous confrontations of being misconstrued as a coastal pirate , Choe avoided disaster for him and his crew .
The battalion commander at Taizhou ordered his officer Zhai Yong to escort Choe Bu 's Korean party to the regional command centre at Shaoxing on March 6 . From there they could be transferred to provincial authorities at Hangzhou and finally to the empire 's capital of Beijing where the party could be officially escorted back to Korea . Choe Bu and his officers were carried in sedan chairs , an accommodation provided by the Taizhou Battalion , although in spots of rough terrain Choe Bu and his officers were forced to walk on foot like the others .
The battalion troops escorting Choe and his Korean party reached Jiantiao Battalion on March 8 ; on the next day , they travelled by boat across Sanmen Bay to reach the Yuexi Police Station and Post House . On March 10 , the party travelled along the postal route to Baiqiao Station , a courier centre between Taizhou and Ningbo prefectures . The courier officials were eager to see the Koreans off , since a party of 43 was a somewhat large group for a courier station to provide sudden accommodations for .
In a daylong trip , the party reached the next station located 35 km ( 22 mi ) north by the second watch of the night . Heavy rains and wind made further advance impossible , but despite rain on the next day , Zhai Yong urged Choe and the Koreans to push on regardless , explaining that the regulations for prompt arrival times in China 's courier system were very stringent . The party covered another 35 km ( 22 mi ) on March 11 , completely soaked by the rain when they reached the next station . The station master provided the party with a small fire to keep warm , but a man who thought the Koreans were captured pirates barged in and kicked their fire out in a rage . Zhai Yong dutifully wrote an account of this assault and passed it on to the county magistrate 's office before having the party continue en route to their destination on the following day , March 12 . They reached the Beidu River on that day , boarding ships that would lead them to the Grand Canal , the central courier and trade artery of China that would carry them all the way to Beijing . At this point , water transport was the preferable means of travel for the courier agents ; Choe wrote " all envoys , tribute , and commerce come and go by water . If either the water in the locks and rivers is too shallow because of drought to let boats pass or there is a very urgent matter , the overland route is taken . " When the party reached Ningbo on that day , Choe Bu remarked on the beautiful scenery ; when they reached Cixi City , he noted the city 's many markets and cluttering of warships ; upon entering Ningbo and reaching the Supreme Piracy @-@ Defense Office , Choe wrote that the gates and crowds there were three times as great as at Cixi .
After interrogating Choe Bu and Zhai Yong , Zhai was punished with a flogging for the recent fire @-@ kicking incident , which officials of Ningbo cited as evidence of his lack of command . Yet that wasn 't the only offense ; Zhai was flogged again when the party reached Hangzhou , since he failed to meet the deadline in reaching his destination while escorting the Koreans . The standard punishment was 20 strokes for a day 's delay , with an additional stroke for every subsequent three days of delay and a maximum of 60 . Although this was perhaps a damper on their travel affair , Choe was impressed with the sights of Hangzhou , writing :
It truly seems a different world , as people say ... Houses stand in solid rows , and the gowns of the crowds seem like screens . The markets pile up gold and silver ; the people amass beautiful clothes and ornaments . Foreign ships stand as thick as the teeth of a comb , and in the streets wine shops and music halls front directly each on another .
Brook states that Choe correctly observed the fact that Hangzhou was the central trade city where ships from areas throughout southeast China congregated to take goods into the Jiangnan region , the hotbed of commercial activity in China . Due to the hai jin laws , the Ming government was the only entity allowed to conduct foreign trade ; regardless of this prohibition , Choe was informed of the rampant illegal smuggling that passed through Hangzhou , bringing in sandalwood , pepper , and perfumes from Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean . Yet this was a risky pursuit , as Choe was made aware that half the ships that engaged in this business did not return . On March 23 , the Hangzhou prefectural government granted Choe 's party a new escort , an official document explaining their presence in China , and lofty provisions of food and other items that were complements of the transport offices in charge of large @-@ scale national transportation needs . The party stayed in Hangzhou for another two days before departing on March 25 . The reason for the delay was due to courier officials ' dutiful following of the handbook Bureaucratic System of the Ming Dynasty ( Da Ming guanzhi ) , which was used to calculate through geomantic principles which days were auspicious to depart on and which days were not . The Europeans , too , became aware of such divination practices later in the 16th century : Mendoza 's History of the great and mighty kingdom of China and the situation thereof ( published 1585 ) mentions that among the Chinese books purchased by the Spanish Augustinian friar Martín de Rada in Fujian in 1575 were some that discussed how to " cast lottes when they beginne any journey ... " .
Traveling 50 km ( 31 mi ) on average per day , it would take the party 43 days from March 25 to May 9 to travel from Hangzhou to Beijing ; even though the party spent a day 's time in Suzhou , they still beat their deadline by two days , since 45 km ( 28 mi ) was the courier system 's standard traveling distance per day .
Choe Bu observed that , despite Hangzhou 's greatness , it was no competition for Suzhou , while the former was merely a supplemental commercial feeder that served to enrich the Jiangnan region . After visiting Suzhou on March 28 , Choe Bu remarked on this economic hub of the southeast :
Shops and markets one after another lined both river banks , and merchant junks were crowded together . It was well called an urban center of the southeast ... All the treasures of land and sea , such as thin silks , gauzes , gold , silver , jewels , crafts , arts , and rich and great merchants are there [ and ] ... merchantmen and junks from Henan , Hebei , and Fujian gather like clouds .
Describing the suburban sprawl around Suzhou and other cities of the Yangzi delta , Choe wrote ( note , one li here is equal to 1 @.@ 7 km or 1 @.@ 05 miles ) : " Often for as much as twenty li around them , village gates crowd the ground , markets line the roads , towers look out on other towers , and boats ply stem to stern . "
= = = Northern China = = =
After departing from Suzhou and continuing up the Grand Canal , Choe 's party reached the Lüliang Rapids on April 13 , which interrupted canal traffic in the northern part of South Zhili . He wrote that a teams of ten oxen were used to pull their boats through the rapids , while teams of 100 men were used at the next stage of river rapids , the Xuzhou Rapids . He noted the pound locks here that controlled water levels in sections of the canal for safe passage of ships . He described the bustling cities of Linqing and Dezhou in the northern province of Shandong , although he stated that the merchant activity and sizes of these two cities did not match the grandeur of Hangzhou and Suzhou in the south . In fact , Choe remarked that only these two and a handful of other cities in northern China matched the prosperity of southern China , stating that the north was quite poverty @-@ stricken and underdeveloped compared with the south . He also believed that southern Chinese displayed a finer degree of cultivation , social order , literacy , and industriousness than those from the north . Choe wrote that while people of the south were well @-@ dressed and had plenty to spare , people in the north often lacked supplies of everything and feared bandits . Brook writes :
At the end of [ Cho 'e Bu 's ] diary he presents a litany of depressing contrasts : spacious tile @-@ roofed houses south of the Yangzi , thatch @-@ roof hovels north ; sedan chairs south , horses and donkeys north ; gold and silver in the markets south , copper cash north ; diligence in farming , manufacturing , and commerce south , indolence north ; pleasant dispositions south , quarrelsome tempers north ; education south , illiteracy north .
Choe found that people all across China , and in nearly every social strata , participated in business affairs . He wrote that even Chinese scholar officials — who were traditionally scorned if they took part in any private business venture — would " carry balances in their own sleeves and will analyze a profit for pennies " .
While traveling from Shandong into North Zhili , Choe noticed a multitude of boats passing by which held officials from the Ministries of War , Justice , and Personnel . When he questioned his escorts about this , Choe was told that the newly enthroned Hongzhi Emperor ( r . 1488 – 1505 ) had recently impeached a large number of officials from office whom he considered inept and unworthy of their positions . Brook writes that it was quite a comfortable privilege for disgraced and dismissed officials to be escorted by the courier service , yet even this saving of face was still a firm reminder of their banishment from court .
The party spent a total of 11 days traversing the North China Plain via the Grand Canal before reaching Tongzhou District , where there was a large warehouse depot adjunct to the capital city . From there they left their courier ships and traveled by donkey and foot towards the capital Beijing , where they lodged at the Central Courier Hostel . The Ming court granted the Korean party gifts of fine clothes during their stay . On June 3 , the officer in charge of Choe 's escort notified the transport office in Beijing that three carriages plus horses and donkeys would be needed in the journey to the Korean border ; when these were granted in the morning , the party swiftly departed from Beijing . Choe was not sad to leave the sights of Beijing behind , as he found the people there to be obsessed with business and cared little for agriculture or farming , a clear indication of his Confucian @-@ oriented values .
= = = Return to Korea = = =
The party reached the capital of Liaodong on July 2 , left four days later on July 6 , and on July 12 Choe 's party finally crossed the Yalu River and entered Joseon Korea . While the Grand Canal had its post stations , canal locks , ramps , moles , and paved towpaths , the land route from Beijing to the Yalu River was less elaborate but still featured the necessary distance markers and walled stations . Within a month of Choe 's return to Korea , the Joseon court under King Seongjong ( r . 1469 – 1494 ) sent an embassy to the Ming court of China in a gesture of thanks for the Ming court 's cordial treatment of Choe and his crew and providing safe travel for them .
= = Death = =
Choe became a victim of a political purge at court , was flogged in punishment by the rival faction who gained power and banished to Tanch 'ŏn in the north in 1498 during the First Literati Purge of Yeonsangun 's despotic reign ( r . 1494 – 1506 ) . Choe was ultimately executed in 1504 during the Second Literati Purge . However , he was exonerated after death and given posthumous honors by the Joseon court in 1506 with the demotion and exile of Yeonsangun and the raising of his half @-@ brother Jungjong ( r . 1506 – 1544 ) to the throne .
= = Publication of Choe 's diary = =
= = = Pre @-@ modern publications = = =
The accounts of Choe Bu 's travels in China became famous after King Seongjong requested that Choe submit a written account of his experiences to the throne . His diary account , the Geumnam pyohaerok ( traditional Chinese : 錦南漂海錄 ; ; Korean : 금남표해록 ; literally : " A Record of Drifting Across the Southern Brocade Sea " ) , written in literary Chinese ( hanmun ) , was stored away in the Korean archives . Although it is uncertain whether it was printed right after it was written , it is known that Choe 's grandson Yu Huichun had it widely printed in Korea in 1569 . A copy of the original print by Choe 's grandson is now in the Yōmei Bunko of Kyoto . Choe 's diary became famous even in Japan during the 16th century when it was reprinted several times . A copy of the 1573 Japanese edition is now in the Kanazawa Bunko of Yokohama . These were woodblock print copies , but an early movable type print edition was made and is located in the Tōyō Bunko of Tokyo . There was a Japanese publication in 1769 of Choe 's diary accounts in a partial translation into Japanese by the Neo @-@ Confucian scholar Seita Tansō ( 1721 – 1785 ) . Several Edo period manuscript copies of Choe 's travel diary are also in Japan . Other works written by Choe were compiled and published under the title Geumnamjip ( 錦南集 · 금남집 ) in Korea .
= = = Modern utility = = =
A complete translation of Choe 's account into English was prepared by John Meskill as part of his Columbia University dissertation ( 1958 ) . A slightly abbreviated version of Meskill 's translation was published as a book in 1965 by the University of Arizona Press , for the Association for Asian Studies .
Choe wrote in the usual tone of a learned Confucian scholar , which provides insight into the values and attitudes of early Joseon Confucian scholars . Choe Bu 's account is unique among foreign travel accounts in China , since it is from the perspective of a castaway , not a commonplace Korean ambassador to Ming China . Historian Eugene Newton Anderson notes that , while pre @-@ modern Koreans tended to adulate China and associate it with everything that was positive , Choe regarded it with a more objective outsider 's perspective . When curious Chinese pressed Choe about Korea 's rituals of ancestor worship , Choe responded , " All my countrymen build shrines and sacrifice to their ancestors . They serve the gods and spirits they ought to serve and do not respect unorthodox sacrifices . " Historian Laurel Kendall writes that this was perhaps wishful thinking , but it reveals what a 15th @-@ century Korean Confucian thought the Chinese would consider proper and in accordance with the teaching of Confucius . When a certain Chinese scholar Wang Yiyuan sympathized with Choe and his party 's plight and served him tea , he asked Choe if the Koreans revered the Buddha as the Chinese did . Choe answered , " my country does not revere the Buddhist law , it honors only the Confucian system . All its families make filial piety , fraternal duty , loyalty , and sincerity their concern . "
Although Choe did not adulate China to the extent of his peers and viewed it as an outsider , he did express in his writing a close affinity towards the Chinese , noting that Korea and China 's cultures were hardly distinguishable from one another in terms of parallel values . For example , Choe wrote of a conversation he had with a Chinese officer who had shown him a great deal of hospitality during his travels , saying to him :
Certainly that shows your feelings that though my Korea is beyond the sea , its clothing and culture being the same as China 's , it cannot be considered a foreign country ... All under Heaven are my brothers ; how can we discriminate among people because of distance ? That is particularly true of my country , which respectful serves the Celestial Court and pays tribute without fail . The Emperor , for his part , treats us punctiliously and tends us benevolently . The feeling of security he imparts is perfect .
However , through the written dialogue in his diary , Choe did express slight differences between the cultures of China and Korea . For example , when the Chinese asked him whether or not the Korean education system offered degrees for specialists who dealt with only one of the Five Classics , Choe wrote that a Korean student who only studied one of the Classics and not all five of them was doomed to failing his exam and never attaining the rank of a full @-@ fledged Confucian scholar .
Choe 's comments are valuable to historians seeking to better understand Chinese culture and civilization in the 15th century ; for example , historians ' seeking for clues about how widespread literacy was in China , Choe 's comment " even village children , ferrymen , and sailors " were able to read serves as a valuable piece of evidence . Moreover , Choe asserted that they could describe for him the mountains , rivers , old ruins , and other places in their regions , along with the significance of dynastic changes . Choe also bothered to list items such as the generous provisions provided by regional commanders , which included in one instance a plate of pork , two ducks , four chickens , two fish , one beaker of wine , one plate of rice , one plate of walnuts , one plate of vegetables , one plate of bamboo shoots , one plate of wheat noodles , one plate of jujube fruit , and one plate of bean curd . Although he was offered wine in China , Choe asserts in his diary that he rejected the offer due to the continuing three @-@ year mourning period for his late father . In addition to wine , he stated that he also abstained from eating " meat , garlic , oniony plants , or sweet things " . This strict adherence to Confucian principles by a Korean pleased his Chinese hosts .
Choe also made observations about China 's topography in each of the towns and villages he visited . His documenting of exact locations can aid historians in pinpointing old and lost places and structures . In his description of Suzhou , he wrote :
In olden times , Suzhou was called Wukuai . It borders the sea in the east , commands three large rivers and five lakes , and has a thousand li of rich fields … Le Bridge is inside the wall and separates Wu and Changzhou counties . Market quarters are scattered like stars . Many rivers and lakes flow through [ the region ] , refreshing and purifying it .
= = = Similar publications = = =
A similar episode to Choe Bu 's shipwrecked travels in China occurred in 1644 , when three Japanese ships headed for Hokkaidō became lost in a violent storm at sea . The 15 survivors led by Takeuchi Tōuemon ( 竹内藤右衛門 ) – those who were not murdered when they came to shore – drifted into a port in what is now Primorsky Krai , but what was then controlled by the newly established Qing dynasty of China . They were taken to the Manchu capital of Shenyang , and then escorted to the newly conquered city of Beijing . The Manchu prince Dorgon ( 1612 – 1650 ) treated these shipwrecked Japanese with respect , pitied them for their misfortune , and provided them with provisions and ships to return to Japan . When they returned to Japan , they were interrogated by Tokugawa authorities , and submitted a report to Tokugawa Iemitsu ( r . 1623 – 1651 ) on their experiences in China . Just like in the case of Choe Bu , this account was published as the Dattan hyōryūki ( " Account of drifting into the [ Land of the ] Tartars " , 韃靼漂流記 ) and as the Ikoku monogatari ( " Stories from a Foreign Land " , 異国物語 ) .
|
= Yevadu =
Yevadu ( English : Who is he ? ) is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language action film co @-@ written and directed by Vamsi Paidipally . The film features Ram Charan , Shruti Haasan , and Amy Jackson in the lead roles , while Allu Arjun , Kajal Aggarwal , Sai Kumar , Jayasudha and Rahul Dev play supporting roles . The film was produced by Dil Raju under the banner Sri Venkateswara Creations . Vakkantham Vamsi co @-@ wrote the film 's script with Paidipally . Devi Sri Prasad composed the film 's music , while Marthand K. Venkatesh was the film 's editor .
The film 's story was partially inspired by John Woo 's 1997 film , Face / Off , and revolves around two strangers , Satya and Charan . The film was made on a budget of ₹ 350 million , and was officially launched on 9 December 2011 . Principal photography began on 27 April 2012 and lasted until 22 July 2013 . The majority of the film was shot in Vishakhapatnam and Hyderabad , mostly in Ramoji Film City , while two songs were shot in Switzerland and Bangkok .
Released during the season of the Makar Sankranti festival , the film received decent feedback from critics . It grossed more than ₹ 600 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 471 million , becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2014 . The film was dubbed into Tamil as Magadheera , into Malayalam as Bhaiyya My Brother and into Hindi with the same name by Goldmine Telefilms .
= = Plot = =
Satya and Deepthi are lovers living in Vishakhapatnam . A dreaded don , Veeru Bhai , lusts for her . When Deepthi 's parents are killed , she and Satya escape . They board a bus on route to Hyderabad , but the bus is stopped unexpectedly and boarded by three men : Veeru 's henchman Deva , Veeru 's brother Ajay , and a corrupt police inspector , Shravan . They kill Deepthi in front of Satya , and he suffers an almost @-@ fatal stab wound . Before the three leave , they set fire to the bus , leaving Satya to his death ( after they stabbed him to death ) . However , Dr. Shailaja saves Satya by giving him a new face and skin . Ten months later , Satya wakes up from his coma .
Under the pseudonym of Ram , Satya returns to Vishakhapatnam where he meets a model named Shruti , whom Veeru likes . Befriending Shruti , he takes advantage of his new unknown face , and lures Deva to a half @-@ constructed apartment ( or unconstructed building ) , where Satya kills Deva . A photo of Deva is discovered by assistant commissioner Ashok Varma , which has been marked with a " 1 " . Satya then files a report on Deepthi with the police , stating that she has been missing for ten days . Since Shravan knows that Deepthi was killed ten months earlier , he becomes suspicious of Satya in his new persona , and follows him to a mall , where Satya kills him . During the investigation on Shravan 's death , Satya presents himself to Varma as an eyewitness . When asked to provide a description of the killer , Satya describes his former face . Satya then manipulates Ajay to fall in love with Shruti and gets the two of them to pose in compromising positions for some pictures , under the pretense that they will be used as a promotion to assist Shruti in getting an opportunity to audition for the female lead in a film . Instead , Satya sends copies of the pictures to Veeru , to turn him against both Ajay and Shruti . Satya then convinces Ajay that the only way to save Shruti from Veeru 's ire is to kill Veeru , which would also allow Ajay to gain his brother 's position . However , Veeru 's henchmen kill Ajay , but Veeru is himself killed by Satya , who reveals his true identity . He apologises to Shruti for using her , before leaving .
His vengeance fulfilled , Satya departs from Vishakhapatnam . On the way , a stranger attacks Satya , but is killed . Suspecting that the attack might have something to do with his new face , Satya visits Dr. Shailaja . When they meet , Shailaja confesses that she has given Satya the face of her deceased son , Charan ; she then goes on to explain the circumstances surrounding Charan 's death . Charan was a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky rich graduate who hung out with his friends and girlfriend , Manju . One of his friends , Shashank , questions the local don , Dharma , regarding his illegal acquisition of lands by exploiting the slum people . Threatened , Dharma kills Shashank , after which Charan begins to raise support among the local population to revolt against Dharma . Again threatened , Dharma approaches another one of Charan 's friends , Sharath , promising to establish his political career if he kills Charan . Charan and Sharath go to Vishakhapatnam to attend a wedding . On their return , they board the same bus as Satya and Deepthi . When the bus was stopped , Sharath pulls a knife on Charan and the two engage in a fight . Veeru 's men simultaneously enter the bus . Deepthi is killed inside the bus while Charan and Sharath 's struggle has led them outside the bus , where Charan is stabbed to death . Charan 's body is sent to Shailaja , who after observing Satya 's urge to live decides to transplant her son 's face onto Satya , rather than simple plastic surgery . Before Shailaja could inform Satya about Charan , Satya had left the hospital .
Leaving Shailaja , Satya visits the slum , under the guise of Charan . After meeting the locals , he decides to avenge Charan 's death . First , he meets Sharath in a political meeting and , using the shock of Charan seemingly being alive , makes him kill Dharma . Satya makes the slum people follow Sharath to Dharma 's house . Sharath stabs Dharma , who in turn kills Sharath . However , the mob , which has followed Satya , finally kills Dharma . Afterwards , Manju is shown living in a distant land , mourning Charan 's death . The film ends with Satya meeting her .
= = Cast = =
Ram Charan as Satya / Charan / Ram
Allu Arjun as Satya ( Cameo appearance )
Shruti Haasan as Manju
Amy Jackson as Shruthi
Kajal Aggarwal as Deepthi ( Cameo appearance )
Sai Kumar as Dharma
Rahul Dev as Veeru Bhai
Jayasudha as Dr. Shailaja
Ajay as Ajay
Murali Sharma as The Assistant Commissioner of Police
Kota Srinivasa Rao as Central Minister
Shashank as Shashank ( Cameo appearance )
Raja as Sharath
Brahmanandam as Satya 's illegal tenant
Vennela Kishore as Charan 's friend
Subbaraju as Dharma 's henchman
Scarlett Mellish Wilson in the item number Ayyo Paapam
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Dil Raju wanted to produce a technically driven film and selected a script written by Vamsi Paidipally . Raju announced the project officially in early October 2011 , as well as announcing that Ram Charan would star as the film 's protagonist . The project would be produced under the banner Sri Venkateswara Creations , with the details , including its cast and crew , announced shortly thereafter . Before sharing the script with Charan , Paidipally worked on it for nearly two months , choosing the action genre after having directed family dramas like Brindavanam ( 2010 ) . Devi Sri Prasad was confirmed as the film 's music director in early November 2011 , marking his first collaboration with both Paidipally and Charan . The music sittings were held at Goa .
