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= Chris Gragg =
Chris Gragg ( born June 30 , 1990 ) is an American football tight end who plays for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League ( NFL ) . Selected by the Bills in the seventh round of the 2013 NFL Draft from the University of Arkansas , Gragg accumulated 5 receptions for 53 yards in his first NFL season . His first professional touchdown came against the Pittsburgh Steelers on November 10 , 2013 .
After he graduated from Warren High School in Arkansas , where he played football as a wide receiver , Gragg committed to the University of Arkansas along with three other Warren players . Although he spent his freshman season as a receiver on the Arkansas Razorbacks football squad , the coaching staff converted Gragg into a tight end in 2010 . In his sophomore and junior seasons , the Razorbacks made appearances in Bowl Championship Series games and defeated the Kansas State Wildcats in the 2012 Cotton Bowl Classic , which culminated the 2011 season . A knee injury caused Gragg to miss eight games in his senior season as the Arkansas team finished with a losing record . Invited to participate in the NFL Scouting Combine , an evaluative competition among prospective NFL players , Gragg ran the fastest 40 @-@ yard dash time and had the second @-@ highest vertical jump among tight ends in attendance ; in the draft , the Bills chose Gragg with the 222nd overall selection , a pick Buffalo acquired from a trade with the St. Louis Rams . One of five tight ends in spring training , he made Buffalo 's regular @-@ season roster and played in nine regular @-@ season games during the 2013 NFL season .
= = Early life = =
Chris Gragg was born on June 30 , 1990 , in Pine Bluff , Arkansas , to Kelvin and Tenita Gragg , both of whom worked as educators . Kelvin coached the Warren High School football team , and Chris served as the team 's water boy until he was in junior high school . For the Warren squad , Gragg played football as a wide receiver alongside future NFL players Jarius Wright and Greg Childs . During his senior year , Gragg accumulated 420 receiving yards and caught 8 touchdowns . Recruiting website Rivals.com evaluated him as a 2 @-@ star prospect on a 1 – 5 star scale and ranked Gragg as the 15th best player in Arkansas at his position , while Scout.com ranked him as the 148th best receiver in the nation . In July 2007 , Gragg committed to the University of Arkansas , as did three other players from Warren .
= = Collegiate career = =
In his freshman season , Gragg played in all 12 of the Arkansas Razorbacks ' games as the team finished with a 5 – 7 win – loss record . During the second game of the season , against the Louisiana – Monroe Warhawks , Gragg caught a 25 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Casey Dick on fourth down and one to continue a drive that ended with the game @-@ winning touchdown . The catch was Gragg 's only reception in 2008 . After he dislocated his ankle in a preseason practice , he was given a medical redshirt and did not play for the 2009 season .
In 2010 , Gragg was converted into a tight end , which made three slots at the position on the Razorbacks ' depth chart . Garrick McGee , the offensive coordinator for the team , observed that " he 's a really big receiver in a tight end body " , and expected opponents to have " matchup problem [ s ] " against Gragg . When Arkansas faced the Georgia Bulldogs on September 18 , Gragg caught a touchdown from a 57 @-@ yard pass for his first reception of the year . The 2010 Arkansas Razorbacks ended the year with a 10 – 3 record , and were invited to play in the Sugar Bowl against the Ohio State Buckeyes , a game that Arkansas lost 31 – 26 after Ohio State defensive end Solomon Thomas intercepted a pass from quarterback Ryan Mallett in the final minute of the game . Gragg made one catch in the contest for 16 yards ; he finished the year with 8 receptions for 171 yards and two touchdowns .
Prior to the 2011 season , a writer for Arkansas Business predicted that Gragg " will figure prominently into the offense if he improves his blocking " : Gragg replaced D. J. Williams , the first @-@ string tight end who graduated in 2010 . In the Razorbacks ' eleventh game of the season , Gragg caught 8 passes for 119 yards , both single @-@ game career highs , as the team defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs and moved to a 10 – 1 record . The Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) system subsequently ranked Arkansas as the third @-@ best team in the nation , behind the Louisiana State University Tigers and the Alabama Crimson Tide , with the former scheduled as the Razorbacks ' next opponent . Brett Martel of Associated Press stated that the November 25 matchup , a part of the Arkansas – LSU football rivalry , " could be even more important than the so @-@ called ' Game of the Century ' " between the Tigers and the Crimson Tide earlier in the year , as both teams in the rivalry competed for a position in the BCS National Championship Game . Though Arkansas opened with a 14 – 0 lead , the Tigers regained the lead by halftime and won , 41 – 17 . Out of contention for the National Championship Game , the team finished the year ranked sixth in the BCS standings and were invited to play in the 2012 Cotton Bowl Classic , where they defeated the Kansas State Wildcats 29 – 16 : with the victory , Arkansas tied a team record for most wins in a season . Over the season , Gragg caught 41 receptions , third most on the team , for 518 yards and two touchdowns .
In July 2012 , Gragg was listed as a preseason nominee for the John Mackey Award , a recognition presented annually by the Nassau County Sports Commission to the best tight end in college football . Though voted to the second @-@ team of the Coaches Preseason All @-@ Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) squad , an honorific roster composed of the second @-@ best players in the SEC , ESPN writers Edward Aschoff and Chris Low ranked Gragg as the best tight end in the conference . In Arkansas ' season opener against the Jacksonville State Gamecocks , Gragg accumulated 110 yards and two touchdowns over 7 catches , a performance for which he earned the John Mackey Tight End of the Week award . On September 9 , Gragg suffered a bone bruise in his knee against the Rutgers Scarlet Knights which caused him to miss the next three games ; upon return , Gragg reaggravated the injury and missed the rest of the season 's matches . He finished his final season at Arkansas with 22 receptions for 289 yards and three touchdowns , while the team ended with a 4 – 8 record ; academically , he graduated with a degree in sports management . After his senior year , Gragg participated in the NFL Scouting Combine , where he ran the fastest 40 @-@ yard dash time , the third @-@ fastest 3 cone drill , had the third @-@ longest broad jump , and the second @-@ highest vertical jump of all tight ends in attendance . In an overview of his Combine performance , a writer for the NFL praised his speed and " receiver @-@ like hands " , but criticized him for a lack of agility and occasional dropped passes . The writer compared Gragg to tight end Daniel Fells .
= = Professional career = =
The Buffalo Bills selected Gragg with the 222nd overall selection in the 2013 NFL Draft , a slot they obtained from a trade with the St. Louis Rams . When he was drafted , Gragg became the second tight end Buffalo had ever selected out of Arkansas , and the first Arkansas player to be selected by the Bills since 1973 . Gragg was the first rookie out of the 2013 Bills ' draft class to sign a contract . In preseason practice , Gragg was one of five tight ends on the Buffalo team as he tried to earn one of the 53 positions available on the active roster . While the team trained at St. John Fisher College , Buffalo head coach Doug Marrone praised Gragg for his knowledge of the Bills ' playbook and his vertical running speed . In four preseason games , he totaled 5 receptions for 38 yards . When the Bills cut their roster to 53 players , Gragg made the team ; on an " A – F " scale , ESPN columnist Mike Rodak gave the Bills a " C " grade in tight end depth and stated that Gragg " would be in the bottom 10 percent of NFL starters at [ the position ] " . Gragg made his regular season NFL debut on October 13 against the Cincinnati Bengals , and caught his first career reception and touchdown against the Pittsburgh Steelers four games later . When Buffalo faced the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on December 8 , Gragg started in a game for the first time during the regular season . By the end of 2013 , Gragg caught 5 receptions for 53 yards and a touchdown in nine career games played . Collectively , the Bills finished last in the AFC East with a 6 – 10 record .
Prior to the Bills ' 2014 training camp , Rodak gave Gragg a " 45 % " chance to make Buffalo 's 53 @-@ man roster : Rodak described him as " the most athletic tight end " with the Bills , but also wrote that " there might not be a spot for Gragg " with tight ends Tony Moeaki , Scott Chandler , and Lee Smith on the team as well . During the preseason , Gragg was hospitalized with heat cramps , but returned to practice on July 30 . The Bills faced the New York Giants in their first preseason game , a Pro Football Hall of Fame Game , and according to Jay Skurski of The Buffalo News , Gragg " [ had ] a chance to impress " with Moeaki and Chandler injured and unable to play : in the game , Gragg had 4 catches for 24 yards and a fumble . He finished the preseason with 10 receptions for 66 yards , and made the regular season roster . In the fourth quarter of the Bills ' October 5 matchup against the Detroit Lions , Gragg caught a touchdown pass that , with an added two @-@ point conversion , tied the game ; Buffalo won the contest , 17 – 14 , and moved to a 3 – 2 record . When he attempted to catch a low @-@ thrown pass in the second half of a game against the New York Jets on November 24 , Gragg injured his right knee , which caused him to miss the remainder of the Bills ' season . During 2014 , over the ten games in which he played , Gragg accumulated 7 receptions for 53 yards and a touchdown as Buffalo finished with a 9 – 7 record , second in the AFC East behind the New England Patriots .
= = Personal life = =
Chris 's brother , Will , also plays football as a tight end : Will said that Chris taught him how to catch , and that when Chris learned something new in Buffalo or at Arkansas , Chris taught it to him . Will transferred to Dumas High School when Kelvin accepted a position as the superintendent of the school district . Will , who received offers from forty @-@ five collegiate schools , committed to the University of Arkansas in September 2014 and signed with the institution in December .
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= 2002 Scottish Challenge Cup Final =
The 2002 Scottish Challenge Cup Final , also known as the Bell 's Cup Final for sponsorship reasons , was an association football match between Brechin City and Queen of the South on 20 October 2002 at Broadwood Stadium in Cumbernauld . It was the 12th final of the Scottish Challenge Cup since it was first organised in 1990 to celebrate the centenary of the Scottish Football League .
Both teams progressed through four knock @-@ out rounds to reach the final . The match was Brechin City 's first national cup final in its 96 @-@ year history whilst it was Queen of the South 's second appearance in the final of the tournament having lost in 1997 . The tournament was contested by clubs below the Scottish Premier League ; Queen of the South from the First Division and Brechin City from the Second Division .
Queen of the South dominated most of the game with John O 'Neill scoring the first goal in the 33rd minute . Two minutes into the second half , Derek Lyle scored a header to take a 2 – 0 lead . Brechin City had few chances to score and Queen of the South held on to win the tournament and a national cup competition for the first time .
= = Route to the final = =
The competition is a knock @-@ out tournament and in 2002 was contested by the 30 teams that played in the First , Second and Third Divisions of the Scottish Football League . Teams were paired at random and the winner of each match progressed to the next round and the loser was eliminated . The first round was contested by 28 of the teams and two received random byes into the second round .
= = = Brechin City = = =
Brechin City entered the first round and were drawn to play Elgin City of the Third Division at Borough Briggs . Elgin took the lead in the 31st minute with a goal from David Ross but was short @-@ lived ; Chris Templeman equalised the score to 1 – 1 ten minutes later and Marc Millar scored early in the second half to give Brechin a 2 – 1 lead . Two minutes later , Templeman scored his second goal of the game and Charlie King concluded the win with a goal in the 90th minute to make it 4 – 1 and progress to the next round . Brechin played First Division club St Johnstone in the second round at home at Glebe Park . Grant Murray scored first for St Johnstone after seven minutes to take a 1 – 0 lead . Roddy Grant equalised for Brechin against his former club on 35 minutes before Peter MacDonald scored for St Johnstone to regain a 2 – 1 lead two minutes before half time . Brechin scored two goals in the second half ; an own goal by Darren Dods and a second goal from Grant to produce a " shock " 3 – 2 win and advance to the quarter @-@ finals .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Brechin faced another home game against a First Division club , this time against Falkirk . The score was 0 – 0 for most of the game before Falkirk took the lead with only three minutes left to play with a goal from Craig McPherson . However , Brechin scored one minute before the end through Kevin Fotheringham to force extra time . The score remained equal after extra time so the winner was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out ; Brechin winning 5 – 3 . With four clubs left in the tournament , Brechin were drawn against Third Division club Queen 's Park at Hampden Park . Queen 's Park scored first through James Allan after 26 minutes but Brechin equalised before half time with a goal from Marc Millar . The rest of the game 's five goals came during a nine @-@ minute period in the second half ; Brechin took a two @-@ goal lead courtesy of Chris Jackson and Kevin Fotheringham to make the score 3 – 1 before goals from John Gemmell and Jonny Whelan for Queen 's Park and Roddy Grant for Brechin made the scoreline 4 – 3 in favour of Brechin . Both teams had chances to score again before the end but the score stayed the same ensuring Brechin qualified for the first national cup final in the club 's history .
= = = Queen of the South = = =
Queen of the South also entered the first round and were drawn to play Third Division club Peterhead away from home at Balmoor Stadium . Queen of the South dominated the majority of the game and scored two late goals in the second half from John O 'Neill and Peter Weatherson to progress to the next round as 2 – 0 winners . In the second round Queen of the South played another Third Division club , Greenock Morton , at home at Palmerston Park . The game was marred with incidents with Dean Keenan , Colin Reilly and Alex Williams all being sent off for Greenock Morton . Sean O 'Connor scored the winning goal for Queen of the South with only seven minutes left to play but shortly before the end sustained an injury from a tackle by Reilly which resulted in his sending off . Queen of the South won the game 1 – 0 and advanced to the quarter @-@ finals .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Queen of the South played Second Division club Dumbarton , also at Palmerston Park . John O 'Neill scored his second goal of the tournament to give Queen of the South the lead after 25 minutes . Dumbarton had opportunities to score an equaliser for the remainder of the game but were denied by the home team 's goalkeeper , Colin Scott . Despite Dumbarton 's efforts , Queen of the South sealed the victory with a goal from Derek Lyle in the final minute of the match to win 2 – 0 and progress to the semi @-@ finals . With four teams left in the tournament , Queen of the South travelled to Love Street to face fellow First Division club St Mirren . Paul Shields scored first for Queen of the South in the seventh minute but was cancelled out five minutes later with a goal from Brian McGinty to make it 1 – 1 before Derek Lyle put Queen of the South back in front shortly before half time . Early in the second half , both teams scored again ; Martin Cameron for St Mirren and Steve Bowey for Queen of the South to make the scoreline 3 – 2 to the away team . With ten minutes left to play , Gerhard Fellner equalised for St Mirren to make it 3 – 3 but late goals in the final two minutes from a Peter Weatherson free kick and Shields ' second goal of the game won the match 5 – 3 and sent Queen of the South into the final for the second time in its history .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue = = =
The 2002 final was hosted at Broadwood Stadium in Cumbernauld which had been Clyde 's home since it was opened in 1994 . The stadium hosted the final on three previous occasions ; twice in the past two seasons and for the first time in 1996 . The venue had a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 500 tickets were allocated to Queen of the South who had a larger fan base and average home support than Brechin City , who were allocated around 2 @,@ 500 tickets . Dumfries @-@ based Queen of the South travelled approximately 77 miles ( 123 @.@ 9 km ) to the venue whereas Brechin City travelled around 94 miles ( 151 @.@ 3 km ) .
= = = Analysis = = =
In order to reach the final , both Brechin City and Queen of the South played two matches at home and two away . Brechin scored twelve goals and conceded seven compared with Queen of the South 's ten goals scored and only three conceded . Queen of the South kept a clean sheet in the first three rounds and were favourites to win the match being the higher ranked club as a competitor in the First Division , one tier above Brechin who were in the Second Division . At the time of the final Queen of the South were in bad league form , ranking second @-@ last in the First Division with only two wins and eight points from 10 games . Brechin were in slightly better form , ranking 6th in the Second Division with four wins and 13 points from nine games before the cup final .
Brechin and Queen of the South were both aiming to win their second trophy in less than six months , having been crowned champions of the Third and Second Divisions respectively the previous season . Despite recent league success , Brechin had never reached the final of a national cup competition in its 96 @-@ year history whilst Queen of the South were making only their second appearance in a cup final since losing the 1997 final to Falkirk in the same competition .
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Queen of the South started the game as the livelier team , pushing forward early on ; however , Brechin City had the first goal scoring opportunity of the final when Graham Gibson 's long range shot was saved by Queen of the South goalkeeper Andy Goram . Peter Weatherson had a similar opportunity for Queen of the South after a pass from Derek Lyle but was also saved by Brechin 's goalkeeper , David Hay . Hay made another save 10 minutes later after another Weatherson attempt from Steve Bowey 's pass . After 28 minutes , Brechin player Chris Jackson was booked for a foul on Bowey and Queen of the South scored the first goal of the game shortly after in the 33rd minute but with controversy ; John O 'Neill rebounded the ball into the goal after Bowey 's initial shot was saved by the goalkeeper but Brechin defender Greg McCulloch claimed to have cleared the ball off the line , however , referee John Underhill awarded the goal . Weatherson almost scored again shortly before half time when he headed the ball into goalkeeper Hay 's hands after a Robbie Neilson cross .
= = = Second half = = =
From the beginning of the second half the match was dominated by Queen of the South and they extended their lead after only two minutes . Defender Andy Aitken made a long pass to Joe McAlpine who crossed the ball from the left to the unmarked Derek Lyle near the six @-@ yard box who headed the ball past the goalkeeper to score his third goal of the tournament . Brechin made the first substitution of the match three minutes after the second goal , replacing Graham Gibson with Chris Templeman . Brechin 's best chance of the game came in the 58th minute when Charlie King 's 20 @-@ yard shot forced goalkeeper Goram to make his first proper save of the match . In the 62nd minute , Brechin made their last substitution with Marc Millar replacing Paul Riley in the midfield . With three minutes left to play , Queen of the South had an opportunity to extend their lead further when Sean O 'Connor 's attempted header was hit wide from a corner kick by McAlpine .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Queen of the South goalkeeper Colin Scott , who had played in all rounds before the final , was ruled out of playing because of injury . However , manager John Connolly stated that he would not have played Scott even if he had been fully fit and opted with Andy Goram instead , saying : " I was not convinced of Colin 's fitness " , and " I told Colin there was never a chance of him playing in the Cup final " . As a result of Goram 's inclusion in the squad , he became the first player to win every domestic trophy in Scotland .
The match remains Brechin City 's only appearance in a major national cup final . However , Queen of the South have made two further appearances in the final of the tournament since the match ; losing to Ross County in 2010 and beating Partick Thistle in 2013 . Queen of the South also reached the final of Scotland 's main cup competition , the Scottish Cup in 2008 , losing to Rangers .
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= Hurricane Jimena ( 2009 ) =
Hurricane Jimena / hiˈmɛnʌ / was the second strongest hurricane of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season and tied with Hurricane Norbert as the strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall on western portion of the Baja California Peninsula . Forming from a tropical wave late on August 28 , 2009 off Mexico 's Pacific coast , the system rapidly intensified into a Category 2 hurricane the next day . Two days after developing , it strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane . After peaking close to Category 5 intensity on September 1 , it encountered cold water and began to weaken . When the hurricane made landfall on the Baja California Peninsula on September 3 , it was only a Category 2 hurricane . The next day , the cyclone entered the Gulf of California , only to dissipate after turning back east towards Baja California .
When the storm made landfall , Jimena caused $ 173 @.@ 9 million USD in damage . The system killed four people across the peninsula . In Baja California Sur , the town of Mulege was devastated with other areas in the region also receiving major damage . In Sonora , record rainfall fell , with some areas receiving more than 20 in ( 510 mm ) . Statewide damage totaled at $ 37 million USD while five people were killed and two others were listed as missing . The remnants also moved into the Southwestern United States , causing minor damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Jimena originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 15 . The tropical wave traversed the Atlantic Ocean with little or no convective development . On August 25 , the National Hurricane Center began monitoring a broad area of low pressure , while the system was located over Central America . The system moved westbound and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean later that day . Initially , there were no signs of additional development . However , shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase and an area of low pressure developed within the wave on August 27 . Around 1800 UTC on August 28 , the low had become sufficiently organized for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to designate the system as Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E. Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was situated roughly 220 miles ( 355 km ) south of Acapulco . Tracking westward in response to a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico , the depression intensified into a tropical storm on 0000 UTC August 29 . In real time , however , it was not classified until early on August 29 while located 250 mi ( 400 km ) west of Acapulco .
Tropical Storm Jimena featured only a small area of gale @-@ force winds upon being named ; however , the small size of the storm allowed for its subsequent intensification . Deep convection developed around the center of circulation and well @-@ defined convective feeder band to the north . Rapid intensification began to take place early on August 29 as extremely deep convection developed and microwave satellite imagery depicted a developing eye feature within the center of the storm . Jimena turned towards the northwest by this time , and moved over very warm sea surface temperatures , averaging 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . The hurricane was upgraded to Category 2 intensity in the late evening hours on August 30 , and was upgraded to the season 's third major hurricane – a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) or greater – on the morning of August 30 when the eye became visible on satellite imagery . Continuing to intensify , it was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane just six hours after becoming a major hurricane and 24 hours after becoming a tropical storm . Meanwhile , the eye became better defined .
Late on August 29 , the cyclone leveled off in intensity as a mid @-@ level Category 4 hurricane due to an eyewall replacement cycle , where one eye gets replaced by another . The cycle continued for another 24 hours , only to start another burst of intensification . By the evening of August 31 , Hurricane Hunters measured winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and a pressure of 931 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 49 inHg ) while the powerful cyclone began to turn to the north due to nearby Tropical Storm Kevin and a low pressure area west of Baja California . Wind shear increased as the hurricane moved over progressively cooler water . Despite weakening slightly , Jimena was anticipated by meteorologists to still remain a major hurricane as the storm moved ashore . This did not occur and Jimena steadily weakened . On September 1 , Hurricane Hunters found Jimena weaker , reporting winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . About 12 hours after the flight , the winds of Jimena dropped below major hurricane intensity despite an increase of convection .
On 1200 UTC September 2 , Jimena made landfall on Isla San Margarita , Baja California del Sur with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a pressure of 971 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 67 inHg ) . An hour later , Jimena made a second landfall ( after re @-@ entering the Pacific ) at the same intensity near Cabo San Lazaro . It then moved over land , weakening into a Category 1 later that day , only to move back offshore as a Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane made a third landfall near San Junacio with 85 mph ( 150 km / h ) winds . After its third landfall , Jimena returned to tropical storm status over land . After emerging into the Gulf of California , steering currents collapsed and increased wind shear continued to weaken Jimena . By late on September 3 , Jimena was just a minimal tropical storm . It turned to the west , weakening into a tropical depression the next day . With winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) , the system made a fourth and final landfall near Santa Rosalía , Baja California Sur . Within five hours , the depression degenerated into a remnant low . Midday on September 5 , the remnant low had dissipated , but the remnant circulation of Jimena tracked westwards into the Pacific for a few more days .
= = Preparations = =
Upon crossing Central America , the NHC noted the possibility locally heavy rainfall spreading across much of Central America and in extreme Southwestern Mexico . As the storm moved parallel to the Mexican coast , interests in the region were asked to watch the progress of the system and officials in the area opened shelters due to the risk of high winds . The Sonora state government issued a blue ( initial ) alert for 14 municipalities on the southern portion of the state the afternoon of August 31 . Later on the day , the blue alert was upgraded to a green alert , citing the risk of large rainfall amounts .
Early on August 31 , about 54 hours prior to landfall , the Government of Mexico issued a hurricane watch from Bahia Magdalena to San Evaristo in the southern Baja California peninsula . A state of emergency was declared in five districts of Baja California Sur requested via the local government . In La Paz , residents rushed to get groceries before the stores closed and residents boarded up windows . In Los Cabos , residents frantically stocked up on supplies before the tropical cyclone struck . On August 31 , civil defense authorities in Los Cabos announced that they would have to evacuate 20 @,@ 000 families from their homes . Officials urged a total of 10 @,@ 000 people to evacuate from shacks . Most people evacuated ; however , they feared that there items would be stolen if they had left . While they did struggle with evacuations , officials managed to evacuate 15 @,@ 000 people living in hurricane prone areas . However , many people such as tourists and the poor failed to evacuate , though 2 @,@ 000 foreigners did leave the Los Cobos area . On August 30 , Robbie Berg from the National Hurricane Center noted that the hurricanes remnants may help fire relief in California and also interests Baja California should monitor the progress of the system .
= = Impact = =
= = = Southwestern Mexico = = =
In Acapulco , the storm produced overcast skies , but ports in the area remained open . In addition , the states of Guerrero , Colima , and Jalisco suffered mudslides , landslides , and heavy rain from outer rainbands related to the system .
= = = Baja California Sur = = =
When the tropical cyclone passed over the Baja California Peninsula , storm chasers in Puerto San Carlos reported a minimum pressure of 973 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . Ciudad Constitucion reported peak winds of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) , with a peak gust of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , and a statewide peak of 13 @.@ 12 in ( 333 mm ) . A secondary peak rainfall occurred at Santa Rosalia . However , no reports of storm surge or storm tide were received by the National Hurricane Center .
When the storm was over , Jimena 's winds and heavy rain brought devastation across the Baja peninsula . One man was reported killed in Mulege . Most of the homes and businesses there received extensive damage and water was 24 in ( 610 mm ) deep . Damage there was considered worse than Hurricane John in 2006 . One bridge in Mulege was under 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water . The downtown area of Santa Rosalia was severely damaged with flash floods . Hurricane @-@ force winds battered the area for hours before diminishing to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) the next day . Water supplies ran low and two bridges were washed out . In a nearby canyon , floodwaters washed out many cars and livestock .
In Cabo San Lucas , Jimena produced little damage . However , the entire town of Punta Chivato were flooded and damaged , with some being destroyed . In addition , 75 % of homes were damaged in Puerto San Carlos , and power was lost in many areas including Comondú and Loreto . In the town of Puerto Lopez Mateos , half of the cannery buildings were destroyed and every wood home was destroyed , thus leaving a quarter of the population homeless . Nearby , the storm nearly destroyed two isolated villages , Punta Abreojos village and Laguna San Ignacio . Both areas got hit by Jimena at its first landfall . Although in Bahia Asuncion damages was minor , the villages of Abreojos and San Ignacio Lagoon were badly damaged . Seventy percent of the electric network form Santa Rosalia to Ciuadad Constitucion was damaged due to power outages . In both of the towns , the Mexican Red Cross branches received some damage . The roads from San José del Cabo to Tijuana was affected because any nearby creeks overflowed their banks . The airports in Los Cabos , La Paz and Loreto and ports were briefly closed , but were later re @-@ opened after the storm passed since the airports received only minimal damage .
A total of 35 @,@ 000 people were reported homeless and hit 29 transmission lines in the cites Cabo San Lucas , San José del Cabo , La Paz and Ciudad Constitución affecting 50 @,@ 000 customers . The worst was in the former , with a total of 27 @,@ 000 customers affected and 17 transmission lines . Severe damage also occurred in the agricultural sector ; 400 hectares of citrus was lost , 80 hectares of greenhouses was destroyed . Losses in the sector were estimated to be at least MXN $ 500 million ( US $ 37 @.@ 3 million ) . Damages to infrastructure amounted to MXN $ 300 million ( US $ 12 @.@ 5 million ) . Total losses related to Hurricane Jimena reached 2 @.@ 3 billion pesos ( $ 173 @.@ 9 million ) . Local water authorities reported that 14 @,@ 000 people were waterless , because eight pipelines broke . The worst damage occurred in the aqueduct in Santa Rosalia . The officials estimated that the repair would cost about $ 652 @,@ 224 . A total of 72 @,@ 000 people were affected and four people were reported dead .
= = = Sonora = = =
Jimena produced record rainfall in Sonora . By September 3 , rainfall had reached 18 in ( 460 mm ) and the state newspaper then noted the possible of a dam overflowing . A few days later , in Guaymas , rainfall from the storm had reached 21 @.@ 92 in ( 557 mm ) , thus setting a state rainfall record . The peak 24 @-@ hour rainfall record was set by Jimena as it ultimately topped out at 26 @.@ 1 in ( 660 mm ) while 43 @.@ 39 inches ( 711 ml ) of rain was reported in 36 hours .
The towns of Guaymas and Empalme became unreachable from the rest of the state because Mexico Federal Highway 15 was closed due to flooding . Some river channels overflowed due to flooding . In addition , a total of 15 people were stuck on the roof of a middle school and was later rescued by air . A total of 775 people were evacuated in Bahia Kino , Guaymas , Navojoa , and Álamos . Major highways were impassable because of bridges that had washed out . The main highway in San Carlos was washed away due to flash floods . Marina Seca was badly damaged , with boats being washed out over the highway onto to the beaches , where there was no water , telephone , or internet services for over 15 days . In all , the damages associated with Hurricane Jimena in Guaymas and San Carlos totaled over $ 37 million . More than 200 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed or damaged so severely that people could not return to them for several months , mainly in the poorest areas . School was suspended for over two months in most areas . Hundreds of local stores were destroyed ; over 2800 acres of farm land were severely damaged .
Due to the damage caused by the hurricane , a state of emergency was declared in southern Sonora . Two people died near Guaymas during a car accident ; two others were reported missing . According to a report by Mexico 's Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres , the magnitude of the event was analyzed to be a once in 2000 year occurrence .
= = = United States = = =
While the storm was weakening , a cold front lifted deep tropical moisture that triggered flash flooding and severe weather in the Mojave Desert . In San Diego County , California , a severe thunderstorm rolled through the area midday on September 5 , breaking 19 pipelines and causing $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage . Major flooding also occurred east of Barnwell on Ceader Canyon Road . South of Barnwell , hail and rainfall up to 1 in ( 25 mm ) was reported . At the Nipton trading post , water and debris flowed on the roads . Flooding occurred on Interstate 15 , forcing the local highway patrol to escort cars on to the highway while part of U.S. Highway 95 was closed for 2 hours , and 17 minutes . Near the town of Ocotillo Wells , flash flooding was reported due to heavy rainfall , causing an additional $ 20 @,@ 000 in damage . Strong winds associated with the thunderstorms downed power lines and resulted in dust storms across the Imperial Valley , some of which reduced visibility by up to 25 % .
In Valle Vista , Arizona , water , rock , and other debris covered many roads . In addition , several power lines were down at the Bullhead City Airport . Northwest of Golden Valley , severe thunderstorms produced golf ball sized hail , roughly 1 @.@ 75 in ( 44 mm ) in diameter , that broke windows . In Riviera , seven mobile homes were blown over by winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , resulting in four injuries . North of Mohave Valley , mudslides destroyed two homes and damaged twenty @-@ five others , resulting in roughly $ 600 @,@ 000 in losses . Heavy Rain near Sedona caused flooding along Highway 179 . In Quartzsite , washes overflowed their banks , flooding nearby areas . In Tanca , about 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain fell in 30 minutes , resulting in flash flooding that washed out a road and damaged a business .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after the hurricane made landfall , Mexico 's natural disaster fund provided $ 1 @.@ 45 million in aid to repair pipelines , highways , and buildings . The United Methodist Committee on Relief distributed food baskets to 720 survivors and provided 180 families with wood for rebuilding their homes . In addition , the Civil Protection Agency in Baja California , the Baja bush Pilots , and the Mexican Red Cross asked for donations of such as utensils , flashlights , lanterns , batteries , clothing , and light bedding . Following the hurricane , a riot in Santa Rosalia broke out due to lack of water . There was also a lack for shelter , as such this left many people sleeping in their cars . Within a week , the Mexican government assessed the damage form the hurricane , with 15 of them begin sent to Santa Rosalia and shortly thereafter , the Mexican Red Cross sent out relief efforts to the devastated area , especially in Santa Rosalia . A total of 4 @,@ 460 food kits were sent , 1 @,@ 152 hygiene kits , 765 cleaning kits , 225 children 's kits , and 181 kitchen kits .
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= Charlie Don 't Surf ( Veronica Mars ) =
" Charlie Don 't Surf " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the forty @-@ eighth episode overall . Co @-@ written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and Jason Elen and directed by Jason Bloom , the episode premiered on The CW on October 24 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica and her father , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) take on three cases — they figure out who is taking Logan 's ( Jason Dohring ) trust fund money while Veronica gets involved in the accusing of the Pi Sigma fraternity in the rapist case and Keith helps a woman , Harmony Chase ( Laura San Giacomo ) track down her possibly cheating husband .
" Charlie Don 't Surf " featured several notable guest stars , including Matt Czuchry , Ryan Eggold , and San Giacomo , who plays Harmony Chase , a romantic interest for Keith . Actor Enrico Colantoni , who plays Keith , wanted San Giacomo to play the role of Harmony because of the actors ' ongoing friendship since their show Just Shoot Me ! Both actors enjoyed the guest appearance so much that they lobbied the show 's production team to continue the characters ' romantic storyline in the future . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
= = Synopsis = =
Logan comes over for dinner at Veronica ’ s house , and Keith becomes increasingly annoyed when Logan refuses to answer some questions . Veronica goes into Parker Lee 's ( Julie Gonzalo ) room , where Veronica reveals that she was raped as well . A journalist interviews Parker , while Logan discusses finances with his accountant . Logan asks Veronica for help in searching through records in an attempt to catch the accountant . Meanwhile , a woman asks Keith to investigate her husband , who may be having an affair . Wallace informs Veronica that there was a Pi Sigma fraternity party the night of every rape . Later , Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) asks Veronica to prove that the fraternity is innocent , and Veronica agrees just to infiltrate the fraternity . Keith sees the husband getting into a car with several other women . He contacts Harmony , the woman , and presents the evidence .
Veronica talks to the fraternity boys , and one of them tells her information that leads to her suspecting a boy named Chip . Keith and Harmony flirt , and Harmony shows a good amount of true romantic interest in Keith . Logan ’ s family has been donating $ 10 @,@ 000 a month to “ Aaron ’ s Kids ” , which Veronica learns is not actually a charity . Veronica talks to Chip , who says that he was with another girl , who admits it while saying that she ’ ll never say so openly . Veronica turns her suspicion on Dick . After doing more digging , Veronica says that the money is going to Logan ’ s illegitimate brother , Charlie Stone . Parker insults Veronica for supposedly working with the fraternity . Keith catches Harmony ’ s husband kissing another woman . After talking to one of the other rape victims , Veronica discusses Claire with a slightly offbeat clerk , who says that Claire went in with a guy . Logan meets Charlie ( Matt Czuchry ) , and they connect over surfing . However , Veronica notices some inconsistencies at Charlie ’ s private school job .
Veronica learns that “ Charlie ” is in fact a reporter who is doing a story on Logan , and Logan punches him . Keith tells Harmony that her husband was not in fact cheating after all . Veronica obtains proof that another person , not one of the fraternity members , was with Claire the night she was raped . While retrieving Logan ’ s watch , Veronica learns that Logan actually has a half @-@ brother .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and Jason Elen and directed by Jason Bloom , marking Ruggiero 's fourteenth writing credit , Elen 's first and only writing credit for the show , and Bloom 's third directing credit for the series . The episode features several notable guest stars . Matt Czuchry appears as Vanity Fair reporter Norman Phipps , who poses as Logan 's half @-@ brother for a story . Czuchry was a series regular at the time for Gilmore Girls , the lead @-@ in show for Veronica Mars . Ryan Eggold appears as Charlie Stone , Logan 's actual half brother . According to Variety , the role was initially scheduled to be a recurring one . Series regular Tina Majorino filmed scenes for the episode , although they were deleted in post @-@ production .
In her first appearance , Laura San Giacomo plays Harmony Chase , a woman who hires Keith to investigate her cheating husband . The two were both series regulars on the NBC sitcom Just Shoot Me ! . The two actors had maintained a close friendship after their sitcom was cancelled , and when Rob Thomas brought up a romantic storyline for Keith to Colantoni , he suggested Giacomo for the role . Giacomo accepted the role , later stating , " It was kind of a no @-@ brainer situation for me . I love Rico , love working with him , and it was just as much fun as I thought it would be . " In addition to sharing in @-@ jokes about Just Shoot Me ! while on set , Colantoni also remembered what a good actress he thought she was in their earlier days . After the first appearance , both Colantoni and Giacomo lobbied for more storylines together . Thomas was open to the possibility , saying , " I wouldn 't hesitate to go back to this , because I was really happy with how it played out . " Giacomo would go on to appear on three episodes of the show .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Charlie Don 't Surf " was viewed by 3 @.@ 33 million viewers , ranking 97th of 104 in the weekly rankings . This figure was an increase in 0 @.@ 21 million viewers from the previous episode , " Wichita Linebacker " , which received 3 @.@ 12 million .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , indicating that it was a " good " episode . He was positive towards the Logan and Keith storylines , writing " the other main storylines , featuring Logan and Keith , were nice ones for the respective characters , " calling the half @-@ brother plotline " interesting " . On the advancing of the rapist plot , Goldman praised the increase in Veronica 's personal involvement with the case , while continuing to criticize the portrayal of the feminists in the episode . " At this point , neither we , nor Veronica , seem to be meant to have nearly any sympathy for them . And yet , shouldn 't we all naturally be able to connect more to a group of girls who are passionately seeking to stop a serial rapist on campus ? " Price Peterson of TV.com gave the episode a very positive review , lauding the Logan 's half @-@ brother storyline , calling it " Top quality stuff . I loved the moment when Veronica realized Logan 's brother was an imposter and in the next scene we saw the two guys surfing together . So much suspense ! " Television Without Pity gave " Charlie Don 't Surf " a " B + " . The reviewer was very positive towards the plot involving Logan and his supposed half @-@ brother , writing , " since Logan actually knows how to find Charlie in person , perhaps this all doesn 't have to be quite as tragic as it 's coming off . Still , in my opinion ? Best episode of the season so far . "
Alan Sepinwall was very positive towards the episode on his blog What 's Alan Watching , calling Czuchry 's casting " genius " and that " the heavier focus on the rape storyline was welcome , though the amount of time spent on Logan Squared robbed it of some urgency . " In addition , he wrote that " The ' Just Shoot Me ' reunion gave an interesting twist to the usual private eye infidelity case . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mostly positive review , writing that it struck a good balance in a storyline that could go wrong very quickly . " This happens with emotionally charged criminal cases . Mass public scapegoating is an all @-@ too @-@ human reaction , one studied by a bunch of social sciences ( Salem Witch Trials , anyone ? ) . And it ’ s certainly interesting to have Veronica trying to be the voice of reason . I think that largely works here , but it ’ s a delicate balance . This could easily go so very wrong . "
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= Chalukya dynasty =
The Chalukya dynasty ( [ tʃaːɭukjə ] ) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries . During this period , they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties . The earliest dynasty , known as the " Badami Chalukyas " , ruled from Vatapi ( modern Badami ) from the middle of the 6th century . The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II . After the death of Pulakeshin II , the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan . They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century . In the western Deccan , the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants , the Western Chalukyas , in the late 10th century . These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani ( modern Basavakalyan ) until the end of the 12th century .
The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka . The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas . A Southern India @-@ based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers . The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration , overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called " Chalukyan architecture " . Kannada literature , which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions . The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas .
= = Origins = =
= = = Natives of Karnataka = = =
While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas , the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay , D.C. Sircar , Hans Raj , S. Sen , Kamath and Karmarkar is the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern Karnataka region .
A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd @-@ century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka , a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku ( from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century ) was put forward . This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage . The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra . The Chalukyas , however , address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions , which is the same lineage as their early overlords , the Kadambas of Banavasi . This makes them descendants of the Kadambas . The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas .
A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south , defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess . She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin I 's father . However , according to the historians K. V. Ramesh , Chopra and Sastri , there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin I 's grandfather and Ranaranga , his father . Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom . The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin .
While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians , the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination . According to him , the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya , and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings . Hence , the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region . The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas .
The historians Jan Houben and Kamath , and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit . According to the historian N. L. Rao , their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom . The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada term arasa ( meaning " king " or " chief " ) . The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami Karnatabala ( " Power of Karnata " ) . It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word " Chalukya " originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement .
= = = Historical sources = = =
Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history . Among them , the Badami cave inscriptions of Mangalesha ( 578 ) , Kappe Arabhatta record of c . 700 , Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakeshin II , the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II ( all in Kannada language ) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language . The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I ( 543 ) , the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of Mangalesha ( 595 ) and the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II ( 634 ) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script . The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit , in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilaham ( Tamil country ) . Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found . All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period .
Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire . The Chinese traveller Xuanzang had visited the court of Pulakeshin II . At the time of this visit , as mentioned in the Aihole record , Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising 99 @,@ 000 villages each . This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka , Maharashtra and coastal Konkan . Xuanzang , impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of king 's efficient administration was felt far and wide . Later , Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II .
= = = Legends = = =
Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate :
" Once when Brahma , the creator , was engaged in the performance of the sandhya ( twilight ) rituals , Indra approaced and beseeched him to create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth . On being thus requested , Brahma looked steadily into the Chuluka @-@ jala ( the water of oblation in his palm ) and out sprang thence a great warrior , the progenitor of the Chalukyas " . The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the Sapta Matrikas ( " seven divine mothers " ) and were worshippers of many gods including Siva , Vishnu , Chamundi , Surya , Kubera , Parvati , Vinayaka and Kartikeya .
Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with the Solankis of Gujarat . According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso , Solankis were born out of fire @-@ pit ( Agnikund ) at Mount Abu . However it has been reported that the story of Agnikula is not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner .
According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI ( 11th century or later ) , the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty @-@ nine kings ruled , and later , sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated . This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana , who claims that the first member of the family , " Chalukya " , was so named as he was born in the " hollow of the hands " of God Brahma .
According to a theory put forward by Lewis , the Chalukya were descendants of the " Seleukia " tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was , but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and " Parthians " , the proposed ancestors of Pallavas . However , this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar sounding clan names .
= = Periods in Chalukya history = =
The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years . During this period , they ruled as three closely related , but individual dynasties . These are the " Chalukyas of Badami " ( also called " Early Chalukyas " ) , who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century , and the two sibling dynasties , the " Chalukyas of Kalyani " ( also called Western Chalukyas or " Later Chalukyas " ) and the " Chalukyas of Vengi " ( also called Eastern Chalukyas ) .
= = = Chalukyas of Badami = = =
In the 6th century , with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India , major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindyas – the Deccan and Tamilaham . The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region . The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543 . Pulakeshin I took Vatapi ( modern Badami in Bagalkot district , Karnataka ) under his control and made it his capital . Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as " Chalukyas of Badami " . They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan .
Pulakeshin II , whose precoronation name was Ereya , commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well @-@ known emperor of the Badami dynasty . He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history . His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad , clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships . Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada . He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan . Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily . It is presumed Pulakeshin II , " the great hero " , died fighting .
The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years . It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I , who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire . Vikramaditya I took the title " Rajamalla " ( lit " Sovereign of the Mallas " or Pallavas ) . The thirty @-@ seven year rule of Vijayaditya ( 696 – 733 ) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity .
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II ( 733 – 744 ) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II , but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram , the Pallava capital . He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple . During his reign Arab intruders of the Umayyad Caliphate invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Pulakesi , a Chalukya governor of Navsari . He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country , the Pandyas , the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler . The last Chalukya king , Kirtivarman II , was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga in 753 . At their peak , the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north .
= = = Chalukyas of Kalyani = = =
The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas . The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated . One theory , based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas , suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas .
Tailapa II , a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 ( Bijapur district ) overthrew Karka II , re @-@ established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire . The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas , and with their cousins , the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi . Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty . Starting from the very beginning of his reign , which lasted fifty years , he abolished the original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era . Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era . Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader . Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi ( coastal Andhra ) and become the dominant power in the Deccan . The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature . They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire , the Pandyas , the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri .
= = = Chalukyas of Vengi = = =
Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan , corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh in 616 , defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom . He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621 . Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock . After the death of Pulakeshin II , the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam .
After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid @-@ 8th century , territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas , the new rulers of the western deccan , and the Eastern Chalukyas . For much of the next two centuries , the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas . Apart from a rare military success , such as the one by Vijayaditya II ( c.808 @-@ 847 ) , it was only during the rule of Bhima I ( c.892 @-@ 921 ) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence . After the death of Bhima I , the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas .
The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000 . Danarnava , their king , was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty @-@ seven years . During this time , Danarnava 's two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom . Choda Bhima ' s invasion of Tondaimandalam , a Chola territory , and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola – Chalukya relations . Saktivarman I , the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000 , though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I. This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas , who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan . The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful .
Initially , the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature , though , after a period of time , local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language . Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas .
= = Architecture = =
The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture . Their style of architecture is called " Chalukyan architecture " or " Karnata Dravida architecture " . Nearly a hundred monuments built by them , rock cut ( cave ) and structural , are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka . The building material they used was a reddish @-@ golden Sandstone found locally . Though they ruled a vast empire , the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole , Badami , Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state .
Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases . The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples , prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole ( one Vedic , one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete ) , followed by four developed cave temples at Badami ( of which cave 3 , a Vaishnava temple , is dated accurately to 578 CE ) . These cave temples at Badami are similar , in that , each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah , a columned hall ( mantapa ) and a cella ( shrine , cut deep into rock ) which contains the deity of worship . In Badami , three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain . The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara , Mahishasuramardhini , Varaha , Narasimha , Trivikrama , Vishnu seated on Anantha ( the snake ) and Nataraja ( dancing Shiva ) .
The second phase of temple building was at Aihole ( where some seventy structures exist and has been called " one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture " ) and Badami . Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated , there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c . 600 . These are the Lad Khan Temple ( dated by some to c . 450 but more accurately to 620 ) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses ; the Meguti Jain Temple ( 634 ) which shows progress in structural design ; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower ( 8th century ) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one ; the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion , a vestibule , connecting the sanctum to the hall . Other dravida style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral ; the Banantigudi Temple , the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta ; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple , the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple ( upper ) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami .
The structural temples at Pattadakal , built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site , marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture . The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period . There are ten temples at Pattadakal , six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style . Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple ( 725 ) , the Virupaksha Temple ( 740 – 745 ) and the Mallikarjuna Temple ( 740 – 745 ) in the southern style . The Papanatha temple ( 680 ) and Galaganatha Temple ( 740 ) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style . Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram . Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja , Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda .
The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture . Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century . The centre of their cultural and temple @-@ building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state , encompassing the present @-@ day Dharwad district ; it included areas of present @-@ day Haveri and Gadag districts . Here , large medieval workshops built numerous monuments . These monuments , regional variants of pre @-@ existing dravida temples , defined the Karnata dravida tradition .
The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district , the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti , and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali , both in the Davangere district . Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal ( Gadag district ) , the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri ( Haveri district ) , and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri ( Dharwad district ) . The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur , in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh .
= = Literature = =
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II ( 634 ) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as an classical piece of poetry . A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the " dark Sarasvati " have been preserved . It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya ( a son of Pulakeshin II ) . Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara , a book on Hindu law , and King Someshvara III , a noted scholar , who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa .
From the period of the Badami Chalukyas , references are made to the existence of Kannada literature , though not much has survived . Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the " natural language " . The Kappe Arabhatta record of c . 700 in tripadi ( three line ) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics . Karnateshwara Katha , which was quoted later by Jayakirti , is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period . Other probable Kannada writers , whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references are Syamakundacharya ( 650 ) , who is said to have authored the Prabhrita , and Srivaradhadeva ( also called Tumubuluracharya , 650 or earlier ) , the possible author of the Chudamani ( " Crest Jewel " ) , a lengthy commentary on logic .
The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas , however , is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively . By the 9th – 10th centuries , Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers . The " three gems " of Kannada literature , Adikavi Pampa , Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period . In the 11th century , Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer .
= = Badami Chalukya country = =
= = = Army = = =
The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II 's success beyond the Vindyas . It consisted of an infantry , a cavalry , an elephant corps and a powerful navy . The Chinese traveller Hiuen @-@ Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle . It was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa ( Goa ) , and Puri on east coast of India . Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies .
= = = Land governance = = =
The government , at higher levels , was closely modelled after the Magadhan and Satavahana administrative machinery . The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas ( provinces ) , then into smaller Rashtrakas ( Mandala ) , Vishaya ( district ) , Bhoga ( group of 10 villages ) which is similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas . At the lower levels of administration , the Kadamba style prevailed fully . The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called Dasagrama . In addition to imperial provinces , there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas , the Gangas , the Banas and the Sendrakas . Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues . Groups of mahajanas ( learned brahmins ) looked after agraharas ( called ghatika or " place of higher learning " ) such as at Badami which was served by 2000 mahajans and Aihole which was served by 500 mahajanas . Taxes were levied and were called the herjunka – tax on loads , the kirukula – tax on retail goods in transit , the bilkode – sales tax , the pannaya – betel tax , siddaya – land tax and the vaddaravula – tax levied to support royalty .
= = = Coinage = = =
The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms . The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends . The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a ' sceptre between lamps ' or a temple on the reverse . Pulakeshin II 's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse . The coins weighed 4 grams and were called , in old @-@ Kannada , hun ( or honnu ) and had fractions such as fana ( or fanam ) and the quarter fana ( the modern day Kannada equivalent being hana – which literally means " money " ) . A gold coin called gadyana is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal , which later came to be known as varaha ( their royal emblem ) .
= = = Religion = = =
Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished during the Badami Chalukya period , though it seems the former was more popular . Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal , Aihole and Mahakuta , and priests ( archakas ) were invited from northern India . Vedic sacrifices , religious vows ( vrata ) and the giving of gifts ( dana ) was important . The Badami kings were initially followers of Vedic Hindusim and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole . Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu , Shiva , Kartikeya , Ganapathi , Shakti , Surya and Sapta Matrikas ( " seven mothers " ) . The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha ( " horse sacrifice " ) . The worship of Lajja Gauri , a fertility goddess is known . Jainism too was a prominent religion during this period . The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged Jainism . One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith . Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex , the temple at Maguti being one such example . Ravikirti , the court poet of Pulakeshin II was a Jain . Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ( " Hindu trinity " ) at Badami . Sculptures of the Trimurti , Harihara ( half Vishnu , half Shiva ) and Ardhanarishwara ( half Shiva , half woman ) provide ample evidence of their tolerance . Buddhism was on a decline , having made its ingress into Southeast Asia . This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen @-@ Tsiang . Badami , Aihole , Kurtukoti and Puligere ( modern Lakshmeshwar in the Gadag district ) were primary places of learning .
= = = Society = = =
The Hindu caste system was present and devadasis were recognised by the government . Some kings had concubines ( ganikas ) who were given much respect , and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records . Devadasis were however present in temples . Sage Bharata 's Natyashastra , the precursor to Bharatanatyam , the classical dance of South India , was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions . Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration . Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poetess , Kumkumadevi , the younger sister of Vijayaditya ( and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana ) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere , and the queens of Vikramaditya II , Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple ( now called Virupaksha temple ) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal .
= = In popular culture = =
The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India , making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions . This is seen clearly in the field of architecture . The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles . During this period , the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular . Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today . This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages . The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI . Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature , Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India . Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance , giving it currency in the British Indian court system . It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India , in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna , later spreading into northern India .
A celebration called Chalukya utsava , a three @-@ day festival of music and dance , organised by the Government of Karnataka , is held every year at Pattadakal , Badami and Aihole . The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art , craft , music and dance . The program , which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole , is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka . Singers , dancers , poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event . In the 26 February 2006 celebration , 400 art troupes took part in the festivities . Colorful cut outs of the Varaha the Chalukya emblem , Satyashraya Pulakeshin ( Pulakeshin II ) , famous sculptural masterpieces such as Durga , Mahishasuramardhini ( Durga killing demon Mahishasura ) were present everywhere . The program at Pattadakal is named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple , Gundan Anivaritachari . At Badami it is called Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole , Ravikirti Vedike after the famous poet and minister ( Ravikirti ) in the court of Pulakeshin II . Immadi Pulakeshi , a Kannada movie of the 1960s starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king .
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= Delaware Route 52 =
Delaware Route 52 ( DE 52 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in downtown Wilmington north to Pennsylvania Route 52 ( PA 52 ) at the Pennsylvania border near Centerville . DE 52 runs through the city of Wilmington and passes through areas of the Brandywine Valley north of Wilmington . DE 52 intersects Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / US 202 and DE 2 in Wilmington and DE 100 / DE 141 and DE 82 in Greenville . The entire route is designated as part of the Brandywine Valley National Scenic Byway , a National Scenic Byway and Delaware Byway while most of the route is also designated as part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway of the Delaware Byways system . The road was built as the Kennett Pike , a turnpike , between 1811 and 1813 at a cost of $ 30 @,@ 000 . The Kennett Pike was bought by Pierre S. du Pont , II in 1919 and upgraded to a state highway ; which he paved at a cost of $ 85 @,@ 000 per mile . Pierre S. du Pont , II later sold it to the State of Delaware for $ 1 . The road received the DE 52 designation by 1936 .
= = Route description = =
DE 52 begins at US 13 Bus . , which is routed on the one @-@ way pair of North Walnut Street northbound and North King Street southbound near Rodney Square in downtown Wilmington . From here , DE 52 follows the one @-@ way pair of East 11th Street eastbound and East 12th Street westbound to the northwest , becoming West 11th Street and West 12th Street at the North Market Street intersection . The one @-@ way pair heads northwest past downtown high @-@ rise buildings , carrying three lanes in each direction . Both directions of DE 52 merge onto Delaware Avenue , an eight @-@ lane divided highway , and the route reaches an interchange with I @-@ 95 / US 202 . Past this interchange , the route narrows to six lanes and leaves downtown Wilmington . DE 52 splits from Delaware Avenue by continuing northwest on Pennsylvania Avenue , a four @-@ lane undivided road that heads to the north of the Ursuline Academy and passes through urban areas of homes and businesses . The road intersects the eastern terminus of DE 2 in a commercial area and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . The route runs through more residential areas north of the Wawaset Park neighborhood , passing to the northeast of the Wilmington Campus of the University of Delaware .
DE 52 leaves Wilmington and becomes Kennett Pike , heading through wooded areas of suburban homes . The road heads into Greenville and widens into a divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the DE 100 / DE 141 freeway . Past this interchange , the route continues into business areas , crossing an East Penn Railroad line before passing to the east of Alexis I. duPont High School . DE 52 leaves Greenville and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road as it heads into wooded areas then open fields to the west and Twin Lakes Farm and Twin Lakes Brewing Company , intersecting the southern terminus of DE 82 . The road continues through more forested suburban areas , passing to the west of the Wilmington Country Club and to the east of the Delaware Museum of Natural History . The route passes to the west of the Winterthur Museum and Country Estate and heads into the community of Centerville . DE 52 continues northwest to its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania border , where it continues into that state as PA 52 to Longwood Gardens and West Chester .
The entire length of DE 52 is part of the Brandywine Valley National Scenic Byway , a National Scenic Byway and Delaware Byway . The route between Washington and West streets in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border is also part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway of the Delaware Byways system . DE 52 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 37 @,@ 694 vehicles at the Dupont Road intersection to a low of 5 @,@ 654 vehicles at the southern terminus at US 13 Bus . All of DE 52 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
On January 21 , 1811 , the Wilmington and Kennett Turnpike Company was incorporated to build a turnpike from Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border at Centreville . The road was built between 1811 and 1813 at a cost of $ 30 @,@ 000 . The charter of the turnpike gave Christiana Hundred the option to purchase the road in 1820 and remove the tolls . The Kennett Pike had two toll gates north of Wilmington . In 1919 , Pierre S. du Pont bought the road and the toll gates were removed . The road was widened and paved following the sale and eventually sold to the Delaware State Highway Department . When Delaware designated state highways by 1936 , DE 52 was designated onto its current alignment . In 1939 , the route was widened to four lanes between Rising Sun Lane and Barley Mill Road to alleviate traffic congestion during peak hours . The portion of DE 52 along Delaware Avenue was widened to four lanes in November 1940 . In 2002 , DE 52 was designated as part of the Brandywine Valley Scenic Highway in the Delaware Scenic and Historic Highways system ; it was designated a National Scenic Byway in 2005 .
= = Major intersections = =
Mileposts run from north to south . The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Ariel ( moon ) =
Ariel is the fourth @-@ largest of the 27 known moons of Uranus . Ariel orbits and rotates in the equatorial plane of Uranus , which is almost perpendicular to the orbit of Uranus , and so has an extreme seasonal cycle .
It was discovered in October 1851 by William Lassell , and named for a character in two different pieces of literature . As of 2012 , much of the detailed knowledge of Ariel derives from a single flyby of Uranus performed by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in 1986 , which managed to image around 35 % of the moon 's surface . There are no active plans at present to return to study the moon in more detail , although various concepts such as a Uranus orbiter and probe are proposed from time to time .
After Miranda , Ariel is the second @-@ smallest of Uranus ' five major rounded satellites , and the second @-@ closest to its planet . Among the smallest of the Solar System 's 19 known spherical moons ( it ranks 14th among them in diameter ) , it is believed to be composed of roughly equal parts ice and rocky material . Like all of Uranus ' moons , Ariel probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation , and , like other large moons , it is likely differentiated , with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice . Ariel has a complex surface consisting of extensive cratered terrain cross @-@ cut by a system of scarps , canyons , and ridges . The surface shows signs of more recent geological activity than other Uranian moons , most likely due to tidal heating .
= = Discovery and name = =
Discovered on 24 October 1851 by William Lassell , it is named for a sky spirit in Alexander Pope 's The Rape of the Lock and Shakespeare 's The Tempest .
Both Ariel and the slightly larger Uranian satellite Umbriel were discovered by William Lassell on 24 October 1851 . Although William Herschel , who discovered Uranus 's two largest moons Titania and Oberon in 1787 , claimed to have observed four additional moons , this was never confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious .
All of Uranus 's moons are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope 's The Rape of the Lock . The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell . Ariel is named after the leading sylph in The Rape of the Lock . It is also the name of the spirit who serves Prospero in Shakespeare 's The Tempest . The moon is also designated Uranus I.
= = Orbit = =
Among Uranus 's five major moons , Ariel is the second closest to the planet , orbiting at the distance of about 190 @,@ 000 km . Its orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus . Its orbital period is around 2 @.@ 5 Earth days , coincident with its rotational period . This means that one side of the moon always faces the planet ; a condition known as tidal lock . Ariel 's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere . The trailing hemispheres ( those facing away from their directions of orbit ) of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere like Ariel are struck by magnetospheric plasma co @-@ rotating with the planet . This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon ( see below ) . Ariel also captures magnetospheric charged particles , producing a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon 's orbit observed by Voyager 2 in 1986 .
Because Ariel , like Uranus , orbits the Sun almost on its side relative to its rotation , its northern and southern hemispheres face either directly towards or directly away from the Sun at the solstices . This means it is subject to an extreme seasonal cycle ; just as Earth 's poles see permanent night or daylight around the solstices , so Ariel 's poles see permanent night or daylight for half a Uranian year ( 42 Earth years ) , with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice . The Voyager 2 flyby coincided with the 1986 southern summer solstice , when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was dark . Once every 42 years , when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth , mutual occultations of Uranus 's moons become possible . A number of such events occurred in 2007 – 2008 , including an occultation of Ariel by Umbriel on 19 August 2007 .
Currently Ariel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites . In the past , however , it may have been in a 5 : 3 resonance with Miranda , which could have been partially responsible for the heating of that moon ( although the maximum heating attributable to a former 1 : 3 resonance of Umbriel with Miranda was likely about three times greater ) . Ariel may have once been locked in the 4 : 1 resonance with Titania , from which it later escaped . Escape from a mean motion resonance is much easier for the moons of Uranus than for those of Jupiter or Saturn , due to Uranus 's lesser degree of oblateness . This resonance , which was likely encountered about 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago , would have increased Ariel 's orbital eccentricity , resulting in tidal friction due to time @-@ varying tidal forces from Uranus . This would have caused warming of the moon 's interior by as much as 20 K.
= = Composition and internal structure = =
Ariel is the fourth largest of the Uranian moons , and may have the third greatest mass . The moon 's density is 1 @.@ 66 g / cm3 , which indicates that it consists of roughly equal parts water ice and a dense non @-@ ice component . The latter could consist of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins . The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations , which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon . Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Ariel 's leading hemisphere than on its trailing hemisphere . The cause of this asymmetry is not known , but it may be related to bombardment by charged particles from Uranus 's magnetosphere , which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere ( due to the plasma 's co @-@ rotation ) . The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice , decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics , leaving a dark , carbon @-@ rich residue behind .
Except for water , the only other compound identified on the surface of Ariel by infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which is concentrated mainly on its trailing hemisphere . Ariel shows the strongest spectroscopic evidence for CO2 of any Uranian satellite , and was the first Uranian satellite on which this compound was discovered . The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear . It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from Uranus 's magnetosphere or solar ultraviolet radiation . This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution , as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere . Another possible source is the outgassing of primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Ariel 's interior . The escape of CO2 from the interior may be related to past geological activity on this moon .
Given its size , rock / ice composition and the possible presence of salt or ammonia in solution to lower the freezing point of water , Ariel 's interior may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . If this is the case , the radius of the core ( 372 km ) is about 64 % of the radius of the moon , and its mass is around 56 % of the moon 's mass — the parameters are dictated by the moon 's composition . The pressure in the center of Ariel is about 0 @.@ 3 GPa ( 3 kbar ) . The current state of the icy mantle is unclear , although the existence of a subsurface ocean is considered unlikely .
= = Surface = =
= = = Albedo and color = = =
Ariel is the most reflective of Uranus 's moons . Its surface shows an opposition surge : the reflectivity decreases from 53 % at a phase angle of 0 ° ( geometrical albedo ) to 35 % at an angle of about 1 ° . The Bond albedo of Ariel is about 23 % — the highest among Uranian satellites . The surface of Ariel is generally neutral in color . There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres ; the latter appears to be redder than the former by 2 % . Ariel 's surface generally does not demonstrate any correlation between albedo and geology on the one hand and color on the other hand . For instance , canyons have the same color as the cratered terrain . However , bright impact deposits around some fresh craters are slightly bluer in color . There are also some slightly blue spots , which do not correspond to any known surface features .
= = = Surface features = = =
The observed surface of Ariel can be divided into three terrain types : cratered terrain , ridged terrain , and plains . The main surface features are impact craters , canyons , fault scarps , ridges , and troughs .
The cratered terrain , a rolling surface covered by numerous impact craters and centered on Ariel 's south pole , is the moon 's oldest and most geographically extensive geological unit . It is intersected by a network of scarps , canyons ( graben ) , and narrow ridges mainly occurring in Ariel 's mid @-@ southern latitudes . The canyons , known as chasmata , probably represent graben formed by extensional faulting , which resulted from global tensional stresses caused by the freezing of water ( or aqueous ammonia ) in the moon 's interior ( see below ) . They are 15 – 50 km wide and trend mainly in an east- or northeasterly direction . The floors of many canyons are convex ; rising up by 1 – 2 km . Sometimes the floors are separated from the walls of canyons by grooves ( troughs ) about 1 km wide . The widest graben have grooves running along the crests of their convex floors , which are called valles . The longest canyon is Kachina Chasma , at over 620 km in length ( the feature extends into the hemisphere of Ariel that Voyager 2 did not see illuminated ) .
The second main terrain type — ridged terrain — comprises bands of ridges and troughs hundreds of kilometers in extent . It bounds the cratered terrain and cuts it into polygons . Within each band , which can be up to 25 to 70 km wide , are individual ridges and troughs up to 200 km long and between 10 and 35 km apart . The bands of ridged terrain often form continuations of canyons , suggesting that they may be a modified form of the graben or the result of a different reaction of the crust to the same extensional stresses , such as brittle failure .
The youngest terrain observed on Ariel are the plains : relatively low @-@ lying smooth areas that must have formed over a long period of time , judging by their varying levels of cratering . The plains are found on the floors of canyons and in a few irregular depressions in the middle of the cratered terrain . In the latter case they are separated from the cratered terrain by sharp boundaries , which in some cases have a lobate pattern . The most likely origin for the plains is through volcanic processes ; their linear vent geometry , resembling terrestrial shield volcanoes , and distinct topographic margins suggest that the erupted liquid was very viscous , possibly a supercooled water / ammonia solution , with solid ice volcanism also a possibility . The thickness of these hypothetical cryolava flows is estimated at 1 – 3 km . The canyons must therefore have formed at a time when endogenic resurfacing was still taking place on Ariel . A few of these areas appear to be less than 100 million years old , suggesting that Ariel may still be geologically active in spite of its relatively small size and lack of current tidal heating .
Ariel appears to be fairly evenly cratered compared to other moons of Uranus ; the relative paucity of large craters suggests that its surface does not date to the Solar System 's formation , which means that Ariel must have been completely resurfaced at some point of its history . Ariel 's past geologic activity is believed to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently . The largest crater observed on Ariel , Yangoor , is only 78 km across , and shows signs of subsequent deformation . All large craters on Ariel have flat floors and central peaks , and few of the craters are surrounded by bright ejecta deposits . Many craters are polygonal , indicating that their appearance was influenced by the preexisting crustal structure . In the cratered plains there are a few large ( about 100 km in diameter ) light patches that may be degraded impact craters . If this is the case they would be similar to palimpsests on Jupiter 's moon Ganymede . It has been suggested that a circular depression 245 km in diameter located at 10 ° S 30 ° E is a large , highly degraded impact structure .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Ariel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula ; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity . The precise composition of the subnebula is not known ; however , the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water @-@ poor . Significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) , instead of methane and ammonia . The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice ( with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate ) and more rock , explaining the higher density .
The accretion process probably lasted for several thousand years before the moon was fully formed . Models suggest that impacts accompanying accretion caused heating of Ariel 's outer layer , reaching a maximum temperature of around 195 K at a depth of about 31 km . After the end of formation , the subsurface layer cooled , while the interior of Ariel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks . The cooling near @-@ surface layer contracted , while the interior expanded . This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon 's crust reaching estimates of 30 MPa , which may have led to cracking . Some present @-@ day scarps and canyons may be a result of this process , which lasted for about 200 million years .
The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements and likely tidal heating may have led to melting of the ice if an antifreeze like ammonia ( in the form of ammonia hydrate ) or some salt was present . The melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . A layer of liquid water ( ocean ) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core – mantle boundary . The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean , however , is likely to have frozen long ago . The freezing of the water likely led to the expansion of the interior , which may have been responsible for the formation of the canyons and obliteration of the ancient surface . The liquids from the ocean may have been able to erupt to the surface , flooding floors of canyons in the process known as cryovolcanism .
Thermal modeling of Saturn 's moon Dione , which is similar to Ariel in size , density , and surface temperature , suggests that solid state convection could have lasted in Ariel 's interior for billions of years , and that temperatures in excess of 173 K ( the melting point of aqueous ammonia ) may have persisted near its surface for several hundred million years after formation , and near a billion years closer to the core .
= = Observation and exploration = =
The apparent magnitude of Ariel is 14 @.@ 8 ; similar to that of Pluto near perihelion . However , while Pluto can be seen through a telescope of 30 cm aperture , Ariel , due to its proximity to Uranus 's glare , is often not visible to telescopes of 40 cm aperture .
The only close @-@ up images of Ariel were obtained by the Voyager 2 probe , which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986 . The closest approach of Voyager 2 to Ariel was 127 @,@ 000 km ( 79 @,@ 000 mi ) — significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons except Miranda . The best images of Ariel have a spatial resolution of about 2 km . They cover about 40 % of the surface , but only 35 % was photographed with the quality required for geological mapping and crater counting . At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Ariel ( like those of the other moons ) was pointed towards the Sun , so the northern ( dark ) hemisphere could not be studied . No other spacecraft has ever visited the Uranian system , and no mission to Uranus and its moons is planned . The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft to Uranus was evaluated during its mission extension planning phase . It would take about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn .
= = = Transits = = =
On 26 July 2006 , the Hubble Space Telescope captured a rare transit made by Ariel on Uranus , which cast a shadow that could be seen on the Uranian cloud tops . Such events are rare and only occur around equinoxes , as the moon 's orbital plane about Uranus is tilted 98 ° to Uranus 's orbital plane about the Sun . Another transit , in 2008 , was recorded by the European Southern Observatory .
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= Kyle Broflovski =
Kyle Broflovski ( sometimes spelled Broslovski , Broslofski , Brovlofski or Broflofski ) is a main character in the Comedy Central series South Park . He is voiced by and loosely based on co @-@ creator Matt Stone . Kyle is one of the show 's four central characters , along with his friends Stan Marsh , Kenny McCormick , and Eric Cartman . He debuted on television when South Park first aired on August 13 , 1997 , after having first appeared in The Spirit of Christmas shorts created by Stone and long @-@ time collaborator Trey Parker in 1992 ( Jesus vs. Frosty ) and 1995 ( Jesus vs. Santa ) .
Kyle is a third- then fourth @-@ grade student who commonly has extraordinary experiences not typical of conventional small @-@ town life in his fictional hometown of South Park , Colorado . Kyle is distinctive as one of the few Jewish children on the show , and because of this , he often feels like an outsider amongst the core group of characters . His portrayal in this role is often dealt with satirically , and has elicited both praise and criticism from Jewish viewers .
Kyle is animated by computer in a way to emulate the show 's original method of cutout animation . He also appears in the 1999 full @-@ length feature film South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , as well as South Park @-@ related media and merchandise . While Parker and Stone portray Kyle as having common childlike tendencies , his dialogue is often intended to reflect stances and views on more adult @-@ oriented issues , and has been frequently cited in numerous publications by experts in the fields of politics , religion , popular culture , and philosophy .
= = Role in South Park = =
Kyle attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison 's class . During the show 's first 58 episodes , Kyle and the other students were in the third grade following which they have been in the fourth grade . He lives in South Park with his father Gerald , a lawyer , and his overprotective mother Sheila , a housewife who fits the mold of a Jewish mother stereotype . Gerald and Sheila have been referred to as Polish Jews , and they mutually share a strong devotion to their Jewish religion , while expressing deep concern during the multiple times Kyle 's faith in Judaism becomes enervated . Kyle has a younger brother named Ike , who Kyle learns was adopted and originally from Canada in the episode Ike 's Wee Wee .
Gerald often attempts to teach Kyle important morals . Although his mother 's outspoken , manipulative nature usually overwhelms Kyle , he tends to show that he truly loves her , and takes offense to any insult Cartman may offer about her . Although he engages in the reckless act of punting Ike like a football , Kyle shows concern for his brother 's well @-@ being . He was initially reluctant to embrace Ike as his brother upon learning that Ike was adopted , but Ike 's genuine affection for his older brother persuaded Kyle to love him in return , and regard him as " true family " .
Kyle is modeled after Stone , while Stan is modeled after Parker . Kyle and Stan are best friends , and their relationship , which is intended to reflect the real @-@ life friendship between Parker and Stone , is a common topic throughout the series . The two do have their disagreements , but always reconcile without any long @-@ term damage to their friendship . The show 's official website defines Kyle 's role amongst his friends as " the smart one " . He often provides a sober thought to plans or ideas made by the other boys , and explains a moral outlook while drawing upon his vast knowledge and intelligence . He tends to offer reasonable or scientific explanations both to situations most others view as supernatural in nature , and in opposition of propaganda dispensed by Cartman .
Several episodes focus on Kyle and his religion , and being the lone Jew has resulted in an enmity with the Antisemitic Cartman that has become significantly more pronounced as the series progresses . Parker and Stone have compared the relationship to the one shared by Archie Bunker and Michael Stivic on the 1970s sitcom All in the Family . Kyle makes cracks at Cartman 's weight and is horrified and disgusted with Cartman 's immorality , cruelty , bigotry , and greed . Their rivalry often elevates to the point where Kyle becomes so obsessed with beating Cartman at whatever he does , he sometimes neglects Stan and Kenny in the process . He has a tendency to make what he thinks are safe bets with Cartman , often losing these bets when the improbable actions promised by Cartman are accomplished . Though he has claimed Kenny was not his friend , in order to avoid having to spend the night at his poverty @-@ stricken household , Kyle has professed a friendship with Kenny and shown genuine concern for Kenny 's health and safety . Kyle normally has the angrier reaction of yelling , " You bastards ! " following Stan 's exclamation of the popular catchphrase , " Oh my God , they killed Kenny " after one of Kenny 's trademark deaths .
Near the end of the production run of the show 's fifth season ( 2001 ) , Parker and Stone contemplated having an episode in which Kyle was killed off . The reasoning behind the idea was to genuinely surprise fans , and to allow an opportunity to provide a major role for Butters Stotch , a breakout character whose popularity was growing with the viewers and creators of the show . Parker and Stone initially chose Kyle because they deemed him as being too similar to Stan , in terms of personality . Instead , the character of Kenny was chosen , and he was seemingly killed off for good in the episode " Kenny Dies " . The duo claimed they grew tired of upholding the tradition of having Kenny die in each episode , and regarded the character as a " prop " . Nevertheless , Kenny returned from a year @-@ long absence in the season six ( 2002 ) finale " Red Sleigh Down " , and has remained a main character ever since .
In many episodes , Kyle draws upon his sense of social purpose and moral outrage , and reflects on the lessons he has learned during the course of an episode , with a speech that often begins " You know , I learned something today ... " . Kyle acknowledged this trend in the season five ( 2001 ) episode " Cartmanland " when he states that he often gives the speech each week in an attempt to " try and better myself " , and again in the season seven ( 2003 ) episode " Butt Out " where he repeatedly reminds his friends that they continuously allow potentially riotous events to occur , and are only able to defuse the situation by giving such a speech to the gathered townsfolk .
Kyle 's mother reveals in the episode Cherokee Hair Tampons that Kyle is diabetic – although whether this ' goes away ' once Kyle gets a kidney transplant is unexplained and has seemingly not been brought up since . There have been numerous occasions when Kyle has been ill or sick more often than his classmates , and there has been speculation that he may have a poor immune system .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
An unnamed precursor to Kyle first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty , created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado . The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated using stop motion . When asked three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends , Parker and Stone created another similarly @-@ animated The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Santa . In this short , which was the first appearance of Kyle styled as he is in the series , he is given his first name . When developing the character , Parker recalled there being only one Jewish student in his entire hometown of Conifer , Colorado , and described her as being " the token Jewish person " . Stone , himself Jewish , also recalled his own experiences as a youth in a predominantly Christian neighborhood , and both he and Parker decided to incorporate these aspects into the character . Kyle next appeared on August 13 , 1997 , when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " .
From the show 's second episode , " Weight Gain 4000 " ( season one , 1997 ) , Kyle , like all other characters on the show , has been animated using computer software , though he is presented to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique . In keeping with the show 's animation style , Kyle is composed of simple geometrical shapes . He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand @-@ drawn characters ; his character is generally shown from only one angle , and his movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion .
Kyle is usually depicted wearing winter attire which consists of a bright green ushanka , a bright orange jacket , dark green pants , and lime @-@ green mittens / gloves . The rare instances in which he is shown without his cap , he has a bright red @-@ to @-@ auburn Jewfro . His hat and hairstyle were influenced by those of James Humphrey , a character whom Matt Stone portrayed in the 1993 film Cannibal ! The Musical . While he originally voiced Kyle without computer manipulation , Stone now does so by speaking within his normal vocal range and then adding a childlike inflection . The recorded audio is edited with Pro Tools , and the pitch altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader .
= = = Personality and traits = = =
Like his friends , Kyle is foul @-@ mouthed as a means for Parker and Stone to display how they claim young boys really talk when they are alone . Parker notes that while Kyle is sometimes cynical and profane , there is an " underlying sweetness " to the character , and Time described Kyle and his friends as " sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence " . He is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor , and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip , a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show revolve substantially around fart jokes .
Kyle often displays the highest moral standard of all the boys and is usually depicted as the most intelligent . When describing Kyle , Stone states that both he and the character are " reactionary " , and susceptible to irritability and impatience . In some instances , Kyle is the only child in his class to not initially indulge in a fad or fall victim to a ploy . This has resulted in both his eagerness to fit in , and his resentment and frustration .
As a Jew , Kyle often defends and shows pride in his religion and ancestry . He is nevertheless lonely in this regard , particularly around Christmas time , though he takes solace in anticipating the annual appearance of Mr. Hankey , an anthropomorphic piece of feces who emerges from the sewer to spread Christmas cheer .
A recurring plot element is the depiction of Kyle as insecure about Jewish traditions and beliefs . Already regarding God as cruel for allowing him to suffer from a life @-@ threatening hemorrhoid while Cartman enjoys a million @-@ dollar inheritance , Kyle became further appalled after being read the story of Job . He also once feared damnation for not having grown up as a Catholic . During both instances , he renounced his affiliation with Judaism , only to have his faith restored by events occurring at the end of an episode . After watching The Passion of the Christ , a shameful Kyle suddenly felt that Cartman 's anti @-@ Semitism was justified , and suggested to angry members of his synagogue that the Jews apologize for the death of Jesus . Kyle 's guilt is alleviated when he encounters Mel Gibson , the film 's director , and perceives him to be a deranged masochist .
Kyle has a first cousin also named Kyle , whom he resents for being the embodiment of Jewish stereotypes and causing Kyle to question whether or not he was a self @-@ hating Jew . Kyle is hopelessly inept at choreographed dancing ; in the eyes of Cartman , he perpetuated the stereotype that " Jews have no rhythm " . His birthday is May 26 , the same day as Stone . Kyle was conceived in New Jersey .
= = Cultural impact = =
Kyle 's depiction on the show has drawn both praise and criticism from the Jewish community . Detractors of the character cite his own habit of eschewing common Jewish practices and reiterating negative stereotypes for comedic purposes . Supportive Jewish viewers commend the show for using Kyle to accurately portray what it is like for a young Jew to have to endure loneliness and bigotry as an ethnic and religious minority . One of the show 's more popular episodes , " The Passion of the Jew " ( season eight , 2004 ) , deals largely with Kyle 's religious anxiety . The episode was independently released on DVD along with two other religion @-@ themed episodes from the series .
Over the seasons Kyle has addressed topics such as brotherhood , excessive litigation , hate crime legislation , civil liberties , profanity in television , hybrid vehicle ownership , and the economy . In the season 10 ( 2006 ) episode " Cartoon Wars Part II " , Kyle expresses his opinions on censorship , and iterates Parker and Stone 's sentiments on the topic by telling a television executive " Either it 's all okay , or none of it is " in regard to whether any subject should remain off @-@ limits to satire . To Parker and Stone 's disappointment , the episode received more attention for its criticism of the show Family Guy than it did for Kyle 's proclamation .
Kyle 's opinions have been the subject of much critical analysis in the media and literary world . The book South Park and Philosophy : You Know , I Learned Something Today includes an essay in which Bridgewater State College philosophy professor William J. Devlin references the teachings of Socrates and Friedrich Nietzsche when describing Kyle 's role in the show . Essays in the books South Park and Philosophy : Bigger , Longer , and More Penetrating , Blame Canada ! South Park and Contemporary Culture , and Taking South Park Seriously have also analyzed Kyle 's perspectives within the framework of popular philosophical , theological , and political concepts .
= = In other media = =
Kyle had a major role in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , the full @-@ length film based on the series , and appeared on the film 's soundtrack singing the same musical numbers performed in the movie . As a tribute to the Dead Parrot sketch , a short that features Kyle as the owner of a shop to where Cartman attempts to return a dead Kenny aired during a 1999 BBC television special commemorating the 30th anniversary of Monty Python 's Flying Circus . Kyle also featured in the documentary film The Aristocrats , listening to Cartman tell his version of the film 's titular joke , and in the " The Gauntlet " , a short spoofing both Gladiator and Battlefield Earth which aired during the 2000 MTV Movie Awards . Stone performs as Kyle on tracks for Chef Aid : The South Park Album and Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics .
Kyle appears in five South Park @-@ related video games : In South Park , Kyle is controlled by the player through the first @-@ person shooter mode who attempts to ward off enemies from terrorizing the town of South Park . In South Park : Chef 's Luv Shack , a user has the option of playing as Kyle when participating in the game 's several " minigames " based on other popular arcade games . In the racing game South Park Rally , a user can race as Kyle against other players , selecting from a variety of vehicles . In South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! , Kyle can be selected as a playable character used to establish a tower defense against the game 's antagonists . Kyle role @-@ plays as the Elf King in the 2014 game , South Park : The Stick of Truth .
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= HMS Fearless ( H67 ) =
HMS Fearless was an F @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . Although assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 during the Abyssinia Crisis . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , she spent time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Several months after the start of the war in September 1939 , Fearless helped to sink one submarine and sank another one in 1940 during the Norwegian Campaign . She was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she participated in the attack on the Vichy French ships at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir and the bombardment of Genoa . Fearless helped to sink one final submarine in 1941 and escorted many Malta convoys in the Mediterranean before she was torpedoed by an Italian bomber and had to be scuttled on 23 July 1941 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Fearless carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 38 shortly after the war began . All of her sister ships had their rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by April 1941 , but she still had both sets of torpedo tube by that date and was probably not rearmed before her loss a few months later .
= = Construction and career = =
Fearless was ordered on 17 March 1933 from Cammell Laird and was laid down at their Birkenhead shipyard on 17 July , launched on 12 May 1934 , and completed on 19 December 1934 . The ship cost 245 @,@ 728 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Fearless was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , but she was detached to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War from March to July 1936 . The ship enforced the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee from November 1936 to March 1937 . During this time , Fearless escorted the elderly liner SS Habana , full of refugee children , from the Basque Country to Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz , France . She returned to Gibraltar for three @-@ month detachments in August 1937 , January 1938 and January 1939 . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the outbreak of World War II . Fearless remained assigned to it until May 1940 , escorting the larger ships of the fleet .
After a pair of fishing trawlers were sunk by a submarine off the Hebrides after the start of World War II in September 1939 , the 6th and 8th DFs were ordered to sweep the area on 19 September . The following day , Fearless and three of her sister ships sank the German submarine U @-@ 27 and then resumed their normal escort duties . At the end of March 1940 , Fearless and the destroyer Hostile were assigned to screen the light cruiser Birmingham as she searched for German fishing ships off the Norwegian coast . Birmingham and her consorts were ordered to join the covering force for Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany , on the evening of 7 April , but they were delayed by the need to transfer prize crews to several captured trawlers and head seas .
A week later , she was escorting the battleship Valiant which was covering Convoy NP1 , the first troop convoy to Norway , as the Allies began to execute Plan R 4 after the German invasion on 9 April . The convoy entered the Andfjorden on the morning of 15 April en route to make their landings at Harstad , but paused there after reports of a German submarine on the surface inside the Vågsfjorden were received . Fearless , the destroyer Brazen , and the trawler Amethyst were ordered into the Vågsfjorden to investigate . Fearless 's ASDIC found a submarine and the ship dropped five depth charges near U @-@ 49 . The submarine commander , Lieutenant ( Kapitänleutnant ) Curt von Gossler , panicked and ordered his crew to surface and scuttle the boat . Machinegun fire from Fearless discouraged von Gossler from properly disposing of his secret documents and a boat from Brazen was able to retrieve many of them , including a map showing the location of all U @-@ boats in Norwegian waters . Valiant , Fearless , Brazen and the destroyer Griffin were ordered to return to Scapa Flow that evening .
Beginning on 23 April , the ship was one of the escorts for the aircraft carriers Ark Royal and Glorious as they conducted air operations off the coast of Norway in support of Allied operations ashore . Fearless was detached to refuel at Sullom Voe on the 28th and rejoined the screen two days later . The ship was under repair from 15 May to 10 June at Middlesbrough . A week later , she was escorting the battlecruiser Hood and Ark Royal , together with her sisters Faulknor and Foxhound and the destroyer Escapade , from Scapa Flow to Gibraltar where they would form Force H.
= = = Force H , 1940 – 41 = = =
On 3 July she took part in the attack on the French Fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir ( Operation Catapult ) . A month later the ship escorted Force H during Operation Hurry , a mission to fly off fighter aircraft for Malta and conduct an airstrike on Cagliari on 2 August . Two days later , while returning to the UK , Fearless collided with the trawler Flying Wing and was repaired at the Barclay Curle shipyard in Scotstoun between 10 August and 11 October . On 30 October she was involved in another collision with SS Lanark at Greenock that fractured her stern . More repairs followed at Troon , and Fearless did not rejoin Force H at Gibraltar until 18 January 1941 .
On 31 January , Force H departed Gibraltar to carry out Operation Picket , an unsuccessful night torpedo attack by eight of Ark Royal 's Fairey Swordfish on the Tirso Dam in Sardinia . The British ships returned to Gibraltar on 4 February and began preparing for Operation Grog , a naval bombardment of Genoa , that was successfully carried out five days later . At the end of March , together with the light cruiser HMS Sheffield and three other destroyers , the ship attempted to intercept a Vichy French convoy that included the freighter SS Bangkok , supposedly laden with 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 953 long tons ; 3 @,@ 307 short tons ) of rubber , which had already been unloaded . Fearless was ordered to board and capture Bangkok , but she was thwarted by gunfire from a coast @-@ defence battery off the port of Nemours , Algeria . A few days later , Fearless and four other destroyers escorted Sheffield , the battlecruiser Renown , and Ark Royal in Operation Winch , which delivered 12 Hurricane fighters to Malta .
In early May she was part of the destroyer screen with five other destroyers for the battleship Queen Elizabeth , and the light cruisers Naiad , Fiji and Gloucester which were joining the Mediterranean Fleet . This was part of Operation Tiger which included a supply convoy taking tanks to the Middle East and the transfer of warships . Fearless and her sisters had their Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear rigged to allow them to serve as a fast minesweepers en route to Malta . Despite this , one merchant ship was sunk by mines and another damaged . The ship escorted another flying @-@ off mission to Malta on 14 June ; two days later , after German blockade runners reached France , Force H sortied into the Atlantic on a failed search for more blockade runners . Together with her sisters Faulknor , Foresight , Forester and Foxhound , Fearless helped to sink U @-@ 138 on 18 June . Four days later , the 8th DF was tasked to intercept a German supply ship spotted heading towards the French coast . The next day they intercepted MS Alstertor which was scuttled by her crew upon the approach of the British ships . They rescued 78 British POWs taken from ships sunk by German raiders and the crew .
Another Malta convoy ( Operation Substance ) was conducted in mid @-@ July , heavily escorted by Force H and elements of the Home Fleet . Fearless was torpedoed by an Italian Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bomber at 09 : 45 on 23 July . The detonation killed 27 and wounded 11 of her crew , set the aft oil tank on fire , and knocked out all power and the port propeller shaft . Forester closed to render assistance , but the ship could not be saved under the circumstances . Her crew were taken off by her sister @-@ ship , which then sank the wrecked and burning ship with torpedoes at 10 : 57 , about 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Bône , Algeria , in position 37 ° 40 ′ N 08 ° 20 ′ E.
Lasterle , Philippe . " Could Admiral Gensoul Have Averted the Tragedy of Mers el @-@ Kebir ? . " Journal of Military History ( 2003 ) 67 # 3 pp 835 – 844 @.@ online
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= Maryland Route 30 =
Maryland Route 30 ( MD 30 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as Hanover Pike , the highway runs 19 @.@ 16 miles ( 30 @.@ 84 km ) from MD 140 in Reisterstown north to the Pennsylvania state line near Melrose , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 94 ( PA 94 ) . MD 30 is a major , two @-@ lane regional highway in western Baltimore County and northeastern Carroll County . Locally , the highway serves the towns of Manchester and Hampstead ; the latter town is bypassed by the highway but served by a business route . Regionally , MD 30 connects Reisterstown and Baltimore with Hanover , Pennsylvania .
MD 30 originated in the colonial era as part of a wagon road connecting the fledgling port of Baltimore with the new settlement that was to become Hanover . This highway was improved as a turnpike in the 19th century . MD 30 was constructed as a state road by the Maryland State Roads Commission in the late 1910s and early 1920s , and it became one of the original state @-@ numbered highways in 1927 . The state highway was relocated and widened near Reisterstown in the late 1930s and along the rest of its route in the early 1950s . The Hampstead Bypass was planned as early as the 1960s to ameliorate the increasing congestion along the MD 30 corridor that was only exacerbated when I @-@ 795 was completed to Reisterstown in the late 1980s . However , the construction of the bypass was continually delayed due to environmental issues and politics . The bypass was finally constructed between 2006 and 2009 ; the old highway through Hampstead became MD 30 Business . A MD 30 bypass of Manchester has also been discussed since the 1960s , but the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) has no plans to construct the new highway in the foreseeable future .
= = Route description = =
MD 30 begins within the Reisterstown Historic District at an intersection with MD 140 , which heads south as Main Street and northwest as Westminster Pike . The state highway heads north as two @-@ lane Hanover Pike through a residential area to a four @-@ way intersection with MD 128 ( Butler Road ) and unsigned MD 795 , a connector between MD 30 and the northern terminus of I @-@ 795 ( Northwest Expressway ) at MD 140 that serves as a bypass of Reisterstown for MD 30 traffic . As the highway leaves Reisterstown , Old Hanover Pike splits to the northeast and MD 30 crosses over the Maryland Midland Railway . Old Hanover Pike reconnects with the state highway where the highway briefly parallels CSX 's Hanover Subdivision and passes to the east of the Montrose Mansion and Chapel . At the hamlet of Woodensburg , the old road splits northeast again to follow the railroad through the village of Boring . The railroad and old road return to MD 30 again just north of the state highway 's intersection with MD 91 ( Emory Road ) . MD 30 parallels the railroad through the community of Upperco , which is also known as Arcadia , before crossing the Baltimore – Carroll county line .
Shortly after entering Carroll County , MD 30 curves northwest and meets the southern end of MD 30 Business ( Hanover Pike ) and Phillips Drive at a roundabout . While the business route heads north through the center of Hampstead , MD 30 passes to the west of the town on the Hampstead Bypass , which has two lanes but expands to a three- or four @-@ lane divided highway for short stretches on either side of its roundabouts . The state highway passes under Houcksville Road and over Shiloh Road before meeting MD 482 ( Hampstead – Mexico Road ) at a roundabout . MD 30 reunites with the northern end of MD 30 Business at a roundabout in the community of Greenmount . The state highway , once again named Hanover Pike , has a short four @-@ lane divided section through a commercial area before reducing to two lanes .
MD 30 enters the town of Manchester as Main Street as the highway passes by Manchester Valley High School . In the center of town , the highway intersects Westminster Street and York Street ; along the latter street is Charlotte 's Quest Nature Center . MD 30 meets the northern end of MD 27 ( Manchester Road ) on the northern edge of downtown and the southern end of MD 86 ( Lineboro Road ) at the north town limit . There is no direct access from southbound MD 30 to northbound MD 86 ; that movement is made via Hallie Avenue , the next intersection to the south . MD 30 crosses Dug Hill Ridge just north of MD 86 and passes through the community of Melrose , where the highway intersects MD 496 ( Bachmans Valley Road ) and Wentz Road . The state highway follows the upper reaches of the South Branch of Gunpowder Falls through a ridge to the river 's source before reaching its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania state line . The highway continues as PA 94 ( Baltimore Pike ) through southwestern York County to Hanover .
MD 30 is a part of the main National Highway System for its entire length except for the short segment in Reisterstown south of MD 128 and MD 795 ; that short segment is a National Highway System principal arterial .
= = History = =
= = = Wagon road to state highway = = =
The first road along the corridor of MD 30 was a wagon road cut along an existing Indian trail in 1736 and 1737 to connect the Conewago Settlement , which later became Hanover , with Baltimore Town , which served as a much closer port for farmers and merchants in York County and Adams County , Pennsylvania , than Philadelphia . This road became known as the Conewago Road , Pack Horse Road , or the Wheelbarrow Road , the last due to the namesake implements being used to haul stones to widen the road by order of Maryland in 1793 . The highway became a toll road with the 1805 incorporation of the Baltimore and Reisterstown Turnpike Company , which operated between the two towns and split into Westminster and Hanover branches in Reisterstown . The latter branch became known as the Hanover Turnpike or the Baltimore and Hanover Turnpike and had ceased to collect tolls by 1899 .
Work on modern MD 30 began in 1918 with the construction of a 39 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) -wide street through Reisterstown and a 15 @-@ to @-@ 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 m ) concrete road north from Reisterstown to Woodensburg . By 1921 , the whole length of future MD 30 was planned for improvement and the concrete road had been extended to the southern end of Hampstead ; in addition , Main Street in Manchester had been paved in concrete . Main Street in Hampstead was rebuilt as a concrete street and the remainder of the highway to the Pennsylvania line , excluding Main Street in Manchester , was completed as a macadam road in 1923 . MD 30 was one of the original state @-@ numbered highways marked in 1927 .
By 1934 , the entire length of MD 30 was proposed to be widened from its existing width of 15 to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The only major relocation of MD 30 in the 20th century was the elimination of a grade crossing at the Western Maryland Railway ( now the Maryland Midland Railway ) at Glen Morris . The present bridge over the railroad was completed in 1936 , but the relocated highway , which replaced what is now Old Hanover Road to the east , was not placed under construction until 1938 and did not open until 1939 . MD 30 was widened from Hampstead south to the Baltimore – Carroll county line in 1938 with a pair of 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) -wide macadam shoulders , expanding the road 's width to 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . MD 30 was relocated in a few spots , widened , and resurfaced from the county line north to Manchester in 1950 , from the county line south to the north end of the Glen Morris relocation in 1951 and 1952 , and from Manchester north to the Pennsylvania state line in 1953 and 1954 .
= = = Bypasses of Hampstead and Manchester = = =
A MD 30 bypass of Hampstead has been contemplated since the 1940s and planned since at least 1960 . The heavy traffic along the highway consisted of three types of highway users : local traffic made up of people who had moved to Hampstead or Manchester for the municipalities ' small @-@ town charm ; regional traffic comprising people who had moved to Pennsylvania for cheaper housing and lower taxes but continued to work in the Baltimore area ; and truck traffic serving local industry and making connections between Baltimore and Hanover . The increase in congestion on MD 30 accelerated with the completion of I @-@ 795 in 1987 . By the early 1990s , it took as long as 15 minutes for motorists to pass through each of the towns during rush hour ; an average of 20 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 motorists used the highway through Hampstead each day by 2001 . Progress toward construction of the bypass was continually delayed . The bypass was removed from MDSHA plans by 1979 . The Hampstead Bypass had returned to state plans by 1990 , when engineering and design work was underway and construction was planned to begin in 1992 . However , in 1991 , the bypass was shelved for six years for lack of funding .
There have been several causes of the continual postponement of the bypass . In 1991 , heavy groundwater contamination by industrial chemicals was discovered near the southern end of the proposed route , then 5 @.@ 8 miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) long , at a Black & Decker factory and near the northern end of the planned route at a shopping center . The bypass route changed again in 1994 when a population of bog turtles was discovered along the bypass route . The bog turtle has been on the Maryland endangered species list since 1972 and was added to the " threatened " list under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1997 . In 1998 , the route of the Hampstead Bypass changed a third time when the bog turtle habitat was found to be larger than previously discovered . Delays were also ascribed to the state 's political climate . Carroll County is a heavily Republican county in a heavily Democratic state , and until the election of Bob Ehrlich as governor in 2002 , the state had not had a Republican governor since Spiro Agnew left office in 1969 . Local sentiment was that the county was relatively neglected and did not get its fair share of state highway funding for close to 40 years .
By 1997 , the start of construction of the Hampstead Bypass was proposed for three to four years in the future ; at that time , most of the engineering phase was complete but most of the highway right @-@ of @-@ way had yet to be purchased . The three @-@ year timeframe was again put forth in 2001 . Finally , in 2004 , officials announced that the bypass would begin construction in autumn 2005 . Construction finally got underway in summer 2006 . Houcksville Road 's bridge over the bypass and the highway 's bridges over Shiloh Road and Indian Run were completed in 2007 . The roundabouts at MD 482 and at the southern end of the bypass opened , without connections to the under @-@ construction bypass , in April and May of 2009 , respectively . The roundabout at the northern end of the bypass opened when the bypass opened to traffic on August 6 , 2009 . To minimize disruption to the bog turtle habitat , MDSHA installed tunnels under the bypass for the turtles to use and employed goats to consume invasive species in the habitat area near the bypass rather than remove them with mechanical mowers . Old MD 30 through the center of Hampstead was redesignated MD 30 Business when the bypass opened .
Since as early as 1967 , local officials have discussed building a Manchester bypass , either as a separate project or as part of a road bypassing both Hampstead and Manchester . However , by the mid @-@ 1970s , the town of Manchester decided it did not want the bypass . The bypass was planned to pass to the west of Manchester , but the town allowed a residential subdivision to be built along the bypass route . The planned bypass route was eventually changed to be east of town . After two decades of disagreement by the town and county over the path of the bypass , in 1993 the bypass was placed in the town 's master plan . However , state support for the Manchester bypass was scrapped in 1998 by Smart Growth proponent and governor Parris Glendening , who said the bypass would promote suburban sprawl . The Manchester Bypass is neither in the Maryland Department of Transportation 's Consolidated Transportation Program for 2012 to 2017 nor in MDSHA 's 2011 Highway Needs Inventory for the next 20 years .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Hampstead business route = = =
Maryland Route 30 Business is a 4 @.@ 00 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 44 km ) business route of MD 30 through Hampstead . The business route begins at a four @-@ leg roundabout with MD 30 , which heads south as Hanover Pike and northwest as the Hampstead Bypass , and Phillips Drive . MD 30 Business parallels CSX 's Hanover Subdivision through an industrial area that contains the headquarters of JoS . A. Bank Clothiers . The highway 's name changes from Hanover Pike to Main Street as it enters the town of Hampstead at an oblique grade crossing of the railroad . At the south end of downtown , MD 30 Business intersects the western ends of MD 88 ( Lower Beckleysville Road ) and MD 833 ( Black Rock Road ) . Gill Avenue is used to access eastbound MD 833 and the historic Hampstead School . North of downtown , the highway meets the eastern end of MD 482 ( Hampstead – Mexico Road ) and has another acute grade crossing of the Hanover Subdivision before exiting the town and becoming Hanover Pike again . In the community of Greenmount , the railroad veers away to the northeast and MD 30 Business veers northwest to its northern terminus at a three @-@ leg roundabout with MD 30 , which heads southwest as the Hampstead Bypass and north as Hanover Pike toward Manchester . The highway is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from the southern junction with MD 30 to MD 88 . MD 30 Business was created on August 6 , 2009 , along the former alignment of MD 30 through the town after MD 30 was relocated onto the Hampstead Bypass . Now that MD 30 has bypassed Hampstead , a streetscape project is planned to rebuild Main Street through town starting in 2014 or 2015 .
= = = Auxiliary routes = = =
MD 30 has two extant auxiliary routes and has had at least two such routes in the past .
MD 30BC is the designation for the 0 @.@ 05 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 080 km ) connector between MD 30 Business and MD 30BZ in Greenmount just south of the northern end of the Hampstead Bypass . MD 30BC was assigned in 2009 upon the completion of the bypass .
MD 30BZ is the designation for the 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) segment of Hanover Pike from a cul @-@ de @-@ sac north to where the highway turns east into a shopping center in Greenmount just south of the northern end of the Hampstead Bypass . The auxiliary route was part of MD 30 prior to the completion of the bypass in 2009 , when the route was assigned .
MD 30C was the designation of the 0 @.@ 05 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 080 km ) segment of Doss Garland Drive from Phillips Drive to the county @-@ maintained portion of Doss Garland Drive just west of the southern end of the Hampstead Bypass . The highway was assigned upon the completion of the bypass in 2009 and transferred to Carroll County maintenance in 2010 .
MD 30D was the designation for 0 @.@ 18 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 29 km ) segment of Phillips Drive between its roundabout junction with MD 30 and MD 30 Business at the southern end of the Hampstead Bypass south to Wolf Hill Drive . The highway was assigned upon the completion of the bypass in 2009 and transferred to Carroll County maintenance in 2010 .
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= The Complete Studio Albums ( 1983 – 2008 ) =
The Complete Studio Albums ( 1983 – 2008 ) is a box set by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released by Warner Bros. Records on March 26 , 2012 , to coincide with the release of her twelfth studio album , MDNA . The eleven @-@ disc box set was released in Europe and Japan , and included all of Madonna 's studio albums from the years 1983 to 2008 . The album artwork consisted of a collage of the album covers , housed in a gold box , it also included a Parental Advisory sticker due to the inclusion of the albums Erotica ( 1992 ) and American Life ( 2003 ) . On the same date , Warner Bros. released and reprinted another box set titled Madonna : Original Album Series which included five discs .
After its release , The Complete Studio Albums ( 1983 – 2008 ) received mixed reception from reviewers , who complimented the overall packaging of the box set , but hoped that the record label would have included Madonna 's other songs also . The box set charted in multiple nations including Croatia , Finland , France , Italy , Korea , Mexico , Netherlands , Spain , Sweden and United Kingdom . It entered the top @-@ ten of the Japanese Oricon album chart . The same week , MDNA was also present in the top @-@ ten , making Madonna the first female artist from a Western country to have two albums in the chart 's top @-@ ten .
= = Background = =
On March 6 , 2012 , Madonna 's official website announced that her former record company , Warner Bros. Records ( 1982 – 2009 ) , was to release and reprint the eleven @-@ disc box set . It was released to coincide and on the same date as the 2012 studio album MDNA in the United States . The set includes every previous studio album Madonna had released ; the remastered versions of Madonna ( 1983 ) , Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) and True Blue ( 1986 ) , plus the original versions of Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) , Erotica ( 1992 ) , Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) , Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , Music ( 2000 ) , American Life ( 2003 ) , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) and Hard Candy ( 2008 ) with each disc housed in a cardboard sleeve . To complement the release of the box set , iTunes sold every Madonna studio album digitally for £ 3 @.@ 95 for a limited time in the UK . On the same day as its release , Warner Bros. released another box set Madonna : Original Album Series which included five discs ; the remastered version of True Blue , Like a Prayer , Ray of Light , Music and Confessions on a Dance Floor .
The box set also carries the logos for her other former record companies ; Sire Records ( 1982 – 1995 ) and Maverick Records ( 1992 – 2004 ) . It is her third greatest hits box set to be released after The Royal Box ( 1991 ) which was a limited edition of The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and CD Single Collection ( 1996 ) which was released exclusively in Japan and included forty 3 " CD singles , from " Burning Up " ( 1983 ) to " One More Chance " ( 1996 ) , housed in a deluxe black glossy box .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , the box set debuted at number seventy on the UK Albums Chart and sold 2 @,@ 055 copies . Madonna 's total for album sales for the 21st century in the United Kingdom is 7 @,@ 279 @,@ 423 , making her one of the biggest selling acts of this period . In Japan it sold 13 @,@ 000 copies and debuted at number nine ( and MDNA at number four ) making Madonna the first international female artist in Japanese chart history to have two albums in the top ten simultaneously and the first international artist in 20 years to achieve such feat , after Bruce Springsteen , who occupied two simultaneous top @-@ ten albums in 1992 with Human Touch and Lucky Town . With this feat , Madonna has accumulated 22 top @-@ ten albums in Japan , more than any other international artist . On the South Korean International chart , it debuted and peaked at number 81 , selling around 200 copies . It was certified gold in Poland by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry ( ZPAV ) for shipment of 10 @,@ 000 copies of the box set .
= = Critical reception = =
Mike Diver from the BBC News gave the box set a positive review , commenting that " this is pop history , a document of the most powerful female force in the music industry as she began her ascent , achieved superstar status , overcame a couple of hiccups , and ultimately landed in the 00s as every fledgling pop idol 's ultimate mother figure . " He also mentioned the absence of tracks " Into the Groove " ( only available on the 1985 reissue of Like a Virgin ) , " Vogue " ( from 1990 's I 'm Breathless soundtrack ) and " Justify My Love " ( from 1990 's The Immaculate Collection ) may disappoint some fans . Robin Murray from Clash noted that while it traced " the evolution of a pop phenomenon " , he felt it needed bonus materials . Andy Kellman from AllMusic was more ambivalent in his reception of the box set , stating that the release is more suitable for " voracious newcomers than longtime followers " .
Describing the packaging , Kellman noted that it " was sharp but not elaborate — a clamshell box with each disc packaged in a paper LP @-@ replica sleeve . While the box is a convenient and reasonably priced way to obtain most of Madonna 's releases , an investment of that scope should entail all the stray hits from the same era . This really could have used a 12th disc " , for adding all the other songs released by Madonna . The BBC described the packaging as a " no @-@ frills affair — CDs are housed in cardboard sleeves that won 't stand up to house @-@ party punishment " Clash commented on the packaging more favorably , describing it as " fairly lavish " .
= = Track listing = =
The box set consists of eleven studio albums from her career with Warner Bros. Records ( 1982 – 2009 ) and its divisions Sire Records ( 1982 – 1995 ) and Maverick Records ( 1992 – 2003 ) .
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
^ c signifies an additional producer and remixer
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Endgame tablebase =
An endgame tablebase is a computerized database that contains precalculated exhaustive analysis of chess endgame positions . It is typically used by a computer chess engine during play , or by a human or computer that is retrospectively analysing a game that has already been played .
The tablebase contains the game @-@ theoretical value ( win , loss , or draw ) of each possible move in each possible position , and how many moves it would take to achieve that result with perfect play . Thus , the tablebase acts as an oracle , always providing the optimal moves . Typically the database records each possible position with certain pieces remaining on the board , and the best moves with White to move and with Black to move .
Tablebases are generated by retrograde analysis , working backwards from a checkmated position . By 2005 , all chess positions with up to six pieces ( including the two kings ) had been solved . By August 2012 , tablebases had solved chess for every position with up to seven pieces ( the positions with a lone king versus a king and five pieces were omitted because they were considered uninteresting ) .
The solutions have profoundly advanced the chess community 's understanding of endgame theory . Some positions which humans had analyzed as draws were proven to be winnable ; the tablebase analysis could find a mate in more than five hundred moves , far beyond the horizon of humans , and beyond the capability of a computer during play . For this reason , they have also called into question the 50 move rule since many positions are now seen to exist that are a win for one side but would be drawn because of the 50 move rule . Tablebases have enhanced competitive play and facilitated the composition of endgame studies . They provide a powerful analytical tool .
While endgame tablebases for other board games like checkers , chess variants or Nine Men 's Morris exist , when a game is not specified , it is assumed to be chess .
= = Background = =
Physical limitations of computer hardware aside , in principle it is possible to solve any game under the condition that the complete state is known and there is no random chance . Strong solutions , i.e. algorithms that can produce perfect play from any position , are known for some simple games such as Tic Tac Toe / Noughts and crosses ( draw with perfect play ) and Connect Four ( first player wins ) . Weak solutions exist for somewhat more complex games , such as checkers ( with perfect play on both sides the game is known to be a draw , but it is not known for every position created by less @-@ than @-@ perfect play what the perfect next move would be ) . Other games , such as chess ( from the starting position ) and Go , have not been solved because their game complexity is too vast for computers to evaluate all possible positions . To reduce the game complexity , researchers have modified these complex games by reducing the size of the board , or the number of pieces , or both .
Computer chess is one of the oldest domains of artificial intelligence , having begun in the early 1930s . Claude Shannon proposed formal criteria for evaluating chess moves in 1949 . In 1951 , Alan Turing designed a primitive chess playing program , which assigned values for material and mobility ; the program " played " chess based on Turing 's manual calculations . However , even as competent chess programs began to develop , they exhibited a glaring weakness in playing the endgame . Programmers added specific heuristics for the endgame – for example , the king should move to the center of the board . However , a more comprehensive solution was needed .
In 1965 , Richard Bellman proposed the creation of a database to solve chess and checkers endgames using retrograde analysis . Instead of analyzing forward from the position currently on the board , the database would analyze backward from positions where one player was checkmated or stalemated . Thus , a chess computer would no longer need to analyze endgame positions during the game because they were solved beforehand . It would no longer make mistakes because the tablebase always played the best possible move .
In 1970 , Thomas Ströhlein published a doctoral thesis with analysis of the following classes of endgame : KQK , KRK , KPK , KQKR , KRKB , and KRKN . In 1977 Thompson 's KQKR database was used in a match versus Grandmaster Walter Browne .
Ken Thompson and others helped extend tablebases to cover all four- and five @-@ piece endgames , including in particular KBBKN , KQPKQ , and KRPKR . Lewis Stiller published a thesis with research on some six @-@ piece tablebase endgames in 1995 .
More recent contributors have included the following people :
Eugene Nalimov , after whom the popular Nalimov tablebases are named ;
Eiko Bleicher , who has adapted the tablebase concept to a program called " Freezer " ( see below ) ;
Guy Haworth , an academic at the University of Reading , who has published extensively in the ICGA Journal and elsewhere ;
Marc Bourzutschky and Yakov Konoval , who have collaborated to analyze endgames with seven pieces on the board ;
Peter Karrer , who constructed a specialized seven @-@ piece tablebase ( KQPPKQP ) for the endgame of the Kasparov versus The World online match ;
Vladimir Makhnychev and Victor Zakharov from Moscow State University , who completed 4 + 3 DTM @-@ tablebases ( 525 endings including KPPPKPP ) in July 2012 . The tablebases are named Lomonosov tablebases . The next set of 5 + 2 DTM @-@ tablebases ( 350 endings including KPPPPKP ) was completed during August 2012 . The high speed of generating the tablebases was because of using a supercomputer named Lomonosov ( top500 ) . The size of all tablebases up to seven @-@ man is about 140 TB .
The tablebases of all endgames with up to six pieces are available for free download , and may also be queried using web interfaces ( see the external links below ) . Nalimov tablebase requires more than one terabyte of storage space .
= = Generating tablebases = =
= = = Metrics : Depth to conversion and depth to mate = = =
Before creating a tablebase , a programmer must choose a metric of optimality – in other words , he must define at what point a player has " won " the game . Every position can be defined by its distance ( i.e. the number of moves ) from the desired endpoint . Two metrics are generally used :
Depth to mate ( DTM ) . A checkmate is the only way to win a game .
Depth to conversion ( DTC ) . The stronger side can also win by capturing material , thus converting to a simpler endgame . For example , in KQKR , conversion occurs when White captures the Black rook .
Haworth has discussed two other metrics , namely " depth to zeroing @-@ move " ( DTZ ) and " depth by the rule " ( DTR ) . A zeroing @-@ move is a move which resets the move count to zero under the fifty @-@ move rule , i.e. mate , a capture , or a pawn move . These metrics support the fifty @-@ move rule , but DTR tablebases have not yet been computed . As of April 1 , 2013 , 5- and 6 @-@ man DTZ tablebases have been generated by Ronald de Man ; both tablebases and generation code are available for download .
The difference between DTC and DTM can be understood by analyzing the diagram at right . How White should proceed depends on which metric is used .
According to the DTC metric , White should capture the rook because that leads immediately to a position which will certainly win ( DTC |
= 1 ) , but it will take two more moves actually to checkmate ( DTM =
3 ) . In contrast according to the DTM metric , White mates in two moves , so DTM |
= DTC =
2 .
This difference is typical of many endgames . Usually DTC is smaller than DTM , but the DTM metric leads to the quickest checkmate . Exceptions occur where the weaker side has only a king , and in the unusual endgame of two knights versus one pawn ; then DTC = DTM because either there is no defending material to capture or capturing the material does no good . ( Indeed , capturing the defending pawn in the latter endgame results in a draw . )
= = = Step 1 : Generating all possible positions = = =
Once a metric is chosen , the first step is to generate all the positions with a given material . For example , to generate a DTM tablebase for the endgame of king and queen versus king ( KQK ) , the computer must describe approximately 40 @,@ 000 unique legal positions .
Levy and Newborn explain that the number 40 @,@ 000 derives from a symmetry argument . The Black king can be placed on any of ten squares : a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 , b2 , c2 , d2 , c3 , d3 , and d4 ( see diagram ) . On any other square , its position can be considered equivalent by symmetry of rotation or reflection . Thus , there is no difference whether a Black king in a corner resides on a1 , a8 , h8 , or h1 . Multiply this number of 10 by at most 60 ( legal remaining ) squares for placing the White king and then by at most 62 squares for the White queen . The product 10 × 60 × 62
= 37 @,@ 200 . Several hundred of these positions are illegal , impossible , or symmetrical reflections of each other , so the actual number is somewhat smaller .
For each position , the tablebase evaluates the situation separately for White @-@ to @-@ move and Black @-@ to @-@ move . Assuming that White has the queen , almost all the positions are White wins , with checkmate forced in not more than ten moves . Some positions are draws because of stalemate or the unavoidable loss of the queen .
Each additional piece added to a pawnless endgame multiplies the number of unique positions by about a factor of sixty which is the approximate number of squares not already occupied by other pieces .
Endgames with one or more pawns increase the complexity because the symmetry argument is reduced . Since pawns can move forward but not sideways , rotation and vertical reflection of the board produces a fundamental change in the nature of the position . The best calculation of symmetry is achieved by limiting one pawn to 24 squares in the rectangle a2 @-@ a7 @-@ d7 @-@ d2 . All other pieces and pawns may be located in any of the 64 squares with respect to the pawn . Thus , an endgame with pawns has a complexity of 24 / 10 =
2 @.@ 4 times a pawnless endgame with the same number of pieces .
= = = Step 2 : Evaluating positions using retrograde analysis = = =
Tim Krabbé explains the process of generating a tablebase as follows :
" The idea is that a database is made with all possible positions with a given material [ note : as in the preceding section ] . Then a subdatabase is made of all positions where Black is mated . Then one where White can give mate . Then one where Black cannot stop White giving mate next move . Then one where White can always reach a position where Black cannot stop him from giving mate next move . And so on , always a ply further away from mate until all positions that are thus connected to mate have been found . Then all of these positions are linked back to mate by the shortest path through the database . That means that , apart from ' equi @-@ optimal ' moves , all the moves in such a path are perfect : White 's move always leads to the quickest mate , Black 's move always leads to the slowest mate . "
The retrograde analysis is only necessary from the checkmated positions . Other positions need not be worked from because every position that is not reached from a checkmated position is a draw .
Figure 1 illustrates the idea of retrograde analysis . White mates in two moves with 1 . Kc6 , leading to the position in Figure 2 . Then if 1 ... Kb8 2 . Qb7 mate , and if 1 ... Kd8 2 . Qd7 mate ( Figure 3 ) .
Figure 3 , before White 's second move , is defined as " mate in one ply . " Figure 2 , after White 's first move , is " mate in two ply , " regardless of how Black plays . Finally , the initial position in Figure 1 is " mate in three ply " ( i.e. , two moves ) because it leads directly to Figure 2 , which is already defined as " mate in two ply . " This process , which links a current position to another position that could have existed one ply earlier , can continue indefinitely .
Each position is evaluated as a win or loss in a certain number of moves . At the end of the retrograde analysis , positions which are not designated as wins or losses are necessarily draws .
= = = Step 3 : Verification = = =
After the tablebase has been generated , and every position has been evaluated , the result must be verified independently . The purpose is to check the self @-@ consistency of the tablebase results .
For example , in Figure 1 above , the verification program sees the evaluation " mate in three ply ( Kc6 ) . " It then looks at the position in Figure 2 , after Kc6 , and sees the evaluation " mate in two ply . " These two evaluations are consistent with each other . If the evaluation of Figure 2 were anything else , it would be inconsistent with Figure 1 , so the tablebase would need to be corrected .
= = = Captures , pawn promotion , and special moves = = =
A four @-@ piece tablebase must rely on three @-@ piece tablebases that could result if one piece is captured . Similarly , a tablebase containing a pawn must be able to rely on other tablebases that deal with the new set of material after pawn promotion to a queen or other piece . The retrograde analysis program must account for the possibility of a capture or pawn promotion on the previous move .
Tablebases assume that castling is not possible for two reasons . First , in practical endgames , this assumption is almost always correct . ( However , castling is allowed by convention in composed problems and studies . ) Second , if the king and rook are on their original squares , castling may or may not be allowed . Because of this ambiguity , it would be necessary to make separate evaluations for states in which castling is or is not possible .
The same ambiguity exists for the en passant capture , since the possibility of en passant depends on the opponent 's previous move . However , practical applications of en passant occur frequently in pawn endgames , so tablebases account for the possibility of en passant for positions where both sides have at least one pawn .
= = = Using a priori information = = =
According to the method described above , the tablebase must allow the possibility that a given piece might occupy any of the 64 squares . In some positions , it is possible to restrict the search space without affecting the result . This saves computational resources and enables searches which would otherwise be impossible .
An early analysis of this type was published in 1987 , in the endgame KRP ( a2 ) KBP ( a3 ) , where the Black bishop moves on the dark squares ( see example position at right ) . In this position , we can make the following a priori assumptions :
1 . If a piece is captured , we can look up the resulting position in the corresponding tablebase with five pieces . For example , if the Black pawn is captured , look up the newly created position in KRPKB .
2 . The White pawn stays on a2 ; capture moves are handled by the 1st rule .
3 . The Black pawn stays on a3 ; capture moves are handled by the 1st rule .
The result of this simplification is that , instead of searching for 48 * 47 = 2 @,@ 256 permutations for the pawns ' locations , there is only one permutation . Reducing the search space by a factor of 2 @,@ 256 facilitates a much quicker calculation .
Bleicher has designed a commercial program called " Freezer , " which allows users to build new tablebases from existing Nalimov tablebases with a priori information . The program can produce a tablebase for positions with seven or more pieces with blocked pawns , even though tablebases for seven or more pieces are generally not available .
= = Applications = =
= = = Correspondence chess = = =
In correspondence chess , a player may consult a chess computer for assistance , provided that the etiquette of the competition allows this . A six @-@ piece tablebase ( KQQKQQ ) was used to analyze the endgame that occurred in the correspondence game Kasparov versus The World . Players have also used tablebases to analyze endgames from over @-@ the @-@ board play after the game is over .
Competitive players need to know that tablebases ignore the fifty @-@ move rule . According to that rule , if fifty moves have passed without a capture or a pawn move , either player may claim a draw . FIDE changed the rules several times , starting in 1974 , to allow one hundred moves for endgames where fifty moves were insufficient to win . In 1988 , FIDE allowed seventy @-@ five moves for KBBKN , KNNKP , KQKBB , KQKNN , KRBKR , and KQPKQ with the pawn on the seventh rank , because tablebases had uncovered positions in these endgames requiring more than fifty moves to win . In 1992 , FIDE canceled these exceptions and restored the fifty @-@ move rule to its original standing . Thus a tablebase may identify a position as won or lost , when it is in fact drawn by the fifty @-@ move rule . In 2013 , ICCF changed the rules for correspondence chess tournaments starting from 2014 ; a player may claim a win or draw based on six @-@ man tablebases . In this case the fifty @-@ move rule is not applied , and the number of moves to mate is not taken into consideration .
Haworth has designed a tablebase that produces results consistent with the fifty @-@ move rule . However most tablebases search for the theoretical limits of forced mate , even if it requires several hundred moves .
= = = Computer chess = = =
The knowledge contained in tablebases affords the computer a tremendous advantage in the endgame . Not only can computers play perfectly within an endgame , but they can simplify to a winning tablebase position from a more complicated endgame . For the latter purpose , some programs use " bitbases " which give the game @-@ theoretical value of positions without the number of moves until conversion or mate — that is , they only reveal whether the position is won , lost or draw . Sometimes even this data is compressed and the bitbase reveals only whether a position is won or not , making no difference between a lost and a drawn game . Shredderbases , for example , used by the Shredder program , are a type of bitbase which fits all three , four and five piece bitbases in 157 MB . This is a mere fraction of the 7 @.@ 05 GB that the Nalimov tablebases require . Some computer chess experts have observed practical drawbacks to the use of tablebases . In addition to ignoring the fifty @-@ move rule , a computer in a difficult position might avoid the losing side of a tablebase ending even if the opponent cannot practically win without himself knowing the tablebase . The adverse effect could be a premature resignation , or an inferior line of play that loses with less resistance than a play without tablebase might offer .
Another drawback is that tablebases require a lot of memory to store the many thousands of positions . The Nalimov tablebases , which use advanced compression techniques , require 7 @.@ 05 GB of hard disk space for all five @-@ piece endings . The six @-@ piece endings require approximately 1 @.@ 2 TB . It is estimated that seven @-@ piece tablebases will require between 50 and 200 TB of storage space . Some computers play better overall if their memory is devoted instead to the ordinary search and evaluation function . Modern engines analyze far enough ahead conventionally to handle the elementary endgames without needing tablebases ( i.e. without suffering from the horizon effect ) . It is only in more complicated endgames that tablebases will have any significant effect on an engine 's performance .
Syzygy tablebases were developed by Ronald de Man , released in April 2013 , in a form optimized for use by a chess program during search . This variety consists of two tables per endgame : a smaller WDL table ( win @-@ draw @-@ loss ) which contains knowledge of the 50 @-@ move rule , and a larger DTZ table ( distance to zero ply , i.e. pawn move or capture ) . The WDL tables were designed to be small enough to fit on a solid @-@ state drive for quick access during search , whereas the DTZ form is for use at the root position to choose the game @-@ theoretically quickest win instead of performing a search . Syzygy tablebases are available for all 5 piece endings and some 6 piece endings , and are now supported by many top engines , including Komodo 7 , Deep Fritz 14 , Houdini 4 , and Stockfish 6 .
= = = Endgame theory = = =
In contexts where the fifty @-@ move rule may be ignored , tablebases have answered longstanding questions about whether certain combinations of material are wins or draws . The following interesting results have emerged :
KBBKN — Bernhard Horwitz and Josef Kling ( 1851 ) proposed that Black can draw by entering a defensive fortress , but tablebases demonstrated a general win , with maximum DTC |
= 66 or 67 and maximum DTM =
78 . ( Also see pawnless chess endgame . )
KNNKP — Maximum DTC |
= DTM =
115 moves .
KNNNNKQ — The knights win in 62 @.@ 5 percent of positions , with maximum DTM = 85 moves .
KQRKQR — Despite the equality of material , the player to move wins in 67 @.@ 74 % of positions . The maximum DTC is 92 , and the maximum DTM is 117 . In both this endgame and KQQKQQ , the first player to check usually wins .
KRNKNN and KRBKNN — Friedrich Amelung had analyzed these two endgames in the 1900s . KRNKNN and KRBKNN are won for the strongest side in 78 % and 95 % of the cases , respectively . Stiller 's DTC tablebase revealed several lengthy wins in these endgames . The longest win in KRBKNN has a DTC of 223 and a DTM of 238 moves ( not shown ) . Even more amazing is the position at right , where White wins starting with 1 . Ke6 ! Stiller reported the DTC as 243 moves , and the DTM was later found to be 262 moves .
For some years , this position held the record for the longest computer @-@ generated forced mate . ( Otto Blathy had composed a " mate in 292 moves " problem in 1889 , albeit from an illegal starting position . ) However , in May 2006 , Bourzutschky and Konoval discovered a KQNKRBN position with an astonishing DTC of 517 moves . This was more than twice as long as Stiller 's maximum , and almost 200 moves beyond the previous record of a 330 DTC for a position of KQBNKQB _ 1001 . Bourzutschky wrote , " This was a big surprise for us and is a great tribute to the complexity of chess . " Later , a similar position was shown to have a DTM of 545 .
In August 2006 , Bourzutschky released preliminary results from his analysis of the following seven @-@ piece endgames : KQQPKQQ , KRRPKRR , and KBBPKNN .
Many positions are winnable although at first sight they appear to be non @-@ winnable . For example , this position is a win for Black in 154 moves ( during which the white pawn is liquidated after around eighty moves ) .
In this position the White pawn 's first move is at move 119 against optimal defense by Black .