The film 's production was officially launched on 9 December 2011 , in Hyderabad ; the film 's title was announced as Yevadu and a first look poster was unveiled on the same day . Paidipally based his screenplay from a story written by Vakkantham Vamsi . Anand Sai was the film 's art director and completed his work by September 2013 . Abburi Ravi contributed to the dialogues . C. Ram Prasad was the film 's cinematographer , while Marthand K. Venkatesh was the film 's editor .
= = = Casting = = =
Ram Charan was signed as the protagonist in October 2011 . Allu Arjun was cast for a crucial cameo appearance in a role which would bring a twist in the film ; the producers wanted an energetic and spirited actor in the part . Samantha Ruth Prabhu was selected to play the female lead to be paired with Charan , and was expected to join the production in October 2012 . For the other pairing with Charan , in his alter @-@ ego role , Amy Jackson was selected to play the role of Shruti . This marked her debut in Telugu cinema , and she participated in various workshops to prepare herself for the role before joining the shoot . Jackson revealed that she was afraid to be seen as a glamorous young woman aiming to be an actress ; she worked hard to get her diction right and called the workshop an orientation programme to get her used to the Telugu language . For her role , she practised yoga , functional training , and went for jogs in and around Bandra bandstand in Mumbai , before rejoining the film 's sets in Hyderabad .
Kajal Aggarwal was signed for a cameo appearance and was paired with Arjun . Her inclusion was in doubt due to scheduling conflicts , but she eventually accepted the role , calling it a short and sweet one . Shweta Bhardwaj was approached to perform an item number in early May 2012 , which she confirmed the news at the time , but added that although she was approached , she was not officially cast in the film . Scarlett Mellish Wilson was selected for an item number , which was supposed to be her first in Telugu ; However the film , Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu , was released earlier , making it her debut .
Samantha walked out of the project in mid @-@ November 2012 due to creative differences . She was subsequently replaced by Shruti Haasan , who was reportedly paid a remuneration of ₹ 6 million , but her participation was delayed due to scheduling problems . Sai Kumar was signed as the main antagonist . Lyricist Sirivennela Sitaramasastri 's second son , Raja , was signed for a supporting role . Arjun 's character in the film was reported to be severely injured in a fight and was to be presented as Charan after repeated plastic surgeries to his face . His character 's name was revealed as Sathya , and it was speculated that he would be a police officer in the film . Murali Sharma was selected for a supporting role . Shashank and Prabhas Srinu were seen in cameo roles .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 27 April 2012 . Ram Charan was involved in two projects simultaneously , Yevadu and Zanjeer ( 2013 ) . After completing initial filming on Zanjeer , Charan joined the cast and crew of Yevadu on 8 May 2012 , to shoot the item number , as well as scenes featuring him , Amy Jackson , and others . After this first phase of production , Charan was scheduled to go back to Bangkok to complete the filming schedule of Zanjeer , before rejoining the Yevadu production on 7 August 2012 . Filming continued in Hyderabad until mid @-@ September 2012 after which production moved to Vishakhapatnam on 14 September 2012 . By early October 2012 , 40 percent of the film was completed , consisting mostly of the first half . Shruti Haasan joined the film 's sets on 24 January 2013 .
After a short break , filming recommenced on 5 March 2013 , and by the end of the month , 90 percent of the film 's speaking sequences were completed . Several action sequences were shot at Ramoji Film City in mid April 2013 , under the supervision of Peter Hein . By then , the portions containing Arjun and Aggarwal were almost complete . The film 's team left for Switzerland on 20 May 2013 , to film a song sequence . Charan and Haasan were on location in Zurich , Switzerland to film one of the songs , which was completed by 27 May 2013 .
Primary filming recommenced on 29 May 2013 , in Hyderabad , with Amy Jackson rejoining the production . The filming was expected to be wrapped up by 20 June 2013 . In mid @-@ June 2013 , a song featuring Charan was shot at Keesara Strech , Ramoji Film City . Later , a song choreographed by Shekhar , and featuring Charan and Haasan was shot at Annapurna 7 Acres Studio . Meanwhile , a song featuring Charan and Jackson was shot in Bangkok . The song Freedom which was choreographed by Johnny , was shot in early July 2013 at Ramoji Film City .
Principal photography came to an end on 22 July 2013 after the completion of Haasan 's scenes . However , in late September 2013 , some parts of the film were reportedly re @-@ shot and new scenes were added , in an effort to speed up the pace of the film , after the completion of censor formalities .
= = Themes and influences = =
Despite the film 's writer , Vamsi , denying it in early June 2013 , many critics believed the film was heavily inspired from John Woo 's 1997 action film , Face / Off , as well as bearing similarities to the Telugu films Chhatrapati ( 2005 ) and Vikramarkudu ( 2006 ) , both directed by S. S. Rajamouli . While critic Sangeetha Devi Dundoo called the film a combination of Face / Off and Vikramarkudu , another critic , Karthik Pasupulate , wrote , " This movie this isn 't a rip off of Face / Off . We don 't have filmmakers who have the required creativity and technical know how to make half decent adaptation of that 1997 action thriller . The director just borrows the central idea to dish out another silly revenge drama . "
= = Soundtrack = =
Devi Sri Prasad composed the film 's soundtrack , which consists of six songs . Ramajogayya Sastry penned the lyrics for two songs , while Sirivennela Sitaramasastri , Chandrabose , Krishna Chaitanya and Sri Mani each wrote the lyrics for one song . Aditya Music acquired the audio rights . The soundtrack was released on 1 July 2013 .
= = Release = =
The film was initially slated for a 14 July 2013 release , which was Charan 's first wedding anniversary . After few delays , the film 's release date was announced as 31 July 2013 to coincide with the fourth anniversary of Ram Charan 's 2009 film Magadheera . After several delays , the film was rescheduled to open the same day as Pawan Kalyan 's Attarintiki Daredi , but was postponed again to 21 August 2013 . The Central Board of Film Certification gave the film an ' A ' certificate because of its violent action sequences . However , due to protests in Seemandhra over the Telangana State formation , the release of both the films were delayed . Raju scheduled the release on either Diwali or Christmas 2013 , again postponing the release from 10 October to avoid another release conflict with Attarintiki Daredi . Due to Piracy issues , Attarintiki Daredi released on 27 September 2013 which forced Yevadu to enter the theatres as a December release .
Dil Raju confirmed that the film 's original and Malayalam dubbed version would release simultaneously on 19 December 2013 . Regarding the film 's release , Dil Raju said " I 'm planning to release the film on Dec 19 if the Telangana bill is not passed . I haven 't decided on postponing the film , but if the bill is passed and it is likely create some agitation , then I plan to release the film during Sankranti next year in January " . The film finally released on 12 January 2014 as a Sankranthi release clashing with 1 : Nenokkadine , Veeram and Jilla at the worldwide box office . Sathyam Cinemas distributed the film in Chennai , where it released in 16 screens . A special paid premier show was held on 11 January 2014 at 9 : 00 PM and the money made from the premier show was donated to the construction of Lord Venkateswara Swamy temple in Mallepally .
Bhadrakali Prasad acquired the film 's Tamil dubbing rights under his banner Bhadrakali films . The Tamil dubbed version was titled Magadheera after the 2009 Telugu film of the same name . The film 's dubbing activities commenced in July 2015 .
= = = Marketing = = =
The film 's posters were designed by Anil and Bhanu of AB Core Design . The first @-@ look poster was unveiled on 24 March 2013 , featuring Charan with a rugged look . The first @-@ look teaser of 36 seconds was unveiled on 27 March 2013 . The theatrical trailer was launched on 1 July 2013 , along with the film 's soundtrack , and received a positive response from the audience . The promos for the songs " Nee Jathaga Nenundali " , " Oye Oye " and " Pimple Dimple " were released on 1 , 3 and 21 July 2013 , respectively . The 16 second promo for the song " Freedom " was unveiled on 31 December 2013 , which received positive reviews .
Dil Raju started the film 's promotional activities 12 days before the film 's release , and planned an advertisement campaign on television , newspapers , magazines , and movie portals . Charan released the second trailer of 85 seconds on 3 January 2014 , at the Sandhya 70MM theatre in RTC X Roads . Hindustan Unilever became associated with the film by paying ₹ 10 million for co @-@ branding activity in terms of hoardings , television , radio , and print . MediaCorp did the marketing tie @-@ ups for the film . The film 's official app was launched on 5 January 2014 . While promoting the film , Shruti Haasan was admitted to the Apollo Hospital in Hyderabad , and underwent treatment for suspected food poisoning . The promo of the song " Cheliya Cheliya " was unveiled on 7 January 2014 .
The film 's crew visited Tirumala Temple on 17 January 2014 , and made obeisance to Venkateswara , before interacting with the audience at Group Theatres . A press meet addressing the audience was held at Vijayawada on the next day , with Vamsi , Dil Raju , Sai Kumar , Shashank , L. B. Sriram , Raja and others in attendance . The promo of the song " Ayyo Paapam " was unveiled on 13 March 2014 .
= = = Legal issues = = =
The All India Film Employees Confederation mandated that all regional film productions employ at least 70 per cent local stuntmen . When the Chennai stunt masters , FEFSI Vijayan and Stunt Silva , failed to comply with this mandate , Andhra Pradesh stuntmen obstructed the film 's production .
K. Nagendra Prasad , a former councillor of Yemmiganur in Kurnool district , lodged a complaint with the police regarding a poster , alleging that it featured an image of a half @-@ nude Amy Jackson . Suits were filed , naming Ram Charan , Amy Jackson , Dil Raju , the film 's presenter Anitha , co @-@ producer Sirish , the photographer , and the owner of the Raghavendra theatre which screened the film , citing section 292 of the IPC , as well as section 3 of the Indecent Representation of Women ( Prohibition ) Act of 1986 . Vamsi defended that Jackson 's still used in the poster was from a song sequence which had no obscenity in it and called the charges baseless . Justice K. G. Shankar of the High Court stayed the criminal cases on 28 July 2014 .
Just before the release of Race Gurram ( 2014 ) , stills of Shruti Haasan from the song Pimple Dimple , taken from obscene angles , were leaked on the internet . Shruti received huge criticism for the photos , while some called it a cheap publicity stunt . Regarding them , she said that those stills were neither pre @-@ approved by the production house or her and were shot during a song shoot and called the leakage a breach of trust . She filed a FIR in Hyderabad . CID began investigation in May 2014 . They questioned administrators of the websites which uploaded the photos , and the photographers who reportedly supplied the photos to them . However , it was uncertain whether uploading the photographs , since they were taken in a public place , could be termed as illegal , and sought a legal opinion on how to go about the investigation .
= = = Home media = = =
The film 's television rights were acquired by MAA TV for an undisclosed price . The film registered a TRP rating of 10 @.@ 14 during its television premiere . The television rights of the dubbed Malayalam version , Bhaiyya My Brother , were sold to Mazhavil Manorama for ₹ 6 @.@ 5 million , which was the highest price ever paid for a Telugu film dubbed in Malayalam . The Indian DVD and Blu @-@ ray were marketed by Aditya Videos , and were released in June 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
According to International Business Times India , the film received " decent feedback " from critics .
Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu felt that the film was made only for the mass audience . She criticised the film 's revenge sequences , calling them " non @-@ stop and prolonged " but praised Devi Sri Prasad 's music and C. Ram Prasad 's cinematography . Sridhar Vivan of Bangalore Mirror gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote , " For those watching Yevadu , the first half ends quite shockingly as the director tries to wrap up the movie in the first leg itself . It is a treat for Cherry 's fans and for others , it 's strictly average stuff " . He felt that the violence , lack of comedy and a predictable turn of events affected the film 's narration .
IndiaGlitz rated the film 3 out of 5 and wrote , " Yevadu has not one but two revenge stories . The first revenge story has not much going for it — perhaps the director deemed it fit not to take it seriously . Followed by this no @-@ brainer , there comes the film 's actual story , giving us respite and much @-@ needed entertainment in good measure " . Sify also rated the film 3 out of 5 and wrote , " Yevadu provides novelty in the beginning episodes promising a different commercial film but ends up as a regular revenge drama . Has many cliched moments but it is also a film that works to some extent . A masala fare " .
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India was yet another to rate the film 3 out of 5 and he panned the film , criticising its blatant similarities to Face / Off . He added that the action choreography was " undecipherable " and called Sai Kumar 's character as " one of the most over the top villain characters ever " adding that he would certainly " break the outer limit of human hearing threshold " . Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment rated the film 3 out of 5 as well , stating , " Yevadu is a good action entertainer with all commercial ingredients . Ram Charan Teja is the showman in the film . If you are looking for entertainment without any message , it is good treat for you this Sankrathi " .
= = = Box office = = =
= = = = India = = = =
The film became the biggest opener for Ram Charan by collecting ₹ 86 @.@ 5 million on its first day , making the film with the fourth highest opening day grosses of all time , surpassing 1 : Nenokkadine . While the film 's trade witnessed a drop on its second day , earning ₹ 40 million , it improved on its third day , earning ₹ 45 million , bringing its three @-@ day total to ₹ 173 @.@ 8 million , overtaking the totals of 1 : Nenokkadine and Ramayya Vasthavayya ( 2013 ) . The film collected a distributor share of ₹ 200 million in four days at AP Box office . The film collected ₹ 278 @.@ 5 million in six days , surpassing the first week share of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , and was expected to surpass its first week worldwide share of ₹ 335 million . The film also established a first week record in Nellore , and the east and west areas of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka , by collecting ₹ 16 @.@ 3 million , ₹ 26 @.@ 7 million , ₹ 22 @.@ 2 million and ₹ 40 @.@ 6 million , respectively . However , it missed a first week record in Ceded and Vishakhapatnam by a small margin . It also took the second spot in the list of the top 10 films with highest first week shares from AP .
The film collected ₹ 337 @.@ 5 million in 9 days , and more than ₹ 60 million from other areas , including Karnataka , the rest of India , and overseas territories , enabling it to cross the ₹ 400 million mark at the worldwide Box office , becoming Ram Charan 's fourth film to cross that mark . The film grossed ₹ 350 @.@ 5 million in 11 days . The film collected ₹ 363 @.@ 2 million by the end of its second week at the AP Box office and ₹ 440 million worldwide . The film collected ₹ 376 million in 16 days at AP Box office , and was expected to reach the ₹ 500 million mark worldwide . The film completed a 25 @-@ day run in early February 2014 , collecting more than ₹ 380 million at the AP Box office . The film collected ₹ 393 @.@ 4 million at the AP Box office and ₹ 471 million worldwide during its lifetime , and was declared as one of the Ram Charan 's biggest hits .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
According to Taran Adarsh , the film collected ₹ 14 @.@ 6 million in its opening weekend in the United States . In its first five days in the US , the film collected ₹ 22 million . By the end of its second week , the film 's performance was disappointing ; and it only collected a total of $ 330 @,@ 000 as of 20 January 2014 , while 1 : Nenokkadine collected $ 1 million during that same span of time . Overseas , the film grossed a total of ₹ 17 million during its lifetime .
|
= New Boss =
" New Boss " is the twentieth episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 92nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 19 , 2009 . In the episode , Michael Scott is disturbed by the arrival of his new no @-@ nonsense superior Charles Miner , played by The Wire star Idris Elba , making his first of six slated guest appearances with The Office . Meanwhile , Jim struggles to make a good impression on Charles , and Angela and Kelly both develop crushes on their new boss .
The episode was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky , and directed by Paul Feig . It received generally positive reviews from television critics , particularly for the twist of Michael 's resignation , which multiple reviewers said added a fresh new change to the series . According to Nielsen ratings , " New Boss " was watched by 7 @.@ 95 million overall viewers in its original airing .
= = Plot = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) wants to throw a party to celebrate his fifteenth anniversary working at Dunder Mifflin . He becomes unnerved when Charles Miner ( Idris Elba ) , the new company vice president , exhibits a no @-@ nonsense attitude towards him , making Michael not feel like his own boss . Charles seems to establish a good relationship with the rest of the staff ; he buys everyone lunch and reveals the truth about their 401 ( k ) plans and the possibility of layoffs , which Michael withheld so as not to worry the staff . Taking advice from Chief Financial Officer David Wallace ( Andrew Buckley ) , Michael tries to become better acquainted with Charles , but is unsuccessful . Michael attempts to contact Wallace on the phone , one attempt leading to getting transferred to Charles . When Charles catches the Party Planning Committee planning Michael 's party during office hours , he dissolves the committee and cancels Michael 's party . Michael decides to drive to New York to talk to Wallace .
Meanwhile , Jim ( John Krasinski ) arrives at work wearing a tuxedo in response to a memo written by Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , about " professionalism in the workplace " . This leads to an awkward first encounter with Charles as Jim has to explain why he wore a tuxedo . This does not amuse Charles , who seems to lack a sense of humor . Jim 's activity throughout the day is scrutinized by Charles , more so when Charles notes Jim 's idea of a " two @-@ way petting zoo " for Michael 's party . When Jim tries to smooth things over with Charles , Charles condescends to Jim , questioning the necessity of Jim 's position as Assistant Regional Manager , referring to it as made @-@ up . When Charles leaves , Jim tries to say goodbye , with no response . Jim jokes that his career could be over .
Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) and Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) develop crushes on Charles . They flirt with him , leaving him uncomfortable . At the end of the day Kelly puts on more makeup to tempt Charles into asking her out , but he has already left . Kelly runs out to the parking lot where she finds Angela holding Charles 's scarf and starts chasing her . Angela mentions that Charles deserves better than Kelly .
In New York , Michael manages to talk to Wallace , who has seemingly been avoiding him , and complains that it is unfair that he has to drive to New York in order to talk to him instead of on the phone , and that he deserves more respect after being at Dunder Mifflin for fifteen years . David agrees to fund an anniversary party for him and attend , but Michael abruptly announces his resignation from the company and walks out .
= = Production = =
" New Boss " was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky and directed by Paul Feig . Executive story editor Charlie Grandy conceived the idea of Michael leaving Dunder Mifflin . " New Boss " was the first of six episodes Idris Elba was set to guest star in as Charles , Michael 's new Dunder Mifflin superior . It was his first role in a comedy and his first television appearance since leaving his regular role on HBO 's The Wire , where he played the character Stringer Bell . Elba , a fan of The Office , said , " The creators of the show called me , said they wanted to put me in as this new character , that I ’ d be perfect for it , and I was honored , so I said yeah . [ ... ] I ’ m still playing the straight guy , but he ’ s kind of got a bit of a quirk to him . " The writing staff for The Office are fans of The Wire , and have referred to the show in previous episodes . Of the six episodes Elba appeared in , he said " New Boss " was the only one he watched immediately after they aired because , " I 'm hypercritical about my work , so I try not to torture myself . " Elba is the second actor from The Wire to appear on The Office , after actress Amy Ryan , who played Michael 's love interest Holly Flax . Paul Lieberstein , the Office producer who also plays Toby , said Elba 's work on The Wire made him " a really interesting and great foil for Michael " . John Krasinski said Elba was initially an intimidating presence on the set , due to the ruthless character he plays on The Wire . However , Krasinski said Elba proved to be " incredibly nice and incredibly funny " .
The official The Office website included three cut scenes from " New Boss " within a week of the episode 's original release . One clip includes Andy , Creed , Oscar and Meredith gossiping about Charles ; Andy says , " I 'm telling you , when corporate sends somebody it is big trouble , or really good news , and then again sometimes it just means business as usual . " Another clip features Jim expressing his worries to Pam about Charles 's apparent distaste for him , as Pam playfully makes fun of Jim . The video ends with Pam asking Jim to leave her workspace because , " I don 't want him to keep seeing us together . "
In what some reporters described as a continuity error , Charles Miner refers to Jim 's second @-@ in @-@ command position as " made up " , but the position is real and Jim was officially hired for it in the third season episode " Branch Closing " . When asked by a fan about the apparent inconsistency , The Office writer Aaron Shure said he believed it was because " Charles is clearly not great at reading people and he 's headstrong " , and the fact that Jim does not normally care about titles , so he was not used to having to defend himself in such a way . However , Shure admitted he was " ( trying ) to wiggle out of this one " with his answer .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 19 , 2009 , " New Boss " was watched by 7 @.@ 95 million overall viewers and received a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 among adults aged between 18 and 49 , and 4 @.@ 4 among ages 18 to 34 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Marc Hirsh of National Public Radio said the addition of the no @-@ nonsense Charles Miner character infused a sense of reality into The Office , which he said was growing increasingly wacky and out of control : " [ The episode ] may , in fact , have been one of the most important episodes of the entire series , acting as a corrective to the show 's increasing flirtations with ridiculousness . The characters of The Office have lived in a bubble for long enough . " Travis Fickett of IGN said " New Boss " brought a badly needed change to the series , which he said had been in a " stagnant state " over the last several episodes . Fickett said Steve Carell gave " a tour de force " as Michael saw his power slip away , and he called the final scene when Michael quit as one of the show 's biggest moments . He said , " Watching Miner work like a monkey wrench thrown into the works is the most fun I 've had watching this show in a long time . " Shahzad Abbas of TV Guide said , " Overall , this was a terrific episode , tightly structured , some nice laugh @-@ out loud moments , and a genuine shocker at the end that was completely consistent with Michael 's personality . "
Alan Sepinwall , television critic for The Star @-@ Ledger , said the episode was satisfying , although he felt it was short on laughs , except for Jim 's antics with the tuxedo and the episode 's documentary @-@ style interviews . Sepinwall particularly praised the twist of Michael quitting and said he looked forward to seeing where the subplot went . Jeff Labrecque said " watching Jim flail for approval ( was ) one of the episode 's most awkward delights " , but he said the episode was really about " the type of man Michael Scott really is " . Labrecque also said he looked forward to seeing how Michael regained his job , and raised the suggestion that the reason Michael clashed so much with Charles was because he was intimidated by the man 's race . Brian Howard of The Journal News said , " For 22 minutes of not much fun and only some funny , ' New Boss ' was a pretty good episode . " He particularly liked the ending , which he said he did not see coming and served as a kind of redemption for Michael ; Howard also liked Pam 's documentary interviews and Jim 's failed efforts to make a good impression to Charles . Several reviewers particularly praised the line about the " two @-@ way petting zoo " , a zoo in which people pet the animals and the animals pet back .
Joshua Alston of Newsweek criticized the episode and the introduction of the Charles character . Although Alston said Elba 's acting was fine , he said the character " sucked the funny out of every scene he was in " and created an awkwardness inappropriate for the show . During the week following the episode 's original broadcast , many fans theorized on the Internet that Michael said " I acquit " rather than " I quit " , and that Michael 's supposed resignation was something of a prank . Jenna Fischer , who plays Pam on The Office , addressed this issue on her MySpace blog , saying , " He said ' I quit ' . And he meant it . You will see how it all plays out this week on the show . "
The introduction of Charles Miner ranked number 3 in phillyBurbs.com 's top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office .
|
= SMS Schwalbe =
SMS Schwalbe ( " His Majesty 's Ship Schwalbe — Swallow " ) was an unprotected cruiser built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the lead ship of the Schwalbe class . She had one sister ship , Sperber . Schwalbe was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Wilhelmshaven ; her keel was laid down in April 1886 and her completed hull was launched in August 1887 . She was commissioned for service in May 1888 . Designed for colonial service , Schwalbe was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a cruising radius of over 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) ; she also had an auxiliary sailing rig to supplement her steam engines .
Schwalbe spent the majority of her career overseas . She served in German East Africa from 1889 to 1893 , and during this period she assisted in the suppression of the Abushiri Revolt . In 1893 , she returned to Germany for a major overhaul . She was decommissioned until 1898 , when she returned to service for another tour abroad . She initially returned to German East Africa , where she patrolled South African waters to protect German shipping during the Second Boer War . The outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 prompted the Kaiserliche Marine to send Schwalbe to join the European forces battling the Boxers . Schwalbe spent 1901 and 1902 in Chinese waters , blockading the mouth of the Yangtze and suppressing local unrest . The ship returned to Germany in 1903 for another major overhaul and another stint in reserve . She ended her career as a barracks ship during World War I , and as a target ship in 1918 . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Schwalbe was 66 @.@ 9 meters ( 219 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 36 m ( 30 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 40 m ( 14 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 359 t ( 1 @,@ 338 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . These provided a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 290 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 090 km ; 3 @,@ 790 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . To supplement the steam engines , she was fitted with a barquentine rig . Schwalbe had a crew of 9 officers and 108 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm K L / 35 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 765 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . Four guns were mounted on each broadside . The gun armament was rounded out by five 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) revolver cannon .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Schwalbe was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Wilhelmshaven in April 1886 . Her completed hull was launched on 16 August 1887 ; then @-@ Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Alexander von Monts gave the launching speech . She was commissioned for sea trials on 8 May 1888 , and they lasted until 8 August . Schwalbe was formally placed into service on 12 November and assigned to the East Africa Station in German East Africa . The assignment came following requests for reinforcement from Konteradmiral Karl August Deinhard , the local commander of naval forces in the region , to help suppress the Abushiri Revolt . She departed Germany eight days later and arrived in Zanzibar on 31 December , and was joined by the aviso Pfeil . The two ships reinforced the old sail corvettes Leipzig and Sophie .
= = = First deployment to East Africa = = =
On 3 January 1889 , Schwalbe bombarded rebel positions at Bagamoyo before taking Deinhard aboard to Dar es Salaam . The next day , she ran aground on the reef surrounding Fungu Yasini Island . The ship remained stranded for two days before Leipzig and the British steamer SS Woodcock arrived to pull her free . She thereafter took her place in a blockade line to prevent contraband from reaching the rebels ; Schwalbe patrolled the line from Kiswere to Ras Kimbiji . On 1 March , she was moved to the area between Kilwa Kisiwani and Mafia Island . Schwalbe , Leipzig , and the corvette Carola sent a contingent of naval infantry ashore at Kunduchi to attack rebel forces there ; the three warships also provided artillery support to the landing force . Korvettenkapitän ( KK – Corvette Captain ) Hirschberg , Schwalbe 's captain , commanded the operation . Schwalbe returned to Bagamoyo on 8 May to launch another attack ; further engagements took place at Saadani on 6 June and at Pangani on 8 July . Schwalbe and her crew were given a respite from the conflict from 20 July to 17 August for a period of rest and refit at Port Louis in Mauritius .
On 29 August , Schwalbe returned to the blockade line off German East Africa . During this period , she frequently carried Deinhard on special trips . Between 7 and 10 October , she carried the station commander to survey the colony 's northern border with British Kenya in company with the British gunboat HMS Mariner . Schwalbe continued to operate against insurgent forces , particularly to support Reichskommissar ( Imperial Commissioner ) Hermann Wissmann 's forces . At the end of October , Schwalbe was joined by her sister ship Sperber . In early December , Schwalbe and Sperber were present at ceremonial reception of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition at Bagamoyo . Both ships were also involved with settling the border of Wituland on 27 – 29 December . In mid @-@ January 1890 , Pfeil , Leipzig , and Sophie left East Africa , leaving Schwalbe , Sperber , and Carola on the station . Schwalbe went to Cape Town in South Africa for an overhaul that lasted from 3 March until mid @-@ April .
Following her return from Cape Town , Schwalbe returned to supporting operations to pacify the coastal area in southern German East Africa carried out by Wissmann . During this period , several artillery pieces were captured , one of which was taken aboard Schwalbe before eventually being given to the Training Inspection for the colonial troops . By mid @-@ May , the uprising had finally been suppressed . Schwalbe thereafter conducted the normal peacetime routine of cruising the coast to show the German flag . Hirschberg contracted malaria and became severely ill , prompting his return to Germany on 24 June to recover ; KK Rüdiger arrived on 13 July to take over command of the ship . On 9 October , Rüdiger presided over a ceremony to dedicate a memorial in Tanga to the naval personnel who had been killed in the Abushiri revolt . Meanwhile , on 1 July , Wituland had been ceded to Britain as part of the Heligoland – Zanzibar Treaty ; this development upset the Sultan of Wituland , who ordered the killing of several Europeans in the colony , mostly Germans . The British launched a punitive expedition , and Schwalbe remained in the area as an observer until the end of October .
In June 1891 , Schwalbe went to Mahé in the Seychelles to rest her crew . Rüdiger was promoted to the position of Deputy Governor of the colony in October , and KK Oelrichs replaced him aboard the ship . Schwalbe then departed to visit Bombay , returning to German East Africa on 27 January 1892 . Unrest in Moshi required Schwalbe 's presence to provide support for the Schutztruppen . She was anchored off Tanga by June , and in October , the death of Ali bin Said , the Sultan of Zanzibar , caused a succession crisis that forced Schwalbe and other vessels to steam to the island to help mediate the disputes . By January 1893 , Schwalbe was free to return to Bombay for repairs . In May , Schwalbe received the order to return to Germany . She arrived in Kiel on 6 August , and was decommissioned on 25 August . The Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel took the ship into drydock for an extensive overhaul and modernization . She remained out of service after the repair work was completed , until 1 April 1898 , when she was recommissioned for another tour in German East Africa , to replace the cruiser Seeadler .
= = = Second deployment overseas = = =
On 20 April , Schwalbe left Germany and arrived off Zanzibar a month and a half later , on 7 June . She went to Cape Town for periodic maintenance from 10 October to mid @-@ November . In January 1899 , she towed the disabled German East @-@ Africa Line steamer SS Setos to Dar es Salaam . For this , the Line donated a sum to the Navy , which the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) used to improve the sailors ' barracks . In October , the Second Boer War broke out between British South Africa and the Boer Orange Free State and the Transvaal . Schwalbe and the cruiser Condor were sent to South Africa to protect German shipping , since the British had begun aggressively searching foreign freighters to prevent contraband from reaching the Boers . Despite the presence of the two cruisers , several German ships , including the Imperial post steamers SS Bundesrat and SS General , the freighter SS Hans Wagner , and the barque Marie were seized by the Royal Navy . This caused a major diplomatic incident and led to the passage of the Second Naval Law in Germany . During her patrol of South African waters , she stopped in Durban from 19 to 21 January 1900 , Port Elizabeth , East London , Cape Town , and Delagoa Bay . Tensions eased as the Boers began to suffer several defeats in early 1900 , and on 7 May , Schwalbe was back in Dar es Salaam . From here , she was ordered to leave for East Asian waters to reinforce the German East Asia Squadron and assist with suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China .
She arrived in Chinese waters in late September , and was assigned to the blockade of the mouth of the Yangtze . She spent the period from 14 February to 3 March 1901 in the German concession at Tsingtao , after which she returned to the Yangtze . The blockade of the river ended in June , and on 10 June she returned to Tsingtao . From 4 September to 11 November , she underwent an overhaul in Shanghai . She then returned to Tsingtao and the Yangtze area , before riots in Zhejiang province forced her to steam to Ningpo to assist in suppressing the unrest on 9 April 1902 . On 16 April , she left for repairs at Shanghai . On 23 July , while Schwalbe was moored in Tsingtao , she received the order to return to Germany . On 16 August , she departed Tsingtao and arrived in Danzig on 10 December . There , she was decommissioned a second time three days later . Another lengthy overhaul followed , which lasted from 1903 to 1905 at the Kaiserliche Werft in Danzig .
= = = Later career = = =
Schwalbe remained in reserve following the completion of her overhaul in 1905 , until 26 October 1911 , when she was recommissioned for use as a special @-@ purpose ship . The Navy planned to convert her into a survey ship for use abroad , but in 1912 the Navy instead decided to use her to replace the old aviso Grille as a training ship . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was converted into a barracks ship based in Kiel . She served in this capacity until 1918 , when she was used as a target ship outside Kiel . She was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold for scrapping on 7 August 1920 . Schwalbe was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1922 in Hamburg .
|
= Michael I Komnenos Doukas =
Michael I Komnenos Doukas , Latinized as Comnenus Ducas ( Greek : Μιχαήλ Κομνηνός Δούκας , Mikhaēl Komnēnos Doukas ) , and in modern sources often recorded as Michael I Angelos , a name he never used , was the founder and first ruler of the Despotate of Epirus from ca . 1205 until his assassination in ca . 1215 .
Born ca . 1170 , Michael was a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos and a cousin of emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos . He began his public career in 1190 , as a hostage to the Third Crusade , and went on to serve as governor of the province of Mylasa and Melanoudion in the 1190s and again in ca . 1200 / 1 . During the latter tenure he rebelled against Alexios III but was defeated and forced to flee to the Seljuk Turks . In the aftermath of the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 , he attached himself to Boniface of Montferrat . Soon , however , he abandoned the Crusader leader and went to Epirus , where he established himself as ruler , apparently through marriage with the daughter or widow of a local magnate .
Michael 's domain in Epirus became a refuge and centre of resistance of the Greeks against the Latin Crusaders . At about the same time , according to some modern scholars , he may have led the abortive Greek resistance to the Crusaders in the Peloponnese , which was crushed at the Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras ; according to other views , he may have led a campaign there between 1207 and 1209 . In order to avoid invasion and buy time to consolidate his position in Epirus , Michael soon entered into negotiations with Pope Innocent III , and concluded treaties with the Latin Empire and the Republic of Venice . In the meantime , his rule received legitimacy when he ransomed the deposed Alexios III from captivity . According to later chroniclers , Alexios III conferred the hereditary rule of Epirus to Michael and his descendants .
By 1210 , Michael was secure enough to launch an attack against the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica , in conjunction with the Bulgarians . Repelled by the intervention of the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders , Michael quickly switched sides and joined the Latins to prevent the city from falling into Bulgarian hands . In 1212 , he conquered most of Thessaly from the Lombard lords of Thessalonica . At about the same time , his troops briefly took over the Lordship of Salona . He then went on to recover Dyrrhachium and the island of Corfu from the Venetians in 1213 – 14 , but was thwarted in his attempt to push further north into Zeta . He was assassinated soon after in his sleep , and was succeeded by his half @-@ brother Theodore Komnenos Doukas .
= = Early life = =
Michael was the illegitimate son of the sebastokrator John Doukas . His paternal grandparents were Constantine Angelos and Theodora , a daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( reigned 1081 – 1118 ) . Michael 's uncle , Andronikos , was the father of the future emperors Isaac II Angelos ( r . 1185 – 95 and 1203 – 04 ) and Alexios III Angelos ( r . 1195 – 1203 ) , who were thus Michael 's first cousins . Despite this kinship , he never used the surname " Angelos " , which has been applied by some modern scholars to Michael and his dynasty . The few documents surviving from his own hand and a couple of lead seals show his name as " Michael Doukas " or " Michael Komnenos Doukas " ( Μιχαήλ Κομνηνός ὁ Δούκας ) , evidently in an effort to emphasize his relation to the revered Doukas and Komnenos dynasties , rather than the disastrous reign of the Angeloi . The only medieval sources to use the surname " Angelos " to refer to Michael were later pro @-@ Palaiologos historians hostile to him and the Epirote state 's rival claims to the Byzantine inheritance .
It is unknown when Michael was born ; the only relevant information is the statement of Niketas Choniates that he was a " young man " in 1201 . The Greek scholar Konstantinos Varzos places his birth approximately in 1170 . Michael < is first mentioned on 14 February 1190 , when he , along with other imperial relatives , served as a hostage to Frederick I Barbarossa ( r . 1152 – 90 ) during the passage of the Third Crusade through Byzantine territory . He then went on to serve as governor ( doux and anagrapheus ) of the theme of Mylasa and Melanoudion in Asia Minor during the last years of Isaac II 's first reign , with the rank of pansebastos sebastos . Alexios III re @-@ appointed him to the same province , probably in 1200 . Demetrios Polemis , in his study on the Doukas family , reports that he was reappointed to the post by Alexios IV ( r . 1203 – 04 ) , but as Varzos remarks , this is evidently an error by Polemis . In early 1201 , for unknown reasons , Michael rose in revolt against the emperor . Alexios III campaigned against him in the summer 1201 and defeated him , forcing Michael to seek refuge at the court of the Seljuk Turk Sultan of Rûm , Süleymanshah II ( r . 1196 – 1204 ) . In his service he led Turkish raids into Byzantine territory around the Maeander River valley .
According to Geoffrey of Villehardouin , a participant in the Fourth Crusade and author of De la Conquête de Constantinople , at the time of the fall of Constantinople to the forces of the Fourth Crusade , Michael was present in the city , having possibly returned from exile in the period after the deposition of Alexios III and the restoration of Isaac II and his son Alexios IV in 1203 – 04 . Michael then entered into the service of Boniface of Montferrat , who received the Kingdom of Thessalonica and overlordship over Greece in the division of the spoils among the Crusaders , and followed Boniface west as the latter went to take up his kingdom in September 1204 . Villehardouin reports that Boniface trusted Michael , but soon he abandoned him and went to Epirus , where he installed himself as the leader of the local Greeks against the Latin Crusaders .
The process of Michael 's establishment in Epirus is obscure . The hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta , written in the late 13th century , maintains that Alexios III had appointed Michael as governor in the Peloponnese and a certain Senachereim , who was Michael 's relative by marriage ( they both had married first cousins from the Melissenos family ) , as governor of the Theme of Nicopolis in Epirus . When the local inhabitants rose in revolt against him , Senachereim called upon Michael for aid . Michael rushed to Nicopolis , but not before the locals had killed Senachereim . After that , Michael , himself widowed , took Senachereim 's widow as his wife and succeeded him as governor . Although generally regarded as inaccurate due to the many errors it contains , this part of the hagiography is partially corroborated by Villehardouin 's account that he married the daughter of a local magnate . It is certain that Michael was never appointed governor of the Peloponnese , but the hagiography 's reference to the peninsula has led to suggestions by modern scholars that he is to be identified with the Michael who led the Peloponnesian Greeks in the Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras against the Crusaders . This commonly held identification has been questioned by more recent research by the historian Raymond @-@ Joseph Loenertz , who suggests that Michael leaving Epirus , which still was not securely under his control , to go on campaign in the Peloponnese would have been extremely unlikely as it would leave Epirus open to attack by Boniface . Loenertz does however consider that Michael may indeed have led another expedition into the Peloponnese a few years later , in 1207 – 09 ( see below ) .
= = Ruler of Epirus = =
From his base at Arta , Michael proceeded to expand his control over most of the region of Epirus and modern Albania , quickly establishing an independent domain encompassing the lands between Dyrrhachium in the north and Naupactus in the south , bordering the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica in the east , the possessions of the Republic of Venice to the west , and the Bulgarians and Serbs to the north . The state Michael established is commonly known in historiography as the Despotate of Epirus , and it was long thought that Michael was the first Epirote ruler to claim the title of despotes , it being surmised that he was granted the title by the deposed emperor Alexios III after his ransoming ( see below ) . Neither Michael nor his half @-@ brother and successor , Theodore Komnenos Doukas , however , bore the title . It was Michael 's bastard son , Michael II Komnenos Doukas , who became the first ruler of Epirus to be titled a despotes in the 1230s , while the designation of the Epirote state as a " despotate " first appears in Western , rather than Byzantine , sources in the 14th century .
= = = Rapprochement with the Latin powers = = =
Along with the other major Greek successor state , the Empire of Nicaea in western Asia Minor , Epirus became the main Greek centre resisting Latin rule . Michael 's chief preoccupation therefore was the threat posed by the Latin Crusader states and the Republic of Venice . In the treaty of partition of the Byzantine Empire among the Crusaders , Epirus had been allotted to Venice , but although it had occupied Dyrrhachium in 1205 and the island of Corfu in 1207 , the maritime @-@ minded Republic had shown little interest in the rest of the Epirote mainland . To insure himself against a Latin attack , Michael began negotiations with Pope Innocent III , hinting at a possible union of the Orthodox Church of his domains with the Roman Catholic Church . The relationship was not untroubled – in a letter of 17 August 1209 , the Pope asked of " Michael Komnenos of Romania " that , if he were truly the Pope 's servant , as he claimed in his letters , he should allow the Latin Archbishop of Dyrrhachium access to the estates owned by the archbishopric in Michael 's domains — but it did serve for the moment to earn Michael the Pope 's goodwill , as well as precious time . According to Loenertz , it also appears that at some point Michael had paid homage to the Kingdom of Thessalonica as its vassal .
Despite these diplomatic manoeuvrings , according to a series of letters of Innocent III dated to autumn 1210 , Michael engaged in combat with the Prince of Achaea Geoffrey I of Villehardouin ( r . 1209 – 1229 ) and his barons ; the letters do not give any further details . Modern researchers have linked this reference either with his supposed leadership in the battle of Kountouras , or , more plausibly , with an abortive campaign in the Peloponnese sometime in 1207 – 09 in order to aid the beleaguered ruler of Argos and Corinth , Leo Sgouros , who was being besieged by the Crusaders in his citadel on the Acrocorinth . Traditionally , several scholars , such as Karl Hopf and Antoine Bon , have furthermore identified a certain Theodore , who appears as " lord of Argos " and Sgouros ' successor in leading the resistance against the Crusaders , with Michael 's half @-@ brother Theodore Komnenos Doukas . Loenertz points out , however , that not only is there no evidence for such an assumption , but that Theodore Komnenos Doukas is known to have been in the service of the Nicaean emperor , Theodore I Laskaris ( r . 1205 – 1222 ) , at the time .
In summer 1209 , after the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders ( r . 1205 – 16 ) quelled a revolt of the Lombard barons of Thessalonica and brought the Kingdom of Thessalonica under his effective control , Michael sent envoys to propose an alliance . Henry distrusted Michael 's sincerity , but sent an embassy to Epirus with his terms , which amounted to Michael declaring himself a vassal of the Latin Empire . Michael was able to sidestep an outright declaration of submission by offering the hand of his eldest daughter to the Emperor 's brother , Eustace , and a third of his lands as her dowry . Henry accepted , and the peace agreement was sealed with the marriage of Eustace and Michael 's daughter . Finally , in early 1210 , Michael 's envoys , the Bishop of Tzernikon Theodore and Symeon Kounales , met with the Venetian duke of Dyrrhachium , Marino Vallaresso , and negotiated a treaty , confirmed by oath on 20 June . Thereby Michael accepted to become a vassal of Venice , holding his lands in fief from Venice as confirmed in a charter issued by Doge Pietro Ziani ( r . 1205 – 29 ) . Michael granted the Venetians extensive trading privileges and tax exemptions , just as they had enjoyed under the chrysobulls of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos ( r . 1143 – 80 ) , promised to expedite the grain exports to Venice , and to assist in any shipwreck of a Venetian vessel off the Epirote coast . In addition , as a sign of his vassalage he would pay to the Venetian duke of Dyrrhachium an annual tribute of 42 litrai of gold hyperpyra in two instalments , and send annually a rich brocade for the altar of St. Mark 's Basilica and one for the Doge .
At about the same time , Michael 's rule received a boost in legitimacy through his ransoming of emperor Alexios III . After his deposition by the Crusaders in July 1203 , Alexios with his wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera had been roaming Greece seeking protection . A marriage alliance with Leo Sgouros failed due to the latter 's hasty retreat before the advance of Boniface of Montferrat . Left stranded in Thessaly , Alexios was captured by Boniface . The former emperor was initially held in comfortable captivity , but at some point he fell foul of Boniface ; sources differ on whether he tried to flee to Michael 's domains and was captured by Boniface 's knights en route or whether Boniface simply came to distrust him as a potential rival focal point for the loyalties of the Greek population . He and his wife were then imprisoned , either in Thessalonica or , according to other sources , in Montferrat . Learning of their fate , Michael offered to ransom the former imperial couple and eventually secured their release , welcoming them at Salagora , the port of Arta , where they arrived by ship . Michael treated the couple with every courtesy , but Alexios did not remain long in Arta . The deposed emperor was eager to regain his throne by taking over the Empire of Nicaea with the aid of the Seljuk Sultan Kaykhusraw I. Leaving his wife behind , and accompanied by Michael 's half @-@ brother Constantine Komnenos Doukas , Alexios took sail for Asia Minor . His attempt ended in complete failure in the Battle of Antioch on the Maeander in 1211 , where Theodore I Laskaris killed Kaykhusraw and took Alexios prisoner . The hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta claims that on his departure , Alexios granted Michael and his descendants hereditary possession of his domain , while the 14th @-@ century Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea claims that Alexios left Michael as his lieutenant in the west . From these references some earlier scholars erroneously inferred that Michael received the title of despotes from Alexios . Lucien Stiernon , followed by Varzos , places the ransoming of Alexios in 1206 / 7 . Loenertz on the other hand considers it a result of Michael 's rapprochement with the Latins and places it in 1210 , when the interests of the Latin Empire in curbing the growing power of Nicaea coincided with Michael 's intention to ransom Alexios .