= = = Endgame studies = = =
Since many composed endgame studies deal with positions that exist in tablebases , their soundness can be checked using the tablebases . Some studies have been cooked , i.e. proved unsound , by the tablebases . That can be either because the composer 's solution does not work , or else because there is an equally effective alternative that the composer did not consider . Another way tablebases cook studies is a change in the evaluation of an endgame . For instance , the endgame with a queen and bishop versus two rooks was thought to be a draw , but tablebases proved it to be a win for the queen and bishop , so almost all studies based on this endgame are unsound .
For example , Erik Pogosyants composed the study at right , with White to play and win . His intended main line was 1 . Ne3 Rxh2 2 . O @-@ O @-@ O # ! A tablebase discovered that 1 @.@ h4 also wins for White in 33 moves , even though Black can capture the pawn ( which is not the best move – in case of capturing the pawn black loses in 21 moves , while Kh1 @-@ g2 loses in 32 moves ) . Incidentally , the tablebase does not recognize the composer 's solution because it includes castling .
While tablebases have cooked some studies , they have assisted in the creation of other studies . Composers can search tablebases for interesting positions , such as zugzwang , using a method called data mining . For all three- to five @-@ piece endgames and pawnless six @-@ piece endgames , a complete list of mutual zugzwangs has been tabulated and published .
There has been some controversy whether to allow endgame studies composed with tablebase assistance into composing tourneys . In 2003 , the endgame composer and expert John Roycroft summarized the debate :
[ N ] ot only do opinions diverge widely , but they are frequently adhered to strongly , even vehemently : at one extreme is the view that since we can never be certain that a computer has been used it is pointless to attempt a distinction , so we should simply evaluate a ' study ' on its content , without reference to its origins ; at the other extreme is the view that using a ' mouse ' to lift an interesting position from a ready @-@ made computer @-@ generated list is in no sense composing , so we should outlaw every such position .
Roycroft himself agrees with the latter approach . He continues , " One thing alone is clear to us : the distinction between classical composing and computer composing should be preserved for as long as possible : if there is a name associated with a study diagram that name is a claim of authorship . "
Mark Dvoretsky , an International Master , chess trainer , and author , took a more permissive stance . He was commenting in 2006 on a study by Harold van der Heijden , published in 2001 , which reached the position at right after three introductory moves . The drawing move for White is 4 . Kb4 ! ! ( and not 4 . Kb5 ) , based on a mutual zugzwang that may occur three moves later .
Dvoretsky comments :
Here , we should touch on one delicate question . I am sure that this unique endgame position was discovered with the help of Thompson ’ s famous computer database . Is this a ' flaw , ' diminishing the composer 's achievement ?
Yes , the computer database is an instrument , available to anyone nowadays . Out of it , no doubt , we could probably extract yet more unique positions – there are some chess composers who do so regularly . The standard for evaluation here should be the result achieved . Thus : miracles , based upon complex computer analysis rather than on their content of sharp ideas , are probably of interest only to certain aesthetes .
= = " Play chess with God " = =
On the Bell Labs website , Ken Thompson maintains a link to some of his tablebase data . The headline reads , " Play chess with God . "
Regarding Stiller 's long wins , Tim Krabbé struck a similar note :
A grandmaster wouldn 't be better at these endgames than someone who had learned chess yesterday . It 's a sort of chess that has nothing to do with chess , a chess that we could never have imagined without computers . The Stiller moves are awesome , almost scary , because you know they are the truth , God 's Algorithm – it 's like being revealed the Meaning of Life , but you don 't understand one word .
= = Nomenclature = =
Originally , an endgame tablebase was called an " endgame data base " or " endgame database " . This name appeared in both EG and the ICCA Journal starting in the 1970s , and is sometimes used today . According to Haworth , the ICCA Journal first used the word " tablebase " in connection with chess endgames in 1995 . According to that source , a tablebase contains a complete set of information , but a database might lack some information .
Haworth prefers the term " Endgame Table " , and has used it in the articles he has authored . Roycroft has used the term " oracle database " throughout his magazine , EG . Nonetheless , the mainstream chess community has adopted " endgame tablebase " as the most common name .
= = Books = =
John Nunn has written three books based on detailed analysis of endgame tablebases :
Nunn , John ( 1995 ) . " Secrets of Minor @-@ Piece Endings " . Batsford . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 4228 @-@ 8 .
Nunn , John ( 1999 ) . " Secrets of Rook Endings " ( 2nd ed . ) . Gambit Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 901983 @-@ 18 @-@ 8 .
Nunn , John ( 2002 ) . " Secrets of Pawnless Endings " ( 2nd ed . ) . Gambit Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 901983 @-@ 65 @-@ 4 .
= = Tables = =
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= The Psychology of The Simpsons =
The Psychology of The Simpsons : D 'oh ! is a non @-@ fiction book analyzing psychology themes in the television series The Simpsons . It contains content from several contributors , including psychologists , counselors and school therapists . The book was edited by Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan , and was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books . It has received praise from reviewers .
= = Background = =
The book was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books , and is part of their " Psychology of Popular Culture Series , " or " Smart Pop " for short . Other books in the series include works which analyze psychology and pop culture themes as related to Superman , the X @-@ Men , and The Matrix . The BenBella psychology series was inspired by a similar pop philosophy series from publisher Open Court Publishing Company . The editors of the book were Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan . Brown is a professor of psychology , and Logan is a lecturer in the field . The book is meant to appeal both to fans of The Simpsons , and academic students of psychology .
= = Content = =
The book contains content from twenty @-@ nine contributors , including psychologists , counselors , teachers and school therapists . It also includes content from Brown and Logan . General topics discussed in the work include family , alcohol abuse , relationships , self @-@ esteem , sex and gender , and personality . Specific topics in the field of psychology include clinical psychology , cognition , abnormal psychology , evolutionary psychology , gambling addiction , Pavlovian conditioning and family therapy . Contributor Denis M. McCarthy , assistant professor of psychology at the University of Missouri , analyzes risk factors for alcoholism presented in The Simpsons . McCarthy cites Bart 's passive @-@ avoidance learning as a risk factor , and notes that Maggie is at a high risk for substance abuse due to violent tendencies .
Though each chapter contains material comparing The Simpsons episodes to academic psychology themes , the chapter titles are less serious , including " Which One of Us is Truly Crazy " and " Looking For Mr. Smarty Pants . " Editor Chris Logan explained : " The book ’ s content is very serious , but it 's not presented in an overly serious way . " The Simpsons Archive also described the balance between humor and academia in the book , noting : " Fortunately , despite numerous references to various psychological theories and academic studies , the essays steer clear of becoming too serious , and manage to stay entertaining throughout the book . "
= = Reception = =
The book was received favorably in a publication of Southern Methodist University . In the introduction to an interview with one of the book 's editors , the interviewer noted : " Get past the goofy cover , with its illustration of Homer ’ s beer- and TV @-@ saturated brain , and you find analysis aimed at both TV viewers and students of psychology . " The book also received positive mention in The Times , where Andrew Billen wrote : " I can commend D 'Oh ! : The Psychology of The Simpsons and Reading The Sopranos , since both shows are sturdy enough to support the intellectual studies . " An article at The Simpsons Archive also wrote positively of the work : " The connection to the show and its events is solid and psychological points are illustrated using explanatory snippets from the Simpsons . "
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= Woman of the Year ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Woman of the Year " is the 17th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 23rd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 4 , 2010 . In the episode , Ron is presented with a woman of the year award , much to the frustration of Leslie . Meanwhile , Tom tries to seek investors in a nightclub ownership share , and April helps Andy look for an apartment .
The episode was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Jason Woliner . The script included a theme about the political nature of local awards . " Woman of the Year " featured guest appearances by Ben Schwartz as Jean @-@ Ralphio and Ian Roberts as Ian Winston , both of whom have appeared in the series in past episodes . Rashida Jones , a regular Parks and Recreation cast member who plays Ann Perkins , did not appear in " Woman of the Year " because she was filming scenes for the David Fincher film The Social Network .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Woman of the Year " was seen by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers , which marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . It tied a record set by the previous two episodes , " Sweetums " and " Galentine 's Day " , for the season 's highest rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , particularly for the character moments between Leslie and Ron .
= = Plot = =
The parks and recreation department receives a letter from the Pawnee chapter of the Indiana Organization of Women , which Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) believes is her congratulatory letter as the recipient of the group 's Dorothy Everton Smythe Woman of the Year award . Much to her surprise and disappointment , however , the award has actually gone to Ron ( Nick Offerman ) in recognition of town projects Leslie primarily developed . Ron secretly acknowledges the award as a ridiculous mistake . However , he uses the mistake as an opportunity to tease Leslie before later recommending her as the award recipient . Ron constantly brags about the award , even commissioning a professional photographer to take his official portrait for the award ceremony . Eventually , Ron admits he is joking and attempts to recommend Leslie for the award . However , the IOW director ( Maribeth Monroe ) reveals that a man was strategically chosen for the first time for marketing purposes . Frustrated with the politics of the awards , Leslie and Ron plan for him to make a disparaging acceptance speech condemning the awards . However , at the ceremony itself , Ron instead publicly presents the award to Leslie , to the frustration of the IOW director and members . The next day 's newspaper proclaims Ron the winner , with Leslie and Ron later deciding that the award is meaningless , anyway . The plaque is thrown into a wastebasket , where Leslie later secretly retrieves it .
In a subplot , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) drops off a temporary liquor license renewal at the Snakehole Lounge nightclub , where the owner Freddy ( Andy Milder ) tells him they are seeking investors who can buy a share for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Although he does not have the money , Tom reveals part @-@ ownership in a nightclub is a longtime dream of his , so he seeks assistance from his fast @-@ talking friend , Jean @-@ Ralphio ( Ben Schwartz ) , who contributes $ 5 @,@ 000 . Tom has $ 4 @,@ 000 of his own but still needs $ 1 @,@ 000 , so he seeks further help from his co @-@ workers . Donna ( Retta ) expresses an interest , but decides against it when she meets Jean @-@ Ralphio , of whom she immediately declares , " I hate that guy . " Meanwhile , when Andy 's ( Chris Pratt ) band @-@ mate Burly ( Andrew Burlinson ) tells Andy he can no longer live with him , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) helps Andy look for an apartment . They find one near her house , prompting a smitten April to note that they can carpool to work together . But when Andy learns Tom needs $ 1 @,@ 000 , he forgoes the apartment to give Tom the money as a gift . April is surprised by the choice and disappointed with the result . In the episode 's final scene , Tom is shown enjoying his nightclub part ownership , until he learns Donna has bought three shares herself .
= = Production = =
" Woman of the Year " was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Jason Woliner . It featured a guest appearance by Ben Schwartz as Jean @-@ Ralphio , a fast @-@ talking playboy character introduced in " The Set Up " . The episode also featured an appearance by comedian Ian Roberts , who worked with Amy Poehler on the Upright Citizens Brigade sketch comedy troupe . Roberts guest starred as Ian Winston , the coach of a girls ' soccer coach who complains to Leslie about a lack of field space during the episode 's cold open . Roberts previously appeared as the same character in the show 's pilot episode . Rashida Jones , a regular Parks and Recreation cast member who plays Ann Perkins , did not appear in " Woman of the Year " because she was filming scenes for The Social Network , a David Fincher film about the founding of the social @-@ networking website Facebook .
The " Woman of the Year " script included a theme about the political nature of awards , arguing despite the value and prestige people like Leslie assign to them , they are ultimately meaningless . Some commentators speculated this subplot served as a commentary about the meaninglessness of award ceremonies in the entertainment industry . " Woman of the Year " originally aired three days before the 82nd Academy Awards , prompting Entertainment Weekly to suggest it was a commentary about the Oscars , whereas others suggested the episode was a joke about how Parks and Recreation itself has failed to win any awards at the Golden Globes , Screen Actors Guild Awards or the Emmys .
Shortly after the episode aired , a copy of the " Pawnee Journal " newspaper article announcing Ron Swanson 's Woman of the Year award win , which was featured within the episode , was posted in a downloadable form on the " Pawnee , Indiana " website set up by NBC .
= = Cultural references = =
Although the Woman of the Year award is formally named after the fictional feminist leader Dorothy Everton Smythe , Ron mistakenly calls it the " Dorothy Everytime Smurf Girl Trophy for Excellence in Female Stuff " , a reference to the cartoon , The Smurfs . During one scene , Ron said he is attracted to strong and powerful women , prompting Leslie to point out Ron indeed attends a shocking number of Women 's National Basketball Association games . When Jean Ralphio tried to make a pass at April , she replied , " Don 't you work at Lady Foot Locker ? " , a women 's footwear retailer . Ron mistakenly refers to Leslie 's Camp Athena as " Camp Xena " , a reference to the protagonist from the fantasy adventure television series Xena : Warrior Princess . In seeking nightclub investments from his co @-@ workers , Tom presents a computer presentation with photos of several celebrities , including reality television stars Jon Gosselin and Nicole " Snooki " Polizzi . In defending his financial gift to Tom , Andy calls it an investment and compares himself to businessman Warren Buffett , incorrectly pronouncing the nickname like a dinner buffet . Tom aspires to open his own club called " Tom 's Bistro " , a reference to Jack 's Bistro , the restaurant Jack Tripper opens in the 1970s and 1980s sitcom , Three 's Company .
= = Reception = =
In its original American NBC broadcast on March 4 , 2010 , " Woman of the Year " was seen by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It drew a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , matching a series @-@ high rating in that age group shared with the episode " Sweetums " and " Galentine 's Day " . In overall viewers , " Woman of the Year " received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 5 share . This marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series , especially because " Woman of the Year " performed well despite direct competition from the popular reality television singing competition American Idol , which also aired during its time period .
" Woman of the Year " received generally positive reviews . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly called " Woman of the Year " one of the best episodes of the second season , particularly complimenting the one @-@ liner jokes and ensemble cast performances . Gonzalez said she particularly liked the " big brother @-@ little sister vibe " between Leslie and Ron . The Star @-@ Ledger television columnist Alan Sepinwall said " Woman of the Year " was well @-@ executed because revealing to the viewers that Ron was going to tease Leslie made his pranks more humorous and less mean @-@ spirited . Sepinwall also said the episode had several good moments for the supporting characters , including Andy 's selfless act toward Tom and Donna 's purchase of shares with the nightclub . The A.V. Club writer Steve Heisler said he liked that Ron genuinely cares for Leslie . Heisler said : " If he resented Leslie as much as he hinted at during season one , it 'd become an ongoing thorn in the show 's foot that during every single episode . [ ... ] Getting along is underrated in comedy . "
Steve Kandell of New York magazine said the episode felt like " a bit of a place @-@ holder " compared to other episodes in the season , but that " Woman of the Year " included amusing scenes and introduced new ways to mock bureaucracy " without every feeling like the sly satire it secretly is " . Kandell also said he enjoyed the jokes at Leslie 's and Jerry 's expense . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said every character was at their best , and that he particularly enjoyed Ron 's taunting of Leslie once it was made clear he was only joking . Gallagher said the " only thing about this episode I didn 't love " was the way the subplot involving Tom 's investment with the nightclub ended , because she felt it " started off strong , but kind of went nowhere . " Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode was not a stand @-@ out , but offered great character moments between Leslie and Ron . Fowler said Tom 's desire to live like a hip hop mogul was funny " but not always engaging " , and that he enjoyed the " little moments " between Andy and April .
= = DVD release = =
" Woman of the Year " , along with the other 23 second @-@ season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode . It also included a commentary track for " Woman of the Year " featuring Amy Poehler , Nick Offerman , Chris Pratt , Aubrey Plaza , Jim O 'Heir , Retta and series co @-@ creator Michael Schur .
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= Bani Zeid =
Bani Zeid ( Arabic : بني زيد ) is a Palestinian town in the Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh Governorate in the north @-@ central West Bank , located 27 kilometers ( 17 mi ) northwest of Ramallah , about 45 kilometers northwest of Jerusalem and about 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) southwest of Salfit . A town of over 5 @,@ 500 inhabitants , Bani Zeid was founded when the villages of Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima merged to form a municipality in 1966 during Jordanian rule . The town owes its name to the Arab tribe that was granted the area as a fief by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in the 12th century for having served in the Muslim army during the first Crusades . It was settled by members of the tribe alongside the native fellahin ( " peasantry " ) during the reign of Mamluk sultan Baibars in the mid @-@ 13th century . During Ottoman rule , the area of Bani Zeid served as a sheikdom with some administrative capacity . It consisted of several villages with Deir Ghassaneh as its center . During that time , the Barghouti family dominated the sheikdom .
During the 1936 – 39 Arab revolt against British Mandate rule , Deir Ghassaneh was the scene of rebel gatherings and British military raids . In 1967 , Bani Zeid was occupied by Israel during the Six @-@ Day War , but it was transferred to full Palestinian security and administrative control in 2000 . The next year it became the first Palestinian @-@ controlled town to be the site of major operation by Israeli forces during the Second Intifada . When Fathiya Barghouti Rheime was elected mayor in 2005 , Bani Zeid became the first Palestinian locality with a woman as head of the municipality , in concurrence with nearby Ramallah . The current mayor is Abdel Karim Abu Aql , elected in 2012 .
Historically , Bani Zeid 's economy was dependent on the olive crop , which was supplied to soap factories in Nablus . Until the present day , olive trees cover most of the town 's cultivable land . However , the residents of Bani Zeid today largely derive their income from employment in the civil service and private business . There are a number of archaeological sites in Bani Zeid , including the old town of Deir Ghassaneh , the manor of Sheikh Salih al @-@ Barghouti and the maqam ( " saintly person 's tomb " ) of Sheikh al @-@ Khawwas .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Deir Ghassaneh has been identified as the ancient Saredah ( also spelled Zeredah ) , hometown of Jeroboam . According to some sources , it was settled by the Ghassanids , an Arab Christian tribal confederation , after it was abandoned by the Israelites . English orientalist Edward Henry Palmer ( 1840 – 1882 ) thought the name meant " The monastery of the Ghassaneh [ Ghassanids ] " . However , according to Moshe Sharon ( b . 1937 ) , Israeli professor of Islamic history and civilisation , this claim has been dismissed by a number of researchers since the Ghassanids did not have a history of settlement in Samaria , the modern @-@ day northern West Bank . Sharon suggests that the name of the village is related to the Arabic word ghassaneh which means " very handsome " or suggests " youth and beauty " . Byzantine ceramics have been found in Deir Ghassaneh , and on the north side of Beit Rima . In addition , small fragments of a marble column were found in Deir Ghassaneh . In Beit Rima , sherds from the Iron Age I and IA II , Persian , Hellenistic , Roman , Byzantine , Crusader / Ayyubid , Mamluk and Early Ottoman remains have been found . In Deir Ghassaneh , sherds from all of the same periods , except Persian , have also been found .
According to Sharon , there is no mention of Deir Ghassaneh or Beit Rima in early Arabic sources , although it is known that Deir Ghassaneh was inhabited during the Mamluk period due to the many houses there that have preserved elements of Mamluk architecture . Specific examples include the use of the ablaq technique of alternating stones of different colors , particularly red and white , that decorate the facades and gates of some houses .
= = = Establishment of Bani Zeid tribe in Palestine = = =
The modern town of Bani Zeid receives its name from the Arab tribe of Bani Zeid , who settled in Palestine during the Ayyubid period in the late 12th @-@ century . They formed part of the Bedouin units of Saladin 's army that hailed from the Hejaz . After the Siege of Jerusalem in 1187 , Saladin 's forces captured the city and the Ayyubid army was garrisoned there . The Bani Zeid temporarily resided in Jerusalem and a street , located near the present @-@ day al @-@ Sa 'idia Street , was named after them , but has since been renamed .
In order for Saladin to persuade the Hejazi Arab tribes that joined his army to remain in Palestine , he offered each tribe a cluster of villages captured from the Crusaders as iqta ' ( fiefs ) to settle in and control . The Bani Zeid were granted the villages of Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima , as well as the nearby towns of Kafr Ein and Qarawa . However , it was not until 1293 , after the Bahri Mamluks under Sultan Baibars conquered the coastal strip of Palestine and expelled the last of the Crusaders , that the Bani Zeid tribe settled in those villages .
A Mamluk @-@ era ( 1260 – 1516 ) stone inscription belonging to an unidentified building in Deir Ghassaneh dating from 1330 describes a two @-@ story " felicitous palace " with a garden . The palace was apparently an asset of the Sultan al @-@ Nasir Muhammad and was inspected by Isa Muhammad al @-@ Qaymari , a low @-@ ranking emir from the Mosul region in charge of overseeing the personal assets of the sultan . In 1480 Deir Ghassaneh @-@ based tribesmen from the Bani Zeid attacked Jerusalem as retaliation for the governor 's execution of some of its members who had been accused of revolting against the Burji Mamluk authorities .
= = = Early Ottoman era = = =
During the Ottoman era in Palestine , the area where the Bani Zeid tribe settled became the nahiya ( subdistrict ) of Bani Zeid , part of the larger sanjak ( district ) of Quds ( Jerusalem ) . The nahiya contained over 20 towns and villages and had jurisdiction over a part of Salfit . While these villages were registered and organized like other villages in the Jerusalem Sanjak , they were also treated as a group . Each village was led by a ra 'is ( local chief ) and the entire Bani Zeid Nahiya was headed by a sheikh ( paramount chief ) . The Bani Zeid sheikdom would serve as a political @-@ administrative unit for the purposes of tax collection and army mobilization .
In 1556 the sheikdom was led by Sheikh Abu Rayyan bin Sheikh Manna , who was succeeded by Sheikh Muhammad Abu Rabban in 1560 . Olive oil was the primary commodity that Bani Zeid Nahiya produced and the product was sold to local Ottoman officials and soap factories in Nablus . The Ottomans imposed taxes on olive oil , wheat and barley , and the sheikh was responsible for paying the revenues of collected taxes to the Ottoman authorities . In addition , Bani Zeid was required to finance a waqf ( religious endowment ) to the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron . In 1596 both Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima appeared in Ottoman tax registers and both villages paid taxes on wheat , barley , olive trees , fruit trees , vineyards , goats and / or beehives . Deir Ghassaneh had a population of 76 households , all Muslim , while Beit Rima had 54 Muslim households and 14 Christian households . During the course of the 16th @-@ century , most of Beit Rima 's Christian inhabitants had emigrated from the village to Jerusalem , Ramla and Gaza , although the Christian population that remained continued to grow .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
In the 19th @-@ century Bani Zeid was one of 21 sheikdoms in the central highlands of Palestine . While its exact borders varied from time to time , it was generally marked by the Wadi al @-@ Dilb stream to the south , which separated it from the Bani Harith al @-@ Shamali sheikdom , and the Wadi Nattif stream to the north that separated it from Bilad Jamma 'in . The Bani Zeid sheikdom contained the highest slopes and the largest concentration of mountain faults of all the highland sheikdoms . About two @-@ thirds of its villages were situated on relatively wide hilltops while the remainder were built along slopes . None were located in the valleys or the foothills . In 1838 English biblical scholars Edward Robinson and Eli Smith noted that the Bani Zeid Nahiya consisted of 18 inhabited localities and four khirbas ( abandoned or ruined villages ) . They classified Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima as inhabited by Muslims .
In the early 19th @-@ century the paramount sheikhs of Bani Zeid were Sheikh Marif al @-@ Barghouti and Sheikh ' Asi al @-@ Rabbah Barghouti . They belonged to the wealthy noble family of al @-@ Barghouti , a sub @-@ clan of the Bani Zeid tribe that traditionally provided the leaders of the sheikdom . Its members were generally referred to as Baraghithah and the clan consisted of nine branches whose collective power extended beyond the Bani Zeid sheikdom to the coastal plain of Palestine . During the period of Khedivate Egyptian rule in the Levant ( 1832 – 1840 ) , Sheikh ' Abd al @-@ Jabir al @-@ Barghouti , a nephew of Sheikh Marif , served as the chief of the Bani Zeid . Sheikh ' Abd al @-@ Jabir belonged to the al @-@ Zahir branch of the family which was based in Deir Ghassaneh . Deir Ghassaneh served as the sheikdom 's qaryat al @-@ kursi ( throne village or capital ) . During the early part of Egyptian rule , Governor Ibrahim Pasha had Sheikh ' Abd al @-@ Jabir executed . He was succeeded by Sheikh Ali al @-@ Rabbah , another leading Barghouti sheikh and a son of Sheikh Asi . The latter was also subsequently executed on the orders of Ibrahim Pasha . Both sheikhs and their peasant fighters had fought against Egyptian rule during the 1834 Peasants ' Revolt that spread throughout Palestine . During the last years of Egyptian control , Sheikh Musa Ahmad al @-@ Sahwil of Abwein became the paramount sheikh of the Bani Zeid and continued to exercise great influence over the sheikdom when the Egyptian military withdrew from Palestine in 1841 .
In the second half of the 19th @-@ century Bani Zeid was officially ruled by Sheikh Salih al @-@ Barghouti , although he struggled to maintain full authority over the sheikdom , having to contend with his Abwein @-@ based rival Sheikh Musa and his family , al @-@ Sahwil . The latter controlled seven villages in the eastern part of the sheikdom , while the Barghouti maintained control over twelve villages in the western part . The two domains were separated by a wadi ( seasonal stream ) . Nonetheless , Sheikh Salih enjoyed high political and social status , holding the official title of sheikh al @-@ nahiya ( chief of the subdistrict ) and was also referred to locally as sheikh al @-@ mashayikh ( chief of the chieftains ) . The title ceased to be recognized by the Istanbul @-@ based central government in 1864 , but locally the title continued to demonstrate the guise of official authority . As sheikh al @-@ nahiya , Sheikh Salih was tasked with the nomination and dismissal of makhatir ( village headmen ) and maintaining order through local custom . He also served as the multazim ( tax collector ) of the Bani Zeid sheikdom on behalf of the Ottoman authorities , despite the ban on tax @-@ farming in 1853 . This role in particular enabled the Barghouti clan to acquire vast wealth and property either forcefully or through legal transfer . During previous inter @-@ family disputes , members of the clan had begun to settle in the surrounding villages of Beit Rima , Kobar and Deir Nidham .
As members of the Qais tribo @-@ political faction , in opposition to the Yaman faction , the Barghouti aligned themselves with Qaisi @-@ affiliated Bedouin tribes and other prominent families , including the Khalidi clan of Jerusalem , the ' Amr , ' Azza and ' Amla clans of the Hebron area and the Samhan clan of the Bani Harith nahiya to the north . In 1855 – 1856 tensions between Sheikh Salih and the leading families of Nablus broke out into fierce clashes . Sheikh Salih was eventually able to compel the Ottoman authorities to take the local rulers of Nablus to task . The restive sheikhs of the Jerusalem and Hebron regions were called to Damascus to conclude a lasting peace , but all were condemned to exile in Trabzon , northern Anatolia , with the exception of Sheikh Salih who apparently impressed the governor and was allowed to return to Deir Ghassaneh . The Barghouti clan would later support the Dar Hammad tribe against the Dar Hamid , both of which were engaged in a feud in nearby Silwad . In one day of fighting , 20 men were killed , prompting Sureya Pasha , the governor of Jerusalem , to personally intervene with a detachment of Ottoman troops which forced both factions to withdraw .
French explorer Victor Guérin visited both Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima in 1863 . He noted that the former had a population of roughly 900 and was built on a mountain overlooking hills filled with " magnificent " olive groves . Beit Rima had a smaller population of 350 , and was situated on a high plateau covered with olive and fig groves . The houses of both villages were constructed from red and white stone masonry and the mosque in Deir Ghassaneh , which Guérin regarded as noteworthy , was built from black and white stone . The home of Deir Ghassaneh 's sheikh , who maintained a level of sovereignty over about 15 villages and hamlets in the area , and the members of his family , were particularly large and sturdily built . According to Sharon , the sheikh Guérin had referred to was Sheikh Salih . It was around this time , in the late 1860s , that the prominent al @-@ Husayni clan of Jerusalem unsuccessfully attempted to form an alliance with the Barghouti clan , initially through diplomatic means . Afterward , they commissioned their allies in Istanbul to launch a propaganda campaign against the Barghouti clan , accusing them of undermining the sultan . This allegation was evidenced by the disruption of Jerusalem 's water supply by the peasant fighters of the Bani Zeid led by Sheikh Salih , who closed off the aqueduct from Solomon 's Pools to the south of Bethlehem .
In the 1887 census the Bani Zeid sheikdom consisted of 24 villages with an estimated collective population of 7 @,@ 700 , including 400 Christians . According to the census , Deir Ghassaneh had 1 @,@ 200 inhabitants living in 196 households , making it significantly larger than the surrounding localities . There were nine elite households , each of whose family head was recognized by the census as a sheikh . The local imam , Muhammad Shams al @-@ Din al @-@ Shaykh Hanafi , was Egyptian and one of five men in Deir Ghassaneh born outside the village . The Palestine Exploration Fund 's Survey of Western Palestine ( SWP ) in the late 19th @-@ century stated Deir Ghassaneh was " a village on a ridge , with springs in the valley below . It is of moderate size , built of stone and has olives beneath it . " The SWP described Beit Rima as " a small village on the summit of a ridge with wells to the west " .
= = = Modern era = = =
Sheikh Salih was succeeded by his son Umar Salih al @-@ Barghouti , who aligned Bani Zeid with the Nashashibi clan of Jerusalem against the al @-@ Husayni clan in the contest for political dominance in Palestine during the British Mandate period . In 1936 , during the Arab revolt in Palestine , the British Air Force struck a group of 400 local militiamen gathered outside of Deir Ghassaneh , killing about 130 of the fighters . Later , in September 1938 , the local rebel leadership held a meeting in the village where it was decided that Abd al @-@ Rahim al @-@ Hajj Muhammad and Arif Abd al @-@ Raziq would each serve as general commander of the revolt on a rotational basis . Deir Ghassaneh was subsequently attacked by British forces backed by fighter planes when they were informed of the conference . A rebel commander , Muhammad al @-@ Salih , was killed in the ensuing firefight . The British Mandate Antiquities Authority noted in a January 1947 report that Deir Ghassaneh was " built on a medieval site , " and on a hill 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) west of the village was a two @-@ domed shrine dedicated to a Sheikh Khawas .
Deir Ghassaneh and Beit Rima were merged and granted municipal status in February 1966 during Jordanian rule , partially due to the efforts of Kassim al @-@ Rimawi , the rural affairs minister at the time and a native of Beit Rima . Its first mayor , Adib Mohammed Rimawi , was appointed by King Hussein . The municipality building is located in Beit Rima . In June 1967 Israel occupied the West Bank after defeating Arab forces in the Six Day War . In 1972 the first municipal polls were held and Fa 'eq Ali Rimawi was elected . In 1978 Bani Zeid was one of several Palestinian localities to append its municipal seal to the Memorandum from the masses and the institutions of the West Bank to the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization in a display of unity with the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . The memorandum was a rejection of any solution , regardless of its origin , not containing a clear recognition of the right of the Palestinian people to self @-@ determination and to establishing an independent Palestinian national state . In 2000 Bani Zeid was incorporated into Area A giving the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) , the Palestinian governing body established after the Oslo Agreements with Israel in 1993 , full control over security and civilian affairs in the town .
In the late night hours of 24 October 2001 , during the Second Intifada , the Israeli Army ( IDF ) launched an incursion into Beit Rima in what became the first major Israeli military raid into Palestinian @-@ controlled territory , according to Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) . The IDF stated the intent of the raid was to capture the alleged killers of Israeli Tourism Minister Rehavam Ze 'evi , who was shot dead by members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) in retaliation for Israel 's assassination of the party 's leader Mustafa Zibri ( Abu Ali Mustafa ) in August . About 50 people from Beit Rima were detained and brought to the Israeli settlement of Halamish for interrogation . Most were released before the day 's end , but eleven men remained in Israeli custody , two of whom Israel alleged to be directly involved in Ze 'evi 's assassination . In the course of the raid , Israeli forces killed six Palestinians , including three members of the Palestinian National Security Forces and two officers from the Civil Police , and wounded seven others . The Palestinian authorities in Beit Rima stated they had not received prior warning from the IDF and their slain men had been resting in an olive grove near the local police station , while Israeli military officials stated all those killed had either fired on Israeli forces or approached them threateningly and all were members of various armed groups . The HRW stated that the Red Crescent was prevented from treating the injured men until 7 : 00 am , a delay that resulted in the death of two of the police officers . Israeli forces also demolished three homes in the town , alleging that they belonged to family members of Ze 'evi 's killers .
= = Geography = =
Bani Zeid is situated in the central highlands of the West Bank , off the southwestern cliffs of the mountainous spine that runs from the Hebron Hills to Jenin . It has an average elevation of 510 meters ( 1 @,@ 670 ft ) above sea level . The northern part of the town ( Deir Ghassaneh ) is built on a hilltop with an elevation of roughly 450 meters above sea level . It overlooks the Wadi al @-@ Saredah stream 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the north . Bani Zeid is located 17 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Ramallah and less than 45 kilometers ( 28 mi ) northwest of Jerusalem . Nearby localities include Kafr ad @-@ Dik and Bruqin to the north , Qarawat Bani Zeid to the northeast , Kafr Ein to the east , Nabi Salih to the southeast , Deir Nidham and the Israeli settlement of Halamish to the south , Aboud to the southwest , al @-@ Lubban al @-@ Gharbi and the settlement of Beit Aryeh to the west and the settlement of Peduel to the northwest .
Bani Zeid had a total land area of 22 @,@ 249 dunams in 1945 , of which 90 dunams were classified as built @-@ up areas ( Deir Ghassaneh was larger than Beit Rima ) and 8 @,@ 400 dunams were planted with olive or fig groves . Today the Bani Zeid municipality has a jurisdiction of over 21 @,@ 979 dunams , of which 80 @.@ 6 % is cultivable land. today Beit Rima is the larger village . The built @-@ up areas of the town constitute 918 dunams , 832 of which is geared towards residential areas while the remaining 86 is used for commercial , industrial and transportation purposes . The town is surrounded by olive groves , which Bani Zeid is well known for , and 14 @,@ 505 dunams are planted with olive trees . The old village center of Deir Ghassaneh consists of three quarters : Harat al @-@ Barghouti ( Harat al @-@ Fauqa ) , Harat al @-@ Shu 'aibi and Harat al @-@ Tahtani .
The average annual rainfall in the town is 592 @.@ 9 millimeters ( 23 @.@ 34 in ) and average annual humidity is roughly 62 % . Average temperature is 17 @.@ 4 ° C ( 63 @.@ 3 ° F ) .
= = Demographics = =
Ottoman village statistics from 1870 showed that " Der Ghassana " had 164 houses and a population of 559 , while " Bet Rima " had 60 houses and a population of 220 , though in both cases the population count included only men . In the Ottoman census of 1887 , Deir Ghassaneh 's population of 196 households ( roughly 1 @,@ 200 people ) was homogeneous , everyone being Muslim , and with the exception of five individuals , all the males had been born in the village . The estimated 9 % of the inhabitants who were born outside the village were almost exclusively women , with one fifth of all females hailing primarily from other villages in the Bani Zeid nahiya such as Beit Rima , Abwein , Kobar and Kafr Ein and about 14 women originating from other parts of Palestine , particularly al @-@ Madjal Ascalon . Several men from Deir Ghassaneh settled in the surrounding villages , namely Beit Rima , Deir Nidham and Nabi Salih .
In the 1922 census of Palestine , conducted by the British Mandatory authorities , " Dair Ghassaneh " had a population of 625 , while " Bait Rema " had a population of 555 , all Muslims . In the 1931 census Deir Ghassaneh had 181 occupied houses and a population of 753 , while Beit Rima had had 175 occupied houses and a population of 746 , still all Muslim . In a land and population survey by Sami Hadawi in 1945 both villages had a total population of 1 @,@ 810 . Beit Rima had a slightly larger population , but Deir Ghassaneh had a larger land area . In a 1961 census by Jordanian authorities , Deir Ghassaneh 's population reached 1 @,@ 461 , but it declined drastically after more than half of the residents fled during the Six @-@ Day War in June 1967 . In 1982 there were 892 inhabitants in the town . Beit Rima had 2 @,@ 165 inhabitants in 1961 and unlike Deir Ghassaneh , the population continued to grow , reaching 3 @,@ 451 in 1987 .
In the first census taken by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) in 1997 , Bani Zeid had a population of 4 @,@ 351 inhabitants . The gender make @-@ up was 51 @.@ 8 % male and 49 @.@ 2 % female . More than half of the population was under the age of 20 ( 51 @.@ 1 % ) , while 27 @.@ 7 % were between the ages of 20 and 39 , 15 % between the ages of 40 and 64 , and the remainder of the population being 65 or older ( 6 % ) . Palestinian refugees made up 6 @.@ 8 % of the residents in 1997 .
According to the PCBS census of 2007 , Bani Zeid had a population of 5 @,@ 515 , of which 49 % were males and 51 % females . There were 1 @,@ 176 housing units and the average size of a household was five family members . The town 's principal clans are al @-@ Rimawi , al @-@ Barghouti , al @-@ Shu 'aibi , al @-@ Ramahi and Mashaal , although there are also a number of smaller families . Today , there are three mosques in the town , the Bani Zeid Mosque , the Abu Bakr al @-@ Siddiq Mosque and the Omar ibn al @-@ Khattab Mosque .
= = Economy and education = =
Historically , Deir Ghassaneh depended primarily on olive cultivation , and until the present day most of Bani Zeid 's cultivable land is covered by olive orchards . The cultivation of other fruit trees is significantly lower , with almonds being a distant second at 240 dunams . Other crops grown include grains which cover 135 dunams and onions , dry legumes and fodder to a lesser degree . Only 1 % of the town 's residents own livestock and according to the Palestinian Ministry of Agriculture , there were 1 @,@ 880 goats , 268 sheep , 12 cows and 281 beehives in Bani Zeid in 2009 . Agriculture currently accounts for 10 % of labor in the town .
Today , employment by the Palestinian government and private businesses is the dominant economic activity in Bani Zeid , making up around 70 % of the town 's workforce . The trade sector accounts for 10 % of the labor force , followed by the industrial sector which makes up 8 % . Work in the Israeli labor market employs around 2 % of the working population . Unemployment in the town was at 20 % in 2011 . According to the Bani Zeid Municipality , there are 26 grocery stores , 26 public service venues , 11 workshops , a bakery , a butchery and two olive oil presses in the town .
A school was founded in Deir Ghassaneh in 1925 . Prior to the British Mandate period , boys would normally receive education in a kuttab , an elementary @-@ type school with Islamic law and tradition having a major influence on the curriculum . Today , there is one elementary school ( Bani Zeid Elementary School ) and one secondary school ( Bashir al @-@ Barghouti Secondary School ) in the town of Bani Zeid , both run by the government . According to the Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher Education , in the 2010 @-@ 2011 academic year there were 26 classes occupied by 691 students , both male and female . There was 45 teaching staff . There are no kindergartens in Bani Zeid . The closest institution for higher learning is Birzeit University in the village of Bir Zeit to the southeast .
According to the PCBS , in 2007 94 @.@ 5 % of the population over the age of 10 was literate . Of that demographic segment , 21 @.@ 7 % received elementary education , 24 @.@ 8 % received primary education and 20 @.@ 2 % had secondary education . Over 15 % had completed some form of higher education ( 617 persons ) , with 248 attaining associate degrees , 324 attaining bachelor 's degrees and 45 obtaining higher diplomas .
= = Governance = =
Bani Zeid is governed by a municipal council of 13 members , including the chairman ( mayor ) and vice @-@ chairman , under the name Municipality of West Bani Zaid . In normal circumstances the town holds election every four years . In the 2005 elections , the Hamas @-@ affiliated party won five municipal seats , including the post of mayor , which was won by a female candidate Fathiya Barghouti Rheime who , along with Janet Mikhail of Ramallah , became the first woman to hold the post of a Palestinian municipality head . The Fatah list won five seats , the Palestinian People 's Party ( PPP ) list won one , and a socialist party won the remaining seat .
During an Israeli raid in Bani Zeid in 2007 , two Hamas party members in the municipal council were arrested by Israeli authorities along with dozens of other Palestinian mayors , parliament members and ministers belonging to Hamas throughout the West Bank . The arrest of the two put the number of incarcerated West Bani Zeid Municipality Hamas members to three ( member ' Ala Rimawi was elected to his post while serving a prison sentence . )
In the most recent polls in 2012 , Abdel Karim Abu Aql was elected mayor on a leftist alliance list as were the other 12 people elected to the council . The elections were boycotted by Hamas . Bani Zeid has had six mayors since the establishment of the municipality in 1966 .
The municipal council takes part in the international town twinning scheme , and have twinned with Bezons in France .
= = Religious sites = =
One of the notable characteristics of Deir Ghassaneh was the concentration of 16 local Muslim shrines or saintly @-@ person tombs ( maqam , pl. maqamat ) in its vicinity which served as visitation sites for the pre @-@ 20th @-@ century Palestinian community . According to author and ethnographer Johann Bussow , their locations near Jerusalem also " contributed to the image of an Islamic Holy Land , " which brought further prosperity to the inhabitants of the villages of Bani Zeid who benefited from providing services to pilgrims . The Barghouti family served as patrons for the various religious sheikhs who oversaw the shrines . The maqamat were dedicated either to prophets ( anbah ) recognized by the Qur 'an or saintly @-@ persons known as welys , whom locals believed had been " close to God . " The veneration of the welys tombs , a common feature in peasant life , did not derive from the orthodox Islam which was practiced more strictly in the urban centers , and was rooted in local pre @-@ Islamic , including Christian , tradition .
All the maqamat of Bani Zeid were designed differently , with some being rustic tombstones and others built more elaborately . The latter types consisted of a domed mausoleum known as a qubba , a shelter known as a makan nawm , a garden , a well and either a distinguishable olive or oak tree . Most of the upkeep of the buildings was provided by awqaf ( " religious endowments " ) . One of the shrines was considered by the local peasantry to be a place to safeguard firewood and outside the reach of potential thieves . The maqamat were also divided by status , with some bearing significance only to an individual village or clan and some collectively revered by the residents of the sheikhdom . Of all the sites in the Bani Zeid sheikhdom , the most venerated shrine was that of Nabi Salih , dedicated to the prophet ( nabi ) Salih , which held special significance beyond Bani Zeid .
= = = Maqam al @-@ Khawwas = = =
One of the notable maqamat close to the modern town of Bani Zeid is Maqam al @-@ Khawwas ( var . Khawassi , Khawwas and Kawas ) , a double @-@ domed building situated on a hilltop 500 meters west of Deir Ghassaneh , in an isolated area . Along with the maqamat of al @-@ Rifa 'i or al @-@ Majdoub , Maqam al @-@ Khawwas was a shrine of major importance for the Bani Zeid villages , collectively . The maqam honored what was locally considered to be the meditation site of al @-@ Khawass , believed to be a Sufi holy man ( wely ) from Egypt who often visited the residents of the area .
It contained a mihrab ( " niche indicating direction towards Mecca . " ) The maqam was noted by Guérin in 1863 . Its eastern dome was constructed by the residents of Deir Ghassaneh , while local legend holds the western dome was completed by angels . The interior of the domes were simple and typical of most maqamat domes , lacking cross @-@ vault roofing which was a common feature for most of Deir Ghassaneh 's buildings . The sanctuary had a two @-@ door entrance on its northern end . The interior walls were whitewashed , reflecting the Muslim tradition of heavenly light and spirit in the color white . A few verses from the Qur 'an were written on parts of the walls . The tomb of al @-@ Khawwas was covered in white cloth . A small niche on the western wall was fitted for an oil lamp .
An important feature that distinguished Maqam al @-@ Khawwas from the Deir Ghassaneh mosque was that it acted primarily as a women 's domain whereas the mosque had largely been a male domain . In the pre @-@ British Mandate era , it was frequented by women on a daily basis and during a seasonal pilgrimage for women known as mawsim al @-@ banat . During this pilgrimage , which coincided with the Nabi Salih pilgrimage , a largely male affair , large groups of women and children from the villages of Bani Zeid would visit the Khawwas mausoleum to celebrate festivities , socialize with other women and pray . According to Palestinian architecture expert Suad Amiry , Maqam al @-@ Khawwas 's isolation and the ritual of having to travel uphill to reach the sanctuary added to the tranquil feeling of the visit .
= = Manor of Salih al @-@ Barghouti = =
The late 19th @-@ century chief of the Bani Zeid sheikhdom , Sheikh Salih al @-@ Barghouti , resided in a large palace @-@ like manor in Deir Ghassaneh . The first floor and portions of the second floor were originally built in 1602 . In 1862 @-@ 63 Sheikh Salih renovated the manor which became known locally as " Saraya al @-@ Sheikh Salih al @-@ Barghouti " and built the remainder of the second floor . The building was divided into three main components , namely the salamlek , the khazeen and the haramlek . The salamlek included a reception area , dining halls and a guesthouse while the khazeen consisted of workshops , food depots and horse stables . The haramlek , on the second floor , served as the living quarters for women and servants . Above the living quarters hung the sheikh 's ' retreat and leisure area from which he could view his estates .
According to Amiry , Sheikh Salih 's manor , along with other Barghouti family palace compounds , " was strongly influenced by urban architecture " in light of its " majestic scale , ornate fine stone work and the introverted spatial organisation . " The manor , which has a rectangular ground plan , roughly measures 23 meters by 34 meters . An open courtyard occupied the central position of the manor . The courtyard was mostly enclosed by four partially open arcades known as riwaqs which either serves as stables or storage .
The main gate of the palace consists of two arches , with one being built within the other . According to Sharon , while this gate structure was common among village manors in the area , the gate of Sheikh Salih 's palace was " particularly monumental " as the arch was pointed and contained one keystone . The entire arch was constructed in the ablaq style with alternating black and white stone . A large , heavy and decorated wooden door is fitted into the gate and it was used to receive vehicles or large loads while a smaller door for personal use was built in the center of the larger door . A smaller secondary entrance was located at the building 's northern side , vertically parallel of the main entrance .
= = Notable people = =
Members of the Barghouti clan come from the Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh Governorate , which includes Bani Zeid ; notable members of the clan include Bashir Barghouti , a Palestinian Communist leader and journalist ; Abdullah Barghouti , a convicted Hamas bomber , and Mourid Barghouti a poet and writer . Other notable people born in Bani Zeid include Abdullah Rimawi , head of the Ba 'ath Party in Jordan in the 1950s , Kassim al @-@ Rimawi , prime minister of Jordan in 1980 , and Mahmoud al @-@ Rimawi , a journalist and author .
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= Stigand =
Stigand ( Latin : Stigantus ; died 1072 ) was an Anglo @-@ Saxon churchman in pre @-@ Norman Conquest England who became Archbishop of Canterbury . His birth date is unknown , but by 1020 he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor . He was named Bishop of Elmham in 1043 , and was later Bishop of Winchester and Archbishop of Canterbury . Stigand was as an advisor to several members of the Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman English royal dynasties , serving six successive kings . Excommunicated by several popes for his pluralism in holding the two sees , or bishoprics , of Winchester and Canterbury concurrently , he was finally deposed in 1070 , and his estates and personal wealth were confiscated by William the Conqueror . Stigand was imprisoned at Winchester , where he died without regaining his liberty .
Stigand served King Cnut as a chaplain at a royal foundation at Ashingdon in 1020 , and as an advisor then and later . He continued in his role of advisor during the reigns of Cnut 's sons , Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut . When Cnut 's stepson Edward the Confessor succeeded Harthacnut , Stigand in all probability became England 's main administrator . Monastic writers of the time accused Stigand of extorting money and lands from the church , and by 1066 the only estates richer than Stigand 's were the royal estates and those of Harold Godwinson .
In 1043 Edward appointed Stigand to the see of Elmham . Four years later he was appointed to the see of Winchester , and then in 1052 to the archdiocese of Canterbury , which Stigand held jointly with that of Winchester . Five successive popes , including Nicholas II and Alexander II , excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury . Stigand was present at the deathbed of King Edward and at the coronation of Harold Godwinson as king of England in 1066 . After Harold 's death , Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror . On Christmas Day 1066 Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , crowned William King of England . Stigand 's excommunication meant that he could only assist at the coronation .
Despite growing pressure for his deposition , Stigand continued to attend the royal court and to consecrate bishops , until in 1070 he was deposed by papal legates and imprisoned at Winchester . His intransigence towards the papacy was used as propaganda by Norman advocates of the view that the English church was backward and needed reform .
= = Early life = =
Neither the year nor the date of Stigand 's birth is known . He was born in East Anglia , possibly in Norwich , to an apparently prosperous family of mixed English and Scandinavian ancestry , as is shown by the fact that Stigand 's name was Norse but his brother 's was English . His brother Æthelmær , also a cleric , later succeeded Stigand as bishop of Elmham . His sister held land in Norwich , but her given name is unrecorded .
Stigand first appears in the historical record in 1020 as a royal chaplain to King Cnut of England ( reigned 1016 – 1035 ) . In that year he was appointed to Cnut 's church at Ashingdon , or Assandun , which was dedicated by the reforming bishop Wulfstan of York . Little is known of Stigand 's life during Cnut 's reign , but he must have had a place at the royal court , as he witnessed occasional charters . Following Cnut 's death Stigand successively served Cnut 's sons , Harold Harefoot ( reigned 1035 – 1040 ) and Harthacnut ( reigned 1040 – 1042 ) . After Harthacnut died Stigand became an advisor to Emma of Normandy , Cnut 's widow and the mother of Harthacnut and his successor Edward the Confessor . He may have been Emma 's chaplain , and it is possible that Stigand was already one of her advisors while Cnut was alive , and that he owed his position at Ashingdon to Emma 's influence and favour . Because little is known of Stigand 's activities before his appointment as a bishop , it is difficult to determine to whom he owed his position .
= = Bishop of Elmham and Winchester = =
Stigand was appointed to the see of Elmham shortly after Edward the Confessor 's coronation on 3 April 1043 , probably on Emma 's advice . This was the first episcopal appointment of Edward 's reign . The diocese of Elmham covered East Anglia in eastern England , and was one of the poorer episcopal sees at that time . He was consecrated bishop in 1043 , but later that year Edward deposed Stigand and deprived him of his wealth . During the next year , however , Edward returned Stigand to office . The reasons for the deposition are unknown , but it was probably connected to the simultaneous fall from power of the dowager queen , Emma . Some sources state that Emma had invited King Magnus I of Norway , a rival claimant to the English throne , to invade England and had offered her personal wealth to aid Magnus . Some suspected that Stigand had urged Emma to support Magnus , and claimed that his deposition was because of this . Contributing factors in Emma and Stigand 's fall included Emma 's wealth , and dislike of her political influence , which was linked to the reign of the unpopular Harthacnut .
By 1046 Stigand had begun to witness charters of Edward the Confessor , showing that he was once again in royal favour . In 1047 Stigand was translated to the see of Winchester , but he retained Elmham until 1052 . He may have owed the promotion to Earl Godwin of Wessex , the father @-@ in @-@ law of King Edward , although that is disputed by some historians . Emma , who had retired to Winchester after regaining Edward 's favour , may also have influenced the appointment , either alone or in concert with Godwin . After his appointment to Winchester , Stigand was a witness to all the surviving charters of King Edward during the period 1047 to 1052 .
Some historians , such as Frank Barlow and Emma Mason , state that Stigand supported Earl Godwin in his quarrel with Edward the Confessor in 1051 – 1052 ; others , including Ian Walker , hold that he was neutral . Stigand , whether or not he was a supporter of Godwin 's , did not go into exile with the earl . The quarrel started over a fight between Eustace of Boulogne , brother @-@ in @-@ law of the king , and men of the town of Dover . The king ordered Godwin to punish the town , and the earl refused . Continued pressure from Edward undermined Godwin 's position , and the earl and his family fled England in 1051 . The earl returned in 1052 with a substantial armed force , but eventually reached a peaceful accord with the king . Some medieval sources state that Stigand took part in the negotiations that reached a peace between the king and his earl ; the Canterbury manuscript of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle calls Stigand the king 's chaplain and advisor during the negotiations .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
= = = Appointment to Canterbury and issues with the papacy = = =
The Archbishopric of Canterbury became drawn into the conflict between Edward and Godwin . Pope Leo IX was beginning a reform movement later known as the Gregorian Reform . Leo first focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting simony – the buying and selling of clerical and ecclesiastical offices . In 1049 Leo IX publicly pronounced that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them . When Archbishop Edsige of Canterbury died in 1051 the monks of the cathedral chapter elected Æthelric , a relative of Earl Godwin 's , as archbishop . King Edward opposed the election and instead appointed Robert of Jumièges , who was Norman and already Bishop of London . Besides furthering Edward 's quarrel with Godwin , the appointment signalled that there were limits to Edward 's willingness to compromise on ecclesiastical reform .
Although not known as a reformer before his appointment , Robert returned in 1051 from Rome , where he had gone to be confirmed by the papacy , and opposed the king 's choice for Bishop of London on the grounds that the candidate was not suitable . Robert 's attempts to recover church property that had been appropriated by Earl Godwin contributed to the quarrel between the earl and the king . When Godwin returned to England in 1052 Robert was outlawed and exiled , following which King Edward appointed Stigand to the archbishopric . The appointment was either a reward from Godwin for Stigand 's support during the conflict with Edward or a reward from King Edward for successfully negotiating a peaceful conclusion to the crisis in 1052 . Stigand was the first non @-@ monk to be appointed to either English archbishopric since before the days of Dunstan ( archbishop from 959 to 988 ) .
The papacy refused to recognise Stigand 's elevation , as Robert was still alive and had not been deprived of office by a pope . Robert of Jumièges appealed to Leo IX , who summoned Stigand to Rome . When Stigand did not appear , he was excommunicated . Historian Nicholas Brooks holds the view that Stigand was not excommunicated at this time , but rather was ordered to refrain from any archiepiscopal functions , such as the consecration of bishops . He argues that in 1062 papal legates sat in council with Stigand , something they would not have done had he been excommunicated . The legates did nothing to alter Stigand 's position either , although one of the legates later helped depose Stigand in 1070 . However Pope Leo IX and his successors , Victor II and Stephen IX , continued to regard Stigand as uncanonically elected .
Stigand did not travel to Rome to receive a pallium , the band worn around the neck that is the symbol of an archbishop 's authority , from the pope . Traveling to Rome for the pallium had become a custom , practised by a number of his predecessors . Instead , some medieval chroniclers state that he used Robert of Jumièges ' pallium . It is not known if Stigand even petitioned the papacy for a pallium soon after his appointment . Owing to the reform movement , Stigand probably knew the request would be unsuccessful . In 1058 Antipope Benedict X , who opposed much of the reform movement , gave Stigand a pallium . However , Benedict was deposed in the following year ; the reforming party declared Benedict an antipope , and nullified all his acts , including Stigand 's pallium grant . The exact circumstances that led to Benedict granting a pallium are unknown , whether it was at Stigand 's request or was given without prompting .
After his translation to Canterbury , Stigand released Elmham to his brother Æthelmær , but retained the bishopric of Winchester . Canterbury and Winchester were the two richest sees in England , and while precedent allowed the holding of a rich see along with a poor one , there was no precedent for holding two rich sees concurrently . He may have retained Winchester out of avarice , or his hold on Canterbury may not have been secure . Besides these , he held the abbey of Gloucester and the abbey of Ely and perhaps other abbeys also . Whatever his reasons , the retention of Winchester made Stigand a pluralist : the holder of more than one benefice at the same time . This was a practice that was targeted for elimination by the growing reform movement in the church . Five successive popes ( Leo IX , Victor II , Stephen IX , Nicholas II and Alexander II ) excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury at the same time . It has been suggested by the historian Emma Mason that Edward refused to remove Stigand because this would have undermined the royal prerogative to appoint bishops and archbishops without papal input . Further hurting Stigand 's position , Pope Nicholas II in 1061 declared pluralism to be uncanonical unless approved by the pope .
Stigand was later accused of simony by monastic chroniclers , but all such accusations date to after 1066 , and are thus suspect owing to the post @-@ Conquest desire to vilify the English Church as corrupt and backward . The medieval chronicler William of Poitiers also claimed that in 1052 Stigand agreed that William of Normandy , the future William the Conqueror , should succeed King Edward . This claim was used as propaganda after the Conquest , but according to the historian David Bates , among others , it is unlikely to be true . The position of Stigand as head of the church in England was used to good effect by the Normans in their propaganda before , during and after the Conquest .
= = = Ecclesiastical affairs = = =
The diocese of York took advantage of Stigand 's difficulties with the papacy and encroached on the suffragans , or bishops owing obedience to an archbishop , normally subject to Canterbury . York had long been held in common with Worcester , but during the period when Stigand was excommunicated , the see of York also claimed oversight over the sees of Lichfield and Dorchester . In 1062 , however , papal legates of Alexander II came to England . They did not depose Stigand , and even consulted with him and treated him as archbishop . He was allowed to attend the council they held and was an active participant with the legates in the business of the council .
Many of the bishops in England did not want to be consecrated by Stigand . Both Giso of Wells and Walter of Hereford travelled to Rome to be consecrated by the pope in 1061 , rather than be consecrated by Stigand . During the brief period that he held a legitimate pallium , however , Stigand did consecrate Aethelric of Selsey and Siward of Rochester . Abbots of monasteries , however , came to Stigand for consecration throughout his time as archbishop . These included not only abbots from monastic houses inside his province , such as Æthelsige as abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury , but also Baldwin as Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds and Thurstan as Abbot of Ely . After the Norman Conquest , Stigand was accused of selling the office of abbot , but no abbot was deposed for buying the office , so the charge is suspect .
Stigand was probably the most lavish clerical donor of his period , when great men gave to churches on an unprecedented scale . He was a benefactor to the Abbey of Ely , and gave large gold or silver crucifixes to Ely , St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury , Bury St. Edmunds Abbey , and to his cathedral church at Winchester . The crucifixes given to Ely , Bury and Winchester all appear to have had about life @-@ size figures of Christ with matching figures of the Virgin and John the Evangelist , as is recorded in the monastic histories , and were probably permanently mounted over the altar or elsewhere . These would have been made with thin sheets of precious metal over a wooden core . No comparably early rood crosses with the side figures of Mary and John seem to survive , though we have large painted wooden crucifixes like the German Gero Cross of around 980 , and the Volto Santo of Lucca ( renewed with a later figure ) which is known to have inspired Leofstan , Abbot of Bury ( d . 1065 ) to create a similar figure , perhaps covered in precious metal , on his return from a visit to Rome . To Ely he gave gold and silver vessels for the altar , and a chasuble embroidered in gold " of such inestimable workmanship and worth , that none in the kingdom is considered richer or more valuable " . Although it does not appear that Stigand ever travelled to Rome , there are indications that Stigand did go on pilgrimage . A 12th @-@ century life of Saint Willibrord , written at the Abbey of Echternach in what is now Luxembourg , records that " to this place also came Stigand , the eminent archbishop of the English " . In the work , Stigand is recorded as giving rich gifts to the abbey as well as relics of saints .
= = = Advisor to the king = = =
During Edward 's reign , Stigand was an influential advisor at court and used his position to increase his own wealth as well as that of his friends and family . Contemporary valuations of the lands he controlled at the death of King Edward , as listed in Domesday Book , come to an annual income of about 2500 pounds . There is little evidence , however , that he enriched either Canterbury or Winchester . He also appointed his followers to sees within his diocese in 1058 , having Siward named Bishop of Rochester and Æthelric installed as Bishop of Selsey . Between his holding of two sees and the appointment of his men to other sees in the southeast of England , Stigand was an important figure in defending the coastline against invasion .
Stigand may have been in charge of the royal administration . He may also have been behind the effort to locate Edward the Atheling and his brother Edmund after 1052 , possibly to secure a more acceptable heir to King Edward . His landholdings were spread across ten counties , and in some of those counties , his lands were larger than the king 's holdings . Although Norman propagandists claimed that as early as 1051 or 1052 King Edward promised the throne of England to Duke William of Normandy , who later became King William the Conqueror , there is little contemporary evidence of such a promise from non @-@ Norman sources . By 1053 , Edward probably realised that he would not have a son from his marriage , and he and his advisors began to search for an heir . Edward the Atheling , the son of King Edmund Ironside ( reigned 1016 ) , had been exiled from England in 1017 , after his father 's death . Although Ealdred , the Bishop of Worcester , went to the Continent in search of Edward the Exile , Ian Walker , the biographer of King Harold Godwinson , feels that Stigand was behind the effort . In the end , although Edward did return to England , he died soon after his return , leaving a young son Edgar the Ætheling .
= = Final years and legacy = =
= = = Norman Conquest = = =
King Edward , on his deathbed , left the crown to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Harold Godwinson , the son of Earl Godwin . Stigand performed the funeral services for Edward . Norman writers claimed that Stigand crowned Harold as king in January 1066 . This is generally considered false propaganda , as it was in William 's interest to portray Harold as uncanonically crowned . If Harold was improperly crowned , then William was merely claiming his rightful inheritance , and not deposing a rightful king . The Bayeux Tapestry depicts Stigand at Harold 's coronation , although not actually placing the crown on Harold 's head . The English sources claim that Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , crowned Harold , while the Norman sources claim that Stigand did so , with the conflict between the various sources probably tracing to the post @-@ Conquest desire to vilify Harold and depict his coronation as improper . Current historical research has shown that the ceremony was performed by Ealdred , owing to the controversy about Stigand 's position . However , one historian , Pauline Stafford , theorises that both archbishops may have consecrated Harold . Another historian , Frank Barlow , writing in 1979 , felt that the fact that some of the English sources do not name who consecrated Harold " tip ( s ) the balance in favour of Stigand " .
Stigand did support Harold , and was present at Edward the Confessor 's deathbed . Stigand 's controversial position may have influenced Pope Alexander II 's support of William the Conqueror 's invasion of England . The reformers , led by Archdeacon Hildebrand , later Pope Gregory VII , opposed the older type of bishop , rich and installed by the lay powers .
After the death of Harold at the Battle of Hastings , Stigand worked with Earl Edwin and Earl Morcar , as well as Archbishop Ealdred of York , to put Edgar the Ætheling on the throne . This plan did not come to fruition , however , due to opposition from the northern earls and some of the other bishops . Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror at Wallingford in early December 1066 , and perhaps assisted at his coronation on Christmas Day , 1066 , although the coronation was performed by Ealdred . William took Stigand with him to Normandy in 1067 , although whether this was because William did not trust the archbishop , as the medieval chronicler William of Poitiers alleges , is uncertain . Stigand was present at the coronation of William 's queen , Matilda , in 1068 , although once more the ceremony was actually performed by Ealdred .
= = = Deposition and death = = =
After the first rebellions broke out in late 1067 William adopted a policy of conciliation towards the church . He gave Stigand a place at court , as well as giving administrative positions to Ealdred of York and Æthelwig , Abbot of Evesham . Archbishop Stigand appears on a number of royal charters in 1069 , along with both Norman and English leaders . He even consecrated Remigius de Fécamp as Bishop of Dorcester in 1067 . Once the danger of rebellion was past , however , William had no further need of Stigand . At a council held at Winchester at Easter 1070 , the bishops met with papal legates from Alexander II . On 11 April 1070 Stigand was deposed by the papal legate , Ermenfrid , Bishop of Sion in the Alps , and was imprisoned at Winchester . His brother Æthelmær , Bishop of Elmham , was also deposed at the same council . Shortly afterwards Aethelric the Bishop of Selsey , Ethelwin the Bishop of Durham and Leofwin Bishop of Lichfield , who was married , were deposed at a council held at Windsor . There were three reasons given for Stigand 's deposition : that he held the bishopric of Winchester in plurality with Canterbury ; that he not only occupied Canterbury after Robert of Jumièges fled but also seized Robert 's pallium which was left behind ; and that he received his own pallium from Benedict X , an anti @-@ pope . Some accounts state that Stigand did appear at the council which deposed him , but nothing is recorded of any defence that he attempted . The charges against his brother are nowhere stated , leading to a belief that the depositions were mainly political . That spring he had deposited his personal wealth at Ely Abbey for safekeeping , but King William confiscated it after his deposition , along with his estates . The king appointed Lanfranc , a native of Italy and a scholar and abbot in Normandy , as the new archbishop .
King William appears to have left the initiative for Stigand 's deposition to the papacy , and did nothing to hinder Stigand 's authority until the papal legates arrived in England to depose the archbishop and reform the English Church . Besides witnessing charters and consecrating Remigius , Stigand appears to have been a member of the royal council , and able to move freely about the country . But after the arrival of the legates , William did nothing to protect Stigand from deposition , and the archbishop later accused the king of acting with bad faith . Stigand may even have been surprised that the legates wished him deposed . It was probably the death of Ealdred in 1069 that moved the pope to send the legates , as that left only one archbishop in England ; and he was not considered legitimate and unable to consecrate bishops . The historian George Garnett draws the parallel between the treatment of King Harold in Domesday Book , where he is essentially ignored as king , and Stigand 's treatment after his deposition , where his time as archbishop is as much as possible treated as not occurring .
Stigand died in 1072 while still imprisoned , and his death was commemorated on 21 February or 22 February . Sometime between his deposition and his death the widow of King Edward and sister of King Harold , Edith of Wessex , visited him in his imprisonment and allegedly told him to take better care of himself . He was buried in the Old Minster at Westminster .
At King Edward 's death , only the royal estates and the estates of Harold were larger and wealthier than those held by Stigand . Medieval writers condemned him for his greed and for his pluralism . Hugh the Chanter , a medieval chronicler , claimed that the confiscated wealth of Stigand helped keep King William on the throne . A recent study of his wealth and how it was earned , shows that while he did engage in some exploitative methods to gain some of his wealth , other lands were gained through inheritance or through royal favour . The same study shows little evidence that he despoiled his episcopal estates , although the record towards monastic houses is more suspect . There is no complaint in contemporary records about his private life , and the accusations that he committed simony and was illiterate only date from the 12th century .
Although monastic chroniclers after the Norman Conquest accused him of crimes such as perjury and homicide , they do not provide any evidence of those crimes . Almost a 100 years after his death , another Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , was taunted in 1164 by King Henry II 's barons with Stigand 's fate for daring to oppose his king . Modern historians views tend to see him as either a wily politician and indifferent bishop , or to see him purely in terms of his ecclesiastical failings . The historian Frank Stenton felt that his " whole career shows that he was essentially a politician " . Concurring with this , the historian Nick Higham said that " Stigand was a seasoned politician whose career had been built on an accurate reading of the balance of power . " Another historian , Eric John , said that " Stigand had a fair claim to be the worst bishop of Christendom " . However , the historian Frank Barlow felt that " he was a man of cultured tastes , a patron of the arts who was generous to the monasteries which he held " . Alexander Rumble argued that Stigand was unlucky in living past the Conquest , stating that it could be said that Stigand was " unlucky to live so long that he saw in his lifetime not only the end of the Anglo @-@ Saxon state but also the challenging of uncanonical , but hiterto tolerated , practices by a wave of papal reforms " .
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= Academic All @-@ America =
Capital One Academic All @-@ America ( sometimes CoSIDA Academic All @-@ America , Capital One Academic All @-@ America ( 2011 – present ) , ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ America ( 2004 – 2010 ) , Verizon Academic All @-@ America ( 2000 – 04 ) or GTE Academic All @-@ America ( 1985 – 2000 ) ) program is a student @-@ athlete recognition program . It is presented as the Capital One Academic All @-@ America Award ( formerly sponsored by ESPN The Magazine , Verizon and GTE ) and administered by College Sports Information Directors of America or CoSIDA . The program selects an honorary sports team composed of the most outstanding student athletes of a specific season for positions in various sports — who in turn are given the honorific " Academic All @-@ American " . Since 1952 CoSIDA has bestowed Academic All @-@ American recognition on male and female athletes in Divisions I , II , and III of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) as well as NAIA athletes , covering all championship sports . The phrases " Academic All @-@ America " and " Academic All @-@ American " are protected trademarks of CoSIDA .
Prior to 2011 , there were two sets of teams chosen : One for Division I and one for all other Divisions , NAIA , two @-@ year colleges and Canadian schools . In 2011 , the program was expanded to include four sets honorary teams : One for each of NCAA Divisions I , II and III as well as one for NAIA , two @-@ year colleges and Canadian schools . In each program , regional Academic All @-@ District selections are made with the first @-@ team All @-@ District selections being eligible for Academic All @-@ America team selections .
= = Details = =
= = = Domain = = =
Currently , CoSIDA is responsible for the annual selection of 816 Academic All @-@ Americans in Men 's baseball , basketball , football , soccer , and track & field / cross country and Women 's basketball , soccer , softball , volleyball , and track & field / cross country , as well as at @-@ large teams for both men and women in Division I , II and III and NAIA in all NCAA championship sports . Currently , the sports that CoSIDA recognizes as eligible for at @-@ large Academic All @-@ American recognition are Women 's bowling , Men 's and Women 's fencing , Women 's field hockey , Men 's and Women 's golf , Men 's and Women 's gymnastics , Men 's and Women 's ice hockey , Men 's and Women 's lacrosse , Men 's and Women 's rifle , Women 's rowing , Men 's and Women 's skiing , Men 's and Women 's swimming , Men 's and Women 's tennis , Men 's volleyball , Men 's and Women 's water polo , and Men 's wrestling . Athletes in each sport are selected by their respective governing bodies ( e.g. U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association for track and field , American Volleyball Coaches Association for volleyball and United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association for lacrosse )
Capital One became the named sponsor of the program on January 31 , 2011 . CoSIDA has registered a trademark for the name , " Academic All @-@ America " which it uses for its student @-@ athlete recognition program . The Capital One Academic All @-@ America program administered by CoSIDA is not related to such programs administered or sponsored by coaches ' organizations . As a result , cease and desist orders have been granted to protect the trademark at times . Various sports that have similar programs have had to use names such as All @-@ Academic to recognize scholar athletes .
Prior to the relationship with Capital One , the Academic All @-@ American Award has had other named corporate sponsors such as ESPN , Verizon and Verizon 's corporate predecessor GTE who were sponsors from 1985 until the mid @-@ 2000s . In 1981 , the National Collegiate Athletic Association sponsored the program . From 1985 until the 1999 – 2000 academic year the honorees were called GTE All @-@ Americans , but during the 2000 – 01 academic year they became known as Verizon All @-@ Americans when Verizon acquired GTE . Verizon continued to be the named sponsor through the 2003 – 04 academic year when they did not renew their rights . ESPN the Magazine became the sponsor during the 2004 – 05 academic year and remained sponsor until September 2010 . Fall 2010 teams , continued to bear the ESPN sponsorship name . Capital one took over the sponsorship in January 2011 .
= = = Process = = =
Initially , team selections were composed of both a University Division , made up of Division I participants , and a College Division , made up of Division II , Division III , NAIA , and 2 @-@ year colleges . First , second and third team selections are made for both divisions in most Academic All @-@ America programs . However , the football programs only select a first and second team . The football University Division includes both Football Bowl Subdivision and Football Championship Subdivision . In 2011 , the program was expanded to incorporate four sets of teams : Division I , Division II , Division III and a College division that includes NAIA institutions , two @-@ year colleges and Canadian schools .
Nominations must be made on the CoSIDA website by a current dues @-@ paying member with a CoSIDA @-@ issued user name and password for the academic year at issue . Formerly , nominations were made by pen and ink and then with typewritten nominations . The CoSIDA members nominate student @-@ athletes only from the academic institution that they are affiliated with . The nominees must be a starter or important reserve with at least a 3 @.@ 30 cumulative grade point average ( on a 4 @.@ 0 scale ) at his / her current institution . Nominees must have participated in at least 50 percent of the team ’ s games at the position listed on the nomination form ( where applicable ) . In baseball and softball , pitchers must have at least 10 @.@ 0 innings pitched . Nominees are ineligible until the completion of one full calendar year at his / her current institution and attainment of sophomore athletic eligibility . Transfers , graduate students and two @-@ year college graduates must have completed one full calendar year at the nominating institution to be eligible . Graduate school nominees must have a cumulative GPA of 3 @.@ 30 or better both as an undergraduate and in graduate school . Except for at @-@ large program , there are no limits in the number of athletes an institution may nominate . In the at @-@ large program , nominations are limited to three per school per gender ( a total of three men 's at @-@ large candidates and three women 's at @-@ large candidates ) . If an institution participates in both the college and the university divisions , it may nominate a total of three men and three women between the two divisions .
In each program , All @-@ District selections are elected by the CoSIDA membership with the resulting first @-@ team All @-@ District selections advancing to the national ballot for Academic All @-@ America team selections . The national ballot is cast by members of the Academic All @-@ America Committee and the CoSIDA Board of Directors . Each program also recognizes a single athlete for both the University and College Divisions who are referred to as Academic All @-@ America of the Year .
In addition , there is an annual selection by the College Sports Information Directors of America and its Academic All @-@ America sponsor of the individual athlete selected as the most outstanding Academic All @-@ America of the approximately 1640 annual selections . Starting in 2012 , one winner will be chosen for each division : Division I , Division II , Division III and a College division that includes NAIA institutions , two @-@ year colleges and Canadian schools . Between 1996 and 2011 one winner each was chosen from both the College and University Divisions ' 816 annual selections . Between 1988 and 1995 one winner was chosen per year .
= = Team Member of the Year = =
See : List of Academic All @-@ America Team Members of the Year
During the 1987 – 88 academic year , CoSIDA began selecting one student as the most outstanding team member of the year . In 1996 , CoSIDA began selecting two outstanding team members yearly , one each from the College division and the University division . In 2011 – 12 , when the program was expanded to include four sets of teams ( Division I , Division II , Division III and a college division ) , four winners were chosen , one from each division .
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= Battle of Arras ( 1917 ) =
The Battle of Arras ( also known as the Second Battle of Arras ) was a British offensive on the Western Front during World War I. From 9 April to 16 May 1917 , British troops attacked German defences near the French city of Arras on the Western Front . There were big gains on the first day , followed by stalemate . The battle cost nearly 160 @,@ 000 British and about 125 @,@ 000 German casualties .
For much of the war , the opposing armies on the Western Front were at a stalemate , with a continuous line of trenches stretching from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border . The Allied objective from early 1915 was to break through the German defences into the open ground beyond and engage the numerically inferior German Army in a war of movement . The British attack at Arras was part of the French Nivelle Offensive , the main part of which was to take place 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the south . The aim of this combined operation was to end the war in forty @-@ eight hours . At Arras the British were to divert German troops from the French front and to take the German @-@ held high ground that dominated the plain of Douai .
The British effort was a relatively broad front assault between Vimy in the north @-@ west and Bullecourt in the south @-@ east . After considerable bombardment , Canadian troops of the First Army in the north fought Battle of Vimy Ridge and captured the ridge . The Third Army in the centre advanced astride the Scarpe River , making the deepest penetration since trench warfare began and in the south , the Fifth Army attacked the Hindenburg Line and was frustrated by the defence in depth , making only minimal gains . The British armies then engaged in a series of small @-@ scale operations to consolidate the new positions . Although these battles were generally successful in achieving limited aims , these were gained at the price of relatively large numbers of casualties .
When the battle officially ended on 16 May , British Empire troops had made significant advances but had been unable to achieve a breakthrough . New tactics ( embodied in SS . 135 , Instructions for the Training of Divisions for Offensive Action and SS.143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action ) and the equipment to exploit them had been used . The platoon had become the principal tactical unit , in four sections : Lewis gun , rifle grenade , bomber and rifle . Artillery creeping barrages , firing shells with the new graze fuze and counter @-@ battery fire had great effect , particularly in the first phase , showing that the British had absorbed the lessons of the Battle of the Somme and could mount set @-@ piece attacks against fortified field defences . The Arras sector then returned to the stalemate that typified most of the war on the Western Front , except for attacks around Lens , culminating in the Canadian Battle of Hill 70 in August .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of 1917 , the British and French were still searching for a way to achieve a strategic breakthrough on the Western Front . The previous year had been marked by the costly success of the Franco – British offensive astride the river Somme , while the French had been unable to take the initiative because of intense German pressure at Verdun until after August 1916 . Both battles consumed enormous quantities of resources while achieving virtually no strategic gains on the battlefield . Nonetheless , the cost to Germany of containing the Anglo @-@ French attacks had been high , and given that the material preponderance of the Entente and its allies could only be expected to increase in 1917 , Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided on a defensive strategy on the Western Front for that year . This impasse reinforced the French and British commanders ' belief that to end the stalemate they needed a breakthrough ; while this desire may have been the main impetus behind the offensive , the timing and location were heavily influenced by a number of political and tactical factors .
= = = Politics = = =
The mid @-@ war years were momentous times . Governing politicians in Paris and London were under great pressure from the press , the people and their parliaments to bring the war to a victorious close . The casualties from the battles of Gallipoli , the Somme and Verdun had been high and there was little prospect of victory in sight . The British prime minister , H. H. Asquith , resigned in early December 1916 and was succeeded by the " Welsh wizard " , David Lloyd George . In France , premier Aristide Briand , along with General ( later Marshal ) Hubert Lyautey as Minister of Defence , were politically diminished and resigned in March 1917 .
The United States was close to declaring war on Germany ; American public opinion was growing increasingly incensed by a long succession of high @-@ profile U @-@ boat attacks upon civilian shipping , starting with the sinking of RMS Lusitania in 1915 and culminating in the torpedoing of seven American merchantmen in early 1917 . The United States Congress finally declared war on Imperial Germany on 6 April 1917 , but it would be more than a year before a suitable army could be raised , trained , and transported to France .
= = = Strategy = = =
Although the French and British had intended to launch a spring offensive in 1917 , the strategy was threatened in February , when the Russians admitted that they could not meet the commitment to a joint offensive , which reduced the two @-@ front offensive to a French assault along the Aisne River . In March , the German army in the west ( Westheer ) , withdrew to the Hindenburg line in Operation Alberich , which negated the tactical assumptions underlying the plans for the French offensive . Until French troops advanced to compensate during the Battles of Arras , they encountered no German troops in the assault sector and it became uncertain whether the offensive would go forward . The French government desperately needed a victory to avoid civil unrest but the British were wary of proceeding , in view of the rapidly changing tactical situation . In a meeting with Lloyd George , French commander @-@ in @-@ chief General Nivelle persuaded the British Prime Minister , that if the British launched a diversionary assault to draw German troops away from the Aisne sector , the French offensive could succeed . It was agreed in the London Convention of 16 January , that the French assault on the Aisne would begin in mid @-@ April and that the British would make a diversionary attack in the Arras sector approximately one week prior .
= = = Tactics : British Expeditionary Force = = =
Three armies of Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , the commander of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) were in the Arras sector , the Fifth Army ( General Hubert Gough ) in the south , the Third Army ( General Edmund Allenby ) in the centre and the First Army ( General Henry Horne ) in the north and the plan was devised by Allenby .
= = = = Division attack training = = = =
In December 1916 , the training manual SS 135 replaced SS 109 of 8 May 1916 and marked a significant step in the evolution of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) into a homogeneous force , well adapted to its role on the Western Front . The duties of army , corps and divisions in planning attacks were standardised . Armies were to devise the plan and the principles of the artillery component . Corps were to allot tasks to divisions , which would then select objectives and devise infantry plans subject to corps approval . Artillery planning was controlled by corps with consultation of divisions by the corps General Officer Commanding , Royal Artillery ( GOCRA ) which became the title of the officer at each level of command who devised the bombardment plan , which was coordinated with neighbouring corps artillery commanders by the army GOCRA . Specific parts of the bombardment were nominated by divisions , using their local knowledge and the results of air reconnaissance . The corps artillery commander was to co @-@ ordinate counter @-@ battery fire and the howitzer bombardment for zero hour . Corps controlled the creeping barrage but divisions were given authority over extra batteries added to the barrage , which could be switched to other targets by the divisional commander and brigade commanders . SS 135 provided the basis for the BEF 's operational technique for the rest of 1917 .
= = = = Platoon attack training = = = =
The training manual SS 143 of February 1917 marked the end of attacks made by lines of infantry with a few detached specialists . The platoon was divided into a small headquarters and four sections , one with two trained grenade @-@ throwers and assistants , the second with a Lewis gunner and nine assistants carrying 30 drums of ammunition , the third section comprised a sniper , scout and nine riflemen and the fourth section had nine men with four rifle @-@ grenade launchers . The rifle and hand @-@ grenade sections were to advance in front of the Lewis @-@ gun and rifle @-@ grenade sections , in two waves or in artillery formation , which covered an area 100 yards ( 91 m ) wide and 50 yards ( 46 m ) deep , with the four sections in a diamond pattern , the rifle section ahead , rifle grenade and bombing sections to the sides and the Lewis gun section behind , until resistance was met . German defenders were to be suppressed by fire from the Lewis @-@ gun and rifle @-@ grenade sections , while the riflemen and hand @-@ grenade sections moved forward , preferably by infiltrating round the flanks of the resistance , to overwhelm the defenders from the rear .
The changes in equipment , organisation and formation were elaborated in SS 144 The Normal Formation For the Attack of February 1917 , which recommended that the leading troops should push on to the final objective , when only one or two were involved but that for a greater number of objectives , when artillery covering fire was available for the depth of the intended advance , fresh platoons should " leap @-@ frog " through the leading platoons to the next objective . The new organisations and equipment gave the infantry platoon the capacity for fire and manoeuvre , even in the absence of adequate artillery support . To bring uniformity in adoption of the methods laid down in the revised manuals and others produced over the winter , Haig established a BEF Training Directorate in January 1917 , to issue manuals and oversee training . SS 143 and its companion manuals like SS 144 , provided British infantry with " off @-@ the @-@ peg " tactics , devised from the experience of the Somme and from French Army operations , to go with the new equipment made available by increasing British and Allied war production and better understanding of the organisation necessary to exploit it in battle .
= = = Tactics : German army = = =
In a new manual of 1 December 1916 , Grundsätze für die Führung in der Abwehrschlacht im Stellungskrieg ( Principles of Command for Defensive Battle ) , the policy of unyielding defence of ground regardless of its tactical value , was replaced by the defence of positions suitable for artillery observation and communication with the rear , where an attacking force would " fight itself to a standstill and use up its resources while the defenders conserve [ d ] their strength " . Defending infantry would fight in areas , with the front divisions in an outpost zone up to 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) deep behind listening posts , with the main line of resistance placed on a reverse slope , in front of artillery observation posts , which were kept far enough back to retain observation over the outpost zone . Behind the main line of resistance was a Grosskampfzone ( battle zone ) , a second defensive area 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 300 m ) deep , also sited as far as possible on ground hidden from enemy observation , while in view of German artillery observers . A rückwärtige Kampfzone ( rear battle zone ) further back was to be occupied by the reserve battalion of each regiment .
Allgemeines über Stellungsbau ( Principles of Field Fortification ) was published in January 1917 and by April an outpost zone ( Vorpostenfeld ) held by sentries , had been built along the Western Front . Sentries could retreat to larger positions ( Gruppennester ) held by Stosstrupps ( five men and an NCO per Trupp ) , who would join the sentries to recapture sentry @-@ posts by immediate counter @-@ attack . Defensive procedures in the battle zone were similar but with greater numbers . The front trench system was the sentry line for the battle zone garrison , which was allowed to move away from concentrations of enemy fire and then counter @-@ attack to recover the battle and outpost zones ; such withdrawals were envisaged as occurring on small parts of the battlefield which had been made untenable by Allied artillery fire , as the prelude to Gegenstoss in der Stellung ( immediate counter @-@ attack within the position ) . Such a decentralised battle by large numbers of small infantry detachments would present the attacker with unforeseen obstructions . Resistance from troops equipped with automatic weapons , supported by observed artillery fire , would increase the further the advance progressed . A school was opened in January 1917 to teach infantry commanders the new methods .
Given the Allies ' growing superiority in munitions and manpower , attackers might still penetrate to the second ( artillery protection ) line , leaving in their wake German garrisons isolated in Widerstandsnester , ( resistance nests , Widas ) still inflicting losses and disorganisation on the attackers . As the attackers tried to capture the Widas and dig in near the German second line , Sturmbattalions and Sturmregimenter of the counter @-@ attack divisions would advance from the rückwärtige Kampfzone into the battle zone , in an immediate counter @-@ attack , ( Gegenstoss aus der Tiefe ) . If the immediate counter @-@ attack failed , the counter @-@ attack divisions would take their time to prepare a methodical attack , provided the lost ground was essential to the retention of the main position . Such methods required large numbers of reserve divisions ready to move to the battlefront . The reserve was obtained by creating 22 divisions by internal reorganisation of the army , bringing divisions from the eastern front and by shortening the western front , in Operation Alberich . By the spring of 1917 , the German army in the west had a strategic reserve of 40 divisions .
= = = = German 6th Army = = = =
Experience of the German 1st Army in the Somme Battles , ( Erfahrungen der I Armee in der Sommeschlacht ) was published on 30 January 1917 . Ludendorff 's new defensive methods had been controversial ; during the Battle of the Somme in 1916 Colonel Fritz von Loßberg ( Chief of Staff of the First Army ) had been able to establish a line of relief divisions ( Ablösungsdivisionen ) , with the reinforcements from Verdun , which began to arrive in greater numbers in September . In his analysis of the battle , Fritz von Loßberg opposed the granting of discretion to front trench garrisons to retire , as he believed that manoeuvre did not allow the garrisons to evade Allied artillery fire , which could blanket the forward area and invited enemy infantry to occupy vacant areas . Loßberg considered that spontaneous withdrawals would disrupt the counter @-@ attack reserves as they deployed and further deprive battalion and division commanders of the ability to conduct an organised defence , which the dispersal of infantry over a wider area had already made difficult . Loßberg and others had severe doubts as to the ability of relief divisions to arrive on the battlefield in time to conduct an immediate counter @-@ attack ( Gegenstoss ) from behind the battle zone . The sceptics wanted the Somme practice of fighting in the front line to be retained and authority devolved no further than battalion , so as to maintain organizational coherence , in anticipation of a methodical counter @-@ attack ( Gegenangriff ) after 24 – 48 hours , by the relief divisions . Ludendorff was sufficiently impressed by Loßberg 's memorandum to add it to the new Manual of Infantry Training for War .
General Falkenhausen , commander of the 6th Army arranged his infantry in the Arras area according to Loßberg and Hoen 's preference for a rigid defence of the front @-@ line , supported by methodical counter @-@ attacks ( Gegenangriffe ) , by the " relief " divisions ( Ablösungsdivisionen ) on the second or third day . Five Ablösungsdivisionen were placed behind Douai , 15 miles ( 24 km ) away from the front line . The new Hindenburg line ended at Telegraph Hill between Neuville @-@ Vitasse and Tilloy lez Mofflaines , from whence the original system of four lines 75 – 150 yards ( 69 – 137 m ) apart , ran north to the Neuville St. Vaast – Bailleul road . About 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) behind , were the Wancourt – Feuchy and to the north the Point du Jour lines , running from the Scarpe river north along the east slope of Vimy ridge . The new Wotan line , which extended the Hindenburg position , was built around 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further back and not entirely mapped by the Allies until the battle had begun .
Just before the battle , Falkenhausen had written that parts of the front line might be lost but the five Ablösungsdivisions could be brought forward to relieve the front divisions , on the evening of the second day . On 6 April , General von Nagel , the 6th Army Chief of Staff , accepted that some of the front divisions might need to be relieved on the first evening of battle but that any penetrations would be repulsed with local immediate counter @-@ attacks ( Gegenangriffe in der Stellung ) by the front divisions . On 7 April , Nagel viewed the imminent British attack as a limited effort against Vimy ridge , preparatory to a bigger attack later , perhaps combined with the French attack expected in mid @-@ April . Construction of positions to fulfil the new policy of area defence , had been drastically curtailed by shortages of labour and the long winter , which affected the setting of concrete . The 6th Army commanders had also been reluctant to encourage the British to change their plans , if they detected a thinning of the front line and were inhibited by the extent of British air reconnaissance , which observed new field works and promptly directed artillery fire on them . The 6th Army failed to redeploy its artillery , which remained in lines easy to see and bombard . Work on defences was also divided between maintaining the front line , strengthening the third line and the new Wotanstellung ( Drocourt – Quéant switch line ) further back .
= = Prelude = =
The British plan was well developed , drawing on the lessons of the Somme and Verdun the previous year . Rather than attacking on an extended front , the full weight of artillery would be concentrated on a relatively narrow stretch of 11 mi ( 18 km ) , from Vimy Ridge in the north to Neuville Vitasse , 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the Scarpe river . The bombardment was planned to last about a week at all points on the line , with a much longer and heavier barrage at Vimy to weaken its strong defences . During the assault , the troops would advance in open formation , with units leapfrogging each other to allow them time to consolidate and regroup . Before the action could be undertaken , a great deal of preparation was required , much of it innovative .
= = = War underground = = =
Since October 1916 , Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been working on the Western Front . The Artois region is chalky and easily excavated and under the city of Arras , there is a vast network of boves ( caverns , underground quarries , galleries and sewage tunnels ) . The Third Army at Arras planned to use the old underground quarries in the city in the offensive planned for April 1917 . The quarries were to be linked by tunnels so that they could be used as shelters against German artillery @-@ fire and to convey troops to the front in secrecy and safety . Assault tunnels were also dug , stopping a few metres short of the German line , ready to be blown open by explosives on Zero @-@ Day . Conventional mines were laid under the German front line , ready to be blown immediately before the assault . ( Many were never detonated for fear that they would churn up the ground too much . ) German sappers ( military engineers ) also conducted underground operations , seeking out Allied tunnels to assault and counter @-@ mine .
Of the New Zealand tunnellers , 41 were killed and 151 were wounded by German counter @-@ mining . The tunnelling effort was enormous and in one sector , four Tunnelling companies of 500 men each , worked around @-@ the @-@ clock in 18 @-@ hour shifts for two months . The tunnellers dug 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) of subways ( foot traffic only ) , tramways ( with rails for hand @-@ drawn trolleys , to take ammunition to the line and bring casualties back ) and railways ( a light railway system ) . Just before the assault , the tunnel system had been enlarged sufficient to conceal 24 @,@ 000 men , with electric lighting provided by a small powerhouse , kitchens , latrines and a medical centre with an operating theatre . The bulk of the work was done by the New Zealand Tunnelling Company , which included Maori and Pacific Islanders from the New Zealand Pioneer battalion and Bantams from the coalfields of northern England .
= = = War in the air = = =
Although the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) entered the Battle with inferior aircraft to the Luftstreitkräfte , this did not deter their commander , General Trenchard , from adopting an offensive posture . Dominance of the air over Arras was essential for reconnaissance and the British carried out many aerial patrols . Trenchard 's aircraft , acting in support of ground forces , carried out artillery spotting , photography of trench systems and bombing . The reconnaissance activities were coordinated by the 1st Field Survey Company , Royal Engineers . Aerial observation was hazardous work as , for best results , the aircraft had to fly at slow speeds and low altitude over the German defences . It became even more dangerous with the arrival of the " Red Baron " , Manfred von Richthofen , with his highly experienced and better @-@ equipped Jagdgeschwader 1 ( Richthofen 's Flying Circus ) in March 1917 . Its deployment led to sharply increased losses of Allied pilots and April 1917 was to become known as Bloody April . One German infantry officer later wrote " during these days , there was a whole series of dogfights , which almost invariably ended in defeat for the British since it was Richthofen 's squadron they were up against . Often five or six planes in succession would be chased away or shot down in flames " . The average flying life of a RFC pilot in Arras in April was 18 hours . Between 4 and 8 April , the RFC lost 75 aircraft and 105 aircrew on operations . The casualties created a pilot shortage and replacements were sent to the front straight from flying school : during the same period , 56 aircraft were crashed by inexperienced RFC pilots .
= = = Creeping barrage = = =
To keep enemy action to a minimum during the assault , a " creeping barrage " was planned . This required gunners to create a curtain of high explosive and shrapnel shell explosions that crept across the battlefield in lines , about one hundred metres in advance of the assaulting troops . The Allies had previously used creeping barrages at the battles of Neuve Chapelle and the Somme but had encountered two technical problems . The first was accurately synchronising the movement of the troops to the fall of the barrage : for Arras , this was overcome by rehearsal and strict scheduling . The second was the barrage falling erratically as the barrels of heavy guns wore swiftly but at differing rates during fire : for Arras , the rate of wear of each gun barrel was calculated and calibrated accordingly . While there was a risk of friendly fire , the creeping barrage forced the Germans to remain in their shelters , allowing Allied soldiers to advance without fear of machine gun fire . The new No. 106 instantaneous fuze had been adapted from a French design for high @-@ explosive shells so that they detonated on the slightest impact , vaporising barbed wire . Poison gas shells were used for the final minutes of the barrage .
= = = Counter @-@ battery fire = = =
The principal danger to assaulting troops came from enemy artillery fire as they crossed no man 's land , accounting for over half the casualties at the first day of the Somme . A further complication was the location of German artillery , hidden as it was behind the ridges . In response , specialist artillery units were created to attack German artillery . Their targets were provided by 1st Field Survey Company , Royal Engineers , who collated data obtained from " flash spotting " and sound ranging . ( Flash spotting required Royal Flying Corps observers to record the location of tell @-@ tale flashes made by guns whilst firing . ) On Zero @-@ Day , 9 April , over 80 percent of German heavy guns in the sector were neutralised ( that is , " unable to bring effective fire to bear , the crews being disabled or driven off " ) by counter @-@ battery fire . Gas shells were also used against the draught horses of the batteries and to disrupt ammunition supply columns .
= = Battle = =
= = = First phase = = =
The preliminary bombardment of Vimy Ridge started on 20 March ; and the bombardment of the rest of the sector on 4 April . Limited to a front of only 24 miles ( 39 km ) , the bombardment used 2 @,@ 689 @,@ 000 shells , over a million more than had been used on the Somme . German casualties were not heavy but the men became exhausted by the endless task of keeping open dug @-@ out entrances and demoralised by the absence of rations caused by the difficulties of preparing and moving hot food under bombardment . Some went without food altogether for two or three consecutive days .
By the eve of battle , the front @-@ line trenches had ceased to exist and their barbed wire defences were blown to pieces . The official history of the 2nd Bavarian Reserve Regiment describes the front line as " consisting no longer of trenches but of advanced nests of men scattered about " . The 262nd Reserve Regiment history writes that its trench system was " lost in a crater field " . To add to the misery , for the last ten hours of bombardment , gas shells were added .
Zero @-@ Hour had originally been planned for the morning of 8 April ( Easter Sunday ) but it was postponed 24 hours at the request of the French , despite reasonably good weather in the assault sector . Zero @-@ Day was rescheduled for 9 April with Zero @-@ Hour at 05 : 30 . The assault was preceded by a hurricane bombardment lasting five minutes , following a relatively quiet night .
When the time came , it was snowing heavily ; Allied troops advancing across no man 's land were hindered by large drifts . It was still dark and visibility on the battlefield was very poor . A westerly wind was at the Allied soldiers ' backs blowing " a squall of sleet and snow into the faces of the Germans " . The combination of the unusual bombardment and poor visibility meant many German troops were caught unawares and taken prisoner , still half @-@ dressed , clambering out of the deep dug @-@ outs of the first two lines of trenches . Others were captured without their boots , trying to escape but stuck in the knee @-@ deep mud of the communication trenches .
= = = = First Battle of the Scarpe ( 9 – 14 April 1917 ) = = = =
The major British assault of the first day was directly east of Arras , with the 12th Division attacking Observation Ridge , north of the Arras — Cambrai road . After reaching this objective , they were to push on towards Feuchy , as well as the second and third lines of German trenches . At the same time , elements of the 3rd Division began an assault south of the road , with the taking of Devil 's Wood , Tilloy @-@ lès @-@ Mofflaines and the Bois des Boeufs as their initial objectives . The ultimate objective of these assaults was the Monchyriegel , a trench running between Wancourt and Feuchy , and an important component of the German defences . Most of these objectives , including Feuchy village , had been achieved by the evening of 10 April though the Germans were still in control of large sections of the trenches between Wancourt and Feuchy , particularly in the area of the heavily fortified village of Neuville @-@ Vitasse . The following day , troops from the 56th Division were able to force the Germans out of the village , although the Monchyriegel was not fully in British hands until a few days later . The British were able to consolidate these gains and push forward towards Monchy @-@ le @-@ Preux , although they suffered heavy casualties in fighting near the village .
One reason for the success of the offensive in this sector was the failure of German commander von Falkenhausen to employ a defence in depth . In theory , the enemy would be allowed to make initial gains , thus stretching their lines of communication . Reserves held close to the battlefield would be committed once the initial advance had bogged down , before enemy reinforcements could be brought up . The defenders would thus be able to counter @-@ attack and regain any lost territory . In this sector , Falkenhausen kept his reserve troops too far from the front and they were too late for a useful counter @-@ attack on either 10 or 11 April .
= = = = Battle of Vimy Ridge ( 9 – 12 April 1917 ) = = = =
At roughly the same time , in perhaps the most carefully crafted portion of the entire offensive , the Canadian Corps launched an assault on Vimy Ridge . Advancing behind a creeping barrage , and making heavy use of machine guns – eighty to each brigade , including one Lewis gun in each platoon – the corps was able to advance through about 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) of German defences , and captured the crest of the ridge at about 13 : 00 . Military historians have attributed the success of this attack to careful planning by Canadian Corps commander Julian Byng and his subordinate General Arthur Currie , constant training , and the assignment of specific objectives to each platoon . By giving units specific goals , troops could continue the attack even if their officers were killed or communication broke down , thus bypassing two major problems of combat on the Western Front .
= = = Second phase = = =
After the territorial gains of the first two days , a hiatus followed as the immense logistical support needed to keep armies in the field caught up with the new realities . Battalions of pioneers built temporary roads across the churned up battlefield ; heavy artillery ( and its ammunition ) was manhandled into position in new gun pits ; food for the men and feed for the draught horses was brought up , and casualty clearing stations were established in readiness for the inevitable counter @-@ attacks . Allied commanders also faced a dilemma : whether to keep their exhausted divisions on the attack and run the risk of having insufficient manpower or replace them with fresh divisions and lose momentum .
In London , The Times commented : " the great value of our recent advance here lies in the fact that we have everywhere driven the enemy from high ground and robbed him of observation . [ H ] aving secured these high seats [ Vimy , Monchy and Croisailles ] and enthroned ourselves , it is not necessarily easy to continue the rapid advance . An attack down the forward slope of high ground , exposed to the fire of lesser slopes beyond , is often extremely difficult and now on the general front ... there must intervene a laborious period , with which we were familiar at the Somme , of systemic hammering and storming of individual positions , no one of which can be attacked until some covering one has been captured " .
The German press reacted similarly . The Vossische Zeitung , a Berlin daily newspaper , wrote : " We have to count on reverses like that near Arras . Such events are a kind of tactical reverse . If this tactical reverse is not followed by strategical effects i.e. , breaking through on the part of the aggressor , then the whole battle is nothing but a weakening of the attacked party in men and materiel . " The same day , the Frankfurter Zeitung commented : " If the British succeed in breaking through it will render conditions worse for them as it will result in freedom of operations which is Germany 's own special art of war " .
General Ludendorff was less sanguine . The news of the battle reached him during his 52nd birthday celebrations at his headquarters in Kreuznach . He wrote : " I had looked forward to the expected offensive with confidence and was now deeply depressed " . He telephoned each of his commanders and " gained the impression that the principles laid down by OHL were sound but the whole art of leadership lies in applying them correctly " . ( A later court of inquiry would establish that Falkenhausen had indeed misunderstood the principles of defence in depth . ) Ludendorff immediately ordered reinforcements . Then , on 11 April , he sacked General von Falkenhausen 's chief of staff and replaced him with his defensive line expert , Colonel Fritz von Lossberg . Von Lossberg went armed with a vollmacht ( a power of attorney enabling him to issue orders in Ludendorff 's name ) , effectively replacing Falkenhausen . Within hours of arriving , Lossberg was restructuring the German defences .
During the Second Phase , the Allies continued to press the attack east of Arras . Their aims were to consolidate the gains made in the first days of the offensive ; to keep the initiative and to break through in concert with the French at Aisne . However , from 16 April onwards , it was apparent that the Nivelle Offensive was failing and Haig came under pressure to keep the Germans occupied in the Arras sector to minimise French losses .
= = = = Second Battle of the Scarpe ( 23 – 24 April 1917 ) = = = =
At 04 : 45 on 23 April , following two days of poor visibility and freezing weather , British troops of the Third Army ( VI and VII corps ) , attacked to the east along an approximate 9 mi ( 14 km ) front from Croisilles to Gavrelle on both sides of the Scarpe . The 51st Division attacked on the northern side in heavy fighting on the western outskirts of Roeux Wood and the chemical works . On their left , the 37th Division , attacked the buildings west of Roeux Station and gained the line of their objectives on the western slopes of Greenland Hill , north of the railway . On the left of the main British attack the 63rd Division , made rapid progress against Gavrelle and secured the village . To the south of the Scarpe and east of Monchy @-@ le @-@ Preux the 29th Division gained the western slopes of the rising ground known as Infantry Hill . The Cojeul river marked a divisional boundary within the VI Corps . Guémappe on the north side of the river was the objective of the 15th Division , attacking east from Wancourt towards Vis @-@ en @-@ Artois . The objective was commanded by the higher ground on the south bank and it was not until the 50th Division captured the rise on the south side of the Cojeul that the village was taken . Several determined German counter @-@ attacks were made and by the morning of 24 April , the British held Guémappe , Gavrelle and the high ground overlooking Fontaine @-@ lez @-@ Croisilles and Cherisy ; the fighting around Roeux was indecisive .
= = = = Battle of Arleux ( 28 – 29 April 1917 ) = = = =
The principal objective of the attack was the need to sustain a supporting action tying down German reserves to assist the French offensive against the plateau north of the Aisne traversed by the Chemin des Dames . Haig reported , " With a view to economising my troops , my objectives were shallow , and for a like reason , and also in order to give the appearance of an attack on a more imposing scale , demonstrations were continued southwards to the Arras @-@ Cambrai Road and northwards to the Souchez River " .
At 04 : 25 on April 28 British and Canadian troops launched the main attack on a front of about eight miles north of Monchy @-@ le @-@ Preux . A fierce battle continued throughout the greater part of the 28 and 29 April . The Germans delivered determined and repeated counter @-@ attacks . The British positions at Gavrelle alone were attacked seven times with strong forces , and on each occasion the German thrust was repulsed with great loss by the 63rd Division . The village of Arleux @-@ en @-@ Gohelle was captured by Canadian troops , ( 1st Canadian Division ) , after bitter hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting , and British troops , ( 2nd Division , Major @-@ General C. E. Pereira ) , made further progress in the neighbourhood of Oppy , on Greenland Hill ( 37th Division ) , and between Monchy @-@ le @-@ Preux and the Scarpe ( 12th Division ) .
= = = = Third Battle of the Scarpe ( 3 – 4 May 1917 ) = = = =
After securing the area around Arleux at the end of April , the British determined to launch another attack east from Monchy to try to break through the Boiry Riegel and reach the Wotanstellung , a major German defensive fortification . This was scheduled to coincide with the Australian attack at Bullecourt to present the Germans with a two – pronged assault . British commanders hoped that success in this venture would force the Germans to retreat further to the east . With this objective in mind , the British launched another attack near the Scarpe on 3 May . However , neither prong was able to make any significant advances and the attack was called off the following day after incurring heavy casualties . Although this battle was a failure , the British learned important lessons about the need for close liaison between tanks , infantry , and artillery , which they would later apply in the Battle of Cambrai ( 1917 ) .
= = Flanking operations = =
= = = Round Bullecourt , 11 April – 16 June = = =
= = = = First attack on Bullecourt ( 10 – 11 April 1917 ) = = = =
South of Arras , the plan called for two divisions , the British 62nd Division and the Australian 4th Division to attack either side of the village of Bullecourt and push the Germans out of their fortified positions and into the reserve trenches . The attack was initially scheduled for the morning of 10 April , but the tanks intended for the assault were delayed by bad weather and the attack was postponed for 24 hours . The order to delay did not reach all units in time , and two battalions of the West Yorkshire Regiment attacked and were driven back with significant losses . Despite protests from the Australian commanders , the attack was resumed on the morning of 11 April ; mechanical failures meant that only 11 tanks were able to advance in support , and the limited artillery barrage left much of the barbed wire in front of the German trenches uncut . Additionally , the abortive attack of the previous day alerted German troops in the area to the impending assault , and they were better prepared than they had been in the Canadian sector . Misleading reports about the extent of the gains made by the Australians deprived them of necessary artillery support and , although elements of the 4th Division briefly occupied sections of German trenches , they were ultimately forced to retreat with heavy losses . In this sector , the German commanders correctly employed the elastic defence and were therefore able to counter @-@ attack effectively . The Germans acquired two of the tanks which had been used , and after seeing them perforated by armour @-@ piercing bullets , believed the rifle A.P. bullet was an effective anti @-@ tank weapon , which threw them off @-@ guard .
= = = = German attack on Lagnicourt ( 15 April 1917 ) = = = =
Observing that the 1st Australian Division was holding a frontage of 13 @,@ 000 yd ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) , the local German corps commander ( General Otto von Moser , commanding the German XIV Reserve Corps ) planned a spoiling attack to drive back the advanced posts , destroy supplies and guns and then retire to the Hindenburg defences . Passing his plans to higher command , they assigned an extra division to his corps to further strengthen the attack . Attacking with 23 battalions ( from four divisions ) , the German forces managed to penetrate the Australian front line at the junction on the 1st Australian Division and 2nd Australian Division and occupy the village of Lagnicourt ( damaging some Australian artillery pieces ) . Counter @-@ attacks from the Australian 9th and 20th Australian battalions , restored the front line , and the action ended with the Australians suffering 1 @,@ 010 casualties , against 2 @,@ 313 German casualties .
= = = = Battle of Bullecourt ( 3 – 17 May 1917 ) = = = =
After the initial assault around Bullecourt failed to penetrate the German lines , British commanders made preparations for a second attempt . British artillery began an intense bombardment of the village , which by 20 April had been virtually destroyed . Although the infantry assault was planned for 20 April , it was pushed back a number of times and finally set for the early morning of 3 May . At 03 : 45 , elements of the 2nd Australian Division attacked east of Bullecourt village , intending to pierce the Hindenburg Line and capture Hendecourt @-@ lès @-@ Cagnicourt , while British troops from the 62nd ( 2nd West Riding ) Division attacked Bullecourt , which was finally taken by the British 7th Division and despite determined effort by the Germans was held by the British 62nd Division . German resistance was fierce and when the offensive was called off on 17 May , few of the initial objectives had been met . The Australians were in possession of much of the German trench system between Bullecourt and Riencourt @-@ lès @-@ Cagnicourt but had been unable to capture Hendecourt . To the west , British troops managed to push the Germans out of Bullecourt but incurred considerable losses , failing also to advance north @-@ east to Hendecourt .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
By the standards of the Western front , the gains of the first two days were nothing short of spectacular . A great deal of ground was gained for relatively few casualties and a number of strategically significant points were captured , notably Vimy Ridge . Additionally , the offensive succeeded in drawing German troops away from the French offensive in the Aisne sector . In many respects , the battle might be deemed a victory for the British and their allies but these gains were offset by high casualties and the ultimate failure of the French offensive at the Aisne . By the end of the offensive , the British had suffered more than 150 @,@ 000 casualties and gained little ground since the first day . Despite significant early gains , they were unable to effect a breakthrough and the situation reverted to stalemate . Although historians generally consider the battle a British victory , in the wider context of the front , it had very little impact on the strategic or tactical situation . Ludendorff later commented : " no doubt exceedingly important strategic objects lay behind the British attack , but I have never been able to discover what they were " . In contradiction to this he was also " very depressed ; had our principles of defensive tactics proved false , and if so , what was to be done ? "
On the Allied side , twenty @-@ five Victoria Crosses were subsequently awarded . On the German side , on 24 April 1917 , Kaiser Wilhelm awarded Von Lossberg the Oakleaves ( similar to a bar for a repeat award ) for the Pour le Mérite he had received at the Battle of the Somme the previous September .
= = = Casualties = = =
The most quoted Allied casualty figures are those in the returns made by Lt @-@ Gen Sir George Fowke , Haig 's adjutant @-@ general . His figures collate the daily casualty tallies kept by each unit under Haig 's command . Third Army casualties were 87 @,@ 226 ; First Army 46 @,@ 826 ( including 11 @,@ 004 Canadians at Vimy Ridge ) ; and Fifth Army 24 @,@ 608 ; totalling 158 @,@ 660 . German losses by contrast are more difficult to determine . Gruppe Vimy and Gruppe Souchez suffered 79 @,@ 418 casualties but the figures for Gruppe Arras are incomplete . The writers of the German Official History Der Weltkrieg , recorded 78 @,@ 000 British losses to the end of April and another 64 @,@ 000 casualties by the end of May , a total of 142 @,@ 000 men and 85 @,@ 000 German casualties . German records excluded those " lightly wounded " . Captain Cyril Falls ( the writer of that part of the History of the Great War , the British official history , describing the Battles of Arras , Military Operations 1917 volume I ) estimated that 30 % needed to be added to German returns for comparison with the British . Falls makes " a general estimate " that German casualties were " probably fairly equal " . Nicholls puts them at 120 @,@ 000 and Keegan at 130 @,@ 000 . A notable casualty of the battle was actor Herbert Marshall , who was shot in the knee and had to have his leg amputated . Fitted with a prosthetic , he went on to have a film career in Hollywood . Several sources list C.S. Lewis ( 1898 – 1963 ) as having been wounded in April 1917 but in his autobiography Lewis wrote that he did not arrive in France until November of that year and that his wounding near Arras took place in April 1918 .
= = = Commanders = = =
Although Haig paid tribute to Allenby for the plan 's " great initial success " , Allenby 's subordinates " objected to the way he handled the ... attritional stage " . Allenby was sent to command the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in Palestine . He regarded the transfer as a " badge of failure " but he " more than redeemed his reputation by defeating " the Ottomans in 1917 – 18 . Haig stayed in his post until the end of the war .
When it became apparent that a factor in the British success were the failures of the 6th Army command , Ludendorff removed the commander , General von Falkenhausen ( who never held a field command again , spending the rest of war as Governor @-@ General of Belgium ) and several staff officers . In early 1918 , The Times carried an article , Falkenhausen 's Reign of Terror , describing 170 military executions of Belgian civilians since he had been appointed governor .
Ludendorff and Lossberg discovered that although the Allies were capable of breaking through the first position they could probably not capitalise on their success if they were confronted by a mobile , clever defence . Ludendorff immediately ordered more training in manoeuvre warfare for his Eingreif divisions . Lossberg was soon promoted to general and directed the defensive battle of the 4th Army against the British Flanders offensive of the summer and late autumn . ( Lossberg had become " legendary as the fireman of the Western Front ; always sent by OHL to the area of crisis " ) .
= = = War poetry = = =
Siegfried Sassoon makes reference to the battle in the poem The General The Anglo @-@ Welsh lyric poet Edward Thomas was killed by a shell on April 9 , 1917 , during the first day of the Easter Offensive . Thomas 's war diary gives a vivid and poignant picture of life on the Western front in the months leading up to the battle .
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= Bernard Waldman =
Bernard Waldman ( October 12 , 1913 – November 1 , 1986 ) was an American physicist who flew on the Hiroshima atomic bombing mission as a cameraman during World War II .
A graduate of New York University , joined the faculty of the University of Notre Dame in 1938 . During World War II , he served in the United States Navy as an engineering officer . He headed a group that conducted blast measurements for the Trinity nuclear test , and served on Tinian with Project Alberta .
After the war he returned to Notre Dame . He was director of the Midwestern Universities Research Association Laboratory from 1960 to 1964 , dean of its Notre Dame College of Science at Notre Dame from 1967 to 1979 , and associate director of the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory from 1979 to 1983 .
= = Early life and education = =
Bernard Waldman was born in New York City on October 12 , 1913 . He attended New York University , from which he received Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees . His thesis , on " The Resonance Processes in the Disintegration of Boron by Protons " , formed the basis of a paper published in the Physical Review . His research supported the estimates of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Robert Serber .
Although he was a Congregationalist , Waldman joined the faculty of the University of Notre Dame in 1938 . He became an assistant professor in 1941 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
During World War II , Waldman served in the United States Navy as an engineering officer , and was involved in construction and extension of naval bases in the United States . He took a leave of absence from Notre Dame and joined Oppenheimer and Serber at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1943 . He was assigned to Norman F. Ramsey 's E @-@ 7 Group , which was part of the Ordnance ( O ) Division responsible for " integration of design and delivery " . Most of the work involved preparing and checking instrumentation from drop tests involving dummy bombs .
Waldman was the head of Group TR @-@ 6 ( Airborne Measurements ) for the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 . He developed microphones that were dropped by parachute to measure the effect of the blast . He was then assigned to Project Alberta , the part of the Manhattan Project that oversaw the preparation of facilities to test and deploy nuclear weapons , and support their use during the actual missions . As such , he participated in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , as a camera operator on the observation aircraft . He was equipped with a special high @-@ speed Fastax movie camera with six seconds of film in order to record the blast . Unfortunately , Waldman forgot to open the camera shutter , and no film was exposed .
= = Later life = =
After the war ended , Waldman returned to Notre Dame , where he continued his research into the photodisintegration of deuterium and beryllium . For a time he was in charge of a 3 @-@ million volt particle accelerator that was the world`s second most powerful source of X @-@ rays in 1949 . In 1960 , Waldman took a sabbatical from Notre Dame to become director of the Midwestern Universities Research Association ( MURP ) Laboratory . He set about fixing problems with the 50 MeV accelerator . These were resolved , but the Federal Government declined to fund MURP 's activities , and Walden returned to Notre Dame in 1964 . Waldman was appointed dean of Notre Dame 's College of Science in 1967 . He held this position August , 1979 , when he retired at the age of 65 . He then became as associate director of the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory at Michigan State University , a position he held until 1983 .
Waldman died in a hospital in Sanford , North Carolina , where he was being treated for cancer , on November 1 , 1986 . He was survived by his wife , Glenna and three daughters . A funeral service was held at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart on the campus of the University of Notre Dame , and he was interred in its Cedar Grove Cemetery . His papers are in the University of Notre Dame Archives .
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= John Cena =
John Felix Anthony Cena Jr . ( / ˈsiːnə / ; born April 23 , 1977 ) is an American professional wrestler , rapper , actor , and reality television show host signed to WWE on the SmackDown brand .
Cena started his pro wrestling career in 1999 with Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( UPW ) , and won the UPW Heavyweight Championship the following year . Cena signed a developmental contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later renamed to WWE ) in 2001 , debuting on the WWE main roster in 2002 . From a generic character in 2002 , Cena morphed into an arrogant and edgy rapper for the time period of 2002 @-@ 2003 . Cena later transitioned to his current character , which he describes as a " goody @-@ two shoes Superman " . However , Cena has been labeled as the " most polarizing pro wrestler ever " as his character has many supporters and many detractors . In 2015 , WWE credited Cena as being the " face of WWE " from 2004 , while in 2012 , IGN described Cena as WWE 's franchise player since 2005 .
So far , Cena has won 24 championships , with 15 reigns as a world champion ( 12 times as WWE Champion / WWE World Heavyweight Champion and three times as World Heavyweight Champion ) , five reigns as United States Champion , and four reigns as world tag team champion ( two World Tag Team and two WWE Tag Team ) . Furthermore , he is a 2012 Money in the Bank ladder match winner , a two @-@ time Royal Rumble winner ( 2008 , 2013 ) , and a three @-@ time Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner ( 2009 , 2010 , 2012 ) . Cena has the fourth @-@ highest number of combined days as WWE World Heavyweight Champion , behind Bruno Sammartino , Bob Backlund , and Hulk Hogan . He has also headlined WWE 's flagship event , WrestleMania , on five different occasions ( WrestleManias 22 , 23 , XXVII , XXVIII , and 29 ) over the course of his career .
Outside of wrestling , Cena has released the rap album You Can 't See Me , which debuted at No. 15 on the US Billboard 200 chart , and starred in the feature films The Marine ( 2006 ) , 12 Rounds ( 2009 ) , Legendary ( 2010 ) , The Reunion ( 2011 ) , Trainwreck ( 2015 ) , and Sisters ( 2015 ) . Cena has also made appearances on television shows including Manhunt , Deal or No Deal , MADtv , Saturday Night Live , Punk 'd , Psych , and Parks and Recreation . He was also a contestant on Fast Cars and Superstars : The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race , where he made it to the final round before being eliminated , placing third in the overall competition . Cena is the host of American Grit on FOX .
Cena is involved in numerous philanthropic causes ; most notably with the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation . He has granted the most wishes in Make @-@ A @-@ Wish history .
= = Early life = =
Cena was born on April 23 , 1977 in West Newbury , Massachusetts , the son of Carol ( née Lupien ) and John Cena , Sr. He is the second oldest of five brothers : Dan , Matt , Steve , and Sean . His maternal grandfather was baseball player Tony Lupien . His father is of Italian descent and his mother is of French @-@ Canadian and English ancestry . Cena originally attended Central Catholic High School in Lawrence , Massachusetts , before transferring to Cushing Academy , a private prep boarding school . After graduating from Cushing Academy , Cena attended Springfield College in Springfield , Massachusetts .
In college he was a NCAA Division III All @-@ American center on the college football team , wearing the number 54 , which is still used on some of his WWE merchandise . He graduated from Springfield in 1998 with a degree in exercise physiology , after which he pursued a career in bodybuilding and worked as a driver for a limousine company .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Cena started training to become a professional wrestler in 1999 at Ultimate Pro Wrestling 's ( UPW ) California @-@ based " Ultimate University " operated by Rick Bassman . Once he was placed into an in @-@ ring role , Cena began using a semi @-@ robotic character known as " The Prototype " . Some of this period of his career was documented in the Discovery Channel program Inside Pro Wrestling School . He held the UPW Heavyweight Championship for 27 days in April 2000 . Cena wrestled for the UPW until March 2001 .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2000 – 02 ) = = = =
On October 10 , 2000 , while billed as The Prototype , Cena made his unofficial debut for then World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) on a SmackDown ! taping in a dark match against Mikey Richardson , which he lost . He received another tryout on January 9 , 2001 at a SmackDown ! taping in Oakland , California , this time defeating Aaron Aguilera . Cena wrestled again in a dark match at a SmackDown ! taping on March 13 .
In 2001 , Cena signed a developmental contract with the WWF . He was assigned to its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . During his time there , Cena wrestled under the ring name The Prototype . He held the OVW Heavyweight Championship for three months and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( with Rico Constantino ) for two months .
Through 2001 , Cena would receive four more tryouts with the WWF as he wrestled multiple enhancement talent wrestlers in both WWF house shows and dark matches . Through the early months of 2002 , Cena constantly found himself doing live events for the WWF , he wrestled against the likes of Shelton Benjamin and Tommy Dreamer .
= = = = Rise to superstardom ( 2002 – 04 ) = = = =
Cena made his WWE television debut on the June 27 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! by answering an open challenge by Kurt Angle . After declaring that he possessed " ruthless aggression " , Cena gave Angle a hard fight and only lost by a pinning combination . After the match , Cena was congratulated by The Undertaker , Rikishi , Faarooq and Billy Kidman . Following the near @-@ win , Cena became a fan favorite and started feuding with Chris Jericho , defeating Jericho at Vengeance . On that weeks episode of SmackDown ! Cena continued his winning ways defeating Test in a singles match . In September , Cena feuded with Eddie and Chavo Guerrero and Cena picked up a victory over Chavo Guerrero on the September 3 , 2002 taping of Velocity . Cena went on to defeat the likes of Albert and D @-@ Von Dudley as he was restricted to appearances on Velocity for the rest of September .
In October , Cena and Billy Kidman took part in a tag team tournament to crown the first WWE Tag Team Champions of the SmackDown ! brand , losing in the first round . The next week on SmackDown ! , Cena turned on and attacked Kidman , blaming him for their loss , becoming a villain for the first and only time in his career . At Rebellion , Cena teamed with Dawn Marie to take on the team of Billy Kidman and Torrie Wilson in a mixed tag team match in a losing effort . On the October 17 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena defeated Kidman in a singles contest , but was defeated by Kidman in a rematch on the October 24 episode of SmackDown ! . Shortly after the Kidman attack , on a Halloween themed episode of SmackDown ! , Cena dressed as Vanilla Ice performing a freestyle rap . The next week on SmackDown ! , Cena received a new character : a rapper who cut promos while rhyming . As the gimmick grew , Cena began adopting a variant of the 1980s WWF logo – dropping the " F " – as his " signature symbol " , along with the slogan " Word Life " . Moreover , he was joined by an enforcer , Bull Buchanan , who was rechristened B @-@ 2 ( also written B ² and pronounced " B @-@ Squared " ) . Buchanan was later replaced by Red Dogg , until he was sent to the Raw brand in February .
For the first half of 2003 , Cena sought the WWE Championship and chased the reigning champion Brock Lesnar after WrestleMania XIX , first having to go through Chris Benoit , who mocked him by wearing a " Toothless Aggression " shirt . Cena won a number one contender 's tournament against Lesnar at Backlash . However , Cena was defeated by Lesnar . At Vengeance , Cena lost a singles match against The Undertaker . At the end of the year , Cena became a fan favorite again when he joined Kurt Angle as a member of his team at Survivor Series .
In early 2004 , Cena participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2004 Royal Rumble , making it to the final six before being eliminated by Big Show . The Royal Rumble elimination led to a feud with Big Show , which Cena won the United States Championship from Big Show at WrestleMania XX . The reign ended almost four months later , when he was stripped of the belt on July 8 by Angle after he accidentally knocked him over , thus attacking an official . Cena won the championship back defeating Booker T in a best of five series that culminated at No Mercy , only to lose it to the débuting Carlito Caribbean Cool the next week . After the loss to Carlito , the duo began a feud , which resulted in Cena allegedly being stabbed in the kidney while at a Boston @-@ area nightclub by Carlito 's bodyguard , Jesús . This worked injury was used to keep Cena out of action for a month while Cena was filming The Marine . Immediately on his return in November , Cena won the United States Championship back from Carlito .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2005 – 07 ) = = = =
Cena took part in the 2005 Royal Rumble match , making it to the final two . Cena and Batista went over the top rope at the same time , ostensibly ending the match . The match was restarted in which Batista eliminated Cena to win . The next month , Cena defeated Kurt Angle to earn a spot in the SmackDown brand 's WrestleMania 21 main event match , beginning a feud with then WWE Champion John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and his Cabinet in the process . In the early stages of the feud , Cena lost his United States Championship to Cabinet member Orlando Jordan , Cena defeated JBL at WrestleMania winning the WWE Championship , giving Cena his first world championship . Cena then had a spinner WWE Championship belt made , while JBL took the original belt and claimed to still be WWE Champion , until Cena reclaimed the original belt in an " I Quit " match at Judgment Day .
Cena was drafted to the Raw brand on June 6 , 2005 , becoming the first wrestler selected in the annual draft lottery . Cena immediately entered a feud with Eric Bischoff , after refusing to participate in the " war " against the Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) roster at One Night Stand . With Bischoff vowing to make Cena 's stint on Raw difficult , he hand picked Jericho to take Cena 's championship from him . During their feud , even though Cena was portrayed as the " face " and Jericho as the " heel " , a vocal section of live crowds , nonetheless , were cheering Jericho during their matches . Crowds started to heavily boo Cena during his next feud with Kurt Angle , who took over as Bischoff 's hand @-@ picked number @-@ one contender after Cena defeated Jericho in a You 're Fired match on the August 22 Raw . Cena held on to his championship through his feud with Angle , losing to him by disqualification at Unforgiven and pinning him at Survivor Series . The feud with Angle also saw Cena add a secondary , submission based , finishing maneuver – the STFU ( a stepover toehold sleeper , though named for a stepover toehold facelock ) – when he was put into a triple threat Submissions Only match on the November 28 Raw .