= = = Territorial expansion = = =
Michael seized the opportunity of Henry 's focus on his planned campaign against Nicaea to attack Thessalonica . At the head of Latin mercenaries , he captured the constable of the Kingdom of Thessalonica and baron of Domokos , the Lombard Amé Buffa , and a hundred of his companions . He is alleged to have been excessively cruel to his prisoners , killing or whipping many of them , while Buffa , his confessor , and three other nobles were crucified . Michael 's army proceeded to capture several fortresses and kill the Latin garrisons , including priests . Enraged , Henry sped to Thessalonica 's aid , covering the distance from Constantinople in only twelve days . Michael in the meantime had allied himself with the Bulgarian ruler Strez , but they were defeated by Henry . It is possible that during this campaign , Henry was assisted by his vassals from Achaea , thereby explaining the reference in the Pope 's correspondence of Achaean barons fighting against Michael , rather than assuming an Epirote expedition to the Peloponnese . The Latin Emperor wrested lands from both allies , but was forced to cut short his campaign and return to Constantinople , which was being threatened by the Bulgarian emperor Boril . Henry left Thessalonica in the charge of his brother Eustace and of Count Berthold of Katzenelnbogen , who then defeated another invasion by Strez , supported with troops from his brother Boril . Disquieted by the Bulgarian attacks on Thessalonica , Michael switched sides and joined the Latins in defeating the Bulgarians at Pelagonia . It is commonly assumed that during these conflicts , Michael terminated his vassalage to the Latin Empire ; historian Philip Van Tricht however points out that there are no sources for this , and that this vassalage may have survived until 1217 , when Michael 's brother Theodore captured Latin Emperor Peter II of Courtenay near Dyrrhachium .
Sometime between 1210 and 1214 , according to the Chronicle of Galaxeidi , Michael came into conflict with the Latin Lord of Salona , Thomas I d 'Autremencourt . When d 'Autremencourt seized a few islands in the Corinthian Gulf off Galaxeidi , the inhabitants of the latter called upon Michael for aid , and in the ensuing battle , Thomas was killed and Salona ( modern Amfissa ) was occupied . Epirote rule there proved short @-@ lived , however , as d 'Autremencourt 's son Thomas II soon recovered his father 's lordship . In 1212 , his troops invaded Thessaly in force , overrunning the resistance of the local Lombard nobles . The Epirotes took Larissa , where they deposed the Latin Archbishop and restored the local see to an Orthodox metropolitan , Velestino , the fief of Berthold of Katzenelnbogen , and reached the shores of the Pagasetic Gulf at Demetrias . The newly gained Thessalian territories were entrusted to Michael 's son @-@ in @-@ law Constantine Maliasenos as a hereditary appanage .
Soon after , probably in 1213 , he took Dyrrhachium from Venice , followed in 1214 by Corfu . Very little is known about the details of these successes , as the generally hostile stance of the pro @-@ Nicaean Byzantine historians towards Michael means that his achievements were often ignored . According to local Corfiot tradition , the castle of Angelokastro was built by Michael . Michael continued to push northward into Albania and Macedonia , taking Kruja and ending the independence of the principality of Arbanon and its ruler , Dimitri Progoni , but his attempt to seize Zeta was stopped by the Serbs at Skadar .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Michael himself did not long outlive these successes : in late 1214 or in 1215 , he was assassinated in his sleep at Velegrada by a servant called Rhomaios . According to the historian John V. A Fine , " whether he was hired to do the act , and , if so , by whom is unknown " . As his only surviving son was illegitimate and underage , Michael was succeeded by his half @-@ brother Theodore . Theodore had been in the service of Nicaea , and Michael had requested Laskaris to send him to Epirus because his own son 's position was weak . In the event , Theodore not only sidelined the young Michael II , but according to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta , sent him and his mother to exile in the Peloponnese for the duration of his reign . Theodore proved a powerful and warlike ruler , greatly expanding the Epirote state and capturing Thessalonica in 1224 , where he was crowned emperor . The rise of Theodore 's Empire of Thessalonica ended abruptly with his defeat and capture by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230 , that allowed the exiled Michael II to return to Epirus and recover his father 's domain .
Michael laid the foundations of the Epirote state , and initiated a dynasty , the Komnenoi – Doukai , who would rule over Epirus until 1318 , when the Italian Orsini family took over . Members of the family also ruled over Thessaly , and for a while claimed the imperial title as rulers of Thessalonica from 1224 until its capture by the Nicaeans in 1246 . It appears that during his lifetime , Michael was a popular ruler with his subjects ; the contemporary metropolitan bishop of Naupactus , John Apokaukos , lauded Michael as a " new Noah " , at whose side the refugees of the Latin cataclysm found refuge . Apokaukos also praises him for his refoundation and refortification of the city of Ioannina , which henceforth chose the Archangel Michael as its patron saint in his honour .
= = Family = =
The exact identity of Michael 's wife or wives is unknown . According to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta , he married twice . His first wife was a lady of the aristocratic Melissenos family , who died at an unknown time . Her first cousin , likewise a Melissenos , married the governor of Nicopolis , Senachereim ( see above ) . After his murder by the locals , Michael avenged him , took his place and married his widow . Despite the unreliability of the hagiography , its account is partially confirmed by Villehardouin 's reference to the daughter of an Epirote magnate . Furthermore , as Michael 's second wife was a first cousin of his first , their marriage was uncanonical in the eyes of the Church and of hostile historians ; it is therefore likely that the " concubine " referenced by the latter as the mother of Michael II Komnenos Doukas was in reality Michael 's second wife .
Michael had five children , three by his ( first ) wife and two by his second wife or concubine :
An unnamed daughter , who in 1209 married Eustace , brother of the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders .
Theodora Komnene Doukaina , only mentioned briefly by Demetrios Chomatianos in 1216 .
Constantine Komnenos Doukas , mentioned only in the Latin text of the 1210 treaty with Venice , where he is designated as his father 's successor . He must have died at a young age , before Michael 's own death .
Maria Komnene Doukaina , who married Constantine Maliasenos .
Michael II Komnenos Doukas , an illegitimate son who succeeded as ruler of Epirus in 1230 until his death ca . 1268 . He is the first Epirote ruler to have borne the title of despotes .
|
= McDonnell Douglas A @-@ 12 Avenger II =
The McDonnell Douglas / General Dynamics A @-@ 12 Avenger II was a proposed American attack aircraft from McDonnell Douglas and General Dynamics . It was to be an all @-@ weather , carrier @-@ based stealth bomber replacement for the Grumman A @-@ 6 Intruder in the United States Navy and Marine Corps . Its Avenger II name was taken from the Grumman TBF Avenger of World War II .
The development of the A @-@ 12 was troubled by cost overruns and several delays , causing questions of the program 's ability to deliver upon its objectives ; these doubts led to the development program being canceled in 1991 . The manner of its cancellation was contested through litigation until a settlement was reached in January 2014 .
= = Design and development = =
= = = ATA program = = =
The United States Navy began the Advanced Tactical Aircraft ( ATA ) program in 1983 . The program was to develop and field a replacement for the A @-@ 6 Intruder by 1994 . Stealth technology developed for the United States Air Force would be used heavily in the program . Concept design contracts were awarded to the industry teams of McDonnell Douglas / General Dynamics , and Northrop / Grumman / Vought in November 1984 . The teams were awarded contracts for further concept development in 1986 .
The McDonnell Douglas / General Dynamics team was selected as the winner on 13 January 1988 ; the rival team led by Grumman surprisingly failed to submit a final bid . The McDonnell Douglas / General Dynamics team was awarded a development contract and the ATA aircraft was designated A @-@ 12 . The first flight was initially planned for December 1990 . The A @-@ 12 was named Avenger II in homage to the World War II @-@ era Navy torpedo @-@ bomber Grumman TBF Avenger .
The Navy initially sought to buy 620 A @-@ 12s and Marines wanted 238 . In addition , the Air Force briefly considered ordering some 400 of an A @-@ 12 derivative . The A @-@ 12 was promoted as a possible replacement for the Air Force 's General Dynamics F @-@ 111 Aardvark , and for the United Kingdom 's Panavia Tornado fighter @-@ bombers . The craft was a flying wing design in the shape of an isosceles triangle , with the cockpit situated near the apex of the triangle . The A @-@ 12 gained the nickname " Flying Dorito " .
The aircraft was to be powered by two General Electric F412 @-@ D5F2 turbofan engines , each producing about 13 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 58 kN ) of thrust . It was designed to carry precision guided weapons internally , up to two AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , two AGM @-@ 88 HARM air @-@ to @-@ ground missiles and a complement of air @-@ to @-@ ground ordnance , including unguided or precision @-@ guided bombs , could be carried in an internal weapons bay . It has been claimed that the A @-@ 12 was to be capable of delivering nuclear weapons held in its internal weapons bay as well . The A @-@ 12 was to have a weapons load of 5 @,@ 160 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) .
Beginning in early 1990 McDonnell Douglas and General Dynamics revealed delays and projected cost increases . Due to complications with the composite materials , aircraft weight had increased to 30 % over design specification . This was unwelcome for an airplane that needed to operate efficiently and effectively from an aircraft carrier . Technical difficulties with the complexity of the radar system to be used also caused costs to increase ; by one estimate the A @-@ 12 was to consume up to 70 % of the Navy 's budget for aircraft . After delays , its critical design review was successfully completed in October 1990 and the maiden flight was rescheduled to early 1992 . In December 1990 plans were made for 14 Navy aircraft carriers to equipped with a wing of 20 A @-@ 12s each .
A government report released in November 1990 documented serious problems with the A @-@ 12 development program . In December 1990 Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney told the Navy to justify the program and deliver reasons why it should not be canceled . The response given by the Navy and the contractors failed to persuade the Secretary of Defense , as he canceled the program in the following month , on 7 January 1991 , for breach of contract .
The government felt the contractors could not complete the program and instructed them to repay most of the $ 2 billion that had been spent on A @-@ 12 development . McDonnell Douglas and General Dynamics disputed this in Federal Claims court . The reasons and causes for the cancellation have been debated and remain an issue of controversy , with suggestions of political expediency and scheming to be behind the action .
= = = Aftermath = = =
After the cancellation of the A @-@ 12 , the Navy elected to purchase the F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , which went on to replace the A @-@ 6 Intruder and the F @-@ 14 Tomcat . The Super Hornet uses the General Electric F414 turbofan engine , which is a modified variant of the upgraded F404 version developed for the A @-@ 12 . The full @-@ size A @-@ 12 mockup was revealed to the public at the Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth in June 1996 . The cancellation of the A @-@ 12 is seen as one of the major losses in the 1990s that weakened McDonnell Douglas and led to its merger with rival Boeing in 1997 . After years of being in storage at the Lockheed Martin Aeronautics ( formerly General Dynamics ) facility in Fort Worth , Texas , the mockup was transported to Veterans Memorial Air Park adjacent to Meacham Airport in north Fort Worth in June 2013 . ( The park was later renamed Fort Worth Aviation Museum . )
The manner in which the program was canceled led to years of litigation between the contractors and the Department of Defense over breach of contract . On 1 June 2009 , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled that the U.S. Navy was justified in canceling the contract . The ruling also required the two contractors to repay the U.S. government more than US $ 1 @.@ 35 billion , plus interest charges of US $ 1 @.@ 45 billion . Boeing , which had merged with McDonnell Douglas , and General Dynamics vowed to appeal the ruling . In September 2010 , the U.S. Supreme Court said it would hear the two companies ' arguments , that the government canceled the project improperly and that the use of a state secrets claim by the U.S. prevented them from mounting an effective defense . In May 2011 , the Supreme Court set aside the Appeals Court decision and returned the case to federal circuit court . In January 2014 , the case was settled with Boeing and General Dynamics agreeing to pay $ 200 million each to the U.S. Navy .
The Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , an in @-@ development carrier @-@ capable fighter featuring stealth technology and oriented toward ground @-@ attack operations , is in effect a successor to the A @-@ 12 in both role and industrial origins . Comparisons have been drawn between the role of the future Next @-@ Generation Bomber and the A @-@ 12 ; the two aircraft both being stealthy sub @-@ sonic bombers designed to carry comparable bomb loads and fly similar ranges .
= = Specifications ( A @-@ 12 Avenger II ) = =
Data from Stealth Warplanes
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 37 ft 10 in ( 11 @.@ 5 m )
Wingspan : Unfolded : 70 ft 3 in ( 21 @.@ 4 m )
Folded : 36 ft 3 in ( 11 @.@ 0 m )
Height : 11 ft 3 in ( 3 @.@ 4 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 308 ft ² ( 122 m ² )
Empty weight : 39 @,@ 000 lb ( 17 @,@ 700 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 80 @,@ 000 lb ( 36 @,@ 300 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric F412 @-@ GE @-@ D5F2 non @-@ afterburning turbofans , 13 @,@ 000 lbf ( 58 kN ) each
Maximum fuel capacity : 21 @,@ 322 pounds ( 9 @,@ 700 kg ) ( internal )
Performance
Maximum speed : 500 knots ( 580 mph , 930 km / h )
Range : 800 nmi ( 920 mi , 1 @,@ 480 km )
Service ceiling : 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 200 m )
Rate of climb : 5 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 25 m / s )
Wing loading : 61 lb / ft ² ( 300 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 325
Armament
Payload capability : 5 @,@ 160 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) in internal weapons bay including :
2 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles
2 × AGM @-@ 88 HARM air @-@ to @-@ ground missiles
Unguided or precision @-@ guided bombs
|
= Abir Congo Company =
The Abir Congo Company ( founded as the Anglo @-@ Belgian India Rubber Company and later known as the Compagnie du Congo Belge ) was a company that exploited natural rubber in the Congo Free State , the private property of King Leopold II of Belgium . The company was founded with British and Belgian capital and was based in Belgium . By 1898 there were no longer any British shareholders and the Anglo @-@ Belgian India Rubber Company changed its name to the Abir Congo Company and changed its residence for tax purposes to the Free State . The company was granted a large concession in the north of the country and the rights to tax the inhabitants . This tax was taken in the form of rubber obtained from a relatively rare rubber vine . The collection system revolved around a series of trade posts along the two main rivers in the concession . Each post was commanded by a European agent and manned with armed sentries to enforce taxation and punish any rebels .
Abir enjoyed a boom through the late 1890s , by selling a kilogram of rubber in Europe for up to 10 fr which had cost them just 1 @.@ 35 fr . However , this came at a cost to the human rights of those who couldn 't pay the tax with imprisonment , flogging and other corporal punishment recorded . Abir 's failure to suppress destructive harvesting methods and to maintain rubber plantations meant that the vines became increasingly scarce and by 1904 profits began to fall . During the early 1900s famine and disease spread across the concession , a natural disaster judged by some to have been exacerbated by Abir 's operations , further hindering rubber collection . The 1900s also saw widespread rebellions against Abir 's rule in the concession and attempts at mass migration to the French Congo or southwards . These events typically resulted in Abir dispatching an armed force to restore order .
A series of reports into the operation of the Free State were issued starting with the British Consul , Roger Casement 's Casement Report and followed by reports commissioned by the Free State and Leopold II . These detailed unlawful killings and other abuses made by Abir and Leopold II was embarrassed into instituting reforms . These began with the appointment of American Richard Mohun by Leopold II as director of Abir . However , rubber exports continued to fall and rebellions increased , resulting in the Free State assuming control of the concession in 1906 . Abir continued to receive a portion of profits from rubber exports and in 1911 was refounded as a rubber plantation harvesting company . The later history of the company is unknown but it was still active in 1926 .
= = Origins = =
The Congo Free State was a corporate state in Central Africa privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium founded and recognised by the Berlin Conference of 1885 . What would later become Abir Company territory was the land between the Lopori and Maringa river basins , tributaries of the Congo River , in the north of the state . The local populace here were yam and cassava farmers who engaged in trade with river fishermen and pygmy hunters . In 1885 a force of the Manyema people , followers of Tippu Tip , the Swahili @-@ Zanzibari slave trader , arrived at the head of the Lopori River from Stanley Falls . They took hostages from nearby villages to ransom in return for ivory . By 1892 they had enrolled local people into their army and controlled the entire eastern half of the basin . The Free State was concerned by this development and in 1889 had enacted the Monopoly Act which declared that all products in the area were to be under their jurisdiction alone . The Free State also began a campaign to drive the slavers , traders and the Manyema from the region , the first stage of which was the establishment of a supply post at Basankusu in May 1890 . The campaign would be long but eventually successful and the entire basin was under Free State control by 1898 .
The Free State began using its new @-@ found control of the region to levy taxes from the local population , gathered using similar hostage tactics to the Manyema . The taxes were initially collected in the form of ivory but when ivory supplies began to run low the Free State switched to natural rubber . The rubber was collected from Landolphia owariensis gentilii rubber vines which were relatively scarce in the area with an average frequency of around one plant in each acre . The rubber was gathered by tapping a rubber vine and placing a pot beneath to collect the latex which could be used in the production of rubber for the European market . If the vines were a long distance from the ground the gatherer would have had to climb a tree , tap the plant and hold the collecting pot beneath the vine , possibly for an entire day . Hence rubber collection was a labour @-@ intensive process which made it unpopular with the villagers . Indeed , they preferred the Manyema to the Free State authorities as the Manyema only took low bulk , high value items such as ivory or slaves because of the long distances from their homeland whereas the state , with its steamboat transports , could afford to make the people harvest the low value high bulk rubber . By September 1892 the Free State was using its military forces to attack and occupy villages in the Lulonga and Maringa river valleys to expand its tax base .
= = Establishment = =
King Leopold decided to give concessions of his territory to private companies who would then collect the rubber tax and export it . With this in mind he approached British Colonel John Thomas North , who had made a fortune through speculating on Chilean nitrates , for capital with which to fund a concession company . North agreed and provided £ 40 @,@ 000 of the 250 @,@ 000 Belgian francs ' ( fr ) initial investment . As a result , the Anglo @-@ Belgian India Rubber Company ( informally known as Abir ) was established at Antwerp on 6 August 1892 . The company was divided into 2 @,@ 000 shares of 500 fr value each . British investors ( including North ) held 1880 shares whilst Belgians held the remaining 120 shares . In addition to the 2 @,@ 000 ordinary shares there were 2 @,@ 000 " actions " which entitled the holder to a share of the profits after a 6 % dividend was paid to the shareholders . The Congo Free State was the holder of 1 @,@ 000 of these actions . In return Abir received exclusive rights to all forest products from the Maringa @-@ Lopori basin for 30 years and all land within twenty miles of eight designated posts and had police powers within the limits of the concession . The Free State also had to supply guns , ammunition and soldiers to help establish the posts . In preparation two State employees were ordered to establish a headquarters for Abir at Basankusu but this was barely begun before the local villagers rebelled against State rule and killed both men .
The concession provided to Abir lay in the north of the country and was one of nine commercial concession areas established by Leopold in the Congo Free State . The concession was bounded to the north by the Congo River and the Société Anversoise concession , to the east by the Lomami River and the Lomami Company concession and to the west by the Lulonga Company concession which straddled the Lulonga River , into which the Maringa and Lopori flowed . To the south lay the Crown Domain ( Domaine de la Couronne ) , the private property of Leopold , which comprised the best land in the Free State and was the richest in rubber .
The Abir concession included the Bolombo river , Yekokora river and Lomako river which were tributaries of the two main rivers . Each concession operated independently and exploited its own area commercially . The other main rubber companies in the Congo Free State were the Société Anversoise and the Lulonga Company but Abir was the largest in the country .
Abir re @-@ established their headquarters at Basankusu in 1893 and its position at the confluence of the Maringa and Lopori allowed Abir to expand along the rivers and their tributaries , establishing new posts along the way . Progress was slow as the Free State 's activities had made the population in the west hostile to colonisation and the east remained in the control of the Manyema and the slavers . The company 's first post on the Lopori River had to be relocated because of threats from locals and rubber collection at Befori began only after a series of bloody conflicts between the villagers and Abir 's men .
= = Post system = =
The post system was the cornerstone of Abir 's commercial activity . Each post was run by one or two European agents to oversee local operations . The salary for an agent was 1 @,@ 800 fr per year , sometimes increasing to 2 @,@ 100 fr in the second year , and the standard contract period was three years . Agents also received 60 fr of trade goods each month with which to buy their food . Despite the low wages the 2 % commission that each agent received on rubber production made up the majority of the agents ' pay , for example the agent at Bongandanga received 16 @,@ 800 fr in commission in 1903 . As a result , there were many applicants for each post and agents were hired with the expectation that they would increase production by 0 @.@ 5 – 3 tons per month . This was implemented by extending the post to include more villages or increasing the quotas expected from the villagers , often indirectly forcing women and children to harvest the rubber as well . If production fell below the quota agents made up the shortfall in lost profits to the company from their pay . Each post consisted of a residence for the agent , barracks for armed sentries and sheds for rubber drying and storage , all built using labour conscripted from the villagers . A typical post employed ten African workmen to sort and dry the rubber , seven servants for the agent and thirty canoemen for local river transport . These were paid around 36 @.@ 5 fr per year in goods , commonly 5 kg of salt , one blanket , five machetes and trade goods to the value of 6 @.@ 35 fr . The post system was managed by the Director of Congo Operations at the central office in Basankusu . He was assisted in his job of keeping production up and expenses down by the only Free State employee in the concession , the commander of the police . The police commander was in charge of suppressing revolts and punishing villages which dropped below the quota . He had access to a large force of men and river steamers which was stationed at Basankusu and could redeploy quickly to the site of large scale rebellions . Effective police commanders would receive bonuses paid for by Abir .
Each post maintained a census of all the males from the nearby villages to implement the tax which was initially set at 4 kg of dry rubber ( 8 kg of wet rubber ) per man per fortnight . Each post had a force of 65 – 100 " village sentries " , often ex @-@ slaves armed with muzzle loading rifles , which resided in the villages to enforce taxation . The sentries were kept at the expense of the villagers and often used flogging , imprisonment or execution to keep production up . Sentries who failed to enforce the quota or made mistakes could be fined up to half their salary or fired , imprisoned or flogged . In addition to the village sentries were " post sentries " who were 25 – 80 men armed with modern , breech @-@ loading Albini rifles who lived on the post and were used to punish villages and suppress rebellions . Sentries were paid similar wages to the post workmen and despite the strict working conditions it was a popular job as it offered a position of power over the other villagers . The sentries had their choice of food , women and luxury items and many left after a one @-@ year term with five or six wives which they then sold .
To comply with Congo law the company had to pay the villagers for bringing them rubber , these payments were often made in goods . Roger Casement , the British Consul in the Free State , recorded payments of a nine @-@ inch knife of 1 @.@ 25 fr value for a full basket of rubber , a five @-@ inch knife worth 0 @.@ 75 fr for a less full basket and beads worth 0 @.@ 25 fr for a smaller amount of rubber . Yet the main incentive for villagers to bring rubber was not the small payments but the fear of punishment . If a man did not fulfil his quota his family may have been taken hostage by Abir and released only when the quota was filled . The man himself was not imprisoned as that would prevent him from collecting rubber . Later agents would simply imprison the chief of any village which fell behind its quota , in July 1902 one post recorded that it held 44 chiefs in prison . These prisons were in a poor condition and the posts at Bongandanga and Mompono recorded death rates of three to ten prisoners per day each in 1899 . Those with records of resisting the company were deported to forced labour camps . There were at least three of these camps , one at Lireko , one on the Upper Maringa River and one on the Upper Lopori River . In addition to imprisonment corporal punishment was also used against tax resisters with floggings of up to 200 lashes with a chicotte , a hippopotamus hide whip , being reported . Some agents would tie men to platforms facing the sun or burn them with gum from the copal tree as a means of punishment .
= = Boom and refounding = =
Abir collected 70 tons of dried rubber in 1895 , rising to 410 tons in 1898 by which time it had eleven operational posts . At the same time the price of rubber also increased from 6 @.@ 30 – 6 @.@ 50 fr per kilogram in 1894 to 8 @.@ 04 – 10 @.@ 00 fr per kilogram in 1898 . Abir 's costs in 1897 amounted to 0 @.@ 25 fr per kilogram to purchase the rubber from the collectors ( in lieu of tax ) , 0 @.@ 4 fr for transportation , 0 @.@ 25 in export duty paid to the Congo Free State and 0 @.@ 45 for storage for a total cost of 1 @.@ 35 fr per kilogram . In the same year Abir could sell on the rubber in Europe for up to 10 fr per kilogram . Abir 's profits rose with the increasing quantity and price of rubber , for the first two years ( 1892 – 94 ) the company recorded a total profit of 131 @,@ 340 fr , this had increased almost twentyfold by 1898 when they recorded a 2 @,@ 482 @,@ 697 fr profit just for one year . As a result , the dividend paid in 1898 was 1 @,@ 100 fr per 500 fr share . These profits were made in spite of increasing costs due the doubling of export duty in 1892 and the construction of the Leopoldville @-@ Matadi railway in 1894 which increased the cost of moving rubber to the coast to 0 @.@ 63 fr per kilo , more than the entire trip to Antwerp had taken in 1892 .
The Abir Company entered liquidation in 1898 as a means of tax avoidance and to escape Belgian business regulations . It was immediately refounded in the Congo Free State as the Abir Congo Company . The name was no longer an acronym of Anglo @-@ Belgian India Rubber and was instead a name in its own right . This change was because the company was no longer supported by British investment , partly because Colonel North had died and his heirs had sold their shares . The new company had a simpler shares system with just 2 @,@ 000 shares ( of 14 @,@ 300 fr value each ) divided between investors . The Free State held 1 @,@ 000 of these shares . As Abir was now tax resident in the Congo the Free State received 2 % of their profits through corporation tax , in addition to the 0 @.@ 5 fr per kilogram export tax . All initial capital investments had been amortised by 1899 along with material expenses in Africa and property and equipment expenses in Antwerp . In 1900 Abir reached the boundaries of its concession which covered eight million hectares . The next three years were spent filling gaps between existing posts and by 1903 Abir controlled 49 posts , managed by 58 agents . 1900 was Abir 's most profitable year and the Congo Free State 's shares and taxes provided 2 @,@ 567 @,@ 880 @.@ 50 fr of revenue for the state , 10 % of that year 's total . The share dividend in 1900 was 2 @,@ 100 fr , in the early 1890s it had been around 2 fr per share .
= = Decline and abuse of power = =
The rubber vine could be destructively harvested by cutting up the vine and squeezing out the latex whilst it lay on the ground . This was quicker and easier than non @-@ destructive harvesting and was practised by villagers who wished to fill their quotas and avoid punishment , especially once supplies of the vine began to run low . In addition some vines were destroyed deliberately by villagers who believed that once the rubber was gone Abir would leave the concession . Because of this destruction all rubber vines within 10 km of Basankasu were depleted within 18 months of that post opening . In an attempt to slow the destruction of vines Abir issued orders in 1892 and 1904 which prohibited destructive harvesting methods but these were largely ineffective . In 1896 the Congo Free State ordered Abir to plant 150 rubber trees or vines for each ton of rubber exported to replace destructively harvested vines . This was increased to 500 plants per ton in 1902 . By 1903 the plantation at the Bongandanga post held more than one million plants and by 1904 each Abir post employed around one hundred workers to manage its plantation . Despite this the plantation project was ultimately a failure due in part to the fact that each Abir agent remained at a post for just two years and was uninterested in working the plantation which would only benefit his successor . Congo Free State forestry officers also noted that Abir plantations were smaller than required or even existed only on paper . Abir would also plant vines which looked similar to the Landolphia vine but did not produce rubber , as a consequence the Free State required them to instead plant the Clitandra vine which was more easily recognisable but did not produce rubber in its first eight years . These vines may never have reached maturity as there is no evidence that these plantations ever produced rubber . In 1904 Abir began to run out of vines to tap and rubber production fell to half of that of 1903 , which was 1000 tons . By 1904 rubber vines within 50 miles of Abir posts had been depleting , leading to violent clashes between rival villages over control of the remaining plants . The entirety of the Lulonga concession , to the west of Abir , produced just 7 tons of rubber in 1905 .
The presence of Abir in the area exacerbated the effect of natural disasters such as famine and disease . Abir 's tax collection system forced men out from the villages to collect rubber which meant that there was no labour available to clear new fields for planting . This in turn meant that the women had to continue to plant worn @-@ out fields resulting in lower yields , a problem aggravated by Abir sentries stealing crops and farm animals . The post at Bonginda experienced a famine in 1899 and in 1900 missionaries recorded a " terrible famine " across the Abir region . The modern descendants of Abir 's villagers refer to the period of company control as " Lonkali " , the period of famine . Disease was also a problem with smallpox moving in from the east being reported in the Upper Lopori in 1893 and reaching Bongandanga in 1901 . A concurrent smallpox epidemic moving from the west destroyed villages along the Lulonga in 1899 , and reached Basankusu in 1902 . Sleeping sickness was also reported around the Lulonga by 1900 and spread up the Maringa and Lopori . Despite the arrival of these deadly diseases the main killers in the area were lung and intestinal diseases which killed twenty times as many people as smallpox and sleeping sickness combined . At least one missionary attributed the rise of disease with rubber collecting .
Abuses of power over the villagers by Abir had been reported by missionaries almost since they began operations in the Congo but the first real public disclosure came in 1901 with the publication of a report , written by an ex @-@ agent , in several Belgian newspapers . The Free State began an investigation into Abir 's abuses during which an inquiry established at Bongandanga heard evidence from missionaries in the concession . As a result , Abir took action against the missionaries , stopping the carriage of their mail on company steamers , stopping the missionaries ' boats and confiscating any mail that they carried . Abir also forbid missionaries from buying food from villagers , forcing them to buy from Abir 's own stores . In 1904 Roger Casement issued the Casement Report which condemned the Abir system ; this resulted in the Free State launching another investigation later that year . Although evidence of unlawful killings made by Abir was uncovered the investigation had no powers of arrest and could only submit a report to the Free State authorities . This lack of action resulted in deteriorating relations between Abir and the missionaries and there was at least one attempted shooting of a missionary . Evidence for Abir 's abuses also came from the governor of the French Congo , to the north @-@ west , who claimed that prior to 1903 30 @,@ 000 people had been driven from the Free State to the French Congo by Abir 's actions .
It is also known that Abir had been forced to put down rebellions of the Yamongo , Boonde , Bofongi , Lilangi , Bokenda , Pukaonga and Kailangi peoples around the turn of the century and that five Abir sentries had been killed near Bongandanga in 1901 and 1902 . The Boangi and Likeli peoples were forcibly resettled closer to the post at Bosow and in 1903 Abir troops intervened to stop the emigration of the Lika people and villagers near Samba . To stop small scale emigration Abir instigated a permit system for people wishing to visit another village . At the Momponi post the Abir agent led a punitive expedition against the Seketulu tribe which resulted in 400 civilian deaths with hundreds captured and put in prison , where a further 100 died . When the Nsongo Mboyo tribe attempted to emigrate 1 @,@ 000 were captured and sent to a forced labour camp . The Likongo , Lianja , Nkole , Yan a @-@ Yanju , Nongo @-@ Ingoli , and Lofoma people all successfully fled toward Tshuapa . Despite this chaos Abir managed to increase its exports for 1903 to 951 tons recording the second highest profits in its history . However , this partial recovery did not last long and soon profits were falling once more .
= = Attempts at reform = =
Leopold was embarrassed by complaints made by the British government about human rights abuses in the Congo Free State and dispatched a Commission of Inquiry to investigate the entirety of the Congo . This commission visited the Abir concession from 1 December 1904 to 5 January 1905 and , despite Abir 's attempts to keep witnesses away , heard evidence of violence committed by Abir . This included the desolation of villages , murder , rape , hostage taking and excessive flogging . Abir was the only commercial body mentioned by name in the report for brutality which said that the concession was " the black spot on the history of Central African settlement " . The commission instigated limited reforms , laying down new interpretations of existing legislation which included a limit of 40 working hours per week for collectors , the option of paying taxes in commodities other than rubber and the removal of sentries from the villages . Two months after this Leopold sent a Royal High Commissioner to Abir to check that the reforms were being carried out , he was told that Abir had no intention of instituting any reforms . The commissioner established two deputy public prosecutors in the Abir concession but one investigated only missionaries and the second brought few cases against Abir men .
One important result of the Congo Commission of Inquiry was that it spurred Leopold into carrying out reforms . One of the first stages of these reforms was Leopold 's appointment of Richard Dorsey Mohun , an American explorer and soldier of fortune , as director of Abir . Mohun held a keen interest in the eradication of the slave trade and had worked for the US and Belgian governments , with his duties including the suppression of cannibalism and slavery in the Free State . He was given extensive executive powers and placed in a position of " unusual opportunity for the correction of past abuses " .
Despite this Abir 's problems increased , the company reported an increase in rebellions against its rule and 142 of its sentries were killed or wounded during the first half of 1905 . An uprising at the post of Baringa resulted in the spearing of several sentries and the cutting off of food supplies to the Abir post . Abir 's military forces proved insufficient to restore control throughout the spring and summer of 1905 and they were forced to call in state troops . Three European officers and their Free State troops toured the area threatening villages with recriminations if rubber was not harvested , but despite this the post recorded absolutely no harvest for 1905 to 1906 . A similar event occurred at Mompono where around half of the population fled the area , those that remained being forcibly relocated closer to the Abir post . The agent at Bongandanga tried to prevent a rebellion by reducing rubber collection from once per fortnight to once every three weeks . This was only temporarily successful and an Abir outpost was later burned down . The company , unwilling to admit falls in rubber plant stocks , publicly stated that the rebellions were fomented by missionaries .
When Viscount Mountmorres visited the concession in 1905 he reported abandoned villages across the territory and that villagers had fled to the deepest parts of the forest to avoid Abir 's taxes . These villagers were living in makeshift leaf shelters and with few comforts . By March 1906 Richard Mohun , Abir 's director , admitted that the situation in the area was out of control and suggested that the Congo Free State should assume control of the concession . By September of that year Abir was unable to contain the increasing number of rebellions and , facing falling profits , was forced to completely withdraw from the area and hand control of the concession back to the Free State . At this point there were still 47 @,@ 000 rubber collectors listed on the company 's books . The other two major rubber companies in the Congo , the Société Anversoise and the Lulonga Company , also had their concessions taken back into state control in 1906 .
= = Free State takeover and legacy = =
The Free State was happy to take over Abir 's concession as the State had built up sufficient income to be able to afford to run tax collections by itself . In addition the Free State was embarrassed by the continuing allegations of atrocities caused by Abir and it could institute reforms more effectively if it were in control . Leopold authorised the takeover in the hope that the Free State would be able to resume rubber collection and exports and on 12 September 1906 an agreement was signed which stated that all profits from the concession would go to the Free State in return for payment to Abir of 4 @.@ 5 fr per kilogram of rubber harvested until 1952 . Leopold told Abir 's shareholders that he expected exports to return to normal levels within two years . To restore control the Free State dispatched a force of 650 men and 12 European officers under the command of Inspector Gerard to the concession . They returned four months later , leaving some areas still rebellious and with news that there were almost no rubber plants left . As a result , the quotas expected per man were cut to just 6 kg of rubber per year , with some struggling to find even that much . State income was therefore negligible whilst the costs of controlling the concession continued to increase . Throughout this time Abir was still making a profit by taking its share of the rubber exported for almost no expenditure .
By 1901 there were so few rubber plants left in the concession that the Free State authorities granted permission for the villagers to cut down the remaining plants and grind their bark to retrieve the rubber . Once this process was completed the rubber tax was abolished . The Abir company merged with the Société Anversoise in May 1911 to form the Compagnie du Congo Belge and now focussed on the management of rubber plantations and the gathering of rubber from them . However , later that year it agreed with the Belgian government to reduce the size of its operations and its monopoly status . In July 1911 it was banned from collecting rubber within the confines of its old concession for 18 months and was subject to new laws introduced by the Free State . The later history of the company is unknown but it continued to operate until at least 1926 when it split off its oil palm concessions into the Maringa company .
Abir 's rubber gathering practices made it the most notorious of all the concession companies for human rights abuses in the Congo Free State . Abir was only involved with primary resource gathering and , despite being owned by European industrialists , operated in a style similar to warlords such as Tippu Tip . Abir was supported in its operations by the Free State which required the enormous profits generated to strengthen its control over the country during its formative years . The concession companies gave the Free State the time and revenue required to secure the Congo and to plan a long @-@ term and more stable program of colonisation . Abir ultimately failed as its harvesting process valued high production over sustainability and it doomed to live out its own boom and bust cycle . Despite this the Abir production model was used by the French government as the basis for its concession system in the French Congo .
|
= Tainted Obligation =
" Tainted Obligation " is the fourth episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 106th episode overall . It was written by Jenna Bans and directed by Tom Verica . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on October 8 , 2009 . In the episode , Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) and Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) ' s father is admitted into the hospital , seeking a liver transplantation . Further storylines include Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) getting nervous about losing her job , and Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) attempting to perform surgery on a terminal patient with Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) .
Although the episode was fictionally set in Seattle , Washington , filming primarily took place in Los Angeles , California . Jeff Perry reprised his role as a guest star , while Ralph Waite and Jocko Sims made their first appearances . The episode 's title refers to the song " Tainted Obligation " , by American alternative rock group Community Trolls . " Tainted Obligation " opened to generally positive critical reviews , with Pompeo 's and Chyler Leigh ( Dr. Lexie Grey ) ' s performances praised in particular . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 14 @.@ 13 million Americans , and garnered a 5 @.@ 4 / 14 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking third for the night in terms of viewership .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) leaves his trailer for work , as he approaches a bear growling outside . He wants to move back to Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) ' s house , but Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) insists that they must go forward in life . Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) brings her father , Thatcher Grey ( Jeff Perry ) , who is vomiting blood , into the emergency room , and Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) treats him . Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) admits an elderly patient , Irving Waller ( Ralph Waite ) , with skin growths , who later reveals that he wants a penile prosthesis , to which he receives . It is revealed that Thatcher needs a liver transplantation , and Stevens is assigned to a cancerous patient , Randy ( Jocko Sims ) , by Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) . Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) wants to ask the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) for a job as an attending surgeon , but is nervous that he will reject her , and goes out to lunch with her girlfriend Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) .
Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) is fearful that she will be cut from the hospital 's staff , so she tries to get her name on the surgical board . Stevens and Hunt operate on Randy , and it is revealed that he is terminal . Lexie wants to donate her liver to Thatcher , but she is not a viable candidate , so she asks Meredith to do it , who subsequently agrees . Randy and his wife are dismayed with the outcome of the surgery , and Stevens proposes a plan to Hunt on how they can save him . Hunt agrees , but when the surgery suffers complications , the patient is pronounced dead , and Hunt condemns Stevens . Meredith undergoes the surgery , and it is a success for both her and Thatcher . Yang confronts Webber , and tells him that if a cardiothoracic surgeon is not hired , she should be cut from the program . At the conclusion of the episode , Stevens sees the bear , and ultimately agrees that she and Karev need to relocate , out of the forest .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jenna Bans and directed by Tom Verica . Edward Ornelas edited the episode , and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer . The episode 's title refers to the song " Tainted Obligation " , by American alternative rock group Community Trolls . Featured music includes The Voluntary Butler Scheme 's " Trading Things In " and Dragonette 's " Come On Be Good " . Pompeo was pregnant during the episode , so the filming crew had to work around it . In the episode , Lexie advocated for Meredith to donate her liver , because she was unable to . Bans commented on this : " It was REALLY easy for me to understand Lexie in this episode – ' cause that 's how I imagine she grew up with [ her mother ] and Thatcher . There was taco night , and movie night , and if she had homework issues , one of them was always around to help . So now that her Dad needs some of her liver , recovering alcoholic or not , she ’ s gonna do it . She 's not even thinking about the Chief 's upcoming merger – and the fact that recovering from a major surgery will put her on the bench , out of the game , for at least a month . Lexie doesn 't blink , because family isn 't an obligation to her like it is for a lot of people - it 's a gift . " The scene in which Meredith offers her liver to Thatcher was originally intended to rekindle their relationship . Bans later changed this , following a request from Pompeo , and offered her insight :
" I thought I wrote a reconciliation story – between Mer and her father . I thought I wrote the episode that was going to put all the bad blood behind them for good . And it did , in a way – Mer tells Thatcher the door is open , which is pretty huge . And though it was incredibly hard for her to work up the courage to say that to him , she knew it was the only thing that would let him – or alleviate his guilt enough - to allow her to save his life . But something happened in this story during the shooting process . It changed – subtly , but substantially . Here 's how it started -- Ellen Pompeo came to me on the first day of shooting and wanting to change that speech she gives to Thatcher . She wanted to add a simple line , to have Mer say ' I want you to do this for her . ' Because for Ellen , this story wasn 't a Mer / Thatcher reconciliation story – it was a Mer / Lexie story . It was a story about these two women , who have done this awkward dance around each other for two seasons now , finally becoming sisters . Ellen insisted that her main reason for doing what she does , for being completely vulnerable in front of the man who has hurt her in more ways than we can count at this point , was Lexie . She was doing it for Lexie . "
Bans called Waller getting a new penis the most emotional scene she had to write , adding : " I loved this story because I hate the idea that once you 're old , your life is over . I hate when people treat their aging parents like old furniture they want to get rid of but have to find a place for so they stick ' em in the corner and forget about them . " Bans also commented on Heigl 's character 's storyline , writing : " Poor Izzie . The girl 's living with cancer , lost her best friend , impulsively got married and dragged her husband away to live in the woods . That takes a lot out of a person . I need to seriously recover on the couch for an hour after I go to the grocery store – I can 't imagine the emotional and physical fatigue Izzie must be feeling right now . I think by the end of this episode , after Owen tells her that channeling her experience as a patient at Seattle Grace is undermining her strength as a doctor at Seattle Grace – she 's wondering if she made a mistake . She 's wondering if Alex and Derek and now Owen might be right – that she came back to work too soon . That she 's not emotionally ready to be cutting into people yet . Because I think every doctor wants to believe all their terminal patients can be Izzie – but the odds tell another story . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
" Tainted Obligation " was originally broadcast on October 8 , 2009 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company . The episode was viewed by a total of 14 @.@ 13 million Americans , down 1 @.@ 56 % from the previous episode " I Always Feel Like Somebody 's Watchin ' Me " , which garnered 15 @.@ 69 million viewers . In terms of viewership , " Tainted Obligation " ranked third for the night , just behind CBS 's juggernauts CSI and The Mentalist . The episode did not win in viewership , but its 5 @.@ 4 / 14 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot and the entire night , for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 – 49 demographic , beating out CSI , The Mentalist , Private Practice , and The Office . Although its rating won for the night , it was a decrease from the previous episode , which garnered a 6 @.@ 1 / 16 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was generally well received among television critics . Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that Perry 's character was " the man of the hour " , in addition to praising Pompeo 's performance , writing : " You gotta love Mer when she 's gloomy . " Diaz also called Yang not having a surgery " hilarious " , and praised the chemistry between Ramirez 's and Capshaw 's characters . PopSugar called the title of the episode appropriate , and also praised Pompeo 's performance , adding : " I felt for Meredith , but after Lexie 's heartfelt begging and pleading , I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside . Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first , and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver — her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone . " PopSugar also enjoyed Oh 's performance , commenting that they enjoyed her " vulnerable " side , and writing that overall the episode felt " lackluster " . Cinema Blend 's Amanda Krill found Yang " babyish " and " whiny " .
TV Guide 's Adam Bryant called the scene with the bear " one of the funniest moments on TV that week " . Bryant also praised the story arc between Torres and Robbins , adding : " I really like how honest Arizona is with Callie , and the way she puts the firecracker in her place . " He was positive of Leigh 's performance , writing : " Chyler Leigh gave a powerful performance in this episode . Her speech to Meredith was a little overwritten , but she almost made you forget that with her emotion . And the bond that is growing between Lexie and Meredith is nice to see . From Meredith finally saying out loud how she feels about Lexie , to Lexie being at Mer 's side when she wakes up , I am really glad to see these sisters ' happy . " Michael Pascua of The Huffington Post gave a positive review of the episode , commenting : " I love how Grey 's Anatomy can bounce between serious and hysterical moments . Old people wanting penile implants , bears attacking a groggy Alex , counterbalanced with Mercy West drama , Cristina being ignored , and Lexie 's father arriving at the hospital hacking blood . " Pascua also praised the writing of Waite 's character 's storyline and Leigh 's performance .
|
= Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems =
Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems ( MITS ) was an American electronics company founded in Albuquerque , New Mexico that began manufacturing electronic calculators in 1971 and personal computers in 1975 . Ed Roberts and Forrest Mims founded MITS in December 1969 to produce miniaturized telemetry modules for model rockets such as a roll rate sensor . In 1971 , Roberts redirected the company into the electronic calculator market and the MITS 816 desktop calculator kit was featured on the November 1971 cover of Popular Electronics . The calculators were very successful and sales topped one million dollars in 1973 . A brutal calculator price war left the company deeply in debt by 1974 .