At New Year 's Revolution , Cena participated in the main event Elimination Chamber match where he retained the WWE Championship when he pinned Carlito . Immediately after a bloodied Cena won , Edge made his way to the ring to cash in his Money in the Bank contract – a " guaranteed title match for the WWE Champion at a time and place of the owner 's choosing . " Two quick spears allowed Edge to pin Cena , winning him the championship . Three weeks later , Cena won the championship back at the Royal Rumble . After winning the championship , Cena began feuding with Triple H , in which the crowd again started booing Cena and cheering the intended villain , Triple H , after being mostly cheered the last few months . Cena beat Triple H at WrestleMania 22 to retain his WWE Championship . The negative reaction towards Cena intensified when facing Rob Van Dam at One Night Stand . Taking place in front of a boisterous crowd of mostly original ECW fans at the Hammerstein Ballroom , Cena was met with raucous jeering and chants of " Fuck you , Cena " , " You can 't wrestle " , and " Same old shit " . When he began performing different moves into the match , the fans began chanting " You still suck " . Cena lost the WWE Championship at One Night Stand , with Van Dam pinning Cena after interference from Edge .
In July , Edge won the championship from Van Dam in a triple threat match that also involved Cena , re @-@ igniting the feud between him and Cena from earlier in the year . After Edge went about retaining the title by dubious means – getting himself disqualified ( for which championships do not change hands ) and using brass knuckles – he introduced his own version of Cena 's " custom " belt , this one with his logo placed on the spinner . Cena eventually won the championship back in a match and arena of Edge 's choice : a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at Unforgiven at the Air Canada Centre in Edge 's hometown of Toronto , Ontario , Canada after FU 'ing Edge through two tables off a ladder . The match had a stipulation that , had Cena lost , he would have left the Raw brand for SmackDown . Cena returned his version of the spinner belt on the next night 's Raw .
On the heels of his feud with Edge , Cena was placed in an inter @-@ brand angle to determine the " Champion of Champions " – or which was the most dominant champion in WWE 's three brands . Cena , the World Heavyweight Champion King Booker , and the ECW World Champion Big Show engaged in a mini @-@ feud leading to a triple threat match at Cyber Sunday , with the viewers voting on which of the three championships would be placed on the line . At the same time , Cena became involved in a storyline with non @-@ wrestler Kevin Federline , when he began appearing on Raw with Johnny Nitro and Melina . After getting into a worked physical altercation with Federline on Raw , Federline appeared at Cyber Sunday to hit Cena with the World Heavyweight Championship during the match , helping King Booker retain his championship . 2006 ended with Cena beginning a feud with the undefeated Umaga over the WWE Championship , while 2007 began with the end of his storyline with Kevin Federline . On the first Raw of the new year , Cena was pinned by Federline with an assist from Umaga , although later in the night he was able to get his hands on Federline performing an FU on him .
One night after the Royal Rumble , an impromptu team of Cena and Shawn Michaels defeated Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) for the World Tag Team Championship , making Cena a double champion . On the April 2 episode of Raw , after losing a WWE Championship match to Cena at WrestleMania 23 , Michaels turned on Cena , costing them the championship in the second of two 10 team battles royals , by throwing Cena over the top rope and eliminating the team . The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) eventually won the match and the championship . For the rest of the month , Cena feuded with Michaels , Orton , and Edge until The Great Khali declared his intentions to challenge for Cena 's championship attacking and " laying out " all three of the top contenders before assaulting Cena himself and stealing the physical belt . For the next two months , Cena feuded with Khali over the championship , eventually becoming the first person in WWE to defeat him by submission at Judgment Day and then by pinfall at One Night Stand . Later that summer , Randy Orton was named the number one contender for the WWE Championship , starting a feud between the two . Leading up to SummerSlam , Orton delivered a number of sneak @-@ attacks , performing three RKOs to Cena , but in the actual match , Cena retained the championship . A rematch between the two occurred at Unforgiven , with Orton winning by disqualification after Cena ignored the referee 's instructions and continued to beat on him in the corner .
During a match with Mr. Kennedy on the October 1 , 2007 episode of Raw , Cena suffered a legitimate torn pectoral muscle while executing a hip toss . Though finishing the match and taking part in the scripted attack by Randy Orton after the match , surgery the following day found that his pectoralis major muscle was torn completely from the bone , estimating at the time to require seven months to a year of rehabilitation . As a result , Cena was stripped of the title by Mr. McMahon on the next night 's episode of ECW , ending what was the longest WWE Championship reign in over 19 years . Cena 's surgery was performed by orthopedic surgeon James Andrews at St. Vincent 's Hospital in Birmingham , Alabama . Two weeks later , in a video update on WWE.com , Dr. Andrews and Cena 's physical trainer both said that he was several weeks ahead of where he was expected to be in his rehabilitation at that time . Despite his injury , Cena attended the annual WWE 's Tribute to the Troops show filmed at Camp Speicher in Tikrit , Iraq on December 7 , and aired on December 24 .
= = = = World championship reigns ( 2008 – 10 ) = = = =
Cena made a surprise return as the final participant of the Royal Rumble match , winning the match , and the traditional WrestleMania title shot , by last eliminating Triple H. Instead of waiting until WrestleMania , the title shot was cashed in against then WWE Champion Randy Orton at February 's No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view in a match where Cena won by disqualification , resulting in him not getting the championship . The night after No Way Out , Cena was placed back into WrestleMania XXIV 's WWE Championship match , making it a triple threat match also involving Triple H , during which he was pinned by Orton . At Backlash , Cena failed to regain the title in a fatal four @-@ way elimination match , in which he was pinned by Orton . Triple H won the title during that match . During the match , Cena eliminated JBL , renewing their feud from 2005 . Cena defeated JBL at Judgment Day and then at One Night Stand in a First Blood match . JBL , however , defeated him in a New York City Parking Lot Brawl at The Great American Bash in July .
On the August 4 episode of Raw , Cena became a World Tag Team Champion for a second time , teaming with Batista to defeat Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase , but failed to retain the championship the following week against the former champions . Batista defeated Cena at SummerSlam ; shortly after , he was named one of four contenders for CM Punk 's World Heavyweight Championship in the Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven . He was replaced by Rey Mysterio , however , after Cena suffered a herniated disc in his neck , which required surgery . Cena underwent successful surgery to repair the injury .
Cena made his in @-@ ring return at the November pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Survivor Series , defeating Chris Jericho to win his first World Heavyweight Championship . The two continued their rivalry up to Armageddon , where Cena retained his championship . Cena lost the championship at No Way Out to Edge , after Kofi Kingston was attacked by Edge , who took his place in the Elimination Chamber match . Cena was given an opportunity to regain the title at WrestleMania XXV in a triple threat match also involving Big Show , which Cena won .
Cena lost the championship back to Edge in a Last Man Standing match at Backlash after interference from Big Show , who chokeslammed Cena through a big spotlight . This resulted in Cena beginning a feud with Big Show in which Cena defeated Big Show at Judgment Day and at Extreme Rules in a submission match by applying the STFU .
At the July pay @-@ per @-@ view , Night of Champions , he participated in a triple threat match for the WWE Championship , which also involved Triple H and WWE Champion Randy Orton . Cena , however , did not win the match or the title . Two months later , at Breaking Point , Cena defeated Randy Orton for the WWE Championship in an " I Quit " match to win his fourth WWE Championship . At Hell in a Cell , Cena lost the title back to Orton in a Hell in a Cell match . Three weeks later , at Bragging Rights , Cena defeated Orton in a 60 @-@ minute Iron Man match . Cena successfully defended the title against both Triple H and Shawn Michaels in a triple threat match at Survivor Series , but lost it to Sheamus at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs in a tables match .
Cena regained the title at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view in an Elimination Chamber match . His reign was cut short after Mr. McMahon immediately made him defend the title against Batista , who won the title . Cena defeated Batista at WrestleMania XXVI for the title , and successfully defended it at Extreme Rules , in a Last Man Standing rematch . Cena faced Batista one more time , winning an " I Quit " match at Over the Limit , thus ending their long @-@ time feud .
= = = = Feud with The Nexus ( 2010 – 11 ) = = = =
On the June 7 , 2010 episode of Raw , Cena was suddenly thrust into a new storyline when during his main event match against CM Punk , he was attacked by all eight former contestants of the first season of NXT , with Wade Barrett as their leader . Punk , his follower Luke Gallows , and other personnel around the ring were attacked as well , but Cena took the worst of the attack and was carried out on a stretcher . This group later referred to itself as The Nexus . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way , Cena lost the WWE Championship to Sheamus , in a fatal four @-@ way match involving Edge and Randy Orton , after The Nexus interfered . Cena again lost to Sheamus in a steel cage match at Money in the Bank , after The Nexus again interfered . Cena , in retaliation to The Nexus , formed an alliance with Edge , Chris Jericho , John Morrison , R @-@ Truth , The Great Khali , and Bret Hart . They defeated The Nexus at SummerSlam , with help from the returning Daniel Bryan , a former member of Nexus , who replaced Khali after he was injured .
Hoping to end The Nexus , Cena challenged Wade Barrett to a match at Hell in a Cell with the stipulations that if he were to lose , he would join The Nexus . After Barrett defeated Cena , he joined The Nexus , and was forced by the anonymous Raw general manager to follow their orders or be fired . Cena and fellow Nexus member David Otunga defeated Cody Rhodes and Drew McIntyre to win the WWE Tag Team Championship at Bragging Rights . Later that night , he was forced to help Barrett defeat Orton in a WWE Championship match , giving Barrett the disqualification win , but not the title . The following night on Raw , Cena and Otunga lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to fellow Nexus members Heath Slater and Justin Gabriel , when Barrett ordered Otunga to lay down and lose the title . At Survivor Series , Cena officiated a match for the WWE Championship between Wade Barrett and Randy Orton . Per stipulation , if Barrett didn 't win the championship , Cena would be " fired " from the WWE .
Orton defeated Barrett to retain the title , thus terminating Cena 's WWE contract ( kayfabe ) . The following night on Raw , Cena gave a farewell speech , before costing Wade Barrett the WWE Championship by interfering in his rematch with Randy Orton . A week later , Cena invaded Raw , first as a spectator , but then attacked members of Nexus , explaining that he would still take down Nexus one by one , despite not having a job in the WWE anymore . On the December 13 episode of Raw , Cena was rehired by Barrett , in exchange that he would face him on December 19 at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs in a chairs match , which Cena won .
On the December 27 episode of Raw , The Nexus , minus Barrett , announced they were under new management and offered to bury the hatchet with Cena , to which he refused . The Nexus attacked Cena , leaving a Nexus armband in the ring during the process . As the group retreated , CM Punk , who had attacked Cena with a steel chair twice the week before , came to the ring to apparently attack Cena , but instead put on the armband left behind to symbolically announce his allegiance with The Nexus , becoming leader the following week by manipulating Barrett 's banishment from the group . On the January 17 episode of Raw , Cena returned and faced Punk in a match , which ended in a no contest after Cena was attacked by the debuting Mason Ryan , who later joined The Nexus . Cena competed in the 2011 Royal Rumble match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , which saw Cena eliminate most of the Nexus members , ending his feud with the stable .
= = = = Record @-@ breaking WWE Champion ( 2011 – 13 ) = = = =
During the same match at the Rumble , Cena made it to the final five before being eliminated by then WWE Champion The Miz , who wasn 't part of the match . Cena won the Elimination Chamber match at the titular pay @-@ per @-@ view to face Miz at WrestleMania XXVII for the WWE Championship .
On the February 21 episode of Raw , Cena replied in rap form to comments made by The Rock the previous week , as The Rock returned as the announced guest host of WrestleMania . That night , Cena was placed into a WWE Tag Team Championship match , with him teaming with The Miz , where they defeated Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater to become WWE Tag Team Champions . Their rematch clause was immediately invoked and they won the title back after The Miz attacked Cena . After weeks of insults , Cena and Rock finally met , where , after a verbal confrontation , and brief attack by The Miz and Alex Riley , Cena hit The Rock with the Attitude Adjustment . At WrestleMania , Cena and Miz fought to a double countout . The Rock restarted the match and hit Cena with a Rock Bottom , allowing The Miz to retain the title . The next night on Raw , Cena , in response to The Rock " screwing " him out of the title , agreed to face him in the main event of WrestleMania XXVIII , making it the first match to be set up for WrestleMania one year in advance . At Extreme Rules , Cena defeated The Miz and John Morrison to become WWE Champion . Cena went on to successfully defend the title against The Miz at Over the Limit in an " I Quit " match and R @-@ Truth at Capitol Punishment . Cena then began a feud with CM Punk , who was leaving the company at Money in the Bank , where he defeated Cena to win the WWE Championship , and left the company with the title . After Rey Mysterio won the WWE Championship in a tournament , Cena challenged and defeated him later that night to become WWE Champion for a record @-@ breaking ninth time , only to be interrupted by CM Punk , who also claimed to be champion . Punk again defeated Cena at SummerSlam in a championship unification match . After Alberto Del Rio became WWE Champion by cashing in his Money in the Bank briefcase , Cena became number one contender and beat Del Rio at Night of Champions to win the WWE Championship for the tenth time . He lost it back to Del Rio at Hell in a Cell , in a triple threat Hell in a Cell match also involving CM Punk . Cena lost his rematch to Alberto Del Rio at Vengeance in a Last Man Standing match , due to interference by The Miz and R @-@ Truth . After a few weeks of Miz and Truth attacking Cena and other employees , Cena was allowed to choose his partner to challenge Miz and Truth at Survivor Series and Cena chose The Rock as his partner . Despite exchanging insults in the following weeks , they defeated Miz and Truth , though Rock closed the show by giving Cena a Rock Bottom .
Cena then began a feud with Kane , who cited his disgust for Cena 's " Rise Above Hate " slogan and claimed that Cena would need to embrace the hate in order to defeat The Rock at WrestleMania . Cena fought Kane to a draw at the Royal Rumble , and then defeated him in an Ambulance match at Elimination Chamber . At WrestleMania XXVIII , Cena faced The Rock in the main event match which had been building for a year and was billed as " once in a lifetime " . The match ended when Cena attempted the People 's Elbow on The Rock , and The Rock countered with a Rock Bottom for the pinfall .
The following night on Raw , Cena accepted the loss at WrestleMania and invited The Rock to the ring so that he could congratulate him . However , Cena 's call was answered instead by the returning Brock Lesnar , who then attacked Cena with an F @-@ 5 . This resulted in Cena feuding with the Raw general manager John Laurinaitis , who revealed that he signed Lesnar to bring " legitimacy " to WWE and for Lesnar to become its " new face " . At Extreme Rules , Cena defeated Lesnar in an Extreme Rules match . His feud with Laurinaitis escalated after Big Show cost Cena a match against him at Over the Limit , but Laurinaitis was fired at No Way Out after Cena defeated Big Show in a match with both of their jobs on the line .
Cena won the Money in the Bank ladder match at the eponymous pay @-@ per @-@ view , earning a contract for a shot at the WWE Championship anytime within a year . At Raw 1000 , Cena cashed in his contract on CM Punk , and won the match by disqualification after Big Show interfered , becoming the first person to cash in a Money in the Bank contract and not win a title . Cena 's feud with Punk continued into SummerSlam , where Punk defeated Cena and Big Show to retain the title , and at Night of Champions , where they fought to a draw . After being sidelined with a legitimate arm injury , Cena returned at Survivor Series to be pinned by Punk in a match which also featured Ryback . Cena then feuded with Dolph Ziggler over an alleged relationship with AJ Lee and at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , lost to him in a ladder match for his Money in the Bank contract , after AJ turned on Cena . The following night on Raw , Cena teamed with Vickie Guerrero to face Ziggler and AJ in a mixed tag team match which ended in a disqualification after Cena was attacked by the debuting Big E Langston . Cena then defeated Ziggler on the January 7 , 2013 episode of Raw in a singles match , and again in a steel cage match the following week , despite interference from AJ and Langston in both matches .
On January 27 , Cena won his second Royal Rumble match , and later announced that he would pursue the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29 . Cena , along with Ryback and Sheamus , began feuding with The Shield , which culminated in a six @-@ man tag team match at Elimination Chamber , where The Shield were victorious . On the February 25 episode of Raw , Cena defeated CM Punk to reaffirm his status as number one contender for the Rock 's WWE Championship . Cena then returned to his rivalry with The Rock , with Cena blaming his personal and professional troubles on his loss to The Rock the previous year , going so far as admitting his own vanity had cost him the match . At WrestleMania 29 , Cena defeated Rock in their rematch to win his eleventh WWE Championship . Cena then began a rivalry with Ryback , during which Cena suffered a legitimate achilles tendon injury , while also battling The Shield and facing them in losing efforts . Cena defeated Ryback in a Last Man Standing match at Extreme Rules , and in a Three Stages of Hell match at Payback . He defeated Mark Henry via submission at Money in the Bank . At SummerSlam , Cena lost the WWE Championship to Daniel Bryan , with Triple H as the special guest referee . The following night on Raw , Cena announced that he would undergo surgery for a triceps tear and would be out for four to six months .
= = = = World championship pursuits and reigns ( 2013 – 15 ) = = = =
Cena returned at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view and defeated Alberto Del Rio to win his third World Heavyweight Championship . Cena successfully defended his championship against Damien Sandow on the October 28 episode of Raw , and Alberto Del Rio in a rematch at Survivor Series . Next , Cena challenged then WWE Champion Randy Orton to unify their respective championships , with The Authority agreeing and arranging for a Tables , Ladders and Chairs title unification match at the TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , which Cena lost . A rematch occurred at the Royal Rumble for the now unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship , where Cena lost after being distracted by The Wyatt Family . The Wyatts continued to interfere in Cena 's matches , and at Elimination Chamber , caused Cena 's elimination in the Elimination Chamber match .
After Elimination Chamber , Bray Wyatt accepted Cena 's challenge for a WrestleMania match , Wyatt wanted to prove that Cena 's heroic act was a facade characteristic of " this era of lies " while further wanting to turn Cena into a " monster " . At WrestleMania XXX , Cena overcame interference from Luke Harper and Erick Rowan to defeat Wyatt . The feud continued after WrestleMania based on the story that Wyatt was capturing Cena 's fanbase , which was exemplified by Wyatt leading a children 's choir to the ring on the April 28 episode of Raw , with the children later putting on sheep masks . At Extreme Rules , Wyatt defeated Cena in a steel cage match , after repeated interference from the rest of the Wyatt Family members and a demonic child . Cena 's feud with Wyatt continued with a Last Man Standing match being set up for Payback , where Cena buried Wyatt under multiple equipment cases to win the match .
On the June 16 episode of Raw , Cena defeated Kane in a stretcher match to qualify for the ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Money in the Bank , where Cena won his 15th world championship . Cena then retained the title at Battleground in a fatal four @-@ way match against Roman Reigns , Randy Orton and Kane . At SummerSlam , Cena lost the championship to Brock Lesnar in a squash match , during which Lesnar hit Cena with sixteen suplexes and two F @-@ 5s , ending his reign at 49 days . Cena invoked his title rematch clause against Lesnar for Night of Champions , nearly winning before Seth Rollins attacked him to cause a disqualification . Cena then began feuding with Dean Ambrose for the right to face Rollins at Hell in a Cell , but Ambrose got that right after beating Cena in a No Holds Barred Contract on a Pole match . Cena would instead face Randy Orton in a Hell in a Cell match to determine the number one contender to face Lesnar for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , which Cena won .
On October 27 episode of Raw , Cena rejected The Authority 's offer to join forces . This resulted in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series elimination tag match between Team Cena and Team Authority at Survivor Series . Cena 's team consisted of Dolph Ziggler , Big Show , Erick Rowan and Ryback ; At Survivor Series , Big Show turned on Cena , causing Cena 's elimination , but Ziggler eventually won the match for Team Cena with the interfering Sting 's help . Thus as per the match stipulation , The Authority were stripped from power and only Cena could bring them back . At TLC : Tables , Ladders , Chairs and Stairs , Cena defeated Rollins in a tables match to retain his WWE World Heavyweight Championship # 1 contender status . It was then announced that Cena would face Lesnar for the title at the Royal Rumble . On the December 29 episode of Raw , Rollins and Big Show held guest host Edge hostage , forcing Cena to reinstate The Authority . On the January 5 episode of Raw , The Authority added Rollins to the title match at the Royal Rumble involving Cena and Lesnar , and Ziggler , Ryback and Rowan were " fired " for joining Team Cena at Survivor Series . On the 19 January episode of Raw , Cena won a handicap match against Rollins , Big Show and Kane to retain his title shot at the Royal Rumble and win back the jobs of Ziggler , Ryback and Rowan . At the Royal Rumble , Cena was unsuccessful in capturing the title .
= = = = United States Champion ( 2015 – 16 ) = = = =
Following the Royal Rumble , Cena began feuding with then United States Champion Rusev and at Fastlane , Rusev won after Cena passed out to Rusev 's submission , the Accolade , after Rusev hit Cena with a low blow following a distraction from his manager Lana . In the following weeks , Cena challenged Rusev to a rematch , which was declined , and Stephanie McMahon decreed that Cena would not compete at WrestleMania 31 unless Rusev agreed to a match . On the March 9 episode of Raw , Cena attacked Rusev , refusing to release the STF submission hold , causing Lana to grant Cena the match . Cena defeated Rusev at WrestleMania to win the United States Championship for the fourth time , marking Rusev 's first pinfall loss in the main roster . The following night on Raw , Cena announced that he would issue an open challenge each week on Raw with his United States Championship on the line ; he successfully defended his title against the likes of Dean Ambrose , Stardust , Bad News Barrett , Kane , Sami Zayn , Neville , Zack Ryder and Cesaro . Cena retained his title against Rusev in a Russian Chain match at Extreme Rules and a " I Quit " match at Payback . The following night on Raw , Cena was attacked by then NXT Champion Kevin Owens , setting up a Champion vs. Champion match at Elimination Chamber , where Owens defeated Cena , but Cena defeated Owens in a rematch at Money in the Bank . Cena defeated Owens at Battleground to retain the United States Championship and end the feud . Cena then resumed his feud with then WWE World Heavyweight Champion Seth Rollins , with Rollins refusing Cena 's challenges for the title . The Authority instead forced Cena to defend the United States Championship against Rollins . Cena defeated Rollins despite suffering a broken nose during the match . Cena then faced Rollins in a " Winner Takes All " match at SummerSlam , for both the WWE World Heavyweight Championship and the United States Championship , which Cena lost after guest host Jon Stewart , appearing to side with Cena , instead attacked him with a steel chair , ending Cena 's reign at 147 days .
Cena defeated Rollins to win the title for the fifth time at Night of Champions , a record in the WWE ownership era of the title . Cena then retained his title against Rollins the following night on Raw and then in a steel cage match at WWE Live from Madison Square Garden . At Hell in a Cell , Cena lost the title to the returning Alberto Del Rio in an open challenge . After a hiatus , Cena returned on the December 28 episode of Raw , defeating Del Rio by disqualification in a rematch for the title . On January 7 , 2016 , Cena underwent surgery on a shoulder injury , which would keep him out of action for an undisclosed amount of time .
= = = = Feud with The Club ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Cena returned at WrestleMania 32 , helping former rival The Rock fend off The Wyatt Family . Cena then made his full return on the Memorial Day edition of Raw on May 30 , four months earlier than had been expected for his type of injury . He was confronted by AJ Styles , only to be betrayed by Styles , who joined his former Club teammates Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson in attacking Cena . This set up a match between Cena and Styles at Money in the Bank , which Styles won with interference from Gallows and Anderson . On the July 4 episode of Raw , Cena was again attacked by the Club , but was saved by Enzo Amore and Big Cass . Subsequently , a six @-@ man tag team match was made between the two teams for Battleground . On the July 19 episode of SmackDown , Cena was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2016 WWE Draft . Cena , Amore and Cass defeated The Club at Battleground after Cena pinned Styles .
= = Wrestling persona = =
During his first years in WWE , Cena portrayed a vastly different character . This character , a white rapper who wore jerseys , backwards hats , and a chain with a padlock around his neck , was known as the " Doctor of Thuganomics " . Cena would sometimes use underhanded tactics to score victories , such as using his chain as a weapon behind the referee 's back . Cena often rapped before his matches , insulting his opponents , events that happened in the media , and even the crowd on occasion . Cena would also regularly do " rap battles " , where Cena and his opponent would take turns rapping on each other . Cena reverted to this persona once during his feud with The Rock .
Cena has portrayed a babyface character for majority of his WWE career . Cena 's signature ring gear includes jean shorts , sneakers , and wrist and armbands . Cena also wears a variety of t @-@ shirts and baseball caps which will commonly include one of his catchphrases like " never give up " , " you can 't see me " and " hustle , loyalty , respect " . In 2005 shortly after his first debut film , The Marine , his wrestling character was shifted from a white rapper to that of a young private .
= = Other media = =
= = = Film = = =
WWE Studios , a division of WWE which produces and finances motion pictures , produced Cena 's first movie – The Marine , which was distributed theatrically by 20th Century Fox America beginning on October 13 , 2006 . In its first week , the film made approximately US $ 7 million at the United States box office . After ten weeks in theaters , the film grossed $ 18 @.@ 7 million . Once the film was released on DVD , it fared better , making $ 30 million in rentals in the first twelve weeks .
His second film , also produced by WWE Studios , was 12 Rounds . Filming began on February 25 , 2008 in New Orleans ; the film was released on March 27 , 2009 .
Cena co @-@ starred in his third film produced by WWE Studios , titled Legendary , which was played in selected theaters starting on September 10 , 2010 , for a limited time , then it was released on DVD on September 28 , 2010 .
That same year , Cena starred in the children 's film Fred : The Movie , a film based on Lucas Cruikshank 's YouTube videos of the same name , where he plays Fred 's imaginary father . The movie was released on the Nickelodeon channel in September 2010 .
In 2015 , Cena made appearances in the comedy films Trainwreck , Sisters and a cameo in Daddy 's Home .
He was the pace car driver for the 58th annual Daytona 500 .
= = = Guest appearances = = =
Before his WWE debut , Cena made an appearance on the Internet stream show Go Sick as Bruebaker , an angry , cursing wrestler in 2001 .
During his WWE career , Cena has appeared on ABC 's Jimmy Kimmel Live ! three times . Cena has also appeared on morning radio shows ; including the CBS and XM versions of Opie and Anthony as part of their " walkover " on October 10 , 2006 . Other appearances have included NBC 's Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , Fuse 's Celebrity Playlist , Fox Sports Net 's The Best Damn Sports Show Period , FOX 's MADtv , G4 's Training Camp ( with Shelton Benjamin ) , and two appearances on MTV 's Punk 'd ( August 2006 and May 2007 ) , as the victim of a practical joke . He also served as a co @-@ presenter , with Hulk Hogan , at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , as a guest judge during the third week of the 2006 season of Nashville Star , and appeared at the 2007 Nickelodeon UK Kids Choice Awards .
In January 2007 , Cena , Batista , and Ashley Massaro appeared representing WWE on an episode of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , giving the children of the family whose house was being renovated WWE merchandise and eight tickets to WrestleMania 23 . Two months later , he and Bobby Lashley appeared on the NBC game show Deal or No Deal as " moral support " to longtime WWE fan and front row staple , Rick " Sign Guy " Achberger . Edge and Randy Orton also appeared , but as antagonists . On April 9 , 2008 , Cena , along with fellow wrestlers Triple H and Chris Jericho , appeared on the Idol Gives Back fund @-@ raising special . In March 2009 , Cena made an appearance on Saturday Night Live during the show 's cold opening sequence . On March 7 , 2009 , he was a guest on NPR 's quiz show Wait Wait ... Don 't Tell Me ! in a Not My Job sequence titled " Sure , pro wrestling is a good gig , but when you win , do they throw teddy bears into the ring ? " .
John Cena hosted the 2016 ESPY Awards , becoming the first professional wrestler to do so .
= = = Television = = =
In 2001 , between his training in Ultimate Pro Wrestling and Ohio Valley Wrestling , Cena was involved in the UPN produced reality show Manhunt . Cena portrayed Big Tim Kingman , leader of the group of bounty hunters who chased down the contestants who acted as fugitives . The show , however , was mired in controversy when it was alleged that the portions of the show were rigged to eliminate certain players , scenes were re @-@ shot or staged to enhance drama and contestants read from scripts .
Cena was featured on the ABC reality series Fast Cars and Superstars : The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race , which aired in June 2007 , making it to the final round before being eliminated on June 24 , placing third in the competition overall .
In 2007 , Cena was interviewed for the CNN Special Investigations Unit documentary , Death Grip : Inside Pro Wrestling , which focused on steroid and drug use in professional wrestling . When asked if he had taken steroids he was heard to reply , " I can 't tell you that I haven 't , but you will never prove that I have " , The day after the documentary aired , WWE accused CNN of taking Cena 's comments out of context to present a biased point of view , backing up their claim by posting an unedited video of Cena answering the same question – filmed by WWE cameras from another angle – in which he is heard beginning the same statement with " absolutely not " . A text interview on the website with Cena later had him saying the news outlet should apologize for misrepresenting him , which CNN refused , saying they felt the true answer to the question began with the phrase " my answer to that question " . They did , however , edit the documentary on subsequent airings to include the " absolutely not " .
Cena hosted the Australian Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards with Natalie Bassingthwaighte on October 11 , 2008 in Melbourne .
Cena guest starred as Ewan O 'Hara , brother of Juliet O 'Hara , in an episode of the fourth season of the comedy drama Psych . He also guest starred as himself in the seventh episode of Disney Channel 's Hannah Montana Forever .
On August 17 , 2015 Cena guest co @-@ hosted Today on NBC . He co @-@ hosted the show again on December 28 and 29 , 2015 . Cena appeared on Late Night with Seth Meyers on August 21 , 2015 . Cena co @-@ hosted Today again on March 28 – 30 and May 9 , 10 , 13 and 30 , 2016 .
Cena hosts American Grit on FOX , which is a reality television series with 10 episodes . 16 men and women were split into four teams , where challenges were given . A $ 1 million USD prize was given to the winning team . American Grit premiered on FOX on April 14 , 2016 . Cena has been retweeting motivational tweets from his followers on Twitter who used # ShowYourGrit , in a way that the fan did something motivational to his / her friends in a real @-@ life scenario . The finale of Season 1 aired on June 9 , 2016 .
Cena hosted the ESPN ESPY Awards on July 13 , 2016 in Los Angeles .
= = = Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation = = =
Cena has granted over 500 wishes for children with life @-@ threatening illnesses through the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation ; the most in Make @-@ A @-@ Wish history . In 2009 , Cena received the Chris Greicius Celebrity Award .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Before his professional wrestling career , Cena appeared in an advertisement for Gold 's Gym . As a wrestler he has endorsed the energy drink YJ Stinger , appearing in commercials beginning in October 2003 , and Subway , for whom he filmed advertisements with their spokesperson Jared Fogle in November 2006 that began airing the next January . For a time in 2007 he also endorsed two " signature collections " of energy drinks and energy bars sold by American Body Builders . In 2008 , Cena filmed a commercial as part of Gillette 's " Young Guns " NASCAR campaign .
In 2009 , Cena expanded his relationship with Gillette by introducing a new online campaign called " Be A Superstar " featuring himself alongside fellow WWE wrestlers Chris Jericho and Cody Rhodes . The campaign features motivational videos .
= = = Fashion = = =
During his WWE career , Cena 's attire has attempted to reflect the most current fashions and stylings within the hip hop culture that his character represents . Cena started out wearing " throwback jerseys " until WWE produced specific Cena merchandise which he began wearing . While Cena was a member of the SmackDown ! brand , one of his WWE produced T @-@ shirts bore the suggestive spoonerism " Ruck Fules " . Whenever it appeared on television the image was censored , not by the network , but by WWE to sell more shirts under the premise that it was " too hot for TV " . He also wore a chain with a large padlock , occasionally using it as a weapon , until WrestleMania 21 , when it was replaced with a chromed and diamond studded " Chain Gang " spinner medallion – reminiscent of the ones worn by members of G @-@ Unit – matching his spinner title belt .
Around the time The Marine was released , Cena began wearing attire more military related , including camouflage shorts , dog tags , a Marine soldier cap and a WWE produced shirt with the legend " Chain Gang Assault Battalion " . Shortly after WrestleMania 23 , when promotion for The Marine ended , the military attire diminished and was replaced with apparel bearing his new slogan " American Made Muscle " along with denim shorts , not seen since he was a member of the SmackDown ! roster . He then wore shirts that promoted Cenation and his trademark line " You Can 't See Me " . From late 2011 until WrestleMania XXVIII , Cena again switched to camo shorts ( honoring the U.S. Armed Forces ) , to coincide with his black " Rise Above Hate " T @-@ shirt promoting WWE 's " Be a Star " anti @-@ bullying campaign . On September 16 , 2012 , Cena debuted a new pink and black T @-@ shirt and cap combo with the phrase " Rise Above Cancer " that he wore through October in partnership with Susan G. Komen for the Cure in honor of breast cancer awareness month .
= = = Music = = =
In addition to his wrestling career , Cena is a rapper and a hip hop musician . Cena performed his fifth WWE theme song , " Basic Thuganomics , " himself , and it was featured on the WWE soundtrack album WWE Originals . He also recorded a song , " Untouchables " , for the company 's next soundtrack album WWE ThemeAddict : The Music , Vol . 6 . He collaborated on a remix for the song " H @-@ U @-@ S @-@ T @-@ L @-@ E " along with Murs , E @-@ 40 , and Chingo Bling .
Cena 's debut album , You Can 't See Me , was recorded with his cousin Tha Trademarc . It features , amongst other songs , his entrance theme , " The Time is Now " , and the single " Bad , Bad Man " , for which a music video was made that parodied 1980s culture , including the television show The A @-@ Team . A video was also made for the second single , " Right Now , " and premiered on the August 8 Raw . Cena and Tha Trademarc were later featured on a track by The Perceptionists named " Champion Scratch . " Cena will appear on Tionne " T @-@ Boz " Watkins ' upcoming album Still Cool featuring other guests .
In October 2014 , Cena was featured on two songs with rapper Wiz Khalifa for his two singles " All Day " and " Breaks " for the soundtrack to the WWE 2K15 video game .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = = Film = = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
Non @-@ acting appearances
= = = Video games = = =
Cena appears in many video games ; he made his video game debut in WWE Wrestlemania XIX . He then appeared in all WWE video games since 2004 , which includes WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes The Pain , WWE SmackDown ! vs Raw , WWE Day of Reckoning , WWE Day of Reckoning 2 , WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw 2006 , WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2007 , WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2008 , WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2009 , WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2010 , WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2011 , WWE ' 12 , WWE ' 13 , WWE 2K14 , WWE 2K15 , WWE 2K16 , and WWE 2K17 .
= = Popular culture = =
= = Personal life = =
Cena is a fan of Japanese anime and has mentioned that his favorite anime movie is Fist of the North Star . He has also said he is a fan of the video game series Command & Conquer and noted that it was his favorite game . Cena is also a fan of the Boston Bruins , Boston Red Sox , Tampa Bay Rays , Los Angeles Dodgers , New England Patriots , Boston Celtics and English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur . Cena collects muscle cars and has over 20 , some of which are one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind .
While promoting his 2009 film , 12 Rounds , Cena announced his engagement to his girlfriend Elizabeth Huberdeau . They were married on July 11 , 2009 . On May 1 , 2012 , Cena filed for divorce , which was finalized on July 18 . The divorce was mentioned once during Cena 's feud with The Rock amid their rematch at WrestleMania 29 .
Since November 2012 , Cena has been dating WWE Diva Nikki Bella .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
F @-@ U / AA – Attitude Adjustment ( Fireman 's carry transitioned into a kneeling takeover ) – 2003 – present
STFU ( STF ) – 2005 – present
Signature moves
DDT
Diving leg drop bulldog
Dropkick
Emerald Flowsion
Killswitch / Protobomb / Protoplex ( Spin @-@ out powerbomb ) ( OVW / UPW ) ; usually followed by the Five Knuckle Shuffle
Five Knuckle Shuffle ( Running delayed fist drop , with theatrics , sometimes diving from the top rope )
Half nelson dropped into a neckbreaker - rarely used
Hurricanrana
Lariat
Multiple suplex variations
Belly @-@ to @-@ back
Fisherman
Gutwrench
Side belly @-@ to @-@ belly
Vertical , sometimes while delaying
Running leaping shoulder block
Running one – handed bulldog
Sitout hip toss
Sitout facebuster
Sitout powerbomb
Spinebuster – 2002 – 2005 ; used rarely thereafter
Springboard stunner – 2015 – present - innovated
Sunset flip powerbomb – 2015 – present
Throwback ( Running neck snap to a bent – over opponent ) – 2002 – 2011
Tornado DDT , usually from the second rope
Nicknames
" The Leader of the Cenation / The Cenation Leader "
" The Chain Gang Soldier "
" Big @-@ Match John "
" The Champ " ( as champion )
" The Doctor of Thuganomics "
" The Face of WWE "
" Fruity Pebbles "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
" The Face That Runs the Place "
Managers
Kenny Bolin
Hulk Hogan
Entrance themes
" Slam Smack " by R. Hardy ( FirstCom Production Music ) ( June 27 , 2002 – November 7 , 2002 )
" Insert Bass Here " by DJ Case ( FirstCom Production Music ) ( November 14 , 2002 – February 13 , 2003 )
" Basic Thuganomics " by John Cena ( March 27 , 2003 – March 10 , 2005 ; April 5 , 2009 for his entrance at WrestleMania XXV ; March 12 , 2012 for his " Cena rap " against The Rock )
" We Are One " by 12 Stones ( October 3 , 2010 – November 21 , 2010 ; used while a part of The Nexus )
" The Time Is Now " by John Cena and Tha Trademarc ( March 17 , 2005 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Rico Constantino
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2006 ) vs. Edge
Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. CM Punk
Match of the Year ( 2007 ) vs. Shawn Michaels on Raw on April 23
Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. CM Punk at Money in the Bank
Match of the Year ( 2013 ) vs. Daniel Bryan at SummerSlam
Match of the Year ( 2014 ) vs. Bray Wyatt in a Last Man Standing match at Payback
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2003 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2004 , 2005 , 2007 , 2012 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2006 , 2007 )
Ranked 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2006 , 2007 , and 2013
Rolling Stone
Best Storyline ( 2015 ) vs. Kevin Owens
Title Feud of the Year , WWE ( 2015 ) vs. Everybody in the U.S. Open Challenge
WWE Match of the Year ( 2015 ) vs. Kevin Owens at Money in the Bank
Ultimate Pro Wrestling
UPW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Batista ( 1 ) and Shawn Michaels ( 1 )
WWE Championship / WWE World Heavyweight Championship ( 12 times )
WWE Championship # 1 contenders Tournament ( 2003 )
WWE Championship # 1 contenders Tournament ( 2005 )
WWE United States Championship ( 5 times )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with The Miz ( 1 ) and David Otunga ( 1 )
Money in the Bank ( 2012 – WWE Championship contract )
Royal Rumble ( 2008 and 2013 )
Slammy Awards ( 10 times )
Game Changer of the Year ( 2011 ) – with The Rock
Hero in All of Us ( 2015 )
Holy $ # ! + Move of the Year ( 2010 ) – Sends Batista through the stage with an Attitude Adjustment
Insult of the Year ( 2012 ) – To Dolph Ziggler and Vickie Guerrero : " You 're the exact opposite . One enjoys eating a lot of nuts and the other is still trying to find his "
Kiss of the Year ( 2012 ) – with AJ Lee
Match of the Year ( 2013 , 2014 ) – vs. The Rock for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29 , Team Cena vs. Team Authority at Survivor Series
Superstar of the Year ( 2009 , 2010 , 2012 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
5 Star Match ( 2011 ) vs. CM Punk at Money in the Bank on July 17
Best Box Office Draw ( 2007 )
Best Gimmick ( 2003 )
Best on Interviews ( 2007 )
Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. CM Punk
Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. CM Punk at Money in the Bank on July 17
Most Charismatic ( 2006 – 2010 )
Most Charismatic of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2007 , 2010 )
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2012 ) vs. Kane
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2012 ) vs. John Laurinaitis at Over the Limit on May 20
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2014 ) vs. Bray Wyatt at Extreme Rules on May 4
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
= = = Other awards and honors = = =
Springfield College Athletic Hall of Fame inductee ( Class of 2015 )
Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation Chris Greicius Celebrity Award
Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation Special Recognition Award ( for being the first to grant 300 wishes )
2014 Sports Social TV Entertainer of the Year
2014 Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure Grand Marshal
2016 USO Legacy of Achievement Award
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= The North Stands for Nothing =
The North Stands for Nothing is the debut mini album by British metalcore band While She Sleeps . The band recorded the album in a home studio between January and April 2010 . It was released by Smalltown Records on 26 July 2010 , before later being released as a deluxe edition by Good Fight Music , featuring the single " Be ( lie ) ve " as a bonus track . It received generally favourable reviews , with Big Cheese reviewer Lais Martins Waring championing the band as " very promising " . Coupled with their extensive touring following its release , the album contributed to a significant increase in the band 's popularity .
= = Production and release = =
The North Stands for Nothing was recorded and produced at The Barn in Sheffield , England , between 4 January – 28 April 2010 . The Barn is a converted barn owned by guitarist Mat Welsh 's father . The space is not a recording studio and is simply described by members of the band as a place where they hang @-@ out , party and practice . The album was self @-@ produced and mixed by Welsh and then mastered by Tim Turan in Oxford , England . Speaking retrospectively about the recording process , Welsh said that the album took a long time to record . Admitting that it was due to them partying , jovially suggesting that " it wouldn 't have took so long if Strongbow wasn 't included . " The North Stands for Nothing was released on 26 June 2010 , through Small Town Records . Two days prior to its release , While She Sleeps held an album launch show at The Plug in their hometown . In conjunction with the production company Get Deluxe , the band produced two music videos to promote tracks from the CD . The video for " Crows " features the band performing near the ruins of a nondescript building . While the video for " Hearts Aside Our Horses " features live footage from the album launch show .
Later in the year , the band signed a deal with Good Fight Music to release the mini @-@ album in the United States – initially releasing it on 23 November 2010 , as digital download only . The following month , the band signed a deal with Doom Patrol to release The North Stands for Nothing in Japan on 22 December 2010 . In February 2011 , the album was given away in its entirety as a free CD in an issue of Metal Hammer magazine . When questioned about the decision vocalist Lawrence Taylor said " hopefully it will generate more of a fanbase , " while drummer Adam Savage added " we did [ the album ] ourselves so we haven 't got any debts so we were just like ' let 's give it out ' . " In January , 2011 , the band recorded a new single at The Barn – subsequently releasing " Be ( lie ) ve " through Good Fight Music on 15 March 2011 . The single was originally not part of the album but was added as a bonus track and released as a deluxe edition CD in the United States on 26 July 2011 . Later in the year , While She Sleeps signed a deal with Shock Records to release their material in Australia – seeing the release of the deluxe edition of the album on 9 December 2011 . On 20 February 2012 , Small Town Records released a limited edition 10 " vinyl version of the original album – limited to 250 copies in white and 250 copies in clear .
= = Themes = =
While She Sleeps are generally recognized by professional reviewers as a metallic hardcore band and are known for their high energy and edgy sound . The recording features technical guitar picking , big riffs , heavy bass lines , crashing drums and screaming vocals . When questioned about their sound , Welsh described the band as having a " raw UK vibe , " adding that they like to keep their music simple and have " more a party vibe . " Vocalist Taylor added that their sound is " less pure solo and just more energy . " Dom Wyatt of Dead Press ! suggested that the band stick to the mould of a metalcore band with the adage " don ’ t fix what isn ’ t broken . " In an interview in 2011 , vocalist Taylor stated that the title – The North Stands for Nothing – has two meanings and that it is open to interpretation . Explaining that being from the North of England ; the people that the band know " won 't take crap " while also stating that the title means that it doesn 't matter where you 're from ( geographically ) you can still " get involved " with the band 's music . Guitarist Welsh added that the title reflects the UK underground scene and how people will go to see a local band who are their friends and leave before seeing other bands – saying that " that 's not the way it should be . " In an interview in 2011 , Welsh explained that the lyrics on " My Conscience , Your Freedom " are about the government – specifically noting on the line " our coins can pay for the crime . " When questioned about the single " Be ( lie ) ve " , Welsh said that it was about the government and religion . Taylor explained further ; " we wrote about how people follow shit and don 't really think about what they 're following " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception to The North Stands for Nothing was generally positive . Several reviewers noted on the balance that While She Sleeps have between melody and the heavier elements of their sound . Metal Hammer reviewer Terry Bezer , specifically complimented the track " Hearts Aside Our Horses " – enthusing that it is " a lesson in how to be both progressive and hook laden at once . " Adam Kennedy of Kerrang ! complimented the band for putting " their own spin " on metalcore . Saying that they test and respect the genre 's conventions in equal measure – specifically noting their use of a piano interlude on " Trophies " while suggesting that " tearing heads off is their forte " . In his review for Big Cheese , Lais Martin Wairing enthused that the band are " very promising , " comparing them to Bring Me the Horizon but offering that While She Sleeps " deserve success in their own right . " The album also received some minor criticism , with several reviewers picking up on the short overall length of the CD and While She Sleeps ' similarities to other bands . In a generally favorable review for The New Review , Jen Rochester said that the CD " is over before you know it , " while concluding that " it ’ s definitely an effort worth checking out . " Similarly , Dom Wyatt of Dead Press ! said that The North Stands for Nothing is very similar to Hollow Crown by Architects but that it is a " cracking debut " that While She Sleeps should be proud of .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by While She Sleeps .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
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= Missouri Route 108 =
Route 108 is a short highway in the Bootheel of southeastern Missouri . Its eastern terminus is the Arkansas state line at Arkansas Highway 77 , about six miles ( 10 km ) south of Arbyrd , the only town on the route . Its western terminus is at U.S. Route 412 ( US 412 ) about two miles ( 3 km ) north of Arbyrd . Although signed as an east – west route , the route follows mostly north – south roadways . The route was designated in 1930 , and was extended east in 1972 .
= = Route description = =
Route 108 begins at the Arkansas state line in Arkmo , Dunklin County , where the road continues south into that state as Highway 77 . From the Arkansas @-@ Missouri state line , the route heads north as a two @-@ lane undivided road , passing a few homes and businesses in Arkmo before running through farmland . The road continues through rural areas to the southern edge of Arbyrd , where it reaches an intersection with Route 164 . At this point , Route 108 turns east to form a concurrency with Route 164 , with the two routes passing through more fields before running to the south of industry . Route 108 splits from Route 164 by heading north on East Frisco Street , passing homes and a few businesses . Route 108 leaves Arbyrd and heads through more agricultural areas before reaching its eastern terminus at US 412 . In 2012 , Missouri Department of Transportation ( MoDOT ) calculated 1 @,@ 057 vehicles traveling north of the state line . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year .
= = History = =
Route 108 was designated in 1930 , connecting from the state line to Route 25 . The road was already paved in gravel . Three years later , Route Y was designated , and it connected from Route 108 in Arbyth to Caruth . In 1936 , Route 108 was repaved in concrete . By 1953 , Route 25 was rerouted into Arbyrd , becoming the terminus of Routes 108 and Y there . Route 164 was designated in 1956 , replacing a large section of Route Y from Route 108 to Route N. Fifteen years later , Route 25 was rerouted to the west , and the old alignment , from Route 246 , through Arbyrd , became part of Route 108 . Around 1983 , US 412 was designated , replacing Route 25 from Kennett to the state line .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Dunklin County .
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= Dark Angel ( TV series ) =
Dark Angel is an American biopunk / cyberpunk science fiction television series . It was created by James Cameron and Charles H. Eglee and starred Jessica Alba in her breakthrough role . The series chronicles the life of Max Guevara , a genetically @-@ enhanced super @-@ soldier who escapes from a covert government military facility as a child . In a post @-@ apocalyptic Seattle , she tries to lead a normal life , while eluding capture by government agents and searching for her genetically @-@ enhanced brothers and sisters scattered in the aftermath of their escape . The series was filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , at Lions Gate Studios .
The show premiered in the United States on the Fox network on October 3 , 2000 . The high @-@ budget pilot episode was Cameron 's television debut and was heavily promoted by Fox . The first season , which was shown on Tuesday nights in the U.S. , received mainly positive reviews and won several awards . Alba 's portrayal of Max also received mostly positive reviews . For the second season the show was moved to Friday nights , received some criticism for new plot elements and suffered from a ratings drop . It was subsequently cancelled . The storyline was continued in a series of novels ; a video game adaptation was also released after the show 's cancellation .
= = Plot = =
= = = Season one = = =
In 2009 , a genetically enhanced , nine @-@ year @-@ old female supersoldier designated as X5 @-@ 452 ( Geneva Locke ) escapes along with eleven others from a secret government institution , codenamed Manticore , where they were born , raised and trained to be soldiers and assassins . On June 1 , 2009 , months after X5 @-@ 452 's escape , terrorists detonate an electromagnetic pulse weapon in the atmosphere over the U.S. , which destroys the vast majority of computer and communication systems , throwing the country into chaos .
Ten years later in 2019 , the now 19 @-@ year @-@ old X5 @-@ 452 ( Jessica Alba ) , who calls herself Max Guevara , struggles to search for her Manticore brothers and sisters . In a recovering United States , which is now barely more than a Third World nation , she tries to live a relatively normal life and evade capture from Manticore , who wish to recover their lost asset . She joins forces and develops a romantic interest with Logan Cale ( Michael Weatherly ) , an underground cyber @-@ journalist with the alias Eyes Only . Logan recruits her to help fight corruption in the post @-@ Pulse world ; at the same time she makes a living as a bicycle messenger at Jam Pony , a courier company , along with her friends Original Cindy ( Valarie Rae Miller ) , Herbal Thought ( Alimi Ballard ) , and Sketchy ( Richard Gunn ) . Other X5s are periodically introduced , most significantly Zack ( William Gregory Lee ) , the unit leader . The Manticore hunt for the escaped X5s is led by Colonel Donald Lydecker ( John Savage ) . Near the end of the season , Lydecker is betrayed by his superior , the even more ruthless Elizabeth Renfro ( Nana Visitor ) , and subsequently defects from Manticore . He aids Max and Zack in an assault on the Manticore headquarters , though Max is badly wounded and captured . Zack , who has also been captured , commits suicide to provide Max with his heart , as she needs an X5 heart transplant to survive .
= = = Season two = = =
Aided by Alec ( Jensen Ackles ) , a fellow X5 who later joins Jam Pony , and Joshua ( Kevin Durand ) , a transgenic with canine DNA , Max escapes the facility . When Max is reunited with Logan he immediately becomes ill and almost dies . Max discovers that Manticore infected her with a virus specifically designed to kill Logan , and the two must avoid all physical contact to keep him alive . Alec follows her to Logan 's and informs her that she needs to take Logan and return to Manticore in order to save him . Instead , Max uses Logan 's Eyes Only setup and exposes Manticore to the world . Renfro decides to burn the facility in an attempt to cover up the evidence , though she is killed in the process when Max returns to retrieve the life @-@ saving serum Logan needs . Max takes this opportunity to save numerous transgenics , releasing them out into the world . Max learns that Joshua was the first transgenic created by Sandeman , Manticore 's founder . It is revealed that a millennia @-@ old breeding cult , similar in structure to the Illuminati , has bred their own super @-@ soldiers that rival the Manticore @-@ produced transgenics . Ames White ( Martin Cummins ) , a government agent tasked with eliminating the freed transgenics , is revealed to be a member of the cult . When a strange message written in Max 's genetic code makes an appearance on her skin , it is revealed that Sandeman is a renegade from the breeding cult and Ames White is his son . White is still loyal to the cult and hates his father 's transgenic creations with a passion . Believing that Max is a threat to their plans , the breeding cult attempt to kill her , though she escapes to Terminal City , an abandoned part of Seattle where hundreds of outcast transgenics have been hiding . When the police begin to surround Terminal City , Max convinces the other transgenics to stand their ground rather than run . The series ends with the military surrounding and possibly preparing to invade Terminal City , as the residents raise their newly designed flag from one of their buildings .
= = = Storyline for season three = = =
In the DVD commentary for " Freak Nation " , the series finale , Charles H. Eglee , the executive producer and co @-@ creator , explained what was planned for season three . The intention was to bring together the storylines of seasons one ( Manticore ) and two ( breeding cult ) and reveal the mythology of Dark Angel .
The show 's mythology was planned to be that , thousands of years ago , Earth passed through a comet 's tail which deposited viral material that killed 97 % of the human race . The great pyramids in Egypt were actually genetic repositories , preserving the DNA of the survivors , built by the breeding cult to pass on this genetic immunity so that when the comet returned only members of the cult would survive . Sandeman , a cult member and Max 's creator , betrayed the cult and decided to give this genetic immunity to the rest of humanity , believing that everybody deserved the cure . The other cult members deemed Sandeman a heretic and a threat , undermining their goals of rebuilding humanity in their own image . Sandeman found a way to spread this genetic immunity to everyone through Max , who would be the savior of the human race . There were multiple ideas of how to spread Max 's immunity to humanity , including an air burst that would disperse the antibody through the atmosphere , or attaching the immunity to a common cold virus ( Eglee detailed how a scene would show Original Cindy sneezing as part of the beginning of the immunity spread ) . This intended storyline is expanded on in the final Dark Angel novel " After the Dark " , though when the comet returns nobody falls ill , and it is believed that the cult simply had a false prediction .
= = Cast and characters = =
The first season introduced Jessica Alba as the main character Max Guevara ( X5 @-@ 452 ) , a genetically enhanced transgenic super @-@ soldier who escaped from the government facility Manticore and now works as a bike messenger for courier company Jam Pony and as a cat burglar . Michael Weatherly played Logan Cale ( " Eyes Only " ) , the second most prominent character . Cale is a wealthy cyber @-@ journalist and vigilante who recruits Max to aid his campaign against corruption and crime in return for helping her find information on her fellow Manticore escapees . Main roles were given to several of the staff at Jam Pony , including J. C. MacKenzie as Reagan " Normal " Ronald , the company 's boss , Valarie Rae Miller as Cynthia " Original Cindy " McEachin , Richard Gunn as Calvin " Sketchy " Theodore and Alimi Ballard as Herbal Thought , all of whom worked as couriers . Jennifer Blanc plays Kendra Maibaum , Max 's first roommate , and John Savage plays the main antagonist , Col. Donald Lydecker , who is trying to recapture Max and the other Manticore escapees .
Col. Donald Lydecker 's character is written out of the series early in the second season , and Herbal Thought and Kendra Maibaum do not appear at all . Season two introduces the main characters Jensen Ackles as Alec McDowell ( X5 @-@ 494 ) , an X5 who has escaped from the recently destroyed Manticore facility , as well as Kevin Durand as Joshua , the first transgenic experimental creature from Manticore who has distinct canine facial features . Ashley Scott plays Asha Barlow , a member of the S.1.W. insurgent group and a friend to Logan . Martin Cummins portrays the season 's main antagonist Ames White , a National Security Agency agent and cult member tasked with destroying the Manticore escapees .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Following his success with the film Titanic , the director James Cameron teamed up with Eglee , with whom he had previously worked on projects including Piranha II : The Spawning . The two formed a production company and began working on ideas for a television series , considering several options including a family drama before deciding on the idea of Dark Angel . Cameron said they began with the idea that Max would be genetic construct who " looked normal on the outside but was different on the cellular , genetic level . We explore what that could mean . " Max followed a long line of strong female characters in Cameron 's work , including Sarah Connor and Ellen Ripley . Cameron said " it 's a win / win situation " as " women respond to characters who appear strong and capable " and young male audiences " want to see girls kick ass " . Later they decided to set the series in a post @-@ social collapse world , saying that the hysteria surrounding Y2K served as inspiration for the ' Pulse ' in the series which has destroyed all computers in the United States . Working titles for the series included " Experimental Girl " and " Maximum Girl " . The project marked Cameron 's debut into television ; Cameron would be working as a writer and executive producer , rather than directing .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
More than 1000 young actresses were considered for the part of Max , and Cameron started reviewing audition tapes when it had been narrowed down to 20 or 30 applicants . Cameron was not impressed with Alba 's audition tape , saying " she had her head down , she was reading out of the script ... she didn 't present herself all that well . But there was something about the way she read the script that copped an attitude that I liked . " Cameron continually reviewed the audition tapes but kept coming back to Alba 's , eventually deciding that he needed to meet her . Alba was hired for the role before the script was written . Eglee said " We had the benefit of being able to write a script kind of backwards , we were writing for this actress , with her cadences and her rhythms and her sensibilities and her attitude and her slang . " In order to train for the role , Alba spent a year doing martial arts and gymnastics and riding motorcycles .
The two @-@ hour premiere episode cost up to $ 10 million to produce , and Cameron reportedly " brought the pilot in on time and on budget " . Subsequent episodes had a considerably lower budget . Fox spent heavily on the promotional campaign for the premiere , paying for theatrical trailers , billboards and guerilla marketing . Cameron took a " very basic view " of the show 's chance of success , saying " If it flies , it flies . If it doesn 't , it doesn 't ... If people connect with it , which I hope they will , fine . If we don 't find an audience , we deserve to be off the air . It 's that simple . " Eglee admitted the series had been " routinely overbudget " for the first season , and feared that this would be a factor in whether the show was renewed for a second season , though Cameron downplayed the concerns .
Fox " just barely " renewed the series for a second season . The cost of episodes in season two was $ 1 @.@ 3 million each . After the planned director for the final episode fell through , Cameron decided to step in and fill the position . He did this partially for the experience but also to show the network the potential for the third season . It was his first experience directing a TV drama . The producers were initially told a third season had been approved , but two days later Fox informed them that the series had actually been cancelled .
They called us on Saturday and told us we were on schedule and we 'd been picked up . We got together Saturday night and celebrated . Sunday goes by , and Monday morning we get a call saying , ' No , you 're not on the schedule ! It 's been changed . ' I 've never heard of that happening . But then , I 'd never been around television . ... We were supposed to be on a plane on Monday to go to the [ network ] upfront in New York on Tuesday . They called us that day and told us not to go ! I was pissed !
While Dark Angel was set in Seattle , filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , at Lions Gate Studios . Other filming locations included the Vancouver Art Gallery , as well as Buntzen Lake and Riverview Hospital , also in British Columbia .
= = = Broadcast history = = =
The first season premiered in the United States on Tuesday , October 3 , 2000 , from 9 : 00 pm until 11 : 00 pm . Fox had to obtain agreements from its affiliates to broadcast past 10 : 00 pm , as most of them air local news programs at this time . For the second season Fox moved the airing time from Tuesdays at 9 : 00 pm , where it had been competing with Angel on The WB , to at 8 : 00 pm on Fridays , where it preceded the new series Pasadena .
The final episode of the series aired on May 3 , 2002 as a special 90 @-@ minute episode . Dark Angel has been syndicated on the Syfy and the El Rey Network in the United States and on E4 and the Horror Channel in the UK .
= = = Music = = =
The score for the Dark Angel pilot was composed and conducted by Joel McNeely . The score track " Bicycle Ride " was used in the end credits for the duration of the series . The pilot score was released in full as part of the original publicity press kit , titled Dark Angel : Complete Score from the Dark Angel Pilot . The 37 @-@ track CD was for promotional use only and not for resale .
A soundtrack album consisting of hip hop and R & B songs was released on April 23 , 2002 through Artemis Records . It peaked at No. 50 on the Top Independent Albums chart . Jason Birchmeier from AllMusic gave the soundtrack three out of five stars , calling it " impressive " and adding that it " exceeds your expectations for a television show soundtrack " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Initial reaction to the series and the character of Max was mostly positive , with favorable reviews in Rolling Stone and Time . Hal Boedeker from the Orlando Sentinel said " Television 's newest warrior woman possesses skills worthy of Catwoman , Xena , Emma Peel and Wonder Woman . " Howard Rosenberg said " If pouty faces and sexy walks could destroy , the highly arresting Max would be wiping out the entire planet . " However Joyce Millman said Max was " little more than lips and ass " and that the series was " the most expensive Britney Spears video ever made . " People gave a negative review of the Pilot episode in October 2000 , though in December they listed Alba 's portrayal of Max as among the " breakthrough " performances of 2000 .
The first episode was only behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation as the most watched new show of the week , albeit in a week with fewer new shows due to presidential debate coverage . Fox chose to debut Dark Angel instead of airing the first presidential debate , a move which TV analyst Marc Berman praised , saying " The people who watch the debates aren 't the people who 'll tune into Dark Angel anyway " , though he predicted that the high ratings of the premiere would not hold up as the show competed against more various competition in subsequent weeks . It was the tenth most popular show overall that week , attracting 17 @.@ 4 million viewers . Cameron said he did not know if the airing time change for the second season would have a positive or negative effect on the shows ratings , though R. D. Heldenfels from the Sun Journal noted the poor ratings of Friday night television , especially the low viewing rates among 18- to 24 @-@ year @-@ olds , the age @-@ group that Dark Angel was most popular with . The new time slot saw a ratings drop ; for the 2001 – 02 season Dark Angel averaged 6 million viewers , ranking at No. 114 in Nielsen ratings .
Commenting at the release of the second season , Cynthia Fuchs from PopMatters said the first season of Dark Angel was one of the " few straight @-@ up successes , a ratings hit among the coveted ' youth ' demographic " . She praised the series but clarified " I 'm not getting carried away : Jim Cameron is not going to be making revolutionary art anytime soon . " Michael Sauter from Entertainment Weekly gave the first season a B + and spoke highly of Alba , saying that " for a while [ she was ] TV 's hottest kick @-@ butt heroine . " Elka Karl from Common Sense Media gave the entire series 3 out of 5 stars , saying " While the dialogue sometimes falls flat , overall the show is well @-@ scripted and well acted , and Alba does an excellent job of carrying the series . Dark Angel isn 't perfect by any stretch of the imagination , but it is compelling television that teen sci @-@ fi fans will enjoy . " While praising the first season , Randy Dankievitch from TVOvermind labelled the second season as " silly " , criticizing " dumb stories " like Max 's dream episode " Boo " , the virus that prevents Logan and Max having physical contact , and the various half @-@ animal Manticore experiments that are revealed .
Writing in his book The Encyclopedia of Superheroes on Film and Television , John Kenneth Muir said it was necessary for Cameron to set Dark Angel in the future because the prosperity of the U.S. in 2000 " offered little possibility for crime , squalor and other societal problems . " While criticizing certain plot elements in the second season as contributing to the show 's downfall , Muir said a larger factor in the ratings drop was the change of life in the U.S. following events including the September 11 attacks , the Enron scandal , as well as the government losing their financial surplus , which changed Dark Angel 's " futuristic vision of recession in a Third @-@ World America " from an interesting far @-@ fetched premise to a " depressing reminder that things could still get worse " .
In 2004 , Max was ranked at No. 17 in TV Guide 's list of the " 25 Greatest Sci @-@ Fi Legends " , and in 2012 , Dave Golder from GamesRadar ranked her at No. 49 on his list of the 100 sexiest women in sci @-@ fi .
The 2007 film Hitman re @-@ used footage from Dark Angel of Max and other Manticore children in training . The footage was used to portray the Hitman protagonist Agent 47 , a cloned assassin who like the Manticore children , has a barcode on the back of his head .
= = = Accolades = = =
For its first season Dark Angel won the " Favorite Television New Dramatic Series " award at the 27th People 's Choice Awards , and was nominated for " Best Television " at the International Horror Guild Awards . The production team was nominated for the " Excellence in Production Design Award " at the Art Directors Guild . Editor Stephen Mark won " Best Edited Motion Picture for Commercial Television " at the Eddie Awards for the pilot episode , and the pilot was also nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 53rd Primetime Emmy Awards and " Best Visual Effects : Dramatic Series " at the Leo Awards .
Jessica Alba won " Best Actress on Television " at the 27th Saturn Awards , " Breakout Star of the Year " at the TV Guide Awards , " Outstanding Actress in a New Television Series " at the ALMA Awards and " Choice Actress " at the 2001 Teen Choice Awards . She was nominated for Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 58th Golden Globe Awards and " Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actress " at the 22nd Young Artist Awards .
Dark Angel was nominated for fewer awards in its second season . It was nominated for " Choice Drama / Action Adventure " at the 2002 Teen Choice Awards , where Alba was also nominated for " Choice Actress , Drama " . Alba was also nominated for " Outstanding Actress in a Television Series " at the ALMA Awards . At the Leo Awards the episode " Boo " was nominated for " Best Visual Effects : Dramatic Series " , and David Geddes won " Best Cinematography : Dramatic Series " for the episode " Two " .
= = Home media = =
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released seasons 1 and 2 of Dark Angel on DVD in region 1 ( R1 ) , as well as a dual @-@ coded region 2 and 4 ( R2 / 4 ) set in 2003 , as six @-@ disc sets packaged in cardboard sleeves containing three DVD cases each of two discs . Season 1 was released in R2 / 4 in February and R1 in May , and season 2 was released in R2 / 4 in June and R1 in October .
The R1 releases contain several special features , including four episodes with optional commentary in each season , bloopers , deleted scenes and featurettes . The R2 / 4 releases contain no commentaries and fewer other special features , but the episodes are presented in anamorphic widescreen , while R1 releases are fullscreen . Adam Tyner from DVD Talk gave the R1 first season three out of five stars for audio and video , and three and a half stars for special features . Shannon Nutt from DVD Talk gave the R1 second season three stars out of five for audio and video , and two and a half stars for extras , stating " it appears [ to have ] a decent number of features , but then you discover the length of each one and really feel short @-@ changed by Fox " , also noting the commentary in episodes was mainly with writers and producers , and did not feature James Cameron or any of the actors .
Both seasons were re @-@ released in R1 on June 5 , 2007 , with slim packaging consisting of one plastic case containing all six discs ( which were unchanged in content and cosmetics ) .
= = Related media = =
A video game of the same name based on the series was created by Radical Entertainment and released on PlayStation 2 on November 18 , 2002 , and later on Xbox . Alba and Weatherly voiced their respective characters in the game . Development of the game started before the series was cancelled , and the game was met with mixed to negative reception upon release . Brett Todd from GameSpot gave the game 3 @.@ 8 out of 10 , saying " Although it 's impossible to say whether or not the developers ' morale was affected by the cancellation of the series , this third @-@ person action adventure plays like it was cranked out to fulfill a contract " and concluding " the development of this game probably should have been cancelled at the same time as the television series " .
Written by Max Allan Collins , three original novels expand upon the Dark Angel television series , with two picking up directly where the series ended .
Dark Angel : Before the Dawn ( 2002 ) is a prequel to the television series , detailing Max 's life after her escape from Manticore in 2009 . After witnessing footage taken in Seattle of a man she believes to be one of her X5 siblings , Max moves from Los Angeles to Seattle , meeting Original Cindy and Kendra on the way , before finding employment at Jam Pony . Max eventually discovers the man in the footage is her brother Seth , who unbeknown to her has been working for Logan as a personal agent . Shortly after being reunited with him at the Space Needle , Seth , who has been injured , commits suicide by falling from the building to avoid being captured by Lydecker . Max subsequently begins returning to the Space Needle to think and " to be with Seth . "
Dark Angel : Skin Game ( 2003 ) immediately follows the events of " Freak Nation , " the final episode of season two , describing days in May 2021 . Skin Game focuses on a killer terrorizing the streets of Seattle and the growing suspicion and evidence that the killer could be a transgenic . As the killings escalate , the U.S. Army and National Guard prepare themselves for an invasion of Terminal City . Max uncovers that the killer is a shapeshifting transgenic named Kelpy , though he has been unwillingly given a drug by Ames White that is causing his psychosis . When Max reveals this information to the public through Eyes Only , Ames White goes into hiding , and the invasion of Terminal City is called off . When Kelpy takes on Logan 's form he is killed by the virus Max carries which was designed to kill Logan .
Dark Angel : After the Dark ( 2003 ) follows Skin Game . It is revealed that Max 's virus is gone , the most likely explanation being that when the virus killed Kelpy it went dormant as it believed its mission to kill Logan was accomplished . The relationship between Logan and Max , however , is thrown into turmoil when he reveals his secret that he inadvertently caused Seth 's death by sending him on an assignment . Just as Max is ready to forgive him , Logan is kidnapped by Ames White and the breeding cult , who are preparing for the coming of a comet they believe will destroy everyone except cult @-@ members and transgenics through depositing viral material into Earth 's atmosphere . They are trying to kill Max as they believe she possesses a genetic code that will save ordinary humans from the comet 's viral material . With the aid of a team of transgenics , Max eventually rescues Logan , destroys the headquarters of the breeding cult , and Joshua kills Ames White . When the comet arrives nobody falls ill , and it is believed the cult 's prediction was false . Max finds Lydecker in a prison cell at the cult 's headquarters . He promises to help her find her mother if she saves him , and she agrees . The book ends with Logan and Max finally consummating their relationship .
A companion book , Dark Angel : The Eyes Only Dossier , was also published in 2003 . It is attributed to Logan Cale and was supposedly compiled by D. A. Stern . The book begins with a letter written by Logan during the stand @-@ off at Terminal City . It is addressed to Detective Matt Sung , a recurring character from the series who aides Logan , instructing him that the package he is sending him contains documents pertaining to the four most critical Eyes Only investigations . In the event that Logan is killed by the potential invasion of Terminal City , he wants Sung to carry on the investigations . The rest of the book contains said documents relating to the four investigations .
= = Alleged plagiarism = =
After the show 's release the Argentine artists Carlos Trillo and Carlos Meglia , creators of the Argentine comic book series Cybersix , filed a lawsuit against Cameron and Fox for plagiarism . Cybersix was created by Trillo ( writer ) and Meglia ( penciler ) in the early 90s for the European market , and appeared in Spanish in November 1993 ; an animated TV series based on the comic strip was released in 1999 . Trillo and Meglia accused Dark Angel of stealing most of the comic 's plot and its most recognizable elements . In a 2007 interview Trillo stated that he and Meglia were not able to carry on with the lawsuit due to lack of financial resources , so they dropped it , although the issue is still a matter of controversy :
Meglia and I were sure we had been plagiarized . Cybersix readers who watched Cameron 's TV series were sure as well . We tried to move forward with a lawsuit against Cameron and Fox . It wasn 't possible for us to continue because the comic book world does not give you the financial possibility [ in Argentina ] of confronting a showbusiness multinational company . We couldn 't afford lawyers in LA to carry on with the attempt to claim our original story .
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= Maikel Kieftenbeld =
Maikel Kieftenbeld ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈmɑikəl ˈkiftə ( m ) bɛlt ] ; born 26 June 1990 ) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for English club Birmingham City .
Kieftenbeld began his football career with his hometown club , VV Lemerleveld , before joining Twente 's youth system as a young teenager . Twente let him leave for Eerste Divisie ( second @-@ tier ) club Go Ahead Eagles in 2007 , and a year later , he made his senior debut and signed his first professional contract . He spent two seasons as a regular member of GA Eagles ' first team before joining Eredivisie club Groningen in 2010 . He played as a right back during his first year with Groningen , switching to midfield in his second season . Appointed vice @-@ captain for 2013 – 14 , he took on the captaincy during the season , and helped the club qualify for European football for the first time in seven years . He captained Groningen to victory in the 2014 – 15 KNVB Cup final to win the first major trophy in the club 's history . Ahead of the 2015 – 16 season , he joined Football League Championship ( second @-@ tier ) club Birmingham City .
He played for the Netherlands Beloftenelftal at the 2012 Toulon Tournament , and was capped five times for his country at under @-@ 21 level .
= = Personal life = =
Kieftenbeld was born on 26 June 1990 in Lemelerveld , in the municipality of Dalfsen , Netherlands , where he attended Heilig Hartschool primary school . After leaving school he began a college course in business economics , but did not complete it . He came from a sporty family . His mother , Anja , and one of his sisters played volleyball , another sister rode horses . His father , Joop , coached in the lower reaches of Dutch amateur football , including at SV SDOL of the Vijfde Klasse and the reserve team of Tweede Klasse club VV Lemerleveld , the hometown club where Maikel began playing football at the age of five .
= = Club career = =
= = = Go Ahead Eagles = = =
Kieftenbeld was spotted by scouts from Twente , but after four seasons in their youth system , the staff believed he was not up to the required standard , so in 2007 he moved on to Deventer @-@ based Eerste Divisie ( second @-@ tier ) club Go Ahead Eagles . The following summer , he took part in the first @-@ team 's pre @-@ season training camp in Germany , and made his senior debut on the opening day of the 2008 – 09 Eerste Divisie , on 8 August 2008 away to VVV @-@ Venlo . He entered the game to replace the injured Ceriel Oosthout just before half @-@ time with his team 1 – 0 down ; they lost 5 – 0 . In September , he signed his first professional contract , for three years with an option for a fourth . He scored his first senior goal on 24 April 2009 – the winning goal as Go Ahead Eagles beat Veendam 2 – 1 – and finished the season as a first @-@ team regular with 30 league appearances .
In his second season , he helped Go Ahead Eagles to reach the final round of the promotion play @-@ offs , in which they lost to Willem II . In April 2010 , Kieftenbeld was being linked with a move to AZ , the reigning Dutch champions . By the beginning of June , all parties had agreed terms , but the financial situation at AZ and a change of ownership meant the deal did not proceed .
= = = Groningen = = =
= = = = 2010 to 2013 = = = =
On 17 June 2010 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Kieftenbeld signed a four @-@ year contract with Eredivisie club Groningen , who paid a € 300 @,@ 000 fee for the player . He was presented as a right back , despite only ever having played in midfield . In his first season at Groningen he did indeed play at right back , competently enough , but in a 5 – 1 defeat away to Feyenoord , he struggled against Ryo Miyaichi , a player with pace and ability with both feet , and eventually fouled him to concede a penalty . Groningen finished the season in fifth position , thus qualifying for the play @-@ offs for a place in the Europa League . Kieftenbeld was sent off in the first leg of the semi @-@ final , so was suspended for the second . He was replaced at half @-@ time in the first leg of the final , which Groningen lost 5 – 1 to ADO Den Haag , and was an unused substitute in the second leg as they recovered from the four @-@ goal deficit only to lose out on penalties .
In his second season , Kieftenbeld played regularly in his preferred position in midfield . He scored his first goal for Groningen on 30 October 2011 in what finished up as their biggest win ever against Feyenoord , by six goals to nil . Kieftenbeld 's goal was the second of the six , a powerful drive from 30 metres ( 33 yd ) . In the January transfer window , Groningen turned down what was described as a substantial bid for him from Belgian Pro League club Club Brugge ; having let Danny Holla join VVV @-@ Venlo on loan , they were not prepared to lose another midfielder . His performances over the season earned him the supporters ' vote as Player of the Year .
Kieftenbeld was more often substitute than starter in the first few weeks of 2012 – 13 under new manager Robert Maaskant , but went on to re @-@ establish himself in the side . A minor knee injury sustained during the mid @-@ season training camp meant he missed a couple of matches , and thereafter his appearances in the starting eleven were intermittent , whether through suspension or just not being selected . Groningen finished in seventh place , albeit 19 points behind Twente whom they faced in the play @-@ offs . Kieftenbeld put in a strong performance in the first leg in a 1 – 0 defeat at home , but a 3 – 2 loss in the second leg confirmed that Groningen would not qualify for the Europa League .
= = = = 2013 to 2015 = = = =
Ahead of the 2013 – 14 season , Maaskant 's replacement Erwin van de Looi appointed Kieftenbeld vice @-@ captain , with Rasmus Lindgren as captain . He began the season on the bench , but soon came back into the starting eleven , frequently wore the captain 's armband in Lindgren 's absence , and reduced his yellow @-@ card count in the first half of the season from his usual five or six to just one . Towards the end of the season , he captained the side even when Lindgren played – at the latter 's recommendation – and according to the club 's website , he was the inspiration for a ten @-@ match unbeaten finish that meant Groningen qualified for European football for the first time in seven years . Technical director Henk Veldmate said he was a " worthy ambassador " for the club both on and off the field . Amid interest both from other Eredivisie clubs and from abroad , including Club Brugge , Kieftenbeld signed a new two @-@ year contract . The negotiations were lengthy , but the player said he was happy staying where he was appreciated , and the prospect of European football played a part . According to the club , the player insisted on a release clause being included in the contract .
Groningen entered the 2014 – 15 Europa League in the second qualfifying round . After a goalless draw in the away leg , opponents Aberdeen took a two @-@ goal lead in the second leg . Kieftenbeld scored a headed goal just before half @-@ time to reduce the deficit , but Aberdeen held out and Groningen were eliminated . Afterwards , Aberdeen 's Jonny Hayes spoke of the motivation they drew from over @-@ confident remarks reportedly made by Kieftenbeld and others ahead of the second leg which they perceived as disrespectful . Domestically , Kieftenbeld missed only one match in all competitions , through suspension , and played every minute of Groningen 's 2014 – 15 KNVB Cup run . In the quarter @-@ final , he " hammered in the fourth from the edge of the box " in a 4 – 0 defeat of Eredivisie club Vitesse Arnhem , and Groningen beat another top @-@ flight club , Excelsior , 3 – 0 in the semi @-@ final . In the final , Albert Rusnák 's two goals were enough to beat cup @-@ holders PEC Zwolle , and Kieftenbeld as captain lifted the first major trophy in the club 's history .
Kieftenbeld was twice shortlisted for the Eredivisie 's annual Maatschappelijk Speler ( Community Player ) award , which brings with it a € 50 @,@ 000 prize to be donated to a social project of the winner 's choice . He was actively involved with Kids United , a football team for children with disabilities . Although he did not win on either occasion , his charity still benefited when the 2015 winner , Jeroen Zoet , shared the prize money with the other two nominees . In late July 2015 , English club Birmingham City made a bid for Kieftenbeld 's services that triggered the release clause in his contract . Although Groningen accepted they could not stop him leaving , they were disappointed not just at losing their captain so soon before the start of the new season , but at losing a player who did so much for the club in the community .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
On 27 July , Kieftenbeld signed a three @-@ year contract with Football League Championship ( second @-@ tier ) club Birmingham City . The fee was officially undisclosed , but the release clause figure was widely reported as € 250 @,@ 000 . He went straight into the starting eleven for the opening game of the season , playing alongside Stephen Gleeson in a 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 formation , " clattered around midfield breaking up play , putting in tackles and generally making it uncomfortable " for the opponents , and kept his place for the next few league matches . After David Davis 's fine performance in the League Cup tie against Aston Villa was followed by mistakes in midfield in a poor defeat at home to Rotherham United , manager Gary Rowett included Davis alongside Kieftenbeld and Gleeson as Birmingham won 2 – 0 at Brentford . Minor injury restricted Kieftenbeld to a seat on the bench against Blackburn Rovers in early November , and Davis took over his role as Rowett reverted to a two @-@ man central midfield . Although Rowett said Davis was unlucky not to start the visit to Brighton & Hove Albion at the end of the month , Kieftenbeld returned to the side to provide " a bit more control " ; he was involved in an incident when Liam Rosenior suffered knee damage in what Brighton manager Chris Hughton described as a " just a whole @-@ hearted challenge " .
Having scored just five times in more than 200 league matches in the Netherlands , Kieftenbeld registered three goals in 22 days in January 2016 . In the 89th minute of the match at home to Brentford , he won the ball in midfield , played it through to James Vaughan , and kept running ; when Vaughan shot across goal , Kieftenbeld arrived at the far post just in time to slide the ball home for the winner . At Derby County two weeks later , he ran on to a clearance and hit a powerful volley from outside the penalty area wide of the goalkeeper to complete a 3 – 0 victory , and repeated the feat in the next match , at home to Ipswich Town . The goals earned him a nomination for January 's Championship Player of the Month , but he lost out to Hull City 's Abel Hernández .
= = International career = =
Kieftenbeld made his first appearance in international football for the Netherlands Beloftenelftal ( Promises Team ) , an under @-@ 21 team providing a stepping @-@ stone between the under @-@ 19 team and the full under @-@ 21 team , in March 2010 . He played the first half of a 2 – 1 defeat in a friendly match against Slovenia U21 . After Leroy Fer and Dirk Marcellis were requisitioned for the senior squad in August 2010 , Kieftenbeld received his first under @-@ 21 call @-@ up , and made his debut as a second @-@ half substitute in a 2011 European Championship qualifier against Liechtenstein , He also played against Spain in September with the group already won : taking the field after 66 minutes , he was sent off 12 minutes later for a foul on Ander Herrera . He made his first start for the under @-@ 21s in a friendly against Denmark in November 2010 , playing at right back in a 3 – 1 win ; his through ball set up Bas Dost for the third goal . He played in two more U21 friendlies , against the Czech Republic and Germany , and was an unused substitute in four Euro 2013 qualifiers in 2011 and 2012 . His last international appearances were at the 2012 Toulon Tournament , at which the Netherlands were represented by the Beloftenelftal ; he played in four of their five matches .
= = Style of play = =
Dutch journalist Michiel Jongsma suggests that Kieftenbeld 's position of choice is as a holding midfielder in front of the defence , where he can best use his energy in recovering the ball . He is comfortable on the ball and able to distribute it , but can be careless in possession , and " he really tries to shake up things when the play has gone dormant . In that lies his weakness as well – he can pick up silly fouls and cards from time to time . " With Groningen , he averaged eight yellow cards a season . According to Groningen 's technical director Henk Veldmate , speaking in 2014 , his battling style and never @-@ say @-@ die attitude made him the sort of player with whom supporters could identify . In a 2011 interview , Kieftenbeld described himself as a perfectionist who always wanted to improve , and said that he sometimes put too much pressure on himself .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 7 May 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
FC Groningen
KNVB Cup : 2014 – 15
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= Njörðr =
In Norse mythology , Njörðr is a god among the Vanir . Njörðr , father of the deities Freyr and Freyja by his unnamed sister , was in an ill @-@ fated marriage with the goddess Skaði , lives in Nóatún and is associated with sea , seafaring , wind , fishing , wealth , and crop fertility .
Njörðr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , in euhemerized form as a beloved mythological early king of Sweden in Heimskringla , also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century , as one of three gods invoked in the 14th century Hauksbók ring oath , and in numerous Scandinavian place names . Veneration of Njörðr survived into 18th or 19th century Norwegian folk practice , where the god is recorded as Njor and thanked for a bountiful catch of fish .
Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of scholarly discourse and theory , often connecting him with the figure of the much earlier attested Germanic goddess Nerthus , the hero Hadingus , and theorizing on his formerly more prominent place in Norse paganism due to the appearance of his name in numerous place names . Njörðr is sometimes modernly anglicized as Njord , Njoerd , or Njorth .
= = Name and eponyms = =
The name Njörðr corresponds to that of the older Germanic fertility goddess Nerthus , and both derive from the Proto @-@ Germanic * Nerþuz . The original meaning of the name is contested , but it may be related to the Irish word nert which means " force " and " power " . It has been suggested that the change of sex from the female Nerthus to the male Njörðr is due to the fact that feminine nouns with u @-@ stems disappeared early in Germanic language while the masculine nouns with u @-@ stems prevailed . However , other scholars hold the change to be based not on grammatical gender but on the evolution of religious beliefs ; that * Nerþuz and Njörðr appear as different genders because they are to be considered separate beings . The name Njörðr may be related to the name of the Norse goddess Njörun .
Njörðr 's name appears in various place names in Scandinavia , such as Nærdhæwi ( now Nalavi ) , Njærdhavi ( now Mjärdevi ) , Nærdhælunda ( now Närlunda ) , Nierdhatunum ( now Närtuna ) in Sweden , Njarðvík in southwest Iceland , Njarðarlög and Njarðey ( now Nærøy ) in Norway . Njörðr 's name appears in a word for sponge ; Njarðarvöttr ( Old Norse " Njörðr 's glove " ) . Additionally , in Old Icelandic translations of Classical mythology the Roman god Saturn 's name is glossed as " Njörðr . "
= = Attestations = =
Njörðr is attested in the following works :
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
Njörðr is described as a future survivor of Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In the poem , the god Odin , disguised as " Gagnráðr " faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits . While Odin states that Vafþrúðnir knows all the fates of the gods , Odin asks Vafþrúðnir " from where Njörðr came to the sons of the Æsir , " that Njörðr rules over quite a lot of temples and hörgrs ( a type of Germanic altar ) , and further adds that Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir . In response , Vafþrúðnir says :
" In Vanaheim the wise Powers made him
and gave him as hostage to the gods ;
at the doom of men he will come back
home among the wise Vanir . "
In stanza 16 of the poem Grímnismál , Njörðr is described as having a hall in Nóatún made for himself . The stanza describes Njörðr as a " prince of men , " that he is " lacking in malice , " and that he " rules over the " high @-@ timbered temple . " In stanza 43 , the creation of the god Freyr 's ship Skíðblaðnir is recounted , and Freyr is cited as the son of Njörðr . In the prose introduction to the poem Skírnismál , Freyr is mentioned as the son of Njörðr , and stanza 2 cites the goddess Skaði as the mother of Freyr . Further in the poem , Njörðr is again mentioned as the father of Freyr in stanzas 38 , 39 , and 41 .
In the late flyting poem Lokasenna , an exchange between Njörðr and Loki occurs in stanzas 33 , 34 , 35 , and 36 . After Loki has an exchange with the goddess Freyja , in stanza 33 Njörðr states :
" That 's harmless , if , beside a husband , a woman has
a lover or someone else ;
what is surprising is a pervert god coming in here ,
who has borne children . "
Loki responds in the stanza 34 , stating that " from here you were sent east as hostage to the gods " ( a reference to the Æsir @-@ Vanir War ) and that " the daughters of Hymir used you as a pisspot , and pissed in your mouth . " In stanza 35 , Njörðr responds that :
" That was my reward , when I , from far away ,
was sent as a hostage to the gods ,
that I fathered that son , whom no one hates
and is thought the prince of the Æsir .
Loki tells Njörðr to " stop " and " keep some moderation , " and that he " won 't keep it a secret any longer " that Njörðr 's son Freyr was produced with his unnamed sister , " though you 'd expect him to be worse than he is . " The god Tyr then interjects and the flyting continues in turn .
Njörðr is referenced in stanza 22 of the poem Þrymskviða , where he is referred to as the father of the goddess Freyja . In the poem , the jötunn Þrymr mistakenly thinks that he will be receiving the goddess Freyja as his bride , and while telling his fellow jötunn to spread straw on the benches in preparation for the arrival of Freyja , he refers to her as the daughter of Njörðr of Nóatún . Towards the end of the poem Sólarljóð , Njörðr is cited as having nine daughters . Two of the names of these daughters are given ; the eldest Ráðveig and the youngest Kreppvör .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Njörðr is mentioned in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál .
= = = = Gylfaginning = = = =
In the Prose Edda , Njörðr is introduced in chapter 23 of the book Gylfaginning . In this chapter , Njörðr is described by the enthroned figure of High as living in the heavens at Nóatún , but also as ruling over the movement of the winds , having the ability to calm both sea and fire , and that he is to be invoked in seafaring and fishing . High continues that Njörðr is very wealthy and prosperous , and that he can also grant wealth in land and valuables to those who request his aid . Njörðr originates from Vanaheimr and is devoid of Æsir stock , and he is described as having been traded with Hœnir in hostage exchange with between the Æsir and Vanir .
High further states that Njörðr 's wife is Skaði , that she is the daughter of the jötunn Þjazi , and recounts a tale involving the two . High recalls that Skaði wanted to live in the home once owned by her father called Þrymheimr ( " Thunder Home " ) . However , Njörðr wanted to live nearer to the sea . Subsequently , the two made an agreement that they would spend nine nights in Þrymheimr and then next three nights in Nóatún ( or nine winters in Þrymheimr and another nine in Nóatún according to the Codex Regius manuscript ) . However , when Njörðr returned from the mountains to Nóatún , he says :
" Hateful for me are the mountains ,
I was not long there ,
only nine nights .
The howling of the wolves
sounded ugly to me
after the song of the swans . "
Skaði then responds :
" Sleep I could not
on the sea beds
for the screeching of the bird .
That gull wakes me
when from the wide sea
he comes each morning . "
High states that afterward Skaði went back up to the mountains to Þrymheimr and recites a stanza where Skaði skis around , hunts animals with a bow , and lives in her fathers old house . Chapter 24 begins , which describes Njörðr as the father of two beautiful and powerful children : Freyr and Freyja . In chapter 37 , after Freyr has spotted the beautiful jötunn Gerðr , he becomes overcome with sorrow , and refuses to sleep , drink , or talk . Njörðr then sends for Skírnir to find out who he seems to be so angry at , and , not looking forward to being treated roughly , Skírnir reluctantly goes to Freyr .
= = = = Skáldskaparmál = = = =
Njörðr is introduced in Skáldskaparmál within a list of 12 Æsir attending a banquet held for Ægir . Further in Skáldskaparmál , the skaldic god Bragi recounds the death of Skaði 's father Þjazi by the Æsir . As one of the three acts of reparation performed by the Æsir for Þjazi 's death , Skaði was allowed by the Æsir to choose a husband from amongst them , but given the stipulation that she may not see any part of them but their feet when making the selection . Expecting to choose the god Baldr by the beauty of the feet she selects , Skaði instead finds that she has picked Njörðr .
In chapter 6 , a list of kennings is provided for Njörðr : " God of chariots , " " Descendant of Vanir , " " a Van , " father of Freyr and Freyja , and " the giving god . " This is followed by an excerpt from a composition by the 11th century skald Þórðr Sjáreksson , explained as containing a reference to Skaði leaving Njörðr :
Gundrun became her son 's slayer ; the wise god @-@ bride [ Skadi ] could not love the Van ; Kialar [ Odin ] trained horses pretty well ; Hamdir is said not to have held back sword @-@ play .
Chapter 7 follows and provides various kennings for Freyr , including referring to him as the son of Njörðr . This is followed by an excerpt from a work by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson that references Njörðr ( here anglicized as " Niord " ) :
For Freyr and Niord have endowed Griotbiorn with a power of wealth .
In chapter 20 , " daughter of Njörðr " is given as a kenning for Freyja . In chapter 33 , Njörðr is cited among the gods attending a banquet held by Ægir . In chapter 37 , Freyja is again referred to as Njörðr 's daughter in a verse by the 12th century skald Einarr Skúlason . In chapter 75 , Njörðr is included in a list of the Æsir . Additionally , Njörðr is used in kennings for " warrior " or " warriors " various times in Skáldskaparmál .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
Njörðr appears in or is mentioned in three Kings ' sagas collected in Heimskringla ; Ynglinga saga , the Saga of Hákon the Good and the Saga of Harald Graycloak . In chapter 4 of Ynglinga saga , Njörðr is introduced in connection with the Æsir @-@ Vanir War . When the two sides became tired of war , they came to a peace agreement and exchanged hostages . For their part , the Vanir send to the Æsir their most " outstanding men " ; Njörðr , described as wealthy , and Freyr , described as his son , in exchange for the Æsir 's Hœnir . Additionally , the Æsir send Mímir in exchange for the wise Kvasir .
Further into chapter 4 , Odin appoints Njörðr and Freyr as priests of sacrificial offerings , and they became gods among the Æsir . Freyja is introduced as a daughter of Njörðr , and as the priestess at the sacrifices . In the saga , Njörðr is described as having once wed his unnamed sister while he was still among the Vanir , and the couple produced their children Freyr and Freyja from this union , though this custom was forbidden among the Æsir .
Chapter 5 relates that Odin gave all of his temple priests dwelling places and good estates , in Njörðr 's case being Nóatún . Chapter 8 states that Njörðr married a woman named Skaði , though she would not have intercourse with him . Skaði then marries Odin , and the two had numerous sons .
In chapter 9 , Odin dies and Njörðr takes over as ruler of the Swedes , and he continues the sacrifices . The Swedes recognize him as their king , and pay him tribute . Njörðr 's rule is marked with peace and many great crops , so much so that the Swedes believed that Njörðr held power over the crops and over the prosperity of mankind . During his rule , most of the Æsir die , their bodies are burned , and sacrifices are made by men to them . Njörðr has himself " marked for " Odin and he dies in his bed . Njörðr 's body is burnt by the Swedes , and they weep heavily at his tomb . After Njörðr 's reign , his son Freyr replaces him , and he is greatly loved and " blessed by good seasons like his father . "
In chapter 14 of Saga of Hákon the Good a description of the pagan Germanic custom of Yule is given . Part of the description includes a series of toasts . The toasts begin with Odin 's toasts , described as for victory and power for the king , followed by Njörðr and Freyr 's toast , intended for good harvests and peace . Following this , a beaker is drank for the king , and then a toast is given for departed kin . Chapter 28 quotes verse where the kenning " Njörðr @-@ of @-@ roller @-@ horses " is used for " sailor " . In the Saga of Harald Graycloak , a stanza is given of a poem entitled Vellekla ( " Lack of Gold " ) by the 10th century Icelandic skald Einarr skálaglamm that mentions Njörðr in a kenning for " warrior . "
= = = Egils saga = = =
In chapter 80 of the 13th century Icelandic saga Egils saga , Egill Skallagrímsson composes a poem in praise of Arinbjörn ( Arinbjarnarkviða ) . In stanza 17 , Egill writes that all others watch in marvel how Arinbjörn gives out wealth , as he has been so endowed by the gods Freyr and Njörðr .
= = Modern folk practice = =
Veneration of Njörðr survived into 18th or 19th century Norwegian folk practice , as recorded in a tale collected by Halldar O. Opedal from an informant in Odda , Hordaland , Norway . The informant comments on a family tradition in which the god is thanked for a bountiful catch of fish :
The old folk [ folk in the olden days ? ] were always rather lucky when they went fishing . One night old Gunnhild Reinsnos ( born in 1746 ) and Johannes Reinsnos were fishing in the Sjosavatn . They had taken a torch and were fishing with live bait . The fish bit well , and it wasn 't long before Gunnhild had a week 's supply of fish for her pot . So she wound her line around her rod with the words : " Thanks be to him , to Njor , for this time . "
Scholar Georges Dumézil further cites various tales of havmennesker ( Norwegian " sea people " ) who govern over sea weather , wealth , or , in some incidents , give magic boats are likely connected to Njörðr .
= = Theories = =
= = = Nerthus = = =
Njörðr is often identified with the goddess Nerthus , whose reverence by various Germanic tribes is described by Roman historian Tacitus in his 1st CE century work Germania . The connection between the two is due to the linguistic relationship between Njörðr and the reconstructed * Nerþuz , " Nerthus " being the feminine , Latinized form of what Njörðr would have looked like around 1 CE . This has led to theories about the relation of the two , including that Njörðr may have once been a hermaphroditic god or , generally considered more likely , that the name may indicate an otherwise unattested divine brother and sister pair such as Freyr and Freyja . Consequently , Nerthus has been identified with Njörðr 's unnamed sister with whom he had Freyja and Freyr , which is mentioned in Lokasenna .
= = = Bieka @-@ Galles = = =
In Saami mythology , Bieka @-@ Galles ( or Biega- , Biegga @-@ Galles , depending on dialect ; " The Old Man of the Winds " ) is a deity who rules over rain and wind , and is the subject of boat and wooden shovel ( or , rather , oar ) offerings . Due to similarities in between descriptions of Njörðr in Gylfaginning and descriptions of Bieka @-@ Galles in 18th century missionary reports , Axel Olrik identified this deity as the result of influence from the seafaring North Germanic peoples on the landbound Saami .
= = = Hadingus = = =
Parallels have been pointed out between Njörðr and the figure of Hadingus , attested in book I of Saxo Grammaticus ' 13th century work Gesta Danorum . Some of these similarities include that , in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in Skáldskaparmál , Hadingus is chosen by his wife Regnhild after selecting him from other men at a banquet by his lower legs , and , in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in Gylfaginning , Hadingus complains in verse of his displeasure at his life away from the sea and how he is disturbed by the howls of wolves , while his wife Regnhild complains of life at the shore and states her annoyance at the screeching sea birds . Georges Dumézil theorized that in the tale Hadingus passes through all three functions of his trifunctional hypothesis , before ending as an Odinic hero , paralleling Njörðr 's passing from the Vanir to the Æsir in the Æsir @-@ Vanir War .
= = = Svafrþorinn = = =
In stanza 8 of the poem Fjölsvinnsmál , Svafrþorinn is stated as the father of Menglöð by an unnamed mother , who the hero Svipdagr seeks . Menglöð has often been theorized as the goddess Freyja , and according to this theory , Svafrþorinn would therefore be Njörðr . The theory is complicated by the etymology of the name Svafrþorinn ( þorinn meaning " brave " and svafr means " gossip " ) ( or possibly connects to sofa " sleep " ) , which Rudolf Simek says makes little sense when attempting to connect it to Njörðr .
= = Modern influence = =
Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of artistic depictions . Depictions include " Freyr und Gerda ; Skade und Niurd " ( drawing , 1883 ) by K. Ehrenberg , " Njörðr " ( 1893 ) by Carl Frederick von Saltza , " Skadi " ( 1901 ) by E. Doepler d . J. , and " Njörd 's desire of the Sea " ( 1908 ) by W. G. Collingwood .
Njörðr is one of the incarnated gods in the New Zealand comedy / drama " The Almighty Johnsons " . The part of " Johan Johnson / Njörðr " is played by Stuart Devenie .
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= Psilocybin =
Psilocybin ( / ˌsɪləˈsaɪbɪn / SIL @-@ ə @-@ SY @-@ bin ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound produced by more than 200 species of mushrooms , collectively known as psilocybin mushrooms . The most potent are members of the genus Psilocybe , such as P. azurescens , P. semilanceata , and P. cyanescens , but psilocybin has also been isolated from about a dozen other genera . As a prodrug , psilocybin is quickly converted by the body to psilocin , which has mind @-@ altering effects similar , in some aspects , to those of LSD , mescaline , and DMT . In general , the effects include euphoria , visual and mental hallucinations , changes in perception , a distorted sense of time , and spiritual experiences , and can include possible adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks .
Imagery found on prehistoric murals and rock paintings of modern @-@ day Spain and Algeria suggests that human usage of psilocybin mushrooms dates back thousands of years . In Mesoamerica , the mushrooms had long been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the 16th century . In a 1957 Life magazine article , American banker and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson described his experiences ingesting psilocybin @-@ containing mushrooms during a traditional ceremony in Mexico , introducing the substance to popular culture . Shortly afterward , the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated the active principle psilocybin from the mushroom Psilocybe mexicana . Hofmann 's employer Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide for use in psychedelic psychotherapy . Although the increasingly restrictive drug laws of the late 1960s curbed scientific research into the effects of psilocybin and other hallucinogens , its popularity as an entheogen ( spirituality @-@ enhancing agent ) grew in the next decade , owing largely to the increased availability of information on how to cultivate psilocybin mushrooms .
Some users of the drug consider it an entheogen and a tool to supplement practices for transcendence , including meditation and psychonautics . The intensity and duration of the effects of psilocybin are variable , depending on species or cultivar of mushrooms , dosage , individual physiology , and set and setting , as was shown in experiments led by Timothy Leary at Harvard University in the early 1960s . Once ingested , psilocybin is rapidly metabolized to psilocin , which then acts on serotonin receptors in the brain . The mind @-@ altering effects of psilocybin typically last from two to six hours , although to individuals under the influence of psilocybin , the effects may seem to last much longer , since the drug can distort the perception of time . Psilocybin has a low toxicity and a relatively low harm potential , and reports of lethal doses of the drug are rare . Several modern bioanalytical methods have been adapted to rapidly and accurately screen the levels of psilocybin in mushroom samples and body fluids . Since the 1990s , there has been a renewal of scientific research into the potential medical and psychological therapeutic benefits of psilocybin for treating conditions including obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , cluster headaches , and anxiety related to terminal cancer . Possession of psilocybin @-@ containing mushrooms has been outlawed in most countries , and it has been classified as a scheduled drug by many national drug laws .
= = Effects = =
The effects of psilocybin are highly variable and depend on the mindset and environment in which the user has the experience , factors commonly referred to as set and setting . In the early 1960s , Timothy Leary and colleagues at Harvard University investigated the role of set and setting on the effects of psilocybin . They administered the drug to 175 volunteers from various backgrounds in an environment intended to be similar to a comfortable living room . Ninety @-@ eight of the subjects were given questionnaires to assess their experiences and the contribution of background and situational factors . Individuals who had experience with psilocybin prior to the study reported more pleasant experiences than those for whom the drug was novel . Group size , dosage , preparation , and expectancy were important determinants of the drug response . In general , those placed in groups of more than eight individuals felt that the groups were less supportive , and their experiences were less pleasant . Conversely , smaller groups ( fewer than six individuals ) were seen as more supportive . Participants also reported having more positive reactions to the drug in those groups . Leary and colleagues proposed that psilocybin heightens suggestibility , making an individual more receptive to interpersonal interactions and environmental stimuli . These findings were affirmed in a later review by Jos ten Berge ( 1999 ) , who concluded that dosage , set , and setting were fundamental factors in determining the outcome of experiments that tested the effects of psychedelic drugs on artists ' creativity .
After ingesting psilocybin , a wide range of subjective effects may be experienced : feelings of disorientation , lethargy , giddiness , euphoria , joy , and depression . About a third of users report feelings of anxiety or paranoia . Low doses of the drug can induce hallucinatory effects . Closed @-@ eye hallucinations may occur , in which the affected individual sees multicolored geometric shapes and vivid imaginative sequences . Some individuals report experiencing synesthesia , such as tactile sensations when viewing colors . At higher doses , psilocybin can lead to " Intensification of affective responses , enhanced ability for introspection , regression to primitive and childlike thinking , and activation of vivid memory traces with pronounced emotional undertones " . Open @-@ eye visual hallucinations are common , and may be very detailed although rarely confused with reality .
A 2011 prospective study by Roland R. Griffiths and colleagues suggests that a single high dosage of psilocybin can cause long @-@ term changes in the personality of its users . About half of the study participants — described as healthy , " spiritually active " , and many possessing postgraduate degrees — showed an increase in the personality dimension of openness ( assessed using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory ) , and this positive effect was apparent more than a year after the psilocybin session . According to the study authors , the finding is significant because " no study has prospectively demonstrated personality change in healthy adults after an experimentally manipulated discrete event . " Although other researchers have described instances of psychedelic drug usage leading to new psychological understandings and personal insights , it is not known whether these experimental results can be generalized to larger populations .
= = = Physical effects = = =
Common responses include : pupil dilation ( 93 % ) ; changes in heart rate ( 100 % ) , including increases ( 56 % ) , decreases ( 13 % ) , and variable responses ( 31 % ) ; changes in blood pressure ( 84 % ) , including hypotension ( 34 % ) , hypertension ( 28 % ) , and general instability ( 22 % ) ; changes in stretch reflex ( 86 % ) , including increases ( 80 % ) and decreases ( 6 % ) ; nausea ( 44 % ) ; tremor ( 25 % ) ; and dysmetria ( 16 % ) ( inability to properly direct or limit motions ) . The temporary increases in blood pressure caused by the drug can be a risk factor for users with pre @-@ existing hypertension . These qualitative somatic effects caused by psilocybin have been corroborated by several early clinical studies . A 2005 magazine survey of club goers in the UK found that nausea or vomiting was experienced by over a quarter of those who had used hallucinogenic mushrooms in the last year , although this effect is caused by the mushroom rather than psilocybin itself . In one study , administration of gradually increasing dosages of psilocybin daily for 21 days had no measurable effect on electrolyte levels , blood sugar levels , or liver toxicity tests .
= = = Perceptual distortions = = =
Psilocybin is known to strongly influence the subjective experience of the passage of time . Users often feel as if time is slowed down , resulting in the perception that " minutes appear to be hours " or " time is standing still " . Studies have demonstrated that psilocybin significantly impairs subjects ' ability to gauge time intervals longer than 2 @.@ 5 seconds , impairs their ability to synchronize to inter @-@ beat intervals longer than 2 seconds , and reduces their preferred tapping rate . These results are consistent with the drug 's role in affecting prefrontal cortex activity , and the role that the prefrontal cortex is known to play in time perception . However , the neurochemical basis of psilocybin 's effects on the perception of time are not known with certainty .
Users having a pleasant experience can feel a sense of connection to others , nature , and the universe ; other perceptions and emotions are also often intensified . Users having an unpleasant experience ( a " bad trip " ) describe a reaction accompanied by fear , other unpleasant feelings , and occasionally by dangerous behavior . In general , the phrase " bad trip " is used to describe a reaction that is characterized primarily by fear or other unpleasant emotions , not just transitory experience of such feelings . A variety of factors may contribute to a psilocybin user experiencing a bad trip , including " tripping " during an emotional or physical low or in a non @-@ supportive environment ( see : set and setting ) . Ingesting psilocybin in combination with other drugs , including alcohol , can also increase the likelihood of a bad trip . Other than the duration of the experience , the effects of psilocybin are similar to comparable dosages of LSD or mescaline . However , in the Psychedelics Encyclopedia , author Peter Stafford noted , " The psilocybin experience seems to be warmer , not as forceful and less isolating . It tends to build connections between people , who are generally much more in communication than when they use LSD . "
= = Uses = =
= = = Spiritual = = =
Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous New World cultures in religious , divinatory , or spiritual contexts . Reflecting the meaning of the word entheogen ( " the god within " ) , the mushrooms are revered as powerful spiritual sacraments that provide access to sacred worlds . Typically used in small group community settings , they enhance group cohesion and reaffirm traditional values . Terence McKenna documented the worldwide practices of psilocybin mushroom usage as part of a cultural ethos relating to the Earth and mysteries of nature , and suggested that mushrooms enhanced self @-@ awareness and a sense of contact with a " Transcendent Other " — reflecting a deeper understanding of our connectedness with nature .
Psychedelic drugs can induce states of consciousness that have lasting personal meaning and spiritual significance in individuals who are religious or spiritually inclined ; these states are called mystical experiences . Some scholars have proposed that many of the qualities of a drug @-@ induced mystical experience are indistinguishable from mystical experiences achieved through non @-@ drug techniques , such as meditation or holotropic breathwork . In the 1960s , Walter Pahnke and colleagues systematically evaluated mystical experiences ( which they called " mystical consciousness " ) by categorizing their common features . These categories , according to Pahnke , " describe the core of a universal psychological experience , free from culturally determined philosophical or theological interpretations " , and allow researchers to assess mystical experiences on a qualitative , numerical scale .
In the 1962 Marsh Chapel Experiment , which was run by Pahnke at the Harvard Divinity School under the supervision of Timothy Leary , almost all of the graduate degree divinity student volunteers who received psilocybin reported profound religious experiences . One of the participants was religious scholar Huston Smith , author of several textbooks on comparative religion ; he later described his experience as " the most powerful cosmic homecoming I have ever experienced . " In a 25 @-@ year followup to the experiment , all of the subjects given psilocybin described their experience as having elements of " a genuine mystical nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life " . Psychedelic researcher Rick Doblin considered the study partially flawed due to incorrect implementation of the double @-@ blind procedure , and several imprecise questions in the mystical experience questionnaire . Nevertheless , he said that the study cast " a considerable doubt on the assertion that mystical experiences catalyzed by drugs are in any way inferior to non @-@ drug mystical experiences in both their immediate content and long @-@ term effects " . This sentiment was echoed by psychiatrist William A. Richards , who in a 2007 review stated " [ psychedelic ] mushroom use may constitute one technology for evoking revelatory experiences that are similar , if not identical , to those that occur through so @-@ called spontaneous alterations of brain chemistry . "
A group of researchers from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine led by Griffiths conducted a study to assess the immediate and long @-@ term psychological effects of the psilocybin experience , using a modified version of the mystical experience questionnaire and a rigorous double @-@ blind procedure . When asked in an interview about the similarity of his work with Leary 's , Griffiths explained the difference : " We are conducting rigorous , systematic research with psilocybin under carefully monitored conditions , a route which Dr. Leary abandoned in the early 1960s . " The National Institute of Drug Abuse @-@ funded study , published in 2006 , has been praised by experts for the soundness of its experimental design . In the experiment , 36 volunteers without prior experience with hallucinogens were given psilocybin and methylphenidate ( Ritalin ) in separate sessions ; the methylphenidate sessions served as a control and psychoactive placebo . The degree of mystical experience was measured using a questionnaire developed by Ralph W. Hood ; 61 % of subjects reported a " complete mystical experience " after their psilocybin session , while only 13 % reported such an outcome after their experience with methylphenidate . Two months after taking psilocybin , 79 % of the participants reported moderately to greatly increased life satisfaction and sense of well @-@ being . About 36 % of participants also had a strong to extreme " experience of fear " or dysphoria ( i.e. , a " bad trip " ) at some point during the psilocybin session ( which was not reported by any subject during the methylphenidate session ) ; about one @-@ third of these ( 13 % of the total ) reported that this dysphoria dominated the entire session . These negative effects were reported to be easily managed by the researchers and did not have a lasting negative effect on the subject 's sense of well @-@ being .
A follow @-@ up study conducted 14 months after the original psilocybin session confirmed that participants continued to attribute deep personal meaning to the experience . Almost one @-@ third of the subjects reported that the experience was the single most meaningful or spiritually significant event of their lives , and over two @-@ thirds reported it among their five most spiritually significant events . About two @-@ thirds indicated that the experience increased their sense of well @-@ being or life satisfaction . Even after 14 months , those who reported mystical experiences scored on average 4 percentage points higher on the personality trait of Openness / Intellect ; personality traits are normally stable across the lifespan for adults . Likewise , in a recent ( 2010 ) web @-@ based questionnaire study designed to investigate user perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use , 60 % of the 503 psilocybin users reported that their use of psilocybin had a long @-@ term positive impact on their sense of well @-@ being .
In 2011 , Griffiths and colleagues published the results of further studies designed to learn more about the optimum psilocybin doses needed for positive life @-@ changing experiences , while minimizing the chance of negative reactions . In a 14 @-@ month followup , the researchers found that 94 % of the volunteers rated their experiences with the drug as one of the top five most spiritually significant of their lives ( 44 % said it was the single most significant ) . None of the 90 sessions that took place throughout the study were rated as decreasing well @-@ being or life satisfaction . Moreover , 89 % reported positive changes in their behaviors as a result of the experiences . The conditions of the experimental design included a single drug experience a month , on a couch , in a living @-@ room @-@ like setting , with eye shades and carefully chosen music ( classical and world music ) . As an additional precaution to guide the experience , as with the 2006 study , the 2011 study included a " monitor " or " guide " whom the volunteers supposedly trusted . The monitors provided gentle reassurance when the volunteers experienced anxiety . The volunteers and monitors all remained blind to the exact dosages for the purpose of the experiment .
= = = Available forms = = =
Although psilocybin may be prepared synthetically , outside of the research setting , it is not typically used in this form . The psilocybin present in certain species of mushrooms can be ingested in several ways : by consuming fresh or dried fruit bodies , by preparing a herbal tea , or by combining with other foods to mask the bitter taste . In rare cases people have injected mushroom extracts intravenously .
= = Adverse effects = =
Most of the comparatively few fatal incidents reported in the literature that are associated with psychedelic mushroom usage involve the simultaneous use of other drugs , especially alcohol . Probably the most common cause of hospital admissions resulting from psychedelic mushroom usage involve " bad trips " or panic reactions , in which affected individuals become extremely anxious , confused , agitated , or disoriented . Accidents , self @-@ injury , or suicide attempts can result from serious cases of acute psychotic episodes . Although no studies have linked psilocybin with birth defects , it is recommended that pregnant women avoid its usage .
= = = Toxicity = = =
The toxicity of psilocybin is low . In rats , the median lethal dose ( LD50 ) when administered orally is 280 milligrams per kilogram ( mg / kg ) , approximately one and a half times that of caffeine . When administered intravenously in rabbits , psilocybin 's LD50 is approximately 12 @.@ 5 mg / kg . Psilocybin comprises approximately 1 % of the weight of Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms , and so nearly 1 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 7 lb ) of dried mushrooms , or 17 kilograms ( 37 lb ) of fresh mushrooms , would be required for a 60 @-@ kilogram ( 130 lb ) person to reach the 280 mg / kg LD50 value of rats . Based on the results of animal studies , the lethal dose of psilocybin has been extrapolated to be 6 grams , 1000 times greater than the effective dose of 6 milligrams . The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances assigns psilocybin a relatively high therapeutic index of 641 ( higher values correspond to a better safety profile ) ; for comparison , the therapeutic indices of aspirin and nicotine are 199 and 21 , respectively . The lethal dose from psilocybin toxicity alone is unknown at recreational or medicinal levels , and has rarely been documented — as of 2011 , only two cases attributed to overdosing on hallucinogenic mushrooms ( without concurrent use of other drugs ) have been reported in the scientific literature and may involve other factors aside from psilocybin .
= = = Psychiatric = = =
Panic reactions can occur after consumption of psilocybin @-@ containing mushrooms , especially if the ingestion is accidental or otherwise unexpected . Reactions characterized by violent behavior , suicidal thoughts , schizophrenia @-@ like psychosis , and convulsions have been reported in the literature . A 2005 survey conducted in the United Kingdom found that almost a quarter of those who had used psilocybin mushrooms in the past year had experienced a panic attack . Other adverse effects less frequently reported include paranoia , confusion , prolonged derealization ( disconnection from reality ) , and mania . Psilocybin usage can temporarily induce a state of depersonalization disorder . Usage by those with schizophrenia can induce acute psychotic states requiring hospitalization .
Recent evidence , however , has suggested against the contention that the use of psilocybin puts one at risk for developing long lasting mental disorders . An analysis of information from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health showed that the use of psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin is associated with significantly reduced odds of past month psychological distress , past year suicidal thinking , past year suicidal planning , and past year suicide attempt .
The similarity of psilocybin @-@ induced symptoms to those of schizophrenia has made the drug a useful research tool in behavioral and neuroimaging studies of this psychotic disorder . In both cases , psychotic symptoms are thought to arise from a " deficient gating of sensory and cognitive information " in the brain that ultimately lead to " cognitive fragmentation and psychosis " . Flashbacks ( spontaneous recurrences of a previous psilocybin experience ) can occur long after having used psilocybin mushrooms . Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder ( HPPD ) is characterized by a continual presence of visual disturbances similar to those generated by psychedelic substances . Neither flashbacks nor HPPD are commonly associated with psilocybin usage , and correlations between HPPD and psychedelics are further obscured by polydrug use and other variables .
= = = Tolerance and dependence = = =
Tolerance to psilocybin builds and dissipates quickly ; ingesting psilocybin more than about once a week can lead to diminished effects . Tolerance dissipates after a few days , so doses can be spaced several days apart to avoid the effect . A cross @-@ tolerance can develop between psilocybin and the pharmacologically similar LSD , and between psilocybin and phenethylamines such as mescaline and DOM .
Repeated use of psilocybin does not lead to physical dependence . A 2008 study concluded that , based on US data from the period 2000 – 2002 , adolescent @-@ onset ( defined here as ages 11 – 17 ) usage of hallucinogenic drugs ( including psilocybin ) did not increase the risk of drug dependence in adulthood ; this was in contrast to adolescent usage of cannabis , cocaine , inhalants , anxiolytic medicines , and stimulants , all of which were associated with " an excess risk of developing clinical features associated with drug dependence " . Likewise , a 2010 Dutch study ranked the relative harm of psilocybin mushrooms compared to a selection of 19 recreational drugs , including alcohol , cannabis , cocaine , ecstasy , heroin , and tobacco . Psilocybin mushrooms were ranked as the illicit drug with the lowest harm , corroborating conclusions reached earlier by expert groups in the United Kingdom .
= = Interactions = =
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOI ) have been known to prolong and enhance the effects of psilocybin . Alcohol consumption may enhance the effects of psilocybin , because acetaldehyde , one of the primary breakdown metabolites of consumed alcohol , reacts with biogenic amines present in the body to produce MAOIs related to tetrahydroisoquinoline and β @-@ carboline . Tobacco smokers may also experience more powerful effects with psilocybin , because tobacco smoke exposure decreases levels of MAO in the brain and peripheral organs .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacodynamics = = =
Psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated in the body to psilocin , which is a partial agonist for several serotonergic receptors . Psilocin has a high affinity for the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor in the brain , where it mimics the effects of serotonin ( 5 @-@ hydroxytryptamine , or 5 @-@ HT ) . Psilocin binds less tightly to other serotonergic receptors 5 @-@ HT1A , 5 @-@ HT1D , and 5 @-@ HT2C . Serotonin receptors are located in numerous parts of the brain , including the cerebral cortex , and are involved in a wide range of functions , including regulation of mood and motivation . The psychotomimetic ( psychosis @-@ mimicking ) effects of psilocin can be blocked in a dose @-@ dependent fashion by the 5 @-@ HT2A antagonist drugs ketanserin and risperidone . Although the 5 @-@ HT2A receptor is responsible for most of the effects of psilocin , various lines of evidence have shown that interactions with non @-@ 5 @-@ HT2A receptors also contribute to the subjective and behavioral effects of the drug . For example , psilocin indirectly increases the concentration of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the basal ganglia , and some psychotomimetic symptoms of psilocin are reduced by haloperidol , a non @-@ selective dopamine receptor antagonist . Taken together , these suggest that there may be an indirect dopaminergic contribution to psilocin 's psychotomimetic effects . In contrast to LSD , which binds to dopamine receptor D2 , psilocybin and psilocin have no affinity for the dopamine D2 receptors .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
The effects of the drug begin 10 – 40 minutes after ingestion , and last 2 – 6 hours depending on dose , species , and individual metabolism . The half life of psilocybin is 163 ± 64 minutes when taken orally , or 74 @.@ 1 ± 19 @.@ 6 minutes when injected intravenously . A dosage of 4 – 10 mg , corresponding roughly to 50 – 300 micrograms per kilogram ( µg / kg ) of body weight , is required to induce psychedelic effects . A typical recreational dosage is 10 – 50 mg psilocybin , which is roughly equivalent to 10 – 50 grams of fresh mushrooms , or 1 – 5 grams of dried mushrooms . A small number of people are unusually sensitive to psilocybin , such that a normally threshold @-@ level dose of about 2 mg can result in effects usually associated with medium or high doses . In contrast , there are some who require relatively high doses to experience noticeable effects . Individual brain chemistry and metabolism play a large role in determining a person 's response to psilocybin .
Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver . As it becomes converted to psilocin , it undergoes a first @-@ pass effect , whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation . Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the blood plasma , including 4 @-@ hydroxyindole @-@ 3 @-@ acetaldehyde , 4 @-@ hydroxytryptophol , and 4 @-@ hydroxyindole @-@ 3 @-@ acetic acid . Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a glucuronide ; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with glucuronic acid , which can then be excreted in the urine . Psilocin is glucuronated by the glucuronosyltransferase enzymes UGT1A9 in the liver , and by UGT1A10 in the small intestine . Based on studies using animals , about 50 % of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine . Within 24 hours , about 65 % of the absorbed psilocybin is excreted into the urine , and a further 15 – 20 % is excreted in the bile and feces . Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8 hours , it is still detectable in the urine after 7 days . Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8 µg / liter within 2 hours after ingestion of a single 15 mg oral psilocybin dose ; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4 – 6 µg / liter . Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis , and the physiological effects last about half as long .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
Psilocybin ( O @-@ phosphoryl @-@ 4 @-@ hydroxy @-@ N , N @-@ dimethyltryptamine or 4 @-@ PO @-@ DMT ) is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound psilocin in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction . This chemical reaction takes place under strongly acidic conditions , or under physiological conditions in the body , through the action of enzymes called alkaline phosphatases .
Psilocybin is a tryptamine compound with a chemical structure containing an indole ring linked to an ethylamine substituent . It is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan , and is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin . Psilocybin is a member of the general class of tryptophan @-@ based compounds that originally functioned as antioxidants in earlier life forms before assuming more complex functions in multicellular organisms , including humans . Other related indole @-@ containing psychedelic compounds include dimethyltryptamine , found in many plant species and in trace amounts in some mammals , and bufotenine , found in the skin of psychoactive toads . Biosynthetically , the biochemical transformation from tryptophan to psilocybin involves several enzyme reactions : decarboxylation , methylation at the N9 position , 4 @-@ hydroxylation , and O @-@ phosphorylation . Isotopic labeling experiments suggest that tryptophan decarboxylation is the initial biosynthetic step and that O @-@ phosphorylation is the final step . The precise sequence of the intermediate enzymatic steps is not known with certainty , and the biosynthetic pathway may differ between species .
Psilocybin is an alkaloid that is soluble in water , methanol and aqueous ethanol , but insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform and petroleum ether . Its pKa values are estimated to be 1 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 5 for the two successive phosphate OH groups and 10 @.@ 4 for the dimethylamine nitrogen , so in general it exists as a zwitterionic structure . Exposure to light is detrimental to the stability of aqueous solutions of psilocybin , and will cause it to rapidly oxidize — an important consideration when using it as an analytical standard . Osamu Shirota and colleagues reported a method for the large @-@ scale synthesis of psilocybin without chromatographic purification in 2003 . Starting with 4 @-@ hydroxyindole , they generated psilocybin from psilocin in 85 % yield , a marked improvement over yields reported from previous syntheses . Purified psilocybin is a white , needle @-@ like crystalline powder with a melting point between 220 – 228 ° C ( 428 – 442 ° F ) , and a slightly ammonia @-@ like taste .
= = = Analytical methods = = =
Several relatively simple chemical tests — commercially available as reagent testing kits — can be used to assess the presence of psilocybin in extracts prepared from mushrooms . The drug reacts in the Marquis test to produce a yellow color , and a green color in the Mandelin test . Neither of these tests , however , is specific for psilocybin ; for example , the Marquis test will react with many classes of controlled drugs , such as those containing primary amino groups and unsubstituted benzene rings , including amphetamine and methamphetamine . Ehrlich 's reagent and DMACA reagent are used as chemical sprays to detect the drug after thin layer chromatography . Many modern techniques of analytical chemistry have been used to quantify psilocybin levels in mushroom samples . Although the earliest methods commonly used gas chromatography , the high temperature required to vaporize the psilocybin sample prior to analysis causes it to spontaneously lose its phosphoryl group and become psilocin — making it difficult to chemically discriminate between the two drugs . In forensic toxicology , techniques involving gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry ( GC – MS ) are the most widely used due to their high sensitivity and ability to separate compounds in complex biological mixtures . These techniques include ion mobility spectrometry , capillary zone electrophoresis , ultraviolet spectroscopy , and infrared spectroscopy . High performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) is used with ultraviolet , fluorescence , electrochemical , and electrospray mass spectrometric detection methods .