Roberts then developed the first commercially successful home computer , the Altair 8800 which was featured on the January 1975 cover of Popular Electronics . Hobbyists flooded MITS with orders for the $ 397 computer kit . Paul Allen and Bill Gates saw the magazine and began writing software for the Altair computer called the Altair BASIC . They moved to Albuquerque to work for MITS and in July 1975 started Microsoft - originally named " Micro @-@ Soft " by Paul Allen as recounted in this 1995 Fortune magazine article . MITS 's annual sales had reached $ 6 million by 1977 when they were acquired by Pertec Computer . The operations were soon merged into the larger company and the MITS brand disappeared . Roberts retired to Georgia where he studied medicine and became a small town medical doctor .
= = Origin = =
= = = Founders = = =
Henry Edward Roberts studied Electrical Engineering at the University of Miami before enlisting in the U.S. Air Force in 1962 . He soon became an electronics instructor at the Cryptographic Equipment Maintenance School at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio , Texas . To augment his meager enlisted man 's pay , Roberts worked on several off @-@ duty projects and even set up a one @-@ man company , Reliance Engineering . The most notable job was to create the electronics that animated the Christmas characters in the window display of Joske 's department store in San Antonio . In 1965 , he was selected for an Air Force program to complete his college degree , and became a commissioned officer . Roberts earned an Electrical Engineering degree from Oklahoma State University in 1968 and was assigned to the Weapons Laboratory at Kirtland AFB in Albuquerque , New Mexico .
Forrest Mims was interested in science and electronics as a youth and even built an analog computer while in high school . Mims graduated from Texas A & M University in 1966 ( major in government with minors in English and history ) then became a commissioned officer in the U.S. Air Force . While serving in Vietnam as an intelligence officer , Mims continued his model rocket hobby . At Texas A & M , Mims developed an infrared obstacle @-@ sensing device and he experimented with it at the Saigon School for Blind Boys and Girls . Launching model rockets in an area accustomed to rocket attacks and working with blind children resulted in a story in the military newspaper , Stars and Stripes . This caught the attention of an Air Force Colonel , who arranged for Mims to be assigned to the Weapons Laboratory at Kirtland AFB even though Mims lacked an engineering degree .
Roberts and Mims were both assigned to the Lab 's Laser Group in 1968 . Roberts had reactivated Reliance Engineering and built an infrared intrusion alarm for his uncle 's fish farm in Florida . Later , Roberts and Stan Cagle , a civilian worker who also went to Oklahoma State , started building a power supply they hoped to sell . Mims became an advisor to the Albuquerque Model Rocket Club and met the publisher of Model Rocketry magazine in July 1969 . Mims told him about a transistorized tracking light that he had used on night launches of rockets in Vietnam . This led to an article in the September 1969 issue of Model Rocketry ; " Transistorized Tracking Light for Night Launched Model Rockets " by Captain Forrest Mims . Mims became a regular contributor to Model Rocketry .
= = = Model rocket kits = = =
Manned space flight and the race to the moon in the 1960s made model rocketry a popular hobby . Roberts , Mims , Cagle and another Air Force officer from the Lab , Bob Zaller , decided they could design and sell electronics kits to model rocket hobbyists . Roberts wanted to call the new company Reliance Engineering , Mims wanted to form an acronym similar to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's MIT . Cagle came up with Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems , MITS . The December 1969 issue of Model Rocketry ( circulation 15 @,@ 000 ) carried a press release that began :
Reliance Engineering in Albuquerque , New Mexico has announced the formation of a subsidiary company for the manufacture of miniaturized electronic and telemetry systems designed for model rockets . The company is called Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems ( MITS ) . Reliance Engineering president Henry Roberts announced that " MITS is presently conducting an intensive research program involving high quality miniature telemetry systems . "
The first commercially available model rocket telemetry transmitter is among the first items to be offered by MITS . Accessory modules including a tone beacon , temperature sensor , and a roll rate sensor , as well as tracking lights , ground systems for data reduction , and light weight , water activated batteries will soon be available .
They designed and built the telemetry modules in their homes and garages but they were only able to sell a few hundred units . Mims had sold a feature article about the new solid @-@ state device , light @-@ emitting diodes , to Popular Electronics ( circulation 400 @,@ 000 ) that May . With the hope of selling kits to the larger readership ; Roberts and Mims designed a device that would transmit voice over a beam of light , the Opticom . The editors accepted the project story and both articles were featured on the cover of the November 1970 issue . The payment for the articles was $ 400 but meeting Les Solomon , Popular Electronics technical editor , proved to be significant to both Mims and Roberts future success .
In August 1970 , Les Solomon , his wife and daughter were on vacation in the southwest and arranged to visit Mims , Roberts and their families . At that time , Dan Meyer and Don Lancaster were among the most prolific authors in Popular Electronics . Meyer had built a million dollar a year business that sold kits of parts to build the project that he and Lancaster wrote about . Mims and Roberts wanted to do the same and quizzed Solomon on the kit business . Solomon gave them some statistics but said there was no way of knowing how many kits an article would sell , maybe a hundred , maybe a thousand .
MITS had purchased components to build 200 Opticoms but only sold around 100 units . Roberts wanted to design a new electronic calculator kit but his partners wanted out . Bob Zaller had already left MITS and Forrest Mims was out of the Air Force and wanted to become a full @-@ time writer . Roberts bought his 3 partners out for $ 600 in cash and $ 350 in equipment . ( Roberts ' four @-@ year commitment to the Air Force ended in mid @-@ 1972 . ) Mims and Roberts remained friends and collaborated on books , magazines , instruction manuals .
= = Calculators = =
Ed Roberts ' interest in computers began in high school when he built a simple digital computer from relays . His first real experience with computers came while at Oklahoma State University where engineering students had free access to an IBM 1620 computer . Roberts ' office at Weapons Laboratory had the state of the art Hewlett @-@ Packard 9100A programmable calculator in 1968 . In July 1970 , a semiconductor company , Electronic Arrays , announced a set of six LSI ICs that would make a four @-@ function calculator . Roberts was determined to design a calculator kit .
To fund the new project , Roberts sold 15 % of MITS to fellow Air Force officer , Lieutenant William Yates . He also got an investment from another Weapons Laboratory officer , Major Ed Laughlin . Several other officers and scientist at the lab were interested in this state of the art calculator kit and helped with the design . Forrest Mims wrote the assembly manual in return for a calculator kit .
The MITS 816 was known as a " four @-@ function " calculator ; it could add , subtract , multiply and divide . The display was only 8 @-@ digits but the calculations were done to 16 @-@ digits of accuracy . The custom molded case gave the kit a professional appearance ; the kit was $ 179 and an assembled unit was $ 275 . The MITS 816 was featured on the November 1971 cover of Popular Electronics . Thousands of calculator orders came in each month , in contrast to poor results for previous kits that MITS had offered .
The steady flow of calculator sales allowed MITS to run full page advertisements in Radio @-@ Electronics , Popular Electronics and Scientific American . In the June 1972 Radio @-@ Electronics , MITS announced a 14 digit calculator ( Model 1440 ) with memory and square root function for $ 199 @.@ 95 kit and $ 249 @.@ 95 assembled . The original 816 kit was reduced from $ 179 to $ 149 @.@ 95 . Both calculators could be controlled by upcoming programming unit .
The monthly sales reached $ 100 @,@ 000 in March 1973 and MITS moved to larger building with 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 square meters ) of space . To meet the demand for assembled calculators , an automated wave solder machine was installed . In 1973 MITS was selling every calculator they could make , 110 employees worked in two shifts assembling calculators .
The functionality of calculator ICs increased at a rapid pace and Roberts was designing and producing new models . The MITS 7400 scientific and engineering calculator was introduced in December 1972 . It featured trigonometric functions , polar to rectangular conversion , two memories , and up to a seven @-@ level stack . A kit with a three @-@ level stack was $ 299 @.@ 95 and an assembled unit with a seven @-@ level stack was $ 419 @.@ 95 . The next month the Series 1200 four @-@ function pocket calculators were announced . The six @-@ digit model was $ 59 @.@ 95 and the twelve @-@ digit model was $ 99 @.@ 95 .
The Programmer accessory had been mentioned in the earliest advertisement but it was not featured until March 1974 . This was the same size as a desktop calculator and could hold 256 programming steps . ( It could be expanded to 512 steps . ) It was limited to emulating calculator key presses and simple sequence branching . The programming was done by entering hexadecimal key codes . The combination of the MITS 7440 calculator and the programmer was not nearly as sophisticated as the HP 9830 calculator but $ 400 for both kits was a fraction of the HP price .
= = = MITS calculators = = =
The feature and price information is from advertisements in Radio @-@ Electronics magazine ( issue date shown ) . The 816 price is from the original article in Popular Electronics .
= = = Price wars = = =
Bowmar Instrument Corporation introduced the " Bowmar Brain " , a four @-@ function pocket calculator , in September 1971 and the $ 179 calculator sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the first year . Bowmar then developed the " 901B " calculator that was priced at $ 120 . In September 1972 , Texas Instruments ( TI ) introduced the TI @-@ 2500 portable four @-@ function calculator that also sold for $ 120 . The 901B and the TI @-@ 2500 both used the TI TMS0100 family of " calculator @-@ on @-@ a @-@ chip " integrated circuit . TI was now directly competing with their IC customers . Other semiconductor companies such as National Semiconductor and Rockwell began selling calculators . Commodore Business Machines and other office equipment companies also got into the market . A frenzied price war started . By early 1974 , Ed Roberts found he could purchase a calculator in a retail store for less than his cost of materials . The larger companies could sell below cost to win market share . Bowmar lost $ 20 million in 1974 and filed for bankruptcy . Commodore acquired their IC supplier , MOS Technology . Texas Instruments won the price war but their calculator division lost $ 16 million in 1975 .
To compete in this market , Roberts needed more capital . He took MITS public in November 1973 with a stock offering of 500 @,@ 000 shares at $ 1 each . The 1973 oil crisis caused a stock market downturn and MITS was only able to sell 250 @,@ 000 shares . This allowed MITS to pay off the existing debt , but did not allow for any expansion . Roberts had developed several test equipment products such as a Waveform Generator and a Digital Voltmeter so he attempted to appeal to kit builders again by featuring the test equipment and digital clocks in the advertisements , instead of calculators . MITS was losing money , and by July 1974 , the full page prominent ads were replaced with quarter @-@ page ads in the back of the magazine .
MITS was now $ 300 @,@ 000 in debt and Roberts was looking for a new hit product . He decided to return to the kit market with a low cost computer . The target customer would think that " some assembly required " was a desirable feature . Roberts had looked at the Intel 4004 for calculators and thought the Intel 8008 was limited and difficult to work with . Intel had just released the 8080 , their first microprocessor that could be a general purpose computer . The target price of this complete computer kit had to be under $ 400 . To meet this price , Roberts agreed to order 1000 microprocessors from Intel for $ 75 each . Roberts and his head engineer , Bill Yates , began designing the computer . The company was down to 20 employees and a bank loan for $ 60 @,@ 000 financed the design and initial production of the new computer .
= = Popular Electronics and Radio @-@ Electronics = =
In January 1972 , Popular Electronics changed its editorial focus in an attempt to attract more advertising revenues . Reviews of stereo equipment and citizens band radio were featured ; experimenter and constructions projects were gone . Dan Meyer , Don Lancaster , Forrest Mims , John Simonton and many other authors immediately started contributing to the competing Radio @-@ Electronics magazine . The June 1972 cover story was " Experimenting with a $ 32 Solid State Laser " by Forrest Mims . Another article in that issue was " Experiments with Op @-@ Amps " by B.R. Rogen ; this was a pseudonym of Popular Electronics technical editor , Les Solomon . Solomon wrote articles for Radio @-@ Electronics while working for Popular Electronics . Lou Garner , the longtime solid @-@ state editor , moved to Radio @-@ Electronics for a year . Several MITS kit projects were featured in Radio @-@ Electronics including the ITC 1800 Integrated Circuit Tester ( May 1972 ) , the Model 1700 Function Generator ( July 1973 ) , the Model 1440 Calculator ( July 1973 ) and the 88 VLCT Computer Terminal ( November 1974 ) .
Radio @-@ Electronics had a smaller circulation than Popular Electronics but led the way with innovative construction projects between 1972 and 1975 . John Simonton 's first modular electronic music synthesizer was featured on the cover of the May 1973 issue . It sold for a fraction of commercial synthesizers and his PAiA Electronics produced them for decades . Don Lancaster 's TV Typewriter in September 1973 and Jon Titus 's Mark @-@ 8 computer in July 1974 were the catalyst of the home computer revolution .
Art Salsberg became the editor of Popular Electronics in 1974 with a goal of reclaiming the lead in projects . He wanted to publish a computer project that was more functional and elegant than the Mark @-@ 8 . Les Solomon knew MITS was working on an Intel 8080 based computer project and thought Roberts could provide the project for the always popular January issue .
Ed Roberts and Bill Yates finished the first prototype in October 1974 and shipped it to Popular Electronics in New York via the Railway Express Agency . However , it never arrived due to a strike by the shipping company . Solomon already had a number of pictures of the machine and the article was based on them . Roberts got to work on building a replacement . The computer on the magazine cover is an empty box with just switches and LEDs on the front panel . The finished Altair computer had a completely different circuit board layout than the prototype shown in the magazine .
= = Altair computer = =
= = = Products = = =
The Altair 8800 was modeled after early 1970s minicomputers such as the Data General Nova . These machines contained a CPU board , memory boards , and I / O boards ; the data storage and display terminal were external devices . The Teletype Model 33 ASR was a popular terminal because it provided printed output and data storage on punched paper tape . More advanced systems would have 8 @-@ inch floppy disks and a video terminal that would display 24 lines of 80 characters such as the ADM @-@ 3A . ( No graphics were available and lower @-@ case letters were a $ 75 option . ) Most of these computers had a front panel with toggle switches for entering data and lights for displaying it . These were normally used to boot the computer and to diagnose problems .
The Altair 8800 kit came with a front panel , a CPU board with the Intel 8080 microprocessor , 256 bytes of RAM , a 4 @-@ slot back @-@ plane and an 8 @-@ amp power supply for $ 439 . A 1k byte memory board was $ 176 and the 4k byte was $ 264 . The serial interface board was $ 124 and the parallel interface was $ 119 . There was a special price for an 8k byte system with BASIC for $ 995 . The Teletype Model 33 ASR was $ 1500 .
When the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics reached readers in mid December 1974 , MITS was flooded with orders . They had to hire extra people just to answer the phones . In February , MITS received 1 @,@ 000 orders for the Altair 8800 . The quoted delivery time was 60 days but it was many more months before the machines were shipped . By August 1975 , they had shipped over 5 @,@ 000 computers .
The Altair 8800 computer was a break @-@ even sale for MITS . They needed to sell additional memory boards , I / O boards and other options to make a profit . The April 1975 issue of the MITS newsletter , Computer Notes , had a page @-@ long price list that offered over 15 optional boards . The delivery time given was 60 or 90 days , but many items were never produced and dropped from future price lists . Initially , Roberts decided to concentrate on production of the computers . Prompt delivery of optional boards did not occur until October 1975 .
The Intel 8080 did not have dedicated circuitry to support dynamic random @-@ access memory ( DRAM ) because in 1975 , this type of memory was still a new technology . MITS wanted to use DRAM because it consumed less power than static RAM . However , they had several design and component problems that led to a high failure rate with their 4K Dynamic RAM board . By July , new companies such as Processor Technology were selling 4K Static RAM boards with the promise of reliable operation . MITS released its own 4K Static RAM board in January 1976 .
The only floppy disk drives that were readily available in 1975 were IBM compatible 8 @-@ inch drives . MITS selected the Pertec FD400 disk drive which could store over 300 @,@ 000 bytes of data . The Altair disk controller occupied two boards and had over 60 ICs . The initial units were to be available in August , but were delayed until the end of 1975 . The production version of Extended Disk BASIC was released in April 1976 . The controller with one disk drive sold for $ 1 @,@ 480 ( kit ) and $ 1 @,@ 980 ( assembled ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first full page advertisements for the Altair computer appeared in the February issues of Popular Electronics and Radio @-@ Electronics magazines . Soon MITS was advertising in technical journals such as the IEEE Computer , and general interest magazines such as Scientific American . MITS was also the most prominent advertiser in the new hobbyist computer magazines such as Creative Computing and Byte .
David Bunnell joined MITS as a technical writer in the calculator heyday . In April 1975 he created a newsletter so the MITS staff could easily communicate with the customers . The newsletter , Computer Notes , was available to customers and other interested readers . It was a large format newsletter ; 11 @.@ 25 by 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 286 by 394 mm ) , and each issue had 8 to 24 pages . In January 1977 , it switched to a smaller magazine format and the last issue was produced in January 1978 . Bunnell started Personal Computer magazine in October 1976 and went on to a successful career as a magazine publisher .
Computer Notes featured a wide variety of authors . Bill Gates and Paul Allen were regular contributors to the early issues . They wrote about Altair Basic and general software topics . Ed Roberts wrote a monthly " Letter from the President " column where he would answer customer questions and even review competing products . MITS engineers , such as Tom Durston and Steve Pollini , would give technical descriptions of new products . Altair owners would contribute software and hardware suggestions and occasionally a complete article .
MITS purchased a camper van in April 1975 and outfitted it with an Altair system complete with floppy disk , a Teletype Model 33 and every accessory MITS produced . The " MITS @-@ MOBILE " was literally a showroom on wheels that would travel from city to city showcasing the MITS product line . They would hold seminars at hotel conference rooms that would draw crowds of over 200 people . The most notable seminar was at Rickey 's Hyatt House in Palo Alto , California in early June 1975 , where a member of the Homebrew Computer Club left with an unreleased copy of Altair BASIC . After retail computer stores were established in most cities , the " MITS @-@ MOBILE " was retired .
The first ( and only ) World Altair Computer Convention was held in Albuquerque , New Mexico in March 1976 . The convention , organized by David Bunnell , was an overwhelming success ; with 700 people from 46 states and seven countries attending . Many of the attendees would go on to become leaders of the personal computer revolution .
= = = Clones = = =
Owners of mainframe systems and minicomputers could purchase additional memory , interface boards and peripherals from third party suppliers ; so it was predictable that owners of the Altair 8800 computer would do the same . MITS 's delays in delivery of systems and accessories accelerated the formation of Altair compatible suppliers . The first ones started appearing in mid @-@ 1975 and by July 1976 complete computers systems were readily available . The technical manuals for the Altair 8800 provided electrical schematics of the 100 pin computer bus allowing others to design compatible boards . There was not a proper technical standard at the time and some " compatible " boards did not work with other " compatible " boards . Later , the industry developed the S @-@ 100 bus standard .
Bill Godbout Electronics in Oakland , CA was the parts supplier to many of the hobbyists and students from Berkeley . George Morrow approached Godbout with several Altair compatible designs that Godbout agreed to produce and sell . The October 1975 Byte magazine carried an advertisement headlining " Get your MITTS on a Godbout RAM kit . " The 4K byte Altair compatible board was $ 131 @.@ 07 .
Godbout also sold components to Processor Technology for their 4K Static RAM board and serial / parallel interface board . Lee Felsenstein designed an Altair compatible video board that provided 16 lines of 64 upper and lower case characters on a black and white television . This $ 160 board became very popular and led to the Processor Technology Sol @-@ 20 Computer in 1976 .
The IMSAI 8080 , the first " clone " of the Altair computer , was released in December 1975 . It corrected many shortcomings of the original Altair 8800 by providing a larger power supply , a 22 slot motherboard , and easier wiring of the front panel . Ed Roberts reviewed the IMSAI in his April 1976 column in Computer Notes , and agreed that the IMSAI was in some ways better than the original Altair . Roberts also pointed out that the new Altair 8800B was superior to the IMSAI 8080 and the upgraded Altair 8800A fixed the same issues that the IMSAI did .
Altair computers were only available from the 20 or so authorized Altair computer dealers , but the IMSAI 8080 , Processor Technology Sol and many other clones were sold by hundreds of newly opening computer stores .
The S @-@ 100 bus was used throughout the 1980s until it was overtaken by the IBM PC ISA bus . Seattle Computer Products ( SCP ) was a manufacturer of S @-@ 100 memory boards . The company 's engineer , Tim Paterson , designed an Intel 8086 CPU system on two S @-@ 100 boards in 1979 . Microsoft , then in nearby Bellevue , Washington , used the prototype machine to test their 8086 version of BASIC . Digital Research had promised to deliver an 8086 version of their CP / M operating system by December 1979 but missed that date . SCP needed a disk operating system to sell its 8086 products so Patterson wrote QDOS , a " Quick and Dirty Operating System " in three months . Microsoft would later purchase QDOS from SCP for $ 50 @,@ 000 and use it as the basis for the IBM PC DOS .
= = = Altair BASIC = = =
In December 1974 Bill Gates was a student at Harvard University and Paul Allen worked for Honeywell in Boston . They saw the Altair 8800 computer in the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics and knew it was powerful enough to support a BASIC interpreter . They wanted to be the first to offer BASIC for the Altair computer , and the software development tools they had previously created for their Intel 8008 microprocessor based Traf @-@ O @-@ Data computer would give them a head start . While their friend , Paul Gilbert , was building the computer , Allen wrote a program that ran on a DEC PDP @-@ 10 time @-@ sharing computer that simulated the 8008 system . He also modified DEC 's macro assembler to produce the machine code for the 8008 microprocessor . The Traf @-@ O @-@ Data software could be written and debugged before the computer hardware was complete .
Harvard had a DEC PDP @-@ 10 that was available for student use . They would use it to develop BASIC . While Allen modified their development software for the new 8080 microprocessor , Gates began writing 8080 assembly language by hand on yellow legal pads . They enlisted another Harvard student , Monte Davidoff , to write the math routines .
By early February the program coding switched from legal pads to the PDP @-@ 10 and a preliminary version was completed by March 1975 . Gates and Allen had been in contact with Roberts and MITS and the older looking Paul Allen would travel to Albuquerque in March . MITS needed more time to get a computer with 7k bytes of memory working , and they needed more time to get the software finished . When Allen arrived at MITS it took a day to get the software running ; Allen remembers this being caused by computer memory problems while Roberts remembers the delay was due to software problems .
The April 1975 issue of the Altair Newsletter , Computer Notes , had a banner headline " Altair BASIC - Up and Running " . The software was to begin shipping on June 23 , 1975 . The software price was $ 500 , but discounted to $ 75 with the purchase of an Altair computer with 8k bytes of memory and a serial I / O card .
On July 22 , 1975 MITS signed a contract for the Altair BASIC with Bill Gates and Paul Allen . They received $ 3000 at signing and a royalty for each copy of BASIC sold ; $ 30 for the 4K version , $ 35 for the 8K version and $ 60 for the expanded version . The contract had a cap of $ 180 @,@ 000 . MITS received an exclusive worldwide license to the program for 10 years . They also had exclusive rights to sub @-@ license the program to other companies and agreed to use its " best efforts " to license , promote and commercialize the program . MITS would supply the computer time necessary for development ; a PDP @-@ 10 owned by the Albuquerque school district . Paul Allen left his job at Honeywell and became the Vice President and Director of Software at MITS with a salary of $ 30 @,@ 000 per year . Bill Gates was still a student at Harvard and just a contractor with MITS . The October 1975 company newsletter gives his title as " Software Specialist " .
The price of Altair BASIC to customers who purchased additional memory and I / O boards from MITS was $ 75 . Users may have gone along with that if the memory board were reliable . Customers bought the computer from MITS , and working memory from companies like Processor Technology . Rather than pay $ 500 for BASIC , they would acquire bootleg copies of the software . Only about ten percent of the early customers actually purchased BASIC . With a royalty due of $ 30 per copy , Gates felt that the computer hobbyist were stealing money from him . In February 1976 Bill Gates , " General Partner , Micro @-@ Soft " , wrote an " Open Letter to Hobbyists " that was sent to every computer publication inferring that the hobbyists were thieves .
MITS had announced a new computer based on the Motorola 6800 microprocessor in November 1975 , the Altair 680 . The machines were supposed to ship in January 1976 , but hardware design problems delayed shipment until May . Paul Allen rewrote their 8080 simulator to support the 6800 microprocessor . Ric Weiland , a high school friend of Gates and Allen , converted the Altair BASIC 's 8080 assembly language to 6800 assembly language . To eliminate the per copy royalty loss issue , the 6800 BASIC was licensed to MITS on a non @-@ exclusive basis for a flat fee of $ 31 @,@ 200 . Weiland and Marc McDonald were impressed with the new MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor that was a derivative of the 6800 . They modified the 6800 development system to support the 6502 and " cranked out " a 6502 edition of BASIC . This version was later sold to Commodore and Apple .
The January 1976 issue of MITS 's newsletter , Computer Notes , carried an ad for 8080 BASIC . The last paragraph stated : " Licenses for source listing and rights to distribute the binaries are also available to OEM buyers . Write or call Mr. Paul Allen at the MITS plant in Albuquerque for more detailed information . " Microsoft found several corporate customers for BASIC and proceeds were evenly split with MITS . Pertec acquired MITS in December 1976 and refused to allow any more OEM deals , even though the agreement required MITS to uses their " best efforts " to license the software . The contract required MITS and Microsoft to use binding arbitration to settle disputes . In September 1977 , the arbitrator ruled in favor of Microsoft , MITS could continue to use BASIC on their machines but lost the exclusive license . Microsoft could license the software to anyone and keep all of the royalties .
There was no longer a business requirement to remain in Albuquerque so Microsoft wanted to relocate to a larger city that would be more attractive to new employees . The San Francisco bay area was considered but Allen and Gates decided to return home to Seattle . Microsoft moved to Bellevue , Washington in January 1979 .
= = Sale to Pertec = =
In 1976 , MITS had 230 employees and sales of $ 6 million . Roberts was tiring of his management responsibilities and was looking for a larger partner . MITS had always used Pertec Computer Corporation disk drives and on December 3 , 1976 , Pertec signed a letter of intent to acquire MITS for $ 6 million in stock . The deal was completed in May 1977 just before the National Computer Conference in Dallas , Texas . Roberts got $ 2 million and the other 500 MITS shareholders ( including the Altair co @-@ designer , William Yates ) split the rest .
Pertec was eager to increase sales to small businesses through the 26 Altair Computer stores across the United States . The marketing toward hobby / home user was curtailed . The November 1977 issue of the MITS newsletter , Computer Notes , was the last produced by the Albuquerque staff . There was one more issue produced by the Pertec staff in Chatsworth , California . The back cover of the leading home computer magazine , Byte , always carried a full page Altair advertisement . This ended with the September 1977 issue . Roberts and Yates stayed on and worked on special projects .
In August 1979 , Pertec agreed to sell a 45 % stake to North American Philips for $ 37 million . Before the deal was complete , Pertec agreed to be acquired by the West German computer company , Triumph @-@ Adler , for $ 120 million . In 1978 , Pertec had sales of $ 150 million and Triumph @-@ Adler had sales of $ 466 million .
The Altair products were merged into the Pertec line and the MITS facility was used to produce the PCC @-@ 2000 small @-@ business computer . The Albuquerque plant was closed in December 1980 and the production was moved to Pertec plants in Irvine , California .
By the end of 1977 Roberts left MITS and returned to Georgia to be a gentleman farmer . He studied medicine at Mercer University in Macon , Georgia and graduated with a M.D. in 1986 . Roberts practiced medicine in Cochran , Georgia , population 4500 , until his death in 2010 .
|
= Octave Uzanne =
Octave Uzanne ( 14 September 1851 – 31 October 1931 ) was a 19th @-@ century French bibliophile , writer , publisher , and journalist .
He is noted for his literary research on the authors of the 18th century . He published many previously unpublished works by authors including Paradis Moncrif , Benserade , Caylus , Besenval , the Marquis de Sade and Baudelaire . He founded the Société des Bibliophiles Contemporaines , of which he was president . His research produced a considerable literary output and frequent publications in newspapers such as L 'Echo , Le Plume , Dépêche de Toulouse , Le Mercure de France , Le Gaulois and Le Figaro of Paris .
One of the topics his research focused on was the discussion of fashion and femininity in the French fin @-@ de @-@ siècle . This took the form of monographs and works including Son Altesse la femme ( French for Her Highness Woman ) , Féminies and La Française du siècle ( The Frenchwoman of the Century ) . His own works include novels and fantasy books , such as Surprises du Coeur and Contes pour les bibliophiles ( Tales for bibliophiles ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Louis Octave Uzanne was born on 14 September 1851 in Auxerre , to a bourgeois family originating from Savoy . His parents were Charles @-@ Auguste Omer Uzanne , a merchant , and Elisabeth Laurence Octavie ; his elder brother Joseph , had been born the previous year . His classical studies began in his home town ; he moved to Paris after his father 's death to study at the Collège Rollin in Paris — a residential school for the children of the French upper @-@ class . In Paris he became interested in the evolution and history of manuscripts and books . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 he was attached to a school at Richmond in England . Continuing with law studies , he abandoned this line of work when he came into an inheritance in 1872 , allowing him to pursue his literary interests .
He became a regular visitor of the Library of the Arsenal , where he joined a group of followers of the former librarian , Charles Nodier , along with the journalist Charles Monselet , writer Loredan Larchey , and author and bibliophile Paul Lacroix . He also joined the Société des Amis des Livres ( founded in 1874 ) , the first French bibliophilic association since the Société des Bibliophiles François ( founded in 1820 ) .
At the start of his career , Uzanne focused on the lesser @-@ known writers of the 18th century , creating four volumes of work published by Jouast , and an additional 20 + volumes published by Albert Quantin . He was an admirer of the Goncourt brothers , who were also writers on the subject of 18th @-@ century France . Uzanne looked for mentors who were bibliophiles like him , rather than literary scholars ( érudits ) like his companions at the Arsenal . While focusing on past subjects , he was very up @-@ to @-@ date on the technical aspects of printing and publishing . His 1879 work Le bric @-@ à @-@ brac de l 'amour ( literally , A bric @-@ a @-@ brac of love ) was one of the first to employ the gillotage , a zincography technique , and photo @-@ mechanical reproduction . Jackson points out that Uzanne , in Les Zigzags d 'un curieux ( literally , Zigzags of a Curious Man ) , divided the book collectors in two groups : those who are interested in the book as if it were a kind of stock market share ( valeur de Bourse ) , a market quotation whose fluctuations " they follow with a gamester 's interest " , and those — whom he considers " pures " — attracted to the book itself , its contents , rarity or beauty .
= = = Bibliophile and journalist = = =
After leaving the Société des Amis des Livres , which he found too conservative and too concerned with the reissue of old works , he started two new bibliographic societies , the Société des Bibliophiles Contemporaines ( 1889 – 1894 ) and the Societé des Bibliophiles Indépendants ( 1896 – 1901 ) . The first consisted of 160 people , including the writers Jules Claretie and Jean Richepin , the artists Albert Robida and Paul Avril , and the journalist and critic Francisque Sarcey . Uzanne also edited two magazines , Conseiller du bibliophile ( literally , Adviser of bibliophile , 1876 – 1877 ) and Les miscellanées bibliographiques ( The Bibliographical Miscellany , 1878 – 1880 ) , and then ran three consecutive bibliophilic magazines : Le livre : bibliographie moderne ( literally , The Book : Modern Bibliography , 1880 – 1889 ) , Le livre moderne : revue du monde littéraire et des bibliophiles contemporaines ( literally , The Modern Book : Journal of the Literary World and Contemporary Bibliophiles , 1890 – 1891 ) , and L 'Art et l 'Idée : revue contemporaine du dilettantisme l 'littéraire et de la curiosité ( Art and Ideas : Contemporary Journal of the Literary Dilettantism and Curiosity , 1892 – 1893 ) . In the early 1890s , he was considered to be " ... the best authority that book lovers know on subjects specially interesting to book lovers " . Nevertheless , such books as Le Miroir du Monde ( The Mirror of the World ) or L 'ombrelle – le gant – le manchon ( The Sunshade , Muff , and Glove ) received negative reviews from some newspapers for Avril 's illustrations .
In contrast to most bibliophiles of his time , Uzanne was chiefly interested in the creation of new , luxurious bibliophile works , collaborating closely with printers , binders , typographers and artists ( especially the Symbolists and early Art Nouveau artists ) . Among them were such painters as James McNeill Whistler , Adolphe Lalauze and Jules Barbey d 'Aurevilly — who wrote the preface of Le bric @-@ à @-@ brac de l 'amour ( 1879 ) — , the writer Jean Lorrain , and jewellery artists and exponents of Japonisme such as Henri Vever . One of the main artists collaborating with Uzanne was the Belgian Félicien Rops , who illustrated some of his books and created the cover illustration for Le Livre Moderne , and who called Uzanne " the Bibliophile 's dream " . The overall quality of Uzanne 's books was remarked upon by the New York Times when reviewing his 1894 work La Femme à Paris : " The book is a highly @-@ artistic achievement in a typographical sense ... This artistic element and the style of the author ... elevate the work from its sphere of usefulness into the sphere of pure literature . It will be serviceable a century from now to students of our civilization . " Other symbolic works of art were Féminies ( 1896 ) , in which Rops illustrated many scenes of worldly life , or Son Altesse la femme ( Her Highness Woman , 1885 ) , on which he drew a naked witch in the chapter on medieval women . In the work he explored the lives of women at all levels of French society of his time . But also , according to Silverman , Uzanne associate feminism with a dangerous debauchery of sexual and moral investment , making full use a series of medical and philosophical sources , with the intention of proving the inability of women to merge into public life and the labour market , because of their temperament . Uzanne further indicated that the female figure and ornaments were essential in the French decorative arts , something that was missing in the early 20th century .
Uzanne 's bibliophile activity in the early 1880s coincided with the gradual abandonment of manual methods of printing illustrations kin favour of photomechanized methods . His collection of contemporary bibliophilic books was sold in 1894 by Hôtel Drouot . It contained some of the finest examples of late 19th @-@ century French bookbinding , by binders like Charles Meunier , Lucien Magnin , Pétrus Ruban , Camille Martin , René Wiener and Victor Prouvé .
Uzanne was also well known in the literary circles of his day , as attested by this poem of Stéphane Mallarmé in Vers de circonstance ( 1920 ) :
Non comme pour étinceler
Aux immortels dos de basane
Tard avec mon laisser @-@ aller
je vous salue , Octave Uzanne
( Not as if to sparkle with mirth
at the immortal sheepskin spines
late with my usual sloppiness
I greet you , Octave Uzanne )
As a journalist , sometimes employing the pseudonym " la Cagoule " , Uzanne wrote for L 'Écho de Paris , Le Gaulois and other newspapers . In addition , for other French and foreign magazines like The Studio , Magazine of Art , and Scribner 's Magazine , for which he wrote in 1894 an article , " The End of Books " , which he thought would come because of the rise of phonography , where he predicted the rise of radio and television . Uzanne was fascinated by modern technology and the possibilities it offered for the reproduction and dissemination of words , sounds , and images , which was evidenced not only in that article or in his groundbreaking work in book publishing , but also in an article he wrote in 1893 for the French newspaper Le Figaro , about a visit he made to US President Grover Cleveland and the inventor Thomas Edison during the EXPO Chicago 1893 , where he witnessed the Kinetograph shortly before it went public .
Books and women , these were the first of Uzanne 's loves , and I do not think he has disowned them , because the library is always full of invaluable and rare books , and the first book that he wanted to retouch and republish for the general public , is precisely a monograph of the Parisienne . ... One thinks Sébastien Mercier and Restif de la Bretonne , and no wrong . It is between these two great observers of French mores and the human heart has its place naturally Octave Uzanne .
In general , Silverman assigned to him " anti @-@ Semitic tendencies " and the Bibliothèque nationale de France is credited with the authorship of the anti @-@ Semitic pamphlet Israël chez John Bull : l 'Angleterre juive ( 1913 ) , under the pseudonym " Théo @-@ Doedalus " . The journalist Gustave Geffroy , in the prologue of Pietro Longhi ( 1924 ) by Uzanne , also listed this work among other works of Uzanne . On this pamphlet , he criticized the British government , including figures as Benjamin Disraeli and Nathan Mayer Rothschild . Uzanne collaborated with Edouard Drumont on his antisemitic newspaper La Libre Parole . Drumont and Uzanne held a cordial friendship through mail , and Uzanne helped him in the publication of the essay La France juive ( Jewish France , 1886 ) .
As an art critic , Uzanne wrote several reviews of etchings , as in a critique of French painter and illustrator Félix Buhot : " Buhot is a visionary , one obsessed by the picturesqueness of modern life ; nervous to excess , tortured by a crowd of fleeting impressions and queer ideas , he suffered from a cruel inability to reproduce them as he wished . " Uzanne 's written style was characterized by the use of Anglicisms and eccentric neologisms .
= = = Fashion writer = = =
Another of Uzanne 's interests was female fashion , about which he wrote a number of books and articles that were later translated into English . Specifically , he was focused on the image of the Parisienne , the women of Paris . Uzanne is perceived by some to have had a desire to revive French national pride ; he shared the nationalistic feelings of other members of the generation who had experienced the defeat by Prussia in 1870 . This was reflected in their efforts to promote a renewal of the decorative arts . Silverman mentions that Uzanne believed that married bourgeois women should not only decorate the walls of their homes , but also " cultivate luxury and art in an ornament ignored by their aristocratic predecessors : their undergarments " . Uzanne felt that the eroticism of the theatrical atmosphere was no longer what it had been and had become " more moral , more bourgeois " . His first and perhaps most famous book on fashion was L 'Éventail ( 1882 , translated as The Fan in 1884 ) , a " delightful " illustrated story about the hand fans . He admitted that his book " in no way a work of powerful wisdom and erudition " , but simply the first in a projected series of " little books for the boudoir " .
" Among the jewels of female ornamentation , the fan is the priority because , in the land of grace and spirit , still shines in the front row . "
His second book about fashion , L 'ombrelle – le gant – le manchon ( 1883 , translated in the same year as The Sunshade , Muff , and Glove ) , was also illustrated in rococo style by Paul Avril ; in one of its lines Uzanne emphasized a female clothing accessory : " The muff ! " , he said , " Its name alone has something adorable , downy , and voluptuous about it . " Later he published Les ornements de la femme ( 1892 ) , that reproduced in one volume the combined texts of L 'Éventail and L 'ombrelle – le gant – le manchon . His 1898 work Monument esthématique du XIXe siècle : Les Modes de Paris , translated as Fashions in Paris , was according to the review in the New York Times " ... the most complete and exhaustive work on the subject of French fashions that has yet appeared " . However , in this book he wanted to re @-@ establish the intimate and feminine culture of the rococo — but during his life he became influenced by modernism — and also he criticized the " sartorial severity " of the femme nouvelle .
An example of the historical novel is La Française du siècle ( 1886 , published in English as The Frenchwoman of the Century in 1887 ) , where Uzanne suggests that the effect of the Revolution on the woman of the period was " lamentable and disastrous " : " All French spirit , grace , and finesse seemed to have been submerged in the bloody , deliriums of the crowd . " In a couple of chapters of the book he described the France of the late Eighteenth Century , during the French Revolution ; some of its pages exhibited the " frivolity of women " during those years . For example , in a chapter on one of the stages of the French Revolution — known as the Directory — he included descriptions of customs such as the bals des victimes : to these dancing assemblies , held at the Hôtel Richelieu , only admitted " aristocrats who could boast a relative guillotined during the Terror " ; he wrote that women cut their hair , as if they would be guillotined — some even carried a red ribbon around their neck . Uzanne disclosed that the five Directors who had established themselves at the Luxembourg formed a kind of Court @-@ society , and gave frequent entertainments : the queens of this society were de Staël , Hamelin , Bonaparte and Tallien .
Some moralists have pretended that the costumes of women have almost always undergone the same variations as their virtue . This is possible , and the study might be made in an amusing parallel ; but carry , if you will , before the tribunal of fashion the cause of the merveilleiises of the Directory , the sincere friends of art will still recognise that amongst these pagan women pleasure obtained a brilliant victory over decency , and that their extreme grace made their absence of dignity forgotten .
Although he focuses on the French Revolution , the story ends in the 1880s , shortly after the Second French Empire , closely following the evolution of society and women ( see also Historiography of the French Revolution ) . Later , he republished what was essentially is the same book but with a different title , in both French and English : La Femme et la mode . Métamorphoses de la parisienne de 1792 à 1892 or Woman and Fashion : Metamorphoses of the Parisienne 1792 – 1892 in the English version ( 1892 ) , and Les Modes de Paris . Variations du goût et de l 'esthétique de la femme , 1797 – 1897 ( 1897 ) . According to the Westminster Review , the English edition was practically a facsimile of the French , and the translator literally wrote the sentences to the point of unintelligibility .
Seductive spirit , all in lace and fripperies , M. Uzanne has touched the Belles Lettres , darling the History , irritated the Psychology and flirted with the Criticism . He has made more intimate the erudition , to literature and powdered makeup the most gallant of the world . He has told us l 'Éventail , l 'Ombrelle , the most charming artifices of feminine beauty , the pleasant platitudes I appreciate all the charm , though they may be an insufficient approach to strict style studies .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Uzanne never married , and in later life he wrote in praise of celibacy ; however , according to Remy de Gourmont , in writing about women Uzanne would not have been one of those authors who " exalted ambrosia without having tasted it " . Uzanne 's feelings toward women , as well as those of Jules Barbey d 'Aurevilly , were ambivalent in nature , a mixture of attraction and indifference . He also explored the concept of woman artists , subscribing to the view that women lack creative ability , a quality he associated solely with men : " The curious and paradoxical physiologist [ Cesare Lombroso ? ] has argued that the woman genius does not exist , and when such genius manifests itself it is a hoax of nature ; in this sense , she is male . " Based on that , Uzanne said that women artists perpetrated mediocre studies and exhibitions of painting and sculpture , and used this argument to support the idea that gender difference is the foundation of creativity .
Silverman mentions that he became in an " archetypal figure of the Belle Époque " , a " handsome monsieur with a beard " ( joli monsieur avec une barbe ) admired by Félicien Rops , and an " elegant storyteller " ( l 'élégant conteur ) according to Anatole France . Silverman notes a contrast between the snobbish , dandy and reactionary side of Uzanne with a penchant for forgotten authors of the 17th and 18th centuries , and he , in turn , was an innovative artist and bibliophile , the antithesis of the antique collectors of the " old guard " , formed by bibliophiles — mostly aristocrats — who organised the Société des Bibliophiles François . Uzanne spent his last years in his apartment in Saint @-@ Cloud , where he died on 21 October 1931 . His remains were cremated at the crematorium and cemetery Père Lachaise .
Monsieur , you have the feeling of women [ le sentiment de la femme ] . You have what no one else has in our cold era : a loving imagination .
= = Selected bibliography of works by Uzanne = =
1875 – 1878 : Poètes de ruelles au XVIIe siècle , 4 volumes edited by Uzanne , printed by Damase Jouast : followed by Les Petits Conteurs du XVIIIe siècle , 12 volumes edited by Uzanne , and Documents sur les Mœurs du XVIIIe siècle , 4 volumes edited by Uzanne
1878 : Les Caprices d 'un bibliophile , published by Édouard Rouveyre
1879 : Le bric @-@ à @-@ brac de l 'amour , illustrated by Adolphe Lalauze , with a foreword by Barbey d 'Aurevilly , published by Édouard Rouveyre
1880 : Le Calendrier de Vénus
1881 : Les Surprises du cœur , illustrated by Paul Avril , published by Édouard Rouveyre
1882 : L 'éventail : illustrated by Paul Avril , published by Quantin ; published in English as The Fan by John C. Nimmo in 1884
1883 : L 'Ombrelle – Le Gant – Le Manchon , illustrated by Paul Avril , published by Quantin ; published in English as The sunshade , muff , and glove by John C. Nimmo in London in 1883
1885 : Son Altesse la Femme ( literally Her Highness Woman ) , published in Paris ; no English edition
1886 : La Française du siècle : modes , mœurs , usages , illustrated by Albert Lynch , published by Quantin , republished in 1893 : published in English as The Frenchwoman of the Century , John C. Nimmo , London ; also published by Routledge in 1887
1886 : Nos amis les livres . Causeries sur la littérature curieuse et la librairie , published by Quantin
1887 : La Reliure moderne artistique et fantaisiste
1888 : Les Zigzags d 'un curieux . Causeries sur l 'art des livres et la littérature d 'art , published by Quantin
1888 : Le Miroir du Monde : notes et sensations de la vie pittoresque , illustrated by Paul Avril , published by Quantin ; published as The Mirror of the World by John C. Nimmo in 1889
1890 : Le Paroissien du Célibataire
1892 : la Femme et la mode
1892 : Les Ornements de la femme : combined edition of L 'éventail and L 'ombrelle – le gant – le manchon , published in Paris by Quantin
1893 : Vingt Jours dans le Nouveau Monde , published by May et Motteroz
1893 : Bouquinistes et bouquineurs : physiologie des quais de Paris , du Pont @-@ Royal au Pont Sully , published by may et Motteroz ; translated as The Bookhunter in Paris , Elliot Stock , 1895
1894 : La Femme à Paris – nos contemporaines , illustrated by Pierre Vidal , cover art by Léon Rudnicki , published by Quantin ; published in English in 1894 by Heinemann
1895 : Contes pour les bibliophiles , co @-@ authored with Albert Robida , typography by George Auriol ; translated as Tales for bibliophiles , Chicago , The Caxton Club , 1929
1896 : Badauderies parisiennes . Les rassemblements . Physiologies de la rue , illustrated by Félix Vallotton , preface by Uzanne , published by Uzanne
1896 : Dictionnaire bibliosophique , typologique , iconophilesque , bibliopégique et bibliotechnique a l 'usage des bibliognostes , des bibliomanes et des bibliophlistins , published by Uzanne
1896 : Contes de la Vingtième Année . Anthology of Bric à Brac de l 'Amour , Calendrier de Vénus , and Surprises du Cæur , published by Floury .