Various chromatographic methods have been developed to detect psilocin in body fluids : the rapid emergency drug identification system ( REMEDi HS ) , a drug screening method based on HPLC ; HPLC with electrochemical detection ; GC – MS ; and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry . Although the determination of psilocin levels in urine can be performed without sample clean @-@ up ( i.e. , removing potential contaminants that make it difficult to accurately assess concentration ) , the analysis in plasma or serum requires a preliminary extraction , followed by derivatization of the extracts in the case of GC – MS. A specific immunoassay has also been developed to detect psilocin in whole blood samples . A 2009 publication reported using HPLC to quickly separate forensically important illicit drugs including psilocybin and psilocin , which were identifiable within about half a minute of analysis time . These analytical techniques to determine psilocybin concentrations in body fluids are , however , not routinely available , and not typically used in clinical settings .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in over 200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms . In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of hallucinogenic mushrooms , Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these to be distributed amongst the following genera : Psilocybe ( 116 species ) , Gymnopilus ( 14 ) , Panaeolus ( 13 ) , Copelandia ( 12 ) , Hypholoma ( 6 ) , Pluteus ( 6 ) , Inocybe ( 6 ) , Conocybe ( 4 ) , Panaeolina ( 4 ) , Gerronema ( 2 ) and Agrocybe , Galerina and Mycena ( 1 species each ) . Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin @-@ containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review . The majority of these are found in Mexico ( 53 species ) , with the remainder distributed in the US and Canada ( 22 ) , Europe ( 16 ) , Asia ( 15 ) , Africa ( 4 ) , and Australia and associated islands ( 19 ) . In general , psilocybin @-@ containing species are dark @-@ spored , gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods of the subtropics and tropics , usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris . Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents , but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests . Psilocybe species commonly found in the tropics include P. cubensis and P. subcubensis . P. semilanceata — considered by Guzmán to be the world 's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom — is found in Europe , North America , Asia , South America , Australia and New Zealand , but is entirely absent from Mexico . Although the presence or absence of psilocybin is not of much use as a chemotaxonomical marker at the familial level or higher , it is used to classify taxa of lower taxonomic groups .
Both the caps and the stems contain the psychoactive compounds , although the caps consistently contain more . The spores of these mushrooms do not contain psilocybin or psilocin . The total potency varies greatly between species and even between specimens of a species collected or grown from the same strain . Because most psilocybin biosynthesis occurs early in the formation of fruit bodies or sclerotia , younger , smaller mushrooms tend to have a higher concentration of the drug than larger , mature mushrooms . In general , the psilocybin content of mushrooms is quite variable ( ranging from almost nothing to 1 @.@ 5 % of the dry weight ) and depends on species , strain , growth and drying conditions , and mushroom size . Cultivated mushrooms have less variability in psilocybin content than wild mushrooms . The drug is more stable in dried than fresh mushrooms ; dried mushrooms retain their potency for months or even years , while mushrooms stored fresh for four weeks contain only traces of the original psilocybin . The psilocybin contents of dried herbarium specimens of Psilocybe semilanceata in one study were shown to decrease with the increasing age of the sample : collections dated 11 , 33 , or 118 years old contained 0 @.@ 84 % , 0 @.@ 67 % , and 0 @.@ 014 % ( all dry weight ) , respectively . Mature mycelia contain some psilocybin , while young mycelia ( recently germinated from spores ) lack appreciable amounts . Many species of mushrooms containing psilocybin also contain lesser amounts of the analog compounds baeocystin and norbaeocystin , chemicals thought to be biogenic precursors . Although most species of psilocybin @-@ containing mushrooms bruise blue when handled or damaged due to the oxidization of phenolic compounds , this reaction is not a definitive method of identification or determining a mushroom 's potency .
= = History = =
= = = Early = = =
There is evidence to suggest that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years . Murals dated 9000 to 7000 BCE found in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria depict horned beings dressed as dancers , clothed in garb decorated with geometrical designs , and holding mushroom @-@ like objects . Parallel lines extend from the mushroom shapes to the center of the dancers ' heads . 6 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been tentatively identified as Psilocybe hispanica , a hallucinogenic species native to the area .
Archaeological artifacts from Mexico , as well as the so @-@ called Mayan " mushroom stones " of Guatemala have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica . In Nahuatl , the language of the Aztecs , the mushrooms were called teonanácatl , or " God 's flesh " . Following the arrival of Spanish explorers to the New World in the 16th century , chroniclers reported the use of mushrooms by the natives for ceremonial and religious purposes . According to the Dominican friar Diego Durán in The History of the Indies of New Spain ( published c . 1581 ) , mushrooms were eaten in festivities conducted on the occasion of the accession to the throne of Aztec emperor Moctezuma II in 1502 . The Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún wrote of witnessing mushroom usage in his Florentine Codex ( published 1545 – 1590 ) , and described how some merchants would celebrate upon returning from a successful business trip by consuming mushrooms to evoke revelatory visions . After the defeat of the Aztecs , the Spanish forbade traditional religious practices and rituals that they considered " pagan idolatry " , including ceremonial mushroom use . For the next four centuries , the Indians of Mesoamerica hid their use of entheogens from the Spanish authorities .
Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe , there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history . The few existing historical accounts about psilocybin mushrooms typically lack sufficient information to allow species identification , and usually refer to the nature of their effects . For example , Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius ( 1526 – 1609 ) described the bolond gomba ( crazy mushroom ) , used in rural Hungary to prepare love potions . English botanist John Parkinson included details about a " foolish mushroom " in his 1640 herbal Theatricum Botanicum . The first reliably documented report of intoxication with Psilocybe semilanceata — Europe 's most common and widespread psychedelic mushroom — involved a British family in 1799 , who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London 's Green Park .
= = = Modern = = =
American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population in the Mazatec village Huautla de Jiménez . In 1957 , Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in " Seeking the Magic Mushroom " , an article published in the popular American weekly Life magazine . Later the same year they were accompanied on a follow @-@ up expedition by French mycologist Roger Heim , who identified several of the mushrooms as Psilocybe species . Heim cultivated the mushrooms in France , and sent samples for analysis to Albert Hofmann , a chemist employed by the Swiss multinational pharmaceutical company Sandoz ( now Novartis ) . Hofmann , who had in 1938 created LSD , led a research group that isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds from Psilocybe mexicana . Hofmann was aided in the discovery process by his willingness to ingest mushroom extracts to help verify the presence of the active compounds . He and his colleagues later synthesized a number of compounds chemically related to the naturally occurring psilocybin , to see how structural changes would affect psychoactivity . The new molecules differed from psilocybin in the position of the phosphoryl or hydroxyl group at the top of the indole ring , and in the numbers of methyl groups ( CH3 ) and other additional carbon chains .
Two diethyl analogs ( containing two ethyl groups in place of the two methyl groups ) of psilocybin and psilocin were synthesized by Hofmann : 4 @-@ phosphoryloxy @-@ N , N @-@ diethyltryptamine , called CEY @-@ 19 , and 4 @-@ hydroxy @-@ N , N @-@ diethyltryptamine , called CZ @-@ 74 . Because their physiological effects last only about three and a half hours ( about half as long as psilocybin ) , they proved more manageable in European clinics using " psycholytic therapy " — a form of psychotherapy involving the controlled use of psychedelic drugs . Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin under the name Indocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide . There were no reports of serious complications when psilocybin was used in this way .
In the early 1960s , Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin , through the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert ( who later changed his name to Ram Dass ) . Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz pharmaceutical . Some studies , such as the Concord Prison Experiment , suggested promising results using psilocybin in clinical psychiatry . According to a 2008 review of safety guidelines in human hallucinogenic research , however , Leary and Alpert 's well @-@ publicized termination from Harvard and later advocacy of hallucinogen use " further undermined an objective scientific approach to studying these compounds " . In response to concerns about the increase in unauthorized use of psychedelic drugs by the general public , psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs suffered negative press and faced increasingly restrictive laws . In the United States , laws were passed in 1966 that prohibited the production , trade , or ingestion of hallucinogenic drugs ; Sandoz stopped producing LSD and psilocybin the same year . Further backlash against LSD usage swept psilocybin along with it into the Schedule I category of illicit drugs in 1970 . Subsequent restrictions on the use of these drugs in human research made funding for such projects difficult to obtain , and scientists who worked with psychedelic drugs faced being " professionally marginalized " .
Despite the legal restrictions on psilocybin use , the 1970s witnessed the emergence of psilocybin as the " entheogen of choice " . This was due in large part to a wide dissemination of information on the topic , which included works such as those by author Carlos Castaneda , and several books that taught the technique of growing psilocybin mushrooms . One of the most popular of this latter group was published in 1976 under the pseudonyms O.T. Oss and O.N. Oeric by Jeremy Bigwood , Dennis J. McKenna , K. Harrison McKenna , and Terence McKenna , entitled Psilocybin : Magic Mushroom Grower 's Guide . Over 100 @,@ 000 copies were sold by 1981 . As ethnobiologist Jonathan Ott explains , " These authors adapted San Antonio 's technique ( for producing edible mushrooms by casing mycelial cultures on a rye grain substrate ; San Antonio 1971 ) to the production of Psilocybe [ Stropharia ] cubensis . The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements , and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his own home , without access to sophisticated technology , equipment or chemical supplies . "
Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms , retailers in the late 1990s and early 2000s ( decade ) commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK , and online . Several websites emerged that have contributed to the accessibility of information on description , use , effects and exchange of experiences among users . Since 2001 , six EU countries have tightened their legislation on psilocybin mushrooms in response to concerns about their prevalence and increasing usage . In the 1990s , hallucinogens and their effects on human consciousness were again the subject of scientific study , particularly in Europe . Advances in neuropharmacology and neuropsychology , and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided impetus for using drugs like psilocybin to probe the " neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations " . Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin back into the limelight .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legal status = = =
In the United States , psilocybin ( and psilocin ) were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965 , a product of a bill sponsored by Senator Thomas J. Dodd . The law — passed in July 1965 and effected on February 1 , 1966 — was an amendment to the federal Food , Drug and Cosmetic Act and was intended to regulate the unlicensed " possession , manufacture , or sale of depressant , stimulant and hallucinogenic drugs " . The statutes themselves , however , did not list the " hallucinogenic drugs " that were being regulated . Instead , the term " hallucinogenic drugs " was meant to refer to those substances believed to have a " hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system " .
Despite the seemingly strict provisions of the law , many people were exempt from prosecution . The statutes " permit [ ted ] … people to possess such drugs so long as they were for the personal use of the possessor , [ for ] a member of his household , or for administration to an animal " . The federal law that specifically banned psilocybin and psilocin was enacted on October 24 , 1968 . The substances were said to have " a high potential for abuse " , " no currently accepted medical use , " and " a lack of accepted safety " . On October 27 , 1970 , both psilocybin and psilocin became classified as Schedule I drugs and were simultaneously labeled " hallucinogens " under a section of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act known as the Controlled Substances Act . Schedule I drugs are illicit drugs that are claimed to have no known therapeutic benefit .
The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances ( adopted in 1971 ) requires its members to prohibit psilocybin , and parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions . However , the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention , due largely to pressure from the Mexican government .
Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention ; examples include the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 , the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 , Australia Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) , the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996 , and the Japanese Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law of 2002 . The possession and use of psilocybin is prohibited under almost all circumstances , and often carries severe legal penalties .
Possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms , including the bluing species of Psilocybe , is therefore prohibited by extension . However , in many national , state , and provincial drug laws , there has been a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms , as well as a strong element of selective enforcement in some places . Most US state courts have considered the mushroom a ' container ' of the illicit drugs , and therefore illegal . A loophole further complicates the legal situation — the spores of psilocybin mushrooms do not contain the drugs , and are legal to possess in many areas . Jurisdictions that have specifically enacted or amended laws to criminalize the possession of psilocybin mushroom spores include Germany ( since 1998 ) , and California , Georgia , and Idaho in the United States . As a consequence , there is an active underground economy involved in the sale of spores and cultivation materials , and an internet @-@ based social network to support the illicit activity .
= = = Usage = = =
A 2009 national survey of drug use by the US Department of Health and Human Services concluded that the number of first @-@ time psilocybin mushroom users in the United States was roughly equivalent to the number of first @-@ time users of cannabis . In European countries , the lifetime prevalence estimates of psychedelic mushroom usage among young adults ( 15 – 34 years ) range from 0 @.@ 3 % to 14 @.@ 1 % .
In modern Mexico , traditional ceremonial use survives among several indigenous groups , including the Nahuas , the Matlatzinca , the Totonacs , the Mazatecs , Mixes , Zapotecs , and the Chatino . Although hallucinogenic Psilocybe species are abundant in low @-@ lying areas of Mexico , most ceremonial use takes places in mountainous areas of elevations greater than 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . Guzmán suggests this is a vestige of Spanish colonial influence from several hundred years earlier , when mushroom use was persecuted by the Catholic Church .
= = Research and potential for use in medicine = =
After a long interruption in the use of psilocybin in research , there has been a general shift in attitudes regarding research with hallucinogenic agents . Many countries are revising their positions and have started to approve studies to test the physiological and therapeutic effects of hallucinogens .
Psilocybin has been a subject of medical research since the 1960s , when Leary and Alpert ran the Harvard Psilocybin Project , in which they carried out a number of experiments to evaluate the therapeutic value of psilocybin in the treatment of personality disorders , or to augment psychological counseling . In the 2000s ( decade ) , there was a renewal of research concerning the use of psychedelic drugs for potential clinical applications , such as to address anxiety disorders , major depression , and various addictions . In 2008 , the Johns Hopkins research team published guidelines for responsibly conducting medical research trials with psilocybin and other hallucinogens in humans . These included recommendations on how to screen potential study volunteers to exclude those with personal or family psychiatric histories that suggest a risk of adverse reactions to hallucinogens . A 2010 study on the short- and long @-@ term subjective effects of psilocybin administration in clinical settings concluded that despite a small risk of acute reactions such as dysphoria , anxiety , or panic , " the administration of moderate doses of psilocybin to healthy , high @-@ functioning and well @-@ prepared subjects in the context of a carefully monitored research environment is associated with an acceptable level of risk " ; the authors note , however , that the safety of the drug " cannot be generalized to situations in which psilocybin is used recreationally or administered under less controlled conditions . "
The first clinical study of psilocybin approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) since 1970 — led by Francisco Moreno at the University of Arizona and supported by the Heffter Research Institute and the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies — studied the effects of psilocybin on patients with obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) . The pilot study found that , when administered by trained professionals in a medical setting , the use of psilocybin was associated with substantial reductions in OCD symptoms in several of the patients . This effect is caused largely by psilocybin 's ability to reduce the levels of the 5 @-@ HT2A receptor , resulting in decreased responsiveness to serotonin . Psilocybin has additionally shown promise to ease the pain caused by cluster headaches , " one of the worst pain syndromes known to mankind . " In a 2006 study , half of cluster headache patients reported that psilocybin aborted the attacks , and most reported extended remission periods ; similar results were reported for LSD . A 2011 review of alternative headache treatments concluded that , despite flaws in the study design , these results suggest that LSD and psilocybin may warrant further study for use in the prevention of cluster headaches — only subhallucinogenic doses of the drugs are required for effective treatment , and no other medications have been reported to stop a cluster headache cycle .
Several modern studies have investigated the possibility that psilocybin can ease the psychological suffering associated with end @-@ stage cancer . Preliminary results indicate that low doses of psilocybin can improve the mood and reduce the anxiety of patients with advanced cancer , and that the effects last from two weeks to six months . These results are comparable to those obtained from early studies that explored the use of LSD to improve the psychological well @-@ being of terminally ill patients , but without the experimental rigor employed in modern clinical psychopharmacology research .
A pilot study conducted by Johnson et al. demonstrated that psilocybin may potentially have use in treating nicotine dependence . According to the abstract of the study , " 12 of 15 participants ( 80 % ) showed seven @-@ day point prevalence abstinence at 6 @-@ month follow @-@ up " and " the observed smoking cessation rate substantially exceeds rates commonly reported for other behavioral and / or pharmacological therapies ( typically < 35 % ) . "
In 2016 , when administered in high doses , psilocybin showed significant promise for ameliorating the effects of treatment @-@ resistant depression in an open @-@ label study
The chemical structures of psilocybin and related analogs have been used in computational biology to help model the structure , function , and ligand @-@ binding properties of the 5 @-@ HT2C G @-@ protein @-@ coupled receptor .
= = = Cited literature = = =
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= Battle of Ampfing ( 1800 ) =
At the Battle of Ampfing on 1 December 1800 , Paul Grenier 's two divisions of the First French Republic opposed against the Austrian army southwest of the town of Ampfing during the French Revolutionary Wars . The Austrians , under the leadership of Archduke John of Austria , forced their enemies to retreat , though they sustained greater losses than the French . Ampfing is located 63 kilometers ( 39 miles ) east of Munich and 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of Mühldorf am Inn .
In Spring 1800 , while Moreau wrecked Austrian defenses in Germany , Generals Massena and Desaix ran into stiff Austrian offensives in Northern Italy . In June , Napoleon brought in the reserve corps and defeated the Austrians at Marengo . On the Danube , the decisive Battle of Höchstädt , followed by success at Battle of Neuburg a few days later , allowed the French to take Munich and to control the Danube and its tributaries as far as Ingolstadt . With the French pressing on Austria from the north and through Italy , a truce ended hostilities for the rest of the summer . Despite these significant losses — both of them decisive — the Austrians were reluctant to accept disadvantageous peace terms . After the expiration of the summer truce in November 1800 , both the Austrian and French armies rushed to come to grips with each other in the terrain east of Munich . The newly appointed commander of Austrian forces , Archduke John , managed to bring the bulk of his army against Grenier 's left wing of Jean Moreau 's French army near Ampfing . Outnumbered , two French divisions fought a stubborn rear guard action for six hours before retreating in good order .
Instead of being sobered by their 3 @,@ 000 casualties , Archduke John and his staff became convinced that the enemy was on the run . The Austrian general ordered a pursuit of the French through forested terrain . But , instead of fleeing , Moreau and his troops were waiting for the Austrians . The two armies met in the decisive Battle of Hohenlinden two days later .
= = Background = =
Although the First Coalition forces achieved several initial victories , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( October 1797 ) . This treaty proved difficult to administer . Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories . A Congress convened at Rastatt for the purposes of deciding which southwestern German states would be mediatized to compensate the dynastic houses for territorial losses , but was unable to make any progress . Supported by French republican forces , Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings , ultimately causing the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation after 18 months of civil war . By early 1799 , the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria . The uprising in Naples raised further alarms , and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany .
At the beginning of 1800 , the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine . Pál Kray led approximately 120 @,@ 000 troops . In addition to his Austrian regulars , his force included 12 @,@ 000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria , 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz , and 7 @,@ 000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance ( Bodensee ) to protect the Vorarlberg . Kray posted his main body of 95 @,@ 000 soldiers in the L @-@ shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France . Unwisely , Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach , near the northwestern end of Lake Constance , only a day 's march from French @-@ held Switzerland .
Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly @-@ equipped army of 137 @,@ 000 French troops . Of these , 108 @,@ 000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29 @,@ 000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses . First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland , but Moreau declined to follow it . Rather , Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north . A French column would distract Kray from Moreau 's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west . Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe 's corps to be sent to Italy after the initial battles on the Danube plain , but Moreau had other plans . Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he flanked , double flanked , and reflanked Kray 's army , Moreau 's army lay on the eastern slope of the Black Forest , while portions of Kray 's army still guarded the passes on the other side . Battles at Engen and Stockach were fought on 3 May 1800 between the army of the First French Republic under Jean Victor Marie Moreau and the army of Habsburg Austria led by Pál Kray . The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides . However , while the two main armies were engaged at Engen , Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under the Joseph , Prince of Lorraine @-@ Vaudemont . The loss of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to retreat to Messkirch , where they enjoyed a more favorable defensive position . It also meant , however , that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Voralberg was cut off .
On 4 and 5 May , the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Messkirch . At nearby Krumbach , where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force , the 1st Demi @-@ brigade took the village and the heights around it , which gave them a commanding aspect over Messkirch . Subsequently , Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen , followed closely by the French . Fighting at nearby Biberach ensued on 9 May ; action principally consisted of the 25 @,@ 000 man @-@ strong French center 's ( commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr ) , assault on the Austrian force . Again , on 10 May , the Austrians withdrew with heavy losses , this time to Ulm .
= = = Strategic importance of Danube valley = = =
The French war goal , to occupy Vienna and force the Habsburgs to accept and comply with peace terms established in 1798 , required a double @-@ pronged invasion through northern Italy , which First Consul Napoleon commanded , and through southern Germany , a campaign that fell to Moreau . To secure access into Bavaria and , eventually , to Vienna , the French needed to control the Danube riverway . This was not a new tactic : this stretch of the river had been the site of major battles of the Thirty Years War and War of Spanish Succession . Between Ulm and Ingolstadt , the Danube grows significantly in volume , making it a wide and swift waterway . The Iller joins the Danube at Ulm , dumping massive amounts of water into the stream ; at Donauwörth , the Lech enters the Danube . Neuburg , the first significant city on the river after Donauwörth , had been the family seat of the princes of Pfalz @-@ Neuburg ; taking it from a princely family of the Holy Roman Empire would be a blow to the morale and prestige of the Habsburgs , whose role it was to protect the small princely domains . Control of the bridges and passages between Ulm and Donauwörth , Neuburg , then Ingolstadt offered an advantage of both transport and prestige . There followed a series of battles and clashes along the Danube between Ulm and Ingolstadt . Once Höchstädt and its nearby bridges fell on 19 June , the French controlled the Danube crossings between Ulm and Donauwörth . Kray abandoned Ulm , and withdrew further downstream . The next French target would be Neuburg . After a day @-@ long battle for control of the river by Neuburg , the Austrians withdrew . Lecourbe ordered his troops not to pursue , as nightfall was on them . The French now controlled access to the Danube , its tributaries as far south as Pöttmes , and the banks on the north side of the river .
The loss of Neuburg broke the Austrian control along the strategic Danube . Similarly , in Italy , French successes at the battles at Montebello and Marengo forced Austrian withdrawal to the east . With France threatening Habsburg Austria from the northwest and southwest , the Austrians agreed to a cease fire . Subsequent peace negotiations were complicated by the alliance Austria had made with Britain , and which prevented her from signing any separate peace . Consequently , the British , although they had been successful in blockading French ports , entered the negotiations to bolster their weakened ally . Initially Britain refused the French terms and offered counter terms in September 1800 . Negotiations continued ; Napoleon later claimed that the Austrians did not negotiate in good faith , and sought only to gain time until " the rainy season " ( winter ) , when army movements would be difficult , and the Habsburgs would have an entire season to recruit .
= = = Truce = = =
On 15 July 1800 , France and Austria agreed to a truce that ended the summer campaign in southern Germany . Emperor Francis II dismissed Pál Kray and appointed his brother , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Archduke John , to command the Austrian army . To compensate for the young man 's inexperience , the emperor named Franz von Lauer as deputy commander and Oberst ( Colonel ) Franz von Weyrother became Chief of Staff . Both armies prepared for a renewal of hostilities , but an extension of the truce was signed on 20 September . At this time , the Bavarian fortresses of Ingolstadt , Ulm , and Philippsburg were ceded to the French , but these concessions allowed Austria to augment their field forces with 20 @,@ 000 line infantry belonging to the garrisons . In the meantime , peace negotiations were continued .
= = = Resumption of hostilities = = =
The summer armistice held until 12 November 1800 , when the French notified their enemies of their intention to end the truce in two weeks . The Austrians distributed 124 @,@ 000 soldiers in an arc from Würzburg in the north to Innsbruck in the south . Joseph @-@ Sebastien von Simbschen held Würzburg with 12 @,@ 000 troops . Johann von Klenau and 14 @,@ 000 soldiers defended the north bank of the Danube near Regensburg . Archduke John 's main army , with 49 @,@ 000 infantry and 16 @,@ 500 cavalry , lay behind the Inn River near Braunau am Inn and Passau . Christian von Zweibrücken 's 16 @,@ 000 Bavarians , Württembergers , Austrians , and French Émigrés of the Army of Condé lay to the southwest of the main army , guarding the line of the Inn . Farther to the southwest , Johann von Hiller occupied Innsbruck with 16 @,@ 000 troops .
To counter the Austrians , the French fielded an even larger array of forces . From Frankfurt am Main , Pierre Augereau and 16 @,@ 000 troops threatened Simbschen 's northern wing . Moreau controlled 107 @,@ 000 of the main army , deployed in four wings . Bruneteau de Saint @-@ Suzanne 's 24 @,@ 000 @-@ strong detached force occupied the north bank of the Danube near Ingolstadt , Grenier 's 24 @,@ 000 @-@ man Left Wing deployed on the west bank of the Isar River near Landshut . Moreau massed the 36 @,@ 000 soldiers of the Center around Munich under his personal control . The Right Wing of Lecourbe defended the line of the upper Lech River farther west . Lastly , Jacques MacDonald with the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of the Grisons threatened Hiller 's force from Switzerland .
Unlike most French armies of the Revolutionary period , Moreau 's troops in late 1800 enjoyed a well @-@ organized supply service . Though the onset of winter lengthened the army sick list , the months @-@ long truce allowed many units to approach their full strength . Many French officers were confident of success . Moreau planned a broad @-@ front advance eastward to the Inn , fighting any enemies as he found them . He would lead with his left to allow Lecourbe 's Right Wing to advance unmolested , since it had a greater distance to cover . Once the French wings closed up to the Inn River , his troops would look for crossing sites .
The aggressive Weyrother persuaded Archduke John and Lauer to launch an offensive . The Austrian chief of staff planned to strike in the direction of Landshut . From there , the Austrians would either wheel left to smash the French left flank or possibly get across their enemies ' line of communications to the west of Munich . However , in the last days of November , the Austrian army proved unable to advance with the necessary speed to turn the French north flank . Aware that their adversaries were also advancing , Lauer convinced the archduke to convert the flank march into a direct advance on Munich .
= = Battle = =
By the evening of 30 November , the Austrian advance guard occupied Ampfing . At dawn on 1 December , Johann Riesch left the town with 12 battalions of infantry and 12 squadrons of cavalry , or approximately 14 @,@ 000 men . Ludwig Baillet de Latour @-@ Merlemont led nine battalions and 18 squadrons , or 12 @,@ 000 soldiers , on Riesch 's right flank . Latour quickly overran the French outposts and nearly surprised Michel Ney 's division in its camp . Despite odds of four @-@ to @-@ one , the ( French ) 19th Cavalry Regiment charged their attackers , which included the Latour Dragoon Regiment # 11 .
The cavalry charge gave Ney enough time to place Desperrières ' brigade in line of battle to meet the first shock . Ney 's division included 8 @,@ 200 infantry , 1 @,@ 100 cavalry , and 14 cannons , but one of his three brigades was detached to the south at Wasserburg am Inn . Desperrières conducted an able defense , counterattacking when the 13th Dragoons rode to his support . Meanwhile , Ney directed the fighting on a second brigade front . At noon , a horse artillery battery led by Jean Baptiste Eblé arrived and its accurate fire quickly dismounted four Austrian guns and destroyed three caissons . Later , two pieces were overrun by Austrian hussars , but the French gunners rallied and recaptured the pieces in a horseback charge .
While Latour battered against Ney , Riesch launched attacks against the 4 @,@ 100 foot soldiers , 2 @,@ 000 horsemen , and 16 guns belonging to Jean Hardy 's division . A brigade belonging to Claude Legrand 's division marched up and helped block Riesch 's attempt to turn Hardy 's flank . During the fighting , a shellburst wounded Hardy and caused him to hand over command to BG Bastoul . With both French divisions being slowly pressed back by superior numbers , Grenier gave orders for a withdrawal .
Grenier directed his well @-@ managed retreat along the road toward Haag , with all the units falling back in an orderly echelon . To save some artillery from capture , the 2nd Dragoons charged their pursuers and captured 100 Austrians . After falling back 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) , the French soldiers reached the open ground around Haag , where they assumed a defensive position . All told , the battle lasted six hours . In addition to the Latour Dragoons , the most heavily engaged Austrian units were the Archduke Charles Infantry Regiment ( IR ) # 3 and the Waldeck Dragoons # 7 from Riesch 's column , plus IR # 60 and the Vecsey Hussars # 4 from Johann Kollowrat 's column .
= = Result = =
The Austrians suffered 303 killed , 1 @,@ 690 wounded , and 1 @,@ 077 captured . The French lost 193 killed , 817 wounded , and 697 captured . Expecting to fight a major battle the following day , the Austrian generals were surprised to find that the French evacuated Haag and vanished into the deep woods . Though Lauer counseled caution , the victory elated the inexperienced Archduke John , the aggressive Weyrother , and the army staff . They became convinced that they only faced French rear guards . " This erroneous idea prompted Austrian headquarters to ignore all normal precautions in the haste to come to grips [ with the French force ] . " John ordered a pursuit toward Hohenlinden by the columns of Riesch , Latour , and Kollowrat , while drawing in FML Michael von Kienmayer 's 16 @,@ 000 @-@ strong column to form his northern flank . They chased after the French into the Ebersberg forest , but Moreau waited for the Austrian and Bavarian force in the Hohenlinden plain with four divisions and his cavalry reserve and ambushed them as they emerged from the forest . To complete the victory at Hohenlinden , MG Antoine Richepanse 's division accomplished a surprise envelopment of the Austrian left flank .
This crushing victory , followed by several skirmishes and clashes along the Danube and in Bavaria , demoralized the Habsburg force . These , Coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte 's victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800 , ended the War of the Second Coalition . In February 1801 , the Austrians signed the Treaty of Lunéville , accepting French control up to the Rhine and the French puppet republics in Italy and the Netherlands . The subsequent Treaty of Amiens between France and Britain began the longest break in the wars of the Napoleonic period .
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= Latter Days =
Latter Days is a 2003 American romantic comedy @-@ drama film about a gay relationship between a closeted Mormon missionary and his openly gay neighbor . The film was written and directed by C. Jay Cox and stars Steve Sandvoss as the missionary , Aaron , and Wes Ramsey as the neighbor , Christian . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt appears as Elder Ryder , and Rebekah Johnson as Julie Taylor . Mary Kay Place , Erik Palladino , Amber Benson , and Jacqueline Bisset have supporting roles .
Latter Days premiered at the Philadelphia International Gay & Lesbian Film Festival on July 10 , 2003 and was released in various states of USA over the next 12 months . Later the film was released in a few other countries and shown at several gay film festivals . It was the first film to portray openly the clash between the principles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and homosexuality , and its exhibition in some U.S. states was controversial . Various religious groups demanded that the film be withdrawn from theaters and video stores under boycott threats .
The film was met with mixed reactions from film critics , but was popular with most film festival attendees . At the North American box office however , Latter Days only made $ 834 @,@ 685 , barely covering the production 's costs with an estimated budget of $ 850 @,@ 000 . In 2004 , freelance writer T. Fabris made Latter Days into a novel , which was published by Alyson Publications .
= = Plot = =
Elder Aaron Davis , a young Mormon from Pocatello , Idaho , is sent to Los Angeles with three other missionaries to spread the Mormon faith . They move into an apartment next to openly gay party boy Christian Markelli and his roommate Julie , an aspiring singer . Christian and Julie work as waiters at Lila 's , a trendy restaurant owned by retired actress Lila Montagne .
Christian makes a bet with his co @-@ workers that he can seduce one of the Mormons , and soon realizes that Aaron , the most inexperienced missionary , is a closeted homosexual . Aaron and Christian become acquainted after several encounters in the apartment complex . When Christian accidentally cuts himself on a metal hose reel and faints , Aaron helps him indoors and cleans his wound . Christian attempts to seduce Aaron , but the hesitant Mormon becomes upset by Christian 's remark that sex " doesn 't have to mean anything . " Aaron accuses him of being shallow and walks out . Worried that Aaron is correct , Christian joins Project Angel Food , delivering meals to people with AIDS .
Aaron 's fellow missionary , Paul Ryder , has a cycling accident . Returning to his apartment , a distraught Aaron encounters Christian , who tries to comfort him with a hug . Both men are overwhelmed by their feelings and end up kissing , failing to notice the return of Aaron 's roommates . Aaron is sent home in disgrace , leading Christian to confront Ryder , who is angry that Christian corrupted Aaron for no reason . Christian admits that he initially just wanted to win a bet , but says " it 's not about that " anymore . Recognizing Christian 's distress , Ryder tells him that Aaron 's flight has a five @-@ hour layover in Salt Lake City .
Christian finds Aaron standing in the snow outside the airport terminal . Christian confesses his love , and despite his misgivings , Aaron admits his own feelings of love . With all flights canceled due to a snowstorm , Christian and Aaron spend an intimate night in a motel . When Christian awakes , he finds Aaron gone . Aaron 's pocket watch , a family heirloom , has been left behind . Christian returns to Los Angeles . In Idaho , Aaron is excommunicated by the church elders , led by his own father , Farron , who is the stake president . Aaron is rejected by his father and scolded by his mother , who tells him that he needs to pray for forgiveness . When Aaron suggests that he might be gay , his mother slaps him . Overwhelmed by despair , Aaron attempts suicide . He is subsequently sent by his parents to a treatment facility to be cured of his homosexuality .
Christian is desperate to find Aaron and locates his home address and phone number . Aaron 's mother informs him that " Thanks to you , my son took a razor to his wrists ; thanks to you I have lost my son . " Believing that Aaron is dead , Christian spends the next few days thinking continually about Aaron . Julie discovers an entry about Christian 's feelings in his cellphone journal and uses it as the basis for her new song . Christian travels to the Davis home in Idaho , where he tearfully returns Aaron 's watch to his mother . During an encounter with Julie , she hesitantly shows him her new video , which upsets Christian , realizing that part of the lyrics came from his personal journal without his consent . Julie tells Christian that she hoped something good would come from it .
In the treatment facility , Aaron hears a female voice singing and investigates . He discovers a music video playing on television , the song performed by Julie . The video prompts Aaron to return to Los Angeles in search of Christian . Upon arriving at Christian 's apartment , Aaron is heartbroken when a stranger answers the door . Thinking that Christian has returned to his party boy ways and moved on , and having nowhere else to go , Aaron makes his way to Lila 's restaurant , having befriended the owner while on missionary work after her life partner died . Christian , who happens to be working there , comes out and is overjoyed to see Aaron alive . They reconcile and later celebrate Thanksgiving with Christian 's co @-@ workers . Lila tells everyone that , no matter what , they will always have " a place at my table , and a place in my heart " .
= = Cast = =
Steve Sandvoss as Elder Aaron Davis , a young Latter @-@ day Saint from Pocatello , Idaho , who falls in love with Christian and must choose between his sexuality and his church . The producers auditioned a large number of people before casting Sandvoss , saying he " blew us away . "
Wes Ramsey as Christian William Markelli , an LA party boy aspiring to be an actor , Christian has his ideas of happiness and the meaning of life challenged when he falls for the simple but kind @-@ hearted Aaron . Ramsey said on the DVD Special featurette , " The character of Christian was on so many levels intriguing to me . I was just so excited and feel very blessed to have the opportunity to tell that story through his eyes . "
Rebekah Johnson as Julie Taylor , Christian 's roommate who tries to break out into the music world and on the way stop Christian from falling apart .
Jacqueline Bisset as Lila Montagne , the owner of Lila 's , a restaurant where Christian , Traci , Julie , and Andrew work . Her lover is terminally ill in hospital , but she still finds time to support Christian and Aaron with her witty and sarcastic advice . Bisset herself said , " I like humor , so I just , I really enjoyed doing all the cracks . "
Amber Benson as Traci Levine ; Traci has moved from New York to LA to become an actress and works at Lila 's to support herself . Traci does not like living in LA , but later admits she did not like New York much either .
Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt as Elder Paul Ryder , a prickly , judgmental young missionary assigned as Aaron 's partner , Ryder is not enthusiastic about being in LA and even less so about living next door to a homosexual . Gordon @-@ Levitt originally auditioned to play Aaron , but his aggressive attitude toward the script but good sense of humor made the producers decide he was a perfect Ryder .
Rob McElhenney as Elder Harmon , the oldest of the L.D.S. missionaries and has been assigned as their leader .
Khary Payton as Andrew , an aspiring actor , but spends more time at Lila 's gossiping and telling racy anecdotes . Andrew has been HIV positive for quite some time , but remains in good health .
Dave Power as Elder Gilford , Harmon 's missionary partner .
Erik Palladino as Keith Griffin , a gay man dying of AIDS , drowning in his own bitterness and despair until befriended by Christian . Cox said that Palladino 's performance was not how he originally envisioned it , but he could not now imagine a different person playing Keith .
Mary Kay Place as Sister Gladys Davis , Aaron 's deeply religious mother , who , despite showing unconditional love and affection toward Aaron before he leaves for Los Angeles , cannot accept the fact that her son is gay .
Jim Ortlieb as Elder Farron Davis , Aaron 's father , who serves as a Latter @-@ day Saint Stake President in Pocatello , excommunicates Aaron from the church upon learning that he is gay . Farron is portrayed as a distant , evasive individual .
Linda Pine as Susan Davis , the only Davis who accepts her brother 's homosexuality . In a deleted scene , she tells Aaron that his homosexuality has changed nothing between them . She also discovers Aaron 's suicide attempt , and in a panic , is able to save him just in time .
= = Themes = =
Cox has stated that the film is primarily about a love story between two characters . There is also an exploration of religious attitudes towards homosexuality , and the dilemma of religious homosexuals , torn between who they are and what they believe . A non @-@ fiction film with similar themes that has been contrasted with Latter Days is Trembling Before G @-@ d .
Cox has also said that there is a massive irony , both in the film and in real life , that a religion so focused on the family and its importance is ripping families apart through its teaching on homosexuality . In fact , Cox believes one cannot be Mormon and gay . Nevertheless , a major theme of Latter Days is that there is an underlying spirituality in the world that goes beyond the rituals and dogmas of religion .
= = Production = =
Latter Days was written and directed by C. Jay Cox after the success of his previous screenplay , Sweet Home Alabama , gave him the financial resources and critical credit to write a more personal love story . Cox based both characters – Christian and Aaron – on himself . He was raised as a Mormon and served a mission before coming out as gay , and had wondered what the two halves of himself would have said to each other if they had ever met . Latter Days was filmed in several locations in Los Angeles in 24 days on an estimated $ 850 @,@ 000 budget . After Cox had financed the search for initial backing , funding was acquired from private investors who wanted to see the film made . However producer Kirkland Tibbels still faced several bottlenecks , as financing the whole film remained difficult . It was distributed through TLA Releasing , an independent film distributor , who picked it up through its partnership with production company Funny Boy Films , which specializes in gay @-@ themed media .
Despite coming from a Mormon background , Cox had to research details of the excommunication tribunal , which is held after Aaron is sent back to Idaho . Former Mormons told him about their experiences and provided Cox with " a pretty accurate representation , right down to the folding tables . " According to Cox experienced actress Jacqueline Bisset also added valuable suggestions for improvements to the story .
Casting for the two main characters did not focus on their sexuality , but their ability " to show vulnerability " . In a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes commentary , Steve Sandvoss explains that he did not want to play his character as a gay character , and Wes Ramsey emphasizes that the love story aspect of the film to him was detached from the character 's gender . Due to several nude and kissing scenes , Latter Days was released unrated .
= = Release = =
Latter Days premiered at the Philadelphia International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival on July 10 , 2003 . The audience enjoyed the film so much that they gave it a standing ovation . When the cast came on stage , they received another standing ovation . The film had a similar reception both at OutFest a week later , and at the Palm Springs International Film Festival . The film also screened at the Seattle and Washington film festivals before being released across the United States over the following 12 months . Later the film was released in several other countries and shown at numerous gay film festivals , namely in Barcelona and Madrid ( where it was also a popular pick ) and Mexico City . Since its initial release it had received nine best film awards , as Cox mentioned in 2005 on a featurette included on the UK DVD .
The film was banned by Madstone Theaters , an arthouse cinema chain with nine theaters across the country , which claimed it was " not up to [ our ] artistic quality . " The company was pressured with threatened boycotts and protests by conservative groups to withdraw their planned release . At the North American box office , Latter Days made $ 834 @,@ 685 from a maximum of 19 theaters . As of January 2011 , the film is the top @-@ grossing film from its distributor TLA Releasing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics ' reviews have been mixed ; film review website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 45 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups , based upon a sample of 44 reviews , with an average score of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 . Frank Scheck , reviewer for The Hollywood Reporter , wrote : " Cox 's screenplay , while occasionally lapsing into the sort of clichés endemic to so many gay @-@ themed films , generally treats its unusual subject matter with dignity and complexity . " Film critic Roger Ebert gave it two and a half stars out of four , declaring that the script was peopled from the " Stock Characters Store " and " the movie could have been ( a ) a gay love story , or ( b ) an attack on the Mormon Church , but is an awkward fit by trying to be ( c ) both at the same time " . Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune commented " this movie is often as kitschy and artificial as ... ' Sweet Home Alabama ' " , another film written by Cox .
Other reviewers were more favourable , such as Toronto Sun critic Liz Braun , who said Latter Days was " the most important gay male movie of the past few years . " Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times commented : " At once romantic , earthy and socially critical , Latter Days is a dynamic film filled with humor and pathos . " Gary Booher , an editor for the LGBT Mormon organization Affirmation , said " It was so realistic that it was scary . I felt exposed as the particulars of my experience and of others I know was brazenly spread across the big screen for all to behold . "
= = = Awards = = =
= = Soundtrack = =
Eric Allaman scored the soundtrack to the film after shooting wrapped , and composed much of the score himself . Several scenes featuring the rapid passing of time , such as Christian 's desperate search for Aaron at Salt Lake City Airport , were scored with techno style beats , and scenes with emotional content were given a more " ambient ' tronica feel " . A total of three songs were written by C. Jay Cox for Rebekah Johnson to sing : " More " , " Another Beautiful Day " , and " Tuesday 3 : 00 a.m. " . Allaman was very impressed with Cox 's musical ability , and both men composed more songs as background music .
The official soundtrack album was released on October 26 , 2004 . Due to contractual reasons , Johnson did not appear on the album , and her character 's songs were performed by Nita Whitaker instead .
= = Novelization and other releases = =
In 2004 , the Latter Days screenplay was adapted into a novel by freelance writer T. Fabris , which was published by Alyson Publications . The book was faithful to the film , but added several extra scenes that explained confusing aspects of the film and gave more about the characters ' backgrounds . For example , the reason Ryder tells Christian where to find Aaron is his own broken heart over a girl he fell in love with while on his mission training . The novel also added dialogue that had been cut out of the film : finishing , for example Christian 's cry – in the film – of " That 's the hand I use to ... " with " masturbate with . "
In France , Latter Days has been titled La Tentation d 'Aaron ( " The Temptation of Aaron " ) , and the DVD given a cover showing Aaron in a nude and suggestive pose . A new trailer was also released , which is considerably more sexual than the original . In Italy , Latter Days is distributed by Fourlab . The film has also been titled " Inguaribili Romantici " , shown on pay @-@ TV on Sky Show in December 2006 , and then released on DVD by Fourlab 's gay @-@ themed label " OutLoud ! " . The film is also available in an Italian @-@ language @-@ dubbed version .
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= Battle of Taegu =
The Battle of Taegu was an engagement between UN and North Korean forces early in the Korean War , with fighting continuing from August 5 – 20 , 1950 around the city of Taegu , South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after their forces were able to drive off an offensive by North Korean divisions attempting to cross the Naktong River and assault the city .
Five North Korean Army divisions massed around the city preparing to cross the Naktong River and assault it from the north and west . Defending the city were the 1st Cavalry Division and the ROK II Corps . In a series of engagements , each of the North Korean divisions attempted to cross the Naktong and attack the defending forces . The success of these attacks varied by region , but attacks in the 1st Cavalry Division sector were repulsed and the attacks in the South Korean sector were more successful .
During the battle , however , North Korean troops were able to surprise US troops on Hill 303 and capture them . Late in the battle , these troops were machine gunned in the Hill 303 massacre . Despite these setbacks , the UN forces were successful in driving most of the North Koreans off , but the decisive battle to secure the city would occur during the Battle of the Bowling Alley .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) and the outbreak of the Korean War on June 25 , 1950 , the United Nations Security Council voted to send armed forces to defend South Korea . The United States , a permanent member of the Security Council , immediately deployed armed forces ( U.S. Army , U.S. Navy , and U.S. Air Force units ) to southeastern South Korea because of their immediate availability from their bases in Japan and Okinawa , where the military occupation of Japan was still in effect ( through 1952 ) . ( Reinforcements from such countries as Australia , Canada , Greece , New Zealand , Turkey , and the United Kingdom took much longer to arrive from overseas . )
The goal of American armed forces was to reinforce the remnants of the South Korean Army in fighting back the North Korean invasion ( but only in the southeastern part of South Korea , around the major seaport of Pusan ) to prevent the complete collapse of the South Korean Army and of the South Korean Government . However , the American armed forces in the Orient had been decreasing steadily since the end of World War II ( in August 1945 ) . Under the orders of Emperor Hirohito , the Japanese people had presented no trouble to the American occupation forces , and the Japanese set about peacefully rebuilding their devastated country . By mid @-@ 1950 , there were no American troops in South Korea , and the American force in Japan had dwindled drastically .
At the time of the North Korean invasion , the closest American ground force was the 24th Infantry Division , which was based in Japan . This division had fewer than its normal contingent of soldiers , and most of its equipment was rather old due to the U.S. Congress 's reductions in military spending . In any case , the 24th Infantry Division was the only part of the U.S. Army that was available to quickly reinforce South Korea .
Thus , the 24th Infantry Division was the first American armed force sent to South Korea with the mission to blunt the advance of the North Korean Army and to set up a defensive perimeter around Pusan ( the Pusan Perimeter ) with the aid of Air Force , U.S. Navy , and Marine Corps aviation forces . The Supreme United Nations military commander in the area , General Douglas MacArthur , decided to have his American and South Korean troops to dig in around Pusan and hold on until he could assemble a powerful force ( the American 10th Corps ) to make an amphibious counterattack at Inchon on the northwestern coast of South Korea , near Seoul , later on in 1950 . The 24th Infantry Division , along with its South Korean allies , was hence nearly alone for several weeks while the Americans and South Koreans held out inside the Pusan Perimeter and awaited reinforcements and counterattacks against the North Koreans .
Among the American units that reinforced the Pusan Perimeter as soon as they could arrive were the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division ( horseless , of course ) , the 7th Infantry Division , and the 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other units of the U.S. Eighth Army that provided logistical , medical , and intelligence support . Advance units of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 in the first encounter between American and North Korean troops . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , the 24th Infantry were repeatedly pushed back and forced southeastward by larger numbers of North Korean troops equipped with rugged Soviet @-@ made T @-@ 34 tanks . ( The heavily armored T @-@ 34 had been a primary Soviet weapon against the Nazi German invasion of the U.S.S.R. in 1942 – 1945 . )
The troops of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed southeast in the Battle of Chochiwon , the Battle of Chonan , and the Battle of Pyongtaek , as well as in smaller engaagements . The 24th Infantry made a desperate stand against the North Koreans in the Battle of Taejon , where it was heavily decimated , but it delayed the North Korean advance until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal in numbers to North Korean forces attacking the Pusan Perimeter , with new U.N. forces arriving from America , Australia , New Zealand , etc . , nearly every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With the city of Taejon captured , the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter on the north and the west in an attempt to crush it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . These two North Korean divisions attempted to turn the American 's and South Korean 's left flank in order to capture Pusan from the southwest , but the North Koreans became dispersed out in the process . They were also exposed to repeated air attacks from the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Navy . The North Koreans attacked the U.S. troops with superior numbers at first , and with the rugged T @-@ 34 tanks , but despite local defeats , the U.N. troops , with the help of aviation and naval units were able to extend the Pusan Perimeter all the way south to the East China Sea and to blunt all North Korean attacks toward Pusan . American air supremacy using airfields in Japan and the aircraft carriers of the 7th Fleet in the Sea of Japan were probably the decisive ingredient in enabling the Pusan Perimeter to hold out .
American forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of battles around the edges of the Pusan Perimeter . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Taegu = = =
In the meantime , Eighth Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker had established Taegu as the Eighth Army 's headquarters . Right at the center of the Pusan Perimeter , Taegu stood at the entrance to the Naktong River valley , an area where North Korean forces could advance in large numbers in close support . The natural barriers provided by the Naktong River to the south and the mountainous terrain to the north converged around Taegu , which was also the major transportation hub and last major South Korean city aside from Pusan itself to remain in UN hands . From south to north , the city was defended by the US 1st Cavalry Division , and the ROK 1st Division and ROK 6th Division of ROK II Corps . 1st Cavalry Division was spread out along a long line along the Naktong River to the south , with its 5th Cavalry and 8th Cavalry regiments holding a 24 @,@ 000 metres ( 79 @,@ 000 ft ) line along the river south of Waegwan , facing west . The 7th Cavalry held position to the east in reserve , along with artillery forces , ready to reinforce anywhere a crossing could be attempted . The ROK 1st Division held a northwest @-@ facing line in the mountains immediately north of the city while the ROK 6th Division held position to the east , guarding the narrow valley holding the Kunwi road into the Pusan Perimeter area .
Five North Korean divisions amassed to oppose the UN at Taegu . From south to north , the 10th , 3rd , 15th , 13th , and 1st Divisions occupied a wide line encircling Taegu from Tuksong @-@ dong and around Waegwan to Kunwi . The North Korean army planned to use the natural corridor of the Naktong valley from Sangju to Taegu as its main axis of attack for the next push south , so the divisions all eventually moved through this valley , crossing the Naktong at different areas along the low ground . Elements of the DPRK 105th Armored Division also supported the attack .
= = Battle = =
On the night of 4 to 5 August , the North Korean 13th Division began crossing the Naktong River at Naktong @-@ ni , 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Taegu . The crossing was not discovered until 5 August when ROK artillery and mortar fire was called on the crossing . Over the course of three nights , DPRK soldiers from the division 's three regiments crossed the river on rafts or by wading , carrying their weapons and equipment over their heads . The entire division was across by 7 August , and assembling several miles from the ROK 1st Division 's prepared defenses .
At the same time , the DPRK 1st Division crossed the river on barges between Hamch 'ang and Sangju , in the ROK 6th Division 's sector from 6 to 8 August . This attack was discovered quickly by American reconnaissance planes and the DPRK 1st Division was immediately engaged by the ROK forces . The two divisions locked in battle around Kunwi until 17 August , with the North Korean division facing stubborn resistance , heavy air attacks , and heavy casualties .
= = = Opening moves = = =
ROK troops attacked the 13th Division immediately after it completing its crossing , forcing scattered North Korean troops into the mountains . The division reassembled to the east and launched a concerted night attack , broke the ROK defenses , and began an advance that carried it twenty miles southeast of Naktong @-@ ni on the main road to Taegu . Within a week , the DPRK 1st and 13th divisions were converging on the Tabu @-@ dong area , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Taegu .
The DPRK 15th Division , the next of the DPRK divisions in the line to the south , received 1 @,@ 500 replacements at Kumch 'on on 5 August , which brought its strength to about 6 @,@ 500 troops . On the next day , its 45th Regiment marched northeast toward the Naktong River . This regiment passed through Sonsan on 7 August and crossed the river southeast of that town while under attack by American warplanes . Once across the river , this regiment headed into the mountains , initially encountering no opposition . Its other two regiments , the 48th and 50th , departed from Kumch 'on later and began crossing the Naktong between Indong and Waegwan before dawn of 8 August , constructing underwater bridges for their vehicles . The North Koreans supported this crossing by direct tank fire from the western side of the river . These tanks next carried out their own river crossing during the day . The DPRK 15th Division seized Hills 201 and 346 on the east side of the river at the crossing site before advancing eastward into the mountains toward Tabu @-@ dong , 7 miles ( 11 km ) away . On the next day , the ROK 1st Division regained the high ground at the crossing sites , driving the DPRK forces further eastward into the mountains . From 12 through 16 August , the three regiments of the DPRK 15th Division united on the east side of the Naktong River in the vicinity of Yuhak @-@ san , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of the crossing site and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Tabu @-@ dong . The DPRK 13th Division quickly locked in combat on Yuhak @-@ san with the ROK 1st Division .
South of Waegwan , two more enemy divisions stood ready to cross the Naktong in a coordinated attack with the divisions to the north . The experienced DPRK 3rd Division , concentrated in the vicinity of Songju , and the untested DPRK 10th Division , concentrated in the Koryong area , and both mobilized for an attack . These two divisions crossed in the American 1st Cavalry Division 's sector . The DPRK 3rd Division 's 7th Regiment started crossing the Naktong at about 0300 hours on 9 August near Noch 'on , two miles ( three km ) south of the Waegwan bridge . After discovering this crossing , units of the American 5th Cavalry Regiment directed automatic @-@ weapon fire against the North Korean units and also called in pre @-@ registered artillery fire on the crossing site . Although the enemy regiment suffered some casualties , the bulk of it reached the east bank and then moved inland into the hills . About 30 minutes later , the 8th and 9th Regiments began crossing the river to the south . The 5th Cavalry Regiment and all its supporting mortars and artillery , now fully alerted , spotted and decimated the troops of the two regiments and turned them back to the west bank . Only a small number of North Koreans reached the eastern side . From there , they were either captured by the U.N. troops or hid out until the next night – when they retreated across the river .
= = = Triangulation Hill = = =
At dawn on 9 August , the division commander Major General Hobart R. Gay at the 1st Cavalry Division headquarters in Taegu learned of the enemy 's river crossing in the area of his division south of Waegwan . Since the first reports were vague , Gen. Gay decided to withhold counterattack until he learned more about the situation . He quickly learned that around 750 DPRK infantry troops had gathered on Hill 268 , also known as " Triangulation Hill " , which was 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Waegwan and 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of Taegu . Gen. Gay ordered his division to counterattack the enemy gathering to force them across the river . He and Gen. Walker thought that this attack could be a feint , and that the North Koreans could be planning a larger attack to their north . Furthermore , the hill was important because of its proximity to the lines of supply . The main Korean north @-@ south highway and the main Seoul @-@ Pusan railroad skirted the base of Triangulation Hill .
At about 09 : 30 , Gen. Gay ordered the 1st Battalion of the 7th Cavalry , to counter the DPRK army penetration . This battalion moved from its bivouac area just outside Taegu , accompanied by five tanks of A Company , 71st Heavy Tank Battalion . This motorized force proceeded to the foot of Hill 268 . Meanwhile , the 61st Field Artillery Battalion shelled the hill heavily .
At about 12 : 00 the artillery fired a preparation on Hill 268 , and the 1st Battalion next attacked it with orders to continue on southwest to Hill 154 . Hill 268 was covered with thick brush from about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) and trees eight to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . The day was very hot , and many of the American soldiers collapsed from heat exhaustion during the attack , which was not well @-@ coordinated with the artillery fire . The North Koreans repulsed the attack .
On the next morning , 10 August , air raids and artillery bombardments rocked Hill 268 , devastating the North Korean battalion . That afternoon , Gen. Gay ordered the five American tanks to move along the Waegwan road until they could fire onto the hill from the northwest into its reverse slope . This tank @-@ gun fire caught the DPRK troops unprepared while they were hiding from the artillery fire . Trapped between the two barrages , they started to vacate their positions . An American infantry attack next reached the crest of the Triangulation Hill without much trouble , and this battle was over by about 16 : 00 . American artillery and mortar fire was now shifted westward , and this cut off the retreat of the DPRK troops . White phosphorus shells fired from the 61st Field Artillery Battalion caught North Korean troops in a village while they attempted to retreat , and the DPRK troops were then routed by American infantry , suffering over 200 killed . That evening the 1st Battalion , 7th Cavalry , returned to the serve as the division reserve , and elements of the 5th Cavalry finished securing Hill 268 .
The 7th Regiment of the DPRK 3rd Division had been destroyed on the hill . The 1st Battalion , 7th Cavalry suffered 14 men killed and another 48 wounded in the two @-@ day battle . About 1 @,@ 000 men of the 7th Regiment had crossed the Naktong to Hill 268 , and about 700 of at them became casualties . Artillery and mortars had inflicted most of the crippling casualties on the regiment . After crossing to the east side of the Naktong , the enemy regiment had received no food or ammunition supply . An estimated 300 survivors retreated across the river the night of 10 – 11 August . The DPRK 3rd Division 's attempted crossing of the Naktong south of Waegwan had ended in catastrophe . When the survivors of the 7th Regiment rejoined the division on or about 12 August , the once powerful 3rd Division was reduced to a disorganized unit of only about 2 @,@ 500 troops . The DPRK Army placed this division in reserve to be rebuilt by replacements .
= = = Yongp 'o crossing = = =
The North Korean plan for the attack against Taegu from the west and southwest demanded that the DPRK 10th Division make a coordinated attack with the DPRK 3rd Division . The 10th Division , so far untested in combat , had started from Sukch 'on for the front by rail on July 25 . At Chonan it left the trains and continued south on foot through Taejon , arriving at the Naktong opposite Waegwan around 8 August . The division was ordered to cross the Naktong River in the vicinity of Tuksong @-@ dong , penetrate east , and cut the main supply route of the U.N. troops from Pusan to Taegu . The division assembled in the Koryong area on 11 August .
Two regiments of the DPRK 10th Division , the 29th to the south and the 25th to the north , were to make the assault crossing with the 27th Regiment in reserve . The 2nd Battalion , 29th Regiment , was the first unit of the division to cross the river . Its troops waded across undetected during the night of August 11 / 12 , west of Hyongp 'ung . It then occupied Hill 265 , a northern spur of Hill 409 , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of Hyongp 'ung , and set up machine gun positions . The other two battalions followed it and occupied Hill 409 . The North Koreans on Hill 409 soon ambushed a patrol from the 21st Infantry Regiment of the US 24th Infantry Division , which was moving north and trying to establish contact with the 7th Cavalry Regiment during the Battle of the Naktong Bulge occurring simultaneously to the south .
Further north , the 25th Regiment started crossing the Naktong around 03 : 00 on August 12 , in the vicinity of Tuksong @-@ dong , on the Koryong @-@ Taegu road . The 2nd Battalion , 7th Cavalry Regiment , covered this crossing site , which was 14 miles ( 23 km ) southwest of Taegu . By daylight , a North Korean force of 300 to 400 had penetrated to Wich 'on @-@ dong and 2nd Battalion 's H Company engaged it in close combat . In a grenade and automatic weapons attack , the North Koreans overran the advance positions of the company , the mortar observation post , and the heavy machine gun positions . The North Koreans were apparently attempting to control high ground east of Yongp 'o in order to provide protection for the main crossing that was to follow . By 09 : 00 , however , the 2nd Battalion , supported by the 77th Field Artillery Battalion and air strikes , drove the North Koreans troops back through Yongp 'o and dispersed them .
= = = Second Yongp 'o attack = = =
In the three days from 10 to 12 August , the Naktong River had dropped three feet in depth and it was only shoulder @-@ deep at many places due to the lack of rain and the torrid weather . This made any attempt at crossing the river considerably easier .
A more determined North Korean crossing of the Naktong in the vicinity of the blown bridge between Tuksong @-@ dong and Yongp 'o began early in the morning on 14 August . By 06 : 20 , about 500 North Korean soldiers had penetrated as far as Yongp 'o . Fifteen minutes later , 2nd Battalion , 7th Cavalry soldiers engaged the North Koreans at Wich 'on @-@ dong , a mile east of the crossing site . At 08 : 00 , General Gay ordered 1st Battalion , 7th Cavalry to move to the Yongp 'o area to support the 2nd Battalion .
North Korean artillery and tank fire from the west side of the river supporting the infantry crossing . A large number of North Korean reinforcements were crossing in barges near the bridge , while under fire from American air strikes and artillery . This attack also stalled , with the deepest North Korean penetration reaching Samuni @-@ dong , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) beyond the blown @-@ up bridge . From there the combined fire of US light weapons , mortars , and artillery drove them back to the river . By noon , large groups of North Koreans were trying to recross the river to the west side as American artillery continued hammering them , causing heavy casualties .
By nightfall , the 7th Cavalry Regiment had eliminated the North Korean bridgehead at Yongp 'o . In the fight , the only major one to take place along the Naktong at a prefabricated crossing site , the 25th and 27th Regiments of the DPRK 10th Division suffered crippling losses . The 7th Cavalry estimated that of 1 @,@ 700 North Korean troops that had succeeded in crossing the river , 1 @,@ 500 had been killed . Two days after the battle , H Company reported it had buried 267 enemy dead behind its lines . In front of its position , G Company counted 150 enemy dead . In contrast , G Company suffered only two men killed and three wounded during the battle . In its first combat mission , the crossing of the Naktong , the 10th Division suffered 2 @,@ 500 casualties .
= = = Hill 303 = = =
Almost simultaneously with the DPRK 10th Division 's crossing in the southern part of the 1st Cavalry Division sector at Tuksong @-@ dong and Yongp 'o , another was taking place northward above Waegwan near the boundary between the division 's sector and the ROK 1st Division 's sector . The northernmost unit of the 1st Cavalry Division was G Company of the 5th Cavalry Regiment . It held Hill 303 , the furthest position on the Eighth Army 's extreme right flank .
For several days UN intelligence sources had reported heavy North Korean concentrations across the Naktong opposite the ROK 1st Division . Early in the morning on August 14 , a North Korean regiment crossed the Naktong 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Waegwan into the ROK 1st Division sector through an underwater bridge . Shortly after midnight that night , ROK forces on the high ground just north of the U.S.-ROK Army boundary were attacked by this force . After daylight an air strike partially destroyed the underwater bridge . The North Korean attack spread south and by 1200 North Korean small arms fire fell on G Company , 5th Cavalry Regiment , on Hill 303 . Instead of moving east into the mountains as other landings had , this force turned south and headed for Waegwan .
Early in the morning on August 15 , G Company men on Hill 303 spotted 50 North Korean infantry supported by two T @-@ 34 tanks moving south along the river road at the base of the hill . They also spotted another column moving to their rear which quickly engaged F Company with small arms fire . In order to escape the enemy encirclement , F Company withdrew south , but G Company did not . By 08 : 30 , North Koreans had completely surrounded it and a supporting platoon of H Company mortarmen on Hill 303 . A relief column , composed of B Company , 5th Cavalry , and a platoon of US tanks tried to reach G Company , but was unable to penetrate the North Korean force that was surrounding Hill 303 .
Later that day , B Company and the tanks tried again to retake the hill , now estimated to contain a 700 @-@ man battalion . The 61st Field Artillery Battalion and elements of the 82nd Field Artillery Battalion , fired on the hill during the day . During the night , G Company succeeded in escaping from Hill 303 . Before dawn on the 17th , troops from both the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 5th Cavalry Regiment , supported by A Company of the 70th Tank Battalion , attacked Hill 303 , but heavy North Korean mortar fire stopped them at the edge of Waegwan . During the morning , heavy artillery preparations pounded the North Korean positions on the hill .
At 14 : 00 , an air strike came in , with planes bombarded the hill with napalm , conventional bombs , rockets , and machine guns . The strike and artillery preparation , were successful in pushing North Korean forces off the hill . After the strike , the infantry attacked up the hill at 15 : 30 unopposed and secured it by 16 : 30 . The combined strength of E and F Companies on top of the hill was about sixty men . The artillery preparations and the air strike killed and wounded an estimated 500 enemy troops on Hill 303 , with survivors had fleeing in complete rout after the air strike .
In regaining Hill 303 on August 17 , the 5th Cavalry Regiment discovered the bodies of 26 mortarmen of H Company , hands tied in back , with gunshot wounds to the back . First knowledge of the event came in the afternoon when scouts brought in a man from Hill 303 , Pvt. Roy Manring of the Heavy Mortar Platoon , who had been wounded by automatic weapons fire . Manring had crawled down the hill until he saw scouts of the attacking force . In all about 45 men were shot by the North Koreans in the event , of which only five survived . The total number of men executed around Hill 303 is unclear , as several more men were subsequently discovered in other locations around the hill with evidence of execution . Angered , General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , commander of all UN forces in Korea , broadcast a warning to North Korean leaders they would be held accountable for the atrocity . However intercepted documents show the North Korean command was also concerned with the conduct of its troops and issued orders to limit killing of Prisoners of War .
= = = Carpet bombing = = =
In the mountains northeast of Waegwan and Hill 303 , the ROK 1st Division continued to suffer North Korean attacks throughout mid @-@ August . North Korean pressure against the ROK division never ceased for long . Under the command of Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup , this division fought an extremely bloody defense of the mountain approaches to Taegu . US planners believed the main North Korean attack would come from west , and so the US command massed its forces to the west of Taegu . The US command mistakenly believed up to 40 @,@ 000 North Korean troops were near Taegu . This number was above the actual troop numbers for North Korea , which had only 70 @,@ 000 men along the entire perimeter . American artillery fire from the 1st Cavalry Division sector supported the South Koreans in this area . The division 's 13th Regiment still held some positions along the river , while the 11th and 12th Regiments battled the North Koreans in the high mountain masses of Suam @-@ san and Yuhak @-@ san , west and northwest of Tabu @-@ dong and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of the Naktong River . The North Koreans continued to use the underwater bridge across the Naktong 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Waegwan as their major route for supply and reinforcements . UN forces continued to target this bridge , even scoring a direct hit with a 155mm howitzer , but it was not seriously damaged .
Through the middle of August , North Korean forces relentlessly attacked the sectors occupied by the ROK 13th Regiment and the US 5th Cavalry . This assault , together with increasingly heavy pressure against the main force of the ROK 1st Division in the Tabu @-@ dong area , began to endanger the UN control of Taegu . On August 16 , 750 Korean police were stationed on the outskirts of the city to reinforce faltering military lines . Refugees had swollen Taegu 's normal population of 300 @,@ 000 to 700 @,@ 000 . A crisis seemed to be developing among the people on August 18 when several North Korean artillery shells landed in Taegu . The shells , falling near the railroad station , damaged the roundhouse , destroyed one yard engine , killed one Korean civilian , and wounded eight others . The Korean Provincial Government subsequently ordered the evacuation of Taegu , and President Syngman Rhee moved the national leaders to Pusan . Following the ordered evacuation , swarms of panicked Korean refugees began to pour out on the roads leading from the city , threatening to stop all military traffic , but Eighth Army eventually halted the evacuations .
On August 14 , General MacArthur ordered Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer to conduct a carpet bombing of a 27 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 70 km2 ) rectangular area on the west side of the Naktong River opposite the ROK 1st Division . Intelligence estimates placed the greatest concentrations of enemy troops in this area , some estimates being as high as four enemy divisions and several armored regiments , all of 40 @,@ 000 men , who were reportedly using the area to stage their attack on Taegu . General Gay , commanding the 1st Cavalry Division , repeatedly requested that the bombing include the area northeast of Waegwan . This request was denied because of fear that bombing there might cause casualties among the 1st Cavalry and ROK 1st Division troops . Stratemeyer did not think his aircraft could successfully carpet bomb an area larger than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) square but he complied with MacArthur 's order anyway .
At 11 : 58 , on August 16 , the first of the 98 B @-@ 29 Superfortresses of the 19th , 22nd , 92nd , 98th , and 307th Bomber Groups arrived over the target area from their Far East Air Force bases in Japan and Okinawa . The last planes cleared the target at 1224 . The bombers from 10 @,@ 000 feet dropped approximately 960 tons of 500- and 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound bombs . The attack had required the entirety of the FEAF bombing component , and they had dropped 3 @,@ 084 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) bombs and 150 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) bombs . This comprised the largest Air Force operation since the Battle of Normandy in World War II .
General Walker reported to General MacArthur the next day that the damage done to the North Koreans by the bombing could not be evaluated because of smoke and dust , and ground forces could not reach it because of North Korean fire . Information obtained later from North Korean prisoners revealed the enemy divisions the Far East Command thought to be still west of the Naktong had already crossed to the east side and were not in the bombed area . No evidence was found that the bombing killed a single North Korean soldier . However , the bombing seems to have destroyed a significant number of North Korean artillery batteries . The UN ground and air commanders opposed future massive carpet bombing attacks against enemy tactical troops unless there was precise information on an enemy concentration and the situation was critical . Instead , they recommended fighter @-@ bombers and dive bombers would better support ground forces . They subsequently canceled a second bombing of an area east of the Naktong scheduled for August 19 .
= = Aftermath = =
The battles around Taegu saw repeated attempts on the part of the DPRK divisions to attack the city . However , the DPRK troops repeatedly stopped or slowed by American and ROK troops and air attacks . The five North Korean divisions each suffered heavy casualties , and each of them finally collapsed under the strain of both mounting losses and lack of supplies . However , some of these division 's troops were able to disperse into the mountains . Some of these troops later assembled for different battles . These final elements of the DPRK Army were finally defeated in the Battle of the Bowling Alley .
Casualties among the American 1st Cavalry Division were relatively light . This division suffered a total of about 600 casualties , with around 200 killed in action , including those at Hill 303 . American forces in established positions were able to decimate North Korean units crossing the Naktong in the open with their artillery fire and air attacks . The exact numbers of soldiers captured and executed compared with those killed in combat are difficult to determine , because of conflicting accounts of how many prisoners were actually held on Hill 303 . The DPRK troops suffered much higher casualties , and also a much higher percentage of them killed in action ( KIA ) . This included 2 @,@ 500 at Yongp 'o , 500 at Hill 303 , and 700 on Triangulation Hill . This places the total KIA at over 3 @,@ 700 troops , though the exact number of casualties is unknown in the carpet @-@ bombing operation because the patrols of the U.N. troops were unable to reconnitor this area until much later .
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= SMS Frankfurt =
SMS Frankfurt was a light cruiser of the Wiesbaden class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Wiesbaden ; the ships were very similar to the previous Karlsruhe @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1913 , launched in March 1915 , and completed by August 1915 . Armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , Frankfurt had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full load .
Frankfurt saw extensive action with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She served primarily in the North Sea , and participated in the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft and the battles of Jutland and Second Heligoland . At Jutland , she was lightly damaged by a British cruiser and her crew suffered minor casualties . At the end of the war , she was interned with the bulk of the German fleet in Scapa Flow . When the fleet was scuttled in June 1919 , Frankfurt was one of the few ships that were not successfully sunk . She was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and ultimately expended as a bomb target in tests conducted by the US Navy and Army Air Force in July 1921 .
= = Design = =
Frankfurt was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Hela " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1913 and launched on 20 March 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1915 , after being rushed through trials . The ship was 145 @.@ 3 meters ( 477 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 9 m ( 46 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 76 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Frankfurt carried 1 @,@ 280 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Frankfurt had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The guns could engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 024 rounds of ammunition , for 128 shells per gun . The ship 's antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) L / 44 guns , though these were replaced with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes . Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
The first operation in which Frankfurt saw action was the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 April 1916 . Frankfurt was assigned to the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group , temporarily under the command of Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker 's . During the raid , Frankfurt attacked and sank a British armed patrol boat off the English coast . Due to reports of British submarines and torpedo attacks , Boedicker broke off the chase , and turned back east towards the High Seas Fleet . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's sortie from Scapa Flow , turned back towards Germany .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , Frankfurt served as Boedicker 's flagship , the commander of the II Scouting Group . The II Scouting Group was again screening for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers , again commanded by Vizeadmiral Franz von Hipper . Frankfurt was engaged in the first action of the battle , when the cruiser screens of the German and British battlecruiser squadrons encountered each other . Frankfurt , Pillau , and Elbing briefly fired on the British light cruisers at 16 : 17 until the British ships turned away . Half an hour later , the fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron had reached the scene and opened fire on Frankfurt and the other German cruisers , though the ships quickly fled under a smokescreen and were not hit .
Shortly before 18 : 00 , the British destroyers Onslow and Moresby attempted to attack the German battlecruisers . Heavy fire from Frankfurt and Pillau forced the British ships to break off the attack . At around 18 : 30 , Frankfurt and the rest of the II Scouting Group encountered the cruiser HMS Chester ; they opened fire and scored several hits on the ship . Rear Admiral Horace Hood 's three battlecruisers intervened , however , and scored a hit on Wiesbaden that disabled the ship . About an hour later , Chester scored four hits on Frankfurt in quick succession : two 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) hits in the area of Frankfurt 's mainmast and a pair of 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) hits . One of the 4 @-@ inch shells hit forward , well above the waterline , and the second exploded in the water near the stern and damaged both screws .
Frankfurt and Pillau spotted the cruiser Castor and several destroyers shortly before 23 : 00 . They each fired a torpedo at the British cruiser before turning back toward the German line without using their searchlights or guns to avoid drawing the British toward the German battleships . Almost two hours later , Frankfurt encountered a pair of British destroyers and fired on them briefly until they retreated at full speed . By 04 : 00 on 1 June , the German fleet had evaded the British fleet and reached Horns Reef . Frankfurt had three men killed and eighteen wounded in the course of the engagement . She had fired 379 rounds of 15 cm ammunition and a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm shells , and launched a single torpedo .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
The ship participated in Operation Albion in October 1917 , an operation to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The ship was part of the II Scouting Group , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . The following month , Frankfurt and the rest of the II Scouting Group were engaged during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . Along with three other cruisers from the II Scouting Group , Königsberg escorted minesweepers clearing paths in minefields laid by the British . The dreadnought battleships Kaiser and Kaiserin stood by in distant support . During the battle , Frankfurt fired torpedoes at the attacking British cruisers , but failed to score any hits . The British broke off the attack when the German battleships arrived on the scene , after which the Germans also withdrew .
At 19 : 08 on 21 October 1918 , Frankfurt accidentally rammed and sank the U @-@ boat UB @-@ 89 in Kiel @-@ Holtenau , killing seven of her crew . Twenty @-@ seven survivors were pulled from the water . UB @-@ 89 was raised by the salvage tug Cyclop on 30 October but with the war almost over , she was not repaired and did not see further service .
In the final weeks of the war , Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer and Hipper intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , including Frankfurt , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow , under the command of Reuter .
= = = Fate = = =
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to scuttle his ships . British sailors boarded Frankfurt and beached her before she could sink .
She was raised the following month and thereafter transferred to the United States Navy as a war prize . She was formally taken over on 11 March 1920 in England and commissioned into the US Navy on 4 June . Frankfurt was towed to the United States . The ship was ultimately expended as a bomb target on 18 July 1921 for United States Army Air Service and U.S. Navy bombers off Cape Henry , Virginia . The attacks started with small 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) and 300 lb ( 140 kg ) bombs , which caused minor hull damage . The bombers then changed over to larger 550 lb ( 250 kg ) and 600 lb ( 270 kg ) bombs ; Army Air Service Martin MB @-@ 2 bombers hit Frankfurt with several of the 600 lb bombs and sank the ship at 18 : 25 .
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= The Mega Bucks =
The Mega Bucks was a professional wrestling tag team that competed in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in 1988 . The team , consisting of " The Million Dollar Man " Ted DiBiase and André the Giant , was formed in a storyline that saw DiBiase purchase André 's contract from fellow manager Bobby Heenan . André was to win the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Hulk Hogan , but then he attempted to sell the belt to DiBiase . The title was vacated , but DiBiase and André were then scheduled to face Hogan and Macho Man Randy Savage in a match at SummerSlam , which Hogan and Savage won . After the match , DiBiase and André went their separate ways and the team was dissolved .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Prior to the formation of the team , André the Giant had been engaged in a feud with Hulk Hogan . According to the storyline , André was tired of Hogan being the top wrestler in the WWF and was jealous of Hogan 's reign as WWF World Heavyweight Champion . On an episode of Piper 's Pit , André turned on Hogan by attacking him and challenging him to a match for the championship . Hogan and André faced each other in the main event of WrestleMania III on March 29 , 1987 . Hogan won the match , but the feud remained unsettled .
In November 1987 , " The Million Dollar Man " Ted DiBiase announced his intention to buy the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from reigning champion Hulk Hogan . Hogan refused and faced DiBiase in a series of matches instead . After DiBiase lost these matches , he purchased the contract of André the Giant from Bobby " The Brain " Heenan in January 1988 . He planned to help André win the title , after which André would present the belt to DiBiase as a gift .
André faced Hogan for the title on the February 5 , 1988 broadcast of The Main Event , with Dave Hebner as the scheduled referee . André pinned Hogan to win the championship and handed the belt to DiBiase . The pinfall was controversial , however , as Hogan 's shoulders were not on the mat when the referee made the three count . After the match , the real Dave Hebner , who looked identical to referee that had officiated the match , ran to the ring to attack the impostor referee . Hulk Hogan then threw the impostor out of the ring onto DiBiase and his bodyguard Virgil . According to the storyline , DiBiase had paid an unnamed referee to get plastic surgery to look exactly like Dave Hebner . In reality , the second referee was Dave 's twin brother Earl Hebner , who was making his on @-@ screen debut with the WWF .
= = = Feud with The Mega Powers = = =
The controversy resulted in WWF President Jack Tunney declaring the WWF World Heavyweight Championship vacant and booking a 14 @-@ man tournament at WrestleMania IV to determine the new champion . In the tournament , André and Hogan were booked to face each other . Their match ended in a double disqualification , and both men were eliminated from the tournament . Meanwhile , André interfered in DiBiase 's matches , which helped DiBiase make it to the final match , in which he faced " Macho Man " Randy Savage . After André got involved to help DiBiase , Hogan came to the ring to even the odds . Savage won the match and the championship , and the rivalry led to a match being booked between The Mega Powers ( Hogan and Savage ) and The Mega Bucks ( DiBiase and André ) . After WrestleMania IV , Andre returned to The Heenan Family , with the explanation that Heenan purchased his contract back at a profit , but his association with DiBiase continued .
At the inaugural SummerSlam , the two teams faced off . Jesse Ventura had been appointed as a supposedly impartial guest referee by Jack Tunney . It was strongly hinted leading up the event that Ventura , who provided commentary for many WWF events and was a strong critic of Hulk Hogan , had been paid an undisclosed amount by DiBiase . Near the end of the SummerSlam match , Elizabeth , the manager of The Mega Powers , got involved to help her team . She stripped off her skirt to expose her skimpy panties to the stunned Mega Bucks , which allowed The Mega Powers to make a comeback and win the match . While counting the pinfall , Ventura stopped counting at two and hesitated until Savage pushed Ventura 's hand to the mat to complete the three count .
= = = Aftermath = = =
This match marked the end of the feud between Hulk Hogan and André the Giant that had dominated WWF programming for over 18 months . In the weeks after the match , André feuded with other upper @-@ card wrestlers such as Savage and Jake Roberts . Hogan and Savage continued to feud with DiBiase for the remainder of the year .
Although the tag team of The Mega Bucks was short @-@ lived , DiBiase and André appeared in the 1989 arcade game WWF Superstars as the game 's boss tag team .
= = In wrestling = =
Managers
Bobby Heenan
Virgil
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Championship ( 1 time ) – André
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= Velvet Revolver =
Velvet Revolver was an American hard rock supergroup consisting of former Guns N ' Roses members Slash ( lead guitar ) , Duff McKagan ( bass , backing vocals ) , and Matt Sorum ( drums , backing vocals ) , alongside Dave Kushner ( rhythm guitar ) formerly of punk band Wasted Youth . Original vocalist Scott Weiland formerly of Stone Temple Pilots left the band in 2008 . In 2004 , the band achieved commercial success with their debut album , Contraband . Despite positive reviews , some critics initially described Velvet Revolver as a mere combination of Stone Temple Pilots and Guns N ' Roses , criticizing them for a " disconnection " between Scott Weiland and the rest of the band . With their single " Slither " , they won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance .
The band released Libertad in 2007 , driven by the release of the single " She Builds Quick Machines " , and embarked on a tour with Alice in Chains . In April 2008 , Weiland left Velvet Revolver and reunited with Stone Temple Pilots . Velvet Revolver was put on indefinite hiatus in April 2008 , and in November of that year , the band was released by their record label RCA Records at their request to allow them " complete freedom to go through whatever process it would take to accomplish " replacing Weiland .
The release of Slash 's self @-@ titled debut solo album and Duff McKagan 's addition to the Jane 's Addiction lineup seemed to put the future of the band in doubt . However , McKagan left Jane 's Addiction a few months after joining . Velvet Revolver then wrote new songs and briefly auditioned singers before once again resuming their hiatus , although reunited with Scott Weiland for a one @-@ off reunion show on January 12 , 2012 at a benefit concert , which proved to be their last performance together before Weiland 's death in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Foundations ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Slash , Duff McKagan , and Matt Sorum were members of hard rock band Guns N ' Roses . However , a distancing relationship with singer Axl Rose resulted in Slash , in 1996 , and McKagan , in 1997 , leaving the band while Sorum was fired the same year . Following their departures , the trio focused on separate projects with Slash reforming Slash 's Snakepit and McKagan reforming 10 Minute Warning , as well as recording his second solo album while Sorum rejoined The Cult .
By 2001 , Slash 's Snakepit had disbanded for the second time . Slash began working with The Black Crowes drummer Steve Gorman and an unnamed bassist on a new project : writing the music for what would become " Fall to Pieces " . McKagan reformed Loaded , previously his band for the tour in support of Beautiful Disease , with Geoff Reading . McKagan also added both Mike Squires and Jeff Rouse to the lineup . Following a tour of Japan in 2002 , former Zilch , Wasted Youth , Electric Love Hogs , and Dave Navarro guitarist Dave Kushner joined Loaded in place of Mike Squires .
= = = Formation ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
When musician Randy Castillo died from cancer in 2002 , Slash , McKagan , and Sorum performed at a benefit concert to raise money and commemorate Castillo with Josh Todd and Keith Nelson of Buckcherry as well as B @-@ Real and Sen Dog of Cypress Hill . Recognizing that their musical relationship was still intact , the trio began rehearsing with Todd and Nelson , working on material that would become " Dirty Little Thing " , but eventually decided against forming a group with them . During a Loaded show at West Hollywood 's Viper Room , McKagan introduced Kushner to Slash , who were previously friends in junior high and high school . Kushner was invited to jam with the group and was soon invited to join with Slash , stating that " Dave brought a cool vibe to what [ they ] were doing . There was no deliberation ; that was it , it was a perfect fit . " Their former Guns N ' Roses band mate Izzy Stradlin also joined them for two weeks , eventually suggesting that " Duff and [ Stradlin ] will sing and [ they ] will just do a club tour in a van . " Slash states in his autobiography that it was hard to tell if Stradlin was serious or kidding . After auditioning Kelly Shaefer of Atheist and Neurotica , Stradlin left the group .
While Shaefer 's audition was unsuccessful , the quartet continued auditioning for a lead singer , with VH1 filming the recruitment process while being referred to as the temporary name " The Project " . The resulting documentary was aired as VH1 Inside Out : The Rise of Velvet Revolver . A number of lead singers auditioned for the band , including Steve Ludwin , of Carrie and Little Hell , Todd Kerns , formerly of Age of Electric , Sebastian Bach , formerly of Skid Row , Shawn Albro of U.P.O. , and Travis Meeks of Days of the New . Myles Kennedy , formerly of The Mayfield Four , declined an invitation from Sorum to audition . Ian Astbury of The Cult and Mike Patton of Faith No More also declined audition offers . The band were also interested in auditioning Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland , who had become friends with McKagan after attending the same gym . Weiland once played on the same bill as Kushner , and was in rehab at the same time as Sorum . Weiland was sent two discs of material , and felt that the first disc " sounded like Bad Company gone wrong . " When he was sent the second disc , Weiland was more positive , comparing it to Core @-@ era Stone Temple Pilots , though he turned them down because Stone Temple Pilots were still together .
When Stone Temple Pilots disbanded in 2003 , the band sent Weiland new music , which he took into his studio and added vocals . This music eventually becoming the song " Set Me Free " . Weiland was still unsure whether or not he wanted to join , despite delivering the music to the band himself and performing at an industry showcase at Mates . They recorded two songs with producer Nick Raskulinecz , a recorded version of " Set Me Free " and a cover of Pink Floyd 's " Money " , for the soundtracks to the movies The Hulk and The Italian Job , respectively . Weiland joined the band soon after . " Set Me Free " managed to peak at number 17 on the Mainstream Rock Chart without any radio promotion or a record label . It was prior to a screening of The Hulk at Universal Studios that the band chose a name . After seeing a movie by Revolution Studios , Slash liked the beginning of the word , eventually thinking of Revolver because of its multiple meanings ; the name of a gun , subtext of a revolving door which suited the band as well as the name of a Beatles album . When he suggested Revolver to the band , Weiland suggested back Black Velvet Revolver , liking the idea of " something intimate like velvet juxtaposed with something deadly like a gun . " They eventually arrived at Velvet Revolver , announcing it at a press conference and performance showcase at the El Rey Theatre while also performing the songs " Set Me Free " and " Slither " as well as covers of Nirvana 's " Negative Creep " , Sex Pistols ' " Pretty Vacant " , and Guns N ' Roses ' " It 's So Easy " .
= = = Contraband and mainstream success ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
Prior to the recording of their debut album , Weiland took material that the band had previously written to his studio , Lavish , in Toluca Lake . With engineer Doug Grean , Weiland rearranged the music to fit his vocals , eventually coming out with the songs " Big Machine " and " Dirty Little Thing " . The band worked on new material for songs such as " You Got No Right " , " Slither " , " Sucker Train Blues " , and " Do It for the Kids " , among others . It was during this time that Weiland was arrested at the parking lot of his studio for drug possession . Upon release from jail , he wrote lyrics to material he was given previously , writing the lyrics to the song " Fall to Pieces " . Velvet Revolver soon began recording their debut album . Initially , they recorded " Slither " with producer Bob Ezrin at Henson Studios , but were dissatisfied with the result . After recording " Headspace " with Josh Abraham , the band liked the track enough to do the rest of the album with him .
Velvet Revolver soon gained major label attention with Warner Bros. and Chrysalis . RCA and Elektra were also interested in signing the band . They eventually signed with RCA Records . They recorded their album at NRG Recording Studios , while Slash recorded his guitar parts at a smaller studio on the southern corner between Highland Avenue and Sunset Boulevard . During recording , Weiland could only work for three hours a day due to a court order mentioning that he was to stay in a halfway house . The marketing campaign for Velvet Revolver in the run @-@ up to the release of the first album was profiled as part of the Frontline program The Way the Music Died , which included interviews with the band members and producers .
The resulting album , titled Contraband , was released on June 8 , 2004 , and , helped by the success of the single " Slither " , debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling over 250 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . Contraband went on to sell four million copies worldwide , 2 @.@ 9 million of which were sold in the United States , and was certified 2x platinum by the RIAA . Both " Slither " and " Fall to Pieces " managed to peak at number one on the Mainstream Rock Chart as well as number 56 and 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 , respectively . " Slither " also peaked at number one on the Modern Rock Chart and number 35 on the UK Singles Chart . The album 's third single , " Dirty Little Thing " , peaked at number eight on the Mainstream Rock chart .
Critically , the album was generally well received . Despite being praised for its hedonism and maturity , critics noted a disconnection between " singer and band " . Velvet Revolver won the Kerrang ! Award for Best International Newcomer in 2004 , and the following year they won the Best Hard Rock Performance Grammy Award for " Slither " . They also received a nomination for Rock Artist of the Year at the Billboard Music Awards while " Fall to Pieces " was nominated for a Song of the Year / Rock Radio Radio Music Award . They recorded a new song entitled " Come On , Come In " for the movie Fantastic Four in 2005 , which peaked at number 14 on the Mainstream Rock Chart . " Fall to Pieces " then re @-@ entered the charts , peaking at number twenty @-@ five on the Adult Top 40 the same year .
Velvet Revolver toured extensively for nineteen months in support of Contraband . They toured both the United States and Europe twice , while also performing in Australia , New Zealand , and Japan . They performed at Live 8 and various festivals including Download Festival and Ozzfest . It was during the tour that the band members , with the exception of Kushner , began to relapse on alcohol and drugs . Though they managed to get clean in time for the recording of their new album , Slash felt that " [ the band ] lost [ Weiland ] " and " thought the overall spirit of everything was declining at that point . "
= = = Libertad and departure of Scott Weiland ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = =
Weiland announced in 2005 that Velvet Revolver 's next album would be titled Libertad and would be a concept album . When they started writing material , they decided against the concept idea . Initially , the band started working with producer Rick Rubin on the album . However , due to his methods , such as having a crew to do the work and engineering while only popping in occasionally , and due to the fact that he was also working with other bands at the same time , they decided against continuing with Rubin . At the suggestion of Weiland , Velvet Revolver began working with Brendan O 'Brien . Slash stated that O ' Brien " brought more than just discipline to the equation , he brought a musicality that stems from the fact that he plays guitar , bass and drums . At any given moment he could play along [ with the band ] and it really helped the process . " He also said that the " sessions were consistent , everyone was there , everyone contributed , and everyone appreciated what each player was doing " and that the " mutual participation surpassed the first Guns sessions . " While writing for the album , Weiland believed that his band mates were going to reunite with Guns N ' Roses when the band 's manager was talking to Axl Rose about switching management companies , and were not going to record their second album . He was later convinced by the band that this was not the case .
Following the completion of the album , Velvet Revolver performed for and inducted Van Halen into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , with Weiland and Slash speaking on the band 's behalf , on March 12 , 2007 . The band played a medley of " Ain 't Talkin ' ' bout Love " and " Runaround " . Shows in South America with Aerosmith followed in April . They released the EP Melody and the Tyranny on June 1 to serve as a precursor to the release of their new album , which featured two songs from Libertad , a cover of Talking Heads song " Psycho Killer " and a video documentary about the making of Libertad as well as a live video of the band performing " Do It for the Kids " .
Libertad was released on July 3 , 2007 , peaking at number five on the Billboard 200 . The album 's first single " She Builds Quick Machines " peaked at 74 on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles . The second and third singles , " The Last Fight " and " Get Out the Door " , both peaked at number 16 and 34 on the Mainstream Rock Chart , respectively . Critical reception to the album was mixed . Though some critics praised the album and felt that Libertad gave the band an identity of their own , outside of the Guns N ' Roses and Stone Temple Pilots comparisons , others described the album as " bland " and noted that the band have still to gel with them " play [ ing ] to their strengths instead of finding a collective sound . "
In support of Libertad , Velvet Revolver toured North America with Alice in Chains from August 2007 to October . They also performed at the Virgin Festival , Gods of Metal , and Download in 2007 . A November tour of Japan was canceled after they were denied visas , and in 2008 , a tour of Australia was postponed , due to health issues , and later canceled following Weiland 's decision to voluntarily enter a rehab facility . On November 21 , 2007 , Weiland was arrested after crashing his car while driving on an L.A. highway . He was charged with driving under the influence of drugs with a prior conviction and later released on $ 40 @,@ 000 bail . Velvet Revolver then toured both the US and the UK , as well as some European shows , on the Rock n ' Roll as It Should Be tour from January 24 to April 1 , 2008 . They also played at the Dubai Desert Rock Festival on March 8 the same year . It was during the tour that Weiland " got back into his old ways " , which started to take their toll on the rest of the band with the cancellation of the Australian tour seen as the " final blow " .
On the UK tour , the band members never spoke with Weiland , with the exception of a few arguments around the stage . Tensions came to a head during Velvet Revolver 's Glasgow show on March 20 , 2008 , where Weiland announced to the crowd that it was the band 's last tour , unaware that the band were already planning on firing him . After Sorum posted a message about the show on his website , Weiland issued a statement through Blabbermouth.net in response , saying he " made many attempts to remain cordial with the members of [ Velvet Revolver ] , but mainly , the likes of [ Sorum ] " and that " [ the band ] were a gang . But ego and jealousy can get the better of anyone . " Slash later stated that it would not be Velvet Revolver 's last tour . Weiland 's departure was announced on April 1 . Weiland also departed the cover band Camp Freddy , which also featured Sorum , and has since reunited with Stone Temple Pilots , before being fired in 2012 .
= = = Search for a new singer and solo careers ( 2008 – 2015 ) = = =
After Weiland 's departure , the band began recording and searching for a new singer . The search was sporadic with the band spending some time auditioning singers , then turning into solo projects , returning to the band , then abandoning it again . Several names were rumoured to be auditioning for the band through the years . Myles Kennedy ( Alter Bridge ) was strongly rumoured due to his collaborations with Slash ; Lenny Kravitz , Chester Bennington of Linkin Park , Steve Isaacs formerly of Skycycle and The Panic Channel , Royston Langdon of Spacehog , Donovan Leitch of Camp Freddy , Ours singer Jimmy Gnecco and Scars on Broadway guitarist Franky Perez , as well as previous auditonee Sebastian Bach . Slipknot and Stone Sour singer Corey Taylor reportedly recorded an album with the band , which was shelved .
Slash , McKagan , and Sorum all contributed to the song " Kissed It " for the Macy Gray album The Sellout , which was released on June 22 , 2011 . Despite not featuring Kushner , the trio were credited as Velvet Revolver on the album . The band released their first concert DVD on November 16 , 2010 entitled Live In Houston , which was filmed June 18 , 2004 at the Verizon Wireless Theater while the band was touring in support of Contraband . Slash , McKagan and Sorum made a performance at the Road Recovery benefit concert on September 13 with a guest appearance from Kushner .
Instigated by Kushner 's wife , Velvet Revolver reunited for a one @-@ off performance with Scott Weiland at a benefit concert for the late John O 'Brien , on January 12 , 2012 . Following a benefit show for the Road Recovery in 2011 with the other VR members , each one agreed to a one @-@ off reunion before Kushner invited Weiland , who also agreed . Kushner also stated it is currently unknown what Velvet Revolver 's plans are for the future after the reunion show ; " I know everyone ’ s got other commitments , but I think everyone ’ s like , ' Let ’ s get this thing done and get through this and then we ’ ll see . ' " .
In April 2012 , Scott Weiland remarked that he would like to reunite permanently with Velvet Revolver , saying that " if Maynard James Keenan can do it with A Perfect Circle and Tool , then there ’ s no reason why I shouldn ’ t go and do it with both bands " . Further in May in an interview with ABC Radio Weiland said that he has reunited with the band permanently for a tour and an album , which however was denied a few days later by Slash in an interview with 93X .
On May 12 , 2014 , in an interview at the MusiCares benefit concert , Slash told journalist Lucas H. Gordon that he " think [ s ] [ they 're ] gonna audition a singer " in the future . However , he also stated that he would be touring with his solo band " for the next year and a half . "
On June 29 , 2014 , in an interview to Totalrock radio Duff McKagan talked to Hayley Leggs in Clisson France about the subject of a new lead vocalist for Velvet Revolver and revealed that there has been at least one audition for the role of lead vocalist , but said that the person that they auditioned did not properly impress the remaining members of the band . He also ruled himself out of being the lead vocalist of Velvet Revolver due to the experiences he has had of being the vocalist of his own band Loaded , saying that being the lead vocalist and being a bass player at the same time was not as appealing to him because of the fact that it would require him to be a lot more static in his stage presence , saying that he prefers moving around on stage during live performances . In the same interview , Duff McKagan talked about his new book which is currently in the writing stages .
On December 3 , 2015 Scott Weiland was found dead on his tour bus around 9 pm , one day before he was to perform in Minnesota with his band The Wildabouts . Both Slash and Duff have since rejoined Guns N ' Roses .
= = Musical style = =
Velvet Revolver 's first album Contraband was described by Johnny Loftus of Allmusic as an " updated version of Guns N ' Roses swagger behind Scott Weiland 's glammy , elastic vocals . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " [ a ] nyone expecting Use Your Illusion III , though , will be in for a slight buzzkill " and that " [ t ] he songs suggest the pop grunge of Weiland 's old band more than the careening overdrive of GN 'R . " A number of reviewers made some comparisons to the members previous bands with PopMatters reviewer David Powell stating that " Contraband is a pretty good record of unpretentious rock and roll that suffers from inevitable comparison with the best efforts of its parent bands . " He went on to state that while Velvet Revolver 's " heritage is evident on most of the songs " , Contraband " improves with repeat listening , which is encouraging . " Velvet Revolver 's second album Libertad saw the band 's style change with the presence of producer Brendan O 'Brien , noted by Allmusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine . Erlewine also stated that " too often , there are concessions between Weiland and the others during the course of a song . " Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that Libertad " feels both comfortingly familiar and vaguely exotic . " Songs such as " Let it Roll " and " She Mine " have seen some comparisons to The Doors , The Rolling Stones and The Stooges , as noted by San Francisco Chronicle reviewer Jaan Uhelszki . The New York Post commented that " Slash 's guitar riffs throughout this new record are as aggressive as a caged cat " and " singer Scott Weiland 's vocals are crisp and controlled yet passionate . "
= = Band members = =
Slash – lead guitar ( 2002 – 2008 , 2012 )
Dave Kushner – rhythm guitar ( 2002 – 2008 , 2012 )
Duff McKagan – bass , backing vocals ( 2002 – 2008 , 2012 )
Matt Sorum – drums , backing vocals ( 2002 – 2008 , 2012 )
Scott Weiland – lead vocals , keyboard ( 2003 – 2008 , 2012 ; died 2015 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Contraband ( 2004 )
Libertad ( 2007 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Velvet Revolver have received one Grammy Award . The band won the Grammy when " Slither " was nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 2005 . The song " Fall to Pieces " received a nomination for Song of the Year / Rock Radio Radio Music Award in 2005 . The band won the Best International Newcomer Kerrang ! Award in 2004 while they were nominated for a Rock Artist of the Year Billboard Music Award in 2005 .
Billboard Music Awards
The Billboard Music Awards were awarded annually by Billboard magazine .
Grammy Awards
The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences .
Kerrang ! Awards
The Kerrang ! Awards are awarded annually by Kerrang ! Magazine .
Radio Music Awards
The Radio Music Awards were awarded annually honoring the most successful songs on mainstream radio .
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= Yoshi 's Island DS =
Yoshi 's Island DS , later released in Japan as Yoshi Island DS ( ヨッシー アイランド DS , Yosshī Airando Dī Esu ) , is a platforming video game developed by Artoon for the Nintendo DS . Published by Nintendo , it was released in North America and Australasia in November 2006 , in Europe in December 2006 , and in Japan in March 2007 . It is the sequel to the 1995 SNES game , Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island . Announced at Nintendo 's E3 press conference in May 2006 , the game was well received by critics , scoring an average of 81 % on Metacritic 's aggregate . The game was originally to be titled Yoshi 's Island 2 , though its name was changed two weeks before its North American release . On April 1 , 2015 , the game was made available for the Wii U via the Virtual Console service shortly after a Nintendo Direct presentation .
The game 's story focuses on the Yoshi clan as they attempt to rescue newborn children who have been kidnapped by Kamek . Yoshi 's Island DS uses the same updated graphical style as Yoshi Touch & Go but retains the same core gameplay as its Super Nintendo Entertainment System predecessor ; but whereas the SNES game featured only Baby Mario , DS introduces Baby Peach , Baby Donkey Kong , and Baby Wario , while allowing the player to control Baby Bowser . Each baby bestows a different ability upon Yoshi . The objective of the game is to use these abilities to progress through various themed worlds .
= = Gameplay = =
Yoshi 's Island DS 's gameplay is the same as the previous game , with some additions . Just like in Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island the player guides various colored Yoshis through side scrolling stages . Yoshi can jump and hover ( flutter jump ) for a short time , eat enemies and turn them into eggs ( which can be used for things like hitting switches and defeating distant enemies ) and pound the ground ( to smash crates , for example ) . Some stages offer Yoshi the ability to morph into vehicles for a short time . Like the original Yoshi 's Island , the DS game differs from many platforming series in that Yoshi does not have a life bar ; when Yoshi is hit , the baby he is carrying falls off his back and Yoshi must retrieve him or her before a timer expires . ( unless Yoshi falls on something that kills him instantly , such as a lava pit or spike field )
What makes Yoshi 's Island DS different is the addition of five babies for Yoshi to carry , each bestowing a different ability — Baby Mario allows Yoshi to dash and makes special ' M ' blocks appear , and can grab Super Stars to become Super Baby Mario , and grants ricocheting eggs ; Baby Peach allows Yoshi to float and fly on wind currents and grants a more forgiving timing to use Yoshi 's flutter jumping abilities effectively ; Baby Donkey Kong can grab and swing on vines and ropes , grants a special dash attack , allows Yoshi 's eggs to explode as per Yoshi 's Story ( but they do so on impact ) and allows Yoshi to push objects faster ; Baby Wario uses his magnet to attract metal objects and allows Yoshi 's eggs to bounce ; and Baby Bowser spits fireballs , but the Yoshi carrying him cannot make eggs , though the eggs Yoshi already carries can bounce . The last three babies tend to make the timing for Yoshi 's flutter jumping less forgiving and slow down his movement a little bit . The need to switch babies at key points adds a puzzle element to the game .
The Nintendo DS 's two screens act as one tall screen ; however , in practice , this essentially just gives the player a better view of the surroundings and , save for one boss battle , ( Hector the Reflector , where the bottom screen acts as a mirror through which to see Hector during the battle ) only provides the benefit of being able to see more ( above ) and , when the player is on the top screen , below . The game does not make use of the bottom screen 's touch sensitivity for basic gameplay , though it is an option for selecting levels and in some mini @-@ games . Each of DS 's five worlds has two bosses , each with a weakness that must be identified and exploited . Most of the time , these are simply giant @-@ sized versions of normal enemies , though some are more inventive .
Flowers and coins , as well as stars , are scattered about the game 's stages . These are totaled at the end of each stage and a score is given depending how many of each were collected ( a maximum of 30 stars , 20 red coins and 5 flowers ) . Sufficiently high scores are required to unlock one of the two sets of secret levels . ( the other set being unlocked upon completing the game , similar to the GBA remake of the original game ) Special character coins are also introduced . Missing from the game are the power @-@ ups of sorts — like the ability to spit seeds by eating watermelons — which were present in the original . The fire breathing ability is retained though : Yoshi can use it when he snags a torch or fireball with his tongue . This allows him to shoot streams of fire up to three times . Keys found in the stages unlock mini @-@ games and doors that would be closed otherwise .
= = Plot = =
As in Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island , Baby Mario and the Yoshi clan must rescue Baby Luigi , who was snatched by Bowser 's minion , Kamek , who also wanted to kidnap every baby around the world . However , this time the Yoshis have the combined assistance of both Baby Peach and Baby Donkey Kong , as well as the stork , who escaped the botched capture by the Magikoopa . They later join with Baby Wario and Baby Bowser , who offer their specialized abilities so that the group may proceed . However , Baby Wario 's lust for treasure leads him to abandon his duties while Baby Bowser was captured by Kamek ( who is actually the future Kamek that appears throughout the forts and castles ) , and later kicked out by the Adult Bowser , who came from the future , for his baby counterpart insults him . Baby Bowser then joined the group until he noticed Kamek and after him , leaving Yoshi and the other babies to continue their journey . Much later in the game , Kamek 's sinister plan for kidnapping the babies around the world has been revealed . He and Bowser travels back in time in search of the star children — seven babies whose hearts possess unimaginable power necessary for him to conquer the universe . Despite kidnapping all of the babies , they couldn 't find a single star child . Yoshi 's group later arrives at Bowser 's castle and Baby Wario and Baby Bowser , arguing for after the treasure from Bowser 's castle . They later joined the group and as they arrived at the final room , Baby Bowser betrays them , claiming that Yoshi and the other babies wanted Bowser 's treasure in his castle . Yoshi easily defeated him and Kamek arrives , along with Bowser , angered at what Yoshi did to his infant self . Despite this , the babies and Yoshis prevail , in both defeating Bowser , forces Kamek and Bowser retreats to their present time . Yoshi and the babies then retrieving Baby Luigi and the other babies . Bowser 's castle then self @-@ destructs but Yoshi and the other babies ( with the help of the other storks carrying all of the babies ) escaped unharmed and the storks continues to bring all the babies back to their respective home .
In post @-@ credit scene , the seven star children are revealed to be Baby Mario , Baby Luigi , Baby Peach , Baby Donkey Kong , Baby Wario and Baby Bowser as well as Baby Yoshi , who just hatched from an egg .
= = Development = =
Yoshi 's Island DS was announced at E3 2006 under the name Yoshi 's Island 2 , originally featuring only baby versions of Mario , Peach , and DK . The developer , Artoon , has made one other Yoshi game — Yoshi 's Universal Gravitation — for the GBA . Universal Gravitation veered away from the " Nintendo " design ; but for DS , Artoon stuck close to the original concept .
The game retains the classic pastel / crayon visuals from its predecessor . Small changes are noticeable — water animation has been improved , the black outlines around objects are not as thick and the backgrounds are less cluttered ; but the visuals are still tightly @-@ centered on those of the SNES game .
= = Reception = =
Yoshi 's Island DS received critical praise , being given high scores by some of the most prominent video game critics . These include gaming websites IGN and GameSpot , who gave it 8 / 10 and 9 @.@ 1 / 10 respectively . GameSpot 's review commented that the developers have " produced a sequel that seems fresh and new while remaining every bit as awesome as the original . " Multimedia website IGN called it " a solid recreation of the Yoshi 's Island elements in a two @-@ screen @-@ high format , " and GamePro in their review said that " it 's fun and light @-@ hearted play . " Reviewers were particularly pleased with how the core gameplay elements are the same as in the previous game . GamePro hails it as having " the classical 2D side @-@ scrolling action and colorful pastel artwork that brought Nintendo to prominence , " while IGN — although impressed with the game in general — wonders whether or not the developers " stuck too close to the established design in this new game , " because having played the previous game " ruins a lot of the surprises . " Other critics regard this as the best portable Yoshi 's game , with the exception of the Super Mario Advance remake of the original Yoshi 's Island because , in their context , " ( Yoshi ) Topsy @-@ Turvy was not there and ( Yoshi ) Touch & Go was incomplete . "
One problem critics identified is the blind spot created by the gap between the Nintendo DS 's two screens . IGN accepts that this blind spot is necessary for aiming eggs properly but still describe it as " bothersome . " GameSpy 's reviewer calls it " a pain " and expresses frustration at being hit by an enemy hiding in this gap . On the whole , reviewers were pleased with the way the extra babies have been implemented , but IGN felt that Baby Wario was " a last minute addition that wasn 't tested properly . " They call his magnet " wonky , " and says it " misses items that are right next to him . "
Yoshi 's Island DS was given GameSpot 's " Editor 's Choice " rating , and reached the final round for " Best Nintendo DS game . " The game sold more than 300 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in Japan . As of March 31 , 2008 , Yoshi 's Island DS has sold 2 @.@ 91 million copies worldwide .
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= Izz ad @-@ Din al @-@ Qassam =
Izz ad @-@ Din Abd al @-@ Qadar ibn Mustafa ibn Yusuf ibn Muhammad al @-@ Qassam ( 1881 or 1882 – 1935 ) ( Arabic : عز الدين بن عبد القادر بن مصطفى بن يوسف بن محمد القسام / ALA @-@ LC : ʿIzz ad @-@ Dīn ibn Abd al @-@ Qāder ibn Mustafa ibn Yūsuf ibn Muhammad al @-@ Qassām ) was a Syrian Muslim preacher and a leader in the local struggles against British and French Mandatory rule in the Levant , and a militant opponent of Zionism in the 1920s and 1930s .
Al @-@ Qassam studied at Al @-@ Azhar University in Egypt and afterward became an Islamic revivalist preacher in his hometown of Jableh in Syria during the last years of Ottoman rule . Following his return , he became an active supporter of the Libyan resistance to Italian rule , raising funds and fighters to aid the Libyans and penning an anthem for them . He would later lead his own group of rebels in alliance with Ibrahim Hananu to fight against French Mandatory forces in northern Syria in 1919 – 20 .
Following the rebels ' defeat , he immigrated to Palestine , where he became a Muslim waqf ( religious endowments ) official and grew incensed at the plight of Palestinian Arab peasants . In the 1930s , he formed bands of local fighters and launched attacks against British and Jewish targets . He was eventually killed in a manhunt following his alleged role in the killing of a British policeman . Israeli historian Tom Segev has called him ' the Arab Joseph Trumpeldor ' . His campaign and death were factors that led to the 1936 – 39 Arab revolt in Palestine .
= = Early life and Muslim scholarship = =
Al @-@ Qassam was born in Jableh , northwestern Syria , to father Abd al @-@ Qadar , a Sharia court official during Ottoman rule and a local leader of the Qadariyya Sufi order . His grandfather had been a leading sheikh of the Qadariyya order and moved to Jableh from Iraq . Al @-@ Qassam also followed the Hanafi fiqh ( school of jurisprudence ) of Sunni Islam and studied at the local Istambuli Mosque under the teaching of well @-@ known ′ alim ( scholar ) Sheikh Salim Tayarah .
Sometime between 1902 and 1905 , al @-@ Qassam left for Cairo to study at the al @-@ Azhar Mosque . Who he studied with is disputed by sources ; some accounts say he studied under the Muslim reformist scholar Muhammad Abduh and came into contact with the prominent proto @-@ Salafist , Rashid Rida , who himself studied under Abduh , while others are skeptical of al @-@ Qassam 's relationships with either . However , the attitude al @-@ Qassam later adopted toward the political issues in the Arab world suggests he was well @-@ acquainted with the ideas Abduh and Rida espoused . At al @-@ Azhar , al @-@ Qassam developed the thinking that would guide his future activism . Critical of a stagnant Islam , he preached among the ranks of farmers and other locals about the necessity for a modern Islam , one capable of defending itself from Western colonialism through jihad ( holy struggle ) . He returned to Jableh in 1909 as an ′ alim and worked as a teacher at a Qadariyya madrasa ( Islamic school ) where he taught both the mystical practices of the Qadariyya Sufi order and the jurisprudence and commentary of the Qur 'an . In addition he preached as the imam of the Ibrahim Ibn Adham Mosque .
Following his return to Jableh , al @-@ Qassam commenced a program of Islamic revival based on moral reforms which included the encouragement of maintaining regular salaah ( prayer ) and the sawm ( fasting ) during Ramadan as well as advocating an end to gambling and alcohol consumption . Al @-@ Qassam 's campaign highly influenced Jableh 's residents who increasingly adopted his reforms . He developed amiable relations with the local Ottoman police who he would call upon to enforce Sharia law on rare cases of major violations . In some occasions , he would send disciples as vigilantes to intercept caravans transporting alcohol which would then be disposed of . Despite the support for Arab nationalism from some of his fellow alumni at al @-@ Azhar and among Syrian notables , al @-@ Qassam 's loyalties most likely laid with the Ottoman Empire as his relationship with the authorities would indicate . He was well @-@ regarded among much of Jableh 's population where he gained a reputation for piety , simple manners and good humor .
= = Support for Libyan resistance = =
Following Italy 's September 1911 invasion of Libya , al @-@ Qassam began collecting funds in Jableh for the joint Ottoman @-@ Libyan resistance movement and composed a victory anthem . Jableh 's district governor sought to gain control over the fundraiser and when locals nevertheless continued to send their donations to al @-@ Qassam , he attempted to have him jailed . The district governor alleged that al @-@ Qassam was working against the Ottoman state , but an official investigation found him not guilty and the governor was consequently dismissed .
In June 1912 , during one of his Friday prayer sermons , he called for volunteers to engage in a jihad against the Italians . Accepting only volunteers with prior Ottoman military training , al @-@ Qassam enlisted dozens of volunteers and set up a fund for the expedition to Libya as well as a small pension for the families of volunteers while they were abroad . Although accounts vary , al @-@ Qassam was accompanied by 60 to 250 volunteers known as mujahideen ( those who engage in jihad ) when he arrived in Alexandretta in the latter part of that year . Intending to gain sea transportation from the Ottomans , al @-@ Qassam 's request was rejected by the authorities who ordered him and his men back to Jableh . A new Ottoman government in Istanbul had gained power and shifted the state 's focus to the Balkan front in October , abandoning the Libyan resistance . Part of the money that was raised was then used to establish a madrasa in Jableh while the remainder was saved for future efforts .
= = Anti @-@ French resistance in Syria = =
He later enlisted in the Ottoman army when World War I broke out , where he received military training and was attached as a chaplain to a base near Damascus . Returning to Jableh before the war 's end , al @-@ Qassam used funds from his planned expedition to Libya to organize a local defense force to fight the French occupation . His principal role in the local resistance was financing the acquisition of weapons for Jableh 's militia . By 1919 , French forces moved into the coastal area of northern Syria while Faisal I established the Kingdom of Syria in Damascus as an independent Arab state . During this period , al @-@ Qassam 's Jableh militia fought against local French @-@ backed Alawite militiamen who occupied areas around the city . The Alawites were eventually repelled , but French forces moved in soon after to consolidate their control . Consequently , al @-@ Qassam and many of his disciples left Jableh for Mount Sahyun where he established a base near the village of Zanqufeh to launch guerrilla raids against the French Army .
Al @-@ Qassam 's militia grew when it was joined by another militia based in the mountains following the death of its commander Umar al @-@ Bitar . However , as the French tightened their control of the area , they were able to successfully pressure several of Jableh 's major landowners to drop their financial support for al @-@ Qassam and pay taxes to the French Mandate government . This further isolated al @-@ Qassam who decided to flee Mount Sahyun for Aleppo in May 1920 . There he and his fighters joined ranks with Ibrahim Hananu who was leading attacks against the French Army until the latter captured Jisr ash @-@ Shugur in July . As a result of this French victory and the impending capitulation of Aleppo , al @-@ Qassam and members of his unit fled past French Army lines with forged passports to Tartus .
= = Activism in Palestine = =
= = = Establishment in Haifa = = =
From Tartus , al @-@ Qassam traveled to Beirut by boat and then to Haifa , then under the British Mandate , where his wife and daughters later joined him . During the early 1920s , al @-@ Qassam taught at the Madrasa Islamiya , an Islamic educational institution with many schools in Haifa and its periphery . It was funded by the Jamiat Islamiya , a waqf ( religious endowments ) administered by prominent Muslims from the city . Unlike other Muslim scholars , al @-@ Qassam made himself easily accessible to the public and often arrived late to teach his classes because he was frequently stopped by passersby for advice . He resigned from his teaching career due to the school 's insistence that he maintain consistent hours . As part of his Islamic revivalist teaching , he denounced and discouraged some local Palestinian traditions , including unorthodox funeral rituals , mothers ' visitation to the al @-@ Khidr shrine near Mount Carmel to give thanks for their children 's well @-@ being or achievements and tribal dances around religious sites , as superstitious innovations to Islam .
Al @-@ Qassam concentrated his activities on the lower classes , setting up a night school for casual laborers and preaching to them as an imam , first in the Jerini Mosque , and later in the Istiqlal Mosque . He would seek them out on the streets , in brothels and hashish dens . His greatest following came from the landless ex @-@ tenant farmers drifting into Haifa from the Upper Galilee where purchases of agricultural land by the Jewish National Fund and Hebrew labor policies excluding Arabs had dispossessed many of their traditional livelihoods . Al @-@ Qassam grew increasingly popular with northern Palestine 's poorer Muslims and was frequently sought out to preach at Mawlid celebrations .
In 1929 he was appointed the marriage registrar at the sharia court in Haifa by the Waqf authorities in Jerusalem , a role that allowed him to tour the northern villages , whose inhabitants he encouraged to set up agricultural cooperatives . According to the American historian Edmund Burke , al @-@ Qassam was :
An individual deeply imbued with the Islamic social gospel and who was struck by the plight of Palestinian peasants and migrants . Al @-@ Qassam 's pastoral concern was linked to his moral outrage as a Muslim at the ways in which the old implicit social compact was being violated in the circumstances of British mandatory Palestine . This anger fueled a political radicalism that drove him eventually to take up arms and marks him off from the Palestinian notable politicians .
He also took advantage of his travels to deliver fiery political and religious sermons in which he encouraged villagers to organize resistance units to attack the British and Jews . He intensified his agitation and obtained a fatwa from Shaykh Badr al @-@ Din al @-@ Taji al @-@ Hasani , the Mufti of Damascus , which ruled that the struggle against the British and the Jews was permissible .
= = = Relationship with local leaders = = =
According to Israeli historian Shai Lachman , between 1921 and 1935 al @-@ Qassam often cooperated with Hajj Amin al @-@ Husseini , the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem . They were initially on good terms , and al @-@ Qassam 's various official appointments required the mufti 's prior consent . He suggests their cooperation increased after the 1929 riots , in which one source claims al @-@ Qassam 's men were active . The two fell out in the mid @-@ 1930s , perhaps due to al @-@ Qassam 's independent line of activism . In 1933 , al @-@ Qassam sent an emissary to al @-@ Husseini , requesting the latter 's participation in a revolt against the British . At the time , al @-@ Husseini refused , preferring a political solution .
Between 1928 until his death , al @-@ Qassam served as the president of the Young Men 's Muslim Association ( YMMA ) in Haifa . While he focused his activism with the lower classes , his position in the YMMA afforded him access with the middle and educated classes of the city who were attracted to Hizb al @-@ Istiqlal ( Independence Party ) , an Arab nationalist political party . In particular , he developed a strong relationship with leading local party member Rashid al @-@ Hajj Ibrahim , the previous president of the Haifa YMMA . A wide ideological gap between the secularist al @-@ Istiqlal and al @-@ Qassam was bridged by a convergence in the view that the struggle against Zionist expansion in Palestine was inseparable from active opposition to British rule . This view separated al @-@ Qassam and al @-@ Istiqlal from the mainstream political forces in Palestine at the time . While men from al @-@ Istiqlal and the YMMA generally refrained from joining al @-@ Qassam 's cause , his association with them helped protect him from political figures who opposed his activism . His activities were also financed by several well @-@ off businessmen associated with al @-@ Istiqlal due to his spreading reputation .
= = = Organization of armed struggle = = =
In 1930 or 1931 , al @-@ Qassam had recruited numerous hand @-@ picked followers and organized them into about a dozen different circles , each group of supporters unaware of the existence of the other groups . The majority of his men were peasants and urban laborers . The majority of al @-@ Qassam 's circles were based in northern Palestine , but he had disciples throughout the country , including in Gaza in the south . In contrast to traditional Palestinian leaders who campaigned against Zionist settlement while avoiding confrontation with the British authorities , al @-@ Qassam saw it as a priority to fight against both . He also saw the brewing conflict in Palestine as a religious struggle , unlike most Palestinian leaders who advocated a secular and nationalist response . Al @-@ Qassam advocated a moral , political and military jihad as the solution to end British rule and Zionist aspirations in Palestine .
In training his men , al @-@ Qassam stressed that maintaining good character was of paramount importance . As such , fighters should provide for the needy , aid people with illness , maintain good ties with their families and pray regularly to God . These virtues , he claimed , were perquisites to being disciplined and fearless fighters . The moral component of al @-@ Qassam 's teachings were especially geared towards the young men of Haifa 's labor slums who lived away from their families and who were exposed to activities considered immoral in Islam . He viewed marriage as key to preventing the moral corruption of young men and managed to financially aid his more destitute supporters with their wedding expenses . He encouraged his men to grow beards as a sign of their commitment to jihad and to carry a Qur 'an with them wherever they went . Although many of his followers had been illiterate , he taught them how to read and write using the Qur 'an as their basis for learning . Al @-@ Qassam also asked his fighters to engage in the spiritual exercises practiced by the Qadiriyya Sufi order and to recite Sufi chants before battle .
The guerrilla bands became known as the Black Hand ( al @-@ kaff al @-@ aswad ) , an anti @-@ Zionist and anti @-@ British militant organization . The idea for such a group appeared to have crystallized after the 1929 riots . From the outset , a split occurred in the movement . One faction led by Abu Ibrahim al @-@ Kabir argued for immediate attacks against British and Jewish targets , while the other faction , headed by al @-@ Qassam , thought than an armed revolt was premature and risked exposing the group 's preparations . According to Subhi Yasin , a comrade of al @-@ Qassam , the group 's attacks in the north were executed by Abu Ibrahim 's group in defiance of al @-@ Qassam , though in 1969 , Abu Ibrahim denied this allegation . The Black Hand 's ensuing campaign began with the ambush and killing of three members of Kibbutz Yagur on 11 April 1931 , a failed bomb attack on outlying Jewish homes in Haifa in early 1932 , and several operations that killed or wounded four members of northern Jewish settlements . The campaign climaxed with the deaths of a Jewish father and son in Nahalal , from a bomb thrown into their home , on 22 December 1932 .
By 1935 , al @-@ Qassam had recruited several hundred men — the figures range from 200 to 800 — organized in cells of five men , and arranged military training for peasants . The cells were equipped with bombs and firearms , which they used to raid Jewish settlements and sabotage British @-@ constructed rail lines . Though striking a responsive chord among the rural poor and urban underclass , al @-@ Qassam 's movement deeply perturbed the Muslim urban elite as it threatened their political and patronage connections with the British Mandatory authorities . Following the October 1935 discovery of a clandestine cache of arms in the port of Jaffa apparently originating from Belgium and destined for the Haganah , a Jewish paramilitary force , Palestinian Arab indignation broke out in two general strikes . The arms shipment to the Haganah , known as the " Cement Incident " , served as the final impetus for al @-@ Qassam to launch a revolt against the authorities .
= = Death = =
On 8 November the body of a British constable , Moshe Rosenfeld , was discovered near Ein Harod . Al @-@ Qassam and his followers were believed to have been responsible and search parties set out to capture him . In this context , al @-@ Qassam and twelve of his men decided to go underground and , leaving Haifa , took to the hills between Jenin and Nablus . There they spent ten days on the move , during which they were fed by the residents of villages in the area . The British police manhunt eventually surrounded al @-@ Qassam in a cave near Ya 'bad , in the village of Sheikh Zeid . In the long ensuing firefight , al @-@ Qassam and three of his followers were killed , and five captured on 20 November .
The manner of his last stand galvanized Palestinians at the time , according to American historian Abdallah Schleifer :
Surrounded , he told his men to die as martyrs , and opened fire . His defiance and manner of his death ( which stunned the traditional leadership ) electrified the Palestinian people . Thousands forced their way past police lines at the funeral in Haifa , and the secular Arab nationalist parties invoked his memory as the symbol of resistance . It was the largest political gathering ever to assemble in mandatory Palestine .
To the surprise of the Palestine Police Force , al @-@ Qassam 's funeral , which was held at the Jerini Mosque , attracted at least 3 @,@ 000 mourners , mostly members of the peasant and working classes . His coffin and those of his slain comrades were draped in the flags of Yemen , Saudi Arabia , and Iraq , the only three independent Arab countries at the time . In reaction to al @-@ Qassam 's death , strikes were held in Haifa and several Palestinian and Syrian cities . Al @-@ Qassam is buried at the Muslim cemetery at the former Palestinian village of Balad al @-@ Sheikh , now Nesher , a Jewish suburb of Haifa . An obituary for al @-@ Qassam was published in the Egyptian newspaper Al @-@ Ahram on 22 November , eulogizing him as a " martyr " with the following statement : " I heard you preaching from up in the pulpit , summoning to the sword ... Through your death you are more eloquent than ever you were in life . "
= = Legacy = =
Five months following al @-@ Qassam 's death , members of his movement , known as " Qassamiyun " or " Qassamites " , under the leadership of Farhan al @-@ Sa 'di , al @-@ Qassam 's spiritual heir , shot and killed two Jewish passengers on a bus . This act became a major contributing factor to the start of the 1936 – 39 Arab revolt in Palestine . Peasant and urban guerrilla factions ( fasa 'il ) led by the Qassamiyun played a significant role in commencing the countrywide revolt . At the start of the revolt , al @-@ Qassam 's close disciples al @-@ Sa 'di , Abu Ibrahim al @-@ Kabir , and Attiyah Ahmad Awad led fasa 'il in the Jenin region , the Upper Galilee and Balad al @-@ Sheikh , respectively .
Al @-@ Qassam , according to Palestinian @-@ American Rashid Khalidi ,
played a crucial role in winning the populace away from the elite @-@ brokered politics of compromise with the British , and in showing them the " correct " path of popular armed struggle against the British and the Zionists .
The first Israeli prime minister , David Ben @-@ Gurion , compared the glory that al @-@ Qassam 's actions aroused in the 1930s to the fame won in Zionist discourse by Zionist activist Joseph Trumpeldor who died in a battle with Arab forces . Recalling this , Israeli historian Tom Segev has argued that " The terrorists that al @-@ Qassam led and the intifada fighters , more recently , may also be likened to the terrorists that Menachem Begin led . "
Although al @-@ Qassam 's revolt was unsuccessful in his lifetime , militant organizations gained inspiration from his example . His funeral drew thousands , which turned into a mass demonstration of national unity . The Palestinian fedayeen who emerged in the 1960s saw al @-@ Qassam as their originator . The founders of the Palestinian nationalist armed movement Fatah had initially considered naming their group the " Qassamiyun " . Leila Khaled , a well @-@ known member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , once stated that her organization began " where al @-@ Qassam left off : his generation started the revolution , my generation intends to finish it . "
The military wing of the Palestinian Islamist armed movement Hamas , the Izz ad @-@ Din al @-@ Qassam Brigades , bears his name as does the Qassam rocket , a short @-@ range rocket the group produces and uses .
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= 3rd Sustainment Brigade ( United States ) =
The 3rd Sustainment Brigade is a sustainment brigade of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Stewart , Georgia . The 3rd Sustainment Brigade is responsible for providing logistical support to the 3rd Infantry Division , however the modular nature of the brigade means that it takes on other roles while deployed . Personnel serving under this brigade wear the Shoulder Sleeve Insignia exclusive to this brigade , rather than the insignia designated for the 3rd Infantry Division .
Though its lineage dates back to 1957 , the unit was not designated as a separate unit until 2005 . The 3rd Sustainment Brigade has served three tours in Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom , its first tour being the initial invasion and securing of the country , followed by a second tour of duty as logistics support for units around Baghdad , and finally as the multinational division supply lines in the northern division of the country .
The Brigade left for a planned nine @-@ month deployment to Afghanistan in late November 2012 .
= = Organization = =
The 3rd Sustainment Brigade has a permanent organization of two attached battalions , however this number can be changed when the unit is deployed in a theater of operations . These permanent attachments include the 87th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion , and a Special Troops Battalion . The units are headquartered at Fort Stewart . Georgia , along with the brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company . Under non @-@ deployment circumstances , the HHC of the Brigade would , in turn , be directly subordinate to the 3rd Infantry Division .
= = History = =
The unit was constituted 1 July 1957 in the regular army as Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment , 3rd Infantry Division Trains , and activated at Fort Benning , Georgia . On 20 March 1963 , the unit was consolidated with the 3rd Infantry Division Band , which has previously been organized in 1943 as the band , 3rd Infantry Division . On 15 March 1968 , the unit was re @-@ organized and re @-@ designed as Headquarters and Headquarters Company and Band , 3rd Infantry Division Support Command . On 21 May 1972 , the unit was re @-@ organized and re @-@ designed as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 3rd Infantry Division Support Command . It was deployed to as part of the Cold War buildup , should hostilities arise in the region with the Soviet Union . Though the unit was placed on alert constantly , it never saw action during its time in the region , which lasted from its activation until 1991 .
In the fall of 2002 , the Division Support Command deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom I , earning the Presidential Unit Citation along with the rest of the 3rd Infantry Division . The Brigade and its division had spearheaded the invasion into the nation of Iraq , supporting the four brigades as they pushed through southern Iraq and into the capital of Baghdad . After the initial invasion and capture of Baghdad , the brigade remained in the city , supporting the 3rd Infantry Division as the unit conducted counterinsurgency and infrastructure activities in the area . It returned home to Fort Stewart in August 2003 .
The Division Support Command was renamed the Division Support Brigade and deployed to Iraq in the fall of 2004 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom III , leading coalition troops in control of the Baghdad area . Under Multinational Division , Baghdad . It returned home again in January 2006 . The Division Support Brigade was reorganized as the 3rd Support Brigade on 15 June 2005 , and re @-@ designated as the 3rd Sustainment Brigade on 21 April 2006 .
In 2007 , the Brigade saw its third deployment to Iraq during the Iraq War , relieving the 45th Sustainment Brigade of its areas of responsibility of Multinational Division , North , comprising over a dozen Forward Operating Bases . The Brigade deployed to Iraq in fall of 2007 following the Brigade Combat Teams and aviation brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division , however , for this deployment , the unit did not support the Division directly , as its mission in Multinational Division , North covered facilities management , not unit logistics . Brigade projects focused on building infrastructure throughout northern Iraq . The brigade served a total of 15 months in the country , headquartered at Contingency Operating Base Q @-@ West in Northern Iraq under the command of the 316th Expeditionary Support Command . It was relieved during a change of command ceremony on 9 August 2008 , at which time it returned to Fort Stewart . It was replaced by the 16th Sustainment Brigade . Since its return , the brigade participated in an intramural soccer tournament at Fort Benning , something many of its members enjoyed doing , even while deployed .
In late November 2012 the Brigade deployed to Afghanistan for its first tour in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign Streamers = = =
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= Don 't Judge Me =
" Don 't Judge Me " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown on his fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Brown , Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh and Mark Pellizzer , and produced by The Messengers . The song was sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on August 14 , 2012 as the fifth and final single from the album . " Don 't Judge Me " is a midtempo ballad , with lyrics in which Brown asks his lover to forgive him " for his past indiscretions " and " move on with the future . " The lyrics reportedly referred to Brown 's former relationships with aspiring American model and fashion designer Karrueche Tran and Barbadian recording artist Rihanna .
" Don 't Judge Me " received positive reviews from music critics ; some complimented the song and considered it a highlight on Fortune , while others criticized its production . In the United States , " Don 't Judge Me " reached number 10 on the R & B Songs chart , number 18 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also appeared on the singles chart in Australia , Austria , Belgium , France , Germany , Hungary , and the United Kingdom . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley and Brown . In the video , Brown goes on a " suicide mission " into outer space to save the world from an alien ship invading Earth . The video received a positive reception from most critics , particularly for its presentation .
= = Development and release = =
" Don 't Judge Me " was written by Chris Brown , Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh and Mark Pellizzer , and was produced by The Messengers . The audio mixing was completed by Jaycen Joshua , with assistance from Trehy Harris . Amber " Sevyn " Streeter sang background vocals . " Don 't Judge Me " was leaked on the Internet on June 26 , 2012 , three days before the official release date of Fortune . The artwork for the song debuted online on July 28 , 2012 ; it features Brown , wearing a " white dress shirt and skinny black tie " , striking a pose in front of a blue backdrop . " Don 't Judge Me " was sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on August 14 , 2012 , as the fifth single from the album . On November 2 , 2012 , the song was released as an extended play in Australia , Canada , France , and New Zealand , featuring the album version and three remixes . The single version of " Don 't Judge Me " was released on iTunes Stores in Belgium , Denmark , Ireland , Netherlands , and Sweden on November 23 , 2012 . A remix extended play , featuring the album version , music video and three remixes , was released in Austria , Germany , and Switzerland on November 23 , 2012 . In the United States , a remix extended play , featuring the single version and five remixes , was released on November 27 , 2012 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Don 't Judge Me " is a midtempo ballad that runs for three minutes and fifteen seconds , with instrumentation provided by drums . Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush noted that " Don 't Judge Me " features " a slow , sensuous romp , " which she found reminiscent of Michael Jackson . Lyrically , Brown asks his lover to forgive him " for his past indiscretions " and " move on with the future . " In the song , Brown encourages his lover that there is nothing going on between him and his ex @-@ girlfriend as he sings , " You 're hearing rumors about me / And you can 't stomach the thought / Of someone touching my body / When you 're so close to my heart / I won 't deny what they saying / Because most of it is true / But it was all before I fell for you . " He later declares " that he is a changed man who can now be trusted " as shown in the lines , " Take me as I am / Not who I was / I 'll promise I 'll be / The one that you can trust . " During the chorus , Brown sings " So please don 't judge me / and I won 't judge you / because it could get ugly / before it gets beautiful . " Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press noted that Brown " sings in his signature semi @-@ high pitch " , and critics speculated that the lyrics were about Brown 's former relationships with aspiring American model and fashion designer Karrueche Tran and Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . Holly Frith of Entertainment Wise noted that Rihanna " may be the inspiration " for the lyrics . Rolling Stone 's Maura Johnston described " Don 't Judge Me " as " a tender love song , " while Andrew Hampp of Billboard magazine referred to it as a " take me as I am " type of ballad . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review noted that " Don 't Judge Me " is similar to Brown 's 2009 song , " Changed Man . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Don 't Judge Me " generated positive reviews from music critics . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush and Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press viewed it as one of the standout tracks on Fortune . Amy Sciarretto ( also writing for PopCrush ) , noted that the song " demonstrates that [ sensitive ] side we don 't often see " from Brown . Jamel Coles , in the UAB Kaleidoscope described " Don 't Judge Me " as an " emotional track " and wrote , " when hearing songs like this , you can 't knock his ability to make good music . " Jasmine Grant of Juicy magazine viewed the song as a " heartfelt ballad , " and Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone wrote that it sounds like " a Twitter rant against haters . " Melissa Ruggieri of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution described " Don 't Judge Me " as a " lilting ballad " and noted that Brown is " semi @-@ serious " in the song . A reviewer on 4Music called the song " undeniably emotional " and wrote , " we 're wondering is if this is a heart @-@ wrenching plea to Rihanna ? " Sharon O 'Connell of Time Out magazine commented on the song 's title : " it 's a little late for that . " The Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Thomas Conner called it a " bland , breathy ballad . " In his review of Fortune , Nick Levine of BBC Music wrote that the song was one of the reasons why the album felt " cripplingly pointless . " Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald described " Don 't Judge Me " as " weak and wincing , " and stated that the lyrics are " the words of someone who still doesn 't quite grasp the extent of what he has done in the past . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Don 't Judge Me " debuted at number 85 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart dated September 1 , 2012 . It peaked at number 18 in the January 26 , 2013 issue . On the Billboard R & B Songs chart , the song debuted at number 13 in the October 20 , 2012 issue . The following week it rose to number 12 , and peaked at number 10 in the November 17 , 2012 issue . " Don 't Judge Me " peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart dated November 3 , 2012 , before it debuted at number 95 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated November 17 , 2012 . The song peaked at number 67 in the January 5 , 2013 issue . On October 13 , 2012 , " Don 't Judge Me " debuted at numbers 84 and 17 on the UK Singles Chart and UK R & B Chart respectively . The following week , it rose to number 42 on the UK Singles Chart and number eight on the UK R & B Chart . The song peaked at number seven on the UK R & B Chart dated October 27 , 2012 . In Belgium , " Don 't Judge Me " peaked at number two on the Ultratip Flanders chart , and number 25 on the Ultratip Wallonia chart . On the French Singles Chart , it debuted at number 168 on October 13 , 2012 , and peaked at number 22 on January 12 , 2013 . In Hungary , " Don 't Judge Me " debuted and peaked at number 10 on November 26 , 2012 . On December 7 , 2012 , the song debuted on the Austria Singles Chart at number 66 . In Australia , " Don 't Judge Me " debuted at number 44 on the ARIA Singles Chart dated December 10 , 2012 . The following week , it ascended to number 42 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Don 't Judge Me " was directed by Colin Tilley and Brown , and was filmed in August 2012 . On August 29 , 2012 Brown released an image from the shoot , showing himself seated on the floor of an abandoned room in an unbuttoned jacket . On September 11 , 2012 Brown released a similar image , tweeting , " ' Don 't Judge Me ' video coming soon ! " . The video premiered on Vimeo on September 27 , 2012 . It begins with Brown walking through the desert , while intercut scenes of himself sitting in front of a couch ( with his girlfriend , played by Runa Lucienne , sleeping behind him ) are shown . As the chorus begins for the first time , Brown is seen catching a ride from an army truck . He eventually arrives at an army base to prepare for a " suicide mission " , which involves him riding a spacecraft into outer space to save the world from an alien ship invading Earth . A news reporter at the base ( Brown 's girlfriend ) runs to him with the question , " People are saying this is a suicide mission , why are you doing this ? " Brown replies , " I 'm doing a service for my country and my planet . If that means saving the people I love and I care about , then that 's what I 'll do . " As the spacecraft takes off , tears run down Brown 's face before the spacecraft crashes into the alien ship , killing him . Brown and his girlfriend are then shown , hugging on the couch .
= = = Reception = = =
JusMusic of Singersroom magazine praised the video , writing " This is definitely art at its finest ! " A writer for Rap @-@ Up described the video as " cinematic " and " emotional , " while Billboard 's Erika Ramirez called it an " emotional visual . " Jasmine Grant of Juicy magazine noted that the video has a " futuristic soldier at war theme . " Colin Greten of MTV 's Rapfix agreed , writing that it " has a futuristic look and feel , " and that fans would also cry as Brown " makes the ultimate sacrifice " to save the world . A reviewer on The Huffington Post compared Brown 's character in the video to actor Bruce Willis in the 1998 film Armageddon , and wrote that " it 's certainly memorable , and sure to send Chris Brown 's fans – and huge army of critics – into a fresh flutter of support . " Idolator 's Sam Lansky wrote that " Brown is just as likable and subtle as ever in the video . " He continued : " It 's impressive to see that Breezy [ ... ] continues to find opportunities to depict himself as a hero " , when he makes headlines for the wrong reasons . A writer for Heat magazine stated that the video is " a mini disaster movie , complete with over @-@ acting and melodramatic slow @-@ motion shots . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Convict cichlid =
The convict cichlid ( Amatitlania nigrofasciata ) is a fish species from the family Cichlidae , native to Central America , also known as the zebra cichlid . Convict cichlids are popular aquarium fish and have also been the subject of numerous studies on fish behaviour .
= = Taxonomy = =
Albert Günther originally described the species in 1867 after Frederick DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin collected specimens in Central America . In 2007 , the species was moved from the genus Archocentrus to a new genus , Amatitlania , based on Juan Schmitter @-@ Soto 's study of Archocentus species . However , a 2008 study led by Oldrich Rican proposed moving the species in Cryptoheros and Amatitlania , including Amatitlania nigrofasciata into the genus Hypsophrys .
The convict cichlid displays significant color across its range . Some of these regional variants are now considered different species . In the cichlid @-@ keeping hobby , Rusty Wessel collected one such fish , the Honduran Red Point Cichlid ( Amatitlania sp . ) from a stream in Honduras . The Honduran Red Point Convict ranges from Atlantic Honduras south to Costa Rica . Other new species formerly included in A. nigrofasciata are Amatitlania coatepeque , from Lake Coatepeque in El Salvador , and Amatitlania kanna , from Panama 's Atlantic coast .
The type species , A. nigrofasciata , which used to cover all these species , is restricted to the northern population ranging from El Salvador to Guatemala on the Pacific coast and from Honduras to Guatemala on the Atlantic coast .
A number of synonyms exist for this species including : Archocentrus nigrofasciatus , Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum , Cryptoheros nigrofasciatus and Heros nigrofasciatus .
= = = Etymology = = =
The common name convict cichlid is , like the species name , derived from the vertical black stripes on the body which are reminiscent of the striped prison uniforms of British convicts . Similarly , the species epithet nigrofasciatus literally means " black @-@ striped " .
= = Description = =
The wild @-@ type of the species has 8 or 9 black vertical bars on a blue @-@ grey body , along with a dark blotch on the operculum . Juvenile convict cichlids are monomorphic until they reach sexual maturity . The male is mostly gray with light black stripes along the body . Males are larger than females , and they have more pointed ventral , dorsal and anal fins which often extend into filaments . In addition , older males frequently develop vestigial fatty lumps on their foreheads . Unusually for fish , the female is more highly coloured . She has more intense black bands across the body , and pink to orange colouration in the ventral region and on the dorsal fin . Mature males in the wild have a standard length of 6 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 centimeters , and breeding females are 4 @.@ 2 to 5 @.@ 5 centimeters long . The maximum standard length has been reported to be 10 centimeters , with total length near 12 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The body weight of the fish is about 34 – 36 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 oz ) . Selective breeding has resulted in a leucistic strain , which lacks the dark barring of the wild type . These are known commonly as white convicts , pink convicts , gold convicts , and A. nigrofasciata " Kongo " . The leucistic colouration is caused by a mutation in an autosomal gene and is recessively inherited .
= = Range and habitat = =
Convict cichlids are native to the lakes and streams of Central America . In particular , the species occurs along the eastern coast of Central America from Guatemala to Costa Rica , and on the western coast from Honduras to Panama . Convict cichlids prefer moving water , and are most frequently found in habitats with cover in the form of rocks or sunken branches . At four natural habitats of the convict cichlid in Costa Rica , the pH was found to range from 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 8 , while GH ranged from 63 to 77 ppm CaCO
3 . The daily water temperature ranged from 26 – 29 ° C ( 79 – 84 ° F ) . Convict cichlids can be relatively tolerant of cool water , allowing them to colonise volcanic lakes at elevations of 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) .
= = = Feral populations = = =
The species also occurs outside its natural range in Australia , where it can be found in the warm effluent of power stations in Victoria , and in tropical Queensland . It has also been captured in Perth , Western Australia , although this initial capture also resulted in its eradication . In addition to Australia , the species has been introduced to Réunion , Japan , Mexico , Colombia , Taiwan , and the USA .
= = Feeding = =
In natural habitats , the species has a diet composed of various prey , including crustaceans , small fish , insects , worms , plants and algae . The fish can protrude its jaw 4 @.@ 2 % of its standard length , allowing it to have a varied diet . Inferior social status and associated stress can affect digestive function in convict cichlids .
= = Reproduction = =
= = = Life cycle = = =
The convict cichlid can reach sexual maturity as young as 16 weeks , though sexual maturity more commonly occurs at 6 months . Sexually mature convicts form monogamous pairs and spawn in small caves or crevices . In the wild , the fish excavate caves by moving earth from underneath large stones . Females adhere eggs to the walls of the cave .
Like most cichlids , such as Oreochromis mossambicus , convicts brood ( exhibit parental care of ) both eggs and free @-@ swimming fry . The eggs hatch approximately 72 hours after fertilization . Until that time the parents expel intruders and potential egg predators from around the nest . They also fan the eggs , moving water with their fins over the clutch to provide oxygenation . They fan the eggs both day and night ; at night they use their sense of smell to recognize the presence of the eggs in the dark , and they keep their pelvic fins in contact with the eggs to remain at the right distance for fanning . In darkness the pair recognizes each other and detect predators using their sense of smell .
After hatching , the larvae spend another 72 hours absorb their yolk sacs and developing their fins before they become free @-@ swimming fry . The fry forage during daylight in a dense school and return to the cave or crevice for the night . Like other cichlids , the parents retrieve their young just before dark , sucking up three or four at a time and delivering them into the nest . The parents anticipate night , using a sense of time ; in laboratory experiments convict cichlids continued to retrieve young as night approached even in the absence of any signal , such as dimming light . During the night , the fry bunch up at the bottom of the cave or nest , where the parents fan them .
Both parents remain involved in guarding the fry from brood predators and engage in behaviors to assist feeding such as moving leaves or fin digging ( digging up the substrate with their fins ) . Brood care of eggs , larvae and free @-@ swimming juveniles in the wild can last 4 to 6 weeks , and occurs only once per season for the majority of females . In contrast , females in aquaria are known to breed many times per year with short intervals of 12 or 13 days between broods , as long as suitable rocks or similar surfaces are available for them to lay their eggs on .
= = = Mating system = = =
Convict cichlids are serially monogamous , so pair bonds may form first before they establish a territory together , or the male and female may each obtain a territory before pairing with each other . Because the convict cichlids are also substrate @-@ brooding , this territory will include a breeding site for the deposition of eggs .
= = = Sexual selection = = =
The effect of population density on sexual selection for convict cichlids has been studied . When nest density was greater , the females tended to be larger , which is more accurately explained by density @-@ dependent mate preference and mating competition , as opposed to predation and resource competition . Moreover , as the two nest density regimes were compared , with one high and one low , there was no significant difference in brood survival between the two ; however , the convict cichlids did prefer to breed farther away from each other , not in close proximity . This indicates that there are some other costs with breeding in an environment with high population density , an example being energy loss because of the resulting increased aggression when guarding territory .
The female 's preference for the male mate has also been examined , in accordance to the male 's size and fighting ability . The female cichlid always chooses the larger of the two males if the smaller male is next to the larger male , and if the larger male defeats the smaller male in a fight . If the males are not viewed together at the same time for a comparison to be drawn by the female , the female has no particular preference . Females do benefit by mating with a larger male , as it has been shown that larger males can raise more offspring to independence , are better at chasing predators that might attack offspring , and are better at competing for breeding sites . Male size may act as a more effective indicator of aggression , which may thus repel intruders before they can come closer to the offspring . It has been shown that individuals of significantly greater size relative to their opponent often win fights without much physical contact. convict cichlid are one of easiest cichlid to breed and keep
= = = Parental roles = = =
Convict cichlids are a biparental species , so the parents will usually cooperate by carrying out tasks specific to their individual parental roles when raising their offspring . This is common in cichlid fish , and studies have shown coordination between the female and male . The female tends to remain with the brood and perform activities involving the brood , whether it be fanning the eggs or mouth @-@ brooding the larvae , whereas the male tends to patrol the area to chase intruders and defend from predators . Both parents are able to carry out all of the parental care tasks to a certain extent . However , because they are biparentally custodial , each sex will still focus on a specific set of behaviors in particular , which is susceptible to change during the brood cycle . In fact , it is observed that when one of the mates is removed , either parent is still able to raise the offspring independently by having the capacity for all the parental behaviors . As the young offspring grow and become free @-@ swimming fry , the parental activities are distributed more equally between the parents , which appears to be typical behavior in other types of cichlids as well .
The different ways in which this biparental sex role specialization can be influenced was studied by manipulating the presence and absence of the mate as well as the presence and absence of an intruder . The former variable was considered because the specialization of parental roles only occurs when both parents are present , while the latter variable was considered because it is thought that biparental care in these cichlids was an evolutionary consequence of the protection of offspring from intruders . When both mates are present with no intruder , both parents may stay with the offspring by resembling single parents because each parent is addressing only the offspring and not its mate , or one parent may be concentrated on activities associated with the offspring while the other parent concentrates on patrolling and defending the area . Under these isolated conditions , a more equal sharing of parental behaviors tends to occur . However , when both mates are present and an intruder is introduced , the male spends more time chasing intruders while the female remains with the offspring more . When the intruder is present but a parent is by itself , the widowed male tends to leave the offspring unattended and instead attacks the intruder or predator . Therefore , the conclusive finding is that the male rarely remains with the offspring when the female is absent , and the female rarely confronts the intruder when the male is absent .
= = = Brood adoption = = =
Convict cichlids may show extended biparental care and adopt unrelated young of the same species of similar or smaller body size compared to their own biological offspring . The parents may benefit by adopting smaller young by taking advantage of the dilution effect , which is when the risk of predation for an individual is reduced because the group size is larger . Another reason that has been considered is that foreign young that are larger than the biological offspring may be a direct predatory threat to them . However , it has been shown that as the biological offspring develop and become stronger swimmers , the parents are less active about rejecting larger foreign young , but when they do reject , often foreign young are rejected before they are large enough to be perceived as a direct threat to the biological offspring . Thus , it can be concluded that the brood adoption and rejection rely more heavily on the protection of the biological offspring from differential predator instead of from larger adopted cichlids .
= = Aggressive behavior = =
Convict cichlids are known to be highly aggressive and territorial when breeding , possessing a variety of complex behaviors and adaptations , which have been suggested to be a result of environmental conditions , individual development , and trait variation . Due to their aggressive nature , cichlids are popularly studied to investigate the factors that may potentially cause their behavior . Convict cichlids usually demonstrate their aggressive behavior by biting and chasing , which entails bursts of high speed targeted at the intruder , and also show their aggression via their body size .
It has been shown that environmental parameters like changes in temperature and prior residence may affect the cichlid 's territorial aggression . The convict cichlids are more aggressive at 30 ° C as opposed to 26 ° C , which may be explained by the fact that convict cichlids tend to set up their breeding sites and spawn at 30 ° C.
= = Aquarium care = =
The aquarium should be decorated to mimic the natural environment and include rocks and artificial caves for breeding . Most experts agree that a pair of convicts should be kept in a 20 @-@ gallon aquarium or larger . The species is an unfussy omnivore and most types of prepared fish foods are readily accepted . The species also consumes aquatic plants so plastic plants or robust plants such as java fern are recommended . Convict cichlids are aggressively territorial during breeding and pairs are best kept alone . Brood care is reduced in aquarium strains . Due to the species ' tendency to dig , external filtration is superior to undergravel filter systems . Its relatively small size , along with ease of keeping and breeding , make the convict an ideal cichlid for beginners and advanced aquarists alike interested in observing pair bonds and brood care .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding convicts is as simple as having a male and a female in the same tank with adequate water quality and feeding . There is no special conditioning required . Due to their prolific breeding in captivity , there is a very low demand for Convict fry , and one may easily find their aquarium overstocked with an inbreeding population of Convicts without any avenues for adoption .
= = = Tank mates = = =
Ideal tank mates for convict cichlids consists of robust similar sized fish . Such fish include T @-@ Bar cichlids , Honduran red points , Green Terrors , Jewel cichlids , Salvini , Jack Dempsey , ( Keep in mind as Dempseys outgrow the convicts territorial issues will become a problem . ) Pictus catfish , plecostomus , as well as other convicts . Other fast moving fish such as Giant Danios can be used as dither fish . Also remember , if you have a breeding pair Convicts in a 40 @-@ gallon or smaller you will be most likely be unable to keep the convicts with any tank mates . But if your tank mates have established any type of dominance they will however breed and live together .....
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= Creation of express trusts in English law =
The creation of express trusts in English law must involve four elements for the trust to be valid : capacity , certainty , constitution and formality . Capacity refers to the settlor 's ability to create a trust in the first place ; generally speaking , anyone capable of holding property can create a trust . There are exceptions for statutory bodies and corporations , and minors who usually cannot hold property can , in some circumstances , create trusts . Certainty refers to the three certainties required for a trust to be valid . The trust instrument must show certainty of intention to create a trust , certainty of what the subject matter of the trust is , and certainty of who the beneficiaries ( or objects ) are . Where there is uncertainty for whatever reason , the trust will fail , although the courts have developed ways around this . Constitution means that for the trust to be valid , the property must have been transferred from the settlor to the trustees .
If property has not been transferred , the potential trustees and beneficiaries are volunteers , and an equitable maxim is that " equity will not assist a volunteer " ; the courts will not look at the case . To get around this , the courts have developed exceptions to this rule for situations when the settlor has done " all that he could do " , the trustees or beneficiaries have acquired the property in a different way , or where the gift was made donatio mortis causa . Formality refers to the specific language or forms used when transferring property . For chattels , no formal language or documentation is needed , unless it is made as a will . For land , the transfer must be drafted in line with the Law of Property Act 1925 and the Law of Property ( Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 1989 . When disposing of an equitable interest , the Law of Property Act 1925 must also be followed ; much of the case law in this area has centred on the meaning of " dispose " , with many cases involving people attempting to avoid tax .
= = Capacity = =
The first requirement of an express trust is capacity ; the person creating the trust must be legally capable of doing so . Generally speaking , anyone capable of holding property can form a trust , although there are exceptions . A minor cannot hold land , and therefore cannot create a trust of land ; in addition , unless they are soldiers or " mariners at sea " , they cannot form a valid will . Where a minor tries to create a trust , it will be held voidable , and can be repudiated by him when he reaches majority , or soon after . Where the trust is clearly of detriment to the minor , the courts may decide to take it as void ; the individual , when he reaches majority , could alternately plead non est factum if he had been too young to appreciate the nature of forming a trust . People who are considered mentally disordered ( under the Mental Health Act 1983 ) and have a receiver appointed cannot have trusts directly enforced against them , as they no longer have control over their property . Where there is no receiver , the mentally disordered person 's trust will be held void , unless it was made during a lucid period when the person was capable of understanding their actions . Corporations and statutory bodies only have the powers granted to them by their memorandum of association or authorising statute ; if these do not authorise the creation of trusts , any such trust will be held to be ultra vires .
= = Three certainties = =
For an express trust to be valid , the trust instrument must show certainty of intention , subject matter and object . Certainty of intention means that it must be clear that the settlor or testator wishes to create a trust ; this is not dependent on any particular language used , and a trust can be created without the word " trust " being used , or even the settlor knowing he is creating a trust . Since the 1950s , the courts have been more willing to conclude that there was intention to create a trust , rather than hold that the trust is void . Certainty of subject matter means that it must be clear what property is part of the trust . Historically the property must have been segregated from non @-@ trust property ; more recently , the courts have drawn a line between tangible and intangible assets , holding that with intangible assets there is not always a need for segregation . Certainty of objects means that it must be clear who the beneficiaries , or objects , are . The test for determining this differs depending on the type of trust ; it can be that all beneficiaries must be individually identified , or that the trustees must be able to say with certainty , if a claimant comes before them , whether he is or is not a beneficiary .
Uncertainty comes in four categories : conceptual uncertainty , evidential uncertainty , ascertainability and administrative unworkability . Conceptual uncertainty arises when the language is unclear , which leads to the trust being declared invalid . Evidential uncertainty is where a question of fact , such as whether a claimant is a beneficiary , cannot be answered ; this does not always lead to invalidity . Ascertainability is where a beneficiary cannot be found , and administrative unworkability arises when the nature of the trust is such that it cannot realistically be carried out . Trustees and the courts have developed various ways of resolving uncertainties , including the appointment of experts to work out evidential uncertainty , and giving trustees the power to decide who is or is not a beneficiary .
= = Constitution = =
The trust must then be formally constituted , by the transfer of its property to the trustees . For chattels , merely handing the property to the trustees is sufficient , assuming it comes with the relevant intention to create a trust . In some circumstances , providing the intention and telling the trustees where to find the property is sufficient , as in Thomas v Times Books . Where the property is land or an equitable interest in land , it must be transferred by writing in accordance with Sections 52 @-@ 3 of the Law of Property Act 1925 . When dealing with shares , the transfer is not complete until a transfer document has been completed and the company has entered the change of ownership in its books . One of the equitable maxims is that " equity will not assist a volunteer " ; if someone does not have an interest in property , they cannot bring a court case . When trusts are not properly constituted , the trustees and beneficiaries have no equitable interest in the property , and so are volunteers . There are several exceptions to this maxim . The courts are willing to hear cases where the transfer was not completed , providing the intended beneficiaries or trustees have gained an interest through being made executor of the settlor 's estate ( the rule in Strong v Bird ) , or the gift was given donatio mortis causa , or where the settlor did all he could do , as in Re Rose , or where it would be " unconscionable " to hold the gift invalid , as in Pennington v Waine .
= = Formality = =
As a general rule , there is no requirement for particular formalities in trust instruments , they can be oral or written . The only requirement is that they show an intention to create a trust . The exceptions are where it is a transfer of land , the transfer of existing equitable interests , or where the trust is made in a will .
= = = Land = = =
Trusts over land must comply with Section 53 ( 1 ) ( b ) of the Law of Property Act 1925 , which provides that :
( b ) a declaration of trust respecting any land or any interest therein must be manifested and proved by some writing signed by some person who is able to declare such trust or by his will .
This means that there must be evidence of the trust 's existence should someone choose to enforce it , and does not necessarily mean it need be in existence at the trust 's creation . Contracts for disposing of land , including the transfer of land into trusts , must follow the Law of Property ( Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 1989 , Section 2 of which provides that :
( i ) A contract for the sale or other disposition of an interest in land can only be made in writing , and only by incorporating all the terms which the parties have expressly agreed in one document or , where contracts are exchanged , in each .
( ii ) The terms may be incorporated in the document either being set out in it or by reference to some other document .
( iii ) The document incorporating the terms or , where contracts are exchanged , one of the documents incorporating them ( but not necessarily the same one ) must be signed by or on behalf of each party to the contract .
= = = Equitable interests = = =
For disposing of existing equitable interests , the Law of Property Act 1925 provides in Section 53 ( 1 ) ( c ) that :
( c ) A disposition of an equitable interest or trust subsisting at the time of the disposition , must be in writing signed by the person disposing of the same , or his agent thereunto lawfully authorised in writing or by will .
Much of the debate in this area is over the definition of " disposition " , and unsurprisingly almost all of the cases involve people trying to avoid tax . In Grey v IRC , the House of Lords gave disposition its " natural meaning " , saying that it meant " a transaction whereby a beneficiary who has a beneficial interest at the beginning of the transaction no longer has it at the end of the transaction " . Under the rule established in Vandervell v IRC , if the owner of a sole beneficial interest instructs his trustees to transfer the property , and this is done to transfer the beneficial interest and not simply to change the trustees , this does not fall under Section 53 ( 1 ) ( c ) and requires no specific formalities .
Simply disclaiming a beneficial interest does not fall within Section 53 ( 1 ) ( c ) , as in Re Paradise Motor Co . Nominating somebody to receive benefits of a pension fund should the pensioner die is also not a valid disposition , as in Re Danish Bacon Co Ltd Staff Pension Fund , and neither is nominating a beneficiary under a life insurance policy , as in Gold v Hill . Where a beneficiary declares he is holding the property on behalf of another , this would be the creation of a sub @-@ trust and not subject to specific formalities . However , under Grainge v Wilberforce , such a sub @-@ trust will only be held to be valid if there is some difference between the trust and sub @-@ trust , and if the trustee @-@ beneficiary has some duties to perform .
= = = Wills = = =
For a will to be valid ( and therefore , for a trust made in a will to be valid ) it must comply with Section 9 of the Wills Act 1837 . This provides that no will is valid unless :
( a ) it is in writing , and signed by the testator , or by some other person in his presence and by his direction ; and
( b ) it appears that the testator intended by his signature to give effect to the will ; and
( c ) the signature is made or acknowledged by the testator in the presence of two or more witnesses present at the same time ; and
( d ) each witness either -
( i ) attests and signs the will ; or
( ii ) acknowledges his signature , in the presence of the testator ( but not necessarily in the presence of any other witnesses .
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= USS Tecumseh ( 1863 ) =
USS Tecumseh was a Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . Although intended for forthcoming operations against Confederate fortifications guarding Mobile Bay with Rear Admiral David Farragut 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron , Tecumseh was temporarily assigned to the James River Flotilla in April 1864 . The ship helped to plant obstacles in the river and engaged Confederate artillery batteries in June .
Tecumseh was sunk on 5 August during the Battle of Mobile Bay when she struck a mine . The ship capsized and rests upside down northwest of Fort Morgan . The Smithsonian Institution surveyed her wreck in 1967 with the intent of raising it , but ultimately decided against the project when proffered funding was withdrawn . Several other plans to raise the wreck have been made , but all have fallen through .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 223 feet ( 68 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Tecumseh had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Tecumseh was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Tecumseh 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to the older Passaic @-@ class monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel ( ship ) was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protected the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven .
The contract for Tecumseh , named after the Indian chief , was awarded to Charles Secor & Co . ; the ship was laid down in 1862 by the primary subcontractor Joseph Colwell at his Jersey City , New Jersey shipyard . She was launched on 12 September 1863 and commissioned on 19 April 1864 with Craven in command . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor .
= = Service = =
After commissioning , the ship was ordered to join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron at Newport News and arrived there on 28 April . Tecumseh was ordered to protect the transports conveying Major General Benjamin Butler 's Army of the James up the James River at the beginning of the Bermuda Hundred Campaign on 4 May . To prevent Confederate warships from coming down from the James , the Union forces blocked the channel in mid @-@ June 1864 . Tecumseh sank four hulks and a schooner and laid several boom across the river as part of this effort . On 21 June , Commander Craven spotted a line of breastworks that the enemy was building at Howlett 's Farm and the ship opened fire at the workers . The Confederates replied with a battery of four guns near the breastworks and her sisters Canonicus and Saugus joined in the bombardment . A half @-@ hour later , Confederate ships near Dutch Gap joined in , but their fire was ineffective because they were firing blindly at the Union monitors . During the engagement , Tecumseh fired forty @-@ six 15 @-@ inch shells and was not hit by any Confederate shells . Craven claimed the destruction of one gun emplacement .
Two days after the battle , Tecumseh sailed down the James for Norfolk , but ran aground en route when her wire steering ropes broke after having been burned half way through by the heat of her boilers . She was refloated four hours later and spend a week in Norfolk making repairs and taking on supplies . On 5 July , the ship got underway for Pensacola , Florida to join the West Gulf Blockading Squadron , towed by the side @-@ wheel gunboats Augusta and Eutaw . The ship 's engine had overheated en route and required a week 's repairs at Port Royal , South Carolina and Augusta had to turn back with engine problems , but Eutaw and Tecumseh arrived in Pensacola on 28 July . Towed by the side @-@ wheel gunboat Bienville , the monitor arrived off Mobile Bay on the evening of 4 August .
Farragut briefed Craven on his ship 's intended role in the battle . She and her sister Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her . The river monitors Winnebago and Chickasaw were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Tecumseh in the lead , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
At 06 : 47 Tecumseh opened fire on Ft . Morgan 's lighthouse to test her guns . The Confederates held their fire until 07 : 05 when they began to shoot at the ships in both columns . By this time the Confederate ships had positioned themselves across the mouth of the channel , with Tennessee facing the unprotected side , and they started shooting as well . By 07 : 30 Tecumseh was about 600 yards ( 550 m ) away from Tennessee and Craven did not think that he could intercept the Confederate ironclad before Hartford entered the channel unless he passed through the field of " torpedoes " , as mines were called at the time , because of his ship 's poor maneuverability . He ordered the pilot to steer directly for Tennessee . Ten minutes later , Tecumseh struck a " torpedo " 100 yards from the Tennessee and sank in less than 30 seconds . Craven and the pilot , John Collins , arrived at the foot of the ladder leading to the main deck simultaneously with water up to their waists . Craven stepped back , saying " After you , pilot " , but was unable to follow him to safety before the monitor capsized . Including Craven , 94 of the crew went down with the ship . Commander James Jouett of the gunboat Metacomet dispatched a boat commanded by Acting Ensign Henry C. Nields to rescue any survivors . They successfully rescued ten men , including the pilot , and delivered them to Winnebago . Seven other survivors reached one of Tecumseh 's boats and four other men swam ashore and were captured .
= = Post @-@ war = =
The ship capsized as she sank and rests upside down in 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of water some 300 yards ( 270 m ) northwest of Fort Morgan . On 3 August 1873 , salvage rights for the wreck of Tecumseh were sold by the Department of the Treasury to James E. Slaughter for $ 50 . After the purchase , Slaughter announced that he intended to use explosives to blast the wreck into salvageable pieces . In 1876 , the relatives of the men lost on Tecumseh petitioned Congress to stop the salvage . Congress quickly passed Joint Resolution No. 23 on 15 August directing the Secretary of the Treasury to return the $ 50 to Slaughter , with 6 % interest . The Secretary of the Navy was to assume control of the wreck and was empowered to protect Tecumseh . Congress stipulated that any salvage efforts must provide for the proper removal and burial of the vessel 's dead crewmen .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the Smithsonian Institution formed the Tecumseh Project Team , which was intended to raise the ship as the centerpiece of a planned National Armed Forces Museum Park in Washington , D. C. The team found the wreck in February 1967 , capsized and buried just off Fort Morgan , but the primary donor was forced to rescind the funding , so the project was suspended . " In a 1993 survey , archaeologists from East Carolina University reported the hull to be covered by a calcareous crust with only nominal surface deterioration present . "
In 1974 , Jack Friend – a Mobile naval historian – was commissioned to examine the feasibility of raising Tecumseh and concluded that it would cost an estimated $ 10 million . More modern estimates have determined a salvage and conservation cost of $ 80 million . Divers from the Smithsonian Institution recovered an anchor , dishes from the ship 's dining hall and a variety of other artifacts during their 1967 expedition . Tecumseh 's engine room gong was also removed and is currently on display at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum . The wreck site is marked and under US Coast Guard surveillance pending continued preservation efforts . She is considered a war grave and may not be disturbed without permission of the Secretary of the Navy .
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= AASM =
The Armement Air @-@ Sol Modulaire ( Air @-@ to @-@ Ground Modular Weapon ) ( AASM ) " Hammer " is a French Precision @-@ Guided Munition developed by Sagem Défense Sécurité . AASM comprises a frontal guidance kit and a rear @-@ mounted range extension kit matched to a dumb bomb . The weapon is modular because it can integrate different types of guidance units and different types of bombs .
The basic version features a 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bomb plus hybrid inertial navigation system ( INS ) / Global Positioning System ( GPS ) guidance . Other variants add infrared homing or laser guidance to increase accuracy ; there are also versions with 125 @-@ kilogram ( 276 lb ) , 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) or 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bomb bodies .
It entered service in 2007 with the French Air Force and Naval Aviation , from Rafale and Mirage 2000 . In 2011 , AASM was given the name HAMMER ( Highly Agile Modular Munition Extended Range ) . Chosen for commercial reasons , the English acronym is also used in French . The French pronunciation of " AASM " was deux @-@ A @-@ S @-@ M or A @-@ deux @-@ S @-@ M.
= = Development = =
The program started in 1997 , when the Délégation Générale pour l 'Armement ( DGA ) , the French defense procurement agency , launched an international competition on the design for the weapon . In 2000 , a contract was awarded to SAGEM for an initial lot of AASM GPS / INS bomb kits , expected at the time to be delivered from 2004 and to enter service the following year .
= = = Validation = = =
A test campaign to validate in flight the main performances of this AASM variant started on December 6 , 2004 and ended on July 26 , 2005 .
While demonstrating excellent results , this campaign showed the need to change some of the aerodynamic features of the weapon . To compensate for delays in AASM deliveries in 2008 France ordered dual @-@ mode ( laser- and GPS / INS @-@ guided ) GBU @-@ 49 Enhanced Paveway II kits for integration with Mirage 2000D and Rafale fighter @-@ bombers . The GPS / INS + IIR guided version completed its qualification tests on July 9 , 2008 after three firings at the DGA 's missile test range in Biscarosse . This 250 kg IR version performed a night launch from a Rafale fighter @-@ bomber at DGA 's Biscarosse test range in December 2010 .
According to Sagem , the weapon was launched at a range of more than 50 km from the target , which was hit within one meter . A 125 kg version was successfully test fired on January 27 , 2009 , and a laser guided variant was air @-@ launched for the first time on June 17 , 2010 .
= = = Cost = = =
According to French Senate 's Comité des Prix de Revient des fabrications d 'Armement ( CPRA ) cited by the daily La Tribune , the total cost of the AASM program including development costs and the delivery of 2348 kits is € 846m . On that basis the per @-@ weapon cost is $ 300 @,@ 000 or twelve times the cost of the comparable American JDAM , although the latter has been manufactured in much larger quantities ( ~ 250 @,@ 000 kits ) and would be reasonable to expect a drastic reduction of the price of the French munition if larger contracts are signed and economies of scale are achieved .
The 2012 defence budget presented to the Senate reported the project had cost € 592.2m ( ~ US $ 800m ) with a unit cost of € 164 @,@ 000 , or € 252 @,@ 000 including development costs .
= = Variants = =
AASM comes in several variants according to its size and the type of guidance used .
The current model features a 250 kg bomb matched to a nose @-@ mounted guidance kit and a rear @-@ mounted range extension kit , containing a rocket booster and enlarged fins . There is also a 125 kg , first tested in 2009 , and a proposed 1000 kg version .
As for guidance , the basic version combines data from a Global Positioning System ( GPS ) receiver and an inertial navigation system ( INS ) unit through Kalman filtering , achieving a 10 metres ( 32 ft 10 in ) circular error probability ( CEP ) . This " decametric " all @-@ weather variant is complemented by a " metric " day / night fair weather version which adds infrared homing ( IIR ) guidance that matches the target area with a target model stored in its memory for a 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) CEP .
A third version uses laser guidance instead of IIR allowing it to hit moving targets with more precision . It was qualified in April 2013 .
On October 2010 , these versions were given alphanumeric designations with the INS / GPS version becoming the SBU @-@ 38 ( SBU = Smart Bomb Unit ) , the INS / GPS / IIR version becoming the SBU @-@ 54 and the INS / GPS / SALH version becoming the SBU @-@ 64 ; the system as a whole was renamed Hammer to make it more appealing to export customers .
= = Operational use = =
The first order for AASM was placed by the DGA in 2000 for a total of 744 units ; deliveries started in 2007 after a two @-@ year delay in development . In 2009 a second order for 680 units was placed , by the end of that year deliveries had reached 334 .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
AASM made its combat debut on April 20 , 2008 , during the War in Afghanistan when a Rafale fighter fired two in support of ground troops .
= = = Libya = = =
On 24 March 2011 it was reported that an AASM missile fired from a Dassault Rafale was used to destroy a Libyan Air Force G @-@ 2 / Galeb light ground attack / trainer jet , the first Libyan warplane to challenge the no @-@ fly zone during the 2011 Libyan civil war , on the runway just after the plane had landed at Misrata Airport .
On 6 April 2011 , it was reported that a AASM missile fired from a Dassault Rafale was used to destroy a Libyan tank at a range of 55 km .
In Libya , 225 AASM bombs have been fired
" Also referred to as the Hammer , the AASM weapon has impressed during the campaign to date . Incorporating a precision guidance kit and propulsion system , the design will eventually be available for use with standard bombs weighing between 125kg and 1,000kg , although a 250kg version is the only one currently in service . Sagem cites a range capability of more than 32nm from high altitude , or 8nm from low level . Launches can also be made from an off @-@ axis angle of up to 90 ° , while up to six weapons can be fired against individual targets in a single pass and with just one trigger press . " And " Libya represents the first opportunity for the French air force to employ the Thales Damocles targeting pod , although the Navy gave the system its combat debut over Afghanistan in late 2010 . "
= = Operators = =
= = = Current operators = = =
Egypt
France
Morocco
Qatar
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= Manchester and Bolton Railway =
The Manchester and Bolton Railway was a railway in the historic county of Lancashire , England , connecting Salford to Bolton . It was built by the proprietors of the Manchester , Bolton and Bury Canal Navigation and Railway Company who had in 1831 converted from a canal company . The 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long railway was originally to have built upon most of the line of the canal , but it was eventually built alongside the Salford and Bolton arms of the canal . The Act of Parliament also allowed the construction of a connection to Bury , but technical constraints meant that it was never built .
The railway required significant earthworks , including a 295 @-@ yard ( 270 m ) tunnel . The railway termini were at Salford railway station and Trinity Street station in Bolton . The railway was opened in 1838 to passenger and freight services . In 1841 it was extended to Preston , and in 1844 to Victoria railway station in Manchester . It amalgamated with the Manchester and Leeds Railway in 1846 .
The railway is in use today as part of the Manchester to Preston Line , although some of the original stations are no longer in use .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In the 1820s a number of proposals for a railway between Manchester and Bolton were made , some well advanced enough to be submitted to Parliament . One , in 1825 , was for a line from New Bailey in Salford , to Park Field in Bolton , and included a branch line to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation . The plan included the use of an inclined plane at Clifton to allow the railway to access the higher ground from thereon . Another scheme was to connect with the planned Liverpool and Manchester Railway near Eccles , and would reach Bolton via Moorside and Farnworth . Neither of these schemes progressed beyond the early stages of planning . In 1830 two more proposals to connect the towns were made . The Manchester to Preston Railway was unsuccessful , leaving open the way for the second scheme , which would become known as the Manchester and Bolton Railway .
= = = Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal Company = = =
In 1830 the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal Company , led by chairman John Tobin , began to promote the construction of a railway along the line of their canal , from Salford to Bolton and Bury . Alexander Nimmo was employed to assess the proposal , and reported that it was possible " so far as he expressed himself capable of judging from his present cursory view of the canal " . The shareholders then sought a bill for a railway from Bolton to Manchester and on 23 August 1831 obtained an Act of Parliament to become the " Company of Proprietors of the Manchester , Bolton and Bury Canal Navigation and Railway Company " . The act authorised the abandonment of the canal between the Irwell basin and Prestolee , and empowered the company to build a line from Manchester to Bolton and Bury , " upon or near the line of ... the Canal " . Two branch lines were also authorised , one from Clifton Aqueduct through to Great Lever , and the other from Giants Seat through to Radcliffe and Bury . Due mainly to the objections of local mine owners who would have lost access to the canal and therefore their supply route , and who also would not have had branch railways built for them , the company agreed to an amending bill which would keep the canal and allow the new railway to be constructed alongside it . In 1832 the company obtained an Act that allowed it to build the railway along the new alignment . The Act also allowed for an extension of the railway to New Bailey Street in Salford , and from Church Wharf ( the terminus of the canal at Bolton ) to Bridge Street . Smaller branches in Bolton and Salford were also allowed .
Construction of the railway started in 1833 , from Salford . The company attempted to alter the route of the Bury branch , and also to extend it to Rawtenstall , but they did not receive Parliamentary approval for this . In July 1834 the committee of management applied to Parliament for " an act to amend the line of the railway between Manchester and Bolton " . The amendment would take the railway along much the same course as that proposed by the Manchester to Preston Railway and was authorised by Parliament in 1835 . Work proceeded so slowly that further clauses were added to the proposed act , including a continuation of the railway from Bolton , to Liverpool . Although this continuation was never built , the Liverpool and Bury Railway built such a connection in 1848 . A line from Clifton to Bolton , authorised in 1835 , did not materialise . The connection to Bury was never built , due mainly to the objections of the company 's engineer , Jesse Hartley . The Bury branch would have required a 1 @,@ 100 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) tunnel on a gradient of 1 in 100 , at the time a difficult and expensive proposition .
Initially there were to have been three tracks , one for goods and another two for passengers , but only two were built . Work proceeded at a slow pace , in a piecemeal fashion , with contracts awarded for portions of the work as occasion demanded . Advertisements in the Bolton Chronicle appealed to Quarrymen for quantities of stone blocks to support the rails , and for excavators to construct parts of a proposed addition to the embankment from Agecroft towards Clifton Hall . Another advertisement in November that year advertised for tenders for contracts for the construction of bridges , viaducts , culverts and other structures to finish the line from Irwell Street in Salford , to Bolton . A difficult section of the railway was at Farnworth , where a tunnel was required to cut through the hillside . A double @-@ bore tunnel 295 yards ( 270 m ) long was built between 1835 and 1838 , driven from both sides , with a large vertical shaft in the centre . This was later joined by a narrower single @-@ bore tunnel , through which the down line was routed . Traffic along the upline was routed through the original tunnel .
Four acts of parliament were required to raise the necessary funds , and the line opened on 28 May 1838 . From a report of the Directors on 9 January 1839 , the railway had carried 228 @,@ 799 passengers since its inception . In 1841 the company had 10 locomotive engines .
In 1845 William Hurst took over as Railway Superintendent for the company .
A branch line was also " to join and communicate with the ... Bolton and Leigh Railway " , at a junction near the Daubhill Stationary Engine , this line was however , not built . The company later shared their railway , including their station at Salford , with the Manchester , Bury and Rossendale Railway Company ( MB & RRC ) and both worked together to construct a junction at Clifton Junction railway station . In 1846 the company was taken over by the Manchester and Leeds Railway , which itself became the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway the following year . In 1922 it amalgamated into the London and North Western Railway , and in 1923 this company amalgamated into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway . This company was nationalised in 1948 under the Transport Act 1947 , and became part of British Railways .
= = Route = =
The original terminus was at Salford railway station on New Bailey Street in Salford . Passing through Pendleton , Dixon Fold , Stoneclough and Farnworth the line ended at Bolton railway station . In 1841 the line was extended to Preston by the Bolton and Preston Railway . The route northwards to Blackburn followed four years later , whilst the Liverpool and Bury Railway 's arrival in 1848 gave Bolton links eastward to Bury and Rochdale and westwards to Wigan and Liverpool . From Salford , the line was extended 1 @,@ 290 yards ( 1 @,@ 180 m ) via several bridges and across Chapel Street , to Victoria Station in 1844 . These lines had all become part of the expanding Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway system by 1858 .
= = Design = =
The rails were of broad @-@ based parallel form and weighed 55 pounds ( 25 kg ) per 1 yard ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) . Gauge was 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) 8 inches ( 20 cm ) . These rails were later replaced with 68 pound per yard ( 34 kg / m ) rails when the former were discovered to be insufficient to carry the weight of the trains using them . Significant earthworks were required along the route , and the 295 yards ( 270 m ) tunnel at Farnworth was constructed in favour of a cutting . The tunnels were built through clay , and lined entirely with brick or masonry . Turntables were placed at each terminus .
Thirty three bridges were constructed , along with stone drainage facilities to keep water from the cuttings . The railway company was forced to change the design of some of these bridges , as insufficient room was given for the locomotives and carriages on the track to pass between the bridge supports , which were only 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . With only 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of space between some vehicles and the bridge supports , a report by the Inspector of Railways on 11 December 1846 concluded that they were dangerous . On 19 November 1842 a guard named William Parker was killed on the railway , his skull found fractured , and on 26 July 1844 a guard named James Cook was killed as he leant out and was struck by a support . It was also reported that the distance between rails at these bridges was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , whereas the normal distance was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
= = Locomotive types and coaches = =
The company purchased four Bury Type locomotives from Bury , Curtis and Kennedy , two from George Forrester and Company , and two from William Fairbairn & Sons . Two further Bury 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 0s were acquired by the railway in 1844 @-@ 45 . Coaches were first and second class ; each first class carriage held 18 passengers , and each second class carriage held 32 passengers . Third class carriages were introduced on 11 June 1838 but discontinued on 1 December 1838 after the company found that many passengers were vacating first and second class , for the cheaper third class . The company had 15 first class carriages , and 22 second class carriages .
= = Fares and services = =
Initially , first class passenger fares were two shillings and six pence ( 2s 6d - " half @-@ a @-@ crown " ) for the entire ten mile journey , or 3d per mile . This is the equivalent of at least £ 10 in 2011 values . Second class was 2s , or 2.40d per mile . On 11 June 1838 , a new pricing structure was introduced , with first class costing 2s , second class 1s 6d , and third class 1s . Passenger tickets were taken in transit .
Freight was charged at a maximum rate of 4.02d , and a minimum of 3d per ton per mile respectively .
The first train to use the new line was pulled by the Victoria . It left Manchester at 8 : 00 am , and arrived in Bolton 26 minutes 30 seconds later . The second train was pulled by the Fairfield . The trains originally ran on the right hand set of rails , an unusual practice in England , however the railway later changed to left @-@ hand running with the connection of the MB & RRC at Clifton . Ten trains ran in each direction per weekday , and two on Sundays . The journey from Salford to Bolton took about 35 minutes .
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= Miami Vice ( video game ) =
Miami Vice is an action video game developed by Canvas and published by Ocean Software . It was first released in the United Kingdom for the Amstrad CPC , Commodore 64 , and ZX Spectrum in 1986 . It was later re @-@ released in Germany and Italy for the Commodore 64 in 1989 . The game is based on the television series of the same name and follows the two central characters , James " Sonny " Crockett and Ricardo Tubbs , as they attempt to derail a Miami drug ring which is led by series antagonist " Mr J " .
The game was published by Ocean Software , who were renowned for developing video games related to their respective films and television shows . The main objective of the game is to apprehend criminals throughout the streets of Miami , which is accomplished by driving to various locations around the city . Miami Vice received mixed reviews upon release ; the game was mainly criticised due to its poor mechanics and graphics , though some reviewers praised the overall experience .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in a top @-@ down perspective with elements of 2D side @-@ scrolling gameplay . The main objective of the game is to derail various shipments of drugs controlled by the Miami Vice series antagonist , Mr J. The player assumes control of series protagonists James " Sonny " Crockett and Ricardo Tubbs , in which they must eliminate gangsters throughout Miami . To accomplish this end , Crockett and Tubbs can drive their car through the streets of Miami in order to get to various destinations , such as City Hall , Vines Bar , State Hotel , Shark Club , Joes Bar , Flag Hotel , Grand Casino , Palm Club , Murk Club , Ocean Warehouse , Acme Warehouse and Sierra Hotel , quicker . If the player collides into a wall or another car whilst driving , a small explosion will occur and a life will be deducted .
At a labelled building , the player can get out of the car and enter , though enemies will only appear during certain times of the day . If the player arrives too early , the enemy gangsters will attempt to escape . If the player arrives too late , the building will be found vacant . A timetable of all meetings are included in the game 's instruction manual . The aesthetic interior of buildings include two rooms , with limited decorations such as a pool table and chairs . Some buildings contain evidence bags which can be collected for extra points . Once the player comes into contact with an enemy , a separate window will appear which will display his name . The player can apprehend him by either catching or trapping him . Once caught , the player may take him to the city hall to interrogate him in order to receive information such as the location of the next gangster meetup . Points are gained by apprehending criminals , returning evidence bags or destroying cars .
= = Background = =
Ocean Software was founded in Manchester by David Ward and Jon Woods in 1984 . The company were known for developing titles such as Platoon , Top Gun and Jurassic Park , which were usually based on the films of the same name . During the late 1980s and early 1990s , Ocean primarily focused on developing games related to best @-@ selling B @-@ movies or porting other commercially successful games onto different platforms .
In 1996 , the company was purchased by French holding company Infogrames for £ 100 million and was later merged into Atari , in 2004 . In 2004 , both founders of Ocean Software received the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association Hall of Fame award , for their recognition in " transforming " the British video games industry into a multi @-@ national business .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed to negative reviews upon release . Pete Shaw of Your Sinclair praised the overall experience of the game , including the " fast paced " gameplay and lack of an intrusive plot , however he criticised the " terrible " attribute clash issues in the ' Frankie goes to Florida ' mode , in which he states that the mode causes graphical errors . Three reviewers of Zzap ! 64 stated that the graphics were " simplistic " , but found them to be crisp and colourful . Chris Bourne of Crash , however , criticised the graphics as " dodgy " and " drab " . Jim Lloyd of Computer and Video Games praised the music and its ability to change once the player moves from a car to building , however theorised that the game would sell due to " its name " . Bourne criticised the game 's lack of music for the Amstrad port and limited range of sound effects .
Miami Vice received particular criticism at the difficulty of manoeuvring the car . Edward Drury of Computer Gamer , though finding the game to be enjoyable at times , stated that his only dislike was the manoeuvrability of the car , remarking that the game " gets boring " due to the amount of collisions . Bourne was highly critical of the mechanics of the car , finding it to be " ludicrous " and taking " at least half an hour to get used to " . He concluded that the game was " very bad " . Jim Lloyd of Computer and Video Games and a reviewer of Zzap ! 64 concurred that the controlling the car was a major issue .
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= A Dog and Pony Show ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" A Dog and Pony Show " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 10 , 1993 . In the episode , Pembleton and Bayliss investigate the murder of a police dog , Crosetti helps his friend adjust after a serious injury , and Felton and Howard suspect a drug dealer for a brutal murder .
The episode was written James Yoshimura based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Alan Taylor , who Homicide executive director Barry Levinson chose after being impressed by Taylor 's short film That Burning Question ( 1988 ) . Elements of the episode , including the shooting of patrolman Chris Thormann , were adapted from David Simon 's non @-@ fiction crime book , Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . " A Dog and Pony Show " included guest appearances by actors Michael Constantine , Larry Gilliard , Jr . , Lisa Gay Hamilton and Edie Falco .
Since ratings for Homicide had gradually declined throughout the season , NBC announced a decision about whether the series would be renewed would depend on the Nielsen ratings of the final four episodes , starting with " A Dog and Pony Show " . Before it aired , Barry Levinson appeared in a commercial making a direct appeal to viewers to watch . Nevertheless , it was seen by 8 @.@ 47 million household viewers , which was considered relatively low , although it was an improvement over the previous episode " Three Men and Adena " .
= = Plot summary = =
Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) continues to despair over the murder case of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson , which he failed to solve . When Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) orders Bayliss and Pembleton to move on and take new cases , they are assigned to solve the murder of Jake , a police dog . Bayliss thinks it is a waste of time , but according to municipal law , the death of a city @-@ owned animal is treated as an official investigation , and Pembleton decides to take the case seriously . The dog 's gums are extremely red , and Pembleton believes he may have been poisoned or gassed . They question local dog pound employee Penny ( Joy Ehrlich ) , who admits she accidentally killed Jake with carbon monoxide after mixing him up with another dog , then dumped the body in a panic . John Kuehn ( Nick Olcott ) , Jake 's human " partner " , scatters Jake 's ashes in a lake and Bayliss , reminded of Adena Watson , reacts emotionally .
Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) and Howard ( Melissa Leo ) respond to the murder of a young woman named Idamae Keene , who is found cut and tortured to death in a bedroom . They determine the victim likely knew her killer , and the next day they question " Pony " Johnson ( Geoffrey Ewing ) , a drug dealer who was having an affair with Keene . Johnson denies killing Keene , but Johnson 's other girlfriend ( Lisa Gay Hamilton ) tells the detectives Johnson abruptly left a party with a fellow drug pusher named William Lyness ( Larry Gilliard , Jr . ) the night of the murder . Later , Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) reports William 's mother , Alexandra Lyness , was killed the same way as Keene . Felton , Howard and Lewis interrogate William Lyness , who confesses he sat in the car while Johnson killed his mother for taking drugs away from William .
Medical examiner Blythe ( Wendy Hughes ) leaves her visiting son Danny ( Stivi Paskoski ) with her boyfriend Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) for the day , with the hopes they will get to know each other better . Danny rides along with Bolander and Munch ( Richard Belzer ) on their murder investigations , but acts very wild and constantly asks inappropriate questions . At dinner later , Danny asks Bolander about his sex life with Danny 's mother , making Bolander extremely uncomfortable . Bolander later tells Blythe he believes her son is crazy . Meanwhile , Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) spends a lot of time with his friend Officer Chris Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) , who is recovering from a recent shooting that has left him blind . At one point , Thormann defecates on himself and is humiliated , but Crosetti helps him clean up . Thormann 's wife , Eva ( Edie Falco ) , tells Crosetti she is pregnant , but that her husband reacted angrily to the news . Thormann tells Crosetti he should have died at the hospital and can never be a good father , but Crosetti encourages him .
Gee attends a retirement party for his best friend and fellow shift commander , Lt. John Scinta ( Michael Constantine ) . Police brass keep Scinta 's possible replacement a secret from Gee . After returning drunk from the party , the two reminisce about old times , but Scinta also warns Gee that police brass could end up forcing him into retirement , just as they did to Scinta .
= = Production = =
" A Dog and Pony Show " was written by James Yoshimura based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Alan Taylor . Barry Levinson , executive producer of Homicide : Life on the Street , hand @-@ picked Taylor to direct the episode after watching Taylor 's 1988 half @-@ hour film , That Burning Question , which Taylor made as a thesis for a seminar taught by film director Martin Scorsese . The episode establishes the vacancy of the homicide unit 's second shift commander position , which is offered to Pembleton in the first season episode , " And the Rockets Dead Glare " , before it is ultimately given to Megan Russert in the beginning of the third season . Taylor said of directing Homicide , " I hadn 't even learned the rules of filmmaking , or TV for that matter , and I was being put in a position where I was supposed to break them all . "
The shooting of Officer Thormann was adapted from true @-@ life events in chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series . Homicide writers added the twist of Crosetti taking the case personally based on his close friendship with the victim . As the first season of Homicide progressed , NBC officials complained to the show 's producers about the large number of protracted , interwoven subplots going on during each given episode . " A Dog and Pony Show " in particular refers to the Adena Watson murder , which was featured in five previous episodes and resolved in " Three Men and Adena " , as well as the romance between Bolander and Blythe , which had been progressing throughout the first season . Additionally , the " Pony " Johnson subplot started in " A Dog and Pony Show " would not become resolved until the next episode , " And the Rockets Dead Glare . " By the beginning of the second season , the Homicide producers bowed to network pressure and were forced to reduce the number of subplots in each episode .
" A Dog and Pony Show " included guest appearances by actors Michael Constantine , Larry Gilliard , Jr . , Lisa Gay Hamilton and Edie Falco . Tom Fontana cast Falco as Officer Thormann 's wife Eva after watching her performance in Laws of Gravity . Fontana said of her , " She 's an actress who 's unadorned by any embroidery . She does everything with such simplicity and honesty , it 's breathtaking . " Falco was a struggling actor at the time , and said her salary from one Homicide episode paid for one month 's worth of rent . Fontana cast Falco as a regular in his HBO series Oz based on her work in the Homicide episodes . Larry Gilliard , Jr. later starred in a leading role as drug dealer D 'Angelo Barksdale in The Wire , another Baltimore police drama created by Homicide producer and writer David Simon . Lisa Gay Hamilton later starred in the legal drama The Practice , making her the second future Practice star to appear on Homicide , after Steve Harris in " Gone for Goode " . Hamilton also later starred in the 2009 comedy @-@ drama series Men of a Certain Age as the on @-@ screen wife of a character played by Homicide co @-@ star , Andre Braugher .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Ratings for Homicide : Life on the Street gradually declined since the series first premiered . In response , NBC announced to fans that a decision about whether Homicide would be renewed or canceled would depend on how the last four episodes of the season fared in the ratings , starting with " A Dog and Pony Show " . The week before the episode aired , the network started airing a television commercial with Barry Levinson making a direct appeal to viewers to watch the show , in which he said :
If you 're wondering when we 're on , remember the Michael Jackson special ? We were opposite that . And when the president spoke ? Pre @-@ empted for it . And the Grammys ? You got it - we were opposite that . So where are we , exactly ? Well there 's a show called Home Improvement - and as soon as you get there , then quickly switch to NBC .
In its original American broadcast on March 10 , 1993 , " A Dog and Pony Show " was watched by 8 @.@ 47 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 9 @.@ 1 rating . This constituted an increase in viewership compared to the previous week 's episode , " Three Men and Adena " , which was seen by 7 @.@ 08 million household viewers and received a 7 @.@ 6 rating . Nevertheless , Homicide ranked relatively low in the Nielsen ratings compared to other shows , ranking 67th for the week of March 8 to 14 , with the ABC comedy series Home Improvement ranking number one with 22 @.@ 6 million household viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The Scripps Howard News Service praised the episode , calling it one of their strongest television recommendations for the week and declaring Homicide " the best new drama of the season " . " A Dog and Pony Show " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
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= J. Robert Oppenheimer =
Julius Robert Oppenheimer ( April 22 , 1904 – February 18 , 1967 ) was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . As the wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Oppenheimer is among those who are called the " father of the atomic bomb " for their role in the Manhattan Project , the World War II project that developed the first nuclear weapons used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The first atomic bomb was detonated on July 16 , 1945 , in the Trinity test in New Mexico ; Oppenheimer remarked later that it brought to mind words from the Bhagavad Gita : " Now I am become Death , the destroyer of worlds . "
After the war Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission , and used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union . After provoking the ire of many politicians with his outspoken opinions during the Second Red Scare , he suffered the revocation of his security clearance in a much @-@ publicized hearing in 1954 , and was effectively stripped of his direct political influence ; he continued to lecture , write and work in physics . Nine years later President John F. Kennedy awarded ( and Lyndon B. Johnson presented ) him with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation .
Oppenheimer 's achievements in physics include the Born – Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wavefunctions , work on the theory of electrons and positrons , the Oppenheimer – Phillips process in nuclear fusion , and the first prediction of quantum tunneling . With his students he also made important contributions to the modern theory of neutron stars and black holes , as well as to quantum mechanics , quantum field theory , and the interactions of cosmic rays . As a teacher and promoter of science , he is remembered as a founding father of the American school of theoretical physics that gained world prominence in the 1930s . After World War II , he became director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 22 , 1904 , the son of Julius Oppenheimer , a wealthy Jewish textile importer who had immigrated to the United States from Germany in 1888 , and Ella Friedman , a painter . Julius came to America with no money , no baccalaureate studies , and no knowledge of the English language . He got a job in a textile company and within a decade was an executive with the company . Ella was from Baltimore . The Oppenheimers were non @-@ observant Ashkenazi Jews . In 1912 the family moved to an apartment on the 11th floor of 155 Riverside Drive , near West 88th Street , Manhattan , an area known for luxurious mansions and town houses . Their art collection included works by Pablo Picasso and Édouard Vuillard , and at least three original paintings by Vincent van Gogh . Robert had a younger brother , Frank , who also became a physicist .
Oppenheimer was initially schooled at Alcuin Preparatory School , and in 1911 entered the Ethical Culture Society School . This had been founded by Felix Adler to promote a form of ethical training based on the Ethical Culture movement , whose motto was " Deed before Creed " . His father had been a member of the Society for many years , serving on its board of trustees from 1907 to 1915 . Oppenheimer was a versatile scholar , interested in English and French literature , and particularly in mineralogy . He completed the third and fourth grades in one year , and skipped half the eighth grade . During his final year , he became interested in chemistry . He entered Harvard College a year late , at age 18 , because he suffered an attack of colitis while prospecting in Joachimstal during a family summer vacation in Europe . To help him recover from the illness , his father enlisted the help of his English teacher Herbert Smith who took him to New Mexico , where Oppenheimer fell in love with horseback riding and the southwestern United States .
In addition to majoring in chemistry , he was also required by Harvard 's rules to study history , literature , and philosophy or mathematics . He compensated for his late start by taking six courses each term and was admitted to the undergraduate honor society Phi Beta Kappa . In his first year he was admitted to graduate standing in physics on the basis of independent study , which meant he was not required to take the basic classes and could enroll instead in advanced ones . A course on thermodynamics taught by Percy Bridgman attracted him to experimental physics . He graduated summa cum laude in three years .
= = = Studies in Europe = = =
In 1924 Oppenheimer was informed that he had been accepted into Christ 's College , Cambridge . He wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory . Bridgman provided Oppenheimer with a recommendation , which conceded that Oppenheimer 's clumsiness in the laboratory made it apparent his forte was not experimental but rather theoretical physics . Rutherford was unimpressed , but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge in the hope of landing another offer . He was ultimately accepted by J. J. Thomson on condition that he complete a basic laboratory course . He developed an antagonistic relationship with his tutor , Patrick Blackett , who was only a few years his senior . While on vacation , as recalled by his friend Francis Fergusson , Oppenheimer once confessed that he had left an apple doused with noxious chemicals on Blackett 's desk . While Ferguson 's account is the only detailed version of this event , Oppenheimer 's parents were alerted by the university authorities who considered placing him on probation , a fate prevented by his parents successfully lobbying the authorities .
A tall , thin chain smoker , who often neglected to eat during periods of intense thought and concentration , Oppenheimer was marked by many of his friends as having self @-@ destructive tendencies . A disturbing event occurred when he took a vacation from his studies in Cambridge to meet up with his friend Francis Fergusson in Paris . Fergusson noticed that Oppenheimer was not well and to help distract him from his depression told Oppenheimer that he ( Fergusson ) was to marry his girlfriend Frances Keeley . Oppenheimer did not take the news well . He jumped on Fergusson and tried to strangle him . Although Fergusson easily fended off the attack , the episode convinced him of Oppenheimer 's deep psychological troubles . Plagued throughout his life by periods of depression , Oppenheimer once told his brother , " I need physics more than friends " .
In 1926 he left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen to study under Max Born . Göttingen was one of the world 's leading centers for theoretical physics . Oppenheimer made friends who went on to great success , including Werner Heisenberg , Pascual Jordan , Wolfgang Pauli , Paul Dirac , Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller . He was known for being too enthusiastic in discussion , sometimes to the point of taking over seminar sessions . This irritated some of Born 's other students so much that Maria Goeppert presented Born with a petition signed by herself and others threatening a boycott of the class unless he made Oppenheimer quiet down . Born left it out on his desk where Oppenheimer could read it , and it was effective without a word being said .
He obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree in March 1927 at age 23 , supervised by Born . After the oral exam , James Franck , the professor administering , reportedly said , " I 'm glad that 's over . He was on the point of questioning me . " Oppenheimer published more than a dozen papers at Göttingen , including many important contributions to the new field of quantum mechanics . He and Born published a famous paper on the Born – Oppenheimer approximation , which separates nuclear motion from electronic motion in the mathematical treatment of molecules , allowing nuclear motion to be neglected to simplify calculations . It remains his most cited work .
= = Early professional work = =
= = = Educational work = = =
Oppenheimer was awarded a United States National Research Council fellowship to the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) in September 1927 . Bridgman also wanted him at Harvard , so a compromise was reached whereby he split his fellowship for the 1927 – 28 academic year between Harvard in 1927 and Caltech in 1928 . At Caltech he struck up a close friendship with Linus Pauling , and they planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond , a field in which Pauling was a pioneer , with Oppenheimer supplying the mathematics and Pauling interpreting the results . Both the collaboration and their friendship were nipped in the bud when Pauling began to suspect Oppenheimer of becoming too close to his wife , Ava Helen Pauling . Once , when Pauling was at work , Oppenheimer had arrived at their home and invited Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico . Though she refused and reported the incident to her husband , the invitation , and her apparent nonchalance about it , disquieted Pauling and he ended his relationship with Oppenheimer . Oppenheimer later invited him to become head of the Chemistry Division of the Manhattan Project , but Pauling refused , saying he was a pacifist .
In the autumn of 1928 , Oppenheimer visited Paul Ehrenfest 's institute at the University of Leiden , the Netherlands , where he impressed by giving lectures in Dutch , despite having little experience with the language . There he was given the nickname of Opje , later anglicized by his students as " Oppie " . From Leiden he continued on to the ETH in Zurich to work with Wolfgang Pauli on quantum mechanics and the continuous spectrum . Oppenheimer respected and liked Pauli and may have emulated his personal style as well as his critical approach to problems .
On returning to the United States , Oppenheimer accepted an associate professorship from the University of California , Berkeley , where Raymond T. Birge wanted him so badly that he expressed a willingness to share him with Caltech .
Before his Berkeley professorship began , Oppenheimer was diagnosed with a mild case of tuberculosis and , with his brother Frank , spent some weeks at a ranch in New Mexico , which he leased and eventually purchased . When he heard the ranch was available for lease , he exclaimed , " Hot dog ! " , and later called it Perro Caliente , literally " hot dog " in Spanish . Later he used to say that " physics and desert country " were his " two great loves " . He recovered from the tuberculosis and returned to Berkeley , where he prospered as an advisor and collaborator to a generation of physicists who admired him for his intellectual virtuosity and broad interests . His students and colleagues saw him as mesmerizing : hypnotic in private interaction , but often frigid in more public settings . His associates fell into two camps : one that saw him as an aloof and impressive genius and aesthete , the other that saw him as a pretentious and insecure poseur . His students almost always fell into the former category , adopting his walk , speech , and other mannerisms , and even his inclination for reading entire texts in their original languages . Hans Bethe said of him :
Probably the most important ingredient he brought to his teaching was his exquisite taste . He always knew what were the important problems , as shown by his choice of subjects . He truly lived with those problems , struggling for a solution , and he communicated his concern to the group . In its heyday , there were about eight or ten graduate students in his group and about six Post @-@ doctoral Fellows . He met this group once a day in his office , and discussed with one after another the status of the student 's research problem . He was interested in everything , and in one afternoon they might discuss quantum electrodynamics , cosmic rays , electron pair production and nuclear physics .
He worked closely with Nobel Prize @-@ winning experimental physicist Ernest O. Lawrence and his cyclotron pioneers , helping them understand the data their machines were producing at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . In 1936 Berkeley promoted him to full professor at a salary of $ 3300 per annum . In return he was asked to curtail his teaching at Caltech , so a compromise was reached whereby Berkeley released him for six weeks each year , enough to teach one term at Caltech .
= = = Scientific work = = =
Oppenheimer did important research in theoretical astronomy ( especially as related to general relativity and nuclear theory ) , nuclear physics , spectroscopy , and quantum field theory , including its extension into quantum electrodynamics . The formal mathematics of relativistic quantum mechanics also attracted his attention , although he doubted its validity . His work predicted many later finds , which include the neutron , meson and neutron star .
Initially , his major interest was the theory of the continuous spectrum and his first published paper , in 1926 , concerned the quantum theory of molecular band spectra . He developed a method to carry out calculations of its transition probabilities . He calculated the photoelectric effect for hydrogen and X @-@ rays , obtaining the absorption coefficient at the K @-@ edge . His calculations accorded with observations of the X @-@ ray absorption of the sun , but not hydrogen . Years later it was realized that the sun was largely composed of hydrogen and that his calculations were indeed correct .
Oppenheimer also made important contributions to the theory of cosmic ray showers and started work that eventually led to descriptions of quantum tunneling . In 1931 he co @-@ wrote a paper on the " Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect " with his student Harvey Hall , in which , based on empirical evidence , he correctly disputed Dirac 's assertion that two of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom have the same energy . Subsequently , one of his doctoral students , Willis Lamb , determined that this was a consequence of what became known as the Lamb shift , for which Lamb was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955 .
Oppenheimer worked with his first doctoral student , Melba Phillips , on calculations of artificial radioactivity under bombardment by deuterons . When Ernest Lawrence and Edwin McMillan bombarded nuclei with deuterons they found the results agreed closely with the predictions of George Gamow , but when higher energies and heavier nuclei were involved , the results did not conform to the theory . In 1935 , Oppenheimer and Phillips worked out a theory now known as the Oppenheimer – Phillips process to explain the results , a theory still in use today .
As early as 1930 , Oppenheimer wrote a paper essentially predicting the existence of the positron , after a paper by Paul Dirac proposed that electrons could have both a positive charge and negative energy . Dirac 's paper introduced an equation , known as the Dirac equation , which unified quantum mechanics , special relativity and the then @-@ new concept of electron spin , to explain the Zeeman effect . Oppenheimer , drawing on the body of experimental evidence , rejected the idea that the predicted positively charged electrons were protons . He argued that they would have to have the same mass as an electron , whereas experiments showed that protons were much heavier than electrons . Two years later , Carl David Anderson discovered the positron , for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics .
In the late 1930s Oppenheimer became interested in astrophysics , probably through his friendship with Richard Tolman , resulting in a series of papers . In the first of these , a 1938 paper co @-@ written with Robert Serber entitled " On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores " , Oppenheimer explored the properties of white dwarfs . This was followed by a paper co @-@ written with one of his students , George Volkoff , " On Massive Neutron Cores " , in which they demonstrated that there was a limit , the so @-@ called Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit , to the mass of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as neutron stars and would undergo gravitational collapse . Finally , in 1939 , Oppenheimer and another of his students , Hartland Snyder , produced a paper " On Continued Gravitational Attraction " , which predicted the existence of what are today known as black holes . After the Born – Oppenheimer approximation paper , these papers remain his most cited , and were key factors in the rejuvenation of astrophysical research in the United States in the 1950s , mainly by John A. Wheeler .
Oppenheimer 's papers were considered difficult to understand even by the standards of the abstract topics he was expert in . He was fond of using elegant , if extremely complex , mathematical techniques to demonstrate physical principles , though he was sometimes criticized for making mathematical mistakes , presumably out of haste . " His physics was good " , said his student Snyder , " but his arithmetic awful " .
Oppenheimer published only five scientific papers , one of which was in biophysics , after World War II , and none after 1950 . Murray Gell @-@ Mann , a later Nobelist who , as a visiting scientist , worked with him at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1951 , offered this opinion :
He didn 't have Sitzfleisch , ' sitting flesh , ' when you sit on a chair . As far as I know , he never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation , anything of that kind . He didn 't have patience for that ; his own work consisted of little aperçus , but quite brilliant ones . But he inspired other people to do things , and his influence was fantastic .
Oppenheimer 's diverse interests sometimes interrupted his focus on projects . In 1933 he learned Sanskrit and met the Indologist Arthur W. Ryder at Berkeley . He read the Bhagavad Gita in the original Sanskrit , and later he cited it as one of the books that most shaped his philosophy of life . His close confidant and colleague , Nobel Prize winner Isidor Rabi , later gave his own interpretation :
Oppenheimer was overeducated in those fields , which lie outside the scientific tradition , such as his interest in religion , in the Hindu religion in particular , which resulted in a feeling of mystery of the universe that surrounded him like a fog . He saw physics clearly , looking toward what had already been done , but at the border he tended to feel there was much more of the mysterious and novel than there actually was … [ he turned ] away from the hard , crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition .
In spite of this , observers such as Nobel Prize @-@ winning physicist Luis Alvarez have suggested that if he had lived long enough to see his predictions substantiated by experiment , Oppenheimer might have won a Nobel Prize for his work on gravitational collapse , concerning neutron stars and black holes . In retrospect , some physicists and historians consider this to be his most important contribution , though it was not taken up by other scientists in his own lifetime . The physicist and historian Abraham Pais once asked Oppenheimer what he considered to be his most important scientific contributions ; Oppenheimer cited his work on electrons and positrons , not his work on gravitational contraction . Oppenheimer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for physics three times , in 1945 , 1951 and 1967 , but never won .
= = Private and political life = =
During the 1920s , Oppenheimer remained aloof from worldly matters . He claimed that he did not read newspapers or listen to the radio , and had only learned of the Wall Street crash of 1929 some six months after it occurred while on a walk with Ernest Lawrence . He once remarked that he never cast a vote until the 1936 election . However , from 1934 on , he became increasingly concerned about politics and international affairs . In 1934 , he earmarked three percent of his salary — about $ 100 a year — for two years to support German physicists fleeing from Nazi Germany . During the 1934 West Coast Waterfront Strike , he and some of his students , including Melba Phillips and Bob Serber , attended a longshoremen 's rally . Oppenheimer repeatedly attempted to get Serber a position at Berkeley but was blocked by Birge , who felt that " one Jew in the department was enough " .
Oppenheimer 's mother died in 1931 , and he became closer to his father who , although still living in New York , became a frequent visitor in California . When his father died in 1937 leaving $ 392 @,@ 602 to be divided between Oppenheimer and his brother Frank , Oppenheimer immediately wrote out a will leaving his estate to the University of California for graduate scholarships . Like many young intellectuals in the 1930s , he was a supporter of social reforms that were later alleged to be communist ideas . He donated to many progressive efforts which were later branded as " left @-@ wing " during the McCarthy era . The majority of his allegedly radical work consisted of hosting fund raisers for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War and other anti @-@ fascist activity . He never openly joined the Communist Party , though he did pass money to liberal causes by way of acquaintances who were alleged to be Party members . In 1936 , Oppenheimer became involved with Jean Tatlock , the daughter of a Berkeley literature professor and a student at Stanford University School of Medicine . The two had similar political views ; she wrote for the Western Worker , a Communist Party newspaper .
Tatlock broke up with Oppenheimer in 1939 , after a tempestuous relationship . In August that year he met Katherine ( " Kitty " ) Puening Harrison , a radical Berkeley student and former Communist Party member . Harrison had been married three times previously . Her first marriage lasted only a few months . Her second husband was Joe Dallet , an active member of the Communist party , who was killed in the Spanish Civil War . Kitty returned to the United States where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in botany from the University of Pennsylvania . There she married Richard Harrison , a physician and medical researcher , in 1938 . In June 1939 Kitty and Harrison moved to Pasadena , California , where he became chief of radiology at a local hospital and she enrolled as a graduate student at the University of California , Los Angeles . Oppenheimer and Kitty created a minor scandal by sleeping together after one of Tolman 's parties . In the summer of 1940 she stayed with Oppenheimer at his ranch in New Mexico . She finally asked Harrison for a divorce when she found out she was pregnant . When he refused , she obtained an instant divorce in Reno , Nevada , and took Oppenheimer as her fourth husband on November 1 , 1940 .
Their first child Peter was born in May 1941 , and their second child , Katherine ( " Toni " ) , was born in Los Alamos , New Mexico , on December 7 , 1944 . During his marriage , Oppenheimer continued his affair with Jean Tatlock . Later their continued contact became an issue in his security clearance hearings because of Tatlock 's Communist associations . Many of Oppenheimer 's closest associates were active in the Communist Party in the 1930s or 1940s . They included his brother Frank , Frank 's wife Jackie , Kitty , Jean Tatlock , his landlady Mary Ellen Washburn , and several of his graduate students at Berkeley .
When he joined the Manhattan Project in 1942 , Oppenheimer wrote on his personal security questionnaire that he [ Oppenheimer ] had been " a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast " . Years later he claimed that he did not remember saying this , that it was not true , and that if he had said anything along those lines , it was " a half @-@ jocular overstatement " . He was a subscriber to the People 's World , a Communist Party organ , and he testified in 1954 , " I was associated with the Communist movement . " From 1937 to 1942 , Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a " discussion group " , which was later identified by fellow members , Haakon Chevalier and Gordon Griffiths , as a " closed " ( secret ) unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty .
The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941 . It recorded that he attended a meeting in December 1940 at Chevalier 's home that was also attended by the Communist Party 's California state secretary William Schneiderman , and its treasurer Isaac Folkoff . The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union , which it considered a Communist front organization . Shortly thereafter , the FBI added Oppenheimer to its Custodial Detention Index , for arrest in case of national emergency . Debates over Oppenheimer 's Party membership or lack thereof have turned on very fine points ; almost all historians agree he had strong left @-@ wing sympathies during this time and interacted with Party members , though there is considerable dispute over whether he was officially a member of the Party . At his 1954 security clearance hearings , he denied being a member of the Communist Party , but identified himself as a fellow traveler , which he defined as someone who agrees with many of the goals of Communism , but without being willing to blindly follow orders from any Communist party apparatus .
Throughout the development of the atomic bomb , Oppenheimer was under investigation by both the FBI and the Manhattan Project 's internal security arm for his past left @-@ wing associations . He was followed by Army security agents during a trip to California in June 1943 to visit his former girlfriend , Jean Tatlock , who was suffering from depression . Oppenheimer spent the night in her apartment . Tatlock committed suicide on January 4 , 1944 , which left Oppenheimer deeply grieved . In August 1943 , he volunteered to Manhattan Project security agents that George Eltenton , whom he did not know , had solicited three men at Los Alamos for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union . When pressed on the issue in later interviews , Oppenheimer admitted that the only person who had approached him was his friend Haakon Chevalier , a Berkeley professor of French literature , who had mentioned the matter privately at a dinner at Oppenheimer 's house . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , thought Oppenheimer was too important to the project to be ousted over this suspicious behavior . On July 20 , 1943 , he wrote to the Manhattan Engineer District :
In accordance with my verbal directions of July 15 , it is desired that clearance be issued to Julius Robert Oppenheimer without delay irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr Oppenheimer . He is absolutely essential to the project .
= = Manhattan Project = =
= = = Los Alamos = = =
On October 9 , 1941 , shortly before the United States entered World War II , President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a crash program to develop an atomic bomb . In May 1942 , National Defense Research Committee Chairman James B. Conant , who had been one of Oppenheimer 's lecturers at Harvard , invited Oppenheimer to take over work on fast neutron calculations , a task that Oppenheimer threw himself into with full vigor . He was given the title " Coordinator of Rapid Rupture " , specifically referring to the propagation of a fast neutron chain reaction in an atomic bomb . One of his first acts was to host a summer school for bomb theory at his building in Berkeley . The mix of European physicists and his own students — a group including Robert Serber , Emil Konopinski , Felix Bloch , Hans Bethe and Edward Teller — busied themselves calculating what needed to be done , and in what order , to make the bomb .
In June 1942 , the US Army established the Manhattan Engineer District to handle its part in the atom bomb project , beginning the process of transferring responsibility from the Office of Scientific Research and Development to the military . In September , Groves was appointed director of what became known as the Manhattan Project . Groves selected Oppenheimer to head the project 's secret weapons laboratory , a choice which surprised many , as Oppenheimer had left @-@ wing political views , and no record as a leader of large projects . The fact that he did not have a Nobel Prize , and might not have the prestige to direct fellow scientists , did concern Groves . However , he was impressed by Oppenheimer 's singular grasp of the practical aspects of designing and constructing an atomic bomb , and by the breadth of his knowledge . As a military engineer , Groves knew that this would be vital in an interdisciplinary project that would involve not just physics , but chemistry , metallurgy , ordnance and engineering . Groves also detected in Oppenheimer something that many others did not , an " overweening ambition " that Groves reckoned would supply the drive necessary to push the project to a successful conclusion . Isidor Rabi considered the appointment " a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves , who was not generally considered to be a genius " .
Oppenheimer and Groves decided that for security and cohesion they needed a centralized , secret research laboratory in a remote location . Scouting for a site in late 1942 , Oppenheimer was drawn to New Mexico , not far from his ranch . On November 16 , 1942 , Oppenheimer , Groves and others toured a prospective site . Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic , while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding . He then suggested and championed a site that he knew well : a flat mesa near Santa Fe , New Mexico , which was the site of a private boys ' school called the Los Alamos Ranch School . The engineers were concerned about the poor access road and the water supply , but otherwise felt that it was ideal . The Los Alamos Laboratory was built on the site of the school , taking over some of its buildings , while many others were erected in great haste . There Oppenheimer assembled a group of the top physicists of the time , which he referred to as the " luminaries " .
Initially Los Alamos was supposed to be a military laboratory , and Oppenheimer and other researchers were to be commissioned into the Army . He went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel 's uniform and take the Army physical test , which he failed . Army doctors considered him underweight at 128 pounds ( 58 kg ) , diagnosed his chronic cough as tuberculosis and were concerned about his chronic lumbosacral joint pain . The plan to commission scientists fell through when Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi balked at the idea . Conant , Groves , and Oppenheimer devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department . It soon turned out that Oppenheimer had hugely underestimated the magnitude of the project ; Los Alamos grew from a few hundred people in 1943 to over 6 @,@ 000 in 1945 .
Oppenheimer at first had difficulty with the organizational division of large groups , but rapidly learned the art of large @-@ scale administration after he took up permanent residence on the mesa . He was noted for his mastery of all scientific aspects of the project and for his efforts to control the inevitable cultural conflicts between scientists and the military . He was an iconic figure to his fellow scientists , as much a symbol of what they were working toward as a scientific director . Victor Weisskopf put it thus :
Oppenheimer directed these studies , theoretical and experimental , in the real sense of the words . Here his uncanny speed in grasping the main points of any subject was a decisive factor ; he could acquaint himself with the essential details of every part of the work .
He did not direct from the head office . He was intellectually and physically present at each decisive step . He was present in the laboratory or in the seminar rooms , when a new effect was measured , when a new idea was conceived . It was not that he contributed so many ideas or suggestions ; he did so sometimes , but his main influence came from something else . It was his continuous and intense presence , which produced a sense of direct participation in all of us ; it created that unique atmosphere of enthusiasm and challenge that pervaded the place throughout its time .
In 1943 development efforts were directed to a plutonium gun @-@ type fission weapon called " Thin Man " . Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron @-@ generated plutonium @-@ 239 , which was extremely pure but could only be created in tiny amounts . When Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor in April 1944 a problem was discovered : reactor @-@ bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium @-@ 240 , making it unsuitable for use in a gun @-@ type weapon . In July 1944 , Oppenheimer abandoned the gun design in favor of an implosion @-@ type weapon . Using chemical explosive lenses , a sub @-@ critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a smaller and denser form . The metal needed to travel only very short distances , so the critical mass would be assembled in much less time . In August 1944 Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion . He concentrated the development efforts on the gun @-@ type device , a simpler design that only had to work with uranium @-@ 235 , in a single group , and this device became Little Boy in February 1945 . After a mammoth research effort , the more complex design of the implosion device , known as the " Christy gadget " after Robert Christy , another student of Oppenheimer 's , was finalized in a meeting in Oppenheimer 's office on February 28 , 1945 .
In May 1945 an Interim Committee was created to advise and report on wartime and postwar policies regarding the use of nuclear energy . The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Compton , Fermi , Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues . In its presentation to the Interim Committee the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb , but on its likely military and political impact . This included opinions on such sensitive issues as whether or not the Soviet Union should be advised of the weapon in advance of its use against Japan .
= = = Trinity = = =
The joint work of the scientists at Los Alamos resulted in the first artificial nuclear explosion near Alamogordo on July 16 , 1945 , on a site that Oppenheimer codenamed " Trinity " in mid @-@ 1944 . He later said this name was from one of John Donne 's Holy Sonnets . According to the historian Gregg Herken , this naming could have been an allusion to Jean Tatlock , who had committed suicide a few months previously and had in the 1930s introduced Oppenheimer to Donne 's work . Oppenheimer later recalled that , while witnessing the explosion , he thought of a verse from the Hindu holy book , the Bhagavad Gita ( XI , 12 ) :
If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky , that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time : namely , the famous verse : " kālo 'smi lokakṣayakṛtpravṛddho lokānsamāhartumiha pravṛttaḥ " ( XI , 32 ) , which he translated as " I am become Death , the destroyer of worlds . "
In 1965 , he was persuaded to quote again for a television broadcast :
We knew the world would not be the same . A few people laughed , a few people cried . Most people were silent . I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture , the Bhagavad Gita ; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and , to impress him , takes on his multi @-@ armed form and says , ' Now I am become Death , the destroyer of worlds . ' I suppose we all thought that , one way or another .
According to his brother , at the time Oppenheimer simply exclaimed , " It worked . " A contemporary account by Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , who was present in the control bunker at the site with Oppenheimer , summarized his reaction as follows :
Dr. Oppenheimer , on whom had rested a very heavy burden , grew tenser as the last seconds ticked off . He scarcely breathed . He held on to a post to steady himself . For the last few seconds , he stared directly ahead and then when the announcer shouted " Now ! " and there came this tremendous burst of light followed shortly thereafter by the deep growling roar of the explosion , his face relaxed into an expression of tremendous relief .
Physicist Isidor Rabi noticed Oppenheimer 's disconcerting triumphalism : " I 'll never forget his walk ; I 'll never forget the way he stepped out of the car ... his walk was like High Noon ... this kind of strut . He had done it . " At an assembly at Los Alamos on August 6 ( the evening of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima ) , Oppenheimer took to the stage and clasped his hands together " like a prize @-@ winning boxer " while the crowd cheered . He noted his regret the weapon had not been available in time to use against Nazi Germany . However , he and many of the project staff were very upset about the bombing of Nagasaki , as they did not feel the second bomb was necessary from a military point of view . He traveled to Washington on August 17 to hand @-@ deliver a letter to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson expressing his revulsion and his wish to see nuclear weapons banned . In October 1945 Oppenheimer was granted an interview with President Harry S Truman . The meeting , however , went badly , after Oppenheimer remarked he felt he had " blood on my hands . " The remark infuriated Truman and put an end to the meeting . Truman later told his Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson " I don 't want to see that son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch in this office ever again . "
For his services as director of Los Alamos , Oppenheimer was awarded the Medal for Merit from President Harry S Truman in 1946 .
= = Postwar activities = =
After the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , the Manhattan Project became public knowledge ; and Oppenheimer became a national spokesman for science , emblematic of a new type of technocratic power . He became a household name and his face appeared on the covers of Life and Time . Nuclear physics became a powerful force as all governments of the world began to realize the strategic and political power that came with nuclear weapons . Like many scientists of his generation , he felt that security from atomic bombs would come only from a transnational organization such as the newly formed United Nations , which could institute a program to stifle a nuclear arms race .
= = = Institute for Advanced Study = = =
In November 1945 , Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech , but he soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching . In 1947 , he accepted an offer from Lewis Strauss to take up the directorship of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . This meant moving back east and leaving Ruth Tolman , the wife of his friend Richard Tolman , with whom he had begun an affair after leaving Los Alamos . The job came with a salary of $ 20 @,@ 000 per annum , plus rent @-@ free accommodation in the director 's house , a 17th @-@ century manor with a cook and groundskeeper , surrounded by 265 acres ( 107 ha ) of woodlands .
Oppenheimer brought together intellectuals at the height of their powers and from a variety of disciplines to solve the most pertinent questions of the age . He directed and encouraged the research of many well @-@ known scientists , including Freeman Dyson , and the duo of Chen Ning Yang and Tsung @-@ Dao Lee , who won a Nobel Prize for their discovery of parity non @-@ conservation . He also instituted temporary memberships for scholars from the humanities , such as T. S. Eliot and George F. Kennan . Some of these activities were resented by a few members of the mathematics faculty , who wanted the institute to stay a bastion of pure scientific research . Abraham Pais said that Oppenheimer himself thought that one of his failures at the institute was being unable to bring together scholars from the natural sciences and the humanities .
A series of conferences in New York from 1947 through 1949 saw physicists switch back from war work to theoretical issues . Under Oppenheimer 's direction , physicists tackled the greatest outstanding problem of the pre @-@ war years : infinite , divergent , and non @-@ sensical expressions in the quantum electrodynamics of elementary particles . Julian Schwinger , Richard Feynman and Shin 'ichiro Tomonaga tackled the problem of regularization , and developed techniques which became known as renormalization . Freeman Dyson was able to prove that their procedures gave similar results . The problem of meson absorption and Hideki Yukawa 's theory of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force were also tackled . Probing questions from Oppenheimer prompted Robert Marshak 's innovative two @-@ meson hypothesis : that there were actually two types of mesons , pions and muons . This led to Cecil Frank Powell 's breakthrough and subsequent Nobel Prize for the discovery of the pion .
= = = Atomic Energy Commission = = =
As a member of the Board of Consultants to a committee appointed by Truman , Oppenheimer strongly influenced the Acheson – Lilienthal Report . In this report , the committee advocated creation of an international Atomic Development Authority , which would own all fissionable material and the means of its production , such as mines and laboratories , and atomic power plants where it could be used for peaceful energy production . Bernard Baruch was appointed to translate this report into a proposal to the United Nations , resulting in the Baruch Plan of 1946 . The Baruch Plan introduced many additional provisions regarding enforcement , in particular requiring inspection of the Soviet Union 's uranium resources . The Baruch Plan was seen as an attempt to maintain the United States ' nuclear monopoly and was rejected by the Soviets . With this , it became clear to Oppenheimer that an arms race was unavoidable , due to the mutual suspicion of the United States and the Soviet Union , which even Oppenheimer was starting to distrust .
After the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) came into being in 1947 as a civilian agency in control of nuclear research and weapons issues , Oppenheimer was appointed as the Chairman of its General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) . From this position he advised on a number of nuclear @-@ related issues , including project funding , laboratory construction and even international policy — though the GAC 's advice was not always heeded . As Chairman of the GAC , Oppenheimer lobbied vigorously for international arms control and funding for basic science , and attempted to influence policy away from a heated arms race . When the government questioned whether to pursue a crash program to develop an atomic weapon based on nuclear fusion — the hydrogen bomb — Oppenheimer initially recommended against it , though he had been in favor of developing such a weapon during the Manhattan Project . He was motivated partly by ethical concerns , feeling that such a weapon could only be used strategically against civilian targets , resulting in millions of deaths . He was also motivated by practical concerns , however , as at the time there was no workable design for a hydrogen bomb . Oppenheimer felt that resources would be better spent creating a large force of fission weapons . He and others were especially concerned about nuclear reactors being diverted from plutonium to tritium production . They were overridden by Truman , who announced a crash program after the Soviet Union tested their first atomic bomb in 1949 . Oppenheimer and other GAC opponents of the project , especially James Conant , felt personally shunned and considered retiring from the committee . They stayed on , though their views on the hydrogen bomb were well known .
In 1951 , however , Edward Teller and mathematician Stanislaw Ulam developed what became known as the Teller @-@ Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb . This new design seemed technically feasible and Oppenheimer changed his opinion about developing the weapon . As he later recalled :
The program we had in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did not make a great deal of technical sense . It was therefore possible to argue that you did not want it even if you could have it . The program in 1951 was technically so sweet that you could not argue about that . The issues became purely the military , the political and the humane problems of what you were going to do about it once you had it .
= = = Security hearing = = =
The FBI under J. Edgar Hoover had been following Oppenheimer since before the war , when he showed Communist sympathies as a professor at Berkeley and had been close to members of the Communist Party , including his wife and brother . He had been under close surveillance since the early 1940s , his home and office bugged , his phone tapped and his mail opened . The FBI furnished Oppenheimer 's political enemies with incriminating evidence about his Communist ties . These enemies included Strauss , an AEC commissioner who had long harbored resentment against Oppenheimer both for his activity in opposing the hydrogen bomb and for his humiliation of Strauss before Congress some years earlier ; regarding Strauss 's opposition to the export of radioactive isotopes to other nations , Oppenheimer had memorably categorized these as " less important than electronic devices but more important than , let us say , vitamins . "
On June 7 , 1949 , Oppenheimer testified before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , where he admitted that he had associations with the Communist Party in the 1930s . He testified that some of his students , including David Bohm , Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz , Philip Morrison , Bernard Peters and Joseph Weinberg , had been Communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley . Frank Oppenheimer and his wife Jackie testified before the HUAC and admitted that they had been members of the Communist Party . Frank was subsequently fired from his University of Minnesota position . Unable to find work in physics for many years , he became instead a cattle rancher in Colorado . He later taught high school physics and was the founder of the San Francisco Exploratorium .
Oppenheimer had found himself in the middle of more than one controversy and power struggle in the years from 1949 to 1953 . Edward Teller , who had been so uninterested in work on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos during the war that Oppenheimer had given him time instead to work on his own project of the hydrogen bomb , had eventually left Los Alamos in 1951 to help found , in 1952 , a second laboratory at what would become the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . There , he could be free of Los Alamos control to develop the hydrogen bomb . Long @-@ range thermonuclear " strategic " weapons delivered by jet bombers would necessarily be under control of the new United States Air Force ( USAF ) . Oppenheimer had for some years pushed for smaller " tactical " nuclear weapons which would be more useful in a limited theater against enemy troops and which would be under control of the Army . The two services fought for control of nuclear weapons , often allied with different political parties . The USAF , with Teller pushing its program , gained ascendance in the Republican @-@ controlled administration following the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as president in 1952 .
Strauss and Senator Brien McMahon , author of the 1946 McMahon Act , pushed Eisenhower to revoke Oppenheimer 's security clearance . On December 21 , 1953 , Strauss told Oppenheimer that his security clearance had been suspended , pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter , and discussed his resigning . Oppenheimer chose not to resign and requested a hearing instead . The charges were outlined in a letter from Kenneth D. Nichols , General Manager of the AEC . The hearing that followed in April – May 1954 , which was initially confidential and not made public , focused on Oppenheimer 's past Communist ties and his association during the Manhattan Project with suspected disloyal or Communist scientists . The US Department of Energy made public the full text of the transcript in October 2014 .
One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer 's earliest testimony about George Eltenton 's approach to various Los Alamos scientists , a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend Haakon Chevalier . Unknown to Oppenheimer , both versions were recorded during his interrogations of a decade before . He was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts of these , which he had not been given a chance to review . In fact , Oppenheimer had never told Chevalier that he had finally named him , and the testimony had cost Chevalier his job . Both Chevalier and Eltenton confirmed mentioning that they had a way to get information to the Soviets , Eltenton admitting he said this to Chevalier and Chevalier admitting he mentioned it to Oppenheimer , but both put the matter in terms of gossip and denied any thought or suggestion of treason or thoughts of espionage , either in planning or in deed . Neither was ever convicted of any crime .
Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal , but that :
In a great number of cases , I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act — I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted — in a way which was for me was exceedingly hard to understand . I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated . To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better , and therefore trust more . In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands .
This led to outrage by the scientific community and Teller 's virtual expulsion from academic science . Groves , threatened by the FBI as having been potentially part of a coverup about the Chevalier contact in 1943 , likewise testified against Oppenheimer . Many top scientists , as well as government and military figures , testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf . Inconsistencies in his testimony and his erratic behavior on the stand , at one point saying he had given a " cock and bull story " and that this was because he " was an idiot " , convinced some that he was unstable , unreliable and a possible security risk . Oppenheimer 's clearance was revoked one day before it was due to lapse anyway . Isidor Rabi 's comment was that Oppenheimer was merely a government consultant at the time anyway and that if the government " didn 't want to consult the guy , then don 't consult him . "
During his hearing , Oppenheimer testified willingly on the left @-@ wing behavior of many of his scientific colleagues . Had Oppenheimer 's clearance not been stripped then he might have been remembered as someone who had " named names " to save his own reputation . As it happened , Oppenheimer was seen by most of the scientific community as a martyr to McCarthyism , an eclectic liberal who was unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies , symbolic of the shift of scientific creativity from academia into the military . Wernher von Braun summed up his opinion about the matter with a quip to a Congressional committee : " In England , Oppenheimer would have been knighted . "
In a seminar at the Woodrow Wilson Institute on May 20 , 2009 , based on an extensive analysis of the Vassiliev notebooks taken from the KGB archives , John Earl Haynes , Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev confirmed that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviet Union . The KGB tried repeatedly to recruit him , but was never successful ; Oppenheimer did not betray the United States . In addition , he had several persons removed from the Manhattan Project who had sympathies to the Soviet Union . Haynes , Klehr and Vassiliev also state Oppenheimer " was , in fact , a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s " . According to biographer Ray Monk : " He was , in a very practical and real sense , a supporter of the Communist Party . Moreover , in terms of the time , effort and money spent on Party activities , he was a very committed supporter " .
= = Final years and death = =
Starting in 1954 , Oppenheimer spent several months of the year living on the island of Saint John in the U.S. Virgin Islands . In 1957 , he purchased a 2 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) tract of land on Gibney Beach , where he built a spartan home on the beach . He spent a considerable amount of time sailing with his daughter Toni and wife Kitty .
Increasingly concerned about the potential danger to humanity arising from scientific discoveries , Oppenheimer joined with Albert Einstein , Bertrand Russell , Joseph Rotblat and other eminent scientists and academics to establish what would eventually become the World Academy of Art and Science in 1960 . Significantly , after his public humiliation , he did not sign the major open protests against nuclear weapons of the 1950s , including the Russell – Einstein Manifesto of 1955 , nor , though invited , did he attend the first Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957 .
In his speeches and public writings , Oppenheimer continually stressed the difficulty of managing the power of knowledge in a world in which the freedom of science to exchange ideas was more and more hobbled by political concerns . Oppenheimer delivered the Reith Lectures on the BBC in 1953 , which were subsequently published as Science and the Common Understanding . In 1955 Oppenheimer published The Open Mind , a collection of eight lectures that he had given since 1946 on the subject of nuclear weapons and popular culture . Oppenheimer rejected the idea of nuclear gunboat diplomacy . " The purposes of this country in the field of foreign policy " , he wrote , " cannot in any real or enduring way be achieved by coercion . " In 1957 the philosophy and psychology departments at Harvard invited Oppenheimer to deliver the William James Lectures . An influential group of Harvard alumni led by Edwin Ginn that included Archibald Roosevelt protested against the decision . Some 1 @,@ 200 people packed into Sanders Theatre to hear Oppenheimer 's six lectures , entitled " The Hope of Order " . Oppenheimer delivered the Whidden Lectures at McMaster University in 1962 , and these were published in 1964 as The Flying Trapeze : Three Crises for Physicists .
Deprived of political power , Oppenheimer continued to lecture , write and work on physics . He toured Europe and Japan , giving talks about the history of science , the role of science in society , and the nature of the universe . In September 1957 , France made him an Officer of the Legion of Honor , and on May 3 , 1962 , he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in Britain . At the urging of many of Oppenheimer 's political friends who had ascended to power , President John F. Kennedy awarded Oppenheimer the Enrico Fermi Award in 1963 as a gesture of political rehabilitation . Edward Teller , the winner of the previous year 's award , had also recommended Oppenheimer receive it , in the hope that it would heal the rift between them . A little over a week after Kennedy 's assassination , his successor , President Lyndon Johnson , presented Oppenheimer with the award , " for contributions to theoretical physics as a teacher and originator of ideas , and for leadership of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the atomic energy program during critical years . " Oppenheimer told Johnson : " I think it is just possible , Mr. President , that it has taken some charity and some courage for you to make this award today . " The rehabilitation implied by the award was partly symbolic , as Oppenheimer still lacked a security clearance and could have no effect on official policy , but the award came with a $ 50 @,@ 000 tax @-@ free stipend , and its award outraged many prominent Republicans in Congress . The late President Kennedy 's widow Jacqueline , still living in the White House , made it a point to meet with Oppenheimer to tell him how much her husband had wanted him to have the medal . While still a senator in 1959 , Kennedy had been instrumental in voting to narrowly deny Oppenheimer 's enemy Lewis Strauss a coveted government position as Secretary of Commerce , effectively ending Strauss ' political career . This was partly due to lobbying by the scientific community on behalf of Oppenheimer .
Oppenheimer was diagnosed with throat cancer in late 1965 and , after inconclusive surgery , underwent unsuccessful radiation treatment and chemotherapy late in 1966 . He fell into a coma on February 15 , 1967 , and died at his home in Princeton , New Jersey , on February 18 , aged 62 . A memorial service was held at Alexander Hall at Princeton University a week later , attended by 600 of his scientific , political and military associates including Bethe , Groves , Kennan , Lilienthal , Rabi , Smyth and Wigner . His brother Frank and the rest of his family were also there , as was the historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr . , the novelist John O 'Hara , and George Balanchine , the director of the New York City Ballet . Bethe , Kennan and Smyth gave brief eulogies . Oppenheimer was cremated and his ashes were placed in an urn . Kitty took his ashes to St. John and dropped the urn into the sea off the coast , within sight of the beach house .
When Kitty died of an intestinal infection complicated by pulmonary embolism in October 1972 , Oppenheimer 's ranch in New Mexico was inherited by their son Peter , and the beach property was inherited by their daughter Katherine " Toni " Oppenheimer Silber . Toni was refused security clearance for her chosen vocation as a United Nations translator after the FBI brought up the old charges against her father . In January 1977 , three months after the end of her second marriage , she committed suicide at age 32 . She left the property to " the people of St. John for a public park and recreation area . " The original house , built too close to the coast , succumbed to a hurricane , but today , the Virgin Islands Government maintains a Community Center in the area .
= = Legacy = =
When Oppenheimer was ejected from his position of political influence in 1954 , he symbolized for many the folly of scientists thinking they could control how others would use their research . He has also been seen as symbolizing the dilemmas involving the moral responsibility of the scientist in the nuclear world . The hearings were motivated both by politics , as Oppenheimer was seen as a representative of the previous administration , and by personal considerations stemming from his enmity with Lewis Strauss . The ostensible reason for the hearing and the issue that aligned Oppenheimer with the liberal intellectuals , Oppenheimer 's opposition to hydrogen bomb development , was based as much on technical grounds as on moral ones . Once the technical considerations were resolved , he supported Teller 's hydrogen bomb because he believed that the Soviet Union would inevitably construct one too . Rather than consistently oppose the " Red @-@ baiting " of the late 1940s and early 1950s , Oppenheimer testified against some of his former colleagues and students , both before and during his hearing . In one incident , his damning testimony against former student Bernard Peters was selectively leaked to the press . Historians have interpreted this as an attempt by Oppenheimer to please his colleagues in the government and perhaps to divert attention from his own previous left @-@ wing ties and those of his brother . In the end it became a liability when it became clear that if Oppenheimer had really doubted Peters ' loyalty , his recommending him for the Manhattan Project was reckless , or at least contradictory .
Popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right @-@ wing militarists ( symbolized by Teller ) and left @-@ wing intellectuals ( symbolized by Oppenheimer ) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction . The question of the scientists ' responsibility toward humanity inspired Bertolt Brecht 's drama Galileo ( 1955 ) , left its imprint on Friedrich Dürrenmatt 's Die Physiker , and is the basis of the opera Doctor Atomic by John Adams ( 2005 ) , which was commissioned to portray Oppenheimer as a modern @-@ day Faust . Heinar Kipphardt 's play In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer , after appearing on West German television , had its theatrical release in Berlin and Munich in October 1964 . Oppenheimer 's objections resulted in an exchange of correspondence with Kipphardt , in which the playwright offered to make corrections but defended the play . It premiered in New York in June 1968 , with Joseph Wiseman in the Oppenheimer role . New York Times theater critic Clive Barnes called it an " angry play and a partisan play " that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed the scientist as a " tragic fool and genius " . Oppenheimer had difficulty with this portrayal . After reading a transcript of Kipphardt 's play soon after it began to be performed , Oppenheimer threatened to sue the playwright , decrying " improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved . " Later Oppenheimer told an interviewer :
The whole damn thing [ his security hearing ] was a farce , and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it . ... I had never said that I had regretted participating in a responsible way in the making of the bomb . I said that perhaps he [ Kipphardt ] had forgotten Guernica , Coventry , Hamburg , Dresden , Dachau , Warsaw , and Tokyo ; but I had not , and that if he found it so difficult to understand , he should write a play about something else .
The 1980 BBC TV serial Oppenheimer , starring Sam Waterston , won three BAFTA Television Awards . The Day After Trinity , a 1980 documentary about J. Robert Oppenheimer and the building of the atomic bomb , was nominated for an Academy Award and received a Peabody Award . Oppenheimer 's life has been explored in the play Oppenheimer by Tom Morton @-@ Smith . In addition to his use by authors of fiction , there are numerous biographies , including American Prometheus : The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer ( 2005 ) by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin which won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography for 2006 . A centennial conference and exhibit were held in 2004 at Berkeley , with the proceedings of the conference published in 2005 as Reappraising Oppenheimer : Centennial Studies and Reflections . His papers are in the Library of Congress .
As a scientist , Oppenheimer is remembered by his students and colleagues as being a brilliant researcher and engaging teacher , the founder of modern theoretical physics in the United States . Because his scientific attentions often changed rapidly , he never worked long enough on any one topic and carried it to fruition to merit the Nobel Prize , although his investigations contributing to the theory of black holes may have warranted the prize had he lived long enough to see them brought into fruition by later astrophysicists . An asteroid , 67085 Oppenheimer , was named in his honor , as was the lunar crater Oppenheimer .
As a military and public policy advisor , Oppenheimer was a technocratic leader in a shift in the interactions between science and the military and the emergence of " Big Science " . During World War II , scientists became involved in military research to an unprecedented degree . Because of the threat fascism posed to Western civilization , they volunteered in great numbers both for technological and organizational assistance to the Allied effort , resulting in such powerful tools as radar , the proximity fuse and operations research . As a cultured , intellectual , theoretical physicist who became a disciplined military organizer , Oppenheimer represented the shift away from the idea that scientists had their " head in the clouds " and that knowledge on such previously esoteric subjects as the composition of the atomic nucleus had no " real @-@ world " applications .
Two days before the Trinity test , Oppenheimer expressed his hopes and fears in a quotation from the Bhagavad Gita :
In battle , in the forest , at the precipice in the mountains ,
On the dark great sea , in the midst of javelins and arrows ,
In sleep , in confusion , in the depths of shame ,
The good deeds a man has done before defend him .
= = Works = =
= = = Books = = =
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ( 1954 ) . Science and the Common Understanding . New York : Simon and Schuster . OCLC 34304713 .
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ( 1955 ) . The Open Mind . New York : Simon and Schuster . OCLC 297109 .
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ( 1964 ) . The Flying Trapeze : Three Crises for Physicists . London : Oxford University Press . OCLC 592102 .
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ; Rabi , I.I ( 1969 ) . Oppenheimer . New York : Scribner . OCLC 2729 . ( posthumous )
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ; Smith , Alice Kimball ; Weiner , Charles ( 1980 ) . Robert Oppenheimer , Letters and Recollections . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 77605 @-@ 4 . OCLC 5946652 . ( posthumous )
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ; Metropolis , N. ; Rota , Gian @-@ Carlo ; Sharp , D. H. ( 1984 ) . Uncommon Sense . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Birkhäuser Boston . ISBN 0 @-@ 8176 @-@ 3165 @-@ 8 . OCLC 10458715 . ( posthumous )
Oppenheimer , J. Robert ( 1989 ) . Atom and Void : Essays on Science and Community . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 08547 @-@ 1 . OCLC 19981106 . ( posthumous )
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= St Andrew 's ( stadium ) =
St Andrew 's is an association football stadium in the Bordesley district of Birmingham , England . It has been the home ground of Birmingham City Football Club for more than a century .
Constructed and opened in 1906 to replace the Muntz Street ground , which had become too small to meet the club 's needs , the original St Andrew 's could hold an estimated 75 @,@ 000 spectators , housed in one grandstand and a large uncovered terrace . The attendance record , variously recorded as 66 @,@ 844 or 67 @,@ 341 , was set at a 1939 FA Cup tie against Everton . During the Second World War , St Andrew 's suffered bomb damage and the grandstand , housing a temporary fire station , burned down in an accidental fire . In the 1950s , the club replaced the stand and installed floodlights , and later erected a second small stand and roofed over the open terraces , but there were few further changes .
The ground became dilapidated : a boy was killed when a wall collapsed during rioting in the 1980s . When new owners took the club out of administration in 1993 , they began a six @-@ year redevelopment programme during which the ground was converted to an all @-@ seater stadium to comply with the Taylor Report into safety at sports grounds , and all areas apart from the Main Stand were completely rebuilt . The seating capacity of the modern stadium is just over 30 @,@ 000 . It has function rooms suitable for business or social events and a club store selling Birmingham City merchandise . A 2004 proposal that the club should sell the ground and move into a multi @-@ purpose City of Birmingham Stadium remains speculative . In 2013 , the ground was listed as an Asset of Community Value under the Localism Act 2011 .
St Andrew 's has been the venue for England international football matches at all levels below the senior national team , and for semifinal matches in the FA Cup and finals of lesser competitions . It has played host to events in other sports , including rugby union and professional boxing , and more recently has staged music concerts .
= = History = =
= = = Former grounds = = =
Small Heath Alliance – the original name of Birmingham City Football Club – played their first home games on waste ground off Arthur Street , in the Bordesley Green district of Birmingham , very near the site where St Andrew 's would be built . In 1876 , they made a temporary move to a fenced @-@ off field in Ladypool Road , Sparkbrook , with an estimated capacity of 3 @,@ 000 spectators ; because the field was enclosed , admission could be charged . Interest in the team grew , and a year later they moved again , this time to a rented field in Small Heath , situated on the eastern edge of Birmingham 's built @-@ up area , just north of the main road to Coventry . This ground , which became known as Muntz Street , had four sides of open terracing , a small covered wooden stand , and a changing @-@ room for the players . When first opened it could hold approximately 10 @,@ 000 spectators . Over the years the height of the terracing was raised , which increased the capacity to around 30 @,@ 000 , but this became insufficient to cope with the demand . The attendance at a match in 1905 against local rivals Aston Villa was officially recorded as 28 @,@ 000 spectators , but several thousand more climbed walls or forced turnstiles to gain entry . The landlords refused to sell the freehold of the ground , nor would they permit major extensions to be made . As the board of directors estimated that staying at Muntz Street was costing the club £ 2 @,@ 000 a year ( £ 194 @,@ 000 at today 's prices ) , they began the search for an alternative site .
= = = Construction = = =
Director Harry Morris identified a site for a new ground in Bordesley , some three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 km ) from Muntz Street towards the city centre . Covering an area of 7 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 ha ) , bounded by Cattell Road , Coventry Road , Tilton Road , Garrison Lane and the railway , and near St Andrew 's church , the site was where a brickworks had once operated . Though Morris described the land itself as " a wilderness of stagnant water and muddy slopes " , the Sporting Mail considered it " very favourably situated for obtaining easy communication with the city and many of the suburbs , and will be served by an excellent service of electric cars [ trams ] , while the provision of a railway station close at hand is also considered as within the bounds of possibility . "
The club took the land on a 21 @-@ year lease , and entrusted the role of surveyor and engineer to a local carpenter , Harry Pumfrey , who despite a lack of qualifications produced plans " which would have done credit to the most expensive professional architect " . Club director Thomas Turley , a builder , acted as clerk of works , and it is estimated the club saved more than £ 2 @,@ 000 in professional fees by keeping the work in @-@ house . Tradition has it that gypsies , evicted from the site before work could begin , laid a 100 @-@ year curse on the club ; although gypsies are known to have camped nearby , there is no contemporary evidence for their eviction by the club , and construction began in February 1906 .
Artesian springs , which kept the land flooded , had to be drained and blocked off with tons of rubble before soil could be laid on top . To create height for the terracing on the Coventry Road side of the ground , the club offered the site as a tip , local people paying a total of £ 800 ( £ 77 @,@ 600 today ) for dumping an estimated 100 @,@ 000 loads of rubbish . This embankment was known from the beginning as the Spion Kop , stood 110 terraces high at its highest point , and had a reported capacity of 48 @,@ 000 spectators , each paying 6d ( £ 2 @.@ 43 today ) . The Grandstand , on the Garrison Lane side of the ground , was 123 yards ( 112 m ) in length . It held 6 @,@ 000 seats divided among six sections , priced from 1s to 2s ( £ 4 @.@ 90 to £ 9 @.@ 70 today ) , and all accesses were lit by electricity . In front of the stand was space for 5 @,@ 000 to stand under cover . Beneath the stand were refreshment rooms , changing rooms , a training area with plunge bath , a billiard room donated by brewery magnate Sir John Holder , and the club 's boardroom and offices , which hitherto had been maintained in premises in Birmingham city centre . Behind the goal at the railway end of the ground was space for a further 4 @,@ 000 standing spectators , and access to the ground was gained via turnstiles on three sides of the ground . Total capacity was estimated at 75 @,@ 000 , and construction cost at £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 970 @,@ 000 today ) . The playing surface , at 115 by 75 yards ( 105 m × 69 m ) , was one of the largest in the country , had a four @-@ yard ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) grassed border , and was surrounded by a cinder running track .
= = = Early years = = =
St Andrew 's was officially opened by Sir John Holder on 26 December 1906 , when Birmingham played Middlesbrough in a First Division fixture . There had been heavy snowfall overnight , and dozens of volunteers , including members of the club 's board , worked all morning to clear the pitch . The game finally kicked off an hour late , finishing goalless in front of 32 @,@ 000 spectators . The Birmingham Daily Post editorial next day suggested that " the fact that so many spectators attended under such adverse conditions augurs well for the step that the directors have taken " , and that the directors were " to be congratulated in having provided their supporters with a ground second to none in the country " .
The Football Association chose St Andrew 's to host the 1907 FA Cup semifinal between The Wednesday and Woolwich Arsenal ; Wednesday won 3 – 1 , and went on to win the tournament . This was the first FA Cup tie to be played at the ground , as Birmingham had lost their opening match away from home . Three more semifinals took place at St Andrew 's before the Second World War , in 1911 , 1924 and 1934 . The club bought the freehold of the ground in 1921 for a price believed to be less than £ 7 @,@ 000 ( £ 679 @,@ 000 today ) . In the 1930s , roofs were erected over the Kop and Railway End terraces , and in February 1939 , the ground attendance record , variously recorded as 66 @,@ 844 or 67 @,@ 341 , was set at the fifth @-@ round FA Cup tie against Everton .
= = = Wartime = = =
During the First World War , the club supported the war effort by allowing the ground to be used as a rifle range for military training . On the outbreak of the Second World War , all outdoor sport was banned by the Government until safety implications could be assessed . When football resumed a few weeks later , Birmingham 's Chief Constable ordered the ground 's closure because of its proximity to probable air @-@ raid targets such as the BSA munitions factories . The matter was first raised in Parliament in November 1939 , but the Home Secretary felt unable to intervene . By March 1940 , when St Andrew 's had for some time been the only football ground in England still closed , the Chief Constable bowed to public pressure , and a crowd of 13 @,@ 241 witnessed Birmingham 's first home game in more than six months .
In 1941 , St Andrew 's suffered 20 direct hits from Luftwaffe bombing , which destroyed the roof of the Kop , badly damaged the Railway End , and forced the team to play elsewhere . It was therefore a surprising choice of venue for a wartime international match between England and Wales ; on safety grounds , spectators were required to purchase tickets in advance , and numbers were limited to 25 @,@ 000 . Three months later , the Main Stand , which was being used as a temporary National Fire Service station , burned down , destroying the club 's records and equipment – " not so much as a lead pencil was saved from the wreckage " – when a fireman mistook a bucket of petrol for water when intending to damp down a brazier . The team returned to the ground in 1943 .