1897 : La Nouvelle Bibliopolis : voyage d 'un novateur au pays des néo @-@ icono @-@ bibliomanes , illustrated by Félicien Rops , published by Floury
1898 : L 'Art dans la décoration extérieure des livres en France et à l 'etranger . Les couvertures illustrées , les cartonnages d 'éditeurs , la reliure d 'art , binding by Louis Guingot
1898 : Monument esthématique du XIXe siècle : Les Modes de Paris , variations du goût et de l 'esthétique de la femme , 1797 – 1897 , illustrated by François Courboin , published by L.-H. May ; translated into English as Fashion in Paris by Lady Mary Lloyd , published by Heinemann , London in 1898 ; republished in 1901 in a cheaper edition
1900 : L 'Art et les artifices de beauté ( 5th edition in 1902 )
1904 : The French Bookbinders of the eighteenth century , Chicago , Caxton Club , translated by Mabel McIlvaine .
1908 : Drawings by Watteau , London , George Newnes
1910 : Études de sociologie féminine : Parisiennes de ce temps et leurs divers milieux , états et conditions , published by Mercure de France ; published in English in 1912 as The Modern Parisienne by Heinemann , London and by G. P. Putnam 's Sons , New York ; published in German as Die Pariserin . Studien zur Geschichte der Frau der Gesellschaft der Französischen Galanterie und der Zeitgenössischen Sitten in 1929 by Paul Aretz , Dresden .
1911 : Sottisier des mœurs , published by Émile @-@ Paul
1912 : La Locomotion à travers le temps , les mœurs et l 'espace
1914 : Instantanés d 'Angleterre , published by Payot
Theatre and nightlife of France were also covered in his criticisms : shortly before the First World War , he wrote that " the public is accustomed to the irregular life of an actress ... and each spectator gives himself the pleasure of imagining a possible liaison with one of these queens of the footlights . " Uzanne 's literary output in the early twentieth century declined to minor journal articles and inexpensive editions in cheap @-@ format books ; for example , his 1902 book L 'art et les artifices de la beauté only contained illustrations in black and white . Uzanne also contributed notes , forewords or commentary to a number of other books , as an appendix in The two young brides ( 1902 , English translation of Mémoires de deux jeunes mariées ) , whose theme was portraits :
[ When Balzac died ] Never was there a face more noble , more superbly youthful , more mighty in its repose , than this , the image of which is Eugene Giraud 's legacy to us .
= = = Further literature = = =
|
= Rupert Downes =
Major General Rupert Major Downes CMG , KStJ , VD , FRACS ( 10 February 1885 – 5 March 1945 ) was an Australian soldier , general , surgeon and historian in the first half of the 20th century . Downes attended the University of Melbourne , graduating with his medical degrees in 1907 . He returned to the university to pursue a Doctor of Medicine degree , which was awarded in 1911 .
The son of British Army officer Major Francis Downes , Downes joined the Army as a trumpeter while he was still at school . He was commissioned as a captain in the Australian Army Medical Corps in 1908 , and joined the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) in 1914 as its youngest lieutenant colonel . He served in the Gallipoli campaign , and was appointed Assistant Director of Medical Services ( ADMS ) of the newly formed ANZAC Mounted Division in 1916 , which he combined with the post of ADMS AIF Egypt . In 1917 , he became Deputy Director of Medical Services ( DDMS ) of the Desert Mounted Corps . After the war , he wrote articles on medical aspects of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , and the section on the campaign for the official history .
Returning to Australia , Downes became an honorary consulting surgeon at the Royal Children 's Hospital , Melbourne and Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital , and honorary surgeon at Prince Henry 's Hospital . He became a foundation fellow of the College of Surgeons of Australasia in 1927 , and president of the Victorian branch of the British Medical Association in 1935 . He lectured on medical ethics at the University of Melbourne , writing the course textbook . He was also Victorian State Commissioner of the St. John Ambulance Brigade , which he led for 25 years , and was president of the St John Ambulance Association for eight years .
In 1934 Downes became Director General of Medical Services , the Australian Army 's most senior medical officer , with the rank of major general . He oversaw the construction of major military hospitals in the capital cities . In 1944 he accepted a commission to edit the medical series volumes of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 but was never able to do so as he was killed in a plane crash in 1945 .
= = Education and early life = =
Rupert Major Downes was born on 10 February 1885 in Mitcham , South Australia . He was the youngest of fifteen children of Colonel Major Francis Downes — a British Army officer — and his wife Helen Maria , formerly Chamberlin , only five of whom survived to adulthood . After service in the Crimean War , Colonel Francis Downes served as commandant of the Colonial forces of South Australia and Victoria and retired with the rank of major general in the Australian Army in 1902 .
Rupert was educated at Haileybury , Melbourne as a boarding student . In March 1901 , at the age of 16 , he joined the Victorian Horse Artillery ( St Kilda Battery ) , a part @-@ time volunteer militia unit , as a trumpeter . In May 1901 he served in this capacity at the opening of the inaugural Parliament of Australia by The Duke of Cornwall and York at the Royal Exhibition Building . In 1903 , Downes became a medical student at the University of Melbourne . A good result in his first year examinations earned him a residential scholarship to Ormond College , and he graduated with the double degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery ( MBBS ) in 1907 .
Soon after graduation , Downes enlisted in the Militia . He was commissioned as a captain in the Australian Army Medical Corps on 1 July 1908 and was promoted to major on 26 March 1913 . He served his residency at Melbourne Hospital and became a general practitioner in Malvern , Victoria , but soon returned to the university to pursue a doctorate . His Doctor of Medicine ( MD ) thesis , entitled " The anatomical relations of the Thymus , especially considered in regard to thymic death with an account of cases of abnormality " , was accepted in 1911 . He also did the coursework for a Master of Surgery ( MS ) , and this degree was conferred in 1912 .
Downes married Doris Mary Robb on 20 November 1913 at St John 's Church , Toorak , Victoria . They had three children : Rosemary Major , born in 1914 ; Valerie Major , born in March 1918 ; and John Rupert Major , born in 1922 .
= = First World War = =
Downes joined the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 2 October 1914 , assuming command of the 2nd Light Horse Field Ambulance with the rank of lieutenant colonel — making him the youngest officer of that rank in the AIF at the time . Soon after his taking command , the unit was renamed the 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance . After training at the Broadmeadows Army Camp near Melbourne , the unit embarked for Egypt on the transport Chilka on 2 February 1915 .
The 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance departed Alexandria for Gallipoli on 17 May 1915 . It moved to Lemnos in June , where it operated a hospital , but returned to ANZAC Cove for the August offensive . Downes missed this operation , as he remained on Lemnos supervising the hospital until he returned to Anzac on 11 August . He remained with his unit until 13 November , when he departed for Lemnos and then Egypt .
After the evacuation of Gallipoli , Downes was appointed Assistant Director of Medical Services ( ADMS ) of the newly formed ANZAC Mounted Division on 15 March 1916 . He was given the temporary rank of colonel , before substantive promotion on 20 February 1917 . Downes combined this post with that of ADMS AIF Egypt from 6 September 1916 . Downes therefore had to travel back and forth to Cairo . In November 1916 , a Deputy ADMS was appointed to assist him .
Medically speaking , the health of the Anzac Mounted Division was remarkably good , but the Sinai Peninsula still had its challenges — especially for medical officers unfamiliar with conditions in the Middle East . The Battle of Romani revealed the importance of transportation in an area with few roads . A poorly organised casualty evacuation effort caused a great deal of preventable hardship and suffering for the wounded , and resulted in a number of avoidable deaths . An inquiry into the matter was held after the battle , at which Downes was called to testify . The Commander in Chief if the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , General Sir Archibald Murray , declined to assign blame to any individual , but implemented the inquiry 's recommendations for improving the casualty evacuation process .
There was also the heat , and the problem of supplying adequate quantities of potable water . Diseases included cholera , typhus and bilharzia . To combat these , Downes obtained the services of the Lieutenant Colonel Charles James Martin , and created the Anzac Field Laboratory to investigate these diseases . As a result of aggressively tackling the problem , Downes reduced rates of disease among Australian and New Zealand troops well below those of British troops serving alongside them . Martin advanced the notion that heat exhaustion and heat stroke were not the result of defective evaporation , as had previously been believed , but simply a matter of failing to drink enough water . He in turn converted Downes to the belief that " provided water is available in adequate amount the heat mechanism of the body can defy all ordinary climatic ranges of temperature even under conditions of hard work . " With so many people and horses , sanitation was a challenge , and discipline in this area was initially slack , as it had been with disastrous results at Gallipoli . Downes took measures to improve the situation . Although not normally one to engage in disputes , Downes repeatedly clashed with the British medical officers of the EEF , especially the DMS EEF , Colonel Alfred Keble , whose attitudes Downes regarded as endangering his troops .
Doris travelled to Egypt to visit her husband in March 1917 . By June , Rupert was becoming increasingly immersed in preparations for the Third Battle of Gaza and Doris , who had become pregnant during her visit , decided to return home . On her return journey to Australia in June 1917 , her ship , the P & O liner Mongolia struck a mine and was sunk in the Indian Ocean with the loss of 23 lives . Doris spent 11 hours in a crowded lifeboat , before being rescued by a passing steamer , which took her to Bombay . From there she eventually made her way back to Australia via Singapore and Batavia . In 1918 Doris was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for her volunteer work among soldiers ' families as secretary of the Friendly Union of Soldiers ' Wives and Mothers .
On 10 August 1917 , Downes became Deputy Director of Medical Services ( DDMS ) of the Desert Mounted Corps , while still retaining the post of ADMS AIF Egypt . He was therefore answerable to three superiors — to Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel , the commander of the Desert Mounted Corps and AIF Egypt ; to Major General Neville Howse , the DMS AIF in London ; and to the new British DMS EEF , Major General William Travers Swan . As the EEF advanced into Palestine , the major medical problem remained transportation . During the operations in the Es Salt area , Downes experimented with the delivery of drugs and medical supplies by air . In the Jordan valley in 1918 , however , Downes was confronted with an epidemic of malaria and vigorous preventative and prophylactic efforts were required in order to bring it under control .
In October 1918 , with victory near , Downes was confronted by his most serious medical crisis . Damascus contained over 3 @,@ 000 sick and wounded Turkish soldiers , many of them in appalling condition . Downes appointed the DADMS of the Australian Mounted Division , Major W. Evans , as Principal Medical Officer of Damascus , and gave him orders to organise the medical arrangements , bury the dead and provide care for the living . The task was made more difficult by the poor communications and transport shortages , which hampered the delivery of supplies and evacuation of the hospitals ; by shortages of medical units ; and by the actions of Lieutenant Colonel T. E. Lawrence , who was more concerned with establishing the political authority of Hussein bin Ali , Sharif of Mecca over Damascus . At this point the Desert Mounted Corps itself began to experience epidemic diseases , particularly of bronchopneumonia , cholera and malaria , putting the medical services under enormous pressure . Through extraordinary measures , including the diversion of lighthorsemen and motor vehicles to medical units , Downes managed to evacuate the sick to Beirut , and the crisis abated .
For his service in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , Downes was mentioned in despatches four times , and was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1918 . His citation read :
In addition to his duties as ADMS Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division , Colonel Downes has carried out those of A.D.M.S. , Australian Imperial Force in Egypt for many months . He has shown considerable administrative ability and has placed Australian A.M.C. matters on a much better footing than they were when he took over the appointment .
= = Interwar years = =
Returning to Australia , Downes was discharged from the AIF , but remained in the Army as a reservist . He became an honorary consulting surgeon at the Royal Children 's Hospital , Melbourne and Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital , and honorary surgeon at Prince Henry 's Hospital . He was a founding fellow of the College of Surgeons of Australasia in 1927 , and became president of the Victorian branch of the British Medical Association in 1935 . He established a reputation as one of Melbourne 's leading paediatric surgeons , but found himself in disagreement with certain medical practices then in vogue . In a 1922 paper published in the Medical Journal of Australia , he examined 100 cases of tonsillectomy in children , and concluded that the majority of them were unnecessary . It would be another four decades before the medical profession in Australia accepted this . He lectured on medical ethics at the University of Melbourne from the late 1930s until his death in 1945 , and wrote a course textbook on the subject , entitled Medical Ethics , which was published in 1942 .
In addition to his medical writings , Downes wrote a book @-@ length section on the Sinai and Palestine campaign for Volume I of the Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services in the War of 1914 – 1918 in the late 1920s under the direction of Medical Series editor Graham Butler . The two men had discussed the prospect during a visit Butler made to Egypt in 1918 to inspect the medical records of the AIF , and again in France in 1919 . Downes published an article in the Journal of the British Army Medical Corps entitled " The Tactical Employment of the Medical Services in a Cavalry Corps " in 1926 , which was expanded into one of the chapters of the Official History . Downes ' manuscript proved too long for the proposed book , and was extensively edited by Butler before it was published in 1930 . Downes was instrumental in supporting Butler 's Medical Series and helped obtain the funding necessary to complete the project .
Downes was chairman of the Masseurs ' Registration Board , a councillor of the Victorian division of the Australian Red Cross , and chairman of the Red Cross National Council . He was Victorian State Commissioner of the St. John Ambulance Brigade for 25 years . He was also president of the St John Ambulance Association for eight years , and chairman of the Victorian Civil Ambulance Service from 1937 to 1938 . In 1930 , he was appointed a Commander of the Venerable Order of Saint John , and later became a Knight of Grace of the order in 1937 . At the same time , Doris became an Officer of the Order of Saint John , in recognition for her fund raising efforts for the Victorian branch . She also later served as a member of its council from 1942 to 1953 . Downes was instrumental in persuading the various state branches to come together as a national organisation , arguing that without a national body , the organisation would be eclipsed by the Red Cross .
In 1930 , Downes ' son John , then in his first year as a boarder at Geelong Grammar School , fell seriously ill with meningitis . Despite the best efforts of two eminent medical practitioners , Dr Keith Fairley and Dr Reginald Webster , John succumbed to toxaemia and died in 1933 , at the age of 10 . The failure of modern medicine to save his son affected Downes deeply , and led him to abandon his medical career in favour of a military one .
Downes remained in the Army throughout the inter @-@ war period . He became a colonel in the Australian Army Medical Corps on 8 January 1920 . He was DDMS of the 3rd Military District ( Victoria ) from 1 July 1921 to 26 June 1933 , and Officer in Charge of Voluntary Aid Detachments from 1 July 1921 to 15 March 1940 . He also served as head of the medical services of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Although the RAAF had become a separate service in 1921 , the Minister for Defence decided in 1927 that the Army 's Director General of Medical Services should be responsible for the administration of the RAAF 's medical services . In this capacity , Downes was answerable to the Air Board . In addition , he was honorary surgeon to the Governor General of Australia from 1 July 1927 to 30 June 1931 .
On 20 August 1934 Downes became Director General of Medical Services ( DGMS ) , a full @-@ time post and the Army 's most senior medical officer . His priority was a recruiting campaign to increase the number of medical professionals in the Army . The Munich Crisis caused people to believe that another war was imminent , and an Army @-@ wide recruiting campaign led by Major General Sir Thomas Blamey doubled the size of the Army from 35 @,@ 000 in 1938 to 70 @,@ 000 in 1939 . Downes ' efforts at recruiting were far more modest . In 1934 , there were 299 part @-@ time officers in the AAMC ; by 1939 there were 394 , and increase of only 32 per cent . This included 320 medical practitioners , 37 dentists and 13 pharmacists . Downes was acutely aware that a large Army would require mobilisation of the country 's doctors , and pushed for all doctors to be prepared for either military service or direction by civil authorities . He presided over a major effort to stockpile drugs and medical equipment required for a mobilisation . With the help of the Department of Health and the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories , most of this was delivered by July 1939 .
In 1939 , Downes began a tour of military and other medical centres in India , the Middle East , the United Kingdom , France , the United States and Canada . While in London , he arranged for Doris and Valerie to be formally presented to the King and Queen at Buckingham Palace by Ethel Bruce , the wife of Stanley Bruce , the Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom . Downes foresaw a major war , fought in the islands to the north of Australia . While in London , he took steps to obtain the services as consultants of two eminent Australian physicians , the surgeon Sir Thomas Dunhill and Neil Hamilton Fairley , an expert on tropical diseases . The outbreak of the Second World War caused Downes to curtail the North American leg of his tour , and return to Australia in October 1939 .
= = Second World War = =
Downes , in his role as DGMS , pressed for the construction of major military hospitals in the capital cities . He argued that , after the war , they should be handed over to the Repatriation Commission for the care of sick and disabled ex @-@ service personnel . Despite strong opposition on the grounds of cost , Downes won his case in October 1940 . Time soon vindicated his judgement ; and today the major military hospitals in the state capital cities , the Concord Repatriation General Hospital in Sydney , the Austin Hospital in Melbourne and Greenslopes Private Hospital in Brisbane remain his greatest legacy .
In late 1940 , medical units in the Middle East were experienced " precarious and at times acute " shortages of medicals stores . Units were sent to the Middle East as fully equipped as was possible , with the expectation that the British Army would make up the difference , but British policy was that all possible sources had to be exploited before any demands could be made on the United Kingdom 's sources . General Sir Thomas Blamey , the Commander in Chief of the AIF , recognised this as something that had to be negotiated between the two governments , but medical officers in the Middle East blamed the Medical Services in Australia — and therefore Downes — for the situation . The Minister of the Army , Percy Spender decided to pay a visit to the Middle East to see the situation for himself but before he did so , he resolved that Downes should become Director of Medical Services , AIF ( Middle East ) . On arrival in the Middle East with the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee , Spender found that Blamey had already appointed Major General Samuel Burston to that post . This came as a surprise to them as they had not realised that Blamey had the authority to make such an appointment ; but on seeing the situation for himself , Spender confirmed Burston 's appointment .
On returning to Australia , Spender appointed Major General F. A. Maguire as DGMS and Downes was appointed to the newly created post of Inspector General of Medical Services ( IGMS ) . As IGMS , Downes toured extensively — he visited all the Australian states and overseas locations where Australian troops had been sent , including Papua and New Guinea , Malaya , the Middle East and North Africa , as well as the Netherlands East Indies ( Indonesia ) , India and East Africa . When Blamey reorganised the Army on his return to Australia in 1942 , he appointed Burston as Director General of Medical Services . Downes became DMS of the Second Army on 6 April 1942 . He joined the Second AIF as a major general on 27 June 1942 , receiving the AIF serial number VX57673 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Downes held this post until 22 August 1944 . Due to the run @-@ down of the Army , the Second Army , always mainly a paper organisation , increasingly had less and less to do . Now nearly sixty , he then accepted an invitation to write the medical history series of the official history of Australia in the war . As part of this , in March 1945 , he decided to accompany Major General George Alan Vasey to New Guinea , where Vasey 's 6th Division had encountered an atabrine @-@ resistant strain of malaria in the Aitape @-@ Wewak campaign . On 5 March 1945 , the RAAF Lockheed Hudson aircraft they were travelling in crashed into the sea about 400 yards ( 370 m ) from Machans Beach , just north of the mouth of the Barron River near Cairns . Downes and Vasey were killed along with all nine other Australian service personnel on board . Their bodies were recovered and buried in Cairns War Cemetery with full military honours . Downes was survived by Doris , Valerie and Rosemary . A memorial service was held at St Paul 's Cathedral , Melbourne on 9 March 1945 . He became the third most senior Australian officer to die in the Second World War , after General Sir Brudenell White , who died in the Canberra air disaster in 1940 , and Lieutenant General Henry Wynter , who died on 7 February 1945 .
Downes ' papers are in the Australian War Memorial . The Royal Australasian College of Surgeons established the triennial Rupert Downes Memorial Lecture in his honour . The subject of the Lecture is " related to some aspect or aspects of military surgery , medical equipment ( military and civil ) , the surgery of children , neurosurgery , general surgery , medical ethics or medical history ; these being subjects in which Downes was particularly interested " .
= = Rupert Downes Memorial Lectures = =
1950 Major General Samuel Burston Some Medical Aspects of Atomic Warfare
1954 A.S. Walker The Following Wind of History
1957 F.K. Norris Be Strong and of Good Courage
1961 Sir Albert Coates The Doctor in the Services
1965 D. Waterson Œsophageal Replacement in Pædiatric Surgery
1970 J.H. Louw The Scientific Method in Surgery
1972 H.E. Beardmore Pædiatric Surgery – Yesterday , Today , and Tomorrow , and Tomorrow , and Tomorrow
1976 P.P. Rickham Nephroblastoma – a New Look at an Old Problem
1978 C.M. Gurner Military Medical Preparedness
1980 D.G. Hamilton One Hundred Years of Pædiatric Surgery in Sydney
1983 G.B. Ong The Trifacetted Nature of Surgery in Hong Kong
1988 B.A. Smithurst Distinguished Australian Military Surgeons
1990 Patricia K. Donahoe The Development of Tumour Inhibitors
1994 General Sir Phillip Bennett Medical Aspects of Australia ’ s Defence
1996 Professor Averil Mansfield Arterio @-@ Venous Malformations and their Treatment
1998 D. Trunkey I am Giddy , Expectation Whirls me Round
2000 A. Wyn Beasley Of Scurvy and Shipwreck – the Dutch Discovery of Australasia
2002 Colonel D. Beard The Music of Warfare
2005 Robert Pearce Trust me , Claudius
2008 Professor Arthur Li Ethics and standards
2011 Major General John Pearn Pro patria et spe gentis
Source : " Rupert Downes Memorial Lecture and Medal " . Royal Australasian College of Surgeons . Retrieved 6 January 2014 .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.