= = = Improvements = = =
The replacement Main Stand , built in the early 1950s , used a propped cantilever roof design , which meant fewer pillars to block spectators ' view of the pitch . Floodlights were installed , and officially switched on for a friendly match against Borussia Dortmund in October 1956 . By the early 1960s , a stand had been built at the Railway End to the same design as the Main Stand , a new roof erected over the Kop , and the Tilton Road end covered for the first time . A scoreboard and clock were installed at the City end of the ground in memory of Birmingham and England player Jeff Hall , who died of polio during the 1958 – 59 season . In the 1970s , the Asda chain proposed to share the cost of a new stand as part of a supermarket development on land behind the Kop made vacant by slum clearance ; in the face of opposition from commercial rivals , the proposal fell through .
= = = Modernisation = = =
The last home game of the 1984 – 85 promotion season , against Leeds United , was marred by rioting , culminating in the death of a boy when a wall collapsed on him ; this was on the same day as the Bradford City stadium fire , and the events at St Andrew 's were included in the remit of Mr Justice Popplewell 's inquiry into safety at sports grounds . In response to this and the later Taylor Report , the capacity of St Andrew 's was cut to 26 @,@ 000 , but it was accepted that the stadium had to be brought up to modern standards . Club chairman David Gold recalled his first visit in March 1993 :
It was a shock . I had a picture in my mind of what I was expecting , but it was in such a state of disrepair that it was hard to comprehend ... Only two @-@ thirds of the bulbs on the floodlights were working and the Football League had threatened action if we didn 't do something to improve the lights . It was raining . It was a dour game . It was dark . It was dull . There were people standing in the rain looking extremely uncomfortable and unhappy . This First Division club was penniless and near to extinction . There were corrugated @-@ iron fences round the ground and it looked as though it hadn 't seen a lick of paint since Birmingham reached the FA Cup Final in 1956 .
Though relegation to the Third Division meant the club was no longer bound by the Taylor Report 's 1994 deadline for conversion to all @-@ seater , new owner David Sullivan continued the £ 4 @.@ 5 million development as planned . After the last home game of the 1993 – 94 season , the Kop and Tilton Road terraces were demolished , helped by fans who took home a significant proportion as souvenirs , the land was cleared – the rubbish tip beneath the Kop which had earned the club £ 800 in 1906 ( £ 43 @,@ 300 at 1994 prices ) cost £ 250 @,@ 000 to decontaminate – and by the start of the new season , 7 @,@ 000 seats in the Tilton Road Stand were ready for use . On completion of the Kop Stand , the stadium was formally re @-@ opened in November 1994 by Baroness Trumpington , representing the Department of National Heritage , who unveiled a commemorative plaque and presented a cheque for £ 2 @.@ 5 million on behalf of the Football Trust ; the ceremony was followed by a friendly match against Aston Villa , attended by a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 . Planning permission for an all @-@ seater Railway Stand was granted in March 1995 , but work was delayed by a dispute over land owned by Railtrack and the stand opened only in 1999 .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium has four stands . The Main Stand ( renamed the Garrison Lane Stand from 2010 to 2012 ) , a free @-@ standing structure on the north side of the playing area , was completed in 1954 and has seating for fewer than 5 @,@ 000 spectators . The upper tier contains the media area and an area of corporate seats as well as standard seating . The lower tier , known as the Paddocks , consists of a few rows of seats placed on the uncovered terraced area in front of the stand ; the view from this area can be obstructed by the central tunnel and the dugouts . A row of executive boxes was added at the back of the Paddocks in the 1970s . The family area is divided between the eastern end of the Main Stand and the Paddock beneath . The club planned £ 1 @.@ 3 million worth of restructuring and refurbishment work on the stand , which contained hospitality areas and offices , during the 2009 closed season , and seating was replaced in 2010 . The broadcasting gantry is situated in the roof of this stand .
To commemorate the 50th anniversary of Jeff Hall 's death , the club commissioned a memorial clock to replace the original which did not survive the 1990s renovations . Placed centrally above the Main Stand , it was unveiled in September 2008 by Hall 's teammates Alex Govan and Gil Merrick . However , adverse reaction to the clock 's size and position provoked the club into ordering a larger replacement to be incorporated in a proposed big screen .
The Railway Stand , on the west side of the stadium nearest to Birmingham city centre , is also free @-@ standing . It was opened in 1999 and holds some 8 @,@ 000 spectators in two tiers ; the upper tier , a small area known as the Olympic Gallery , overhangs the lower , at the back of which is a row of executive boxes . From the 2009 – 10 season , the Railway Stand was renamed the Gil Merrick Stand , in honour of the club 's appearance record @-@ holder and former manager . Visiting supporters are housed in the lower Railway Stand , segregated from home fans by plastic netting over the seats .
The Kop Stand and the Tilton Road Stand , opened in 1994 , form a continuous L @-@ shaped single @-@ tier stand , with seating capacity for nearly 17 @,@ 000 spectators , round the remaining half of the pitch . A walkway separates back and front sections . The Kop seating includes the directors ' box and a row of executive boxes , within the stand are a number of function rooms and hospitality areas , and there are electronic perimeter advertising boards in front . The stadium has floodlight pylons only on the north side ; the south side is lit by a row of lights along the front of the Kop roof . The Tilton Road Stand has 9 @,@ 000 seats , and is the only one without hospitality boxes .
The various function rooms and corporate boxes are available for hire for business or social events , and the stadium is licensed as a venue for civil weddings . There are wheelchair areas in all parts of the stadium , and commentary headsets for visually impaired spectators are available .
The pitch measures 100 by 66 metres ( 109 yd × 72 yd ) . It was relaid three times in 2007 . The first attempt , made because the surface had deteriorated to a dangerous condition , was unsuccessful because of freak rainfall which resulted in the postponement of the next match – the first time such an event had happened in senior English football . The work had to be repeated , and then done for a third time in the closed season . The postponement of an FA Cup @-@ tie in January 2009 highlighted the lack of under @-@ soil heating , which was installed in June .
= = Future = =
In 2004 a proposal was put forward to build a " sports village " comprising a new 55 @,@ 000 stadium for the club , to be known as the City of Birmingham Stadium , other sports and leisure facilities , and a super casino . The project would be jointly financed by Birmingham City Council , Birmingham City F.C. ( via the proceeds of the sale of St Andrew 's ) and the casino group Las Vegas Sands . The feasibility of the plan depended on the government issuing a licence for a super casino as permitted under the Gambling Act 2005 , and Birmingham being chosen as the venue , but this did not happen . The club have planning permission to redevelop the Main Stand , and a derelict building behind the stand has been demolished , but club and council have continued to seek alternative sources of funding for the City of Birmingham Stadium project .
In 2013 , the Birmingham City Supporters ' Trust 's application for listing St Andrew 's as an Asset of Community Value ( ACV ) under the Localism Act 2011 was approved by Birmingham City Council . The legislation defines an ACV as a building or other land whose main use " furthers the social wellbeing or social interests of the local community " and where it is realistic to believe it could do so in the future . It requires any proposed sale to be notified to the Council , and provides for a six @-@ month moratorium on that sale to allow the Trust and other community groups to submit their own bid .
= = Other uses = =
Teams representing England have played international matches at St Andrew 's , though not at senior level . In 1957 , England B defeated Scotland B under floodlights in front of nearly 40 @,@ 000 spectators . England 's junior sides have played there on several occasions , at under @-@ 23 , under @-@ 21 – the 4 – 0 defeat to Spain in 2001 was the England under @-@ 21 team 's worst home defeat – and youth levels . Before competitive football resumed after the First World War , a Scottish Football League XI beat their English counterparts , including Birmingham players Frank Womack and Billy Morgan , 3 – 1 at St Andrew 's .
As of 2009 , four FA Cup semifinals have taken place at St Andrew 's , and the ground has hosted semifinal replays on five occasions , most recently in 1961 . It was the venue for the 1987 play @-@ off final replay , in which Charlton Athletic beat Leeds United to remain in the Football League First Division , and for the final of the FA Vase in 2004 and 2006 .
The ground has also been used for other sports . Small Heath Harriers athletic club , whose headquarters had been at the Muntz Street ground , trained at St Andrew 's until the 1920s . The 1960 South African touring rugby union team beat a Midland Counties XV by 16 points to 5 on a muddy St Andrew 's pitch in front of a 17 @,@ 000 crowd . In 1949 , Dick Turpin beat Albert Finch on points to retain his British and Empire middleweight boxing title ; Turpin 's brothers Jack and future world champion Randolph fought on the undercard . In 1965 , Henry Cooper defeated Johnny Prescott at St Andrew 's to retain his British and Empire heavyweight title ; the fight took place two days after originally scheduled , having been rained off at the last minute , which prompted debate as to the feasibility of outdoor boxing promotions in light of the uncertain British weather .
St Andrew 's was the location for the rally scene in Peter Watkins ' 1967 film Privilege . It has hosted a number of music concerts : performers and events include UB40 , supported by The Pogues , in 1989 , Duran Duran in 2005 , and the 2002 Party in the Park , featuring Westlife and Sugababes among others .
= = Records = =
The record attendance at St Andrew 's was set at the fifth @-@ round FA Cup tie against Everton on 11 February 1939 ; the actual figure is variously reported as 66 @,@ 844 or 67 @,@ 341 . The highest attendance recorded for a league match is 60 @,@ 250 , against Aston Villa in the First Division on 23 November 1935 . The highest average attendance over a league season , 38 @,@ 821 , was set during the 1948 – 49 First Division season , and the lowest , 6 @,@ 289 , was recorded in the Second Division in 1988 – 89 . Since the stadium was converted to all @-@ seater , the record attendance is 29 @,@ 588 , set against Arsenal in the Premier League on 22 November 2003 .
St Andrew 's was the venue for the first use of a penalty shootout to determine the winner of an FA Cup match . For five seasons , between 1970 and 1974 , the losing FA Cup semifinalists were obliged to play off for third and fourth place ; Birmingham City finished third in the 1971 – 72 FA Cup by beating Stoke City 4 – 3 on penalties following a goalless 90 minutes .
= = Transport = =
The nearest railway station to the stadium is Bordesley , on the Birmingham to Stratford Line between Moor Street and Small Heath stations , which has regular services only on match days . The stadium is a 20 @-@ minute walk from New Street station , which is served by direct trains from most parts of the country , and slightly less far from Moor Street , which is served by Chiltern Railways trains from London Marylebone . Digbeth Coach Station , served by National Express coaches , is a 15 @-@ minute walk away , and buses run from the city centre past the ground . There is very limited parking at the stadium itself , but a secure outdoor car park is available at Birmingham Wheels Park , less than 15 minutes walk away , and parking is permitted in the streets surrounding the ground .
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= Badrinath Temple =
Badrinath or Badrinarayan Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu which is situated in the town of Badrinath in Uttarakhand , India . The temple and town form one of the four Char Dham and Chota Char Dham pilgrimage sites . The temple is also one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu , who is worshipped as Badrinath — holy shrines for Vaishnavites . It is open for six months every year ( between the end of April and the beginning of November ) , because of extreme weather conditions in the Himalayan region . The temple is located in Garhwal hill tracks in Chamoli district along the banks of Alaknanda River at an elevation of 3 @,@ 133 m ( 10 @,@ 279 ft ) above the mean sea level . It is one of the most visited pilgrimage centres of India , having recorded 1 @,@ 060 @,@ 000 visits .
The image of the presiding deity worshipped in the temple is a 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) tall , black stone statue of Vishnu in the form of Badrinarayan . The statue is considered by many Hindus to be one of eight swayam vyakta kshetras , or self @-@ manifested statues of Vishnu .
Mata Murti Ka Mela , which commemorates the descent of river Ganges on mother earth , is the most prominent festival celebrated in the Badrinath Temple . Although Badrinath is located in North India , the head priest , or Rawal , is traditionally a Nambudiri Brahmin chosen from the South Indian state of Kerala . The temple was included in the Uttar Pradesh state government Act No. 30 / 1948 as Act no . 16 @,@ 1939 , which later came to be known as Shri Badarinath and Shri Kedarnath Mandir Act . The committee nominated by the state government administers both the temples and has seventeen members on its board .
The temple is mentioned in ancient religious texts like Vishnu Purana and Skanda Purana . It is glorified in the Divya Prabandha , an early medieval Tamil canon of the Azhwar saints from the 6th – 9th centuries AD .
= = Location , architecture , and shrines = =
The temple is located in Garhwal hill tracks along the banks of the Alaknanda River in Chamoli district in Uttarakhand , a state in North India . The hill tracks are located 3 @,@ 133 m ( 10 @,@ 279 ft ) above the mean sea level . The Nar Parbat mountain is located opposite to the temple , while the Narayana Parbat is located behind the Neelakanta peak .
The temple has three structures : the Garbhagriha ( sanctum ) , the Darshan Mandap ( worship hall ) , and Sabha Mandap ( convention hall ) . The conical @-@ shaped roof of the sanctum , the garbhagriha , is approximately 15 m ( 49 ft ) tall with a small cupola on top , covered with a gold gilt roof . The facade is built of stone and has arched windows . A broad stairway leads up to the main entrance , a tall , arched gateway . Just inside is a mandap , a large , pillared hall that leads to the sanctum , or main shrine area . The walls and pillars of the hall are covered with intricate carvings .
The main shrine houses the 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) Shaligram ( black stone ) image of Badrinarayan , which is housed in a gold canopy under a Badri Tree . The image of Badrinarayan holds a Shankha ( conch ) and a Chakra ( wheel ) in two of its arms in a lifted posture and two arms are rested on its lap in a Yogamudra ( Padmasana ) posture . The sanctum also houses images of the god of wealth — Kubera , sage Narada , Uddhava , Nar and Narayan . There are fifteen more images that are also worshipped around the temple . These include that of Lakshmi ( the consort of Vishnu ) , Garuda ( the vahana of Narayan ) , and Navadurga , the manifestation of Durga in nine different forms . The temple also has shrines of Lakshmi Narasimhar and for saints Adi Shankara ( AD 788 @-@ 820 ) , Vedanta Desika and Ramanujacharya . All the idols of the temple are made of black stone .
The Tapt Kund , a group of hot sulphur springs just below the temple , are considered to be medicinal ; many pilgrims consider it a requirement to bathe in the springs before visiting the temple . The springs have a year @-@ round temperature of 55 ° C ( 131 ° F ) , while outside temperature is typically below 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) all year round . The two water ponds in the temple are called Narad Kund and Surya Kund .
= = History = =
There is no historical record about the temple , but there is a mention of the presiding deity Badrinath in Vedic scriptures , indicating the presence of the temple during the Vedic period ( c . 1750 – 500 BC ) . As per some accounts , the temple was a Buddhist shrine till the 8th century and Adi Shankara converted it to a Hindu temple . The architecture of the temple resembling that of a Buddhist vihara ( temple ) and the brightly painted facade which is atypical of Buddhist temples leads to the argument . As per other accounts , it was originally established as a pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara in the ninth century . It is believed that Shankara resided in the place for six years from AD 814 to 820 . He resided six months in Badrinath and the rest of the year in Kedarnath . Hindu followers assert that he discovered the image of Badrinath in the Alaknanda River and enshrined it in a cave near the Tapt Kund hot springs . A traditional story asserts that Shankara expelled all the Buddhists in the region with the help of the Parmar ruler king Kanak Pal . The hereditary successors of the king governed the temple and endowed villages to meet its expenses . The income from a set of villages on the route to the temple was used to feed and accommodate pilgrims . The Parmar rulers held the title " Bolanda Badrinath " , meaning speaking Badrinath . They had other titles , including Shri 108 Basdrishcharyaparayan Garharj Mahimahendra , Dharmabibhab and Dharamarakshak Sigamani .
The throne of Badrinath was named after the presiding deity ; the king enjoyed ritual obeisance by the devotees before proceeding to the shrine . The practice was continued until the late 19th century . During the 16th century , the King of Garhwal moved the murti to the present temple . When the state of Garhwal was divided , the Badrinath temple came under British rule but the king of Garhwal continued as the chairman of the management committee .
The temple has undergone several major renovations due to its age and damage by an avalanche . In the 17th century , the temple was expanded by the Kings of Garhwal . After significant damage in the great 1803 Himalayan earthquake , it was largely rebuilt by the King of Jaipur . It was still under renovation as late as the 1870s but these were completed by the time of the First World War . At that time , the town was still small , consisting of only the 20 @-@ odd huts housing the temple 's staff , but the number of pilgrims was usually between seven and ten thousand . The Kumbh Meld festival held every twelve years raised the number of visitors to 50 @,@ 000 . The temple also enjoyed revenue from the rents owed to it by various villages bequeathed by various rajas .
During 2006 , the state government announced the area around Badrinath as a no construction zone to curb illegal encroachment .
= = Legend = =
According to Hindu legend , god Vishnu sat in meditation at this place , keeping away from Thuling , a place in the Himalayas which was corrupted by meat @-@ eating monks and unchaste people . During his meditation , Vishnu was unaware of cold weather . Lakshmi , his consort , protected him in the form of the Badri tree ( jujube or Indian date ) . Pleased by the devotion of Lakshmi , Vishnu named the place Badrika Ashram . According to Atkinson ( 1979 ) , the place used to be a jujube forest , which are not found there today . Vishnu in the form of Badrinath is depicted in the temple sitting in the padmasana posture . According to the legend , Vishnu was chastised by a sage , who saw Vishnu 's consort Lakshmi massaging his feet . Vishnu went to Badrinath to perform austerity , meditating for a long time in padmasana .
The Vishnu Purana narrates another version of the origins of Badrinath . According to the tradition , Dharam had two sons , Nar and Narayan — both of which are modern names of Himalayan mountains . They chose the place to spread their religion and each of them wed the spacious valleys in the Himalayas . Searching for an ideal place to set up a hermitage , they came across the other four Badris of the Pancha Badri , namely Bridha Badri , Yog Bhadri , Dhyan Badri and Bhavish Badri . They finally found the hot and cold spring behind the Alaknanda River and named it Badri Vishal .
= = Literary mention = =
The temple finds mention in several ancient books like Bhagavata Purana , Skanda Purana and Mahabharata . According to the Bhagavata Purana , " [ t ] here in Badrikashram the Personality of Godhead ( Vishnu ) , in his incarnation as the sages Nar and Narayana , had been undergoing great penance since time immemorial for the welfare of all living entities " . The Skanda Purana states that " [ t ] here are several sacred shrines in heaven , on earth , and in hell ; but there is no shrine like Badrinath " . The area around Badrinath is also celebrated in Padma Purana as abounding in spiritual treasures . The Mahabharata revered the holy place as the one which can give salvation to devotees arriving close to if , while in other holy places they must perform religious ceremonies . The temple is revered in Nalayira Divya Prabandham , in 11 hymns in the 7th – 9th century Vaishnava canon by Periazhwar and in 13 hymns in Thirumangai Azhwar . It is one of the 108 Divyadesam dedicated to Vishnu , who is worshipped as Badrinath .
= = Pilgrimage = =
Devotees of all faiths and all schools of thought of Hinduism visit the Badrinath Temple . All the major monastic institutions like Kashi Math , Jeeyar Mutt ( Andhra mutt ) , Udupi Pejavar and Manthralayam Sri Raghavendra Swamy Mutts have their branches and guest houses there .
The Badrinath temple is one of five related shrines called Panch Badri , which are dedicated to the worship of Vishnu . The five temples are Vishal Badri - Badrinath Temple in Badrinath , Yogadhyan Badri located at Pandukeshwar , Bhavishya Badri located 17 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) from Jyotirmath at Subain , Vridh Badri located 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from Jyotirmath in Animath and Adi Badri located 17 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) from Karnaprayag . The temple is considered one of the holiest Hindu Char Dham ( four divine ) sites , comprising Rameswaram , Badrinath , Puri and Dwarka . Although the temple 's origins are not clearly known , the Advaita school of Hinduism established by Adi Shankara attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer . The four monasteries are located across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North , Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East , Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Sri Sharada Peetam Sringeri at Sringeri , Karnataka in the South .
Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism , namely Saivism and Vaishnavism , the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all @-@ Hindu affair . There are four abodes in the Himalayas called Chota Char Dham ( Chota meaning small ) : Badrinath , Kedarnath , Gangotri and Yamunotri — all of which lie in the foothills of the Himalayas . The name Chota was added during the mid of 20th century to differentiate the original Char Dhams . As the number of pilgrims to these places has increased in modern times , it is called Himalayan Char Dham .
The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus , who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetimes . Traditionally , the pilgrimage starts at the eastern end from Puri , proceeding clockwise in a manner typically followed for circumambulation in Hindu temples .
= = Festivals and religious practices = =
The most prominent festival held at Badrinath Temple is Mata Murti Ka Mela , which commemorates the descent of the river Ganges on mother earth . The mother of Badrinath , who is believed to have divided the river into twelve channels for the welfare of earthly beings , is worshiped during the festival . The place where the river flowed became the holy land of Badrinath .
The Badri Kedar festival is celebrated during the month of June in both the temple and the Kedarnath temple . The festival lasts for eight days ; artists from all over the country perform during the function .
The major religious activities ( or pujas ) performed every morning are mahabhishek ( ablution ) , abhishek , gitapath and bhagavat puja , while in the evening the pujas include geet govinda and aarti . Recital in vedic scripts like Ashtotram and Sahasranama is practiced during all the rituals . After aarti , the decorations are removed from the image of Badrinath and sandalwood paste is applied to it . The paste from the image is given to the devotees the next day as prasad during the nirmalaya darshan . All the rituals are performed in front of the devotees , unlike those in some Hindu temples , where some practices are hidden from them . Sugar balls and dry leaves are the common prasad provided to the devotees . From May 2006 , the practise of offering Panchamrit Prasad , prepared locally and packed in local bamboo baskets , was started .
The temple is closed for winter on the auspicious day of Vijayadasami during October – November . On the day of closure , Akhanda Jyothi , a lamp is lit filled with ghee to last for six months . Special pujas are performed on the day by the chief priest in the presence of pilgrims and officials of the temple . The image of Badrinath is notionally transferred during the period to the Narasimha temple at Jyotirmath , located 40 mi ( 64 km ) away from the temple . The temple is reopened around April on Vasant Panchami , another auspicious day on the Hindu calendar . Pilgrims gather on the first day of opening of the temple after the winter to witness the Akhanda Jyothi .
The temple is one of the holy places where the Hindus offer oblations to ancestors with the help of the priests . Devotees visit the temple to worship in front of the image of Badrinath in the sanctum and have a hold dip in Alaknanda River . The general belief is that a dip in the tank purifies the soul .
= = Administration and visit = =
The Badrinath Temple was included in the Uttar Pradesh state government Act No. 30 / 1948 as Act no . 16 @,@ 1939 , which was later known as Shri Badarinath and Shri Kedarnath Mandir Act . A committee nominated by the state government administers both the temples . The act was modified in 2002 to appoint additional committee members , including Government officials and a Vice chairman . There are seventeen members in the board ; three selected by the Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly , one member each by the Zilla Parishads of Garhwa , Tehri , Chamoli and Uttarkashi , and ten members nominated by the state government .
As per the temple records , the priests of the temple were Shiva ascetics called Dandi Sanyasis , who belonged to Nambudiri community , a religious group common in modern Kerala . When the last of the ascetics died without an heir in 1776 AD , the king invited non @-@ ascetic Nambudiris from Kerala for priesthood , a practice that continues in modern times . Till 1939 , all the offerings made by the devotees to the temple went to the Rawal ( chief priest ) , but after 1939 , his jurisdiction was restricted to religious affairs . The administrative structure of the temple consists of a chief executive officer who executes the orders from the state government , a deputy chief executive officer , two OSDs , an executive officer , an account officer , a temple officer and a publicity officer to assist the chief executive officer .
Although Badrinath is located in North India , the head priest , or Rawal , is traditionally a Nambudiri Brahmin chosen from the South Indian state of Kerala . This tradition is believed to have been initiated by Adi Shankara , who was a South Indian philosopher . The Rawal ( chief priest ) is requested by the Government of Uttarakhand ( Uttar Pradesh government before the formation of Uttarakhand state ) to the Kerala Government . The candidate should possess a degree of Acharya in Sanskrit , be a bachelor , well @-@ versed in reciting mantras ( sacred texts ) and be from the Vaishnava sect of Hinduism . The erstwhile ruler of Garhwal , who is the tutelary head of Badrinath , approves the candidate sent by the Government of Kerala . A Tilak Ceremony is held to instate the Rawal and he is deputed from April to November , when the temple remains open . The Rawal is accorded high holiness status by Garhwal Rifles and the state governments of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh . He is also held in high esteem by the Royals of Nepal . From April to November , he performs his duties as a temple priest . Thereafter , he either stays in Joshimutt or returns to his native village in Kerala . The duties of the Rawal starts at 4 a.m. every day with the Abhisheka . He should not cross the river until Vamana Dwadasi and must adhere to Brahmacharya . The Rawal is assisted by the Garhwali Dimri Pundits belonging to the Village Dimmer , Nayab Rawals , Dharmadikari , Vedapathi , a group of priests , Pandas Samadhini , Bhandari , Rasoiyas ( cook ) , devotional singer , clerk of devashram , Jal Bhariya ( water keeper ) and temple guards . Badrinath is one of the few temples in North India that follow the ancient Tantra @-@ Vidhi of Shrauta tradition more common in the south .
In 2012 , the temple administration introduced a token system for visitors to the temple . Tokens indicating the time of visit were provided from three stalls in the taxi stands . Each devotee to visit the presiding deity is allocated 10 – 20 seconds . Proof of identity is mandatory to enter the temple . The temple is reached from Rishikesh , located 298 km ( 185 mi ) away via Dev Prayag , Rudra Prayag , Karna Prayag , Nanda Prayag , Joshimutt , Vishnuprayag and Devadarshini . From Kedarnath , visitors can follow the 243 km ( 151 mi ) -long Rudra Prayag route or the 230 km ( 140 mi ) -long Ukthimath and Gopeswar route .
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= New Jersey Route 88 =
Route 88 is a state highway in the northern part of Ocean County , New Jersey , United States . It runs 10 @.@ 02 mi ( 16 @.@ 13 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and County Route 547 ( CR 547 ) in Lakewood Township to an intersection with Route 35 in Point Pleasant . It is a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes through mostly residential and commercial areas . The route intersects CR 549 in Lakewood , Route 70 in Brick Township at the former Laurelton Circle , and CR 549 Spur in Point Pleasant . The road is mentioned in the lyrics of the 1973 song " Spirit in the Night " by Bruce Springsteen .
The route was built as a gravel county road in 1903 and became part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 , a route that was to run from Absecon to Rahway , in 1916 . US 9 was designated along this stretch of road in 1926 when the U.S. Highway System was created . A year later , in 1927 , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 became a part of Route 35 , a route that was to from Lakewood to South Amboy . By the 1940s , US 9 was moved off this road to follow its current alignment between Lakewood and South Amboy . In 1953 , Route 35 was realigned to follow a portion of Route 37 between Point Pleasant and Seaside Heights , and Route 88 was designated along the former alignment of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant . The Laurelton Circle at Route 70 , built in 1937 , was replaced with the current intersection by the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
Route 88 begins at an intersection with US 9 and CR 547 in Lakewood Township , and heads eastward on Main Street , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road heads through the downtown before heading into wooded residential areas , where it becomes Ocean Avenue at the Pearl Street intersection before coming to a junction with CR 20 . Past this intersection , the route heads through a mix of residences and businesses with some woodland . Route 88 intersects CR 623 , where it heads through a commercial district , crossing CR 549 . A short distance later , the route passes under the Garden State Parkway without an interchange before crossing the Metedeconk River into Brick Township . Here , the road heads through a mix of residential and commercial areas , intersecting CR 64 , CR 44 , CR 40 , and CR 16 . It turns south and intersects CR 40 before crossing Route 70 .
Past this intersection , Route 88 briefly splits into a one @-@ way pair . Here , the eastbound direction follows Princeton Avenue southeast before turning north onto Post Road , with CR 630 continuing along Princeton Avenue , while westbound Route 88 follows Princeton Post Road . Past the one @-@ way pair , the route continues northeast on Princeton Post Road , which passes by numerous businesses . Along this stretch of road Route 88 intersects several county routes , including CR 64 again , CR 42 , CR 10 , and CR 54 . The route heads into Point Pleasant , where it intersects CR 56 before crossing Beaver Dam Creek and becoming Sea Avenue . From here , the road crosses CR 632 before heading east and intersecting CR 549 Spur and CR 630 . After this intersection , Route 88 crosses the Point Pleasant Canal ( part of the Intracoastal Waterway ) on a lift bridge before heading east through residential areas with some businesses . Here , the road intersects CR 633 / CR 10 , CR 6 , and CR 604 . A short distance later , Route 88 ends at an intersection with Route 35 on the border of Point Pleasant and Point Pleasant Beach .
= = History = =
What is modern @-@ day Route 88 was first built as a hard gravel county road back in 1903 , the first such road in Ocean County . In 1916 , this road was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 , a state road that was to run from Absecon north to Rahway . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 9 was also designated along this route , running concurrent with Route 4 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering a year later , Route 35 replaced this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 as part of its route from Lakewood to South Amboy . By the 1940s , US 9 was moved off this portion of Route 35 to follow its current alignment along Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 35 was realigned to follow what was a part of Route 37 between Point Pleasant and Seaside Heights , and Route 88 was designated along the former alignment of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant . A traffic circle called the Laurelton Circle , built in 1937 , once existed at the intersection with Route 70 ; it was replaced with its current configuration by the 1990s .
Route 88 was referred to in the 1973 song " Spirit in the Night " by Bruce Springsteen on his debut album Greetings from Asbury Park , N.J ..
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ocean County .
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= Huldrych Zwingli =
Huldrych Zwingli or Ulrich Zwingli ( 1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531 ) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland . Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system , he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel , a scholarly center of Renaissance humanism . He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln , where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus .
In 1518 , Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church . In his first public controversy in 1522 , he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent . In his publications , he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy , promoted clerical marriage , and attacked the use of images in places of worship . In 1525 , Zwingli introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the Mass . Zwingli also clashed with the Anabaptists , which resulted in their persecution . Historians have debated whether or not he turned Zurich into a theocracy .
The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation , but several cantons resisted , preferring to remain Catholic . Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines . In 1529 , a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment . Meanwhile , Zwingli 's ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers . They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine , they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist .
In 1531 Zwingli 's alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons . The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was ill prepared . Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47 . His legacy lives on in the confessions , liturgy , and church orders of the Reformed churches of today .
= = Historical context = =
The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwingli 's time consisted of thirteen states ( cantons ) as well as affiliated states and common lordships . Unlike the current modern state of Switzerland , which operates under a federal government , the thirteen states were nearly independent , conducting their own domestic and foreign affairs . Each state formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation . This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various states divided between different confessional camps . Military ambitions were given an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources , as seen for example in the Old Zurich War .
The political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile . For centuries the foreign policies of the Confederation were determined by its relationship with its powerful neighbour , France . Nominally , the Confederation was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire . However , through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War , the Confederation had become de facto independent . As the two continental powers and minor states such as the Duchy of Milan , Duchy of Savoy , and the Papal States competed and fought against each other , there were far @-@ reaching political , economic , and social consequences for the Confederation . It was during this time that the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement . The religious factions of Zwingli 's time debated vociferously regarding the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities .
These internal and external factors contributed to the rise of a Confederation national consciousness , in which the term fatherland ( patria ) began to take on meaning beyond an individual canton . At the same time , Renaissance humanism , with its universal values and emphasis on scholarship ( as exemplified by Erasmus , the " prince of humanism " ) , had taken root in the country . It was within this environment , defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism , that Zwingli was born .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years ( 1484 – 1518 ) = = =
Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus , in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland , to a family of farmers , the third child of nine . His father , Ulrich , played a leading role in the administration of the community ( Amtmann or chief local magistrate ) . Zwingli 's primary schooling was provided by his uncle , Bartholomew , a cleric in Weesen , where he probably met Katharina von Zimmern . At ten years old , Zwingli was sent to Basel to obtain his secondary education where he learned Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli . After three years in Basel , he stayed a short time in Bern with the humanist , Henry Wölfflin . The Dominicans in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it is possible that he was received as a novice . However , his father and uncle disapproved of such a course and he left Bern without completing his Latin studies . He enrolled in the University of Vienna in the winter semester of 1498 but was expelled , according to the university 's records . However , it is not certain that Zwingli was indeed expelled , and he re @-@ enrolled in the summer semester of 1500 ; his activities in 1499 are unknown . Zwingli continued his studies in Vienna until 1502 , after which he transferred to the University of Basel where he received the Master of Arts degree ( Magister ) in 1506 .
Zwingli was ordained in Constance , the seat of the local diocese , and he celebrated his first Mass in his hometown , Wildhaus , on 29 September 1506 . As a young priest he had studied little theology , but this was not considered unusual at the time . His first ecclesiastical post was the pastorate of the town of Glarus , where he stayed for ten years . It was in Glarus , whose soldiers were used as mercenaries in Europe , that Zwingli became involved in politics . The Swiss Confederation was embroiled in various campaigns with its neighbours : the French , the Habsburgs , and the Papal States . Zwingli placed himself solidly on the side of the Roman See . In return , Pope Julius II honoured Zwingli by providing him with an annual pension . He took the role of chaplain in several campaigns in Italy , including the Battle of Novara in 1513 . However , the decisive defeat of the Swiss in the Battle of Marignano caused a shift in mood in Glarus in favour of the French rather than the pope . Zwingli , the papal partisan , found himself in a difficult position and he decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz . By this time , he had become convinced that mercenary service was immoral and that Swiss unity was indispensable for any future achievements . Some of his earliest extant writings , such as The Ox ( 1510 ) and The Labyrinth ( 1516 ) , attacked the mercenary system using allegory and satire . His countrymen were presented as virtuous people within a French , imperial , and papal triangle . Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two years during which he withdrew completely from politics in favour of ecclesiastical activities and personal studies .
Zwingli 's time as the pastor of Glarus and Einsiedeln was characterized by inner growth and development . He perfected his Greek and he took up the study of Hebrew . His library contained over three hundred volumes from which he was able to draw upon classical , patristic , and scholastic works . He exchanged scholarly letters with a circle of Swiss humanists and began to study the writings of Erasmus . Zwingli took the opportunity to meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August 1514 and May 1516 . Zwingli 's turn to relative pacifism and his focus on preaching can be traced to the influence of Erasmus .
In late 1518 , the post of the Leutpriestertum ( people 's priest ) of the Grossmünster at Zurich became vacant . The canons of the foundation that administered the Grossmünster recognised Zwingli 's reputation as a fine preacher and writer . His connection with humanists was a decisive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform . In addition , his opposition to the French and to mercenary service was welcomed by Zurich politicians . On 11 December 1518 , the canons elected Zwingli to become the stipendiary priest and on 27 December he moved permanently to Zurich .
= = = Zurich ministry begins ( 1519 – 1521 ) = = =
On 1 January 1519 , Zwingli gave his first sermon in Zurich . Deviating from the prevalent practice of basing a sermon on the Gospel lesson of a particular Sunday , Zwingli , using Erasmus ' New Testament as a guide , began to read through the Gospel of Matthew , giving his interpretation during the sermon , known as the method of lectio continua . He continued to read and interpret the book on subsequent Sundays until he reached the end and then proceeded in the same manner with the Acts of the Apostles , the New Testament epistles , and finally the Old Testament . His motives for doing this are not clear , but in his sermons he used exhortation to achieve moral and ecclesiastical improvement which were goals comparable with Erasmian reform . Sometime after 1520 , Zwingli 's theological model began to evolve into an idiosyncratic form that was neither Erasmian nor Lutheran . Scholars do not agree on the process of how he developed his own unique model . One view is that Zwingli was trained as an Erasmian humanist and Luther played a decisive role in changing his theology . Another view is that Zwingli did not pay much attention to Luther 's theology and in fact he considered it as part of the humanist reform movement . A third view is that Zwingli was not a complete follower of Erasmus , but had diverged from him as early as 1516 and that he independently developed his theology .
Zwingli 's theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons . He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations . Monks were accused of indolence and high living . In 1519 , Zwingli specifically rejected the veneration of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts . He cast doubts on hellfire , asserted that unbaptised children were not damned , and questioned the power of excommunication . His attack on the claim that tithing was a divine institution , however , had the greatest theological and social impact . This contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation . One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli 's election , Konrad Hofmann , complained about his sermons in a letter . Some canons supported Hofmann , but the opposition never grew very large . Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the sole basis of his teachings was Scripture .
Within the diocese of Constance , Bernhardin Sanson was offering a special indulgence for contributors to the building of St Peter 's in Rome . When Sanson arrived at the gates of Zurich at the end of January 1519 , parishioners prompted Zwingli with questions . He responded with displeasure that the people were not being properly informed about the conditions of the indulgence and were being induced to part with their money on false pretences . This was over a year after Martin Luther published his Ninety @-@ five theses ( 31 October 1517 ) . The council of Zurich refused Sanson entry into the city . As the authorities in Rome were anxious to contain the fire started by Luther , the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson and he was recalled .
In August 1519 , Zurich was struck by an outbreak of the plague during which at least one in four persons died . All of those who could afford it left the city , but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties . In September , he caught the disease and nearly died . He described his preparation for death in a poem , Zwingli 's Pestlied , consisting of three parts : the onset of the illness , the closeness to death , and the joy of recovery . The final verses of the first part read :
In the years following his recovery , Zwingli 's opponents remained in the minority . When a vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster , Zwingli was elected to fulfill that vacancy on 29 April 1521 . In becoming a canon , he became a full citizen of Zurich . He also retained his post as the people 's priest of the Grossmünster .
= = = First rifts ( 1522 – 1524 ) = = =
The first public controversy regarding Zwingli 's preaching broke out during the season of Lent in 1522 . On the first fasting Sunday , 9 March , Zwingli and about a dozen other participants consciously transgressed the fasting rule by cutting and distributing two smoked sausages ( the Wurstessen in Christoph Froschauer 's workshop ) . Zwingli defended this act in a sermon which was published on 16 April , under the title Von Erkiesen und Freiheit der Speisen ( Regarding the Choice and Freedom of Foods ) . He noted that no general valid rule on food can be derived from the Bible and that to transgress such a rule is not a sin . The event , which came to be referred to as the Affair of the Sausages , is considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland . Even before the publication of this treatise , the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation to Zurich . The city council condemned the fasting violation , but assumed responsibility over ecclesiastical matters and requested the religious authorities clarify the issue . The bishop responded on 24 May by admonishing the Grossmünster and city council and repeating the traditional position .
Following this event , Zwingli and other humanist friends petitioned the bishop on 2 July to abolish the requirement of celibacy on the clergy . Two weeks later the petition was reprinted for the public in German as Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen ( A Friendly Petition and Admonition to the Confederates ) . The issue was not just an abstract problem for Zwingli , as he had secretly married a widow , Anna Reinhard , earlier in the year . Their cohabitation was well @-@ known and their public wedding took place on 2 April 1524 , three months before the birth of their first child . They would eventually have four children : Regula , William , Huldrych , and Anna . As the petition was addressed to the secular authorities , the bishop responded at the same level by notifying the Zurich government to maintain the ecclesiastical order . Other Swiss clergymen joined in Zwingli 's cause which encouraged him to make his first major statement of faith , Apologeticus Archeteles ( The First and Last Word ) . He defended himself against charges of inciting unrest and heresy . He denied the ecclesiastical hierarchy any right to judge on matters of church order because of its corrupted state .
= = = Zurich disputations ( 1523 ) = = =
The events of 1522 brought no clarification on the issues . Not only did the unrest between Zurich and the bishop continue , tensions were growing among Zurich 's Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet . On 22 December , the Diet recommended that its members prohibit the new teachings , a strong indictment directed at Zurich . The city council felt obliged to take the initiative and find its own solution .
= = = = First Disputation = = = =
On 3 January 1523 , the Zurich city council invited the clergy of the city and outlying region to a meeting to allow the factions to present their opinions . The bishop was invited to attend or to send a representative . The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to continue to proclaim their views . This meeting , the first Zurich disputation , took place on 29 January 1523 .
The meeting attracted a large crowd of approximately six hundred participants . The bishop sent a delegation led by his vicar general , Johannes Fabri . Zwingli summarised his position in the Schlussreden ( Concluding Statements or the Sixty @-@ seven Articles ) . Fabri , who had not envisaged an academic disputation in the manner Zwingli had prepared for , was forbidden to discuss high theology before laymen , and simply insisted on the necessity of the ecclesiastical authority . The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture .
= = = = Second Disputation = = = =
In September 1523 , Leo Jud , Zwingli 's closest friend and colleague and pastor of St. Peterskirche , publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons . This led to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities . The city council decided to work out the matter of images in a second disputation . The essence of the mass and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion . Supporters of the mass claimed that the eucharist was a true sacrifice , while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal . As in the first disputation , an invitation was sent out to the Zurich clergy and the bishop of Constance . This time , however , the lay people of Zurich , the dioceses of Chur and Basel , the University of Basel , and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited . About nine hundred persons attended this meeting , but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives . The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days .
Zwingli again took the lead in the disputation . His opponent was the aforementioned canon , Konrad Hofmann , who had initially supported Zwingli 's election . Also taking part was a group of young men demanding a much faster pace of reformation , who among other things pleaded for replacing infant baptism with adult baptism . This group was led by Conrad Grebel , one of the initiators of the Anabaptist movement . During the first three days of dispute , although the controversy of images and the mass were discussed , the arguments led to the question of whether the city council or the ecclesiastical government had the authority to decide on these issues . At this point , Konrad Schmid , a priest from Aargau and follower of Zwingli , made a pragmatic suggestion . As images were not yet considered to be valueless by everyone , he suggested that pastors preach on this subject under threat of punishment . He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow . Hence , Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm , but supported Zwingli 's position . In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid 's motion . Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister , Kurze , christliche Einleitung ( Short Christian Introduction ) , and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation .
= = = Reformation progresses in Zurich ( 1524 – 1525 ) = = =
In December 1523 , the council set a deadline of Pentecost in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the mass and images . Zwingli gave a formal opinion in Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe ( Proposal Concerning Images and the Mass ) . He did not urge an immediate , general abolition . The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zurich , but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote . The decision on the mass was postponed .
Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524 . Candlemas was not celebrated , processions of robed clergy ceased , worshippers did not go with palms or relics on Palm Sunday to the Lindenhof , and triptychs remained covered and closed after Lent . Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers , but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates . When Hofmann left the city , opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down . The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the mass and the veneration of images . Zwingli wrote an official response for the council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese .
Although the council had hesitated in abolishing the mass , the decrease in the exercise of traditional piety allowed pastors to be unofficially released from the requirement of celebrating mass . As individual pastors altered their practices as each saw fit , Zwingli was prompted to address this disorganised situation by designing a communion liturgy in the German language . This was published in Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls ( Act or Custom of the Supper ) . Shortly before Easter , Zwingli and his closest associates requested the council to cancel the mass and to introduce the new public order of worship . On Maundy Thursday , 13 April 1525 , Zwingli celebrated communion under his new liturgy . Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any outward displays of formality . The congregation sat at set tables to emphasise the meal aspect of the sacrament . The sermon was the focal point of the service and there was no organ music or singing . The importance of the sermon in the worship service was underlined by Zwingli 's proposal to limit the celebration of communion to four times a year .
For some time Zwingli had accused mendicant orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor . He suggested the monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund . This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks . The council secularised the church properties and established new welfare programs for the poor . Zwingli requested permission to establish a Latin school , the Prophezei ( Prophecy ) or Carolinum , at the Grossmünster . The council agreed and it was officially opened on 19 June 1525 with Zwingli and Jud as teachers . It served to retrain and re @-@ educate the clergy . The Zurich Bible translation , traditionally attributed to Zwingli and printed by Christoph Froschauer , bears the mark of teamwork from the Prophecy school . Scholars have not yet attempted to clarify Zwingli 's share of the work based on external and stylistic evidence .
= = = Conflict with the Anabaptists ( 1525 – 1527 ) = = =
Shortly after the second Zurich disputation , many in the radical wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was making too many concessions to the Zurich council . They rejected the role of civil government and demanded the immediate establishment of a congregation of the faithful . Conrad Grebel , the leader of the radicals and the emerging Anabaptist movement , spoke disparagingly of Zwingli in private . On 15 August 1524 the council insisted on the obligation to baptise all newborn infants . Zwingli secretly conferred with Grebel 's group and late in 1524 , the council called for official discussions . When talks were broken off , Zwingli published Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr ( Whoever Causes Unrest ) clarifying the opposing points @-@ of @-@ view . On 17 January 1525 a public debate was held and the council decided in favour of Zwingli . Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required to leave Zurich . The radicals ignored these measures and on 21 January , they met at the house of the mother of another radical leader , Felix Manz . Grebel and a third leader , George Blaurock , performed the first recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms .
On February 2 , the council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined , Manz and Blaurock among them . Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zurich council . Meanwhile , the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of Swabian towns . On 6 – 8 November , the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in the Grossmünster . Grebel , Manz , and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli , Jud , and other reformers . There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar , each side shouting abuse at the other .
The Zurich council decided that no compromise was possible . On 7 March 1526 it released the notorious mandate that no one shall rebaptise another under the penalty of death . Although Zwingli , technically , had nothing to do with the mandate , there is no indication that he disapproved . Felix Manz , who had sworn to leave Zurich and not to baptise any more , had deliberately returned and continued the practice . After he was arrested and tried , he was executed on 5 January 1527 by being drowned in the Limmat river . He was the first Anabaptist martyr ; three more were to follow , after which all others either fled or were expelled from Zurich .
= = = Reformation in the Confederation ( 1526 – 1528 ) = = =
On 8 April 1524 , five cantons , Lucerne , Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , and Zug , formed an alliance , die fünf Orte ( the Five States ) to defend themselves from Zwingli 's Reformation . They contacted the opponents of Martin Luther including John Eck , who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519 . Eck offered to dispute Zwingli and he accepted . However , they could not agree on the selection of the judging authority , the location of the debate , and the use of the Swiss Diet as a court . Because of the disagreements , Zwingli decided to boycott the disputation . On 19 May 1526 , all the cantons sent delegates to Baden . Although Zurich 's representatives were present , they did not participate in the sessions . Eck led the Catholic party while the reformers were represented by Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel , a theologian from Württemberg who had carried on an extensive and friendly correspondence with Zwingli . While the debate proceeded , Zwingli was kept informed of the proceedings and printed pamphlets giving his opinions . It was of little use as the Diet decided against Zwingli . He was to be banned and his writings were no longer to be distributed . Of the thirteen Confederation members , Glarus , Solothurn , Fribourg , and Appenzell as well as the Five States voted against Zwingli . Bern , Basel , Schaffhausen , and Zurich supported him .
The Baden disputation exposed a deep rift in the Confederation on matters of religion . The Reformation was now emerging in other states . The city of St Gallen , an affiliated state to the Confederation , was led by a reformed mayor , Joachim Vadian , and the city abolished the mass in 1527 , just two years after Zurich . In Basel , although Zwingli had a close relationship with Oecolampadius , the government did not officially sanction any reformatory changes until 1 April 1529 when the mass was prohibited . Schaffhausen , which had closely followed Zurich 's example , formally adopted the Reformation in September 1529 . In the case of Bern , Berchtold Haller , the priest at St Vincent Münster , and Niklaus Manuel , the poet , painter , and politician , had campaigned for the reformed cause . But it was only after another disputation that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation . Four hundred and fifty persons participated , including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside the Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strasbourg , Ambrosius Blarer from Constance , and Andreas Althamer from Nuremberg . Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives . The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks . Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in the Münster . On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation be established in Bern .
= = = First Kappel War ( 1529 ) = = =
Even before the Bern disputation , Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities . Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation , a new alliance , das Christliche Burgrecht ( the Christian Civic Union ) was created . The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern , Constance , and Zurich on 5 – 6 January 1528 . Other cities , including Basel , Biel , Mülhausen , Schaffhausen , and St Gallen , eventually joined the alliance . The Five ( Catholic ) States felt encircled and isolated , so they searched for outside allies . After two months of negotiations , the Five States formed die Christliche Vereinigung ( the Christian Alliance ) with Ferdinand of Austria on 22 April 1529 .
Soon after the Austrian treaty was signed , a reformed preacher , Jacob Kaiser , was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz . This triggered a strong reaction from Zwingli ; he drafted Ratschlag über den Krieg ( Advice About the War ) for the government . He outlined justifications for an attack on the Catholic states and other measures to be taken . Before Zurich could implement his plans , a delegation from Bern that included Niklaus Manuel arrived in Zurich . The delegation called on Zurich to settle the matter peacefully . Manuel added that an attack would expose Bern to further dangers as Catholic Valais and the Duchy of Savoy bordered its southern flank . He then noted , " You cannot really bring faith by means of spears and halberds . " Zurich , however , decided that it would act alone , knowing that Bern would be obliged to acquiesce . War was declared on 8 June 1529 . Zurich was able to raise an army of 30 @,@ 000 men . The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9 @,@ 000 men . The two forces met near Kappel , but war was averted due to the intervention of Hans Aebli , a relative of Zwingli , who pleaded for an armistice .
Zwingli was obliged to state the terms of the armistice . He demanded the dissolution of the Christian Alliance ; unhindered preaching by reformers in the Catholic states ; prohibition of the pension system ; payment of war reparations ; and compensation to the children of Jacob Kaiser . Manuel was involved in the negotiations . Bern was not prepared to insist on the unhindered preaching or the prohibition of the pension system . Zurich and Bern could not agree and the Five ( Catholic ) States pledged only to dissolve their alliance with Austria . This was a bitter disappointment for Zwingli and it marked his decline in political influence . The first Land Peace of Kappel , der erste Landfriede , ended the war on 24 June .
= = = Marburg Colloquy ( 1529 ) = = =
While Zwingli carried on the political work of the Swiss Reformation , he developed his theological views with his colleagues . The famous disagreement between Luther and Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist originated when Andreas Karlstadt , Luther 's former colleague from Wittenberg , published three pamphlets on the Lord 's Supper in which Karlstadt rejected the idea of a real presence in the elements . These pamphlets , published in Basel in 1524 , received the approval of Oecolampadius and Zwingli . Luther rejected Karlstadt 's arguments and considered Zwingli primarily to be a partisan of Karlstadt . Zwingli began to express his thoughts on the eucharist in several publications including de Eucharistia ( On the Eucharist ) . He attacked the idea of the real presence and argued that the word is in the words of the institution — " This is my body , this is my blood " — means signifies . Hence , the words are understood as a metaphor and Zwingli claimed that there was no real presence during the eucharist . In effect , the meal was symbolic of the Last Supper .
By spring 1527 , Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli 's views in the treatise Dass Diese Worte Christi " Das ist mein Leib etc . " noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister ( That These Words of Christ " This is My Body etc . " Still Stand Firm Against the Fanatics ) . The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began . Martin Bucer tried to mediate while Philip of Hesse , who wanted to form a political coalition of all Protestant forces , invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences . This event became known as the Marburg Colloquy .
Zwingli accepted Philip 's invitation fully believing that he would be able to convince Luther . By contrast , Luther did not expect anything to come out of the meeting and had to be urged by Philip to attend . Zwingli , accompanied by Oecolampadius , arrived on 28 September 1529 with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon arriving shortly thereafter . Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer , Andreas Osiander , Johannes Brenz , and Justus Jonas . The debates were held from 1 – 3 October and the results were published in the fifteen Marburg Articles . The participants were able to agree on fourteen of the articles , but the fifteenth article established the differences in their views on the presence of Christ in the eucharist . Afterwards , each side was convinced that they were the victors , but in fact the controversy was not resolved and the final result was the formation of two different Protestant confessions .
= = = Politics , confessions , the Kappel Wars , and death ( 1529 – 1531 ) = = =
With the failure of the Marburg Colloquy and the split of the Confederation , Zwingli set his goal on an alliance with Philip of Hesse . He kept up a lively correspondence with Philip . Bern refused to participate , but after a long process , Zurich , Basel , and Strasbourg signed a mutual defence treaty with Philip in November 1530 . Zwingli also personally negotiated with France 's diplomatic representative , but the two sides were too far apart . France wanted to maintain good relations with the Five States . Approaches to Venice and Milan also failed .
As Zwingli was working on establishing these political alliances , Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , invited Protestants to the Augsburg Diet to present their views so that he could make a verdict on the issue of faith . The Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession . Under the leadership of Martin Bucer , the cities of Strasbourg , Constance , Memmingen , and Lindau produced the Tetrapolitan Confession . This document attempted to take a middle position between the Lutherans and Zwinglians . It was too late for the Burgrecht cities to produce a confession of their own . Zwingli then produced his own private confession , Fidei ratio ( Account of Faith ) in which he explained his faith in twelve articles conforming to the articles of the Apostles ' Creed . The tone was strongly anti @-@ Catholic as well as anti @-@ Lutheran . The Lutherans did not react officially , but criticised it privately . Zwingli 's and Luther 's old opponent , Johann Eck , counter @-@ attacked with a publication , Refutation of the Articles Zwingli Submitted to the Emperor .
When Philip of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League at the end of 1530 , the four cities of the Tetrapolitan Confession joined on the basis of a Lutheran interpretation of that confession . Given the flexibility of the league 's entrance requirements , Zurich , Basel , and Bern also considered joining . However , Zwingli could not reconcile the Tetrapolitan Confession with his own beliefs and wrote a harsh refusal to Bucer and Capito . This offended Philip to the point where relations with the League were severed . The Burgrecht cities now had no external allies to help deal with internal Confederation religious conflicts .
The peace treaty of the First Kappel War did not define the right of unhindered preaching in the Catholic states . Zwingli interpreted this to mean that preaching should be permitted , but the Five States suppressed any attempts to reform . The Burgrecht cities considered different means of applying pressure to the Five States . Basel and Schaffhausen preferred quiet diplomacy while Zurich wanted armed conflict . Zwingli and Jud unequivocally advocated an attack on the Five States . Bern took a middle position which eventually prevailed . In May 1531 , Zurich reluctantly agreed to impose a food blockade . It failed to have any effect and in October , Bern decided to withdraw the blockade . Zurich urged its continuation and the Burgrecht cities began to quarrel among themselves .
On 9 October 1531 , in a surprise move , the Five States declared war on Zurich . Zurich 's mobilisation was slow due to internal squabbling and on 11 October , 3500 poorly deployed men encountered a Five States force nearly double their size near Kappel on 11 October . Many pastors , including Zwingli , were among the soldiers . The battle lasted less than one hour and Zwingli was among the 500 casualties in the Zurich army .
Zwingli had considered himself first and foremost a soldier of Christ ; second a defender of his country , the Confederation ; and third a leader of his city , Zurich , where he had lived for the previous twelve years . Ironically , he died at the age of 47 , not for Christ nor for the Confederation , but for Zurich .
Luther wrote , " It is well that Zwingli , Carlstadt and Pellican lie dead on the battlefield , for otherwise we could not have kept the Landgrave , Strasbourg and others of our neighbors . Oh , what a triumph this is , that they have perished . How well God knows his business . " A false report had added Carlstadt and Pellican to the fatalities . Erasmus wrote , " We are freed from great fear by the death of the two preachers , Zwingli and Oecolampadius , whose fate has wrought an incredible change in the mind of many . This is the wonderful hand of God on high . " Oecolampadius had died on 24 November . Erasmus also wrote , " If Bellona had favoured them , it would have been all over with us . "
= = Theology = =
According to Zwingli , the cornerstone of theology is the Bible . Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings . He placed its authority above other sources such as the ecumenical councils or the Church Fathers , although he did not hesitate to use other sources to support his arguments . The principles that guide Zwingli 's interpretations are derived from his rationalist humanist education and his Reformed understanding of the Bible . He rejected literalist interpretations of a passage , such as those of the Anabaptists , and used synecdoche and analogies , methods he describes in A Friendly Exegesis ( 1527 ) . Two analogies that he used quite effectively were between baptism and circumcision and between the eucharist and Passover . He also paid attention to the immediate context and attempted to understand the purpose behind it , comparing passages of scripture with each other .
Zwingli rejected the word sacrament in the popular usage of his time . For ordinary people , the word meant some kind of holy action of which there is inherent power to free the conscience from sin . For Zwingli , a sacrament was an initiatory ceremony or a pledge , pointing out that the word was derived from sacramentum meaning an oath . ( However , the word is also translated " mystery . " ) In his early writings on baptism , he noted that baptism was an example of such a pledge . He challenged Catholics by accusing them of superstition when they ascribed the water of baptism a certain power to wash away sin . Later , in his conflict with the Anabaptists , he defended the practice of infant baptism , noting that there is no law forbidding the practice . He argued that baptism was a sign of a covenant with God , thereby replacing circumcision in the Old Testament .
Zwingli approached the eucharist in a similar manner to baptism . During the first Zurich disputation in 1523 , he denied that an actual sacrifice occurred during the mass , arguing that Christ made the sacrifice only once and for all eternity . Hence , the eucharist was " a memorial of the sacrifice " . Following this argument , he further developed his view , coming to the conclusion of the " signifies " interpretation for the words of the institution . He used various passages of scripture to argue against transubstantiation as well as Luther 's views , the key text being John 6 : 63 , " It is the Spirit who gives life , the flesh is of no avail " . Zwingli 's approach and interpretation of scripture to understand the meaning of the eucharist was one reason he could not reach a consensus with Luther .
The impact of Luther on Zwingli 's theological development has long been a source of interest and discussion among Zwinglian scholars . Zwingli himself asserted vigorously his independence of Luther . The most recent studies have lent credibility to this claim , although some scholars still claim his theology was dependent upon Luther 's . Zwingli appears to have read Luther 's books in search of confirmation from Luther for his own views . Zwingli did , however , admire Luther greatly for the stand he took against the pope . This , more than Luther 's theology , was a key influence on Zwingli 's convictions as a reformer . What Zwingli considered Luther 's courageous stance at the Leipzig Disputation had a decisive impact on Zwingli during his earliest years as a priest , and during this time Zwingli praised and promoted Luther 's writings to support his own similar ideas . Like Luther , Zwingli was also a student and admirer of Augustine . His later writings continued to show characteristic differences from Luther such as the inclusion of non @-@ Christians in heaven as described in An Exposition of the Faith .
= = Music = =
Zwingli enjoyed music and could play several instruments , including the violin , harp , flute , dulcimer and hunting horn . He would sometimes amuse the children of his congregation on his lute and was so well known for his playing that his enemies mocked him as " the evangelical lute @-@ player and fifer " . Three of Zwingli 's Lieder or hymns have been preserved : the Pestlied mentioned above , an adaptation of Psalm 65 ( c . 1525 ) , and the Kappeler Lied , which is believed to have been composed during the campaign of the first war of Kappel ( 1529 ) . These songs were not meant to be sung during worship services and are not identified as hymns of the Reformation , though they were published in some 16th @-@ century hymnals .
Zwingli criticised the practice of priestly chanting and monastic choirs . The criticism dates from 1523 when he attacked certain worship practices . His arguments are detailed in the Conclusions of 1525 , in which , Conclusions 44 , 45 and 46 are concerned with musical practices under the rubric of " prayer " . He associated music with images and vestments , all of which he felt diverted people 's attention from true spiritual worship . It is not known what he thought of the musical practices in early Lutheran churches . Zwingli , however , eliminated instrumental music from worship in the church , stating that God had not commanded it in worship . The organist of the People 's Church in Zurich is recorded as weeping upon seeing the great organ broken up . Although Zwingli did not express an opinion on congregational singing , he made no effort to encourage it . Nevertheless , scholars have found that Zwingli was supportive of a role for music in the church . Gottfried W. Locher writes , " The old assertion ' Zwingli was against church singing ' holds good no longer ... Zwingli 's polemic is concerned exclusively with the medieval Latin choral and priestly chanting and not with the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs " . Locher goes on to say that " Zwingli freely allowed vernacular psalm or choral singing . In addition , he even seems to have striven for lively , antiphonal , unison recitative " . Locher then summarizes his comments on Zwingli 's view of church music as follows : " The chief thought in his conception of worship was always ' conscious attendance and understanding ' — ' devotion ' , yet with the lively participation of all concerned " .
The as of today Musikabteilung ( literally : music departement ) , located in the choir of the Predigern church in Zürich was founded in 1971 , being a scientific music collection of European importance . It publishes the materials entrusted to it at irregular intervals as CD 's , the repertoire ranges of early 16th @-@ century spiritual mucic of Huldrych Zwingli 's to the late 20th century , published under the label " Musik aus der Zentralbibliothek Zürich " .
= = Legacy = =
Zwingli was a humanist and a scholar with many devoted friends and disciples . He communicated as easily with the ordinary people of his congregation as with rulers such as Philip of Hesse . His reputation as a stern , stolid reformer is counterbalanced by the fact that he had an excellent sense of humour and used satiric fables , spoofing , and puns in his writings . He was more conscious of social obligations than Luther and he genuinely believed that the masses would accept a government guided by God 's word . He tirelessly promoted assistance to the poor , whom he believed should be cared for by a truly Christian community .
In December 1531 , the Zurich council selected Heinrich Bullinger as his successor . He immediately removed any doubts about Zwingli 's orthodoxy and defended him as a prophet and a martyr . During Bullinger 's rule , the confessional divisions of the Confederation were stabilised . He rallied the reformed cities and cantons and helped them to recover from the defeat at Kappel . Zwingli had instituted fundamental reforms , while Bullinger consolidated and refined them .
Scholars have found it difficult to assess Zwingli 's impact on history , for several reasons . There is no consensus on the definition of " Zwinglianism " ; by any definition , Zwinglianism evolved under his successor , Heinrich Bullinger ; and research into Zwingli 's influence on Bullinger and John Calvin is still rudimentary . Bullinger adopted most of Zwingli 's points of doctrine . Like Zwingli , he summarised his theology several times , the best @-@ known being the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566 . Meanwhile , Calvin had taken over the Reformation in Geneva . Calvin differed with Zwingli on the eucharist and criticised him for regarding it as simply a metaphorical event . In 1549 , however , Bullinger and Calvin succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced the Consensus Tigurinus ( Zurich Consensus ) . They declared that the eucharist was not just symbolic of the meal , but they also rejected the Lutheran position that the body and blood of Christ is in union with the elements . With this rapprochement , Calvin established his role in the Swiss Reformed Churches and eventually in the wider world .
Outside of Switzerland , no church counts Zwingli as its founder . Scholars speculate as to why Zwinglianism has not diffused more widely , even though Zwingli 's theology is considered the first expression of Reformed theology . Although his name is not widely recognised , Zwingli 's legacy lives on in the basic confessions of the Reformed churches of today . He is often called , after Martin Luther and John Calvin , the " Third Man of the Reformation " .
= = List of works = =
Zwingli 's collected works are expected to fill 21 volumes . A collection of selected works was published in 1995 by the Zwingliverein in collaboration with the Theologischer Verlag Zürich This four @-@ volume collection contains the following works :
Volume 1 : 1995 , 512 pages , ISBN 3 @-@ 290 @-@ 10974 @-@ 7
Pestlied ( 1519 / 20 ) " The Plague Song "
Die freie Wahl der Speisen ( 1522 ) " Choice and Liberty regarding Food "
Eine göttliche Ermahnung der Schwyzer ( 1522 ) " A Solemn Exhortation [ to the people of Schwyz ] "
Die Klarheit und Gewissheit des Wortes Gottes ( 1522 ) " The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God "
Göttliche und menschliche Gerechtigkeit ( 1523 ) " Divine and Human Righteousness "
Wie Jugendliche aus gutem Haus zu erziehen sind ( 1523 ) " How to educate adolescents from a good home "
Der Hirt ( 1524 ) " The Shepherd "
Eine freundschaftliche und ernste Ermahnung der Eidgenossen ( 1524 ) " Zwingli 's Letter to the Federation "
Wer Ursache zum Aufruhr gibt ( 1524 ) " Those Who Give Cause for Tumult "
Volume 2 : 1995 , 556 pages , ISBN 3 @-@ 290 @-@ 10975 @-@ 5
Auslegung und Begründung der Thesen oder Artikel ( 1523 ) " Interpretation and justification of the theses or articles "
Volume 3 : 1995 , 519 pages , ISBN 3 @-@ 290 @-@ 10976 @-@ 3
Empfehlung zur Vorbereitung auf einen möglichen Krieg ( 1524 ) " Plan for a Campaign "
Kommentar über die wahre und die falsche Religion ( 1525 ) " Commentary on True and False Religion "
Volume 4 : 1995 , 512 pages , ISBN 3 @-@ 290 @-@ 10977 @-@ 1
Antwort auf die Predigt Luthers gegen die Schwärmer ( 1527 ) " A Refutation of Luther 's sermon against vain enthusiasm "
Die beiden Berner Predigten ( 1528 ) " The Berne sermons "
Rechenschaft über den Glauben ( 1530 ) " An Exposition of the Faith "
Die Vorsehung ( 1530 ) " Providence "
Erklärung des christlichen Glaubens ( 1531 ) " Explanation of the Christian faith "
The complete 21 @-@ volume edition is being undertaken by the Zwingliverein in collaboration with the Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte , and is projected to be organised as follows :
vols . I – VI Werke : Zwingli 's theological and political writings , essays , sermons etc . , in chronological order . This section was completed in 1991 .
vols . VII – XI Briefe : Letters
vol . XII Randglossen : Zwingli 's glosses in the margin of books
vols XIII ff . Exegetische Schriften : Zwingli 's exegetical notes on the Bible .
Vols . XIII and XIV have been published , vols . XV and XVI are under preparation . Vols . XVII to XXI are planned to cover the New Testament .
Older German / Latin editions available online include :
Huldreich Zwinglis sämtliche Werke , vol . 1 , Corpus Reformatorum vol . 88 , ed . Emil Egli . Berlin : Schwetschke , 1905 .
Analecta Reformatoria : Dokumente und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Zwinglis und seiner Zeit , vol . 1 , ed . Emil Egli . Zürich : Züricher and Furrer , 1899 .
Huldreich Zwingli 's Werke , ed . Melchior Schuler and Johannes Schulthess , 1824ff . : vol . I ; vol . II ; vol . III ; vol . IV ; vol . V ; vol . VI , 1 ; vol . VI , 2 ; vol . VII ; vol . VIII .
Der evangelische Glaube nach den Hauptschriften der Reformatoren , ed . Paul Wernle . Tübingen : Mohr , 1918 .
Von Freiheit der Speisen , eine Reformationsschrift , 1522 , ed . Otto Walther . Halle : Niemeyer , 1900 .
See also the following English translations of selected works by Zwingli :
The Latin Works and the Correspondence of Huldreich Zwingli , Together with Selections from his German Works .
Vol . 1 , 1510 – 1522 , New York : G.P. Putnam and Sons , 1912 .
Vol . 2 , Philadelphia : Heidelberg Press , 1922 .
Vol . 3 , Philadelphia : Heidelberg Press , 1929 .
Selected Works of Huldreich Zwingli ( 1484 – 1531 ) . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania , 1901 .
The Christian Education of Youth . Collegeville : Thompson Bros. , 1899 .
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= Kapil Dev as Indian national cricket coach =
Kapil Dev was appointed the Indian national cricket coach in September 1999 following the appointment of Sachin Tendulkar as captain of the Indian team in August 1999 . As a player , Kapil Dev captained the team to their first Cricket World Cup victory in 1983 . When he retired in 1994 , he was the most capped Indian Test player , the holder of record for the highest number of Test wickets ( 434 ) and had earlier held the record for the highest number of wickets in ODIs as well . Due to his credentials as player and captain , he was appointed as the coach ahead of teammate Kris Srikkanth . The team saw success in his first series at home against New Zealand but saw whitewash in the subsequent test series against host tour of Australia and visitors South Africa , India 's first home series loss in 12 years . India 's 3 – 2 win in the subsequent ODI series under new captain Sourav Ganguly will forever be remembered for the claims of match @-@ fixing against South Africa 's captain Hansie Cronje .
As the match @-@ fixing scandal took centrestage , former player Manoj Prabhakar accused Kapil Dev of trying to bribe him in 1994 during a tournament in Sri Lanka . Under severe pressure from politicians and fans , Kapil Dev resigned as coach in September 2000 , after having spent less than one year as the team coach . The reports of CBI ( India 's premier investigating agency ) and K. Madhavan ( appointed by BCCI to investigate match @-@ fixing allegations ) in November 2000 exonerated Kapil Dev of any involvement in match @-@ fixing . India 's performance in the coaching stint of Kapil Dev was below @-@ par , winning just one Test match ( out of 8 played ) and 9 ODIs ( out of 25 played ) .
= = India 's performance = =
= = = New Zealand tour of India = = =
Kapil Dev was appointed coach of the Indian national cricket team in 1999 succeeding Anshuman Gaekwad . His appointment coincided with the second term of captaincy for Tendulkar . Kapil 's first international competition as India 's coach started badly with the team bowled out for 83 all out against the visiting New Zealand team in Mohali . Due to an inspired bowling display by Javagal Srinath , the lead was restricted to 132 runs after New Zealand were dismissed for 215 . India 's batsmen bounced back in the second innings with a total of 505 with all the top five batsmen passing fifty and Rahul Dravid and Tendulkar scoring centuries . Anil Kumble 's ten @-@ wicket match haul at Kanpur enabled India to win the second Test match . The Third Test ended in a draw , with Tendulkar recording his first double @-@ century in Test Cricket . In the ensuing ODI Series , India won 3 – 2 and the highlight for Indian team was a world record ODI partnership of 331 runs between Dravid and Tendulkar in the 2nd match at Hyderabad . The series against New Zealand would be Kapil 's most successful series as national coach .
= = = Indian tour of Australia = = =
India followed the NZ tour with a trip to Australia . India lost the Test series 3 – 0 and the margin of defeat was heavy in each of these matches – 285 runs , 180 runs , innings and 141 runs . The highlight of the Test series came in the final Test when V. V. S. Laxman scored 167 at a run a ball in fading light at the Sydney Cricket Ground and came for much praise from the media . India 's ODI series performance matched the Test series in failure as India managed to win just one match against Pakistan and Kapil had to come out in defense of his team .
= = = South Africa tour of India = = =
India had not lost a home test series since 1987 ( against Pakistan ) and when South Africa toured India in February – March 2000 , that streak was ended as India lost the home series 2 – 0 . However events outside the field overshadowed the cricket : Before start of the series , Tendulkar announced his decision to relinquish the captaincy after the Test matches , Azharuddin and Mongia were recalled to the team , controversy arose over Azharuddin 's injury leading to his exclusion from the First Test . Ganguly was made the captain of the Indian team for the one @-@ day series . Talks in the media about no way but ' UP ' were not unfounded when India took a 2 – 0 lead in the ODI Series and finishing the series at 3 – 2 , after South Africa won the last two matches . It was learnt later that South Africa 's captain Cronje was involved in betting and there were attempts to buy @-@ off South African players by Cronje and bookmakers . At the end of the series , the media felt that Ganguly 's attitude and captaincy was heartening . In March 2000 , India participated in a triangular series with South Africa and Pakistan . India won only one of their four matches and missed the finals .
= = Match Fixing Allegation and Resignation = =
= = = Background = = =
As the 1999 / 00 cricket season was winding down , the Delhi Police shocked the cricket world when they announced that Cronje was involved in a " Cricket Match @-@ fixing and Betting Racket " . The UCBSA released terse statements denying the allegations triggering a diplomatic row . When Delhi Police began mounting evidence , Cronje admitted to accepting money for throwing away games in a phone call with UCBSA 's chief Ali Bacher . Cronje was sacked and replaced by Shaun Pollock .
= = = Manoj Prabhakar 's allegations = = =
Former Indian player Prabhakaralso publicly claimed that Kapil wanted to throw away a match against Pakistan . Prabhakar 's allegations against an unknown team member was not new as he made these allegations to a magazine The Outlook in 1997 based on which BCCI instituted the Chandrachud Inquiry , a one man commission headed by retired Chief Justice of India Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud . Prabhakar did not reveal names or provide evidence of his charges ( match fixing and phone tapping allegation on then cricket manager Ajit Wadekar ) . When the match fixing controversy resurfaced in 2000 , BCCI released the Chandrachud Report to the media . The reaction of the Indian public resulted in PILs and International Cricket Council and the BCCI were called to respond in the Delhi and Calcutta High Courts . In response to the crisis , the Indian government initiated a CBI inquiry on 28 April 2000 . Former BCCI President Inderjit Singh Bindra revealed on 4 May 2000 that Prabhakar told him that Kapil asked him to throw away the match . During the ensuing exchanges between various parties , Kapil Dev broke down in an interview on BBC 's Hard Talk with Karan Thapar .
= = = Kapil 's resignation = = =
Kapil initially did not resign or take a leave of absence , from his coaching responsibilities . As the weeks progressed and as public discontent mounting on inaction in the match @-@ fixing scandal and in no small measure the pressure from the then Union Sport Minister Shukdev Singh Dhindsa , Kapil Dev resigned from his position of Indian Cricket Coach on 12 September 2000 vowing farewell to the game of cricket .
= = = Clearing of match @-@ fixing charges = = =
After extensive investigation and interviews , the CBI submitted its report to Union Sports Minister on 1 November 2000 . The report found that there was " no credible evidence " against Kapil . The BCCI 's anti @-@ corruption officer K Madhavan ( former Joint Director of CBI ) submitted his report on 28 November 2000 in which he elaborated on players who were found to have links with the match @-@ fixing syndicate . Madhavan concluded that Kapil did not attempt to bribe Prabhakar and none of the players corroborated with Prabhakar 's version of the events .
= = Legacy of Kapil 's coaching = =
Kapil 's term as Indian cricket team 's national coach was not considered a success due to poor on @-@ field performances . During Kapil 's reign as National Coach , India performed badly in away matches and managed just 3 victories in 15 games ( 20 % ) in ODI Tournaments . In Test cricket , India lost its first home series in 13 years and managed just 1 victory in 3 Test series .
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= Guitar Hero World Tour =
Guitar Hero World Tour ( initially referred to as Guitar Hero IV or Guitar Hero IV : World Tour ) is a music rhythm game developed by Neversoft , published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane . It is the fourth main entry in the Guitar Hero series . The game was launched in North America in October 2008 for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , and Xbox 360 consoles , and a month later for Europe and Australia . A version of World Tour for Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh was later released .
While the game continues to feature the use of a guitar @-@ shaped controller to simulate the playing of rock music , Guitar Hero World Tour is the first game in the Guitar Hero series to feature drum and microphone controllers for percussion and vocal parts , similar in manner to the competing Rock Band series of games . The game allows users to create new songs through the " Music Studio " mode , which can then be uploaded and shared through a service known as " GHTunes " .
World Tour received generally positive reviews with critics responding positively to the quality of the instrument controllers , the customization abilities , and improvements in the game 's difficulty compared with the previous Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock .
= = Gameplay = =
Guitar Hero World Tour builds on the gameplay from previous Guitar Hero games , in which players attempt to simulate the playing of rock music using special guitar @-@ shaped controllers . World Tour expands beyond the core guitar @-@ based gameplay by introducing the ability to play drums and sing vocals , and supports the ability for up to four players to play together in a virtual band through these different instruments . Successfully hitting notes increases the player 's or band 's score , as well as increase the " Rock Meter " that represents the song 's performance . Missed notes are not scored and negatively affect the Rock Meter . If the Rock Meter drops too low , the song ends prematurely , with the virtual audience booing the band off stage . Completing a consecutive series of notes successfully will increase a scoring multiplier for that player up to 4x . This multiplier is doubled when the player activates star power . Similar to Rock Band , the band shares a common score , scoring multiplier and band performance meter while each player has their own performance metric ; the band also shares the same " Star Power " meter , though any player may activate it at any time . A player that performs poorly and reduces their performance meter to zero can still continue to play , but they drain the overall performance meter for the band , requiring the other players to make up for this . Successfully completing a song garners a three to five @-@ star rating based on the accumulated score , and rewards such as in @-@ game money that can be used to buy new guitars and outfits for characters .
The guitar interface remains relatively unchanged in World Tour . As with previous Guitar Hero titles , the guitar and bass player must hold down the correct fret button ( s ) on the controller while strumming in time with the notes as they scroll on @-@ screen . One addition to the guitar gameplay is the ability to play notes while holding a sustained note . Additionally , the bass guitar player is required to play notes representing an open E string , which is shown on @-@ screen as a solid line across their note track . To play these notes , the bass guitar player strums the controller without pressing any fret button keys . The drum interface is similar to the guitar 's interface , with each on @-@ screen note track equivalent to a colored drum head on the controller , with the bass drum indicated by a line across the note track . The drum player only needs to hit the correct drum pads simultaneously to the note gems to successfully play their track . There are also marked sections indicating drum fills wherein the player may play any notes they wish in a ' solo ' to gain points . The vocal track requires the player to match the pitch of the notes in a manner similar to Karaoke Revolution to be successful . Special sections of each players ' note track are marked with glowing notes , which , if completed successfully , builds up Star Power . Once enough Star Power is accumulated , it can be released via various means to double the band 's current score multiplier . For guitar and bass , this is done by lifting the guitar controller vertically or ( though not in bass ) by pressing a button on the guitar face ; for drums , by striking both cymbal pads on the controller at the same time ; for vocals , by tapping the microphone or making a similarly quick sound . Star Power 's use has been modified over previous Guitar Hero entries in that Star Power can now be accumulated even when Star Power is in use by successfully completing additional Star Power phrases , which extends the Star Power 's duration .
In addition to the standard four difficulty levels ( Easy , Medium , Hard , and Expert ) for each song and instrument , a new Beginner level has been added in World Tour . This difficulty is aimed for younger and unskilled players ; notes are generally simple straight lines in time with bass drum beats , and allowing any or no fret button to be held while the note is strummed ( for lead and bass guitar ) , any drum to be hit ( for drums ) , or any sound to be made ( for vocals ) .
= = = Game modes = = =
The primary single @-@ player game mode is Career mode , which can be played on either the lead guitar , bass guitar , drums , or vocals . Career mode has been slightly altered from previous Guitar Hero games . After creating a band , selecting or creating an avatar , and then selecting an instrument , the player is then presented with one of several gigs containing two to five songs each . Most gigs end with an encore song that is not revealed until the other songs are completed . Two of the lead guitar gigs feature " boss challenges " with Zakk Wylde and Ted Nugent ; these boss challenges , featuring original songs by Wylde and Nugent , are different from Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock 's boss battle , removing the focus on attack power @-@ ups and instead featuring a call @-@ and @-@ response mechanic similar to the existing Face @-@ Off mode . The gigs are arranged by difficulty based on the selected instrument . The player is awarded in @-@ game money for each song completed , and completing each gig can also award additional money for meeting certain criteria , such as never letting the Rock Meter drop below a certain level or playing the first several notes of a song perfectly . Completing a gig can also unlock one or more gigs with more difficult songs to complete . Additional awards , such as customization items , are also awarded for completing gigs . The player 's accumulated earnings across any of the single player Career Modes are tracked and used to rank the player 's overall performance level .
Band Career mode is similar to the solo Career mode , with the game songs presented as several gigs to be completed . A band must have at least two players to proceed . The second player may be either a local player or one over the network . Players may be at different levels of progression in the game , but still gain benefits for successfully completing songs when playing together . The in @-@ game interface features vocals along the top of the screen , and three tracks underneath , for bass , drums , and guitar ; only tracks for active players are shown . Full four @-@ player bands can compete with other bands online in a Battle of the Bands mode .
Both single players and bands can play a setlist of up to six songs in Quickplay mode , still earning in @-@ game money rewards for their performances . Existing competitive modes from the series , including the Battle Mode from Guitar Hero III , are also present in the game .
The Wii version of the game features a special " Mii Freestyle " mode that allows players to use their Miis as their characters as they improvise songs via the guitar and drum controllers or using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk .
= = = Characters and customization = = =
Players are able to use the Create @-@ a @-@ Rocker mode which is based on the Create @-@ a @-@ Skater mode in Neversoft 's Tony Hawk series and the advanced character creation scheme from the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series . Players can change their character 's poise , clothing , tattoos , makeup , and age . Selected characters from previous Guitar Hero games are available as templates for creating a rocker . Previous games featured Gibson Guitars , but as a result of a lawsuit with Gibson Guitars , branded guitars are not featured ; instead , the player can create a customized guitar from various components , such as bodies , fretboards , and headstocks . The player 's in @-@ game drum set and microphone can also be similarly customized . The 14 starting characters of the game can be customized too ; however , their customization is limited to clothing and accessories only . Activision had formed partnerships with several instrument equipment manufactures to be featured in the game , including Ampeg , Audio @-@ Technica , EMG Pickups , Ernie Ball , Evans Drumheads , Guitar Center , Krank Amplification , Mackie , Marshall , Orange County Drum & Percussion , Pork Pie Percussion , Regal Tip , Sabian , Vox and Zildjian .
In addition to the computer- and player @-@ controlled characters , avatars of notable musicians are featured in the game , either with motion capture or the licensing of their image for their character . Such playable artists include Hayley Williams , Jimi Hendrix , Ozzy Osbourne , Zakk Wylde , Billy Corgan , Sting , Ted Nugent , and Travis Barker .
New venues in the game include virtual recreations of real arenas , such as Ozzfest , Amoeba Music , Live Nation ’ s House of Blues , Sunset Strip and San Francisco ’ s AT & T Park . One venue showcases the trademark art style of Tool and was developed in collaboration with the band . World Tour is the first Activision game on the PlayStation 3 to support dynamic in @-@ game advertising provided by IGA Worldwide ; similar advertising for the Xbox 360 version is provided by Massive Incorporated .
= = = Instruments = = =
= = = = Guitar / Bass Guitar = = = =
RedOctane developed a new guitar controller for World Tour . The unit is approximately 25 % larger than previous controllers , making it closer to the size of a real guitar . The new controller includes a longer whammy bar and places the Star Power button directly below the strum bar , improving the access of these features . The strum bar itself was made quieter and longer . The neck of the guitar is detachable , similar to the Gibson Les Paul controller for Guitar Hero III , but the connector has been hardened to avoid connection issues experienced with the previous unit . The neck of the guitar features a touch @-@ sensitive pad just toward the body end from the normal five fret buttons . The player can use either the fret buttons or the touch pad to play regular notes . The pad also allows the player to play notes via tapping or via " tap strumming " similar to the slap bass method for bass guitar , and to alter the pitch of sustained notes . Guitar tracks feature notes connected by a semi @-@ transparent purple line , ( except for the Wii and PlayStation 2 version , in which semi @-@ transparent gems replace this purple line ) called " Slider Gems " ; the player can play these notes by sliding their fingers up and down the touch pad or by tapping the fret buttons without strumming . The touchpad can also be used for sustained and staccato notes in the music studio feature while recording guitar , and is used for finer control over loops when recording other instruments .
= = = = Drums = = = =
World Tour features a wireless six @-@ piece drum kit , with a bass drum pedal and five velocity @-@ sensitive drum pads , which Activision has stated provide the " most realistic drum experience ever in a video game " . Generally , the pads represent the snare drum ( red ) , the tom @-@ tom drum ( blue ) , the floor tom ( green ) , the hi @-@ hat cymbal ( yellow ) , and the crash cymbal ( orange ) , however , they can be used for other percussion instruments depending on the song . The bass drum is represented by a purple , horizontal line on the highway , which players must the drum pedal to hit . The drum kit was designed with help from John Devacka , the developer of MTV Drumscape , and developed key patents used for most modern music games that are now owned by Activision . Special note gems on the drum track , representing accent notes , are " armored " , requiring the player to strike the corresponding drum head harder in order to break the armor and score more points . During song creation , the velocity sensitivity feature of the drum pad allows players to alter the sounds made by the drums . The drum set also has a MIDI input port in the back , allowing users to connect a compatible MIDI drum kit to play in the game . The Wii version of the drum controller includes a slot for the Wii Remote to fit into , enabling it to become wireless , much like the guitar controller introduced for the Wii version of Guitar Hero III .
= = = = Microphone = = = =
The official microphone used for vocals uses a USB connection . For other consoles , such as the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , a headset can also be used as an alternative , but has proven to be less reliable as it tends not to pick up the audio from the player . When playing vocals , a standard game controller , or Wii Remote on the Wii version , is necessary in order to navigate menus , select difficulties and pause . The microphone can also be used as a standard recording device when connected to a casual PC USB port . The computer recognizes the device as a Logitech Recording Device .
Logitech and Activision announced that the former company would produce " premium " instruments to be released later in 2008 .
= = = = Instrument compatibility = = = =
World Tour works with older Guitar Hero guitar controllers . Activision stated during their E3 2008 press conference that Xbox 360 users would be able to use the existing Rock Band instrument controllers as well as other third party controllers in Guitar Hero World Tour ; Rock Band instruments for the PlayStation 3 are not guaranteed to work in World Tour , though Sony is attempting to help make these units compatible . All Rock Band original Harmonix instruments for PlayStation 2 work with World Tour . According to issue 027 of the UK 's Official PlayStation Magazine , all Guitar Hero and Rock Band PS3 controllers are cross @-@ compatible with all games ( except for Guitar Hero : World Tour drums on Rock Band , however some require patching , which is done automatically when connected to the internet ) . Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 instruments also work on the PlayStation 2 versions of World Tour , as well as later Guitar Hero games .
Console makers have helped to ensure instrument compatibility between current and upcoming guitar and band games . Both Sony and Microsoft announced that instruments for World Tour , Rock Band 2 , and Konami 's Rock Revolution would work between all three games on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The Wii version of the game only supports guitar controllers from previous Guitar Hero games , and " no compatibility with any other peripherals " .
World Tour adjusts the tracks in the game to account for the instrument controller being used . For example , sections of the lead guitar track that are designed to be played on the new World Tour controller 's touchpad can be played by tapping the frets on older controllers without strumming . When using Rock Band 's drum controller , which has one fewer percussion pad than the World Tour unit and lacks velocity sensitivity , two of the lanes on the " World Tour " drum board merge , reducing the note track to four drum pads and bass pedal , and no armored notes are presented .
= = Development = =
The fourth major entry to the Guitar Hero series , at the time named Guitar Hero IV , was officially announced upon the merger of Activision and Vivendi Games in December 2007 . " We couldn 't have done it without Red Octane 's support . " says the Guitar Hero Team . The game 's new name , Guitar Hero World Tour , was officially announced by Activision in May 2008 .
Activision and RedOctane had previously registered for trademarks on " Guitar Villain " , " Drum Villain " , " Keyboard Hero " , " Drum Hero " and " Band Hero " . Analysts speculated that future Guitar Hero would need to include additional instrument peripherals in order to compete against former Guitar Hero developer Harmonix 's Rock Band . Activision 's CEO Bobby Kotick and early previews of the game revealed that Guitar Hero IV would branch out into other instruments and vocals .
According to the Game Informer preview , the addition of drum functionality came from work initially done towards the Drum Hero title . This work was later folded into the Guitar Hero series after Neversoft was chosen as developer of the series . Neversoft 's Allen Flores stated that with the addition of the existing drum gameplay , the development of World Tour took under a year , starting development immediately after the release of Guitar Hero III . The drum instrument controller was designed to be more realistic , with input from Chad Smith ( of Red Hot Chili Peppers ) , Stewart Copeland ( of The Police ) and Travis Barker ( of Blink @-@ 182 ) , all of whom requested the elevated cymbal pads . The ability to open @-@ strum the guitar was a feature that was planned for Guitar Hero III but was removed before release , finding that it was too difficult on the guitar tracks . However , they built this feature in from the start of World Tour development for the bass guitar tracks .
Bright describes the development of the note track for a given song once it has been licensed for the game as a parallel effort , a process that they have found to be more efficient than their previous work on the Tony Hawk games . Once the song was mixed for use by the development team , a " tempo map " was created by one developer ; this map denotes the beats in the music which then can be used by the rest of the development team . Once the tempo map was complete , the song was then distributed to the various teams , such as the specific instrument teams or to the animators , to complete the song . Note @-@ for @-@ note tracking from the song was then performed , and in some cases , changes were made to account for sections that cannot be replicated on the game controllers ; the final track represented the note track for the Expert difficulty of the song . Note tracks were then reduced and adjusted to create the note tracks for the lower difficulties in the game . A difficulty assessment was made using the final note tracks to determine where the songs were to be placed in the soundtrack progression . The difficulty model is based on that from Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , which was adjusted from the Guitar Hero III model after the team received negative feedback from players regarding a " brick wall " in the difficulty progression in that game .
The song list for World Tour started as the list of songs that Neversoft wanted to include in Guitar Hero III , but had failed to get into the game or as downloadable content ; the list was eventually expanded to over 500 songs . The song list was then prioritized based on what the team thought would be best in the game , and then going after the music that would take the longest time to license , as was the case for the Jimi Hendrix songs . While songs were selected to make sure that guitar , bass , and drums all had great parts , they also opted for songs that would be strong for one single instrument as to make the game still appealing for those playing the single player modes . Some songs were also suggested through the licensing efforts by Activision for inclusion in the game . Flores stated that the inclusion of caricatures of recording artists in the game was either due to the team seeking that specific artist for the game , or the artist approaching the development team and requesting to be part of it . The band Tool , which hasn 't licensed its music since 1996 , allowed for the inclusion of three of its songs in World Tour as long they were involved with the artwork and tracking of the songs for the game , leading to the creation of the art @-@ like Tool venue .
Bright noted that they had support for " epic drum solos " , in which the band animation would focus on the drummer , but removed this feature from the game 's final release due to its complexity . They also had to remove the " Jam Over " mode planned for the game 's music creation section that would have allowed players to start with one of the game 's songs and play over it on their instruments ; this feature was removed in order to keep the final product polished and on @-@ time .
The custom song creation feature was inspired by the current " hacking environment " that has arisen from the first two Guitar Hero games , where players would create new tracks and share them with others .
Hands @-@ On Mobile has secured the worldwide rights to create a mobile phone version of the game to be released later in 2008 . A version of the game has been rated by the ESRB for Microsoft Windows computers , though Activision has not officially confirmed this version .
A PC version of Guitar Hero World Tour was confirmed by Intel on February 27 , 2009 and displayed at CeBIT on March 3 – 8 , 2009 in Hannover , Germany .
= = = Bundling and promotion = = =
World Tour is available in several bundle packages , as well as the stand @-@ alone game . In addition to a game bundle that includes a wireless guitar for each platform , the game can be bought in one of two bundles that include the guitar , drums , and microphone controller . The second bundle , only available through RedOctane 's store , also includes a T @-@ shirt , keychain , and a recharging kit . Players in the United Kingdom who pre @-@ order the full band bundle also received a second guitar controller for bass players . The bass guitar is the Les Paul guitar , the same model as bundled with Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock . During the Christmas season of 2008 , Some retailers , such as Target , sold in @-@ store a dual guitar bundle which included two identical wireless Les Paul styled guitars from previous game versions and did not include the new guitar with the tapping area .
Activision created a series of television advertisements directed by Brett Ratner based on the famous scene from Risky Business where Tom Cruise dances to Bob Seger 's " Old Time Rock and Roll " in a shirt and underwear , each featuring a different set of celebrities lip synching to the lyrics while using the new instrument controllers . The first ad included athletes Kobe Bryant , Tony Hawk , Alex Rodriguez , and Michael Phelps . Another ad spot featured model Heidi Klum ; two versions of Klum 's ad exist , one a " director 's cut " where she is wearing less clothing . A subsequent commercial featuring model Marisa Miller was banned from airing as too racy .
A YouTube viral video entitled " Bike Hero " showed what appeared to be a teenager riding a bike along a route marked with symbols similar in appearance to the in @-@ game note tracks with LED lights on the handlebars blinking in time to the notes to the song " Prisoner of Society " by The Living End . The video was later determined to be the work of a viral marketing company Droga5 in cooperation with Activision to promote the Guitar Hero games . The viral advertisement was considered a success , with about 3 @.@ 5 million views since its release .
= = Soundtrack = =
All of the 86 songs in the game are master recordings , a first for the series . Project director Brian Bright claims that they have " a pretty even split between the ' 80s , ' 90s , and classic rock " with a " good amount of emerging bands " . Some of the songs from the disc are exportable to both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero for a small fee , with music licensing rights limiting which songs can be exported .
= = = Custom songs = = =
Guitar Hero World Tour allows players to create their own songs through the " Music Studio " and share them with others through the Xbox Live , PlayStation Network , and Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection internet capabilities . The Studio is similar to Apple 's GarageBand software . The player can create the tracks for each song by playing it in real or slowed time , with the game quantizing offbeat notes to the nearest beat as set by the player , or tracks can be constructed one note at a time . The notes played by the user are the default " Expert " difficulty track , and the lower difficulty versions are generated by the game .
Players can create the tracks for lead , rhythm , and bass guitars and for drums , selecting from a number of different sounds and kits for each instrument . Distortion and other effects can be added to these tracks through Line 6 amplifiers in the " GHMix " mode . Players cannot record vocals directly , but can create a hum @-@ along vocal line in the Studio . PlayStation 3 users with MIDI @-@ compatible computers are also able to connect their computer to the console and use it for song composition ; a similar feature is sought for Xbox 360 owners . Eurogamer reported that a crew at Activision was able to successfully create a " perfectly respectable cover " version of the first verse of " Smells Like Teen Spirit " by Nirvana .
Custom songs can be uploaded to the " GH Tunes " service , allowing other players to rate songs and search and download songs by these ratings . A Showcase service provides some of the best user works alongside new songs from popular artists for players to download . Players can only upload five songs to the service at the start , but players that have highly rated songs gain the ability to upload more . Bright stated that uploaded songs would be actively monitored , and that covers of copyrighted songs would be removed from the service while also taking down any other requests made by copyright owners . The PlayStation 2 version of the game features custom song creation , but does not support the uploading service .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
In addition to custom songs , players of the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii versions are able to download new licensed songs for the game . This is the first game in the Guitar Hero series to support download functionality on the Wii . Wii users are able to store downloaded songs on either the Wii 's internal memory or on an SD Card in a " Rock Archive , " and then are able to add songs to playlists from this . When playing tracks stored on an SD Card , each song is automatically copied to a " content cache " on the Wii 's flash memory for play and then deleted after the song is finished . This requires about 200 free memory blocks on the Wii .
Neversoft and Activision expressed intentions to release downloadable content more frequently . Downloadable content is available through the in @-@ game store and includes full album downloads and more regular releases compared to Guitar Hero III . Most existing downloadable content for Guitar Hero III is not be playable in World Tour , due to the lack of having tracks for all four instruments for the latter game . However , with the release of Metallica 's Death Magnetic , the developers were able to prepare the tracks in Guitar Hero III to have the required portions needed for World Tour , and thus these tracks are forward @-@ compatible . Activision has also stated that they are considering a monthly subscription service to deliver downloadable content to users for future games . Most of the downloadable content ( 152 of 158 songs as of early August 2009 ) is exportable to both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero , updated to include new features introduced in those games . However , Guitar Hero 5 downloadable content is not playable in World Tour .
= = Technical issues = =
Users encountered several technical issues with the instrument controllers upon release of the game . Most often cited was the drum controller failing to register drum hits by the player . Some users have also found that , despite the assurance of instrument compatibility , the PlayStation 3 World Tour drum kit does not work with Rock Band 2 , however the 1 @.@ 1 patch for Rock Band 2 on PS3 has fixed this issue . Users have also noted that the wireless guitar strum bar may fail after a few hours of playing . Activision has acknowledged that drum sets from earlier manufacturing processes may be prone to these errors , and have set up several support threads on their Guitar Hero forums to address the issue and assist users in equipment replacement .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero World Tour has received generally positive reviews from critics , many making comparisons between it and the Rock Band series . 1UP noted that while World Tour is not as good a " party game " as Rock Band , the game still provides " great peripherals and fun @-@ to @-@ play music " and delivers what the player should expect . GameTrailers stated that " another viable challenger has stepped onto the stage . " IGN 's review was lukewarm , noting that " A number of things it tries to accomplish were already done better in Rock Band " , but stated that the game would be a good " stepping point " for the next iteration of the series .
While reviewers were satisfied with the single player modes of the game , the Band tour mode was considered weaker than Rock Band 's Tour mode . The interface for a full band , despite being similar to Rock Band , was found to be confusing , making it difficult to determine if a fellow bandmember was about to fail or identifying how much Star Power the band had accumulated . The Band tour was found to be little different from the single player modes , and lacked the additional incentives and challenges that Rock Band had . The note charts and the game 's difficulty curve were found to be significantly easier than the more punishing ones in Guitar Hero III . Critics did observe poor note charting , stating that some of the song charts " simply don 't match the music " and that " you 'll be asked to hit notes where there are none , or not hit notes that are there . " The soundtrack was generally praised for containing all master recordings . However , critics found that the setlist contains very few standout hits , and that the inclusion of a number of foreign @-@ language and difficult @-@ to @-@ recognize songs weakened the overall list . Reviews also commented on the number of songs that overlapped with Rock Band 2 's set list .
Reviews of the instrument peripherals for World Tour were mixed . The new touchpad on the guitar controller was found to be imprecise to make it difficult to use during difficult song sections and would sometimes fail to register taps or slides ; some of these issues were attributed to initial manufacturing problems . The drum kit has been praised for ease of set up , the drum pad layout , and the response of the drums , though the lack of a means to fix the location of bass drum pedal was seen as a drawback when compared to the Rock Band drum kit .
The music creation feature of the game , while seen as a useful addition to the game , was found to be difficult to use , suffered from on @-@ screen lag that could interfere with song creation , and the quality of the resulting songs were compared to ring tones for cell phones . The character customization in World Tour was generally seen as an improvement over the limitations of Rock Band . However , reviewers noted that the use of the real @-@ life celebrities against the cartoon @-@ like visuals , along with the emphasis on the band and not individual players , made their presence " anachronistic " .
The Wii version received additional praise from reviewers , mostly from the changes in the Wii operation to accommodate the game 's Music Store and online play features . The Mii Freestyle Mode was also found to be a good addition , allowing the game to be accessible for younger players . IGN noted that most of the credit for the Wii version is due to Vicarious Visions , as that " the only real aspects that hold the game back from being truly amazing overall are - oddly enough - the ones implemented by Neversoft 's core design " . It was awarded Best Music / Rhythm Game on the Wii by IGN in its 2008 video game awards . IGN also nominated it for several other Wii @-@ specific awards , including Best Family Game , Best Online Multiplayer Game , and Game of the Year .
World Tour sold more than 534 @,@ 000 units during its first week of release , less than half of the sales of Guitar Hero III during the same period , with the Wii version selling the most with 183 @,@ 000 units . During the month of November 2008 , 978 @,@ 000 units were sold , with 475 @,@ 000 being for the Wii platform . The Wii version was the fifth best @-@ selling game of December 2008 in the United States , selling in excess of 850 @,@ 000 copies . The PlayStation 2 version was the 17th best @-@ selling game and best @-@ selling PlayStation 2 game of the same month in that region . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions did not rank , but ranked the sixth and fifth best @-@ selling games respectively for their respective systems . World Tour sold 3 @.@ 4 million copies across all platforms in North America during 2008 . Full band bundles represented 41 % of all unit sales of World Tour through January 2009 , equating to 61 % of the game 's revenue , while 35 % of unit sales and 27 % of total revenues came from the guitar and game bundle . In a March 2011 list , the NPG Group placed World Tour as the 7th highest grossing game in the United States since 1995 .
= = = Awards = = =
IGN Best of 2008 :
Best Music / Rhythm Game ( Wii )
Game Informer : Included in " The Top 50 Games of 2008 " .
Kids Choice Award ( 2009 ) Best Video Game .
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= Louie Caporusso =
Louie Caporusso ( born June 21 , 1989 ) is a Canadian ice hockey player . He is currently playing for the Iserlohn Roosters of the DEL . Caporusso was drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the 3rd round ( 90th overall ) of the 2007 NHL Entry Draft .
Caporusso played from 2007 to 2011 with the University of Michigan Wolverines team . During the 2008 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's ice hockey season , he was named to the All @-@ Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) first team . He was also named first @-@ team AHCA / Reebok Division I Ice Hockey All @-@ American . He led the nation in goals scored for most of the 2008 – 09 NCAA Division I men 's ice hockey season . During the 2009 – 10 Michigan Wolverines men 's ice hockey season , he was named to the CCHA All @-@ tournament team as he led the team to the championship . Prior to his time at the University of Michigan , he excelled in junior hockey in Ontario , Canada , which earned him a position as a draftee by the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League before entering college . After finishing his senior season , Caporusso signed with the Senators on May 30 , 2011 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
During the 2004 – 05 season , he played in the Greater Toronto Hockey League ( GTHL ) for the Toronto Red Wings , recording 70 points including 41 goals in 56 games . The 70 @-@ point total made him the GTHL point leader for the season .
After his league leading performance , he was drafted by the Toronto St. Michael 's Majors of the Ontario Hockey League with the seventh selection of the tenth round , but instead of playing for them , he spent the following two seasons playing in the Ontario Junior Hockey League ( OPJHL ) for the St. Michael 's Buzzers . During the 2005 – 06 season , he led the OPJHL in scoring with 73 points in 48 games and led the team to the OPJHL championship . Caporusso scored 50 points in 37 games during the 2006 – 07 season , but the team lost in the finals . Following the season , he was drafted with the 90th selection overall in the third round by the Ottawa Senators in the June 22 , 2007 NHL Entry Draft .
As a junior player , he earned a variety of all @-@ star selections . He participated in the 2006 Canadian Junior Hockey League Top Prospects Game , earning Team East MVP honors . In addition , he was selected for the 2007 Ontario Hockey Association Top Prospect Team and the 2007 OPJHL All @-@ Star team . He was also a silver medalist for Team Canada East at the 2006 World Junior A Challenge where he was selected to tournament 's all @-@ star team .
= = = College = = =
Caporusso , is described as a left @-@ handed shooting forward by some sources , and he is described as either a left wing or a center by others . However , the Ann Arbor Press described him as a center . The Ottawa Senators have him listed as a centre .
As a freshman at Michigan , he scored 21 points , including 12 goals , in 33 games . That season he missed eight games due to a leg injury . As a sophomore during the 2008 – 09 season , Caporusso was one of ten finalists for the Hobey Baker Award . During the season , he scored 49 points in 41 games . He was also named to the All @-@ Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) first @-@ team and AHCA / Reebok Division I Ice Hockey All @-@ American first @-@ team along with team mate Aaron Palushaj . In addition , he was selected to the CCHA All @-@ Conference tournament team . One of the highlights of the season occurred when he scored the first three goals of the game in the first period ( the first two within 24 seconds of each other ) for the natural hat trick against Michigan Tech on December 27 , 2008 . During the first half of the season , he led the nation in goals scored . He played a different scoring role during the final nine regular season games , as the team went 8 – 1 and he scored two goals and posted 14 assists . Caporusso was named the team MVP at the end of the season .
In Caporusso 's junior season , he posted 21 goals and 22 assists . Michigan began the season ranked number five in the nation , but Caporusso only scored one goal in his first ten games and had no multigoal games until well into February . Michigan entered the CCHA playoffs with a 19 – 17 – 1 record and was on the verge of breaking the team 's nineteen consecutive year streak of qualifying for the NCAA Men 's Ice Hockey Championship . However , the team won six consecutive games in the conference championship tournament to earn the automatic invitation . Caporusso scored both goals in the final 2 – 1 victory of the tournament and was named to the All @-@ Tournament team . He also scored in the second period of the first game of the tournament to give Michigan a 2 – 0 lead . However , Michigan lost in the quarterfinal round in double overtime to the CCHA regular season champion Miami Redhawks .
As a senior , he served as captain of the team . The 2010 – 11 Michigan Wolverines men 's ice hockey team was the 2001 – 11 CCHA regular season champion . Subsequently , the team finished as runner @-@ up in the 2011 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament . Caporusso finished second on the team in scoring for the third consecutive season .
= = = Professional = = =
Caporusso signed a two @-@ year entry @-@ level contract with the Senators on May 30 , 2011 . After attending Ottawa 's NHL training camp , He was expected to join the Binghamton Senators to begin his professional career . On October 14 , 2011 , Caporusso was reassigned to the Elmira Jackals of the ECHL . After scoring 5 points in his first 5 games with Elmira , he was promoted to the Binghamton Senators of the American Hockey League on November 4 . After recording zero points in six games with Binghamton , he was reassigned to Elmira on November 17 . On November 26 , Caporusso was recalled by Binghamton for one game before being returned to Elmira on November 28 . Caporusso spent 4 months with the Jackals ( missing 6 weeks due to a concussion ) , scoring 16 goals and 16 assists in 29 games , before being called back up to the Senators on March 15 .
At the conclusion of his contract Caporusso 's rights were relinquished by the Senators . On August 15 , 2013 , he signed as a free agent to a one @-@ year contract with reigning champions the Reading Royals of the ECHL .
After parts of two seasons in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga with Augsburger Panther , Caporusso joined fellow German club , Iserlohn Roosters on a one @-@ year contract on June 12 , 2015 .
= = Personal = =
Born in Toronto , Ontario , Caporusso is from Woodbridge , Ontario . At the University of Michigan , Caporusso was enrolled in the School of Kinesiology and performed public service by visiting the U @-@ M Mott Children ’ s Hospital . Caporusso is a 2007 graduate of the St. Michael 's College School in Toronto .
= = Career statistics = =
All statistics taken from NHL.com
= = Awards and achievements = =
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= Dave Shannon =
David John ( Dave ) Shannon , DSO & Bar , DFC & Bar ( 27 May 1922 – 8 April 1993 ) was an Australian bomber pilot of World War II , best known for his part in the " Dambusters " raid on the night of 16 / 17 May 1943 . Born in South Australia , he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1941 and learned to fly under the Empire Air Training Scheme . After further training in the United Kingdom he was posted to No. 106 Squadron RAF , operating Avro Lancaster heavy bombers , and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) in January 1943 . In March he was selected by No. 106 Squadron 's commanding officer , Wing Commander Guy Gibson , to join the newly formed No. 617 Squadron for Operation Chastise , the attack on the dams of the Ruhr valley . Awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) following the raid , Shannon continued to fly with No. 617 Squadron until October 1944 , during which time he earned bars to his DSO and DFC . He was then assigned to transport duties , first with No. 511 Squadron and then , in March 1945 , with No. 246 Squadron . Ranked squadron leader , Shannon was demobilised after the war and remained in England , becoming an executive with Shell . He died in South London in 1993 , aged seventy .
= = Early life = =
Shannon was born on 27 May 1922 at Unley Park , South Australia . His father , Howard Huntley Shannon , served as a South Australian state parliamentarian from 1933 to 1968 . Shannon was working for an insurance company when he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Reserve in Adelaide on 5 July 1940 , aged eighteen . On 4 January 1941 he transferred to the RAAF as an air cadet under the Empire Air Training Scheme . He received his instruction in Western Australia at No. 5 Initial Training School in Pearce , No. 9 Elementary Flying Training School in Cunderdin , and No. 4 Service Flying Training School in Geraldton . Following graduation as a pilot officer in September , he was posted to the United Kingdom .
= = Active service = =
Promoted to flying officer in March 1942 , Shannon underwent conversion to Armstrong Whitworth Whitley bombers at No. 19 Operational Training Unit in Kinloss , Scotland . He was then posted to No. 106 Squadron RAF , operating Avro Lancasters , and flew the first of his thirty @-@ six sorties with the unit in June . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross on 12 January 1943 for " attacks on industrial targets in enemy territory " . In March he was selected by No. 106 Squadron 's former commanding officer , Wing Commander Guy Gibson , to join the newly formed No. 617 Squadron for Operation Chastise , the " Dambusters " raid on the dams of the Ruhr valley . Shannon was one of four Australian pilots in the squadron — the others being " Micky " Martin , Robert Barlow , and Les Knight — and , at twenty , the youngest captain from among all the crews . He cultivated a moustache in an attempt to add maturity to his baby face .
On the night of Operation Chastise , 16 / 17 May 1943 , Shannon was among a group of Lancasters led by Gibson in assaults on the Möhne and Eder Dams . After five of the aircraft had dropped their bouncing bombs on the Möhne , Shannon was preparing to make his attack on the dam when it gave way , so he carried on to the Eder with Gibson and three other Lancasters , captained by " Dinghy " Young , Henry Maudsley , and Les Knight . Detailed for the first bombing run at the Eder , Shannon took several attempts to familiarise himself with the area and line up his aircraft , so in the meantime Gibson ordered Maudsley to make his attack . Shannon went in next , delivering his bomb on target . Knight then dropped his bomb , and the dam broke . Shannon landed back at RAF Scampton feeling " terribly elated " . His bomb was believed to have caused a crack in the dam 's wall , while Knight 's completed the breach . Speaking later of the severe losses suffered by the squadron — eight out of nineteen planes — Shannon contended , " I suppose we had become hardened to loss – we could shrug it off . We had to , otherwise we could never have flown again . " He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the mission , one of a number of decorations awarded to the aircrew of No. 617 Squadron for the dams raid and promulgated in the London Gazette under the citation :
On the night of 16th May , 1943 , a force of Lancaster bombers was detailed to attack the Moehne , Eder and Sorpe dams in Germany . The operation was one of great difficulty and hazard , demanding a high degree of skill and courage and close co @-@ operation between the crews of the aircraft engaged . Nevertheless , a telling blow was struck at the enemy by the successful breaching of the Mohne and Eder dams . This outstanding success reflects the greatest credit on the efforts of the following personnel who participated in the operation in various capacities as members of aircraft crew .
Soon afterward Shannon married a WAAF , Section Officer Ann Fowler , whom he met at Scampton before the raid . He remained with No. 617 Squadron while its role as a special @-@ duties unit operating against high @-@ value targets was expanded , participating in attacks on canals and V @-@ weapon sites with 12 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) Tallboy bombs . Shannon was promoted to flight lieutenant on 23 September 1943 and awarded a bar to his DFC on 12 November for a " low level attack in adverse weather against heavy opposition " . He again participated in raids against V @-@ weapon sites in January 1944 . The following month , No. 617 Squadron undertook its first sortie under the leadership of Wing Commander Leonard Cheshire . At this point the unit began flying low @-@ level target @-@ marking missions using de Havilland Mosquito light bombers in addition to Lancasters . Shannon converted to the Mosquito and started flying it operationally in April . He returned to the Lancaster on 5 June to drop " Window " as a part of the Allies ' diversions ahead of the D @-@ Day landings the following day , prior to again flying Mosquitos against V @-@ weapon sites and in support of the Normandy invasion forces . Though " outwardly nerveless " , according to military historian Patrick Bishop , Shannon was not immune to dread feelings . As they prepared to depart on one of their night missions , Cheshire commented on the beautiful sunset , to which Shannon replied , " I don 't give a fuck about that , I want to see the sunrise " . Having been raised to acting squadron leader , he was awarded a bar to his DSO on 26 September 1944 for " courage of high order on numerous sorties " . The full citation in the London Gazette read :
Since the award of a bar to the Distinguished Flying Cross , Squadron Leader Shannon has completed many sorties which he has executed with outstanding resolution and success . He has at all times displayed courage and fortitude of a high order and his appreciation of the responsibilities entrusted to him have set a fine example to all .
In October 1944 , after a total of sixty @-@ nine sorties , Shannon was taken off bomber operations and transferred to transport duties , initially with No. 511 Squadron , which flew long @-@ range missions with Avro Yorks . His promotion to squadron leader became substantive on 1 January 1945 . Three months later he was assigned to No. 246 Squadron , which operated Yorks and Consolidated Liberators .
= = Later life = =
Shannon was discharged from the RAAF as a squadron leader on 15 December 1945 . He remained in England and became an executive with Shell and later Cunard . Shannon no longer flew after the war , but did like to drive fast cars . He also served as chairman of the No. 617 Squadron Association , helping to raise funds for the Dambusters memorial at Woodhall Spa near RAF Scampton . On 8 April 1993 , shortly before a planned fiftieth anniversary reunion of surviving Dambusters , he died at his home in Sydenham , South London , aged seventy . He was survived by his second wife Eyke and his daughter by Ann . On 17 May 2008 , the sixty @-@ fifth anniversary of the Dambusters raid , a memorial to Shannon and two other South Australians who took part in the mission , bomb aimers Fred Spafford and Bob Hay , was unveiled in Adelaide in the presence of the airmen 's families . In July 2009 Shannon 's daughter Nikki made his medals , uniform , and logbook available to the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , for long @-@ term display .
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= Tales of Graces =
Tales of Graces ( Japanese : テイルズ オブ グレイセス , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Gureisesu ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing game released for the Wii on December 10 , 2009 in Japan . The game is a core product of the Tales series and was developed by Namco Tales Studio . The game was ported to the PlayStation 3 under the title Tales of Graces f ( テイルズ オブ グレイセス エフ , Teiruzu Obu Gureisesu Efu ) and was released on December 2 , 2010 in Japan . The PlayStation 3 version was localized for North America on March 13 , 2012 and Europe on August 31 , 2012 .
The game takes place in a world known as Ephinea and follows Asbel Lhant . During his childhood , Asbel befriends an amnesiac girl and witnesses her death . Seven years later , he is reunited with the girl who retains her amnesia . The plot 's central theme is Mamoru Tsuyosa o Shiru RPG ( 守る強さを知るRPG ? , lit . " RPG to Know the Strength to Protect " ) .
Tales of Graces and Tales of Graces f both received positive reception in Japan . The Wii version sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies while the PS3 version sold 200 @,@ 000 copies during their week of release . The game was adapted into four manga collections , a novel series , and eight drama CDs . The English localization of Tales of Graces f received praise for the gameplay with mixed reviews for its presentation .
= = Gameplay = =
Tales of Graces consists primarily of two major areas : the field map and a battle screen . The field map is a realistically scaled 3D environment traversed by foot . On the field maps , various skits between the characters can be viewed . They involve animated character portraits , subtitles , and full voice acting . Skits concern anything from character development to side details . The battle screen is a 3D representation of an area , in which the player commands the characters in battles against CPU @-@ controlled enemies .
During battle sequences , the game uses the Style Shift Linear Motion Battle System . Four characters are chosen to battle and characters not controlled by a player are controlled by artificial intelligence with instructions set by the players beforehand . The " Chain Capacity " ( CC ) denotes the number of skills and actions a character can perform . Usage brings the CC down and is recharged over time . During battle , the player and enemy has an " Eleth Gauge " . When the Eleth Gauge is filled , the user or the enemy receive unlimited CC and become resistant to stunning . Each character has two skill systems : " Assault Artes " which are pre @-@ determined combos and " Burst Artes " which can be mapped to specific inputs . Skill and attribute development are dependent on " Titles " and their levels . Titles are earned through story progression and completion of miscellaneous criteria during battle . Each Title has five levels which are advanced by completing battles .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place in a fictional world called Ephinea . Ephinea is divided into three countries : Windor , Stratha , and Fendel . Asbel Lhant , Hubert Lhant , and Cheria Barnes are children from Lhant , a village of Windor . One day , the three befriend an amnesiac girl from outside their village who they name Sophie . That same day , Lhant is visited by Richard , the prince of Windor , who befriends the four of them . Richard returns to Barona , Windor 's capital city , and invites them to sneak into his castle via a secret passage . There , the four are mortally wounded by an unknown monster but are saved when Sophie sacrifices herself . Asbel regains consciousness in Lhant and is told about Sophie 's death and Hubert 's political adoption into the Oswell family to secure Asbel 's future as the Lord of Lhant . Daunted over Sophie 's death and the political events at home , Asbel runs away from home and enrolls in the Barona knight academy .
Seven years later , Asbel learns from Cheria that his father died defending Lhant from an invasion by Fendel . The two return to Lhant and are saved from Fendel 's army by Sophie and later Hubert with the Stratha military . Hubert reveals Stratha has been ordered by Windor to secure Lhant and assumes the position of Lord after banishing Asbel from the village . Hearing rumors of Richard 's death , the party investigate and find him in the castle 's secret passage . Richard explains his father was killed by his uncle , Cedric , who then assumed the throne . The three travel to meet a trusted Duke and are joined by Pascal , a prodigy from an engineering tribe known as the Amarcians . With the Duke 's army , the party overthrows Cedric and Richard regains the throne . Richard orders an invasion of Lhant to rid it of Stratha 's control forcing the party to betray him . Acknowledging Hubert 's efforts as Lord of Lhant , Asbel and the party , joined by Malik Caesar , travel to Stratha to negotiate with the government to formally instate Hubert as Lord . The government agrees on the pretense that Pascal fixes Stratha 's valkines , a large crystal which supplies a life sustaining energy known as eleth ; Pascal succeeds but Richard appears and absorbs the valkines ' eleth , and flees . The party learn Windor 's valkines has also been absorbed and plan to intercept Richard at the final valkines in Fendel . Hubert joins the party as they travel to Fendel but fail to stop Richard . Deducing the Lastalia , the planet 's core , is Richard 's target , the party find Richard there ; Richard mortally injures Sophie before sealing the entrance to the Lastalia .
The party is unable to heal Sophie with magic or medicine so Pascal suggests the party travel to Fodra , a nearby planet , where Sophie originates from to find a cure . After finding a space shuttle left by Pascal 's ancestors , the party travel to Fodra where they meet Emeraude , the last remaining human on the desolated planet . Using advanced machinery , Sophie is healed and regains her memories revealing she is a biological humanoid engineered to defeat Lambda , the monster that attacked them in their childhood and is currently possessing Richard . Emeraude helps the party bypass the barrier on the Lastalia where they confront and defeat Richard . Emeraude betrays the party and attempts to absorb Lambda 's power but dies in the process . Lambda begins to fuse with the Lastalia causing the party to see his memories and learn about his suffering caused by humanity . The party defeats the materialized Lambda ; Since Lambda can not be killed by normal means , Sophie intends to sacrifice herself to kill him . Instead , Asbel absorbs and convinces Lambda to let him show humanity 's worth . Lambda agrees before falling into a deep sleep .
In the after @-@ story Lineage and Legacies , the monster population have become an epidemic forcing Asbel and his friends to reunite and investigate the cause . Hypothesizing that the eleth from Fodra is influencing the monsters , the party travel there and discover Fodra 's core has reactivated . They learn the core is sentient and wants revenge on the humans for Fodra 's environmental decay . The party defeats Fodra 's soldiers , the Little Queens , and have the reawakened Lambda absorb Fodra 's consciousness . In doing so , Lambda returns to his deep sleep in order to dissuade Fodra 's hatred . The party separates and returns to their daily life concluding with Asbel proposing to Cheria . In the distant future , Sophie shares the party 's adventure to Asbel 's and Cheria 's great great grandson .
= = = Main characters = = =
Asbel Lhant ( アスベル ・ ラント , Asuberu Ranto )
Asbel is the eldest son and successor to Aston Lhant , the Lord of the village Lhant . After Sophie 's death and Hubert 's adoption into the Oswell family , Asbel leaves for Barona where he trains to be a knight in order to atone for his failure to protect Sophie . After the events of Tales of Graces , he assumes the position as Lord . In Lineage and Legacies , he marries Cheria and adopts Sophie into the Lhant family . He is voiced by Yuki Kaida as a child and Takahiro Sakurai as an adult . In the English dub , Kate Higgins voices him as a child and Bryce Papenbrook as an adult . Since his debut , Asbel has ranked third in the Tales character popularity polls .
Asbel is a playable character in Tales of the World : Radiant Mythology 3 , Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave and is a character class in Tales of Phantasia : Narikiri Dungeon X. He also makes a cameo in .hack / / Link 's pre @-@ order DVD . The game 's producer , Hideo Baba , wanted Asbel 's story to portray the need to conform to social guidelines and expectations as one grows up . Through Asbel 's conflict on succeeding his father 's Lordship or following his dreams as a Knight , Baba wanted the players to understand the importance in protecting what is important to them and to follow through with their own path and dreams .
Sophie ( ソフィ , Sofi )
Sophie is an amnesiac girl Asbel , Hubert , Cheria , and Richard befriend . She is seemingly killed after protecting them from Lambda . She reappears seven years later when Asbel and Cheria were in danger . Sophie is revealed to be Protos Heis , a humanoid made of tiny particles acting in concert with each other . Her death seven years ago is explained as Sophie breaking up into particles residing inside Asbel , Hubert , and Cheria to heal their wounds and is the reason the three possess mystical powers . During the events of Lineage and Legacies , Sophie expresses her fears of life after the death of her friends due to her immortality . To lessen her fears , Asbel formally adopts her into the Lhant family . After fusing with a Little Queen , Sophie ages to an adult and is able to express a greater variety of emotions . She is voiced by Kana Hanazawa and dubbed by Cassandra Morris . Since her debut , Sophie has ranked on the Tales character popularity polls . Sophie is a playable character in Tales of the World : Radiant Mythology 3 .
Hubert Oswell ( ヒューバート ･ オズウェル , Hyūbāto Ozuweru )
Hubert is Asbel 's younger brother . He is fostered into the Oswell family to secure Asbel 's succession to Lord . Hubert resents Asbel for deserting Lhant , perceiving the act as spiting his sacrifice , and his parents for abandoning him . He overcomes his anger when he reunites with his family seven years later . Due to his capabilities , he is appointed the lieutenant of the Strahta military . He is voiced by Mikako Takahashi as a child and Takahiro Mizushima as an adult . In the English dub , he is voiced by Steve Staley . Hubert ranked on the fifth Tales character popularity poll and fell from the rankings afterwards . He makes a cameo in Tales of Hearts R dressed as the Sony mascot Kuro .
Cheria Barnes ( シェリア ･ バーンズ , Sheria Bānzu )
Cheria is the granddaughter of Lhant 's family butler . She was sickly as a child but is healed due to Sophie 's powers . She harbors a crush on Asbel but treats him coldly after he leaves Lhant . She later reveals her sorrow in having Asbel abandon her and reconciles with him . She also becomes Asbel 's wife . She is voiced by Shiho Kawaragi and dubbed by Laura Bailey . Since her debut , Cheria has ranked on the Tales character popularity polls . Game Informer listed Cheria as one of the best characters in the Tales series . Cheria is a playable character in Tales of the World : Radiant Mythology 3 and Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave .
Richard ( リチャード , Richādo )
Richard is the prince of Windor who befriends Asbel and Sophie after his visit to Lhant . Before meeting Asbel , Richard has a strong distrust in others due to others using his status for their own gain and his uncle Cedric 's attempts to murder him . When Cedric poisoned and left him to die in the underground passage , Lambda saves his life by fusing with him . Seven years later , Lambda 's influence causes Richard to become violent and urges him to destroy humanity by fusing with the Lastalia . After separating from Lambda , Richard is determined to atone for his crimes which causes his popularity to soar in all three countries . He is voiced by Yuko Sanpei as a child and Daisuke Namikawa as an adult . In the English dub , he is voiced by Wendee Lee as a child and David Vincent as an adult . Since his debut , Richard has ranked on the Tales character popularity polls .
Malik Caesar ( マリク ・ シザース , Mariku Shizāsu )
Malik is Asbel 's instructor at the knight academy . His maturity and gentlemanly demeanor makes him popular with women . In the past , he was a revolutionist of Fendel who wanted more for the lower class . After the events of the game , Malik becomes Fendel 's ambassador . He is voiced by Hiroki Touchi and dubbed by Jamieson Price . Malik ranked on the fifth Tales character popularity poll and fell from the rankings since then . He makes a cameo in .hack / / Link 's pre @-@ order DVD .
Pascal ( パスカル , Pasukaru )
Pascal is an Amarcian prodigy , a tribe of engineers . She has a hyperactive personality and is fascinated in mysterious technology and in Sophie 's origins . She is voiced by Kana Ueda and dubbed by Kate Higgins . Since her debut , Pascal has ranked on the Tales character popularity polls . She makes a cameo in Tales of Hearts R dressed as the Sony mascot Toro Inoue .
Lambda ( ラムダ , Ramuda )
Lambda is an advanced lifeform created on Fodra . His mistreatment by humans fueled his hatred towards them . During the party 's childhood , he resides inside Richard after he was injured by Sophie and as a result , saved Richard 's life . Seven years later , Lambda is reawakened when Richard receives a fatal wound . Lambda empowers Richard and manipulates him to achieve his goals of destroying humanity . After he is defeated by the party , Lambda is absorbed by Asbel who convinces him to give humans a chance . In Lineage and Legacies , he absorbs Fodra 's consciousness to dissuade her hatred as Asbel did for him . He is voiced by Shigeru Nakahara and dubbed by Keith Silverstein .
Fodra ( フォドラ , Fodora )
Fodra is a sentient desolated planet . A thousand years ago , Fodra started annihilating humanity with its personal army , the Little Queen , to preserve its environment . Fodra 's scientists were able to shut down Fodra 's core and relocate the surviving humans to Ephinea . In Lineage and Legacies , Fodra is reactivated and resumes its genocide . It is confronted by the party , forcing it to merge the remaining Little Queens to form Fodra Queen which is defeated by the party . Fodra 's consciousness is then absorbed by Lambda who intends to dissuade its hatred . As the last Little Queen nears death , Sophie accepts her request to merge and watch over Fodra . Little Queen is voiced by Yoshino Nanjō and Fodra Queen by Mika Doi . Little Queen was dubbed by Lauren Landa and Fodra Queen by Jessica Straus .
= = Development and release = =
On July 7 , 2008 , Namco Bandai Games announced the next core product of the Tales series is developed for the Wii . A trailer for the game was shown in October 2008 during the Nintendo Autumn 2008 Conference . During Jump Festa 2009 , the game was given the code name Tales of 10 ( テイルズ オブ 10 , Teiruzu Obu 10 ) and is revealed to have been in development for the past two years . In the first week of April 's Weekly Shōnen Jump , the game 's name was revealed to be Tales of Graces ; the name was trademarked by Namco Bandai Games a month prior . That same week , the developers were revealed to the same developers from Tales of Destiny . In the same month , the game 's theme was revealed to be Mamoru Tsuyosa wo Shiru RPG ( 守る強さを知るRPG ? , lit . " RPG to Know the Strength to Protect " ) . During the September Tokyo Game Show , the game 's theme song was revealed to be Mamoritai ( White Wishes ) by BoA . The game was released on December 10 , 2009 and was also available as a bundle with a new Wii system . The game included Kamenin Merchant ! ( かめにんマーチャント ! ? , lit . " Turtle Merchant ! " ) , a minigame for the Nintendo DS . Kamenin Merchant ! was released for the Nintendo DSi on December 2 , 2009 . To promote the game , Namco Bandai Games and House Foods collaborated on packaged mabo curry . In March 2010 , Namco Bandai Games began to recall Tales of Graces due to software bugs . Namco allowed customers to exchange their game with an updated version until July 2011 .
The PlayStation 3 port , Tales of Graces f , was first revealed in July 28 , 2010 's Weekly Shonen Jump and officially announced by Namco on August 2 , 2010 . The producer , Hideo Baba , explained the port was decided in February 2010 due to fan demand . The port adds an " Accelerate Mode " to the gameplay and an after @-@ story entitled Lineage & Legacies . Preorderers received a DVD which contains a video of the game 's protagonists meeting with characters from Tales of Destiny 2 . A demo was released on October 7 , 2010 and the game was released on December 2 , 2010 . A limited edition of the game included a letter set . Namco and House Foods restarted the packaged mabo curry to promote the game . Tales of Graces f was later re @-@ released with a 15th anniversary cover art edition on August 4 , 2011 and with PlayStation 3 The Best label in August 2 , 2012 .
A North American localization was hinted on Namco Bandai Games ' Facebook page by a puzzle on January 24 , 2011 . When solved , the puzzle reveals a URL to a distorted image which was restored on February 2 , 2011 and reveals Tales of Graces f 's localization for North America . On May 11 , 2011 , Namco officially announced the North American , EMEA and Asia @-@ Pacific localization of Tales of Graces f . The text was translated by 8 @-@ 4 while Cup of Tea Productions produced the dubbing . The North American localization was released on March 13 , 2012 . The EMEA and Asia @-@ Pacific localization released on August 31 , 2012 along with a day one special edition . The game was made available on the North American and European PlayStation Network in March 2013 .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Tales of Graces offers costumes for the playable characters as downloadable content . Pre @-@ orderers received codes which give Asbel , Sophie , and Cheria costumes from Tales of Vesperia . Costumes based on The Idolmaster Dearly Stars for Sophie , Cheria , and Pascal were released on December 16 , 2009 . On December 23 , 2009 a Hatsune Miku costume for Sophie and a suit set for Asbel , Hubert , and Malik were released . Between January and March 2010 , a set of unique costumes designed by Mutsumi Inomata were released for each character . In addition to the costumes , challenge battles were also added as downloadable content .
Tales of Graces f received similar content as its Wii predecessor . Pre @-@ orderers received a code which gives Asbel , Sophie , and Richard costumes from Tales of Destiny 2 . On the release date , Code Geass costumes , a Toro costume for Pascal , and Sophie 's Hatsune Miku costume were made available to download . On December 9 , 2010 , the Idolmaster set , suit set , school uniform set , and a Haseo costume for Asbel were released . The unique costumes designed by Inomata were released on December 22 , 2010 . In January 2011 , various costumes were released to make the characters resemble other characters from the Tales series .
In North America , all Tales of Graces f 's DLC , excluding cameo costumes from other franchises , was localized and released between March 13 , 2012 and April 10 , 2012 . Europe received the same DLC which were released between August 29 , 2012 and September 26 , 2012 . For the Tales of Destiny 2 preorder costumes , North American preorders from GameStop received a code for them ; in Europe , the code was included with the day one special edition .
= = Media adaptions = =
= = = Manga = = =
Tales of Graces spawned four manga adaptations after its release : Three anthology collections , and a traditional manga series . The first anthology collection , Tales of Graces Comic Anthology consists of three volumes by Ichijinsha . The second anthology collection , Tales of Graces f Comic Anthology , consists of a single volume by Ichijinsha and was released on March 25 , 2011 . The third anthology collection is Tales of Graces f Sub Travels was serialized in ASCII Media Works 's Viva Tales of Magazine Volume 8 , 2011 to Volume 10 , 2012 issues . The individual chapters were then collected and released in a single volume on November 27 , 2012 under the Dengeki Comics imprint . A traditional manga series titled Tales of Graces f is written and authored by Megumu Aya . It began serialization in Viva Tales of Magazine beginning in its Volume 2 , 2011 issue and is currently ongoing . ASCII Media Works collected the chapters and released the first volume on October 27 , 2011 .
= = = Books = = =
Tales of Graces spun off a novel series titled " Tales of Graces f : Chikai no Hana " ( テイルズ オブ グレイセス エフ 誓いの花 ? , lit . Tales of Graces f : Flower 's Promise ) . The first volume is subtitled Jō ( 上 ? , lit . Above ) and the second Ka ( 下 ? , lit . Below ) . They were released by Enterbrain on February and May 2011 . Tales of Graces f Official Scenario Book by Namco Bandai Games was released by Yamashita Books in June 4 , 2012 . It details the game 's plot and fictional world . Tales of Graces has received six strategy guides in total : three for the Wii and three for the PS3 . Shueisha , Namco Bandai Games , and Enterbrain were the publishers .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
Ten drama CDs , produced by Frontier Works , and an original soundtrack by Avex Group were created based on the game . Drama CD : Tales of Graces 1 to 4 are side stories that take place during the game 's plot . They were released between May 26 , 2010 and August 25 , 2010 . Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2010 Winter , Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2011 Summer , Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2012 Winter , Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2012 Summer , Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2013 Winter , and Anthology Drama CD : Tales of Graces f 2013 Summer are side stories after the events of the Tales of Graces . Tales of Graces Original Soundtrack was released on February 10 , 2010 and contains four discs . It ranked 128th on Oricon 's charts .
= = Reception = =
Tales of Graces sold 113 @,@ 000 copies on its initial launch date , and sales reached 216 @,@ 000 within its first year . The game was re @-@ released under the Nintendo Selects label on March 24 , 2011 . Famitsu praised the depth of the gameplay but criticized the loading time . The game was listed on Famitsu 's " Greatest Games of All @-@ Time " in 2010 . Tales of Graces f sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies in Japan during its first week and reached over 300 @,@ 000 a year later . Tales of Graces f was later re @-@ released under PlayStation 3 The Best label in August 2 , 2012 . Famitsu repeated their praise of the gameplay and lauded the graphical upgrades . A survey by ASCII Media Works 's Dengeki Online in 2011 revealed Tales of Graces is ranked seventh on games readers would want to be adapted into an anime .
For the English localization of Tales of Graces f , critics praised the gameplay while the presentation received mixed reviews . IGN described the battle system as " a beautiful ebb and flow to each confrontation " while GameSpot considered it to be the most technical and robust system of the Tales series . Electronic Gaming Monthly and Joystiq praised the depth with the latter calling it " an actual challenge instead of mindless button @-@ pressing " . Meanwhile , Game Informer considered the combat to be simple but fun . Critics have also commented on the game 's alchemy system , with IGN calling it " an approachable pursuit " and Joystiq describing it as " unwieldy " due to the amount of collectibles . IGN , Game Informer , GamesRadar , and Game Trailers all criticized the backtracking needed in the game . GameInformer , GameSpot , and Game Trailers commented on the small world , with Game Trailers panning the linear pathways and " invisible walls " which prevent exploration along with the " cut and paste " dungeons .
The plot , graphics , and audio have received mixed reviews . The plot and characters have been called cliché by Game Informer , GameSpot , and GamesRadar . Game Informer called the childhood prologue monotonous but commented on the improving story after the time skip . GameSpot agreed , calling the prologue the " weakest part of the story on its own " but " crucial point of reference " which adds depth and eventually breaks away from the cliché . GamesRadar shared the same opinion as GameSpot and praised Richard 's transformation into a villain . As for the graphics , IGN considered them outdated while Joystiq described it as washed @-@ out with jerky movements . For the audio , IGN , Game Informer , and GamesRadar , considered the music underwhelming and the voice acting acceptable . IGN describes the voice acting " works " but some parts suffer from weak script . Game Informer compared the voices to a well @-@ produced anime and GamesRadar considered them fitting for the characters . Meanwhile , Game Trailers criticized the presentation completely , citing the plot as predictable , the characters unengaging , the lightings flat , animations stiff , lipsyncing off , forgettable music , and the voice acting as dry .
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= Disruptive coloration =
Disruptive coloration ( also known as disruptive camouflage or disruptive patterning ) is a form of camouflage that works by breaking up the outlines of an animal , soldier or military vehicle with a strongly contrasting pattern . It is often combined with other methods of crypsis including background colour matching and countershading . It appears paradoxical as a way of not being seen , since disruption of outlines depends on high contrast , so the patches of colour are themselves conspicuous .
The importance of high @-@ contrast patterns for successful disruption was predicted in general terms by the artist Abbott Thayer in 1909 and explicitly by the zoologist Hugh Cott in 1940 . Later experimental research has started to confirm these predictions . Disruptive patterns work best when all their components match the background .
While background matching works best for a single background , disruptive coloration is a more effective strategy when an animal or a military vehicle may have a variety of backgrounds .
Conversely , poisonous or distasteful animals that advertise their presence with warning coloration ( aposematism ) use patterns that emphasize rather than disrupt their outlines . For example , skunks , salamanders and monarch butterflies all have high @-@ contrast patterns that display their outlines .
= = Early research = =
The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer in his 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom argued that animals were concealed by a combination of countershading and " ruptive " marks , which together " obliterated " their self @-@ shadowing and their shape . Thayer explained that :
Markings ... of whatever sort , tend to obliterate , — to cancel , by their separate and conflicting pattern , the visibility of the details and boundaries of form .... If the bird 's or butterfly 's costume consists of sharply contrasted bold patterns of light and dark , in about equal proportions , its contour will be " broken up " against both light and dark — light failing to show against light , dark against dark . Such is apparently the basal and predominant use of almost all the bolder patterns in animals ' costumes .
Hugh Cott 's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals introduced ideas such as " maximum disruptive contrast " . This uses streaks of boldly contrasting colour , which paradoxically make animals or military vehicles less visible by breaking up their outlines . Cott explains that in ideal conditions , background colour matching together with countershading would " suffice to render an animal absolutely invisible against a plain background " , but at once adds that conditions are hardly ever ideal , as they are constantly changing , as is the light . Therefore , Cott argues , camouflage has to break up the perceived continuous surfaces of an object and its outlines . In Cott 's own words , " for effective concealment , it is essential that the tell @-@ tale appearance of form should be destroyed . " Cott draws an analogy with a pickpocket who carefully distracts your attention , arguing that :
The function of a disruptive pattern is to prevent , or to delay as long as possible , the first recognition of an object by sight ... irregular patches of contrasted colours and tones ... tend to catch the eye of the observer and to draw his attention away from the shape which bears them .
Further , Cott criticises unscientific attempts at camouflage , early in the Second World War , for not understanding the principles involved :
Various recent attempts to camouflage tanks , armoured cars and the roofs of buildings with paint reveal an almost complete failure by those responsible to grasp the essential factor in the disguise of surface continuity and of contour . Such work must be carried out with courage and confidence , for at close range objects properly treated will appear glaringly conspicuous . But they are not painted for deception at close range , but at ranges at which ... bombing raids are likely ... And at these distances differences of tint ... blend and thus nullify the effect and render the work practically useless .
The pioneering work of Thayer and Cott is endorsed in the 2006 review of disruptive coloration by Martin Stevens and colleagues , which notes that they proposed a " different form of camouflage " from the traditional " strategy of background matching " proposed by authors such as Alfred Russel Wallace ( Darwinism , 1889 ) , Edward Bagnall Poulton ( The Colours of Animals , 1890 ) and Frank Evers Beddard ( Animal Coloration , 1895 ) ; Stevens observes that background matching on its own would always fail because of " discontinuities between the boundary of the animal and the background " .
= = In animals = =
Disruptive patterns use strongly contrasting markings such as spots or stripes to break up the outlines of an animal or military vehicle . Some predators , like the leopard , and some potential prey like the Egyptian nightjar , use disruptive patterns . Disruptive patterns are defined by A. Barbosa and colleagues as " characterized by high @-@ contrast light and dark patches , in a nonrepetitive configuration , that also provide camouflage by disrupting the recognizable shape or orientation of the animal " , as in the cuttlefish .
The strategy appears paradoxical and counter @-@ intuitive as a method of camouflage , since disrupting outlines depends on using patches of colour which contrast strongly with each other , so the patches are themselves conspicuous . While background matching works best for a single background , disruptive coloration is a more effective strategy when an animal or a military vehicle may have a variety of backgrounds .
Martin Stevens and colleagues in 2006 made what they believed was the first experimental test that " disruptive coloration is effective even when some colour patches do not match the background and have a high contrast with both the background and adjacent pattern elements ( disruptive contrast ) " . They used " moth @-@ like targets " , some matching the lightness of the background oak tree bark , other mismatching it , each with a dead mealworm . If the mealworm was removed it was assumed a bird predator had taken it : this could be distinguished from visits by other predators . They found that disruptive coloration provided the best protection from bird predators when the pattern was matched to background luminance , but even when elements in a pattern did not match , disruptive patterns were still better at reducing predation than either non @-@ disruptive patterns or plain ( unpatterned ) control targets .
Disruptive patterns can also conceal specific features . Animals such as fish , birds , frogs and snakes can readily be detected by their eyes , which are necessarily round and dark . Many species conceal the eye with a stripe that runs through the eye , sometimes contrasting with a stripe above the eye , making it seem just part of a dark area of background . Cott called this a " coincident disruptive pattern " .
= = = The opposite case : aposematism = = =
Many poisonous or distasteful animals that advertise their presence with warning coloration ( aposematism ) use patterns that emphasize rather than disrupt their outlines . For example , skunks , salamanders and monarch butterflies all have high contrast patterns that display their outlines . These advertising patterns exploit the opposite principle to disruptive coloration , for what is in effect the exactly opposite effect : to make the animal as conspicuous as possible .
= = = A disputed case : the giraffe = = =
The presence of bold markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage . According to Mitchell , adult giraffes are " inescapably conspicuous " , making the conclusion that their patterns are for camouflage appear counterintuitive : but when standing among trees and bushes , their camouflage is effective at even a few metres ' distance .
Further , young giraffes are much more vulnerable to predation than adults : between 60 % and 75 % of calves die within a year . Mothers hide their calves , which spend much of the time lying down in cover . Since the presence of a mother does not affect survival , Mitchell suggests that young giraffes must be extremely well camouflaged . This is supported by the fact that coat markings are strongly inherited . Conversely , far from hiding , adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator , relying on their size and ability to defend themselves even from lions .
= = = Other ways of hiding outlines = = =
The outlines of an animal 's body can be made hard to see by other methods , such as by using a highly irregular outline . For example , the Comma butterfly , Polygonia c @-@ album , is highly cryptic when its wings are closed , with cryptic colours , disruptive pattern , and irregular outer margins to the wings .
= = Military usage = =
Disruptive coloration is common in military usage , for military vehicles , for firing positions and other installations , and for individual soldiers , where uniforms , equipment such as helmets , and face paint may be used to break up outlines and features . Disruptive coloration , however , does not always achieve crypsis on its own , as an animal or a military target may be given away by other factors including shape , shine , and shadow .
Many military camouflage patterns since the 1940s have been disruptively coloured , and with the issue of US Woodland pattern to United States armed forces from 1981 , disruptive pattern became a dominant feature of military uniforms . From 1969 , Disruptive Pattern Material ( DPM ) began to replace plain material for uniforms in the British Armed Forces and was later used by many other armies .
= = = Challenges = = =
Three major challenges face the design of disruptively patterned uniforms , however . Firstly , units frequently move from one terrain to another , where the background colours and contrasts may differ greatly . A uniform designed for woodland will be too strongly contrasting for desert use , and too green for urban use . Therefore , no single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains . The American UCP of 2004 attempted to suit all environments but was withdrawn after a few years of service . Terrain specific patterns like " Berlin camouflage " , which was applied to British vehicles operating in Berlin during the Cold War , have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains . Secondly , the effectiveness of any pattern in disrupting a soldier 's outlines varies with lighting , depending on the weather and the height of the sun in the sky . And thirdly , any given patch of printed colour varies in apparent size with distance from the enemy observing the pattern . A pattern printed with small patches of colour blends into a single perceived mass at a certain range , defeating the disruptive effect . Conversely , a pattern printed with large patches of colour appears conspicuous at shorter ranges . This problem has been solved with pixellated shapes , often designed digitally , that provide a fractal @-@ like range of patch sizes , enabling them to be effectively disruptive both at close range and at a distance . The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian CADPAT , soon followed by the American MARPAT . A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect , though it is simpler to design and to print .
= = Examples = =
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= Battle of Saint @-@ Pierre =
The Battle of Saint @-@ Pierre was a military confrontation on March 25 , 1776 , near the Quebec village of Saint @-@ Pierre , south of Quebec City . This confrontation , which occurred during the Continental Army 's siege of Quebec following its defeat at the Battle of Quebec , was between forces that were both largely composed of Canadian militia , including individuals on both sides of the conflict that had been recruited in the same communities . The Patriot forces routed the Loyalist forces , killing at least 3 and capturing more than 30 .
= = Background = =
Early in the American Revolutionary War , the Second Continental Congress had invited the citizens of the Province of Quebec to join them , first by addressing letters to them , and then by invading the province with the goal of ousting the British government of General Guy Carleton . The invasion reached a peak on December 31 , 1775 , when the Continental Army , under the command of General Richard Montgomery , was defeated before the gates of the city of Quebec . The battle resulted in the death of Montgomery and the capture of over 400 men .
Following the defeat , the remnants of the Army , now under the command of General Benedict Arnold , besieged the city . During this time , they worked to recruit French @-@ speaking Canadians to support their efforts toward independence , while Carleton and the British worked to build Loyalist support among the Canadiens .
= = Loyalist militia recruitment = =
Early on the morning of March 14 , 1776 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Chasson , a Canadian miller from Saint @-@ Vallier , crossed the Saint Lawrence River by canoe and reached the city of Quebec . He brought news to General Carleton that the Americans were setting up a gun battery at Pointe @-@ Lévis , on the south shore of the river , across from the city . This battery would command the city 's harbor and shipping on the river . Chasson also told Carleton that people to the south of the city were prepared to rise up against the Americans .
Carleton gave Chasson instructions to deliver to Louis Liénard de Beaujeu , the seigneur of the Isle @-@ aux @-@ Grues ( Crane Island ) , an island in the Saint Lawrence , and a man with previous military experience in the French and Indian War . The instructions included intercepted communications from Arnold describing the difficult conditions in the siege camp and an amnesty for people who had previously supported the Americans but were now willing to assist the British . Beaujeu , who had previously been asked to raise militia in support of the British , set about raising a force to make an attack on the unfinished battery at Pointe @-@ Lévis . By March 23 , he had assembled over 100 men at Sainte @-@ Anne @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Pocatière . When this force reached Saint @-@ Thomas on the night of March 24 , it was joined there by an additional 70 men . An advance guard from this force , numbering 46 , was sent to Saint @-@ Pierre under the command of Couillard and Gaspé , where they established a base at the house of Michel Blais , a Loyalist and former commander of the local militia .
= = Americans warned = =
Habitants from Beaumont friendly to the Americans notified the commander at Pointe @-@ Lévis of the recruiting activity . In response , General Arnold , sent a detachment of 80 Americans under John Dubois to deal with the situation . Pierre Ayotte and Clément Gosselin , recruiters working for Moses Hazen , the commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment , raised about 150 men who joined the Americans . These forces headed up the southern shore to investigate the reports . Some of these recruits were from the same villages from which Beaujeu had recruited men . A small band of militia from Beaumont went to Saint @-@ Michel and arrested Chasson , who was planning to return to the city .
= = Conflict = =
The Loyalist advance guard was surprised by the arrival of the Patriot forces at Saint @-@ Pierre , and barricaded themselves in the house , where they were attacked by Dubois ' men with musket and cannon . While a few escaped , the majority surrendered , and three were killed . Their priest , Charles @-@ François Bailly de Messein , was wounded in this battle . It is said that , because both sides recruited in the same areas to build their militias , that there were some families whose members fought against each other in this battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Beaujeu , his plans uncovered , disbanded the militia and went into hiding on Île @-@ aux @-@ Grues . After Dubois established that the action had been sanctioned by the British , some of the prisoners were released after promising not to take up arms again . The remaining 21 prisoners were sent to the American camp outside Quebec .
The skirmish itself had no notable effect on relations between the people and the occupying Americans , which were already deteriorating as the siege dragged on . This was due in part to the fact that the Americans , rather than paying for their supplies in coin , paid with Continental paper currency or promissory notes , deemed to be of little worth by the locals .
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= Oklahoma State Highway 32 =
State Highway 32 ( SH @-@ 32 or OK @-@ 32 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Oklahoma . The highway runs from west to east across the southern part of the state , just north of the Red River . The route begins at US @-@ 81 in Ryan and ends at US @-@ 70 in Kingston , a length of 77 @.@ 3 miles ( 124 @.@ 4 km ) .
SH @-@ 32 was first added to the state highway system at the end of 1934 ; none of the highway as created is part of the present @-@ day SH @-@ 32 ( having been encroached upon by US @-@ 70 ) . SH @-@ 32 is also linked with SH @-@ 199 — part of SH @-@ 32 was spun off to create SH @-@ 199 in 1938 .
= = Route description = =
SH @-@ 32 begins at US @-@ 81 in Ryan , where it follows the street grid , heading in a northeast direction . As the route leaves Ryan , it turns onto a due east course . It is 17 miles ( 27 km ) until the next town , Grady . SH @-@ 32 turns to the southeast to serve this town . Six more miles ( 10 km ) from Grady , SH @-@ 32 meets another highway for the first time , SH @-@ 89 . At the junction , SH @-@ 32 turns south , overlapping SH @-@ 89 for six miles ( 10 km ) . While concurrent , the two highways pass through the unincorporated community of Petersburg , then turn to the west . The two routes divide at Courtney , where SH @-@ 89 heads south towards the Red River and Texas .
SH @-@ 32 continues east from Courtney , crossing over Mud Creek , then passing through unincorporated Rubottom . East of Rubottom , the highway comes to the intersection with SH @-@ 76 . The next unincorporated community SH @-@ 32 passes through is Turner . Eight miles ( 13 km ) east of the SH @-@ 76 junction , at Dunbar , SH @-@ 32 serves as the northern terminus of SH @-@ 96 , which serves Burneyville .
Nine miles ( 14 km ) east of Burneyville , SH @-@ 32 has an interchange with I @-@ 35 outside Marietta , the seat of Love County . Soon after passing I @-@ 35 , SH @-@ 32 forms a brief concurrency with US @-@ 77 , and passes through Marietta . East of town , the route comes to a junction with SH @-@ 77S ( one of SH @-@ 77S 's four termini ) . SH @-@ 32 continues east , following the curve of Lake Texoma 's shoreline , passing through Lebanon . The highway then intersects with SH @-@ 99C .
Five miles ( 8 km ) east of SH @-@ 99C , SH @-@ 32 crosses US @-@ 377 / SH @-@ 99 . Two miles ( 3 km ) further east , SH @-@ 32 acts as the southern endpoint of SH @-@ 70F . Two miles ( 3 km ) after that , SH @-@ 32 ends at US @-@ 70 in Kingston .
= = History = =
State Highway 32 was commissioned on December 12 , 1934 . As originally created , the route ran from SH @-@ 14 ( present @-@ day US @-@ 183 ) in Davidson to Waurika , passing through the towns of Grandfield , Devol , and Randlett and the counties of Tillman , Cotton , and Jefferson . SH @-@ 32 was extended to cover approximately the west half of its present @-@ day route on June 16 , 1936 ; the route 's new eastern terminus was US @-@ 77 in Marietta . On March 29 , 1937 , the highway was expanded even further east to end at US @-@ 70 in Madill . This extension was split off to form SH @-@ 199 on October 13 , 1938 .
Meanwhile , changes were occurring in the eastern part of Jefferson County . The portion of highway from Ryan east to the Love County line was removed from the highway system on December 31 , 1937 . As a result , SH @-@ 32 was discontiguous ; one section stretched from Davidson to Ryan , while another began at a spur ending at the Jefferson – Love county line and continued east from there . The portion of SH @-@ 32 concurrent with US @-@ 81 between Waurika and Ryan , once necessary to connect to the now @-@ decommissioned road , was removed on February 24 , 1938 . Both of these sections of road were reinstated as part of SH @-@ 32 on February 29 , 1944 .
Changes in US @-@ 70 's routing in the 1930s and 1940s resulted in the western part of SH @-@ 32 becoming concurrent with the U.S. highway through southwest Oklahoma during the late 1930s . US @-@ 70 as first designated in Oklahoma crossed into the state north of Burkburnett , Texas and intersected SH @-@ 32 in Randlett ; continuing north of SH @-@ 32 , the U.S. highway turned east , running through Walters . In Comanche , US @-@ 70 turned south along US @-@ 81 and followed it until reaching the present @-@ day US @-@ 70 routing in Waurika . Between Randlett and Waurika , SH @-@ 32 provided a much more direct route . On May 6 , 1936 , US @-@ 70 was realigned to follow SH @-@ 32 between these two cities . On March 3 , 1945 , US @-@ 70 was realigned again . This brought the highway into Oklahoma much earlier , crossing the Red River much further west , in effect bypassing Wichita Falls , Texas . As a result of the realignment , US @-@ 70 intersected SH @-@ 32 at its western terminus in Davidson and followed it all the way to Waurika . The westernmost 64 miles ( 103 km ) of SH @-@ 32 ( as measured along the present @-@ day US @-@ 70 alignment ) were concurrent with US @-@ 70 .
SH @-@ 32 was resumed its expansion to the east on September 16 , 1946 . On that date , the highway 's eastern terminus was set at its present location at US @-@ 70 in Kingston . Much of this extension reclaimed for SH @-@ 32 the stretch of road lost by the creation of SH @-@ 199 . At this time , SH @-@ 32 was at its zenith ; stretching from Davidson to Kingston , the route covered a total of 152 miles ( 245 km ) along present @-@ day roads . However , the westernmost 64 miles ( 103 km ) of SH @-@ 32 still overlapped US @-@ 70 .
On September 6 , 1966 , after over twenty years of cosignage , SH @-@ 32 was truncated to its current western terminus in Ryan . Everything west of Waurika was now solely US @-@ 70 . After the truncation of 1966 , SH @-@ 32 had the same route that it does today .
= = Junction list = =
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= Drexler – Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology =
The Drexler – Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology was a public dispute between K. Eric Drexler , the originator of the conceptual basis of molecular nanotechnology , and Richard Smalley , a recipient of the 1996 Nobel prize in Chemistry for the discovery of the nanomaterial buckminsterfullerene . The dispute was about the feasibility of constructing molecular assemblers , which are molecular machines which could robotically assemble molecular materials and devices by manipulating individual atoms or molecules . The concept of molecular assemblers was central to Drexler 's conception of molecular nanotechnology , but Smalley argued that fundamental physical principles would prevent them from ever being possible . The two also traded accusations that the other 's conception of nanotechnology was harmful to public perception of the field and threatened continued public support for nanotechnology research .
The debate was carried out from 2001 to 2003 through a series of published articles and open letters . It began with a 2001 article by Smalley in Scientific American , which was followed by a rebuttal published by Drexler and coworkers later that year , and two open letters by Drexler in early 2003 . The debate was concluded in late 2003 in a " Point – Counterpoint " feature in Chemical & Engineering News in which both parties participated .
The debate has been often cited in the history of nanotechnology due to the fame of its participants and its commentary on both the technical and social aspects of nanotechnology . It has also been widely criticized for its adversarial tone , with Drexler accusing Smalley of publicly misrepresenting his work , and Smalley accusing Drexler of failing to understand basic science , causing commentators to go so far as to characterize the tone of the debate as similar to " a pissing match " and " reminiscent of [ a ] Saturday Night Live sketch " .
= = The participants = =
= = = K. Eric Drexler = = =
K. Eric Drexler is generally considered to have written the first scholarly paper on the topic of nanotechnology , and was a key figure in popularizing these concepts through several publications and advocacy work . Trained as an engineer , Drexler was inspired by a then @-@ obscure 1959 talk by physicist Richard Feynman called There 's Plenty of Room at the Bottom , which posited that it should be physically possible to manipulate individual atoms using top @-@ down engineering methodologies . Drexler was also inspired by recent advances in molecular biology such as recombinant DNA technology . In a 1981 publication in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , considered to be the first journal article on nanotechnology , he argued that biological systems such as the ribosome were already capable of building molecules atom @-@ by @-@ atom , and that artificial machines with this capability could also be constructed . Drexler went on to publish two books on nanotechnology : Engines of Creation in 1986 , which was intended for the public , and the technical work Nanosystems in 1992 . He also co @-@ founded the Foresight Institute , a public interest group devoted to increasing public awareness and information about molecular nanotechnology .
Drexler 's vision of nanotechnology , now called molecular nanotechnology , is based on the concept of the molecular assembler , a molecular machine which would manufacture molecules and molecular devices atom @-@ by @-@ atom . Drexler drew a distinction between wet nanotechnology based on biological systems , and " second @-@ generation " dry nanotechnology which would be based on mechanosynthesis , positional control of molecules through principles more related to mechanical engineering . Drexler and his followers have focused almost exclusively on the latter form of molecular nanotechnology , but Drexler has stated that both are valid pathways to creating molecular machine systems .
= = = Richard Smalley = = =
Richard E. Smalley , a chemist at Rice University , was best known as a co @-@ discoverer of the C60 form of carbon known as buckminsterfullerine in 1985 , along with Harry Kroto , Robert Curl , James Heath , and Sean O 'Brien . Buckminsterfullerene was the first to be discovered of the class of molecules known as fullerenes , which also includes carbon nanotubes . The study and application of fullerenes forms a significant part of the fields of nanomaterials and nanoelectronics , and Smalley , Kroto , and Curl were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery .
Smalley had also taken a prominent public policy role in relation to nanotechnology , and was an outspoken advocate for using nanotechnology to develop solutions to the world 's energy and health problems , for example raising the possibility of using nanomaterials for efficient energy storage and transmission , and of developing nanomaterial @-@ based drugs for targeted drug delivery . Smalley was also active in commercializing his academic research into carbon nanotubes , having founded Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc . , and serving on the scientific advisory board of two other biotechnology and nanotechnology startups . Smalley died of leukemia in October 2005 , after the conclusion of his debate with Drexler .
= = The debate = =
= = = Smalley 's Scientific American article = = =
Smalley wrote an article , " Of Chemistry , Love , and Nanobots " , for the September 2001 issue of the popular science magazine Scientific American , which was a special issue on the topic of nanotechnology . Smalley opened by comparing a chemical reaction to an intricate dance of atoms :
When a boy and a girl fall in love , it is often said that the chemistry between them is good . This common use of the word " chemistry " in human relations comes close to the subtlety of what actually happens in the more mundane coupling of molecules . In a chemical reaction between two ' consenting ' molecules , bonds form between some of the atoms in what is usually a complex dance involving motion in multiple dimensions .... And if the chemistry is really , really good , the molecules that do react will all produce the exact product required .
He referenced the idea of a molecular assembler , a nanorobot capable of manipulating individual atoms to build a desired product , posing the question of how long it would take such an assembler to produce a meaningful amount of material . He estimated that one assembler working alone would take millions of years to produce one mole of material , but self @-@ replicating assemblers could within a minute produce a large enough ensemble of assemblers that would then be capable of producing a mole of product in a fraction of a millisecond . Smalley then discussed the fear that the nanorobots could mutate and reproduce indefinitely , causing a grey goo scenario , or , referring to Bill Joy 's previous article " Why the future doesn 't need us " , that the nanorobots could develop swarm intelligence and become alive in some sense .
Smalley then considered how realistic was the concept of a self @-@ replicating nanorobot . He noted that in a chemical reaction , the chemical bonds are all interconnected and that the placement of each atom is sensitive to the position of all the other atoms in the vicinity . He then asserted that a molecular assembler would thus have to control many atoms simultaneously in order to work , and would thus have to have many manipulator arms . This led him to raise two objections to the concept of molecular assembler , which he calls the " fat fingers problem " and the " sticky fingers problem " :
Because the fingers of a manipulator arm must themselves be made out of atoms , they have a certain irreducible size . There just isn 't enough room in the nanometer @-@ size reaction region to accommodate all the fingers of all the manipulators necessary to have complete control of the chemistry .... [ Also , ] the atoms of the manipulator hands will adhere to the atom that is being moved . So it will often be impossible to release this minuscule building block in precisely the right spot . Both these problems are fundamental , and neither can be avoided . Self @-@ replicating , mechanical nanobots are simply not possible in our world .
Smalley closed the article by returning to the analogy of chemistry as a dance of love , remarking that " you don 't make a girl and a boy fall in love by pushing them together . "
= = = Drexler 's response = = =
Drexler responded by publishing a rebuttal later in 2001 through the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing , which was co @-@ authored with others including Robert Freitas , J. Storrs Hall , and Ralph Merkle . The authors first discussed the " fat fingers " argument by attacking Smalley 's notion that a chemical reaction must involve five to fifteen atoms , stating that many reactions involve only two reactants , one of which can be immobilized and the other attached to a single " finger " . They cited as evidence experimental and theoretical results indicating that using scanning tunneling microscope ( STM ) tips and related technologies could be used as a reactive structure for positional control and for interaction with surface @-@ bound molecules . They also noted that atomically precise final products do not require precise control of all aspects of the chemical reaction . The authors noted that the " sticky fingers " problem is valid in some reactions , but argue that it would be fallacious to conclude that all reactions have this problem .
The authors put forth the ribosome as an example of a natural molecular machine ; because the ribosome suffers from neither problem , they must not be fundamental , saying :
This ubiquitous biological molecular assembler suffers from neither the “ fat finger ” nor the “ sticky finger ” problem . If , as Smalley argues , both problems are “ fundamental , ” then why would they prevent the development of mechanical assemblers and not biological assemblers ? If the class of molecular structures known as proteins can be synthesized using positional techniques , then why would we expect there to be no other classes of molecular structures that can be synthesized using positional techniques ?
The authors also questioned Smalley 's figures for the replication time of nanomachines . Instead of Smalley 's figure of 1 GHz for the atomic placement frequency , they point out that Nanosystems suggested a frequency of 1 MHz , a thousand times slower , and that at Smalley 's higher frequency diamondoid nanomachines would overheat and decompose in milliseconds . The authors called this a straw man argument , writing that " in a serious scientific discussion , a discrepancy of three orders of magnitude between what has been proposed in the literature and what is criticized suggests at best an inadequate grasp of the proposal . " The authors closed by stating that the best way to find out whether molecular assemblers are feasible is through experimental and theoretical work , and that " there are many worthy molecular systems engineering challenges to overcome , but thus far , there has been no credible argument that these devices are infeasible . "
Drexler followed up with two open letters to Smalley in April and July 2003 . The April letter began , " I have written this open letter to correct your public misrepresentation of my work . " Drexler accused Smalley of continuing to dismiss his work by publicly describing molecular assemblers as requiring what Drexler now calls " Smalley fingers " , which he stated to be unlike the enzyme @-@ like systems he had actually proposed . He asserted :
The impossibility of " Smalley fingers " has raised no concern in the research community because these fingers solve no problems and thus appear in no proposals . Your reliance on this straw @-@ man attack might lead a thoughtful observer to suspect that no one has identified a valid criticism of my work . For this I should , perhaps , thank you .
Drexler compared the nanotechnology debate 's importance to that of discussions of spaceflight before Sputnik or to theoretical work on nuclear chemistry before the Manhattan Project . He disputed Smalley 's arguments that the fear of a grey goo scenario would hinder continued funding of nanotechnology research , arguing that the potential for long @-@ term risks made research even more important . His conclusion stated , " your misdirected arguments have needlessly confused public discussion of genuine long @-@ term security concerns . "
The July 2003 letter referenced a note from Smalley promising to respond , which had yet gone unfulfilled . Drexler mentions inconsistencies in Smalley 's previous public statements on atom @-@ by @-@ atom construction , and ended by stating " I would not ordinarily raise an issue so persistently , but the question of what nanotechnology can ultimately achieve is perhaps the most fundamental issue in the field today — it shapes basic objectives and expectations — and your words have been remarkably effective in changing how this issue is perceived . "
= = = Exchange of letters in Chemical & Engineering News = = =
The debate was concluded in a " Point – Counterpoint " feature that was the 1 December 2003 cover story of Chemical & Engineering News , the newsmagazine of the American Chemical Society . The feature first reproduced Drexler 's April 2003 open letter to Smalley . Smalley 's response began by apologizing for any offense his September 2001 article had caused , and stating that Drexler 's book Engines of Creation had triggered Smalley 's own interest in nanotechnology . He agreed that " Smalley fingers " could not work , and then asserted that the same reasons that would preclude atomic control of reactions would also preclude the manipulation of larger building blocks , since each molecule would have multiple atoms which would need to be controlled
He then agreed that something like an enzyme or ribosome would be capable of precise chemistry , but asked how the nanorobot would be able to obtain , control , and repair such an enzyme , and noted the incompatibility of many reactions with water @-@ based biological systems , stating that " biology is wonderous in the vast diversity of what it can build , but it can 't make a crystal of silicon , or steel , or copper , or aluminum , or titanium , or virtually any of the key materials on which modern technology is built . " Smalley asked what kind of " nonaqueous enzymelike chemistry " Drexler would envision for his molecular assemblers to operate upon , calling this " a vast area of chemistry that has eluded us for centuries . "
Drexler 's counterresponse began by returning to Feynman 's 1959 talk , stating that " although inspired by biology ... Feynman 's vision of nanotechnology is fundamentally mechanical , not biological . " He characterized the challenges as being that of systems engineering rather than solely chemistry , and referred Smalley to Nanosystems , with its vision of mechanical control of chemical reactions with no enzymes and no reliance on solvents or thermal motion . He stated :
Positional control naturally avoids most side reactions by preventing unwanted encounters between potential reactants . Transition @-@ state theory indicates that , for suitably chosen reactants , positional control will enable synthetic steps at megahertz frequencies with the reliability of digital switching operations in a computer . The supporting analysis for this conclusion appears in " Nanosystems " and has withstood a decade of scientific scrutiny .
Drexler reiterated that these molecular assemblers would require no impossible fingers , and would augment solution @-@ phase chemistry to produce macroscopic products with precise arrangements of chemical building blocks , using solution @-@ phase molecular assemblers to bootstrap the construction of more sophisticated assemblers . He concluded by writing :
U.S. progress in molecular manufacturing has been impeded by the dangerous illusion that it is infeasible . I hope you will agree that the actual physical principles of molecular manufacturing are sound and quite unlike the various notions , many widespread in the press , that you have correctly rejected . I invite you to join me and others in the call to augment today 's nanoscale research with a systems engineering effort aimed at achieving the grand vision articulated by Richard Feynman .
Smalley began his concluding letter :
I see you have now walked out of the room where I had led you to talk about real chemistry , and you are now back in your mechanical world . I am sorry we have ended up like this . For a moment I thought we were making progress . You still do not appear to understand the impact of my short piece in Scientific American . Much like you can 't make a boy and a girl fall in love with each other simply by pushing them together , you cannot make precise chemistry occur as desired between two molecular objects with simple mechanical motion along a few degrees of freedom in the assembler @-@ fixed frame of reference . Chemistry , like love , is more subtle than that .
Smalley stated his belief that most reactions using mechanosynthesis would simply give the wrong product , and that very few reactions and target molecules would likely be compatible with such an approach . He asserted that any robotic assembler arm would need an enzyme @-@ like tool at its end such would require a liquid medium , and as all known enzymes use water as that medium , the range of products must be limited to the " meat and bone of biology . " He accused Drexler of creating " a pretend world where atoms go where you want because your computer program directs them to go there . "
Lastly , Smalley recounted his recent experience reading essays written by middle and high school students after an outreach visit , saying that nearly half of them thought that self @-@ replicating nanorobots were possible and that most were worried about the results of them spreading across the world . Smalley called this a deeply troubling bedside story that he did his best to allay . Smalley concluded his letter :
You and people around you have scared our children . I don 't expect you to stop , but I hope others in the chemical community will join with me in turning on the light , and showing our children that , while our future in the real world will be challenging and there are real risks , there will be no such monster as the self @-@ replicating mechanical nanobot of your dreams .
= = Critical response = =
= = = Tone = = =
The debate has been widely criticized for its adversarial tone . David Berube in Nano @-@ Hype : The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz characterized it as " two people talking over each other ... not conducive to reasonable rebuttal , " and quoted nanotechnology blogger and journalist Howard Lovy as saying " the tenor of the debate is about personal pride , reputation , and a place in the pantheon . " Zyvex founder James von Ehr remarked that " Eric [ Drexler ] didn 't do himself any favors by getting into a pissing match with a Nobel @-@ prize winner . " An article in The New York Times called the debate " reminiscent of that old Saturday Night Live sketch ... [ with ] Dan Aykroyd and Jane Curtin tossing insults at each other while ostensibly debating a serious political issue , " referring to a version of the long @-@ running Weekend Update segment .
= = = Technical commentary = = =
The debate has received technical criticism as well . Steven A. Edwards in The Nanotech Pioneers noted that the ambiguity of the specifications and even definition of a molecular assembler makes an evaluation of the argument difficult and minimizes its scientific implications . He remarked that " nowhere in it does Nanosystems contain a blueprint for a molecular assembler ... We are told , for instance , that a manipulator arm would involve 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 atoms , but we are not told which atoms , or how they would be put together . " He concludes that " the debate over mechanosynthesis so far is huge to the participants , but mainly an entertaining academic diversion to most nanotechnologists . "
On the other hand , futurist Ray Kurzweil in his book The Singularity Is Near declared Drexler as the winner of the debate , reiterating the view that Smalley distorted Drexler 's ideas and calling Smalley 's responses " short on specific citations and current research and long on imprecise metaphors " and asserting that " Smalley is ignoring the past decade of research on alternative means of positioning molecular fragments using precisely guided molecular reactions ... [ which have ] been extensively studied . " He quoted experimental results on enzyme function in nonaqueous solutions , and pointed out that modern non @-@ biological technology such as airplanes and computers have exceeded the capabilities of natural biological systems . He also noted that " earlier critics also expressed skepticism that either worldwide communication networks or software viruses that would spread across them were feasible ... [ but today ] we are obtaining far more gain than harm from this latest example of intertwined promise and peril . "
= = = Commentary on public perception of nanotechnology = = =
The debate 's focus on the public perception of nanotechnology has also received commentary . Political blogger Glenn Reynolds stated that " the business community is afraid that advanced nanotechnology just seems too , well , spooky — and worse , that discussions of potentially spooky implications will lead to public fears that might get into the way of bringing products to market . " Lawrence Lessig criticized the scientific establishment , represented by Smalley , for arguing that " if so @-@ called dangerous nanotech can be relegated to summer sci @-@ fi movies and forgotten after Labor Day , then serious work can continue , supported by billion @-@ dollar funding and uninhibited by the idiocy that buries , for example , stem cell research . " Kurzweil wrote that Smalley 's approach to reassuring the public would backfire because it denied both the benefits and risks of molecular nanotechnology .
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= 1891 – 92 Sheffield United F.C. season =
The 1891 – 92 season was the third in existence for Sheffield United . This was their first season playing in the recently formed Northern League as the club sought to establish itself as a major footballing force . The Blades had a reasonably successful season , finishing third in the league , and registering some comprehensive victories along the way . They improved on the previous season by reaching the second round proper of the FA Cup and were victorious in the local cup competitions , winning both the Sheffield Challenge Cup and the Wharncliffe Charity Cup for the first time .
Under the stewardship of Joseph Wostinholm , United continued to recruit more experienced players . Bob Cain was signed from Bootle and Harry Hammond arrived from Everton , both players cementing their place in United 's first team for several years to come . Most significant however was the emergence of a young Ernest Needham who made his United debut in the early part of the season and would go on to be one of the club 's greatest ever players and ultimately captain England . The season did see the first United players to gain international caps with both Harry Lilley and Michael Whitham appearing for England on 5 March , ( although in different matches as England played two different games concurrently on that day . )
= = Background = =
Football was developing and match referees were introduced for the first time for the 1891 – 92 season . Previously both sides had provided an umpire who jointly officiated the game and consulted with a third official should they be unable to agree . Penalty kicks were also introduced to penalise fouls made within eighteen yards of the goal , and United used nets in the goals at Bramall Lane for the first time .
The previous season had been a mixed one , with an improvement in the quality of players and increasing attendances for home games , but a mid – table finish in the Midland Counties League had been the result . Under the guidance of club secretary J.B. Wostinholm , the football committee still wanted to improve the standard of matches played by United and so opted to leave the Midland Counties League and seek election to The Football League instead . They were unsuccessful in their attempt , amidst accusations that local rivals The Wednesday had voted against their acceptance and had even petitioned other clubs to vote against their entry . Instead United joined the newly formed Northern League which comprised mainly teams from the north – east , meaning that their nearest away match in the league was at Darlington , some 85 miles away from Sheffield .
Despite now being focussed on league football , the club also arranged a large number of friendly fixtures throughout the season which resulted in a congested fixture list and United playing 75 first team games in the space of eight months . This season also saw the introduction of an official reserve side for United , dubbed The Sheffield Strollers , who played a number of fixtures in addition to those played by the first team .
= = Kit = =
United dropped the thin red vertical stripes that had been introduced the previous season , reverting to a plain white shirt along with blue shorts and socks . This season saw the introduction of a club crest ( or badge ) on the shirts for the first time , utilising a red heraldic shield emblazoned with three sheaves of wheat and a lions head , along with the letters SUFC .
= = Season overview = =
= = = Northern League = = =
United continued with a sizable turnover of playing staff but were now focusing on using their financial position to target experienced professionals rather than relying on the untied talents of previous seasons . Bob Cain and Harry Hammond arrived in August , recruited from Bootle and Everton respectively , while previous stalwarts like Edward Cross , Billy Bridgewater and W. Robertson were allowed to leave . A young Ernest Needham was promoted to the first team and began to feature regularly as the season progressed ; he would eventually go on to make over 450 league appearances for the Blades and to captain England during his career .
The league season started well as United registered a 4 – 2 away victory over Sunderland Albion followed by two comprehensive home wins ; beating Darlington 7 – 1 and South Bank 6 – 0 . It was not until early November that the Blades dropped points , suffering a 3 – 0 home defeat by Middlesbrough before a 2 – 0 reverse at the hands of struggling Darlington .
United continued to add to the squad , signing keeper Will Lilley from Staveley , before registering a string of victories until the end of the year , culminating in a 6 – 0 win over Stockton at the end of December . The league then took a winter break of almost three months , not resuming until almost the end of March . The club continued to strengthen their attacking options by recruiting three additional forwards from Scotland ; Sandy Wallace , John Scott and resigning former player James Duncan . William Calder and Harry Munro were both allowed to join Gainsborough Trinity , before United resumed their league campaign with a 4 – 3 loss away at Newcastle West End who were struggling at the bottom of the table . This signalled a down – turn in form and inconsistent results until the end of the season meant that United lost touch with the top of the table and eventually finished third .
United 's growing reputation was such that their players were beginning to come to the attention of the FA and both Michael Whitham and Harry Lilley received an England call – up in March 1892 . Both players made their debut on 5 March , Whitham in a Home Championship game against Ireland in Belfast , and Lilley in a friendly against Wales .
The club 's organising football committee were still determined to gain entry to The Football League and applied for election for the second year in succession . On this occasion however United were successful and were given entry into the newly formed Second Division for the 1892 – 93 season . Cross – town rivals The Wednesday had also been accepted into the Football League , but had been placed in the First Division , much to the annoyance of United 's board of directors . United asked to review the ballot papers upon which this decision had been based but were told that they had been destroyed , angering the club 's directors still further .
= = = FA Cup = = =
As in previous years United had to play a number of qualifying rounds against local opposition before they gained entry to the FA Cup proper . Lincoln City were dispatched 4 – 1 at Bramall Lane , before much closer games against Grimsby and Gainsborough Trininty saw the Blades reach the first round proper . United travelled to Blackpool in the First Round , coming away comfortable 3 – 0 winners to secure a place in Round Two for only the second time . They met an experienced Wolverhampton Wanderers side at Molineux Stadium but were to progress no further , losing 3 – 1 to their Midlands opponents .
= = = Local cups = = =
As football in the area developed , so the standing of the local cups diminished amongst the area 's leading sides . United entered the Sheffield Challenge Cup at the third round stage and comfortably saw off Doncaster Rovers 4 – 0 at Bramall Lane . The semi @-@ final saw an away trip to Kilnhurst , who the Blades beat by the same 4 – 0 scoreline to secure a place in the final for the second year in succession . United faced local rivals The Wednesday at Bramall Lane , but the opposition had fielded their reserve side during the competition and as such a largely second – string United side beat the Wednesday Wanderers 2 – 1 to lift the club 's first ever trophy .
The Wharncliffe Charity Cup garnered even less attention this season and United were given an automatic place in the final where they faced Attercliffe at the Olive Grove ground , beating them 2 – 0 at the end of March to win their second trophy in a month .
= = = Friendlies = = =
As in the previous two seasons , the football committee filled the fixture list by arranging a large number of friendlies and exhibition games throughout the year . The results of these games were mixed and mirrored the team 's performance in the league ; starting promisingly in the Autumn but tailing off after the turn of the year . United began the programme well , gaining victories against emerging Woolwich Arsenal , and the established Notts County and Bolton Wanderers , in the early part of the season . From October onwards the results became less consistent with the Blades suffering heavy defeats at the hands of Grimsby Town and Birmingham St. George 's . It wasn 't until February that United 's form improved , beating Burnley and Everton twice in consecutive games , running out 5 – 0 victors over the Merseyside club at Bramall Lane . Another run of poor results followed until the Blades registered their most comprehensive victory of the season at the end of March , beating Burnley 8 – 1 .
For the second season in succession the highlights of the fixture list were the games against local rivals The Wednesday , with a record 22 @,@ 900 supporters attending Bramall Lane to see the Blades record a 5 – 0 victory at the end of October . Just under a month later United lost the return fixture at Olive Grove 4 – 1 in front of a more modest crowd of just under 12 @,@ 000 .
= = Squad = =
Source :
= = = First team = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players leaving before the end of the season = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = League table = =
As of the end of the season
= = Squad statistics = =
= = = Appearances and goals = = =
As of the end of the season
= = Results = =
Source :
= = = Key = = =
Win Draw Loss
= = = Northern League = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = Sheffield Challenge Cup = = =
= = = Wharncliffe Charity Cup = = =
= = = Friendlies = = =
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= An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory =
An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory is a 2010 textbook by the British political theorist Alasdair Cochrane . It is the first book in publisher Palgrave Macmillan 's Animal Ethics Series , edited by Andrew Linzey and Priscilla Cohn . Cochrane 's book examines five schools of political theory — utilitarianism , liberalism , communitarianism , Marxism and feminism — and their respective relationships with questions concerning animal rights and the political status of ( non @-@ human ) animals . Cochrane concludes that each tradition has something to offer to these issues , but ultimately presents his own account of interest @-@ based animal rights as preferable to any . His account , though drawing from all examined traditions , builds primarily upon liberalism and utilitarianism .
An Introduction was reviewed positively in several academic publications . Political philosopher Steve Cooke said Cochrane 's own approach showed promise , and that the book would have benefited from devoting more space to it . Robert Garner praised Cochrane 's synthesis of such a broad range of literature , but argued that the work was too uncritical of the concept of justice as it might apply to animals . Cochrane 's account of interest @-@ based rights for animals was subsequently considered at greater length in his 2012 book Animal Rights Without Liberation , published by Columbia University Press . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory was one of the first books to explore animals from a political @-@ theory perspective , becoming an established part of a literature critical of the topic 's traditional neglect .
= = Background and publication = =
In the 1990s and 2000s , Alasdair Cochrane studied politics at the University of Sheffield and the London School of Economics ( LSE ) . His doctoral thesis , supervised by Cécile Fabre with Paul Kelly acting as an adviser , was entitled Moral obligations to non @-@ humans . He subsequently became a fellow and lecturer at the LSE . During this time , Cochrane published articles in Res Publica , Utilitas and Political Studies presenting aspects of his interest @-@ based theory of animal rights , which is defended in the final chapter of An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . The book was Cochrane 's first , and the political theorist Robert Garner acted as an important discussant during the writing process .
An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory was first published in the UK on 13 October 2010 by Palgrave Macmillan in paperback , hardback and eBook formats . It was the first book to appear as part of the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series , a partnership between Palgrave Macmillan and the Ferrata Mora Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics . The series 's general editors are Andrew Linzey and Priscilla N. Cohn . Interdisciplinary in focus , the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series aims to explore the practical and conceptual challenges posed by animal ethics .
= = Synopsis = =
An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory begins by discussing the history of animals in political theory before considering the approaches taken to the status of animals by five schools of political theory : utilitarianism , liberalism , communitarianism , Marxism and feminism . The final chapter outlines Cochrane 's own approach , which he situates between liberalism and utilitarianism .
Opening chapters
After introducing the purpose of the book , establishing it as a work of normative political theory asking to what extent animals should be included in the domain of justice , Cochrane considers the history of thinking on the relationship between justice and animals . He argues that within ancient philosophy there was disagreement about the inclusion of animals within accounts of justice , in medieval Christian philosophy there was a consensus that they should be excluded , and in modern philosophy there has been a return to disagreement .
Utilitarianism
Chapter three considers utilitarianism . Utilitarianism , Cochrane argues , posed a challenge to the medieval and early modern assumption that animals are owed nothing . Its focus on welfare and sentience , and its egalitarian nature , allow the extension of justice to animals . The ideas of Peter Singer are outlined . Cochrane then defends Singer 's account both against those presenting arguments in defence of speciesism , and against critics ( such as R. G. Frey ) who maintain that animals do not have interests . He then considers utilitarian critics of Singer , who argue that meat @-@ eating maximises utility , even when animal interests are taken into account . This leads to the criticism that judging the best consequences is an extremely difficult task for political communities , but Cochrane concludes that a utilitarian consensus does support the abolition of factory farming , regardless of the alternative . Finally , he addresses critics who argue that Singer 's position offers insufficient protection for animals . Nussbaum 's argument that animals can suffer unfelt harms is considered , as is Tom Regan 's criticism that , under Singer 's account , animals are protected only insofar as their protection maximises welfare , rather than in their own right .
Liberalism
Chapter four considers liberalism . Cochrane focuses primarily upon John Rawls , whose social contract account offers two reasons for the rejection of animals from issues of basic justice : questions of reciprocity , for which animals are ill @-@ suited , and questions of personhood , as all parties to the contract must be moral persons . Cochrane criticises Rawls 's exclusion of animals , before identifying the risks to animals inherent within liberal pluralism . The possibility of a Rawlsian account including animals , such as those offered by Donald VanDeVeer and Mark Rowlands , is considered and rejected ; Cochrane outlines problems with placing questions of species membership behind the veil of ignorance and outlines Garner 's fundamental criticisms of Rawls . Modified versions of personhood that include animals are discussed . Cochrane closes the chapter by arguing that personhood and welfare should both be considered important ; in so doing , he points towards his own conception of justice for animals .
Communitarianism
Chapter five assesses the relationship between animals and communitarianism . Cochrane initially argues that communitarianism , using British society as an example , can be used to expand justice to animals . He devotes the remainder of the chapter to four arguments against this line of thought . First , communitarianism is particularist ; that is , the principles it expounds are wholly contingent on the values in the particular society . Second , there are difficulties inherent in finding " authentic " values within a given society . Third , societies often favour some animals over others , leaving unfavoured animals vulnerable . Fourth , there is the question of whose values within a society matter : states often contain multiple communities with very different attitudes to animals . Consideration of this fourth question involves analysis of multiculturalism .
Marxism
Cochrane goes on , in chapter six , to consider Marxism . He outlines the discontinuities between humans and animals that exist for Karl Marx and considers the extent to which animal @-@ rights thinking is an example of bourgeois morality . These analyses serve to illustrate how Marxist thinking can be used to exclude animals , but counterarguments are offered . Cochrane then draws upon Catherine Perlow and Barbara Noske , who have argued that animals may represent an exploited group in a Marxist sense , but he is critical of the argument that this exploitation is caused by capitalism and that overthrowing capitalism would be a necessary step for achieving justice . He next considers David Sztybel and Ted Benton , who have drawn upon the adage of " From each according to his ability , to each according to his need " in relation to animals ; Cochrane is wary about the use of the phrase for three reasons . First , it is unclear how central the idea is to Marxist thought ; second , it is a principle only for societies in advanced stages of communism ; and third , even if we assume we can know the needs of animals , it assumes that we should extend justice beyond sentient animals . Finally , Cochrane considers Benton 's proposal that liberal rights @-@ based approaches to animal justice cannot achieve their goal , and that Marxism can be used as a resource for political achievement . This is , for Cochrane , Marxism 's most important contribution in the area .
Feminism
Cochrane considers feminism , the final tradition he examines , in chapter seven . As with Marxism , there are historical links between feminism and animal liberation . Cochrane considers the putative interrelatedness , posited by some feminist theorists , of the oppression of animals and women , but denies that the liberation of animals and women are necessarily interdependent . He suggests that there are four ways that this relationship could be grounded . The first is an idea taken from theorists drawing upon ecofeminism , like Josephine Donovan . This is the claim the domination of women and animals are both due to a patriarchal elevation of the " rational " over the " natural " . The second is Carol J. Adams 's argument that the connection of meat @-@ eating and masculinity serves to oppress both women and animals , meaning that the liberation of both depends upon the end of meat @-@ eating . The third is that , as identified by Adams and Catharine MacKinnon , women and animals are linked and oppressed by linguistic norms . For example , women might be called cow , bitch or dog , which serves to denigrate both woman and animals . The fourth is the way that both animals and women are objectified , treated as mere things to be used towards the ends of others . Cochrane argues that women are not irrational , though animals are qualitatively less rationale than humans , meaning that the oppression and liberation of the two groups may differ . He challenges Adams 's claims about meat by envisioning a vegetarian but misogynistic society on the one hand and a society where the genders are equal but meat continues to be eaten . He challenges the claims about language by observing that some animal @-@ based insults are gender @-@ neutral ( for example , rat , pig , sheep ) , and some slurs to women ( for example , witch , jezebel , whore ) are unrelated to animals . Concerning objectification , Cochrane notes that women are not considered property under the law , though animals are . This makes their respective objectification importantly different . Next , the author rebuts five criticisms of reason @-@ based approaches — epitomised , for Cochrane , by Singer and Regan — to animal liberation from thinkers supportive of feminist care @-@ based approaches , before outlining and rejecting an emotionally driven , care @-@ based approach to animal justice .
Conclusion
In the final chapter Cochrane argues that each school has an important contribution to make to animal justice , particularly liberalism and utilitarianism . He then outlines his own approach . He writes that , while talk of our political and moral obligations to animals is today more prominent than ever , it remains on the periphery of mainstream dialogue in political theory . He closes by arguing that this neglect is a problem for political theory , and that animals are owed justice . If the book 's claims are correct , Cochrane concludes , questions concerning the treatment of animals should be considered some of the most pressing political issues today .
= = Central argument = =
Cochrane argues that while each of the schools of thought he has considered has problems , they all have something important to contribute to the debate . Utilitarianism 's most important contribution is its focus on sentience , but its major failing is its lack of respect for individuals . Liberalism , on the other hand , asserts the centrality of the individual . Communitarianism , though it is too ready to attribute cohesion to the values of a given society , observes that individuals can flourish only within appropriate communities , and stresses the importance of changing the views of society at large . This latter idea is shared by Marxism , which points out that legal change does not necessarily equate to effective change . While Cochrane does not agree that capitalism must be overthrown , he recognises that " fundamental shifts in the organisation , norms and institutions of society " are needed for justice to be extended to animals . Care @-@ based feminist approaches , despite Cochrane 's criticism , remind us that emotions and sympathy should not be ignored .
Cochrane 's own sympathies lie most strongly with utilitarianism and liberalism ; his own account is most influenced by them . He argues that rights derived from considerations of interests can protect individual animals and place limits on what can be done to them . These rights cannot be violated , even in the name of the greater good , which means that the cultural and economic practices of human beings will be affected . Anticipating criticism , Cochrane explains that not every interest leads to a right . A full consideration of this argument is outside the scope of the book . The argument was expanded in Cochrane 's Animal Rights Without Liberation ( 2012 ) which , though published after An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory , was based on his doctoral thesis .
= = Academic reception = =
An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory was reviewed by Garner for the Journal of Animal Ethics , the political philosopher Steve Cooke for the Political Studies Review and the sociologist Richard Seymour for the LSE Review of Books . All three reviewers were broadly positive towards the work . Cooke recommended it for " readers interested both in the moral and political standing of animals and in political theory in general " , the latter group because the work 's methodological approach allows it to serve as a good introduction to political theory generally . Seymour considered the book a " refreshing and comprehensive overview of a highly interesting issue " . Garner said that the book came " highly recommended " ; he considered it " a very fine book " , in which " Cochrane expertly simplifies and synthesizes a huge and complex literature in the limited space available to him , while retaining high scholarly standards " . Garner also praised the fact that the book remained interesting , unlike many textbooks .
Palgrave Macmillan advertised the book with quotes taken from Cooke and Garner 's respective reviews , as well as with quotes from Daniel A. Dombrowski and Siobhan O 'Sullivan . Dombrowski was quoted as saying that the " book will be welcomed by all who are interested in the relationship between non @-@ human animals and political theory , a relationship that has been underexplored by scholars . Highly recommended ! " Meanwhile , O 'Sullivan wrote :
If only Cochrane had been writing when I was an undergraduate political science student ! But this book 's appeal will not be limited to students . This is one of the first comprehensive articulations of what mainstream political values might mean for animals – something the academic community has desperately needed for far too long . It 's a great read and an important contribution .
Cooke considered Cochrane 's own account to be " interesting and worthy of further consideration " and found his supporting arguments to be " convincing " , but he worried that the account was not considered in the depth it warranted . He wrote that An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory would have benefited if more space had been given to the interest @-@ based account . Further , Cooke noted that , in covering such a wide array of positions , Cochrane had to sacrifice depth of argument ; Cooke considered this unproblematic , as readers could easily follow up the thinkers cited . Seymour was particularly critical of Cochrane 's coverage of feminism , which was , for him , " an unfortunate lapse in an otherwise fascinating review " . Seymour argued that Cochrane 's critique was superficial or " [ missed ] the point entirely " . Instead , he suggested , feminist approaches provide a potentially highly productive approach to the subject .
In response to An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory , Garner raised two themes , the first of which was the use of the concept of justice . Agreeing with Cochrane that the concept is the defining feature of a political account , as opposed to more general accounts of animal ethics , Garner nevertheless found Cochrane 's account of justice to be " too broad and loose " . In the book , Cochrane considers justice for animals to be " about recognising that the treatment of animals is a matter for political communities to enforce " and " recognising that the treatment of animals is something that political communities ought to enforce for the sake of animals themselves " . For Garner ,
The problem with this is that it arguably includes too much — for it implies that once the state recognizes that we have direct duties to animals , that what we do to them matters to them , then the demands of justice are met . This means that , with the exception of those who hold that we have only indirect duties to animals , all the traditions that Cochrane discusses can lay claim to offering a theory of justice for animals .
Further , Garner suggests that Cochrane is " perhaps unduly uncritical of the utility of employing justice as a means to protect the interests of animals " . He outlines two ways that animals might be protected without being the recipients of justice ; first , they may be owed direct duties outside of justice , or , second , they might be protected by means of indirect duties , meaning that they are protected because of what humans owe to one another . Despite raising these themes in his review of An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory , Garner later rejected both possibilities in his own work , arguing that animals should be considered recipients of justice .
The second theme Garner identified was the divide between ideal and nonideal theory , which he understands as a way political theory may be used to contextualise animal ethics and further the debate . Ultimately , for Garner , Cochrane 's theory serves as a challenge to abolitionism , which , Garner fears , both polarises the debate and is unrealistic . The themes of this review were built upon in Garner 's 2013 book A Theory of Justice for Animals . In the course of his review of the book , Garner looked forward to the release of Cochrane 's second book , Animal Rights Without Liberation , which offers a lengthier defence of the interest @-@ based rights theory .
= = Legacy = =
The Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics described An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory as " the first introductory level text to offer an accessible overview on the status of animals in contemporary political theory " , while commentators noted that it was one of the first works — previous books on the subject having been written by Garner and Martha Nussbaum — to link the question of animal rights to the concept of justice in political philosophy . Since the book 's publication , a number of works exploring animals in political theory have been published ; these works have been collectively referred to as belonging to the " political turn " in animal ethics / animal rights , or the disciplines of " animal political philosophy " and " Animal Politics " . Both An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory and Animal Rights Without Liberation have become an established part of this literature .
= = Formats = =
The book has been published in paperback , hardback and eBook formats .
Hardback : Cochrane , Alasdair ( 13 October 2010 ) . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . Basingstoke , United Kingdom : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 230 @-@ 23925 @-@ 8 .
Paperback : Cochrane , Alasdair ( 13 October 2010 ) . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . Basingstoke , United Kingdom : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 230 @-@ 23926 @-@ 5 .
eBook : Cochrane , Alasdair ( 13 October 2010 ) . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . Basingstoke , United Kingdom : Palgrave Macmillan. doi : 10 @.@ 1057 / 9780230290594 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 230 @-@ 29059 @-@ 4 .
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= Portman Road =
Portman Road is an association football stadium in Ipswich , Suffolk , England . It has been the home ground of Ipswich Town F.C. since 1884 . The stadium has also hosted a number of England youth international matches , and one senior England friendly international match , against Croatia in 2003 . It has staged several other sporting events , including athletics meetings and international hockey matches . In addition , musical concerts and Christian events have been held at the ground .
The stadium underwent significant redevelopments in the early 2000s , which increased the capacity from 22 @,@ 600 to a current figure of 30 @,@ 311 , making it the largest capacity football ground in East Anglia . Each of its four stands have since been converted to all @-@ seater , following the recommendations of the Taylor Report . Also located at the ground are conference and banqueting facilities , the Sir Bobby Robson Suite , Legends Bar and a club store selling Ipswich Town merchandise .
= = History = =
Ipswich played their early matches at Broomhill Park , but in 1884 , the club moved to Portman Road and have played there ever since . The ground was also used as a cricket pitch during the summer by the East Suffolk Cricket Club who had played there since 1855 . The cricket club had erected a pavilion , the first fixed building at the ground . More substantial elements of ground development did not begin for a further 11 years , though Ipswich became one of the first clubs to implement the use of goal nets in 1890 . At this time , Ipswich were an amateur side ( the team became professional in 1936 ) and the first visit of a professional club came in 1892 , when Preston North End played a Suffolk County Football Association team . This was followed six years later by a visit from Aston Villa , a game which was so popular that a temporary stand was erected in order to accommodate a crowd of around 5 @,@ 000 . In 1901 , a tobacco processing plant was built along the south edge of the ground by the Churchman brothers , a name which would later become synonymous with the south stand located there .
The first permanent stand , a wooden structure known affectionately as the " Chicken Run " , was built on the Portman Road side of the ground in 1906 . This structure was sold in 1971 to the local speedway team , the Ipswich Witches , who installed it at Foxhall Stadium . Two amateur internationals were held at the ground in 1910 , with England winning 10 – 1 against Bohemia and 20 – 0 against France . In 1914 , the ground was commandeered by the British Army for use as a training camp for the duration of the First World War . Control of Portman Road was not returned to the club until two years after the end of the war and significant work was required to repair damage to the ground caused by heavy machinery .
For a short period during the 1920s , Portman Road was host to a number of whippet races in an attempt to increase revenue , and in 1928 a small stand was built on the west side of the ground . The football club turned professional in 1936 and the cricket club were forced to move out , so work began on the first bank of terracing at the north end of the pitch . The following year , on the back of winning the Southern League , a similar terrace was built at the southern " Churchmans " end and 650 tip @-@ up seats , bought from Arsenal , were installed . Portman Road was home to Ipswich Town 's first Football League match on 27 August 1938 , a 4 – 2 victory against Southend United in Division Three ( South ) witnessed by more than 19 @,@ 000 spectators .
The Supporters ' Association funded a number of improvements at Portman Road ; in 1952 , concrete terracing replaced the wooden terraces at the cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 and another £ 3 @,@ 000 was used to re @-@ terrace the North Stand in 1954 , bringing the capacity of the ground to approximately 29 @,@ 000 . In 1957 , the association raised £ 30 @,@ 500 towards the building of a new West Stand , increasing ground capacity to around 31 @,@ 000 . Floodlights were installed two years later ; the result of £ 15 @,@ 000 raised by the association . The floodlights were switched on by club president Lady Blanche Cobbold for the first floodlit match at the ground , a friendly against Arsenal , in February 1960 .
Television cameras made their debut at Portman Road in 1962 as Anglia Television arrived for Match of the Week ; it was another six years before the BBC televised a match at the ground , Match of the Day visiting Portman Road for the first time in 1968 to witness Ipswich 's league fixture against Birmingham City .
Meanwhile , ground development continued with roofing enhancements to the North Stand and an increase in capacity to 31 @,@ 500 by 1963 . Dressing rooms were constructed in 1965 and new turnstiles were introduced two years later , including a separate entrance for juveniles at the Churchmans end . In 1968 the club agreed to a new 99 @-@ year lease on the ground with owners Ipswich Borough Council .
The two @-@ tier propped cantilever Portman Stand was built along the east side of the ground in place of the existing terraces in 1971 , providing 3 @,@ 500 additional seats and increasing the capacity of the ground to approximately 37 @,@ 000 . Advertising appeared around the perimeter of the ground in the same year , while the following year saw the construction of the " Centre Spot " restaurant underneath the Portman Stand . Additional seating was added to the Portman Stand in 1974 and the ground saw its record attendance of 38 @,@ 010 the following year in an FA Cup tie against Leeds United . Following success in the 1978 FA Cup , the club invested in 24 executive boxes in front of the Portman Stand and , as a result of the Safety of Sports Ground Act ( 1975 ) , reduced the capacity in front by introducing seats , taking the overall capacity down to 34 @,@ 600 .
Plastic seats replaced wooden benches in the West Stand in 1980 and in the following year , the club announced a deal with electronics company Pioneer Corporation with the stand expanded at a cost of around £ 1.3m , renamed as the Pioneer Stand and re @-@ opened in 1983 . However , the cost of building the stand meant the club had to sell players , and led to a decline in fortunes on the pitch . Safety barriers were removed from the North Stand in 1989 following the Hillsborough disaster and following the recommendations of the Taylor Report , the terraces in both the North and South stands were also converted to all @-@ seating . The Pioneer Stand was renamed as the Britannia Stand following a new sponsorship deal with the building society in 1999 , and in the following year a statue of Sir Alf Ramsey was unveiled at the corner of Portman Road and Sir Alf Ramsey Way .
Success for Ipswich Town in promotion to the Premier League in 2000 led to further investment in the infrastructure , with the club spending around £ 22 million on redeveloping both the North and South stands . The complete renovation of the South Stand into a two @-@ tier stand added 4 @,@ 000 seats to the stadium . The subsequent demolition and reconstruction of a two @-@ tier North Stand added a further 4 @,@ 000 seats and brought the total capacity of the ground to more than 30 @,@ 000 . In 2001 , local brewery Greene King took on the sponsorship of the updated South Stand and as such , the stand was renamed the Greene King stand until 2009 , when the sponsorship deal ended and the name changed back to the original ' South Stand ' .
Following the death of former manager Bobby Robson in 2009 , the club announced that the North Stand would be renamed as the Sir Bobby Robson Stand . The official unveiling took place at half time during the league match hosting Newcastle United , another of Robson 's former clubs , on 26 September 2009 . On 31 March 2012 , the South Stand was renamed the Sir Alf Ramsey Stand in memory of Sir Alf Ramsey who guided Ipswich Town to the Old First Division title . The season was the 50th anniversary of Ipswich Town winning the old First Division title . On 10 July 2012 , the Britannia Stand was renamed East of England Co @-@ operative Stand following a sponsorship deal with the East of England Co @-@ operative Society .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The pitch is surrounded by four all @-@ seater stands , the Sir Bobby Robson Stand , the Cobbold Stand , the Sir Alf Ramsey Stand and the East of England Co @-@ operative Stand Stand . All stands are covered and are multi @-@ tiered .
The Cobbold Stand was constructed in 1971 , and originally known as the Portman Stand . With two tiers and a cantilever roof , it is used to accommodate away fans , with an allocation of up to 3 @,@ 000 seats per game and for family seating . It also contains a number of executive boxes as well as regular seating for home fans . The Sir Alf Ramsey Stand is a two @-@ tiered stand which has a match @-@ day capacity of approximately 7 @,@ 000 . It also houses the " Sir Bobby Robson Suite " restaurant and " Legends Bar " . The tunnel , from which the players emerge onto the pitch from their dressing rooms , is unusually located in the corner of the stadium between the Sir Alf Ramsey Stand and the East of England Co @-@ operative StandStand .
The East of England Co @-@ operative StandStand was originally constructed in 1952 as a simple concrete seating area . It was updated to an all @-@ seater stand in 1990 and currently has three tiers consisting of home fan seating and an additional family area . It also contains the directors ' box , further executive boxes and the press area . Behind the stand is a full @-@ size AstroTurf pitch which is often used on a casual basis by fans before home games . The Sir Bobby Robson Stand was completely rebuilt in 2001 and has a capacity of around 7 @,@ 500 . It is a two @-@ tier cantilever stand which is divided into an adults @-@ only lower tier " ... traditionally for the ' hard core ' Town fan ... " and a mixed upper tier .
There are nine areas throughout the ground designated for disabled supporters , in the lower East of England Co @-@ operative Stand , the Sir Alf Ramsey Stand and the Sir Bobby Robson Stand . These provide over 300 spaces to accommodate wheelchair users and ambulant disabled , together with their carers . The ground also provides 12 seats in the East of England Co @-@ operative Stand for visually impaired spectators with commentary via individual radio headsets in each seat , provided by local radio station BBC Radio Suffolk .
The former groundsman , Alan Ferguson , received a number of accolades , including both Premiership and Championship Groundsman of the Year , and the pitch was voted the best in the Championship for two consecutive seasons in 2004 and 2005 .
There are statues of Sir Alf Ramsey and Sir Bobby Robson , both former Ipswich Town and England managers , outside the ground . Nearby Portman 's Walk was renamed Sir Alf Ramsey Way in 1999 .
= = Other uses = =
On 20 August 2003 , Portman Road hosted its first and thus far only senior England fixture , a friendly against Croatia , the match finishing 3 – 1 to England in front of 28 @,@ 700 spectators . The stadium has been used by England youth teams on a number of occasions , the first on 24 November 1971 , saw the England U23 team draw 1 – 1 with Switzerland . England U21s drew in a UEFA European U21 Championship qualifying match there on 18 August 2006 against Moldova , in front of 13 @,@ 556 spectators . In addition , a variety of other sports have been hosted at Portman Road , including athletics in 1927 , an American football match in 1953 , and several international hockey matches in the 1960s and 1970s .
The stadium has also hosted several music concerts , including performances by Elton John , R.E.M. , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Pink , Neil Diamond , Tina Turner , and Rod Stewart , among others .
In March 2005 , around 8 @,@ 000 Christians attended a gathering at the stadium , the largest act of Christian worship in Suffolk , since American evangelist Billy Graham used Portman Road on part of his Mission England Tour in 1984 .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Portman Road is 38 @,@ 010 for a match against Leeds United in the FA Cup sixth round on 8 March 1975 . The record modern ( all @-@ seated ) attendance is 30 @,@ 152 , set on 21 December 2003 against local rivals Norwich City in Football League Division One . The largest crowd for a non @-@ competitive game at the ground was over 23 @,@ 000 for Bobby Robson 's testimonial where Ipswich , including George Best , played against an England XI .
The highest seasonal average at the stadium since Ipswich turned professional was 26 @,@ 431 in the 1976 – 77 season while Ipswich were playing in the First Division . The lowest average attendance at Portman Road was 8 @,@ 741 in the club 's inaugural league season , the 1936 – 37 season in Division Three ( South ) .
The highest total seasonal attendance was recorded during the 1980 – 81 season when the aggregate was more than 814 @,@ 000 during a season in which Ipswich won the UEFA Cup Final and finished second in the First Division .
Portman Road hosted Ipswich Town 's first appearance in European football competition when they defeated Floriana of Malta 10 – 0 , still a club record , in the European Cup in 1962 . Since then , Ipswich Town remain undefeated at Portman Road in all European competitions , a total of 31 matches spanning 40 years , a record until it was surpassed by AZ Alkmaar in December 2007 .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is approximately 450 yards ( 410 m ) from Ipswich railway station , which lies on the Great Eastern Main Line from London Liverpool Street to Norwich . The stadium has no parking facilities for supporters , and the streets around the ground are subject to a residents @-@ only permit parking scheme , but there are a number of pay and display or park and ride car parks within a short distance of the ground .
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= Everybody Saves Father and The Only Girl in Camp =
Everybody Saves Father and The Only Girl in Camp are two 1910 American silent short films produced by the Thanhouser Company . Both films were released together on a single reel on January 10 , 1911 . Everybody Saves Father is a comedy focusing on a father whose life is planned to be saved by a succession of his daughter 's suitors . The plan of each of the three men work , foiling the attempts of the other , but a four suitor has wed the daughter whilst the scheming was done by the others . The Only Girl in Camp is a drama film focusing on the only girl in a mining town who foils an armed robbery with the use of bear traps . In 2009 , The Only Girl in Camp was identified and deposited into the Library of Congress for preservation . The only known credits for the production come from film stills from the film . The reviews for Everybody Saves Father were positive , but The Only Girl in Camp was met with more or less neutral reception .
= = Plots = =
The official synopsis for both films was published in The Moving Picture World on January 14 , 1911 . The first film , Everybody Saves Father is focused on Jennie Gear , a young woman whose affections are sought by many men . Jennie 's father thinks his daughter is too young to be married and drives off four of her suitors . One of the men , John , concocts a plan to save his life to win the man 's approval . The plan is heard by another suitor , George , who decides to hire a rowboat to save the old man himself . This is over heard by George who concocts his own rescue to foil George . The plans go through without failure as each successive suitor 's plan works to the actions of the other , and Henry wins the approval of Jennie 's father . However , Jennie had already married Bill in the mean time .
The second film , The Only Girl in Camp , focuses on Trapper Gates 's daughter , who is the only woman in the mining camp . Three ruffians come across the camp and plan to rob the miners . The leader , Bill , announces himself as Professor Watson and says he will give a lecture on locating gold deposits in the town hall . All the miners are lured to the building , save the girl , and Bill 's accomplices proceed to rob the men . She realizes that this meeting is unusual and goes to the town hall and witnesses the robbery , but has no way of reporting or stopping the three armed men . Struck with an idea , she returns home for her father 's bear traps and sets them on the steps of town hall . The robbers back out of the town hall and step into the traps , where they are captured .
= = Cast and production = =
Film historian Q. David Bowers does not cite credits for Everybody Saves Father . Though Bowers does not cite credits for The Only Girl in Camp , the rediscovered film and identification of film stills have provided credit for Frank H. Crane , William Garwood , Violet Heming and Tom Fortune . The other cast credits are unknown , but many Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
The writer of the scenarios was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions though cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Alfred H. Moses , Jr. and Carl Louis Gregory .
= = Release and reception = =
Everybody Saves Father and The Only Girl in Camp were released together on a single reel , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet in length , on January 10 , 1911 . The total length of Everybody Saves Father is approximately 450 feet long and the Only Girl in Camp is 480 feet long . Though both films were on a split reel , sometimes the films were advertised independently or listed Everybody Saves Father only . Theaters showing the one or possibly both films are known in North Carolina Indiana , Texas , Kansas , Arizona , Pennsylvania , and California . A surviving nitrate print of The Only Girl in Camp was sold on eBay in 2009 . The film was purchased and deposited in the Library of Congress for preservation .
Everybody Saves Father was met with positive reviews in the trade publications . The Billboard review stated , " The comedy is distinctively American and makes a good subject . The photography is excellent and the acting clever . " The Moving Picture World affirmed that it was a good lively and laughable comedy . The two reviews were also backed by The New York Dramatic Mirror 's positive review of the comedy production . The publications would also review The Only Girl in Camp were more or less neutral , but the The Billboard highlighted how the prop traps could not believably work and hold a man as they did in the film . The Moving Picture World and The New York Dramatic Mirror offered praise for the novelty of the production without any criticism .
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= Reinhard Scheer =
Reinhard Scheer ( 30 September 1863 – 26 November 1928 ) was an Admiral in the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . Scheer joined the navy in 1879 as an officer cadet ; he progressed through the ranks , commanding cruisers and battleships , as well as major staff positions on land . At the outbreak of World War I , Scheer was the commander of the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . He then took command of the III Battle Squadron , which consisted of the newest and most powerful battleships in the navy . In January 1916 , he was promoted to Admiral and given control of the High Seas Fleet . Scheer led the German fleet at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , one of the largest naval battles in history .
Following the battle , Scheer joined those calling for unrestricted submarine warfare against the Allies , a move the Kaiser eventually permitted . In August 1918 , Scheer was promoted to the Chief of Naval Staff ; Admiral Franz von Hipper replaced him as commander of the fleet . Together they planned a final battle against the British Grand Fleet , but war @-@ weary sailors mutinied at the news and the operation was abandoned . Scheer retired after the end of the war .
A strict disciplinarian , Scheer was popularly known in the Navy as the " man with the iron mask " due to his severe appearance . In 1919 , Scheer wrote his memoirs ; a year later they were translated and published in English . He wrote his autobiography in 1925 . Scheer died at Marktredwitz . He is buried in the municipal cemetery at Weimar . The admiral was commemorated in the renascent Kriegsmarine by the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , built in the 1930s .
= = Early career = =
Scheer was born in Obernkirchen , present @-@ day Lower Saxony . He came from a middle @-@ class background , which initially hampered his naval career , as the Kaiserliche Marine was dominated by wealthy families .
Reinhard Scheer entered the navy on 22 April 1879 aged 15 as a cadet . His first sea assignment was aboard the sail @-@ frigate SMS Niobe . His first cruise aboard Niobe lasted from June to September 1879 . During the cruise he was trained in navigation and engineering . Following his return to Germany in September , Scheer was assigned to the Naval School in Kiel to continue his officer training . He received only a " satisfactory " rating on his cadet evaluation in 1879 , but received the second highest grade in his class for the Sea Cadet 's Exam the following year . Following his graduation from the Naval School , Scheer embarked on a six @-@ month @-@ long special training program for gunnery , torpedo warfare , and infantry training . Afterward , he was assigned to the gunnery training ship SMS Renown . Scheer was for a short time assigned to the armored frigate SMS Friedrich Carl . For his last year in cadet training , he was assigned to the frigate SMS Hertha , which conducted a world tour . The ship sailed to Melbourne , Australia , Yokohama , Kobe , and Nagasaki in Japan , and Shanghai , China during the trip .
Following his commission into the German navy , he was transferred to the East Africa Squadron ; his first tour with the unit lasted from 1884 to 1886 . He was assigned to the crew of the frigate SMS Bismarck . Here he was promoted to Leutnant . He also made important connections in Africa ; among those he befriended was Leutnant Henning von Holtzendorff , who would later serve as commander of the High Seas Fleet . During the assignment , on December 1884 , Scheer participated in a landing party that suppressed a pro @-@ British indigenous chieftain in Kamerun .
After his return to Germany in 1886 , Scheer took part in torpedo training aboard SMS Blücher , from January to May 1888 . In May 1888 , Scheer returned to the East Africa Squadron as a torpedo officer aboard the corvette SMS Sophie . This tour lasted until early summer 1890 , at which point Scheer returned to Germany , where he was made an instructor at the Torpedo Research Command in Kiel . Thus far in his career , Scheer had made a strong reputation for himself as a torpedo specialist . While stationed in Kiel , Scheer met Alfred von Tirpitz , who took note of his expertise . In 1897 , following von Tirpitz 's promotion to Secretary of State of the Imperial Navy Office , he transferred Scheer to the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA ) to work in the Torpedo Section .
After promotion to Korvettenkapitän , Scheer commanded the light cruiser SMS Gazelle .
Scheer was promoted to Kapitän zur See in 1905 and took command of the battleship SMS Elsass in 1907 , a command he held for two years . A report dated 1 December 1909 recommended Scheer for promotion ; he became chief of staff to the commanding officer of the High Seas Fleet , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , under whom Scheer had served on the cruiser SMS Prinzess Wilhelm . Scheer reached flag rank less than six months after taking his post on von Holtzendorff 's staff , at the age of 47 . He held the Chief of Staff position until late 1911 , when he was transferred back to the RMA under Alfred von Tirpitz . Here , he held the position of Chief of the General Naval Department through 1912 . Following this appointment , Scheer returned to a sea command , in the form of squadron commander for the six battleships of the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet in January 1913 .
= = World War I = =
On 9 December 1913 , Scheer was promoted to Vizeadmiral . He remained with the II Battle Squadron until January 1915 , by which time World War I had begun . He thereafter took command of the III Battle Squadron , which consisted of the most powerful battleships in the German fleet : the dreadnoughts of the Kaiser and König classes . Scheer advocated raids on the British coast to lure out portions of the numerically superior Royal Navy so they could be overwhelmed by the German fleet . He was highly critical of Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , who he felt was overcautious .
Following the bombardment of Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , during which Ingenohl had withdrawn instead of attacking a weaker British squadron , Scheer remarked , " [ Ingenohl ] had robbed us of the opportunity of meeting certain divisions of the enemy according to the prearranged plan , which was now seen to be correct . " Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , the Kaiser removed Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Pohl was exceedingly cautious ; in the remainder of 1915 , he conducted only five ineffective fleet actions , all of which remained within 120 nautical miles of Helgoland .
= = = Command of the High Seas fleet = = =
Vice Admiral Scheer became Commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Pohl became too ill to continue in that post . Upon promotion to the position , Scheer wrote Guiding Principles for Sea Warfare in the North Sea , which outlined his strategic plans . His central idea was that the Grand Fleet should be pressured by higher U @-@ boat activity and zeppelin raids as well as increased fleet sorties . The Grand Fleet would be forced to abandon the distant blockade and would have to attack the German fleet ; the Kaiser approved the memorandum on 23 February 1916 . Now that he had approval from the Kaiser , Scheer could use the fleet more aggressively .
Following the Kaiser 's order forbidding unrestricted submarine warfare on 24 April 1916 , Scheer ordered all of the U @-@ boats in the Atlantic to return to Germany and abandon commerce raiding . Scheer intended to use the submarines to support the fleet by stationing the U @-@ boats off major British naval bases . The U @-@ boats would intercept British forces leaving the ports when provoked by a bombardment by the I Scouting Group battlecruisers under the command of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper . Scheer planned the operation for 17 May , but damage to the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz from the previous month , coupled with condenser trouble on several of the battleships of III Battle Squadron caused the plan to be delayed , ultimately to 31 May .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Admiral Scheer 's fleet , composed of 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The British navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation , and so sortied the Grand Fleet , totaling some 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , the night before in order to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet .
At 16 : 00 UTC , the two battlecruiser forces encountered each other and began a running gun fight south , back towards Scheer 's battle fleet . Upon reaching the High Seas Fleet , Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers turned back to the north to lure the Germans towards the rapidly approaching Grand Fleet , under the command of Admiral John Jellicoe . During the run to the north , Scheer 's leading ships engaged the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron . By 18 : 30 , the Grand Fleet had arrived on the scene , and was deployed into a position that would cross Scheer 's " T " from the northeast . To extricate his fleet from this precarious position , Scheer ordered a 16 @-@ point turn to the south @-@ west . At 18 : 55 , Scheer decided to conduct another 16 @-@ point turn to launch an attack on the British fleet ; he later explained his reasoning :
It was as yet too early to assume ' night cruising order . ' The enemy could have compelled us to fight before dark , he could have prevented our exercising our initiative , and finally he could have cut off our return to the German Bight . There was only one way of avoiding this : to inflict a second blow on the enemy with another advance carried through regardless of cost ... It also offered the possibility of a last attempt being made to bring help to the hard @-@ pressed Wiesbaden , or at least of rescuing her ship 's company .
This maneuver again put Scheer in a dangerous position ; Jellicoe had turned his fleet south and again crossed Scheer 's " T. " A third 16 @-@ point turn followed , which was covered by a charge by Hipper 's mauled battlecruisers . Scheer then ordered the fleet to adopt the night cruising formation , which was completed by 23 : 40 . A series of ferocious engagements between Scheer 's battleships and Jellicoe 's destroyer screen ensued , though the Germans managed to punch their way through the destroyers and make for Horns Reef . The High Seas Fleet reached the Jade between 13 : 00 and 14 : 45 on 1 June ; Scheer ordered the undamaged battleships of the I Battle Squadron to take up defensive positions in the Jade roadstead while the Kaiser @-@ class battleships were to maintain a state of readiness just outside Wilhelmshaven .
= = = = Post @-@ Jutland = = = =
After the battle was finished , Scheer wrote an assessment of the engagement for the Kaiser ; in it , he strongly urged for the resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign in the Atlantic . He argued that it was the only option to defeat Great Britain . Scheer spent the majority of the remainder of the year debating the issue with the naval command . Ultimately , Scheer and his allies prevailed and the unrestricted submarine campaign was resumed in February 1917 . Despite his conviction that only the U @-@ boats could defeat Britain , Scheer continued to utilize the surface fleet . On 18 – 19 August 1916 , the High Seas Fleet again sortied in an attempt to draw out and defeat Admiral Beatty 's battlecruiser squadron . The Royal Navy again intercepted German communications and sent the Grand Fleet out . In this case , however , Scheer 's reconnaissance worked as intended , and warned him of the Grand Fleet 's approach in time to retreat back to Germany . In later 1917 , Scheer began to use light elements of the fleet to raid British convoys to Norway in the North Sea . This forced the British to deploy battleships to escort the convoys , which presented Scheer with the opportunity to attempt to isolate and destroy several battleships of the Grand Fleet . On 23 April 1918 , Scheer sent the entire High Seas Fleet to intercept one of the convoys . However , Hipper 's battlecruisers crossed the convoy 's path several times without sighting any ships ; it was later discovered that German intelligence had miscalculated the date the convoy would depart Britain . The German fleet turned south and reached their North Sea bases by 19 : 00 .
= = = Chief of Naval Staff = = =
In June 1918 , Scheer was informed that the state of Admiral von Holtzendorff 's health would not permit him to remain in his post as chief of the naval staff much longer . On 28 July , Scheer was informed that von Holtzendorff had submitted his resignation to the Kaiser . Two weeks later , on 11 August 1918 , Scheer was promoted to the Chief of Naval Staff ; his subordinate Franz von Hipper succeeded him in command of the High Seas Fleet . The following day , Scheer met with Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff to discuss the deteriorating war situation . The three agreed that the U @-@ boat campaign would be the sole hope for a German victory , as the German army had been pushed to the defensive . Scheer then called for a crash program to build a vastly increased number of U @-@ boats . He stipulated that , at a minimum , at least 16 additional U @-@ boats be constructed per month in the last quarter of 1918 . This was to increase to at least an additional 30 per month by the third quarter of 1919 . In total , the plan called for 376 to 450 new U @-@ boats . However , German naval historian Holger Herwig suggested the program was " a massive propaganda effort designed to have an effect at home and abroad . "
In October , with the war largely lost , Scheer and Hipper envisioned one last major fleet advance to attack the British Grand Fleet . Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to achieve a better bargaining position for Germany regardless of the cost to the navy . The plan involved two simultaneous attacks by light cruisers and destroyers , one on Flanders and another on shipping in the Thames estuary ; the five battlecruisers were to support the Thames attack while the dreadnoughts remained off Flanders . After both strikes , the fleet was to concentrate off the Dutch coast , where it would meet the Grand Fleet in battle . While the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , however , war @-@ weary sailors began deserting en masse . As Von der Tann and Derfflinger passed through the locks that separated Wilhelmshaven 's inner harbor and roadstead , some 300 men from both ships climbed over the side and disappeared ashore . On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on several battleships mutinied ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchors , and acts of sabotage were committed on board the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland . In the face of open rebellion , the order to sail was rescinded and the planned operation was abandoned . In an attempt to suppress the mutiny , the High Seas Fleet squadrons were dispersed .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Scheer wrote his memoirs of the Great War in 1919 , which were translated into English the following year . In October 1920 , an intruder broke into Scheer 's house and murdered his wife , Emillie and his maid , and injured his daughter Else . The man then committed suicide in the cellar . Following the incident , Scheer retreated into solitude . He wrote his autobiography , entitled Vom Segelschiff zum U @-@ Boot ( From Sailing Ship to Submarine ) , which was published on 6 November 1925 .
In 1928 , Scheer accepted an invitation to meet his adversary from Jutland , Admiral of the Fleet Lord Jellicoe , in England . However , at the age of 65 , Scheer died at Marktredwitz before he could make the trip . He was buried in the municipal cemetery at Weimar . His tombstone reads : hier ruht admiral reinhard scheer [ Here rests Admiral Reinhard Scheer ] — with the dates of his life , his flag in metal applique and the single word skagerrak ( the German name for the Battle of Jutland ) .
The heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer was named after Reinhard Scheer and christened by his daughter Marianne . The ship was ordered and funded by the Reichsmarine of the Weimar Republic and launched in 1933 .
= = Decorations and awards = =
German honours
Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle ( Prussia )
Pour le Mérite ( 5 June 1916 ) , Oak Leaves added 1 February 1918 ( Prussia )
Iron Cross of 1914 , 1st and 2nd class
Knight 's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
Service Award ( Prussia )
Order of the Crown , 1st class with Swords ( Prussia )
Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph ( Kingdom of Bavaria )
Grand Cross of the House Order of Albert the Bear ( Anhalt )
Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order ( Bavaria )
Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry ( Saxony , 23 June 1916 )
Grand Cross of the Albert Order ( Saxony )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Griffon ( Mecklenburg )
Honorary Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis ( Oldenburg )
Knight of the Military Merit Order ( Württemberg )
Military Merit Cross , 1st class ( Mecklenburg @-@ Schwerin )
Foreign honours
Knight Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Franz Joseph ( Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire )
Order of the Rising Sun , 3rd class ( Japan )
Grand Officer of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus ( Italy )
Order of the Iron Crown , 3rd class ( Austria )
Order of Saint Stanislaus , 2nd class
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= Ontario Highway 409 =
King 's Highway 409 , commonly referred to as Highway 409 and historically as the Belfield Expressway , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that extends from Highway 401 in Toronto to Pearson International Airport , west of Highway 427 , in Mississauga . It is a short freeway used mainly as a spur route bypass for traffic approaching the airport or Highway 427 northbound from Highway 401 westbound , as both are not accessible at the complex interchange between Highways 401 and 427 .
Planning for Highway 409 took place throughout the late 1960s amidst considerable controversy around its original path through the historic town of Malton . Eventually the route was changed to provide access to the airport instead of towards Brampton and completed through the mid @-@ 1970s , opening in 1978 . The significance of the route has increased over the years alongside expansion of the airport . In 2000 , the Greater Toronto Airports Authority ( GTAA ) purchased the section west of Highway 427 in order to modify the ramps leading into the airport .
The speed limit along Highway 409 is 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) east of Highway 427 and 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) west of it . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police east of the Toronto – Peel boundary and by the Peel Regional Police to the west of it . The original name of the freeway was derived from the road running parallel to and north of it , Belfield Road . Belfield is a local road managed by the City of Toronto and runs from Kipling Avenue to Atwell Drive .
= = Route description = =
Highway 409 serves as a direct link between Highway 401 , Highway 427 , and Pearson International Airport . While it is not intended as a commuter route , there are several exits serving the industrial areas of Etobicoke centred on the highway . Highway 409 also serves as the only connection between westbound Highway 401 and northbound Highway 427 , as no access is provided at the 401 – 427 interchange .
Highway 409 begins at Airport Road as the knotted flyovers from Toronto Pearson Airport converge into the freeway from the various terminals . Through this section to Highway 427 , the highway is maintained by the Greater Toronto Airport Authority ( GTAA ) and has a posted speed limit of 60 kilometres per hour ( 37 mph ) .
As the highway passes under Highway 427 , it turns right and takes on an east @-@ west orientation . It passes over Carlingview Drive , and begins to descend into a trench . It passes beneath Highway 27 , two railway spurs , and Iron Street before returning to level grade . Around the interchange with Martin Grove Road , the freeway twists slightly to the left and right between factories and warehouses .
At its eastern terminus , Highway 409 crosses Kipling Avenue and merges onto Highway 401 express and collector lanes , while the westbound collector lanes diverge and become the westbound lanes of Highway 409 .
= = History = =
Plans for Highway 409 , originally known as the Belfield Expressway , were first presented in 1965 to the Mississauga council . In September 1968 , three possible routes were submitted to the council . At the time , the town of Malton occupied the area of the planned expressway , having not yet been annexed as part of Mississauga . The 45 m ( 148 ft ) wide strip of land would require the expropriation and demolition of 50 houses , as well as several businesses , a school , and two community parks . Citizens of the village formed a group to protest the freeway and to demand another route be taken . An above grade alternative , similar to the Gardiner Expressway was proposed , as well as a tunnel under the airport .
However , at the same time , Toronto was embroiled in heated debate over the fate of its planned urban expressway system . When the Spadina Expressway was cancelled in 1971 , the planned Belfield Expressway was completely revised . Instead of continuing northwest from Highway 427 and through Malton 's four @-@ corners at Derry Road and Airport Road towards Brampton , it would curve southwest and provide access to the developing Pearson Airport .
Before plans for the new route were finalized , a flyover was built to provide access from Belfield Road to eastbound Highway 401 , opening on October 7 , 1968 . Because the lands on which the freeway was to be built were occupied , the province elected to apply to expropriate the right @-@ of @-@ way in April 1972 . Construction was underway by the end of the year , with the first contracts constructing the trench section near Highway 27 . Structures , drainage and grading were completed west of Iron Street to Carlingview Avenue in 1974 . In June of that year , contracts were awarded for the same work east of Iron Street to Highway 401 . When this was completed in 1975 , a paving contract was awarded from Carlingview Avenue to Highway 401 .
Highway 409 first opened to traffic by 1976 , with temporary ramps at Carlingview Avenue acting as the western terminus . That year the final contracts were awarded to construct portions of the Highway 427 interchange and connect Highway 409 with the airport road system . The entire freeway opened on August 25 , 1978 .
The flyover ramp , which connects southbound Highway 427 with eastbound Highway 409 was constructed in the early 1990s . Prior to that , an at @-@ grade intersection crossed the northbound lanes of Highway 427 , controlled by a traffic signal . This signal had the longest cycle of any traffic light in Toronto during its years of operation .
The portion of Highway 409 west of Highway 427 is owned and operated by the Greater Toronto Airports Authority ( GTAA ) . Despite its private ownership , the section east of Airport Road is still considered a part of Highway 409 . The GTAA purchased this section of the highway in 2000 in order to rebuild the approaches to Toronto Pearson Airport .
Until 2008 , Highway 409 remained almost unchanged from its original construction . However , beginning on July 10 , 2008 , traffic access was restricted to the outermost lanes . The steel " W " guardrail and truss light posts in the median were replaced by an Ontario Tall Wall barrier with a high @-@ mast lighting system . Construction was carried out over several years and was scheduled for completion on September 1 , 2011 .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 409 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Robert Tatton =
Robert Tatton ( 1606 – 19 August 1669 ) was the High Sheriff of Chester between 1645 and 1646 . A supporter of King Charles I in the English Civil War , Robert is perhaps best known for the ultimately unsuccessful defence of his family home , Wythenshawe Hall , during its three @-@ month siege by a Parliamentary force in the winter of 1643 / 44 .
Robert was fined heavily by Parliament for fighting on the side of the king , but he was subsequently rewarded for his loyalty by Charles II following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 . He and his wife Anne had six children the eldest of whom , William , inherited Robert 's Wythenshawe estate after his father 's death in 1669 .
= = Early life = =
Robert 's father , William Tatton , drowned in the River Mersey when Robert was 10 years old . As the only male heir Robert inherited his father 's estate in Wythenshawe , but as a minor he was made a ward of the king , Charles I , until he came of age . On 9 January 1628 , Robert married Anne Brereton , the third daughter of William Brereton of Ashley . The couple went on to have four sons and two daughters .
Robert 's father @-@ in @-@ law William Brereton was a close relative of his namesake Sir William Brereton , who the year after Robert 's marriage was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Parliamentary troops in Cheshire following the outbreak of the English Civil War . The first pitched battle of the war was fought at Edgehill on 23 October 1642 , and Robert decided to join the Royalist side .
= = Siege of Wythenshawe Hall = =
Towards the end of 1643 the commander of the local Parliamentary forces in Cheshire , Colonel Robert Duckenfield , was ordered to seize Wythenshawe Hall and to remove anything of value that could be found . Forewarned , Robert Tatton recruited a group of more than 50 defenders from among his staff and Royalist friends . After ransacking the nearby village of Northenden the Roundheads arrived at Wythenshawe Hall on 21 November 1643 , but they did not find the task of taking it as easy as they had imagined . At one point during the siege the attackers almost took possession of the house in a struggle during which six of the defenders were killed . The Parliamentarians refused a truce to allow the bodies to be taken to the local church for proper services to be held , necessitating their burial in the garden behind the house . One of those killed was the fiancé of Mary Webb , a young woman who had been brought up by the Tattons and had remained in the house with the defenders . Towards the end of the siege Mary saw the man who had led the attack , Duckinfield 's second @-@ in @-@ command Captain Adams , sitting on a wall near the house . Borrowing a musket from one of the defenders , she shot him dead .
The siege ended on 27 February 1644 after the Parliamentarians brought two cannons from nearby Manchester , with which they " reduced " the hall . By then the defenders had exhausted their ammunition and had very little food left . The hall was confiscated ; an inventory taken after the surrender valued its contents at almost £ 1650 , equivalent to about £ 250 @,@ 000 as of 2016 .
= = Later life = =
Robert escaped and made his way to Chester , where in 1645 he was made High Sheriff of the county of Cheshire . But he was forced to flee from the city early the following year when it too was besieged by Parliamentary forces . This time he made for Oxford , where King Charles I was in residence , but it fell only a few months later on 24 June 1646 , effectively ending the war .
In the aftermath of the conflict Wythenshawe was included in a list of estates owned by Royalists that were to be forfeited to the new government . Robert 's entry is as follows :
His [ Robert 's ] Delinquencie , that hee deserted his owne Dwellinge , and went and lived in Oxford whiles it was a Garrison holden for the Kinge againste the Parliament , and was there at the tyme of the surrender ... Hee hath neither taken the Negative Oath nor Covenante , but prayes to be exempt upon the articles of Oxford and the Vote of the House of Commons pursuante .
Parliament allowed Robert to keep his estate on payment of a fine of £ 804 10s , reduced to £ 707 13s 4d in December 1646 , and Wythenshawe Hall was returned to him two years after its confiscation . Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 King Charles II rewarded Robert 's loyalty to the Crown by presenting him with a silver snuff box .
Robert Tatton died on 19 August 1669 and was buried at St Wilfrid 's parish church in Northenden , which contains a wall monument in his memory . His eldest son William ( born 1636 ) inherited the Wythenshawe estate .
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= Pumpin ' Up the Party =
" Pumpin ' Up the Party " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus . She is performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart , a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . " Pumpin ' Up the Party " was written and produced by Jaime Houston . The song was released to Radio Disney as promotion for the series and its first soundtrack , Hannah Montana . The song has teen pop and dance @-@ pop influences .
In the United States , the song peaked at number eighty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 and within the top seventy on the Pop 100 . Its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 made Cyrus the first act to have six songs debut on the chart in the same week . A music video for " Pumpin ' Up the Party " was taken from footage of a concert performance . Cyrus , dressed as Hannah Montana , performed the song during the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
Due to the success of several tracks he wrote for the High School Musical soundtrack ( 2006 ) , Walt Disney Records representatives contacted songwriter Jaime Houston to propose work for Hannah Montana . Houston accepted the proposal and solely penned " Pumpin ' Up the Party " for the series ' first soundtrack . A karaoke version appears on Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana ( 2007 ) , while a remixed version appears on Hits Remixed ( 2008 ) . The song first premiered on Radio Disney in order to promote the series and soundtrack .
" Pumpin ' Up the Party " is pop song that lasts three minutes and nine seconds . Heather Phares of Allmusic described the song as a groove that is influenced by teen pop and dance @-@ pop genres . " Pumpin ' Up the Party " is set in common time and has a moderately fast tempo of 150 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E major and Cyrus ' vocals spans one octave , from A3 to B4 . The song follows the chord progression of E – G – A – C – D – C – D.
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Heather Phares of Allmusic disliked " Pumpin ' Up the Party " , saying it was a " slight stumble [ ... ] that ends up going nowhere . " She added that aside from the song , the Hannah Montana soundtrack did " a great job of showcasing [ Cyrus ' ] charismatic vocals with strong melodies " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
As it was not released as a single , " Pumpin ' Up the Party " received exclusive airplay on Radio Disney , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . Following the release of the Hannah Montana soundtrack , the song entered Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart at number forty @-@ one , which led to an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 11 , 2006 . " Pumpin ' Up the Party " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at its peak of eighty @-@ one , thus becoming one of the songs to make Cyrus the first act to have six songs debut on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week . It was also one of the seven songs to make Cyrus the female act with the most songs charting in the same week . Both records were later duplicated by Taylor Swift . It dropped from the chart in the succeeding week . The song also peaked at number sixty @-@ two on the now @-@ defunct Pop 100 Chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus , as Montana , first performed " Pumpin ' Up the Party " , accompanied by six other songs from the soundtrack , at the concert taping for the first season of Hannah Montana . Cyrus is costumed in pink @-@ polka dotted , black pajamas and slippers as backup dancers also dress in sleepwear . Simulating a sleepover , the performance commenced with Cyrus singing from a bed , where she engaged in a pillow fight with backup dancers , and later stood up to perform around the stage . The performance was later released as the song 's music video on Disney Channel . Cyrus also performed the song on twenty dates in the fall of 2006 , when she opened for the Cheetah Girls ' 2006 and 2007 concert tour The Party 's Just Begun Tour . On March 28 , 2007 , Cyrus appeared as Hannah Montana and performed the song for Hannah Montana : Live in London at Koko . " Pumpin ' Up the Party " was part of the set list for her first headlining tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . She performed the song at each venue during the tour , in character as Hannah Montana and wearing a pink sequined mini @-@ dress and fuchsia tights to perform alongside numerous backup dancers .
At Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom , beginning in February 2009 , a version of the song has been used as the opening number and theme of the parade & dance party ' ' Move It ! Shake It ! Celebrate It ! ' ' .
= = Charts = =
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= Maurice Ravel =
Joseph Maurice Ravel ( French : [ ʒɔzɛf mɔʁis ʁavɛl ] ; 7 March 1875 – 28 December 1937 ) was a French composer , pianist and conductor . He is often associated with impressionism along with his elder contemporary Claude Debussy , although both composers rejected the term . In the 1920s and 1930s Ravel was internationally regarded as France 's greatest living composer .
Born to a music @-@ loving family , Ravel attended France 's premier music college , the Paris Conservatoire ; he was not well regarded by its conservative establishment , whose biased treatment of him caused a scandal . After leaving the conservatoire Ravel found his own way as a composer , developing a style of great clarity , incorporating elements of baroque , neoclassicism and , in his later works , jazz . He liked to experiment with musical form , as in his best @-@ known work , Boléro ( 1928 ) , in which repetition takes the place of development . He made some orchestral arrangements of other composers ' music , of which his 1922 version of Mussorgsky 's Pictures at an Exhibition is the best known .
As a slow and painstaking worker , Ravel composed fewer pieces than many of his contemporaries . Among his works to enter the repertoire are pieces for piano , chamber music , two piano concertos , ballet music , two operas , and eight song cycles ; he wrote no symphonies or religious works . Many of his works exist in two versions : a first , piano score and a later orchestration . Some of his piano music , such as Gaspard de la nuit ( 1908 ) , is exceptionally difficult to play , and his complex orchestral works such as Daphnis et Chloé ( 1912 ) require skilful balance in performance .
Ravel was among the first composers to recognise the potential of recording to bring their music to a wider public . From the 1920s , despite limited technique as a pianist or conductor , he took part in recordings of several of his works ; others were made under his supervision .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Ravel was born in the Basque town of Ciboure , France , near Biarritz , 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from the Spanish border . His father , Pierre @-@ Joseph Ravel , was an educated and successful engineer , inventor and manufacturer , born in Versoix near the Franco @-@ Swiss border . His mother , Marie , née Delouart , was Basque but had grown up in Madrid . In 19th @-@ century terms , Joseph had married beneath his status – Marie was illegitimate and barely literate – but the marriage was a happy one . Some of Joseph 's inventions were successful , including an early internal combustion engine and a notorious circus machine , the " Whirlwind of Death " , an automotive loop @-@ the @-@ loop that was a big draw until a fatal accident at Barnum and Bailey 's Circus in 1903 .
Both Ravel 's parents were Roman Catholics ; Marie was also something of a free @-@ thinker , a trait inherited by her elder son , who was always politically and socially progressive in outlook in adult life . He was baptised in the Ciboure parish church six days after he was born . The family moved to Paris three months later , and there a younger son , Édouard , was born . He was close to his father , whom he eventually followed into the engineering profession . Maurice was particularly devoted to their mother ; her Basque @-@ Spanish heritage was a strong influence on his life and music . Among his earliest memories were folk songs she sang to him . The household was not rich , but the family was comfortable , and the two boys had happy childhoods .
Ravel senior delighted in taking his sons to factories to see the latest mechanical devices , but he also had a keen interest in music and culture in general . In later life , Ravel recalled , " Throughout my childhood I was sensitive to music . My father , much better educated in this art than most amateurs are , knew how to develop my taste and to stimulate my enthusiasm at an early age . " There is no record that Ravel received any formal general schooling in his early years ; his biographer Roger Nichols suggests that the boy may have been chiefly educated by his father .
When he was seven Ravel started piano lessons with Henry Ghys , a friend of Emmanuel Chabrier ; five years later , in 1887 , he began studying harmony , counterpoint and composition with Charles @-@ René , a pupil of Léo Delibes . Without being anything of a child prodigy , he was a highly musical boy . Charles @-@ René found that Ravel 's conception of music was natural to him " and not , as in the case of so many others , the result of effort " . Ravel 's earliest known compositions date from this period : variations on a chorale by Schumann , variations on a theme by Grieg and a single movement of a piano sonata . They survive only in fragmentary form .
In 1888 Ravel met the young pianist Ricardo Viñes , who became not only a lifelong friend , but also one of the foremost interpreters of his works , and an important link between Ravel and Spanish music . The two shared an appreciation of Wagner , Russian music , and the writings of Poe , Baudelaire , and Mallarmé . At the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889 , Ravel was much struck by the new Russian works conducted by Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . This music had a lasting effect on both Ravel and his older contemporary Claude Debussy , as did the exotic sound of the Javanese gamelan , also heard during the Exposition .
Émile Decombes took over as Ravel 's piano teacher in 1889 ; in the same year Ravel gave his earliest public performance . Aged fourteen , he took part in a concert at the Salle Érard along with other pupils of Decombes , including Reynaldo Hahn and Alfred Cortot .
= = = Paris Conservatoire = = =
With the encouragement of his parents , Ravel applied for entry to France 's most important musical college , the Conservatoire de Paris . In November 1889 , playing music by Chopin , he passed the examination for admission to the preparatory piano class run by Eugène Anthiòme . Ravel won the first prize in the Conservatoire 's piano competition in 1891 , but otherwise he did not stand out as a student . Nevertheless , these years were a time of considerable advance in his development as a composer . The musicologist Arbie Orenstein writes that for Ravel the 1890s were a period " of immense growth ... from adolescence to maturity . "
In 1891 Ravel progressed to the classes of Charles @-@ Wilfrid de Bériot , for piano , and Émile Pessard , for harmony . He made solid , unspectacular progress , with particular encouragement from Bériot but , in the words of the musical scholar Barbara L. Kelly , he " was only teachable on his own terms " . His later teacher Gabriel Fauré understood this , but it was not generally acceptable to the conservative faculty of the Conservatoire of the 1890s . Ravel was expelled in 1895 , having won no more prizes . His earliest works to survive in full are from these student days : Sérénade grotesque , for piano , and " Ballade de la Reine morte d 'aimer " , a mélodie setting a poem by Rolande de Marès ( both 1893 ) .
Ravel was never so assiduous a student of the piano as his colleagues such as Viñes and Cortot were . It was plain that as a pianist he would never match them , and his overriding ambition was to be a composer . From this point he concentrated on composition . His works from the period include the songs " Un grand sommeil noir " and " D 'Anne jouant de l 'espinette " to words by Paul Verlaine and Clément Marot , and the piano pieces Menuet antique and Habanera , the latter eventually incorporated into the Rapsodie espagnole . At around this time , Joseph Ravel introduced his son to Erik Satie , who was earning a living as a café pianist . Ravel was one of the first musicians – Debussy was another – who recognised Satie 's originality and talent . Satie 's constant experiments in musical form were an inspiration to Ravel , who counted them " of inestimable value " .
In 1897 Ravel was readmitted to the Conservatoire , studying composition with Fauré , and taking private lessons in counterpoint with André Gedalge . Both these teachers , particularly Fauré , regarded him highly and were key influences on his development as a composer . As Ravel 's course progressed , Fauré reported " a distinct gain in maturity ... engaging wealth of imagination " . Ravel 's standing at the Conservatoire was nevertheless undermined by the hostility of the Director , Théodore Dubois , who deplored the young man 's musically and politically progressive outlook . Consequently , according to a fellow @-@ student , Michel @-@ Dimitri Calvocoressi , he was " a marked man , against whom all weapons were good " . He wrote some substantial works while studying with Fauré , including the overture Shéhérazade and a violin sonata , but he won no prizes , and therefore was expelled again in 1900 . As a former student he was allowed to attend Fauré 's classes as a non @-@ participating " auditeur " until finally abandoning the Conservatoire in 1903 .
In 1899 Ravel composed his first piece to become widely known , though it made little impact initially : Pavane pour une infante défunte ( " Pavane for a dead princess " ) . It was originally a solo piano work , commissioned by the Princesse de Polignac . In the same year he conducted the first performance of the Shéhérazade overture , which had a mixed reception , with boos mingling with applause from the audience , and unflattering reviews from the critics . One described the piece as " a jolting debut : a clumsy plagiarism of the Russian School " and called Ravel a " mediocrely gifted debutant ... who will perhaps become something if not someone in about ten years , if he works hard . " Another critic , Pierre Lalo , thought that Ravel showed talent , but was too indebted to Debussy and should instead emulate Beethoven . Over the succeeding decades Lalo became Ravel 's most implacable critic .
From the start of his career , Ravel appeared calmly indifferent to blame or praise . Those who knew him well believed that this was no pose but wholly genuine . The only opinion of his music that he truly valued was his own , perfectionist and severely self @-@ critical . At twenty years of age he was , in the words of the biographer Burnett James , " self @-@ possessed , a little aloof , intellectually biased , given to mild banter . " He dressed like a dandy and was meticulous about his appearance and demeanour . Orenstein comments that , short in stature , light in frame , and bony in features , Ravel had the " appearance of a well @-@ dressed jockey " , whose large head seemed suitably matched to his formidable intellect . During the late 1890s and into the early years of the next century , Ravel was bearded in the fashion of the day ; from his mid @-@ thirties he was clean @-@ shaven .
= = = Les Apaches and Debussy = = =
Around 1900 Ravel and a number of innovative young artists , poets , critics , and musicians joined together in an informal group ; they came to be known as Les Apaches ( " The Hooligans " ) , a name coined by Viñes to represent their status as " artistic outcasts " . They met regularly until the beginning of the First World War , and members stimulated one another with intellectual argument and performances of their works . The membership of the group was fluid , and at various times included Igor Stravinsky and Manuel de Falla as well as their French friends .
Among the enthusiasms of the Apaches was the music of Debussy . Ravel , twelve years his junior , had known Debussy slightly since the 1890s , and their friendship , though never close , continued for more than ten years . In 1902 André Messager conducted the premiere of Debussy 's opera Pelléas et Mélisande at the Opéra @-@ Comique . It divided musical opinion . Dubois unavailingly forbade Conservatoire students to attend , and the conductor 's friend and former teacher Camille Saint @-@ Saëns was prominent among those who detested the piece . The Apaches were loud in their support . The first run of the opera consisted of fourteen performances : Ravel attended all of them .
Debussy was widely held to be an impressionist composer – a label he intensely disliked . Many music lovers began to apply the same term to Ravel , and the works of the two composers were frequently taken as part of a single genre . Ravel thought that Debussy was indeed an impressionist but that he himself was not . Orenstein comments that Debussy was more spontaneous and casual in his composing while Ravel was more attentive to form and craftsmanship . Ravel wrote that Debussy 's " genius was obviously one of great individuality , creating its own laws , constantly in evolution , expressing itself freely , yet always faithful to French tradition . For Debussy , the musician and the man , I have had profound admiration , but by nature I am different from Debussy ... I think I have always personally followed a direction opposed to that of [ his ] symbolism " . During the first years of the new century Ravel 's new works included the piano piece Jeux d 'eau ( 1901 ) , the String Quartet and the orchestral song cycle Shéhérazade ( both 1903 ) . Commentators have noted some Debussian touches in some parts of these works . Nichols calls the quartet " at once homage to and exorcism of Debussy 's influence " .
The two composers ceased to be on friendly terms in the middle of the 1900s , for musical and possibly personal reasons . Their admirers began to form factions , with adherents of one composer denigrating the other . Disputes arose about the chronology of the composers ' works and who influenced whom . Prominent in the anti @-@ Ravel camp was Lalo , who wrote , " Where M. Debussy is all sensitivity , M. Ravel is all insensitivity , borrowing without hesitation not only technique but the sensitivity of other people . " The public tension led to personal estrangement . Ravel said , " It 's probably better for us , after all , to be on frigid terms for illogical reasons . " Nichols suggests an additional reason for the rift . In 1904 Debussy left his wife and went to live with the singer Emma Bardac . Ravel , together with his close friend and confidante Misia Edwards and the opera star Lucienne Bréval , contributed to a modest regular income for the deserted Lilly Debussy , a fact that Nichols suggests may have rankled with her husband .
= = = Scandal and success = = =
During the first years of the new century Ravel made five attempts to win France 's most prestigious prize for young composers , the Prix de Rome , past winners of which included Berlioz , Gounod , Bizet , Massenet and Debussy . In 1900 Ravel was eliminated in the first round ; in 1901 he won the second prize for the competition . In 1902 and 1903 he won nothing : according to the musicologist Paul Landormy , the judges suspected Ravel of making fun of them by submitting cantatas so academic as to seem like parodies . In 1905 Ravel , by now thirty , competed for the last time , inadvertently causing a furore . He was eliminated in the first round , which even critics unsympathetic to his music , including Lalo , denounced as unjustifiable . The press 's indignation grew when it emerged that the senior professor at the Conservatoire , Charles Lenepveu , was on the jury , and only his students were selected for the final round ; his insistence that this was pure coincidence was not well received . L 'affaire Ravel became a national scandal , leading to the early retirement of Dubois and his replacement by Fauré , appointed by the government to carry out a radical reorganisation of the Conservatoire .
Among those taking a close interest in the controversy was Alfred Edwards , owner and editor of Le Matin , for which Lalo wrote . Edwards was married to Ravel 's friend Misia ; the couple took Ravel on a seven @-@ week Rhine cruise on their yacht in June and July 1905 , the first time he had travelled abroad .
By the latter part of the 1900s Ravel had established a pattern of writing works for piano and subsequently arranging them for full orchestra . He was in general a slow and painstaking worker , and reworking his earlier piano compositions enabled him to increase the number of pieces published and performed . There appears to have been no mercenary motive for this ; Ravel was known for his indifference to financial matters . The pieces that began as piano compositions and were then given orchestral dress were Pavane pour une infante défunte ( orchestrated 1910 ) , Une barque sur l 'océan ( 1906 , from the 1905 piano suite Miroirs ) , the Habanera section of Rapsodie espagnole ( 1907 – 08 ) , Ma mère l 'Oye ( 1908 – 10 , orchestrated 1911 ) , Valses nobles et sentimentales ( 1911 , orchestrated 1912 ) , Alborada del gracioso ( from Miroirs , orchestrated 1918 ) and Le tombeau de Couperin ( 1914 – 17 , orchestrated 1919 ) .
Ravel was not by inclination a teacher , but he gave lessons to a few young musicians he felt could benefit from them . Manuel Rosenthal was one , and records that Ravel was a very demanding teacher when he thought his pupil had talent . Like his own teacher , Fauré , he was concerned that his pupils should find their own individual voices and not be excessively influenced by established masters . He warned Rosenthal that it was impossible to learn from studying Debussy 's music : " Only Debussy could have written it and made it sound like only Debussy can sound . " When George Gershwin asked him for lessons in the 1920s , Ravel , after serious consideration , refused , on the grounds that they " would probably cause him to write bad Ravel and lose his great gift of melody and spontaneity " . The best known composer who studied with Ravel was probably Ralph Vaughan Williams , who was his pupil for three months in 1907 – 08 . Vaughan Williams recalled that Ravel helped him escape from " the heavy contrapuntal Teutonic manner ... Complexe mais pas compliqué was his motto . "
Vaughan Williams 's recollections throw some light on Ravel 's private life , about which the latter 's reserved and secretive personality has led to much speculation . Vaughan Williams , Rosenthal and Marguerite Long have all recorded that Ravel frequented brothels . Long attributed this to his self @-@ consciousness about his diminutive stature , and consequent lack of confidence with women . By other accounts , none of them first hand , Ravel was in love with Misia Edwards , or wanted to marry the violinist Hélène Jourdan @-@ Morhange . Rosenthal records and discounts contemporary speculation that Ravel , a lifelong bachelor , may have been homosexual . Such speculation recurred in a 2000 life of Ravel by Benjamin Ivry ; subsequent studies have concluded that Ravel 's sexuality and personal life remain a mystery .
Ravel 's first concert outside France was in 1909 . As the guest of the Vaughan Williamses , he visited London , where he played for the Société des Concerts Français , gaining favourable reviews and enhancing his growing international reputation .
= = = 1910 to First World War = = =
The Société Nationale de Musique , founded in 1871 to promote the music of rising French composers , had been dominated since the mid @-@ 1880s by a conservative faction led by Vincent d 'Indy . Ravel , together with several other former pupils of Fauré , set up a new , modernist organisation , the Société Musicale Indépendente , with Fauré as its president . The new society 's inaugural concert took place on 20 April 1910 ; the seven items on the programme included premieres of Fauré 's song cycle La chanson d 'Ève , Debussy 's piano suite D 'un cahier d 'esquisses , Zoltán Kodály 's Six pièces pour piano , and the original piano duet version of Ravel 's Ma mère l 'Oye . The performers included Fauré , Florent Schmitt , Ernest Bloch , Pierre Monteux and , in the Debussy work , Ravel . Kelly considers it a sign of Ravel 's new influence that the society featured Satie 's music in a concert in January 1911 .
The first of Ravel 's two operas , the one @-@ act comedy L 'heure espagnole was premiered in 1911 . The work had been completed in 1907 , but the manager of the Opéra @-@ Comique , Albert Carré , repeatedly deferred its presentation . He was concerned that its plot – a bedroom farce – would be badly received by the ultra @-@ respectable mothers and daughters who were an important part of the Opéra @-@ Comique 's audience . The piece was only modestly successful at its first production , and it was not until the 1920s that it became popular .
In 1912 Ravel had three ballets premiered . The first , to the orchestrated and expanded version of Ma mère l 'Oye , opened at the Théâtre des Arts in January . The reviews were excellent : the Mercure de France called the score " absolutely ravishing , a masterwork in miniature " . The music rapidly entered the concert repertoire ; it was played at the Queen 's Hall , London , within weeks of the Paris premiere , and was repeated at the Proms later in the same year . The Times praised " the enchantment of the work ... the effect of mirage , by which something quite real seems to float on nothing . " New York audiences heard the work in the same year . Ravel 's second ballet of 1912 was Adélaïde ou le langage des fleurs , danced to the score of Valses nobles et sentimentales , which opened at the Châtelet in April . Daphnis et Chloé opened at the same theatre in June . This was his largest @-@ scale orchestral work , and took him immense trouble and several years to complete .
Daphnis et Chloé was commissioned in or about 1909 by the impresario Sergei Diaghilev for his company , the Ballets Russes . Ravel began work with Diaghilev 's choreographer , Michel Fokine , and designer , Léon Bakst . Fokine had a reputation for his modern approach to dance , with individual numbers replaced by continuous music . This appealed to Ravel , and after discussing the action in great detail with Fokine , Ravel began composing the music . There were frequent disagreements between the collaborators , and the premiere was under @-@ rehearsed because of the late completion of the work . It had an unenthusiastic reception and was quickly withdrawn , although it was revived successfully a year later in Monte Carlo and London . The effort to complete the ballet took its toll on Ravel 's health ; neurasthenia obliged him to rest for several months after the premiere .
Ravel composed little during 1913 . He collaborated with Stravinsky on a performing version of Mussorgsky 's unfinished opera Khovanshchina , and his own works were the Trois poèmes de Mallarmé for soprano and chamber ensemble , and two short piano pieces , À la manière de Borodine and À la manière de Chabrier . In 1913 , together with Debussy , Ravel was among the musicians present at the dress rehearsal of The Rite of Spring . Stravinsky later said that Ravel was the only person who immediately understood the music . Ravel predicted that the premiere of the Rite would be seen as an event of historic importance equal to that of Pelléas et Mélisande .
= = = War = = =
When Germany invaded France in 1914 Ravel tried to join the French Air Force . He considered his small stature and light weight ideal for an aviator , but was rejected because of his age and a minor heart complaint . After several unsuccessful attempts to enlist , Ravel finally joined the Thirteenth Artillery Regiment as a lorry driver in March 1915 , when he was forty . Stravinsky expressed admiration for his friend 's courage : " at his age and with his name he could have had an easier place , or done nothing " . Some of Ravel 's duties put him in mortal danger , driving munitions at night under heavy German bombardment . At the same time his peace of mind was undermined by his mother 's failing health . His own health also deteriorated ; he suffered from insomnia and digestive problems , underwent a bowel operation following amoebic dysentery in September 1916 , and had frostbite in his feet the following winter .
During the war , the Ligue Nationale pour la Defense de la Musique Française was formed by Saint @-@ Saëns , Dubois , d 'Indy and others , campaigning for a ban on the performance of contemporary German music . Ravel declined to join , telling the committee of the league in 1916 , " It would be dangerous for French composers to ignore systematically the productions of their foreign colleagues , and thus form themselves into a sort of national coterie : our musical art , which is so rich at the present time , would soon degenerate , becoming isolated in banal formulas . " The league responded by banning Ravel 's music from its concerts .
Ravel 's mother died in January 1917 , and he fell into a " horrible despair " , compounding the distress he felt at the suffering endured by the people of his country during the war . He composed few works in the war years . The Piano Trio was almost complete when the conflict began , and the most substantial of his wartime works is Le tombeau de Couperin , composed between 1914 and 1917 . The suite celebrates the tradition of François Couperin , the 18th @-@ century French composer ; each movement is dedicated to a friend of Ravel 's who died in the war .
= = = 1920s = = =
After the war those close to Ravel recognised that he had lost much of his physical and mental stamina . As the musicologist Stephen Zank puts it , " Ravel 's emotional equilibrium , so hard won in the previous decade , had been seriously compromised " . His output , never large , became smaller . Nonetheless , after the death of Debussy in 1918 , he was generally seen , in France and abroad , as the leading French composer of the era . Fauré wrote to him , " I am happier than you can imagine about the solid position which you occupy and which you have acquired so brilliantly and so rapidly . It is a source of joy and pride for your old professor . " Ravel was offered the Legion of Honour in 1920 , and though he declined the decoration he was viewed by the new generation of composers typified by Satie 's protégés Les Six as an establishment figure . Satie had turned against him , and commented , " Ravel refuses the Légion d 'honneur , but all his music accepts it . " Despite this attack , Ravel continued to admire Satie 's early music , and always acknowledged the older man 's influence on his own development . Ravel took a benign view of Les Six , promoting their music , and defending it against journalistic attacks . He regarded their reaction against his works as natural , and preferable to their copying his style . Through the Société Musicale Indépendente , he was able to encourage them and composers from other countries . The Société presented concerts of recent works by American composers including Aaron Copland , Virgil Thomson and George Antheil and by Vaughan Williams and his English colleagues Arnold Bax and Cyril Scott .
Orenstein and Zank both comment that , although Ravel 's post @-@ war output was small , averaging only one composition a year , it included some of his finest works . In 1920 he completed La valse , in response to a commission from Diaghilev . He had worked on it intermittently for some years , planning a concert piece , " a sort of apotheosis of the Viennese waltz , mingled with , in my mind , the impression of a fantastic , fatal whirling " . It was rejected by Diaghilev , who said , " It 's a masterpiece , but it 's not a ballet . It 's the portrait of a ballet " . Ravel heard Diaghilev 's verdict without protest or argument , left , and had no further dealings with him . Nichols comments that Ravel had the satisfaction of seeing the ballet staged twice by other managements before Diaghilev died . A ballet danced to the orchestral version of Le tombeau de Couperin was given at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Elysées in November 1920 , and the premiere of La valse followed in December . The following year Daphnis et Chloé and L 'heure espagnole were successfully revived at the Paris Opéra .
In the post @-@ war era there was a reaction against the large @-@ scale music of composers such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss . Stravinsky , whose Rite of Spring was written for a huge orchestra , began to work on a much smaller scale . His 1923 ballet score Les noces is composed for voices and twenty @-@ one instruments . Ravel did not like the work ( his opinion caused a cooling in Stravinsky 's friendship with him ) but he was in sympathy with the fashion for " dépouillement " – the " stripping away " of pre @-@ war extravagance to reveal the essentials . Many of his works from the 1920s are noticeably sparer in texture than earlier pieces . Other influences on him in this period were jazz and atonality . Jazz was popular in Parisian cafés , and French composers such as Darius Milhaud incorporated elements of it in their work . Ravel commented that he preferred jazz to grand opera , and its influence is heard in his later music . Arnold Schönberg 's abandonment of conventional tonality also had echoes in some of Ravel 's music such as the Chansons madécasses ( 1926 ) , which Ravel doubted he could have written without the example of Pierrot Lunaire . His other major works from the 1920s include the orchestral arrangement of Mussorgsky 's piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition ( 1922 ) , the opera L 'enfant et les sortilèges to a libretto by Colette ( 1926 ) , Tzigane ( 1924 ) and the Violin Sonata ( 1927 ) .
Finding city life fatiguing , Ravel moved to the country . In May 1921 he took up residence at Le Belvédère , a small house on the fringe of Montfort @-@ l 'Amaury , 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) west of Paris , in the Yvelines département . Looked after by a devoted housekeeper , Mme Revelot , he lived there for the rest of his life . At Le Belvédère Ravel composed and gardened , when not performing in Paris or abroad . His touring schedule increased considerably in the 1920s , with concerts in Britain , Italy , Sweden , Denmark , the US , Canada , Spain and Austria .
After two months of planning Ravel made a four @-@ month tour of North America in 1928 , playing and conducting . His fee was a guaranteed minimum of $ 10 @,@ 000 and a constant supply of Gauloises cigarettes . He appeared with most of the leading orchestras in Canada and the US and visited twenty @-@ five cities . Audiences were enthusiastic and the critics were complimentary . At an all @-@ Ravel programme conducted by Serge Koussevitzky in New York the entire audience stood up and applauded as the composer took his seat . Ravel was touched by this spontaneous gesture and observed , " You know , this doesn 't happen to me in Paris . " Orenstein , commenting that this tour marked the zenith of Ravel 's international reputation , lists its non @-@ musical highlights as a visit to Poe 's house in New York , and excursions to Niagara Falls and the Grand Canyon . Ravel was unmoved by his new international celebrity . He commented that the critics ' recent enthusiasm was of no more importance than their earlier judgment , when they called him " the most perfect example of insensitivity and lack of emotion " .
The last work Ravel completed in the 1920s became his most famous : Boléro . He was commissioned to provide a score for Ida Rubinstein 's ballet company , and having been unable to secure the rights to orchestrate Albéniz 's Iberia he decided on " an experiment in a very special and limited direction ... a piece lasting seventeen minutes and consisting wholly of orchestral tissue without music . " Ravel continued that the work was " one long , very gradual crescendo . There are no contrasts , and there is practically no invention except the plan and the manner of the execution . The themes are altogether impersonal " . He was astonished , and not wholly pleased , that it became a mass success . When one elderly member of the audience at the Opéra shouted " Rubbish ! " at the premiere he remarked , " That old lady got the message ! " The work was popularised by the conductor Arturo Toscanini , and has been recorded several hundred times . Ravel commented to Arthur Honegger , one of Les Six , " I 've written only one masterpiece – Boléro . Unfortunately there 's no music in it . "
= = = Last years = = =
At the beginning of the 1930s Ravel was working on two piano concertos . He completed the Piano Concerto in D major for the Left Hand first . It was commissioned by the Austrian pianist Paul Wittgenstein , who had lost his right arm during the war . Ravel was stimulated by the technical challenges of the project : " In a work of this kind , it is essential to give the impression of a texture no thinner than that of a part written for both hands . " Ravel , not proficient enough to perform the work with only his left hand , demonstrated it with both hands . Wittgenstein was initially disappointed by the piece , but after long study he became fascinated by it and ranked it as a great work . In January 1932 he premiered it in Vienna to instant acclaim , and performed it in Paris with Ravel conducting the following year . The critic Henry Prunières wrote , " From the opening measures , we are plunged into a world in which Ravel has but rarely introduced us . "
The Piano Concerto in G major was completed a year later . After the premiere in January 1932 there was high praise for the soloist , Marguerite Long , and for Ravel 's score , though not for his conducting . Long , the dedicatee , played the concerto in more than twenty European cities , with the composer conducting ; they planned to record it together , but at the sessions Ravel confined himself to supervising proceedings and Pedro de Freitas Branco conducted .
In October 1932 Ravel suffered a blow to the head in a taxi accident . The injury was not thought serious at the time , but in a study for the British Medical Journal in 1988 the neurologist R. A. Henson concludes that it may have exacerbated an existing cerebral condition . As early as 1927 close friends had been concerned at Ravel 's growing absent @-@ mindedness , and within a year of the accident he started to experience symptoms suggesting aphasia . Before the accident he had begun work on music for a film , Don Quixote ( 1933 ) , but he was unable to meet the production schedule , and Jacques Ibert wrote most of the score . Ravel completed three songs for baritone and orchestra intended for the film ; they were published as Don Quichotte à Dulcinée . The manuscript orchestral score is in Ravel 's hand , but Lucien Garban and Manuel Rosenthal helped in transcription . Ravel composed no more after this . The exact nature of his illness is unknown . Experts have ruled out the possibility of a tumour , and have variously suggested frontotemporal dementia , Alzheimer 's disease and Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease . Though no longer able to write music or perform , Ravel remained physically and socially active until his last months . Henson notes that Ravel preserved most or all his auditory imagery and could still hear music in his head .
In 1937 Ravel began to suffer pain from his condition , and was examined by Clovis Vincent , a well @-@ known Paris neurosurgeon . Vincent advised surgical treatment . He thought a tumour unlikely , and expected to find ventricular dilatation that surgery might prevent from progressing . Ravel 's brother Edouard accepted this advice ; as Henson comments , the patient was in no state to express a considered view . After the operation there seemed to be an improvement in his condition , but it was short @-@ lived , and he soon lapsed into a coma . He died on 28 December , at the age of 62 .
On 30 December 1937 Ravel was buried next to his parents in a granite tomb at the cemetery at Levallois @-@ Perret , a suburb of northwest Paris . Ravel was an atheist and there was no religious ceremony .
= = Music = =
Marcel Marnat 's catalogue of Ravel 's complete works lists eighty @-@ five works , including many incomplete or abandoned . Though that total is small in comparison with the output of his major contemporaries , it is nevertheless inflated by Ravel 's frequent practice of writing works for piano and later rewriting them as independent pieces for orchestra . The performable body of works numbers about sixty ; slightly more than half are instrumental . Ravel 's music includes pieces for piano , chamber music , two piano concerti , ballet music , opera , and song cycles . He wrote no symphonies or religious works .
Ravel drew on many generations of French composers from Couperin and Rameau to Fauré and the more recent innovations of Satie and Debussy . Foreign influences include Mozart , Schubert , Liszt and Chopin . He considered himself in many ways a classicist , often using traditional structures and forms , such as the ternary , to present his new melodic and rhythmic content and innovative harmonies . The influence of jazz on his later music is heard within conventional classical structures in the Piano Concerto and the Violin Sonata .
Ravel placed high importance on melody , telling Vaughan Williams that there is " an implied melodic outline in all vital music " . His themes are frequently modal instead of using the familiar major or minor scales . As a result , there are few leading notes in his output . Chords of the ninth and eleventh and unresolved appoggiaturas , such as those in the Valses nobles et sentimentales , are characteristic of Ravel 's harmonic language .
Dance forms appealed to Ravel , most famously the bolero and pavane , but also the minuet , forlane , rigaudon , waltz , czardas , habanera and passacaglia . National and regional consciousness was important to him , and although a planned concerto on Basque themes never materialised , his works include allusions to Hebraic , Greek , Hungarian and gypsy themes . He wrote several short pieces paying tribute to composers he admired – Borodin , Chabrier , Fauré and Haydn , interpreting their characteristics in a Ravellian style . Another important influence was literary rather than musical : Ravel said that he learnt from Poe that " true art is a perfect balance between pure intellect and emotion " , with the corollary that a piece of music should be a perfectly balanced entity with no irrelevant material allowed to intrude .
= = = Operas = = =
Ravel completed two operas , and worked on three others . The unrealised three were Olympia , La cloche engloutie and Jeanne d 'Arc . Olympia was to be based on Hoffmann 's The Sandman ; he made sketches for it in 1898 – 99 , but did not progress far . La cloche engloutie after Hauptmann 's The Sunken Bell occupied him intermittently from 1906 to 1912 , Ravel destroyed the sketches for both these works , except for a " Symphonie horlogère " which he incorporated into the opening of L 'heure espagnole . The third unrealised project was an operatic version of Joseph Delteil 's 1925 novel about Joan of Arc . It was to be a large @-@ scale , full @-@ length work for the Paris Opéra , but Ravel 's final illness prevented him from writing it .
Ravel 's first completed opera was L 'heure espagnole ( premiered in 1911 ) , described as a " comédie musicale " . It is among the works set in or illustrating Spain that Ravel wrote throughout his career . Nichols comments that the essential Spanish colouring gave Ravel a reason for virtuoso use of the modern orchestra , which the composer considered " perfectly designed for underlining and exaggerating comic effects " . Edward Burlingame Hill found Ravel 's vocal writing particularly skilful in the work , " giving the singers something besides recitative without hampering the action " , and " commenting orchestrally upon the dramatic situations and the sentiments of the actors without diverting attention from the stage . " Some find the characters artificial and the piece lacking in humanity . The critic David Murray writes that the score " glows with the famous Ravel tendresse " .
The second opera , also in one act , is L 'enfant et les sortilèges ( 1926 ) , a " fantaisie lyrique " to a libretto by Colette . She and Ravel had planned the story as a ballet , but at the composer 's suggestion Colette turned it into an opera libretto . It is more uncompromisingly modern in its musical style than L 'heure espagnole , and the jazz elements and bitonality of much of the work upset many Parisian opera @-@ goers . Ravel was once again accused of artificiality and lack of human emotion , but Nichols finds " profoundly serious feeling at the heart of this vivid and entertaining work " . The score presents an impression of simplicity , disguising intricate links between themes , with , in Murray 's phrase , " extraordinary and bewitching sounds from the orchestra pit throughout " .
Although one @-@ act operas are generally staged less often than full @-@ length ones , Ravel 's are produced regularly in France and abroad . For 2013 – 15 Operabase records eight productions around the world of L 'heure espagnole and twenty @-@ four of L 'enfant et les sortilèges .
= = = Other vocal works = = =
A substantial proportion of Ravel 's output was vocal . His early works in that sphere include cantatas written for his unsuccessful attempts at the Prix de Rome . His other vocal music from that period shows Debussy 's influence , in what Kelly describes as " a static , recitative @-@ like vocal style " , prominent piano parts and rhythmic flexibility . By 1906 Ravel was taking even further than Debussy the natural , sometimes colloquial , setting of the French language in Histoires naturelles . The same technique is highlighted in Trois poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé ( 1913 ) ; Debussy set two of the three poems at the same time as Ravel , and the former 's word @-@ setting is noticeably more formal than the latter 's , in which syllables are often elided . In the cycles Shéhérazade and Chansons madécasses Ravel gives vent to his taste for the exotic , even the sensual , in both the vocal line and the accompaniment .
Ravel 's songs often draw on vernacular styles , using elements of many folk traditions in such works as Cinq mélodies populaires grecques , Deux mélodies hébraïques and Chants populaires . Among the poets on whose lyrics he drew were Marot , Léon @-@ Paul Fargue , Leconte de Lisle and Verlaine . For three songs dating from 1914 – 15 he wrote his own texts .
Although Ravel wrote for mixed choirs and male solo voices , he is chiefly associated , in his songs , with the soprano and mezzo @-@ soprano voices . Even when setting lyrics clearly narrated by a man , he often favoured a female voice , and he seems to have preferred his best @-@ known cycle , Shéhérazade , to be sung by a woman , although a tenor voice is a permitted alternative in the score .
= = = Orchestral works = = =
During his lifetime it was above all as a master of orchestration that Ravel was famous . He minutely studied the ability of each orchestral instrument to determine its potential , putting its individual colour and timbre to maximum use . The critic Alexis Roland @-@ Manuel wrote , " In reality he is , with Stravinsky , the one man in the world who best knows the weight of a trombone @-@ note , the harmonics of a ' cello or a pp tam @-@ tam in the relationships of one orchestral group to another . "
For all Ravel 's orchestral mastery , only four of his works were conceived as concert works for symphony orchestra : Rapsodie espagnole , La valse and the two concertos . All the other orchestral works were written either for the stage , as in Daphnis et Chloé , or as a reworking of piano pieces , Alborada del gracioso and Une barque sur l 'ocean , ( Miroirs ) , Valses nobles et sentimentales , Ma mère l 'Oye , Tzigane ( originally for violin and piano ) and Le tombeau de Couperin . In the orchestral versions , the instrumentation generally clarifies the harmonic language of the score and brings sharpness to classical dance rhythms . Occasionally , as in the Alborada del gracioso , critics have found the later orchestral version less persuasive than the sharp @-@ edged piano original .
In some of his scores from the 1920s , including Daphnis et Chloé , Ravel frequently divides his upper strings , having them play in six to eight parts while the woodwind are required to play with extreme agility . His writing for the brass ranges from softly muted to triple @-@ forte outbursts at climactic points . In the 1930s he tended to simplify his orchestral textures . The lighter tone of the G major Piano Concerto follows the models of Mozart and Saint @-@ Saëns , alongside use of jazz @-@ like themes . The critics Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor comment that in the slow movement , " one of the most beautiful tunes Ravel ever invented " , the composer " can truly be said to join hands with Mozart " . The most popular of Ravel 's orchestral works , Boléro ( 1928 ) , was conceived several years before its completion ; in 1924 he said that he was contemplating " a symphonic poem without a subject , where the whole interest will be in the rhythm " .
Ravel made orchestral versions of piano works by Schumann , Chabrier , Debussy and Mussorgsky 's piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition . Orchestral versions of the last by Mikhail Tushmalov , Sir Henry Wood and Leo Funtek predated Ravel 's 1922 version , and many more have been made since , but Ravel 's remains the best known . Kelly remarks on its " dazzling array of instrumental colour " , and a contemporary reviewer commented on how , in dealing with another composer 's music , Ravel had produced an orchestral sound wholly unlike his own .
= = = Piano music = = =
Although Ravel wrote fewer than thirty works for the piano , they exemplify his range ; Orenstein remarks that the composer keeps his personal touch " from the striking simplicity of Ma mère l 'Oye to the transcendental virtuosity of Gaspard de la nuit . " Ravel 's earliest major work for piano , Jeux d 'eau ( 1901 ) , is frequently cited as evidence that he evolved his style independently of Debussy , whose major works for piano all came later . When writing for solo piano Ravel rarely aimed at the intimate chamber effect characteristic of Debussy , but sought a Lisztian virtuosity . The authors of The Record Guide consider that works such as Gaspard de la Nuit and Miroirs have a beauty and originality with a deeper inspiration " in the harmonic and melodic genius of Ravel himself . "
Most of Ravel 's piano music is extremely difficult to play , and presents pianists with a balance of technical and artistic challenges . Writing of the piano music the critic Andrew Clark commented in 2013 , " A successful Ravel interpretation is a finely balanced thing . It involves subtle musicianship , a feeling for pianistic colour and the sort of lightly worn virtuosity that masks the advanced technical challenges he makes in Alborada del gracioso ... and the two outer movements of Gaspard de la nuit . Too much temperament , and the music loses its classical shape ; too little , and it sounds pale . " This balance caused a breach between the composer and Viñes , who said that if he observed the nuances and speeds Ravel stipulated in Gaspard de la nuit " Le gibet " would " bore the audience to death " . Some pianists continue to attract criticism for over @-@ interpreting Ravel 's piano writing .
Ravel 's regard for his predecessors is heard in several of his piano works ; Menuet sur le nom de Haydn ( 1909 ) , À la manière de Borodine ( 1912 ) , À la manière de Chabrier ( 1913 ) and Le tombeau de Couperin all incorporate elements of the named composers interpreted in a characteristically Ravellian manner . Clark comments that those piano works which Ravel later orchestrated are overshadowed by the revised versions : " Listen to Le tombeau de Couperin and the complete ballet music for Ma mère L 'Oye in the classic recordings conducted by André Cluytens , and the piano versions never sound quite the same again . "
= = = Chamber music = = =
Apart from a one @-@ movement sonata for violin and piano dating from 1899 , unpublished in the composer 's lifetime , Ravel wrote seven chamber works . The earliest is the String Quartet ( 1902 – 03 ) , dedicated to Fauré , and showing the influence of Debussy 's quartet of ten years earlier . Like the Debussy it differs from the more monumental quartets of the established French school of Franck and his followers , with more succinct melodies , fluently interchanged , in flexible tempos and varieties of instrumental colour . The Introduction and Allegro for harp , flute , clarinet , and string quartet ( 1905 ) was composed very quickly by Ravel 's standards . It is an ethereal piece in the vein of the Pavane pour une infante défunte . Ravel also worked at unusual speed on the Piano Trio ( 1914 ) to complete it before joining the French army . It contains Basque , Baroque and far Eastern influences , and shows Ravel 's growing technical skill , dealing with the difficulties of balancing the percussive piano with the sustained sound of the violin and cello , " blending the two disparate elements in a musical language that is unmistakably his own , " in the words of the commentator Keith Anderson .
Ravel 's four chamber works composed after the First World War are the Sonata for Violin and Cello ( 1920 – 22 ) , the " Berceuse sur le nom de Gabriel Fauré " for violin and piano ( 1922 ) , the chamber original of Tzigane for violin and piano ( 1924 ) and finally the Violin Sonata ( 1923 – 27 ) . The two middle works are respectively an affectionate tribute to Ravel 's teacher , and a virtuoso display piece for the violinist Jelly d 'Arányi . The Violin and Cello Sonata is a departure from the rich textures and harmonies of the pre @-@ war Piano Trio : the composer said that it marked a turning point in his career , with thinness of texture pushed to the extreme and harmonic charm renounced in favour of pure melody . His last chamber work , the Violin Sonata ( sometimes called the Second after the posthumous publication of his student sonata ) , is a frequently dissonant work . Ravel said that the violin and piano are " essentially incompatible " instruments , and that his Sonata reveals their incompatibility . Sackville @-@ West and Shawe @-@ Taylor consider the post @-@ war sonatas " rather laboured and unsatisfactory " , and neither work has matched the popularity of Ravel 's pre @-@ war chamber works .
= = = Recordings = = =
Ravel 's interpretations of some of his piano works were captured on piano roll between 1914 and 1928 , although some rolls supposedly played by him may have been made under his supervision by Robert Casadesus , a better pianist . Transfers of the rolls have been released on compact disc . In 1913 there was a gramophone recording of Jeux d 'eau played by Mark Hambourg , and by the early 1920s there were discs featuring the Pavane pour une infante défunte and Ondine , and movements from the String Quartet , Le tombeau de Couperin and Ma mère l 'Oye . Ravel was among the first composers who recognised the potential of recording to bring their music to a wider public , and throughout the 1920s there was a steady stream of recordings of his works , some of which featured the composer as pianist or conductor . A 1932 recording of the G major Piano Concerto was advertised as " Conducted by the composer " , although he had in fact supervised the sessions while a more proficient conductor took the baton . Recordings for which Ravel actually was the conductor included a Boléro in 1930 , and a sound film of a 1933 performance of the D major concerto with Wittgenstein as soloist .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Ravel declined not only the Légion d 'honneur but all state honours from France , refusing to let his name go forward for election to the Institut de France . He accepted foreign awards , including honorary membership of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1921 , the Belgian Ordre de Léopold in 1926 , and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in 1928 .
After Ravel 's death his brother and legatee , Edouard , turned the composer 's house at Montfort @-@ l 'Amaury into a museum , leaving it substantially as Ravel had known it . As of 2016 the maison @-@ musée de Maurice Ravel remains open for guided tours .
In his later years Edouard Ravel declared his intention to leave the bulk of the composer 's estate to the city of Paris for the endowment of a Nobel Prize in music , but evidently changed his mind . After his death in 1960 the estate passed through several hands . Despite the substantial royalties paid for performing Ravel 's music , the news magazine Le Point reported in 2000 that it was unclear who the beneficiaries were . The British newspaper The Guardian reported in 2001 that no money from royalties had been forthcoming for the maintenance of the Ravel museum at Montfort @-@ l 'Amaury , which was in a poor state of repair .
= = = Free scores = = =
Free scores by Maurice Ravel at the International Music Score Library Project
Free scores by Maurice Ravel in the Choral Public Domain Library ( ChoralWiki )
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Maurice Ravel Frontispice
Ravel material in the BBC Radio 3 archives
Works by or about Maurice Ravel in libraries ( WorldCat catalog )
= = = Recordings = = =
Piano Rolls ( The Reproducing Piano Roll Foundation )
= = = Institutions = = =
International Academy of Music from Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz : Académie internationale de Musique Maurice Ravel de Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz
Maurice Ravel 's Friends Society : Les Amis de Maurice Ravel
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= New York State Route 284 =
New York State Route 284 ( NY 284 ) is a north – south state highway located entirely within Orange County , New York , in the United States . It begins just south of the village of Unionville at the New Jersey state line in the town of Minisink , where it connects to that state 's Route 284 . From Unionville , the route heads through rural parts of Orange County for just over 9 miles ( 14 km ) to an intersection with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) in the hamlet of Slate Hill , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of the city of Middletown in the town of Wawayanda .
The highway has been part of a state route since 1924 when it became part of New York State Route 8 , a road continuing northeast through Middletown and Montgomery to Newburgh . NY 8 was split into two routes as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , with the portion of the highway south of Montgomery becoming New York State Route 84 . When Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) was built along a similar alignment to NY 84 in the mid @-@ 1960s , the state route was renumbered again in May 1966 to prevent confusion between the two roads . The section of NY 84 south of Slate Hill was redesignated as NY 284 while the rest of the highway was absorbed by other , pre @-@ existing routes .
= = Route description = =
NY 284 begins at the New Jersey state line in the town of Minisink as a northerly continuation of that state 's Route 284 . The route heads northwest for a short distance into the village of Unionville , where it serves as the main thoroughfare through the community . In the center of the village , the highway reaches an intersection with County Route 36 ( CR 36 , named Main Street ) , which heads west to the New Jersey state line and becomes CR 651 upon entering Sussex County . NY 284 turns north at this junction , passing a handful of homes before bending to the northwest and leaving the village limits for less developed areas of Minisink .
Outside of Unionville , the route slowly bends to the northeast , paralleling the former right @-@ of @-@ way of the Middletown and New Jersey Railroad ( MNJ ) as it runs northwest through farmlands . At the far eastern end of the hamlet of Waterloo Mills , the highway also begins to follow Rutgers Creek . The waterway , the former railroad right @-@ of @-@ way and the road take similar paths to the hamlet of Westtown , where NY 284 serves as the main north – south route through the community . It passes Lockenhurst Pond in the southern part of the hamlet before meeting CR 1 near Art Fords Lake . Past Westtown , NY 284 winds its way northeastward across another rural part of Minisink , intersecting CR 62 and CR 22 at back @-@ to @-@ back junctions near the northern town line . The latter route provides access to the hamlet of Johnson , which NY 284 bypasses to the southeast .
North of CR 22 , Rutgers Creek merges with Indigot Creek , a small stream forming part of the Minisink – Wawayanda town line . The combined stream continues to serve as the boundary between the two towns as Rutgers Creek takes on a southeasterly course from this point . NY 284 crosses over the waterway , entering Wawayanda and connecting to CR 93 ( Lime Kiln Road ) just north of the town line . From CR 93 , the highway runs northeastward across open , rolling terrain , following an active part of the MNJ Railroad to the hamlet of Slate Hill . NY 284 ends in the center of the community at a junction with US 6 .
= = History = =
Modern NY 284 was gradually acquired by the state of New York over the course of the early 20th century . The first stretch to be added to the state highway system was the section between the northern village line of Unionville and the hamlet of Slate Hill , which was improved by the state under a contract awarded on June 18 , 1904 . Work to bring the existing highway up to state highway standards cost $ 50 @,@ 879 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 34 million in 2016 ) , and the rebuilt road was taken over by the state on December 19 , 1906 . It was designated but not signed as State Highway 160 ( SH 160 ) . A contract to improve the highway 's continuation to the New Jersey state line south of Unionville was awarded on June 19 , 1922 , and the highway was reconstructed and taken over by the state by 1926 as SH 500 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , SH 160 and SH 500 became the westernmost portion of NY 8 , which continued northeast to Newburgh by way of Middletown and Montgomery . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the NY 8 designation was reassigned to another highway serving the Central New York Region and the North Country . The portion of its former alignment east of Montgomery became part of the new NY 215 while the rest was renumbered to NY 84 . Another , much smaller renumbering was carried out in May 1966 after I @-@ 84 was built along an alignment similar to that of NY 84 . To prevent confusion between the two nearby roads , the section of NY 84 south of Slate Hill was renumbered to NY 284 while the part east of Middletown became an extension of NY 211 . From Slate Hill to Middletown , the road remained part of US 6 and NY 17M , which NY 84 had previously overlapped .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
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= McDonnell Douglas A @-@ 4G Skyhawk =
The McDonnell Douglas A @-@ 4G Skyhawk is a variant of the Douglas A @-@ 4 Skyhawk attack aircraft developed for the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . The model was based on the A @-@ 4F variant of the Skyhawk , and was fitted with slightly different avionics as well as the capacity to operate AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . The RAN received ten A @-@ 4Gs in 1967 and another ten in 1971 , and operated the type from 1967 to 1984 .
In Australian service the A @-@ 4Gs formed part of the air group of the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , and were primarily used to provide air defence for the fleet . They took part in exercises throughout the Pacific region and also supported the training of RAN warships as well as other elements of the Australian military . The Skyhawks did not see combat , and a planned deployment of some of their pilots to fight in the Vietnam War was cancelled before it took place . Ten A @-@ 4Gs were destroyed as a result of equipment failures and non @-@ combat crashes during the type 's service with the Navy , causing the deaths of two pilots .
The RAN had no need for most of its fixed @-@ wing aircraft after Melbourne was decommissioned in 1982 , and the ten remaining A @-@ 4Gs were sold to the Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) in 1984 where they were initially used for training purposes . Between 1986 and 1991 these aircraft were upgraded and re @-@ designated A @-@ 4Ks . Two of the former A @-@ 4Gs crashed during 2001 , resulting in the death of a pilot . The RNZAF 's Skyhawks were retired in 2001 . Eight A @-@ 4Ks , including six former A @-@ 4Gs , were sold to Draken International in 2012 and are in service supporting United States military training exercises .
= = Acquisition = =
During the late 1950s the Australian Government and Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) considered options to replace the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , and her air group . While Melbourne had only been commissioned in 1955 , the de Havilland Sea Venom fighters and Fairey Gannet maritime patrol aircraft operated by the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) were becoming obsolete . It was believed that Melbourne was too small to operate more modern aircraft types , and the RAN investigated options to buy a larger carrier . The Government judged that the cost of a new aircraft carrier was too high , especially given the expense of the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force 's ( RAAF 's ) procurement programs at that time , and in November 1959 it was announced that the FAA would cease to operate fixed @-@ wing aircraft in 1963 .
As a result of intervention by the Minister for the Navy , Senator John Gorton , the Government eventually agreed to purchase new fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Gorton had served as a fighter pilot in World War II and had a strong interest in his portfolio . In 1961 Gorton convinced Cabinet to fund a program to reinvigorate the FAA , starting with the purchase of 27 Westland Wessex anti @-@ submarine helicopters . At this time it was planned to retain Melbourne as a helicopter carrier , but in mid @-@ 1963 the Government gave the Navy permission to retain the Sea Venoms and Gannets in service until at least 1967 . Minister for Defence Senator Shane Paltridge rejected a proposal from the Navy to purchase an Essex @-@ class aircraft carrier from the United States Navy in June 1964 , and the next month Melbourne undertook flight trials with A @-@ 4 Skyhawks and Grumman S @-@ 2 Trackers during a visit to the major American base at Subic Bay in the Philippines . The Skyhawk was a particularly light and compact attack plane , with a wing small enough to not require a folding mechanism . American Trackers had previously flown off the carrier during exercises in 1957 , and the Royal Canadian Navy had successfully trialled Skyhawks from Melbourne 's sister ship HMCS Bonaventure . The trials conducted at Subic Bay went well , and confirmed that Melbourne would need only minor modifications to safely operate both types of aircraft .
In late 1964 the RAN sought the Government 's approval to upgrade Melbourne and purchase a force of 18 Skyhawks and 16 Trackers . The Skyhawks were intended to be used to provide air defence for the fleet as well as to attack warships and targets on land . While the Naval Board saw maritime strike as being a logical task for the FAA , the RAAF argued that the 24 General Dynamics F @-@ 111C aircraft it had ordered would be more effective in this role . Cabinet agreed to the proposal to modernise the carrier and acquire Trackers in November 1964 , but delayed a decision on the Skyhawks at that time . Following further lobbying and staff work by the Navy , the Government eventually agreed to purchase ten Skyhawks in early 1965 for a cost of £ 9 @.@ 2 million . This order comprised eight single @-@ seat fighter aircraft and a pair of two @-@ seat TA @-@ 4 Skyhawk trainers . These aircraft were the first newly built Skyhawks to be sold to a country other than the United States .
The Australian Skyhawks , which were designated the A @-@ 4G , were a variant of the A @-@ 4F Skyhawk . The A @-@ 4F was the final single @-@ seat version of the Skyhawk to be designed specifically for the US Navy , and first flew in 1966 ; 164 were eventually delivered . This variant had a more powerful engine than that fitted to earlier Skyhawks , as well as better protection against ground fire and a distinctive " hump " containing avionics , which earned it the nickname " Camel " . The main differences between the F and G variants were that the latter did not have an avionics hump and was fitted to operate AIM @-@ 9B Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . The A @-@ 4Gs also lacked the A @-@ 4F 's ability to operate guided air @-@ to @-@ ground weapons . The two @-@ seat TA @-@ 4G trainers were fitted with the same avionics and weapons as the single @-@ seat aircraft , but were unable to be operated from Melbourne as their flight characteristics meant that they could not safely take off from the ship in the event of a " bolter " landing .
The ten Skyhawks were delivered to the RAN during 1967 . The first A @-@ 4G test flight took place on 19 July that year , and the initial TA @-@ 4G first flew two days later . On 26 July an A @-@ 4G and a TA @-@ 4G were handed over to the RAN at a ceremony conducted at McDonnell Douglas ' factory at Long Beach , California . In October that year , Melbourne sailed to the United States to pick up the Skyhawks and Trackers , with the A @-@ 4s being embarked at Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego . The carrier transported these aircraft back to Jervis Bay , New South Wales , from where they were unloaded and moved by road to the Navy 's air station at HMAS Albatross near Nowra . After completing this task Melbourne proceeded to Sydney to begin a refit that would prepare her to operate the new air group .
A further ten A @-@ 4Gs were purchased in 1969 . The aircraft were funded by cancelling plans to expand the Navy 's force of Oberon class submarines from six to eight boats ; this change was justified on the grounds that it would improve the effectiveness of the carrier and expand the FAA 's strike capabilities . As with the first order , this purchase comprised eight A @-@ 4Gs and two TA @-@ 4Gs . The Skyhawks were former US Navy A @-@ 4Fs , and were modified to A @-@ 4G standard before being delivered to Australia . These aircraft were collected from San Diego by HMAS Sydney in July 1971 , which delivered them to Jervis Bay the next month .
The Australian Skyhawks retained their US Navy serial numbers , but were also allocated shorter " buzz " numbers painted near their nose . The first batch of A @-@ 4Gs were allocated buzz numbers 882 to 889 , and the second batch were assigned 870 to 877 . The first two TA @-@ 4Gs were 880 and 881 , and the second pair 878 and 879 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Australian Navy = = =
RAN Skyhawk operations began in 1968 . On 10 January that year 805 Squadron was recommissioned at HMAS Albatross to operate the type from Melbourne . Skyhawk flight training started later that month , with six experienced pilots being instructed by a US Navy officer and two other Australian pilots who had previously been posted to the United States to qualify as instructors . Shortages of spare parts disrupted flying activities for much of the year , and the first course graduated in mid @-@ December 1968 rather than May as had been originally planned ; the shortages were largely the result of the US Navy prioritising deliveries to its forces fighting in Vietnam over the needs of the RAN . The A @-@ 4Gs first operated at sea in November 1968 , when they landed on board the British carrier HMS Hermes while she was visiting Australia .
The Australian Government considered deploying pilots from 805 Squadron to fight in Vietnam during 1967 and 1968 . On 12 May 1967 , the Naval Board recommended to the Government that six Skyhawk pilots and their ground crew be offered to the US Navy during May the next year after these personnel had completed their training on the new aircraft . This decision was motivated by a desire to keep the pilots gainfully occupied while Melbourne completed her refit , and would not involve deploying the A @-@ 4Gs as they lacked the weapons systems and avionics needed to counter North Vietnamese air defences . As part of the initial consideration of this option , the Minister for Air suggested that the Australian Skyhawks could be sent to Ubon Air Force Base in Thailand to relieve the CAC Sabre @-@ equipped No. 79 Squadron RAAF stationed there , but such a deployment was found to be impractical . The Government 's Defence Committee subsequently recommended that FAA fighter pilots be attached to a United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) unit stationed at Chu Lai Air Base and conduct combat missions over South Vietnam . While the USMC Skyhawk units frequently attacked targets in North Vietnam , the FAA aircrew were to be prohibited from joining these operations as the Government had previously decided to restrict Australia 's war effort to South Vietnam . This plan was announced by Prime Minister Harold Holt in October 1967 as part of a package of Australian reinforcements to the war effort in Vietnam . In the event , the deployment did not proceed as the delays to 805 Squadron 's initial Skyhawk conversion course meant that the pilots were not ready until after Melbourne re @-@ entered service . The Navy assessed that it would not be possible to both man a fighter squadron on the carrier and post pilots to Vietnam , and delaying the reactivation of Melbourne 's air group could lead to criticism of the Skyhawk acquisition . In February 1969 the Minister for Defence directed that no further consideration was to be given to sending naval fighter pilots to Vietnam .
724 Squadron , the RAN 's jet aircraft operational conversion unit , was also equipped with Skyhawks during 1968 . By December that year the squadron was operating a mixed fleet of TA @-@ 4G Skyhawks , de Havilland Sea Vampires and Sea Venoms from Albatross . The Skyhawk conversion courses conducted by this unit lasted for six months , and involved a total of about 110 hours of flying in TA @-@ 4Gs and A @-@ 4Gs . During this period pilots became familiar with flying the type and practised combat missions as well as air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling from other Skyhawks using buddy fuel tanks . They were also required to complete about 100 simulated carrier landings at Albatross before landing a Skyhawk on board Melbourne .
After Melbourne 's refit was completed , the ship put to sea with Skyhawks in 1969 . At this time her air group typically comprised four Skyhawks from 805 Squadron , six S @-@ 2 Trackers operated by 816 Squadron and eight of 817 Squadron 's Wessex anti @-@ submarine helicopters . The mix of aircraft carried varied from time to time . During the late 1960s and 1970s Melbourne made regular deployments throughout the Pacific region to exercise with the Royal Navy and US Navy . In May 1972 , 805 Squadron 's strength was increased to eight Skyhawks , and it temporarily operated with ten of the type during Exercise Kangaroo in May 1974 . A @-@ 4Gs were embarked on board the carrier when she visited the United Kingdom in 1977 to participate in the Jubilee Fleet Review , and one of the Skyhawks also took part in that year 's Royal International Air Tattoo . Melbourne underwent major refits between December 1970 and August 1971 , mid @-@ 1975 to June 1976 and from July 1978 to February 1979 . During the periods the carrier was under refit her air group operated from Albatross . Melbourne was the smallest carrier to regularly operate Skyhawks .
The A @-@ 4Gs operated in several roles while embarked on board Melbourne , and also took part in training exercises from air bases around Australia . While their main role was to provide air defence for the carrier and other warships using Sidewinder missiles and cannon , the Skyhawks lacked the manoeuvrability needed to be effective fighters , and had relatively poor performance at high altitude . The A @-@ 4Gs carried " dumb " bombs and rockets in the ground attack and maritime strike roles as they were unable to operate guided weapons . The aircraft could also be fitted with a D @-@ 704 buddy pod aerial refuelling system , which allowed them to refuel from one another in flight , as well as 150 or 300 gallon capacity drop tanks to extend their range . At this time the A @-@ 4Gs were the only Australian military aircraft capable of in @-@ flight refuelling . The Skyhawks ' long range and ability to carry a large weapons load meant that they proved more successful in air @-@ to @-@ ground roles than as air defence fighters . While 724 Squadron did not deploy on board the carrier , it took part in training exercises with other RAN units as well as elements of the Australian Army . A particularly important task for the squadron was supporting the work @-@ up of RAN warships by acting as targets ; in this role Skyhawks were often deployed to RAAF Base Laverton in Victoria and RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia . 724 Squadron also formed a Skyhawk @-@ equipped aerobatics team called the Checkmates .
From the mid @-@ 1970s the RAN investigated options to replace Melbourne and her air group . During 1977 the Navy sought tenders for an aircraft carrier capable of operating Harrier Jump Jets and helicopters . In February 1982 the Australian Government reached an agreement to purchase HMS Invincible from Britain the following year . As a result of this deal , Melbourne was decommissioned on 30 June 1982 , followed by 805 and 816 Squadrons on 2 July . All of the remaining ten Skyhawks were assigned to 724 Squadron , which continued to operate from Albatross . The sale of Invincible to Australia was cancelled in mid @-@ 1982 as a result of the Falklands War , and in March 1983 the new Hawke Government decided to not replace Melbourne . In May that year the Government also announced that the disbandment of the FAA 's fixed @-@ wing force would be brought forward as the RAN no longer needed such aircraft . Six of the A @-@ 4Gs were taken out of service on 30 June 1983 , and the other four were retained for target towing , radar and weapon calibration duties , and other fleet support tasks . While some consideration was given to using the Skyhawks in the close air support role , it was decided to retire the type . The last Australian A @-@ 4G flights took place on 30 June 1984 .
= = = Royal New Zealand Air Force = = =
The Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) had purchased a fleet of 14 A @-@ 4K Skyhawks in 1970 . These aircraft were a variant of the A @-@ 4E , and were used mainly in the close air support role . By the early 1980s they were becoming outdated , and lacked the air @-@ to @-@ air and advanced air @-@ to @-@ ground capabilities identified as requirements for the RNZAF in the 1983 Defence Review . Two of the A @-@ 4Ks had been destroyed in flying accidents and the remaining twelve aircraft fleet was not considered a viable force .
During the early 1980s the RNZAF considered options to replace or upgrade its A @-@ 4Ks . A team of senior RNZAF personnel visited France , the United Kingdom and the United States to assess new aircraft , and the New Zealand Government released a tender in May 1982 seeking proposals to upgrade the Skyhawks . After the decision was made to disband the RAN 's fighter force , the Australian Government offered the ten surviving A @-@ 4Gs and spare parts for these aircraft to New Zealand for $ NZ40 million . The Cabinet of New Zealand gave the RNZAF authority to begin formal discussions of this deal on 5 September 1983 . A team of Air Force personnel inspected the A @-@ 4Gs at Albatross in November that year and judged that they were in generally good condition . The commander of the RNZAF , Air Vice @-@ Marshal David Crooks , favoured purchasing the A @-@ 4Gs and then upgrading the entire A @-@ 4 fleet over the alternative of buying new aircraft , as this option was the cheapest way to improve the Air Force 's capabilities . He recommended to Prime Minister Rob Muldoon that the deal be taken up , and a decision to acquire the aircraft was made in May 1984 . As part of the purchase agreement , the New Zealand Government committed to return one of the Skyhawks to Australia for display after the type was retired from service .
The eight A @-@ 4Gs and two TA @-@ 4Gs were ferried from Nowra to RNZAF Base Ohakea in three groups from July 1984 . While they received minor modifications ( at a total cost of $ NZ2.7 million ) and new serial numbers before entering service with the RNZAF , the aircraft retained the A @-@ 4G designation at this time . All of the A @-@ 4Gs were initially assigned to No. 2 Squadron RNZAF , which was reformed on 11 December 1984 as an operational conversion and training unit . The spare parts sold with the A @-@ 4Gs greatly increased the RNZAF 's stocks , and were calculated to be worth about $ NZ30 million at commercial rates .
In order to address the shortcomings of the RNZAF 's Skyhawk fleet , the New Zealand Government approved the Project Kahu program in May 1985 . This project had a total cost of NZ $ 140 million , and primarily involved upgrading the A @-@ 4G and A @-@ 4Ks ' avionics to almost the standard of those fitted to the modern General Dynamics F @-@ 16C Fighting Falcon . The Skyhawks also received new wings drawn from the stock of spare parts purchased from the RAN in 1984 . Work began on the first aircraft in 1986 , and the program was completed in 1991 . After receiving the Kahu upgrade package the A @-@ 4Gs were re @-@ designated A @-@ 4Ks .
From 1990 until 2001 , No. 2 Squadron was stationed at HMAS Albatross , where it operated four A @-@ 4Ks and two TA @-@ 4Ks and trained alongside the Australian Defence Force ; several former Australian aircraft were among those serving with No. 2 Squadron during this period . The RNZAF continued to operate Skyhawks until 13 December 2001 , when both of its fighter squadrons were disbanded . In 2012 eight of the A @-@ 4Ks were sold to Draken International to provide training support for the US military ; six of these aircraft were former A @-@ 4Gs . The remaining nine A @-@ 4Ks were donated to museums .
= = Aircraft on display = =
In April 2011 , the New Zealand Government returned TA @-@ 4K N13 @-@ 154911 ( 880 in RAN service and NZ6255 in RNZAF service ) to Australia . The Skyhawk had served with 724 Squadron from 1967 until 1984 , and was flown back to Australia in April 2012 within one of the RAAF 's Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III transports . This aircraft is currently displayed at the RAN 's Fleet Air Arm Museum . Since November 1999 a former American A @-@ 4B ( 142871 ) was first displayed as A @-@ 4G 885 ( 154906 ) and from 2007 as A @-@ 4G 882 ( 154903 ) at this museum .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Ten of the twenty A @-@ 4Gs were lost during the type 's service with the RAN . This gave the Skyhawk a poor safety record , but the high loss rate was at least partially attributable to the intrinsic dangers involved in operating from an aircraft carrier . Two pilots were killed in these accidents .
Four Skyhawks were destroyed in accidents during the mid @-@ 1970s . The first A @-@ 4G to be lost was 873 , which crashed into the sea off Williamtown , New South Wales , on 5 June 1973 due to an engine failure ; its pilot ejected and was rescued by a RAAF helicopter . On 8 November that year Melbourne suffered a catapult failure while launching 889 near Singapore , and the aircraft landed in the sea in front of the carrier . While Melbourne sailed directly over the downed Skyhawk , its pilot managed to free himself and was picked up by a helicopter . The next loss took place on 16 May 1974 when TA @-@ 4G 879 crashed into the sea while conducting a practice attack on Melbourne off the south coast of New South Wales , killing the pilot . On 16 May the next year A @-@ 4Gs 870 and 872 collided while flying near Jervis Bay ; 872 crashed , resulting in the death of its pilot , but 870 managed to return to Albatross .
The other six A @-@ 4G losses occurred during 1979 and 1980 . On 23 January 1979 , 870 suffered an in @-@ flight turbine failure and crashed near Braidwood , New South Wales ; its pilot was rescued by a RAAF helicopter . On 23 May that year 888 ran off the flight deck of Melbourne after an arrester wire snapped during a landing near Jervis Bay . Its pilot , a US Navy exchange officer , survived . On 24 September 1979 , 886 rolled over the side of the carrier while being moved along the flight deck in heavy seas ; an FAA ground crewman who was sitting in the cockpit at the time managed to escape after the aircraft hit the water and was rescued by the destroyer HMAS Hobart . The next loss occurred on 28 April 1980 when the engine of TA @-@ 4G 878 failed while it was preparing to land at HMAS Albatross . The pilot of this aircraft ejected safely and was rescued by a RAN helicopter . On 2 October that year the A @-@ 4G 875 crashed into the sea near Sumatra , when its engine failed while being launched from Melbourne ; its pilot ejected and was rescued . The final loss occurred on 21 October 1980 , when 885 crashed into the sea as a result of a catapult failure ; the pilot was picked up by a Wessex .
Two of the former A @-@ 4Gs were also lost during their service with the RNZAF . On 16 February 2001 , NZ6211 ( 882 in Australian service ) crashed near Nowra while practising an aerobatic manoeuvre with another Skyhawk ; its pilot , who was also the commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron , was killed instantly . The last former A @-@ 4G to be lost was TA @-@ 4K NZ6256 ( the former 881 ) , which crashed into the Indian Ocean off Perth , Western Australia on 20 March 2001 . Its pilot ejected and survived .
= = Operators = =
Royal Australian Navy
724 Squadron
805 Squadron
Royal New Zealand Air Force
No. 2 Squadron
= = Specifications ( A @-@ 4G Skyhawk ) = =
Data from Wilson 1993
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 12 @.@ 27 metres ( 40 @.@ 3 ft )
Wingspan : 8 @.@ 38 metres ( 27 @.@ 5 ft )
Height : 4 @.@ 62 metres ( 15 @.@ 2 ft )
Wing area : 24 @.@ 15 m ² ( 260 ft ² )
Empty weight : 4 @,@ 581 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 100 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 11 @,@ 113 kilograms ( 24 @,@ 500 lb ) ( carrier @-@ based operations ) ( 12 @,@ 438 kilograms ( 27 @,@ 421 lb ) ( land @-@ based operations ) )
Performance
Maximum speed : 1 @,@ 086 kilometres per hour ( 675 mph ) ( at sea level )
Cruise speed : 788 kilometres per hour ( 490 mph )
Combat radius : 644 kilometres ( 400 mi )
Ferry range : with external fuel tanks , 2440 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 520 mi )
Service ceiling : 14 @,@ 600 metres ( 47 @,@ 900 ft )
Rate of climb : 1 @,@ 713 m / minute ( 5 @,@ 620 ft / minute )
Armament
Guns : 2 x 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Colt Mk 12 cannon , 100 rounds / gun
Hardpoints : Five with a capacity of 3 @,@ 629 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 001 lb ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : Up to five 127 mm Mk 32 Zuni rockets or 2 @.@ 75 inch FFAR rocket pods
Missiles : 2 x AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Bombs : Three clusters of three 250 or 500 lb bombs , five single 250 or 500 lb bombs or three single 1 @,@ 000 lb bombs
Avionics
AN / APG @-@ 53A radar
ASN @-@ 1 Dead Reckoning Navigation Computer
Bendix Automatic Flight Control System
Identification friend or foe system
Tactical air navigation equipment
Ultra high frequency ( UHF ) radio
UHF direction finder
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= Song thrush =
The song thrush ( Turdus philomelos ) is a thrush that breeds across much of Eurasia . It has brown upperparts and black @-@ spotted cream or buff underparts and has three recognised subspecies . Its distinctive song , which has repeated musical phrases , has frequently been referred to in poetry .
The song thrush breeds in forests , gardens and parks , and is partially migratory with many birds wintering in southern Europe , North Africa and the Middle East ; it has also been introduced into New Zealand and Australia . Although it is not threatened globally , there have been serious population declines in parts of Europe , possibly due to changes in farming practices .
The song thrush builds a neat mud @-@ lined cup nest in a bush or tree and lays four or five dark @-@ spotted blue eggs . It is omnivorous and has the habit of using a favourite stone as an " anvil " on which to break open the shells of snails . Like other perching birds ( passerines ) , it is affected by external and internal parasites and is vulnerable to predation by cats and birds of prey .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
= = = Name = = =
The song thrush was described by German ornithologist Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1831 , and still bears its original scientific name , Turdus philomelos . The generic name , Turdus , is the Latin for thrush , and the specific epithet refers to a character in Greek mythology , Philomela , who had her tongue cut out , but was changed into a singing bird . Her name is derived from the Ancient Greek Φιλο philo- ( loving ) , and μέλος melos ( song ) . The dialect names throstle and mavis both mean thrush , being related to the German drossel and French mauvis respectively . Throstle dates back to at least the fourteenth century and was used by Chaucer in the Parliament of Fowls . Mavis is derived via Middle English mavys and Old French mauvis from Middle Breton milhuyt meaning " thrush . " Mavis ( Μαβής ) can also mean " purple " in Greek .
= = = Classification = = =
A recent molecular study indicates that the song thrush 's closest relatives are the similarly plumaged mistle thrush ( T. viscivorus ) and Chinese thrush ( T. mupinensis ) ; these three species are early offshoots from the lineage of Turdus thrushes before they diversified and spread across the globe , and hence are less closely related to other European thrush species such as the blackbird ( T. merula ) .
The song thrush has three subspecies , with the nominate subspecies , T. p. philomelos , covering the majority of the species ' range . T. p. hebridensis , described by British ornithologist William Eagle Clarke in 1913 , is a mainly sedentary ( non @-@ migratory ) form found in the Outer Hebrides and Isle of Skye in Scotland . It is the darkest subspecies , with a dark brown back , greyish rump , pale buff background colour to the underparts and grey @-@ tinged flanks .
T. p. clarkei , described by German zoologist Ernst Hartert in 1909 , and named for William Eagle Clarke , breeds in the rest of Great Britain and Ireland and on mainland Europe in France , Belgium , the Netherlands and possibly somewhat further east . It has brown upperparts which are warmer in tone than those of the nominate form , an olive @-@ tinged rump and rich yellow background colour to the underparts . It is a partial migrant with some birds wintering in southern France and Iberia . This form intergrades with the nominate subspecies in central Europe , and with T. p. hebridensis in the Inner Hebrides and western Scotland , and in these areas birds show intermediate characteristics . Additional subspecies , such as T. p. nataliae of Siberia , proposed by the Russian Sergei Buturlin in 1929 , are not widely accepted .
= = Description = =
The song thrush ( as represented by the nominate subspecies T. p. philomelos ) is 20 to 23 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 8 to 9 @.@ 25 in ) in length and weighs 50 – 107 grammes ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 8 oz ) . The sexes are similar , with plain brown backs and neatly black @-@ spotted cream or yellow @-@ buff underparts , becoming paler on the belly . The underwing is warm yellow , the bill is yellowish and the legs and feet are pink . The upperparts of this species become colder in tone from west to east across the breeding range from Sweden to Siberia . The juvenile resembles the adult , but has buff or orange streaks on the back and wing coverts .
The most similar European thrush species is the redwing ( T. iliacus ) , but that bird has a strong white supercilium , red flanks , and shows a red underwing in flight . The mistle thrush ( T. viscivorus ) is much larger and has white tail corners , and the Chinese thrush ( T. mupinensis ) , although much more similar in plumage , has black face markings and does not overlap in range .
The song thrush has a short , sharp tsip call , replaced on migration by a thin high seep , similar to the redwing 's call but shorter . The alarm call is a chook @-@ chook becoming shorter and more strident with increasing danger . The male 's song , given from trees , rooftops or other elevated perches , is a loud clear run of musical phrases , repeated two to four times , filip filip filip codidio codidio quitquiquit tittit tittit tereret tereret tereret , and interspersed with grating notes and mimicry . It is given mainly from February to June by the Outer Hebridean race , but from November to July by the more widespread subspecies . For its weight , this species has one of the loudest bird calls .
An individual male may have a repertoire of more than 100 phrases , many copied from its parents and neighbouring birds . Mimicry may include the imitation of man @-@ made items like telephones , and the song thrush will also repeat the calls of captive birds , including exotics such as the white @-@ faced whistling duck .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The song thrush breeds in most of Europe ( although not in the greater part of Iberia , lowland Italy or southern Greece ) , and across the Ukraine and Russia almost to Lake Baikal . It reaches to 75 ° N in Norway , but only to about 60 ° N in Siberia . Birds from Scandinavia , Eastern Europe and Russia winter around the Mediterranean , North Africa and the Middle East , but only some of the birds in the milder west of the breeding range leave their breeding areas .
Birds of the nominate subspecies were introduced to New Zealand and Australia by acclimatisation societies between 1860 and 1880 , apparently for purely sentimental reasons . In New Zealand , where it was introduced on both the main islands , the song thrush quickly established itself and spread to surrounding islands such as the Kermadecs , Chatham and Auckland Islands . Although it is common and widespread in New Zealand , in Australia only a small population survives around Melbourne . In New Zealand , there appears to be a limited detrimental effect on some invertebrates due to predation by introduced bird species , and the song thrush also damages commercial fruit crops in that country . As an introduced species it has no legal protection in New Zealand , and can be killed at any time .
The song thrush typically nests in forest with good undergrowth and nearby more open areas , and in western Europe also uses gardens and parks . It breeds up to the tree @-@ line , reaching 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 250 ft ) in Switzerland . The island subspecies T. p. hebridensis breeds in more open country , including heathland , and in the east of the song thrush 's Eurasian range , the nominate subspecies is restricted to the edge of the dense conifer forests .
In intensively farmed areas where agricultural practices appear to have made cropped land unsuitable , gardens are an important breeding habitat . In one English study , only 3 @.@ 5 % of territories were found in farmland , whereas gardens held 71 @.@ 5 % of the territories , despite that habitat making up only 2 % of the total area . The remaining nests were in woodlands ( 1 % of total area ) .
The winter habitat is similar to that used for breeding , except that high ground and other exposed localities are avoided ; however , the island subspecies T. p. hebridensis will frequent the seashore in winter .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The song thrush is not usually gregarious , although several birds may roost together in winter or be loosely associated in suitable feeding habitats , perhaps with other thrushes such as the blackbird , fieldfare , redwing and dark @-@ throated thrush . Unlike the more nomadic fieldfare and redwing , the song thrush tends to return regularly to the same wintering areas .
This is a monogamous territorial species , and in areas where it is fully migratory , the male re @-@ establishes its breeding territory and starts singing as soon as he returns . In the milder areas where some birds stay year round , the resident male remains in his breeding territory , singing intermittently , but the female may establish a separate individual wintering range until pair formation begins in the early spring .
During migration , the song thrush travels mainly at night with a strong and direct flight action . It flies in loose flocks which cross the sea on a broad front rather than concentrating at short crossings ( as occurs in the migration of large soaring birds ) , and calls frequently to maintain contact . Migration may start as early as late August in the most easterly and northerly parts of the range , but the majority of birds , with shorter distances to cover , head south from September to mid @-@ December . However , hard weather may force further movement . Return migration varies between mid @-@ February around the Mediterranean to May in northern Sweden and central Siberia . Vagrants have been recorded in Greenland , various Atlantic islands , and West Africa .
= = = Breeding and survival = = =
The female song thrush builds a neat cup @-@ shaped nest lined with mud and dry grass in a bush , tree or creeper , or , in the case of the Hebridean subspecies , on the ground . She lays four or five bright glossy blue eggs which are lightly spotted with black or purple ; they are typically 2 @.@ 7 x 2 @.@ 0 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 x 1 @.@ 06 in ) in size and weigh 6 @.@ 0 grammes ( 0 @.@ 21 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The female incubates the eggs alone for 10 – 17 days , and after hatching a similar time elapses until the young fledge . Two or three broods in a year is normal , although only one may be raised in the north of the range . On average , 54 @.@ 6 % of British juveniles survive the first year of life , and the adult annual survival rate is 62 @.@ 2 % . The typical lifespan is three years , but the maximum recorded age is 10 years 8 months . The song thrush is occasionally a host of parasitic cuckoos , such as the common cuckoo , but this is very rare because the thrush recognizes the cuckoo 's non @-@ mimetic eggs . However , the song thrush does not demonstrate the same aggression toward the adult cuckoo that is shown by the blackbird . The introduced birds in New Zealand , where the cuckoo does not occur , have , over the past 130 years , retained the ability to recognise and reject non @-@ mimetic eggs .
Adult birds may be killed by cats , little owls and sparrowhawks , and eggs and nestlings are taken by magpies , jays , and , where present , grey squirrels . As with other passerine birds , parasites are common , and include endoparasites , such as the nematode Splendidofilaria ( Avifilaria ) mavis whose specific name mavis derives from this thrush . A Russian study of blood parasites showed that all the fieldfares , redwings and song thrushes sampled carried haematozoans , particularly Haemoproteus and Trypanosoma . Ixodes ticks are also common , and can carry pathogens , including tick @-@ borne encephalitis in forested areas of central and eastern Europe and Russia , and , more widely , Borrelia bacteria . Some species of Borrelia cause Lyme disease , and ground @-@ feeding birds like the song thrush may act as a reservoir for the disease .
= = = Feeding = = =
The song thrush is omnivorous , eating a wide range of invertebrates , especially earthworms and snails , as well as soft fruit and berries . Like its relative , the blackbird , the song thrush finds animal prey by sight , has a run @-@ and @-@ stop hunting technique on open ground , and will rummage through leaf @-@ litter seeking potential food items .
Land snails are an especially important food item when drought or hard weather makes it difficult to find other food . The thrush often uses a favourite stone as an " anvil " on which to break the shell of the snail before extracting the soft body and invariably wiping it on the ground before consumption . Young birds initially flick objects and attempt to play with them until they learn to use anvils as tools to smash snails . The nestlings are mainly fed on animal food such as worms , slugs , snails and insect larvae .
The grove Snail ( Cepaea nemoralis ) is regularly eaten by the song thrush , and its polymorphic shell patterns have been suggested as evolutionary responses to reduce predation ; however , song thrushes may not be the only selective force involved .
= = Status and conservation = =
The song thrush has an extensive range , estimated at 10 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) , and a large population , with an estimated 40 to 71 million individuals in Europe alone .
In the western Palaearctic , there is evidence of population decline , but at a level below the threshold required for global conservation concern ( i.e. , a reduction in numbers of more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) and the IUCN Red List categorises this species as of " Least Concern " . In Great Britain and the Netherlands , there has been a more than 50 % decline in population and the song thrush is included in regional Red Lists . The decreases are greatest in farmlands ( 73 % since the mid @-@ 1970s ) and believed to be due to changes in agricultural practices in recent decades . The precise reasons for the decline are not known but may be related to the loss of hedgerows , a move to sowing crops in autumn rather than spring , and possibly the increased use of pesticides . These changes may have reduced the availability of food and of nest sites . In gardens , the use of poison bait to control slugs and snails may pose a threat and in urban areas , some thrushes are killed while using the hard surface of roads to smash snails .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The song thrush 's characteristic song , with melodic phrases repeated twice or more , is described by the nineteenth @-@ century British poet Robert Browning in his poem Home Thoughts , from Abroad :
That 's the wise thrush ; he sings each song twice over ,
Lest you should think he never could recapture
The first fine careless rapture !
The song also inspired the nineteenth @-@ century British writer Thomas Hardy , who spoke in Darkling Thrush of the bird 's " full @-@ hearted song evensong / Of joy illimited " , but twentieth @-@ century British poet Ted Hughes in Thrushes concentrated on its hunting prowess : " Nothing but bounce and / stab / and a ravening second " . Nineteenth @-@ century Welsh poet Edward Thomas wrote 15 poems concerning blackbirds or thrushes , including The Thrush :
I hear the thrush , and I see
Him alone at the end of the lane
Near the bare poplar 's tip ,
Singing continuously .
In The Tables Turned , Romantic poet William Wordsworth references the song thrush , writing
Hark , how blithe the throstle sings
And he is no mean preacher
Come forth into the light of things
Let Nature be your teacher
The song thrush is the emblem of West Bromwich Albion Football Club , chosen because the public house in which the team used to change kept a pet thrush in a cage . It also gave rise to Albion 's early nickname , The Throstles .
= = = As food = = =
Thrushes have been trapped for food from as far back as 12 @,@ 000 years ago and an early reference is found in the Odyssey : " Then , as doves or thrushes beating their spread wings against some snare rigged up in thickets — flying in for a cozy nest but a grisly bed receives them . " Hunting continues today around the Mediterranean , but is not believed to be a major factor in this species ' decline in parts of its range .
In Spain , this species is normally caught as it migrates through the country , often using birdlime which , although banned by the European Union , is still tolerated and permitted in the Valencian Community . In 2003 and 2004 the EU tried , but failed , to stop this practice in the Valencian region .
= = = As pets = = =
Up to at least the nineteenth century the song thrush was kept as a cage bird because of its melodious voice . As with hunting , there is little evidence that the taking of wild birds for aviculture has had a significant effect on wild populations .
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= Archaeopteryx =
Archaeopteryx ( / ˌɑːrkiːˈɒptərᵻks / ) , sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel ( " original bird " or " first bird " ) , is a genus of bird @-@ like dinosaurs that is transitional between non @-@ avian feathered dinosaurs and modern birds . The name derives from the ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος ( archaīos ) meaning " ancient " , and πτέρυξ ( ptéryx ) , meaning " feather " or " wing " . Between the late nineteenth century and the early twenty @-@ first century , Archaeopteryx had been generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird ( member of the group Avialae ) . Older potential avialans have since been identified , including Anchiornis , Xiaotingia , and Aurornis .
Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago , in what is now southern Germany during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea , much closer to the equator than it is now . Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie , with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven , the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 ft 8 in ) in length . Despite their small size , broad wings , and inferred ability to fly or glide , Archaeopteryx had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds . In particular , they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids : jaws with sharp teeth , three fingers with claws , a long bony tail , hyperextensible second toes ( " killing claw " ) , feathers ( which also suggest warm @-@ bloodedness ) , and various features of the skeleton .
These features make Archaeopteryx a clear candidate for a transitional fossil between non @-@ avian dinosaurs and birds . Thus , Archaeopteryx plays an important role , not only in the study of the origin of birds , but in the study of dinosaurs . It was named from a single feather in 1861 . That same year , the first complete specimen of Archaeopteryx was announced . Over the years , ten more fossils of Archaeopteryx have surfaced . Despite variation among these fossils , most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species , although this is still debated .
Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers . Because these feathers are of an advanced form ( flight feathers ) , these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic . The type specimen of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species . Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin 's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds , the transitional fossils debate , and confirmation of evolution .
= = Description = =
Archaeopteryx lived during the early Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period , approximately 150 @.@ 8 – 148 @.@ 5 million years ago . Most of the specimens of Archaeopteryx that have been discovered come from the Solnhofen limestone in Bavaria , southern Germany , which is a lagerstätte , a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils .
Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a raven , with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length . It could reach up to 500 millimetres ( 20 in ) in body length , with an estimated mass of 0 @.@ 8 to 1 kilogram ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 2 lb ) . Archaeopteryx feathers , although less documented than its other features , were very similar in structure to modern @-@ day bird feathers . Despite the presence of numerous avian features , Archaeopteryx had many non @-@ avian theropod dinosaur characteristics . Unlike modern birds , Archaeopteryx had small teeth , as well as a long bony tail , features which Archaeopteryx shared with other dinosaurs of the time .
Because it displays features common to both birds and non @-@ avian dinosaurs , Archaeopteryx has often been considered a link between them . In the 1970s , John Ostrom , following T. H. Huxley 's lead in 1868 , argued that birds evolved within theropod dinosaurs and Archaeopteryx was a critical piece of evidence for this argument ; it had several avian features , such as a wishbone , flight feathers , wings , and a partially reversed first toe along with dinosaur and theropod features . For instance , it has a long ascending process of the ankle bone , interdental plates , an obturator process of the ischium , and long chevrons in the tail . In particular , Ostrom found that Archaeopteryx was remarkably similar to the theropod family Dromaeosauridae .
= = = Plumage = = =
Specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well @-@ developed flight feathers . They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds , with vanes given stability by a barb @-@ barbule @-@ barbicel arrangement . The tail feathers were less asymmetrical , again in line with the situation in modern birds and also had firm vanes . The thumb did not yet bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers .
The body plumage of Archaeopteryx is less well documented and has only been properly researched in the well @-@ preserved Berlin specimen . Thus , as more than one species seems to be involved , the research into the Berlin specimen 's feathers does not necessarily hold true for the rest of the species of Archaeopteryx . In the Berlin specimen , there are " trousers " of well @-@ developed feathers on the legs ; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure , but are somewhat decomposed ( they lack barbicels as in ratites ) . In part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight .
A patch of pennaceous feathers is found running along its back , which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm , although not as stiff as the flight @-@ related feathers . Apart from that , the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of " proto @-@ down " not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur Sinosauropteryx : decomposed and fluffy , and possibly even appearing more like fur than feathers in life ( although not in their microscopic structure ) . These occur on the remainder of the body — although some feathers did not fossilize and others were obliterated during preparation , leaving bare patches on specimens — and the lower neck .
There is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head . While these conceivably may have been nude , this may still be an artefact of preservation . It appears that most Archaeopteryx specimens became embedded in anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their backs in the sea — the head and neck and the tail are generally bent downward , which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded , with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape ( death pose ) of the fossil specimens was achieved . This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose , which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment . So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial , the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off , while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained .
= = = = Colouration = = = =
In 2011 , graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues performed the first colour study on an Archaeopteryx specimen . Using scanning electron microscopy technology and energy @-@ dispersive X @-@ ray analysis , the team was able to detect the structure of melanosomes in the single @-@ feather specimen described in 1861 . The resultant structure was then compared to that of 87 modern bird species and was determined with a high percentage of likelihood to be black . The feather studied was most probably a single covert , which would have partly covered the primary feathers on the wings . The study does not mean that Archaeopteryx was entirely black , but suggests that it had some black colouration which included the coverts . Carney pointed out that this is consistent with what we know of modern flight characteristics , in that black melanosomes have structural properties that strengthen feathers for flight . In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry , new analyses of Archaeopteryx 's feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark @-@ coloured plumage , with only the tips of its flight feathers being primarily black . However , it was later shown that this interpretation was incorrect , and that the isolated feather was indeed matte black with a darker tip .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Flight = = =
As in the wings of modern birds , the flight feathers of Archaeopteryx were somewhat asymmetrical and the tail feathers were rather broad . This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation , but it is unclear whether Archaeopteryx was capable of flapping flight or simply a glider . The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that Archaeopteryx was not a very strong flier , but flight muscles might have attached to the thick , boomerang @-@ shaped wishbone , the platelike coracoids , or perhaps , to a cartilaginous sternum . The sideways orientation of the glenoid ( shoulder ) joint between scapula , coracoid , and humerus — instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds — may indicate that Archaeopteryx was unable to lift its wings above its back , a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight . According to a study by Philip Senter in 2006 , Archaeopteryx was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do , but it may well have used a downstroke @-@ only flap @-@ assisted gliding technique .
Archaeopteryx wings were relatively large , which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius . The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag , but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush ( similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush , such as crows and pheasants ) . The presence of " hind wings " , asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor , also would have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx . The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006 , suggested that the structures formed up to 12 % of the total airfoil . This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6 % and turning radius by up to 12 % .
The feathers of Archaeopteryx were asymmetrical . This has been interpreted as evidence that it was a flyer , because flightless birds tend to have symmetrical feathers . Some scientists , including Thomson and Speakman , have questioned this . They studied more than 70 families of living birds , and found that some flightless types do have a range of asymmetry in their feathers , and that the feathers of Archaeopteryx fall into this range . The degree of asymmetry seen in Archaeopteryx is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds .
In 2010 , Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal Science published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx . The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass . The authors determined that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis , were unable to use flapping flight . This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe . Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers , and Currie speculated that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis must have been able to fly to some degree , as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments , suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water . Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study , arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds , and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises . Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of 250 g ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) for the Munich specimen Archaeopteryx , a young juvenile , based on published mass estimates of larger specimens . Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about 140 g ( 4 @.@ 9 oz ) . Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves , noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved . Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 03 in ) for the longest primary feather , which Paul could not confirm using photographs . Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers , finding rachises 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 049 – 0 @.@ 055 in ) across . Despite these criticisms , Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions . They claimed that Paul 's statement , that an adult Archaeopteryx would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen , was dubious . This , they reasoned , would require an even thicker rachis , evidence for which has not yet been presented . Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight , but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard , which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits ( see Evolution of bird flight ) .
In 2004 , scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London Archaeopteryx concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs , indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying . The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan . The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one @-@ third of the brain . Other well @-@ developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination . The skull scan also revealed the structure of its inner ear . The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of non @-@ avian reptiles . These characteristics taken together suggest that Archaeopteryx had the keen sense of hearing , balance , spatial perception , and coordination needed to fly . Archaeopteryx had a cerebrum @-@ to @-@ brain @-@ volume ratio 78 % of the way to modern birds from the condition of non @-@ coelurosaurian dinosaurs such as Carcharodontosaurus or Allosaurus , which had a crocodile @-@ like anatomy of the brain and inner ear . Newer research shows that while the Archaeopteryx brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods , it had a more generalized brain volume among maniraptoran dinosaurs , even smaller than that of other non @-@ avian dinosaurs in several instances , which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade .
Recent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of the feather , whereas Archaeopteryx lacks this large barb angle , indicating potentially weak flight abilities .
Archaeopteryx continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds . Some scientists see it as a semi @-@ arboreal climbing animal , following the idea that birds evolved from tree @-@ dwelling gliders ( the " trees down " hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh ) . Other scientists see Archaeopteryx as running quickly along the ground , supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running ( the " ground up " hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston ) . Still others suggest that Archaeopteryx might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground , like modern crows , and this latter view is what currently is considered best @-@ supported by morphological characters . Altogether , it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching . A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that Archaeopteryx used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches , and alternatively , to cover longer distances ( mainly ) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops .
= = = Growth = = =
A histological study by Erickson , Norell , Zhongue , and others in 2009 estimated that Archaeopteryx grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds , presumably because the outermost portions of Archaeopteryx bones appear poorly vascularized ; in living vertebrates poorly vascularized bone is correlated with slow growth rate . They also assume that all known skeletons of Archaeopteryx come from juvenile specimens . Because the bones of Archaeopteryx could not be histologically sectioned in a formal skeletochronological ( growth ring ) analysis , Erickson and colleagues used bone vascularity ( porosity ) to estimate bone growth rate . They assumed that poorly vascularized bone grows at similar rates in all birds and in Archaeopteryx . The poorly vascularized bone of Archaeopteryx might have grown as slowly as that in a mallard ( 2 @.@ 5 micrometres per day ) or as fast as that in an ostrich ( 4 @.@ 2 micrometres per day ) . Using this range of bone growth rates , they calculated how long it would take to " grow " each specimen of Archaeopteryx to the observed size ; it may have taken at least 970 days ( there were 375 days in a Late Jurassic year ) to reach an adult size of 0 @.@ 8 – 1 kg ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 2 lb ) . The study also found that the avialans Jeholornis and Sapeornis grew relatively slowly , as did the dromaeosaurid Mahakala . The avialans Confuciusornis and Ichthyornis grew relatively quickly , following a growth trend similar to that of modern birds . One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi , and the authors speculated that Archaeopteryx and the kiwi had similar basal metabolic rate .
= = = Daily activity patterns = = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings of Archaeopteryx and modern birds and reptiles indicate that it may have been diurnal , similar to most modern birds .
= = Paleoecology = =
The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day . The latitude was similar to Florida , though the climate was likely to have been drier , as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers . Evidence of plants , although scarce , include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects , small lizards , pterosaurs , and Compsognathus .
The excellent preservation of Archaeopteryx fossils and other terrestrial fossils found at Solnhofen indicates that they did not travel far before becoming preserved . The Archaeopteryx specimens found were therefore likely to have lived on the low islands surrounding the Solnhofen lagoon rather than to have been corpses that drifted in from farther away . Archaeopteryx skeletons are considerably less numerous in the deposits of Solnhofen than those of pterosaurs , of which seven genera have been found . The pterosaurs included species such as Rhamphorhynchus belonging to the Rhamphorhynchidae , the group which dominated the niche currently occupied by seabirds , and which became extinct at the end of the Jurassic . The pterosaurs , which also included Pterodactylus , were common enough that it is unlikely that the specimens found are vagrants from the larger islands 50 km ( 31 mi ) to the north .
The islands that surrounded the Solnhofen lagoon were low lying , semi @-@ arid , and sub @-@ tropical with a long dry season and little rain . The closest modern analogue for the Solnhofen conditions is said to be Orca Basin in the northern Gulf of Mexico , although it is much deeper than the Solnhofen lagoons . The flora of these islands was adapted to these dry conditions and consisted mostly of low ( 3 m ( 10 ft ) ) shrubs . Contrary to reconstructions of Archaeopteryx climbing large trees , these seem to have been mostly absent from the islands ; few trunks have been found in the sediments and fossilized tree pollen also is absent .
The lifestyle of Archaeopteryx is difficult to reconstruct and there are several theories regarding it . Some researchers suggest that it was primarily adapted to life on the ground , while other researchers suggest that it was principally arboreal . The absence of trees does not preclude Archaeopteryx from an arboreal lifestyle , as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs . Various aspects of the morphology of Archaeopteryx point to either an arboreal or ground existence , including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet ; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground , as well as along the shores of the lagoon . It most likely hunted small prey , seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough , or with its claws if it was larger .
= = History of discovery = =
Over the years , twelve body fossil specimens of Archaeopteryx and a feather that may belong to it have been found . All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits , quarried for centuries , near Solnhofen , Germany .
The initial discovery , a single feather , was unearthed in 1860 or 1861 and described in 1861 by Hermann von Meyer . It is currently located at the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin . This is generally assigned to Archaeopteryx and was the initial holotype , but whether it is a feather of this species , or another , as yet undiscovered , proto @-@ bird is unknown . There are some indications it is not from the same animal as most of the skeletons ( the " typical " A. lithographica ) .
The first skeleton , known as the London Specimen ( BMNH 37001 ) , was unearthed in 1861 near Langenaltheim , Germany , and perhaps given to local physician Karl Häberlein in return for medical services . He then sold it for £ 700 to the Natural History Museum in London , where it remains . Missing most of its head and neck , it was described in 1863 by Richard Owen as Archaeopteryx macrura , allowing for the possibility it did not belong to the same species as the feather . In the subsequent fourth edition of his On the Origin of Species , Charles Darwin described how some authors had maintained " that the whole class of birds came suddenly into existence during the eocene period ; but now we know , on the authority of professor Owen , that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand ; and still more recently , that strange bird , the Archeopteryx , with a long lizard @-@ like tail , bearing a pair of feathers on each joint , and with its wings furnished with two free claws , has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solnhofen . Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world . "
The Greek term " pteryx " ( πτέρυξ ) primarily means " wing " , but can also designate merely " feather " . Meyer suggested this in his description . At first he referred to a single feather which appeared to resemble a modern bird 's remex ( wing feather ) , but he had heard of and been shown a rough sketch of the London specimen , to which he referred as a " Skelett eines mit ähnlichen Federn bedeckten Tieres " ( " skeleton of an animal covered in similar feathers " ) . In German , this ambiguity is resolved by the term Schwinge which does not necessarily mean a wing used for flying . Urschwinge was the favoured translation of Archaeopteryx among German scholars in the late nineteenth century . In English , " ancient pinion " offers a rough approximation .
Since then twelve specimens have been recovered :
The Berlin Specimen ( HMN 1880 / 81 ) was discovered in 1874 or 1875 on the Blumenberg near Eichstätt , Germany , by farmer Jakob Niemeyer . He sold this precious fossil for the money to buy a cow in 1876 , to innkeeper Johann Dörr , who again sold it to Ernst Otto Häberlein , the son of K. Häberlein . Placed on sale between 1877 and 1881 , with potential buyers including O. C. Marsh of Yale University 's Peabody Museum , it eventually was bought for 20 @,@ 000 Goldmark by the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde , where it now is displayed . The transaction was financed by Ernst Werner von Siemens , founder of the famous company that bears his name . Described in 1884 by Wilhelm Dames , it is the most complete specimen , and the first with a complete head . In 1897 it was named by Dames as a new species , A. siemensii ; though often considered a synonym of A. lithographica , several 21st century studies have concluded that it is a distinct species which includes the Berlin , Munich , and Thermopolis specimens .
Composed of a torso , the Maxberg Specimen ( S5 ) was discovered in 1956 near Langenaltheim ; it was brought to the attention of professor Florian Heller in 1958 and described by him in 1959 . The specimen is missing its head and tail , although the rest of the skeleton is mostly intact . Although it was once exhibited at the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen , it is currently missing . It belonged to Eduard Opitsch , who loaned it to the museum until 1974 . After his death in 1991 , it was discovered that the specimen was missing and may have been stolen or sold .
The Haarlem Specimen ( TM 6428 / 29 , also known as the Teyler Specimen ) was discovered in 1855 near Riedenburg , Germany , and described as a Pterodactylus crassipes in 1857 by Meyer . It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem , Netherlands . It was the very first specimen , despite the classification error . It is also one of the least complete specimens , consisting mostly of limb bones , isolated cervical vertebrae , and ribs .
The Eichstätt Specimen ( JM 2257 ) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell , Germany , and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974 . Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt , Germany , it is the smallest known specimen and has the second best head . It is possibly a separate genus ( Jurapteryx recurva ) or species ( A. recurva ) .
The Solnhofen Specimen ( unnumbered specimen ) was discovered in the 1970s near Eichstätt , Germany , and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer . Currently located at the Bürgermeister @-@ Müller @-@ Museum in Solnhofen , it originally was classified as Compsognathus by an amateur collector , the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named . It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species , Wellnhoferia grandis . It is missing only portions of the neck , tail , backbone , and head .
The Munich Specimen ( BSP 1999 I 50 , formerly known as the Solenhofer @-@ Aktien @-@ Verein Specimen ) was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer . It currently is located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich , to which it was sold in 1999 for 1 @.@ 9 million Deutschmark . What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid , but a cartilaginous sternum may have been present . Only the front of its face is missing . It has been used as the basis for a distinct species , A. bavarica , but more recent studies suggest it belongs to A. siemensii .
An eighth , fragmentary specimen was discovered in 1990 , not in Solnhofen limestone , but in somewhat younger sediments at Daiting , Suevia . Therefore , it is known as the Daiting Specimen , and had been known since 1996 only from a cast , briefly shown at the Naturkundemuseum in Bamberg . The original was purchased by palaeontologist Raimund Albertsdörfer in 2009 . It was on display for the first time with six other original fossils of Archaeopteryx at the Munich Mineral Show in October 2009 . A first , quick look by scientists indicates that this specimen might represent a new species of Archaeopteryx . It was found in a limestone bed that was a few hundred thousand years younger than the other finds .
Another fragmentary fossil was found in 2000 . It is in private possession and , since 2004 , on loan to the Bürgermeister @-@ Müller Museum in Solnhofen , so it is called the Bürgermeister @-@ Müller Specimen ; the institute itself officially refers to it as the " Exemplar of the families Ottman & Steil , Solnhofen " . As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of Archaeopteryx , the popular name of this fossil is " chicken wing " .
Long in a private collection in Switzerland , the Thermopolis Specimen ( WDC CSG 100 ) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr , Pohl , and Peters . Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis , Wyoming , it has the best @-@ preserved head and feet ; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved . The " Thermopolis " specimen was described in the 2 December 2005 Science journal article as " A well @-@ preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features " ; it shows that Archaeopteryx lacked a reversed toe — a universal feature of birds — limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk @-@ climbing lifestyle . This has been interpreted as evidence of theropod ancestry . In 1988 , Gregory S. Paul claimed to have found evidence of a hyperextensible second toe , but this was not verified and accepted by other scientists until the Thermopolis specimen was described . " Until now , the feature was thought to belong only to the species ' close relatives , the deinonychosaurs . " The Thermopolis Specimen was assigned to Archaeopteryx siemensii in 2007 . The specimen is considered to represent the most complete and best @-@ preserved Archaeopteryx remains yet .
The discovery of an eleventh specimen was announced in 2011 , and it was described in 2014 . It is one of the more complete specimens , but is missing much of the skull and one forelimb . It is privately owned and has yet to be given a name . Palaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen , which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage , such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus , and the only preserved tail tip .
A twelfth specimen had been discovered by amateur collectors in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry , but the finding was only announced in February 2014 . It is as yet not scientifically described .
= = Classification = =
Today , fossils of the genus Archaeopteryx are usually assigned to one or two species , A. lithographica and A. siemensii , but their taxonomic history is complicated . Dozens of names have been published for the handful of specimens , most of which are simply spelling errors ( lapsus ) . As interpreted today , the name A. lithographica only referred to the single feather described by Meyer . In 1954 Gavin de Beer concluded that the London specimen was the holotype . In 1960 , Swinton accordingly proposed that the name Archaeopteryx lithographica be placed on the official genera list making the alternative names Griphosaurus and Griphornis invalid . The ICZN , implicitly accepting de Beer 's standpoint , did indeed suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens , which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between Meyer and his opponent Johann Andreas Wagner ( whose Griphosaurus problematicus – " problematic riddle @-@ lizard " – was a vitriolic sneer at Meyer 's Archaeopteryx ) . In addition , in 1977 the first specific name of the Haarlem specimen , crassipes , described by Meyer as a pterosaur before its true nature was realized , also was suppressed .
It has been noted that the feather , the first specimen of Archaeopteryx described , does not correspond well with the flight @-@ related feathers of Archaeopteryx . It certainly is a flight feather of a contemporary species , but its size and proportions indicate that it may belong to another , smaller species of feathered theropod , of which only this feather is known so far . As the feather had been designated the type specimen , the name Archaeopteryx should then no longer be applied to the skeletons , thus creating significant nomenclatorial confusion . In 2007 , two sets of scientists therefore petitioned the ICZN requesting that the London specimen explicitly be made the type by designating it as the new holotype specimen , or neotype . This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate , and the London specimen was designated the neotype on October 3 , 2011 .
Below is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit et al .
= = = Species = = =
It has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species , A. lithographica . Differences do exist among the specimens , and while some researchers regard these as due to the different ages of the specimens , some may be related to actual species diversity . In particular , the Munich , Eichstätt , Solnhofen , and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London , Berlin , and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger , having different finger proportions , having more slender snouts lined with forward @-@ pointing teeth , and possible presence of a sternum . Due to these differences , most individual specimens have been given their own species name at one point or another . The Berlin specimen has been designated as Archaeornis siemensii , the Eichstätt specimen as Jurapteryx recurva , the Munich specimen as Archaeopteryx bavarica , and the Solnhofen specimen as Wellnhoferia grandis .
In 2007 , a review of all well @-@ preserved specimens including the then @-@ newly discovered Thermopolis specimen concluded that two distinct species of Archaeopteryx could be supported : A. lithographica ( consisting of at least the London and Solnhofen specimens ) , and A. siemensii ( consisting of at least the Berlin , Munich , and Thermopolis specimens ) . The two species are distinguished primarily by large flexor tubercles on the foot claws in A. lithographica ( the claws of A. siemensii specimens being relatively simple and straight ) . A. lithographica also had a constricted portion of the crown in some teeth and a stouter metatarsus . A supposed additional species , Wellnhoferia grandis ( based on the Solnhofen specimen ) , seems to be indistinguishable from A. lithographica except in its larger size .
= = = Synonyms = = =
If two names are given , the first denotes the original describer of the " species " , the second the author on whom the given name combination is based . As always in zoological nomenclature , putting an author 's name in parentheses denotes that the taxon was originally described in a different genus .
Archaeopteryx lithographica Meyer , 1861 [ conserved name ]
Pterodactylus crassipes Meyer , 1857 [ suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070 ]
Rhamphorhynchus crassipes ( Meyer , 1857 ) ( as Pterodactylus ( Rhamphorhynchus ) crassipes ) [ suppressed in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070 ]
Scaphognathus crassipes ( Meyer , 1857 ) Wagner , 1861 [ rejected in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070 ]
Archaeopterix lithographica Anon . , 1861 [ lapsus ]
Griphosaurus problematicus Wagner , 1862 [ rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607 ]
Griphornis longicaudatus Owen vide Woodward , 1862 [ rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607 ]
Archaeopteryx macrura Owen , 1862 [ rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607 ]
Archeopteryx macrurus Owen , 1863 [ unjustified emendation ]
Archaeopteryx oweni Petronievics , 1917 [ rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607 ]
Archaeopteryx crassipes ( Meyer , 1857 ) Ostrom , 1972 [ rejected in favor of A. lithographica 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070 ]
Archaeopteryx recurva Howgate , 1984
Jurapteryx recurva ( Howgate , 1984 ) Howgate , 1985
Archaeopteryx siemensii Dames , 1897
Archaeornis siemensii ( Dames , 1897 ) Petronievics , 1917
Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer , 1993
Wellnhoferia grandis Elżanowski , 2001
" Archaeopteryx " vicensensis ( Anon. fide Lambrecht , 1933 ) is a nomen nudum for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Authenticity = = =
Beginning in 1985 , a group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of Archaeopteryx were forged . Their claims were repudiated by Alan J. Charig and others at the Natural History Museum in London . Most of their evidence for a forgery was based on unfamiliarity with the processes of lithification ; for example , they proposed that , based on the difference in texture associated with the feathers , feather impressions were applied to a thin layer of cement , without realizing that feathers themselves would have caused a textural difference . They also misinterpreted the fossils , claiming that the tail was forged as one large feather , when visibly this is not the case . In addition , they claimed that the other specimens of Archaeopteryx known at the time did not have feathers , which is incorrect ; the Maxberg and Eichstätt specimens have obvious feathers .
They also expressed disbelief that slabs would split so smoothly , or that one half of a slab containing fossils would have good preservation , but not the counterslab . These are common properties of Solnhofen fossils , because the dead animals would fall onto hardened surfaces , which would form a natural plane for the future slabs to split along and would leave the bulk of the fossil on one side and little on the other .
Finally , the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong , and are contradictory ; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , which is unlikely given Owen 's views toward Darwin and his theory . The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin , hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery ; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen , so such an action would certainly backfire .
Charig et al. pointed to the presence of hairline cracks in the slabs running through both rock and fossil impressions , and mineral growth over the slabs that had occurred before discovery and preparation , as evidence that the feathers were original . Spetner et al. then attempted to show that the cracks would have propagated naturally through their postulated cement layer , but neglected to account for the fact that the cracks were old and had been filled with calcite , and thus were not able to propagate . They also attempted to show the presence of cement on the London specimen through X @-@ ray spectroscopy , and did find something that was not rock ; it was not cement either , and is most probably a fragment of silicone rubber left behind when moulds were made of the specimen . Their suggestions have not been taken seriously by palaeontologists , as their evidence was largely based on misunderstandings of geology , and they never discussed the other feather @-@ bearing specimens , which have increased in number since then . Charig et al. reported a discolouration : a dark band between two layers of limestone – they say it is the product of sedimentation . It is natural for limestone to take on the colour of its surroundings and most limestones are coloured ( if not colour banded ) to some degree , so the darkness was attributed to such impurities . They also mention that a complete absence of air bubbles in the rock slabs is further proof that the specimen is authentic .
= = = Phylogenetic position = = =
Modern paleontology has often classified Archaeopteryx as the most primitive bird . It is not thought to be a true ancestor of modern birds , but rather , a close relative of that ancestor . Nonetheless , Archaeopteryx was often used as a model of the true ancestral bird . Several authors have done so . Lowe ( 1935 ) and Thulborn ( 1984 ) questioned whether Archaeopteryx truly was the first bird . They suggested that Archaeopteryx was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups . Kurzanov ( 1987 ) suggested that Avimimus was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than Archaeopteryx . Barsbold ( 1983 ) and Zweers and Van den Berge ( 1997 ) noted that many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike , and they suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors .
The discovery of the closely related Xiaotingia in 2011 led to new phylogenetic analyses that suggested that Archaeopteryx is a deinonychosaur rather than an avialan , and therefore , not a " bird " under most common uses of that term . A more thorough analysis was published soon after to test this hypothesis , and failed to arrive at the same result ; it found Archaeopteryx in its traditional position at the base of Avialae , while Xiaotingia was recovered as a basal dromaeosaurid or troodontid . The authors of the follow @-@ up study noted that uncertainties still exist , and that it may not be possible to state confidently whether or not Archaeopteryx is a member of Avialae or not , barring new and better specimens of relevant species .
Phylogenetic studies conducted by Senter , et al . ( 2012 ) and Turner , Makovicky , and Norell ( 2012 ) confirmed that Archaeopteryx was more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids . On the other hand , Godefroit , et al . ( 2013 ) recovered Archaeopteryx as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna . The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing Xiaotingia , adding Jinfengopteryx elegans and Eosinopteryx brevipenna to it , as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage . Unlike the analysis from the description of Xiaotingia , the analysis conducted by Godefroit , et al. did not find Archaeopteryx to be related particularly closely to Anchiornis and Xiaotingia , which were recovered as basal troodontids instead .
Agnolín and Novas ( 2013 ) found Archaeopteryx and ( possibly synonymous ) Wellnhoferia to be the basalmost avialans ( Avialae being defined by the authors as including Archaeopteryx lithographica and Passer , their most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants ) , with Microraptoria , Unenlagiinae , and the clade containing Anchiornis and Xiaotingia being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae . Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit , et al . , using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna , also found Archaeopteryx to be a member of Avialae ( defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing Passer domesticus , but not Dromaeosaurus albertensis or Troodon formosus ) . Archaeopteryx was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with Xiaotingia , Anchiornis , and Aurornis . Compared to Archaeopteryx , Xiaotingia was found to be more closely related to extant birds , while both Anchiornis and Aurornis were found to be more distantly so .
= = In popular culture = =
Archaeopteryx was long considered the earliest known bird , so it has received widespread attention in popular media . Its easily recognizable appearance , and the public 's interest in dinosaurs , have made Archaeopteryx a feature of worldwide popular culture . A main belt asteroid discovered in 1991 , 9860 Archaeopteryx , was named in honour of the genus . An early and unusual example is Alfred Jarry 's 1897 play Ubu cocu , ou l 'Archéopteryx ( ' Ubu cuckolded , or the Archaeopteryx ' ) , which features an Archaeopteryx as an important character . Arc 'teryx , a popular outdoor clothing and sporting goods brand , is named for Archaeopteryx .
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= The Daily Mash =
The Daily Mash is a British satirical website providing parodic commentary on current affairs and other news stories . Neil Rafferty ( a former political correspondent for The Sunday Times ) and Paul Stokes ( former business editor of The Scotsman ) , created the website in 2007 and remain the lead writers . Both writers earn salaries from the enterprise and also employ freelance contributors . The publication has garnered praise for its absurd , scatological humour and insightful political satire , as well as being compared favourably with US publication The Onion . The current editor is comedy writer and former BBC journalist Tim Telling .
= = History = =
The Daily Mash was launched in April 2007 by journalists Paul Stokes and Neil Rafferty . Stokes is a former business editor of The Scotsman and has also written for Scotland on Sunday and The Daily Record . Rafferty is a former political correspondent for The Sunday Times , has also written for the Press Association and Business AM , and is a former spokesman for the smokers ’ lobby group FOREST . The site was originally inspired by The Onion , a US satirical publication , as Stokes and Rafferty saw a gap in the market for a similar publication in Britain . Both journalists worked mainly for Scottish newspapers .
Stokes and Rafferty earn salaries from the site , and lead a small team of freelance writers . The site earns revenue through advertising and merchandise , and is a successful profit @-@ making enterprise . It presents a niche opportunity to advertisers because of its apparent target audience of procrastinating office workers ( Citi employees complained to The Daily Mash and independent publications after the company banned them from accessing the site ) .
Highlights of the publication 's first year have been published in book form as Halfwit Nation : Frontline Reporting from the War on Stupid , both to acclaim and to complaints of unintelligent , overly crude humour .
According to an online survey , the site 's readership mainly consists of university graduates who also read newspapers such as The Independent , The Guardian and The Times . According to the same survey , 65 per cent of its readers have incomes of more than 30 @,@ 000 pounds , with 22 per cent earning more than 70 @,@ 000 pounds .
= = Reception = =
The Daily Mash provides parodic coverage of current affairs and other stories and has been described as the U.K. ' s leading satirical news website . The site satirises with Guardianesque centre left humour hence its significant student appeal . The site 's humour has been described as " cruel , " " scatological , " " absurd " and " irreverent . " It is considered a British alternative and upstart rival to the better known US publication The Onion and its coverage has been compared favourably and in some instances considered superior to that of the latter . Despite its humour , the site is considered to be insightful on occasion . Some critics have remarked that not all of the site 's articles succeed as satire , and that its content lacks the linguistic invention of some other satirical works .
The Daily Mash 's stories are sometimes commented upon by other news publications . Acclaimed parodic coverage includes Jeremy Clarkson 's much @-@ publicised disparaging remarks aimed at Gordon Brown , the advertising deals of Team Great Britain 's medal winners , the nationalisation of Northern Rock , Gordon Brown meeting the Pope and bankers ' bonuses .
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= Bad Dreams ( Fringe ) =
" Bad Dreams " is the 17th episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It was written and directed by Academy Award @-@ winning screenwriter Akiva Goldsman , his first writing credit for a television show . In the episode , Olivia dreams she is causing people to either kill others or themselves , which leads her to meet Nick Lane , a man from her past that leads Olivia to discover their shared history as test subjects in a series of childhood drug trials .
The episode first aired on April 21 , 2009 in the United States on Fox to more than 9 @.@ 89 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews , with many critics praising the beginning dream sequence , the climax atop the building , and the final scene with Walter and the old footage of Olivia . Critics also enjoyed the further revelations about Olivia 's background ; the subject would later have an entire episode devoted to it in the third season .
= = Plot = =
Olivia ( Anna Torv ) dreams that she pushes a woman in front of a subway train at Grand Central Terminal , but assumes it was just in her head . In the morning however , the news reports that the woman killed herself with the train . Walter ( John Noble ) puts forth various theories , such as astral projection , while Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) thinks it was still just a dream . Olivia is unconvinced , and goes with the Fringe team to investigate . An NYPD officer ( April Grace ) escorts them to the crime scene , and Peter sees a red balloon floating and begins to believe her , as Olivia had described the balloon to him previously .
Olivia worries it will happen again , and though she attempts to ward off sleep , she next dreams that she helps a woman murder her husband at a restaurant . They interview the wife , who tells them she became so convinced her husband was going to leave her that she became angry and stabbed him . The team posits that while no one is actually causing the incidents , they are happening as Olivia has seen them . At the restaurant , the owner tells them a blond man with a scar named Nick Lane ( David Call ) was sitting in the same place as Olivia was in her dream , and was also seen in the video surveillance from the first crime scene . Walter posits that because she never sees him in her dreams , it was Lane , not Olivia , causing the people 's deaths . Olivia and Peter interview doctors at St. Jude 's Mental Hospital , who tell them Lane was a voluntary resident , but left after the visit of a mysterious man . The doctor described him as hyperemotive , meaning those near him adopt his emotions . Olivia and Peter soon learn that as a child , Lane was treated with the nootropic drug Cortexiphan in drug trials , and believes himself to be a recruit in the upcoming war between the two universes .
Walter tells Olivia that she may have been in the same drug trials as Lane , and that the bond they share stems from Walter and William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) pairing up the children in the " buddy system " . To find Lane , Walter uses this bond , putting Olivia under the effect of drugs so she experiences Lane 's emotions . She sees Lane sleep with a stripper , who then is influenced to kill herself in a mirror of Lane 's depressed thoughts ; afterwards , Olivia discovers where Lane lives . While they explore his apartment , a suicidal Lane walks down a sidewalk , influencing others to mirror his emotions , so that they follow him to the top of a building . Because of her past in the trials , Walter believes Olivia won 't be influenced by these suicidal thoughts , and she goes to encounter Lane alone . While Olivia does not remember him , he remembers her and the nickname he gave her : " Olive . " Olivia wounds him , breaking his mind @-@ control over the others , and he is placed in a medically @-@ induced longterm coma to control his emotions .
The episode ends with Walter watching a video of Olivia as a child , apparently taken while she was being administered Cortexiphan . Walter 's voice is heard on the tape , as is William Bell 's . Both are trying to calm little Olivia while she sits , huddled amidst a debris @-@ strewn room of equipment . It becomes clear Olivia has caused this chaos in Walter and Bell 's lab , presumably with her Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities .
= = Production = =
The episode was written and directed by Academy Award @-@ winning screenwriter Akiva Goldsman . Goldsman was " attracted " to the series because he believed that at the time , Fringe 's " mythology was already really starting to hum " . " Bad Dreams " was his first writing credit for a television episode , and he wrote several hours of material before co @-@ executive producer Jeff Pinkner helped him condense it . Every episode since " Bad Dreams " , Goldsman has been credited as a consulting producer . It marked the first episode with previous Fringe director Brad Anderson now also credited as a producer .
The opening scene in the subway was initially going to be on top of a building so that the episode would begin and end the same , but co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams thought it would be better to start it underground and " move up throughout the episode " . The episode began the setup of Olivia 's backstory by revealing the Cortexiphan drug trials , which would be an ongoing plot point in continuing episodes . All the shots were chosen carefully to put the viewer in Olivia 's troubled frame of mind , and consequently the episode had many tight shots that were meant to give a " sense of unease " . The producers felt that shooting on the lab set was the " hardest set to shoot at on the planet " because it contained several levels that inhibited the crew 's ability to move cameras around . As Goldsman had an aversion to shooting in hospitals , they used a church for the mental hospital scenes . When Olivia , Peter , and Walter are en route to the climax at the building , the shots of them in the SUV were just shots of them driving back and forth on the 59th Street Bridge .
The climatic scene where Olivia encounters Nick and the group of people at the top of the building was shot at 902 Broadway in Manhattan . Though the actors appeared to be on the edge of a very tall building , there was in fact a hidden roof extending out that they would have fallen on instead . The visual and special effects departments worked in conjunction to simulate the woman jumping off the building . While the actress simply jumped onto a tarp several feet below her , the crew rigged the car with pneumatic rams , air cannons , and cables to implode under the " weight " of her body , and then CGI was used to make the woman appear to fall on the car .
Actress Anna Torv called the episode 's hotel scene her favorite of the show so far , explaining " I loved shooting that because it was the first time that Olivia really inched her way into that dynamic of Peter and Walter . She ’ s been kind of on the outside , and wrangling them constantly , but this gave me a glimpse into realizing everything is a little bit entwined , and building more of that emotional conflict between them . I really loved shooting that . "
The final scene of the episode ended with a tape of a young Olivia in a fire @-@ damaged room , leading to rumors her character was a fire starter . Torv however discounted this soon after , explaining " I think it 's more than that ... I think what they got given or what they got taught is much bigger than just starting fire " . Jeff Pinkner agreed and elaborated further , " We saw the consequence . We saw that she started a fire at the end of the last episode , but I think it 's a mistake to assume that that 's her power . I think the truth is , it 's probably a consequence of her ability " . This particular scene , as well as the episode 's reference to experiments Walter performed on children , comprise the main plot of the season three episode " Subject 13 " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was watched by more than 9 @.@ 89 million viewers in the United States , with a 5 @.@ 9 / 9 rating among all households .
= = = Reviews = = =
Noel Murray from A.V. Club graded the episode with an A- ; he praised the " fine job " of director / writer Akiva Goldsman , and thought the climax was " extraordinarily well @-@ shot and performed " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 9 @.@ 2 / 10 , writing that it " is a classic example of a story you have to be patient with . This was an episode with a compelling , shocking start that kept us hooked well enough to deal with some slow points in the rest of the first half @-@ hour . But we were rewarded for our patience with one heck of a climax and epilogue . This was well @-@ executed TV " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought that while the first half wasn 't very exciting , the second half had " plenty to keep up interest " as more was revealed about Olivia and Walter 's backgrounds .
Rhee Dee of Pinkraygun.com liked the scenes depicting Olivia and Broyles ' relationship , as well as the revelations behind the experimentation on a young Olivia , and thought the Fox promos made the episode look much lamer than it actually was. io9 's Annalee Newitz loved the " great , creepy " opening scene , the arc concerning Walter 's past experimentation on children , and the " well @-@ played , funny and strange " scene when " Olivia " goes to the strip club . Though a bit disappointed with the " conspiracy " story , Sfscope.com 's Sarah Stegall nevertheless called the episode " well @-@ crafted , " enjoyed the Peter @-@ Olivia moments , praised Torv 's performance , and said Akiva Goldsman " gave us an episode built like a slow fuse : tightly wound , coiling out of sight , and finishing big .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Director @-@ writer Akiva Goldsman submitted the episode for consideration in the Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , but did not receive a nomination .
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= Ontario Highway 74 =
King 's Highway 74 , commonly referred to as Highway 74 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that travelled north from Highway 3 at New Sarum to Middlsex County Road 29 ( Hamilton Road ) on the outskirts of London . The 22 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 9 mi ) was assumed by the province in September 1937 . Aside from paving and the construction of an interchange with Highway 401 , it remained generally unchanged for the next six decades until it was decommissioned in 1997 and transferred to Elgin County and Middlesex County . The road has since been redesignated as Elgin County Road 74 and Middlsex County Road 74 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 74 began at an intersection with Highway 3 in the community of New Sarum , midway between the city of St. Thomas to the west , and the town of Aylmer to the east . It crossed the St. Thomas and Eastern Railway just north of Highway 3 before curving to cross the West Catfish Creek , which it meandered alongside into Mapleton . Immediately north of that community , the route curved to the north and was straight for the remainder of its route . The highway continued , entering the village of Belmont , where it intersected a Canadian Pacific Railway line . North of there it crossed the boundary between Elgin County to the south and Middlesex County to the north . North of the county line , Highway 74 continued into the community of Derwent . Shortly thereafter , it crossed and interchanged with Highway 401 at Exit 195 . The highway ended just north of Highway 401 in Nilestown at an intersection with Middlesex County Road 29 ( Hamilton Road ) .
= = History = =
Highway 74 was established in mid @-@ 1937 when the New Sarum to Dorchester Road was designated by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , the predecessor to the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) . The section within Elgin County was assumed by the DHO on August 25 , 1937 , while the section within Middlesex County was assumed one week later on September 1 . Originally an unpaved gravel road , the route was paved between Belmont and its northern terminus by 1938 . The remainder of the route was paved in 1952 . Otherwise , the route remained generally unchanged for six decades until March 31 , 1997 , when it was decommissioned in its entirety and transferred to Elgin County and Middlesex County . It has since been known as Elgin County Road 74 and Middlesex County Road 74 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 74 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Earthling ( Fringe ) =
" Earthling " is the sixth episode of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe 's second season . The episode followed the Fringe team 's investigation into random people mysteriously disintegrating into ash , a case which Agent Broyles had become deeply obsessed with in the past .
It was co @-@ written by J.H. Wyman and Jeff Vlaming , while Jon Cassar served as the director . The episode first aired on November 5 , 2009 in the United States on the Fox network . An estimated 4 @.@ 86 million viewers tuned in , contributing to a new ratings low for the series . The episode received generally mixed reviews , though multiple reviewers highlighted the episode 's special effects . The VFX production team received a nomination at the 8th Annual Visual Effects Society Awards .
= = Plot = =
A Boston man ( Joe Towne ) is attacked by a shadowy , ghost @-@ like figure ; his wife ( Michelle Harrison ) returns home to find he disintegrates into ash upon being touched . After learning all of the victims had recently visited a hospital before dying , Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) explains the case is similar to one he had trouble with in the past , in which his obsessive behavior effectively ended his marriage to his wife Diane . The suspect , an Eastern European man , had contacted him four years ago sounding distraught and asked him to figure out a special formula , which Broyles was unable to solve . Walter ( John Noble ) and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) study the victim 's remains at their lab and begin studying the formula given to Broyles .
Several more people are attacked and reduced to ash . A search of Eastern European employees leads them to Russian night nurse Tomas ( Ravil Isyanov ) , but he is gone when they search his apartment . Despite being ordered to end the investigation and that the suspect is wanted by the Russian government and the CIA , Broyles tells Olivia ( Anna Torv ) to continue the case . Walter posits the entity needs radiation , and chooses its victims based on their exposure levels . They learn that Tomas stole his comatose brother , a former cosmonaut , and has been moving him around to both protect him and contain the entity . Fearing capture , Tomas removes his brother from the hospital ; Walter speculates that the cosmonaut brought the entity back with him upon returning from space . Walter is finally able to solve the formula , and Broyles sadly tells Tomas over the phone that his brother and the entity cannot be separated . However , during their conversation , the entity escapes his brother 's body and kills Tomas . The Fringe team is able to trace the call , and Broyles shoots the host ( Tomas ' brother ) in the head to stop the entity from attacking another victim .
At the end of the episode , a mysterious CIA agent ( J. R. Bourne ) approaches Broyles and tells him to not report the case . He reveals the cosmonaut resurrected itself , and it is implied to have been sent into space , " wherever it came from " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The episode was co @-@ written by executive producer J.H. Wyman and supervising producer Jeff Vlaming , while 24 veteran , Jon Cassar , directed the hour . On August 14 , 2009 , he posted " rough drawn " storyboards of the episode on Twitter . The episode remains Cassar 's first and only directional credit for the series to date .
The episode was filmed in mid @-@ September 2009 in Vancouver . Due to the Russian lettering on many of the episode props , director Cassar joked during shooting , " Can we get a translator and find out what this writing means , specifically ? Maybe it says ' Do not open until Christmas ' or ' Watch The Simpsons on Sunday night , ' knowing Fox . " To create the episode 's auditory effects , sound editor Bruce Tanis explained his production steps in an interview with Designing Sound , " ' Earthling ' was a really good episode for strange sounds . It starts out with the appearance of a smoke monster that kills its victims by enveloping them and leaving behind an exact life @-@ like looking corpse only the body is made of ash which crumbles horribly when touched . The smoke creature moved rapidly as opposed to gently drifting so I had some movement to play off of in creating a sound for him . I came up with some stuttering , fluttery whooshes that kind of vibrated which made him more dangerous than if he sounded like a puff of steam moving along the hall . The smoke monster requires a host body to live in when he 's not vibrating around killing people . The only way to recall the smoke monster to the host body , or to keep him there in the first place , is by severe electrical shock . "
Visual effects supervisor Jay Worth found inspiration for the ash storyline from holding his grandmother @-@ in @-@ law 's hands while at her funeral . He noted during production , " The Ash Man definitely had its own set of challenges , because we wanted to utilize a lot of real elements , and because we didn 't have the time to do all the simulation and particle work needed to make it look real . The thing that sold The Ash Man more than anything was the aftermath shot : This half @-@ disintegrated body with a pile of ash for the head on the ground . It ended up being a layering , compositing , tweaking challenge beyond belief . I got to shoot the elements myself and had more control over them . "
Another VFX supervisor from Zoic Studios , Andrew Orloff , believed the episode 's special effects were possibly the most difficult of the season . He wrote , " Originally , it was supposed to be a practical effect but they couldn 't get it to fall in a natural way , so what we had to do was shoot the practical elements in pieces and we put them all together and timed all those plates and ended up rebuilding a significant part of it and tying it all together in CG . So we took a cyberscan of the guy 's body , and on top of all the practical elements we used as a base , we had a matte painting , a reveal matte painting of the cracks that ran through the body , 3D particles of large chunks of ash falling out , 3D particles of small ash bits floating down , residual dust flying off of it and , at one point , his head falls off and crashes to the ground as ash . So we had to do a full @-@ CG head and tumble it down the body . That was pretty complicated and entailed lots of R & D : there was 2D work in After Effects , tracking , retiming , we did a lot of CG lighting for the body parts in Maya / mental ray and all of the particles were a combination of Maya software , and rendered in Maya / mental ray . "
= = = Casting and audio = = =
Guest actor Gerard Plunkett made the first of two appearances as Senator James Van Horn ( the second would be a season three episode ) . Other guest stars included Ravil Isyanov , J. R. Bourne , Joe Towne , Michelle Harrison , and Yaroslav Poverlo . Karen Holness made her first guest appearance of the series playing Broyles ' ex @-@ wife Diane .
In addition to its original score , " Earthling " featured musical content from several outside artists . These songs included " Freezing " by American singer MoZella , " Straighten Up and Fly Right " by American musician Nat King Cole , and " Una Furtiva Lagrima " by American tenor Mario Lanza .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was first broadcast on November 5 , 2009 after a two @-@ week hiatus . " Earthling " was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 86 million viewers in the United States . It earned a 3 @.@ 0 / 5 household rating and a 1 @.@ 7 / 4 ratings share for adults aged 18 – 49 . With a 23 percent ratings decline from the previous episode and a 40 percent decline from the first season , this was a new series low for Fringe , which some media outlets attributed to the unexpected early end of the 2009 World Series .
= = = Reviews = = =
MTV columnist Josh Wigler was disappointed with the presumed alien storyline and believed it to be a " weak episode " . Despite liking actor Lance Reddick , Wigler was displeased with his character 's increased screentime , believing Broyles works better as an " enigmatic figure " . Wigler did however praise the villain 's " murderous method of choice " , writing " Those who 've read my Fringe reviews know that I 'm not big on the mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week element , but I have to give this episode some credit for at least making it look good . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , noting the " great work " done with the CGI and props while at the same time acknowledging the opening was not " particularly exciting " . Isler praised Reddick 's performance , but continued " besides the Broyles characterization , this episode kind of fell flat . The plot unfolds slowly , and the first sixty percent of this episode is kind of a yawner . The only things that really spice up the story are Walter 's antics ( which are very amusing , as usual ) . The monster of the week , an alien stowing away in a Russian cosmonaut 's body , isn 't all that scary or even malevolent ( it 's just trying to stay alive by feeding on radiation ) . "
Writing for The A.V. Club , Noel Murray graded " Earthling " with a B. Unlike Isler , the A.V. Club reviewer loved the opening , calling it " one of Fringe 's most effective freak @-@ meets " . Murray continued that he believed the episode to be " an efficient action / adventure / horror hour , heavy on suspenseful moments and neat effects , light on character development and progress on the master @-@ plot . When all is said and done and Fringe eventually ends its run , I 'm betting that a newcomer will be able to skip ' Earthling ' without putting a dent in their overall understanding of the show . But that doesn 't mean it wasn 't still cool to see people get reduced to dust right in front of our eyes . Jane Boursaw from AOL TV responded negatively to the episode , wishing it had not been yet another " stand @-@ alone creature feature " . While praising the special effects , Boursaw expressed disinterest in learning more about Broyles and compared the Fringe case to something already done in The X @-@ Files . She concluded , " Take the creepy alien factor out of it , and this could have been any other police procedural " . UGO Networks reviewer Alex Zalben also noted similarities to The X @-@ Files , writing that " the reason [ the episode ] is weird for Fringe is that , aformentioned evidence aside , they ’ ve been very careful to avoid the overarching alien mythology X @-@ Files is famous for . Oops . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The crew responsible for the episode 's visual effects , VFX supervisors Jay Worth , Robert Habros , and Andrew Orlaff , and Visual Effects Artist Eric Hance , succeeded in gaining a nomination for their work . " Earthling " was nominated in the " Visual effects in a broadcast series " category at the 8th Annual Visual Effects Society Awards , but lost to the fourth season finale of the science fiction series Battlestar Galactica .
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= Cranial nerves =
Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain ( including the brainstem ) , in contrast to spinal nerves ( which emerge from segments of the spinal cord ) . Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body , primarily to and from regions of the head and neck .
Spinal nerves emerge sequentially from the spinal cord with the spinal nerve closest to the head ( C1 ) emerging in the space above the first cervical vertebra . The cranial nerves , however , emerge from the central nervous system above this level . Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides . Depending on definition in humans there are twelve or thirteen cranial nerves pairs , which are assigned Roman numerals I – XII , sometimes also including cranial nerve zero . The numbering of the cranial nerves is based on the order in which they emerge from the brain , front to back ( brainstem ) .
The terminal nerves , olfactory nerves ( I ) and optic nerves ( II ) emerge from the cerebrum or forebrain , and the remaining ten pairs arise from the brainstem , which is the lower part of the brain .
The cranial nerves are considered components of the peripheral nervous system ( PNS ) , although on a structural level the olfactory , optic and terminal nerves are more accurately considered part of the central nervous system ( CNS ) .
= = Anatomy = =
Most typically , humans are considered to have twelve pairs of cranial nerves ( I – XII ) . They are : the olfactory nerve ( I ) , the optic nerve ( II ) , oculomotor nerve ( III ) , trochlear nerve ( IV ) , trigeminal nerve ( V ) , abducens nerve ( VI ) , facial nerve ( VII ) , vestibulocochlear nerve ( VIII ) , glossopharyngeal nerve ( IX ) , vagus nerve ( X ) , accessory nerve ( XI ) , and hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) . ( There may be a thirteenth cranial nerve , the terminal nerve ( nerve O or N ) , which is very small and may or may not be functional in humans )
= = = Terminology = = =
Cranial nerves are generally named according to their structure or function . For example , the olfactory nerve ( I ) supplies smell , and the facial nerve ( VII ) supplies motor innervation to the face . Because Latin was the lingua franca ( common language ) of the study of Anatomy when the nerves were first documented , recorded , and discussed , many nerves maintain Latin or Greek names , including the trochlear nerve ( IV ) , named according to its structure , as it supplies a muscle that attaches to a pulley ( Greek : trochlea ) . The trigeminal nerve ( V ) is named in accordance with its three components ( Latin : tri @-@ geminus meaning triplets ) , and the vagus nerve ( X ) is named for its wandering course ( Latin : vagus ) .
Cranial nerves are numbered based on their rostral @-@ caudal ( front @-@ back ) position , when viewing the brain . If the brain is carefully removed from the skull the nerves are typically visible in their numeric order .
Cranial nerves have paths within and outside of the skull . The paths within the skull are called " intracranial " and the paths outside the skull are called " extracranial " . There are many holes in the skull called " foramina " by which the nerves can exit the skull . All cranial nerves are paired , which means that they occur on both the right and left sides of the body . The muscle , skin , or additional function supplied by a nerve on the same side of the body as the side it originates from , is referred to an ipsilateral function . If the function is on the opposite side to the origin of the nerve , this is known as a contralateral function .
= = = Intracranial course = = =
= = = = Nuclei = = = =
The cell bodies of many of the neurons of most of the cranial nerves are contained in one or more nuclei in the brainstem . These nuclei are important relative to cranial nerve dysfunction because damage to these nuclei such as from a stroke or trauma can mimic damage to one or more branches of a cranial nerve . In terms of specific cranial nerve nuclei , the midbrain of the brainstem has the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve ( III ) and trochlear nerve ( IV ) ; the pons has the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve ( V ) , abducens nerve ( VI ) , facial nerve ( VII ) and vestibulocochlear nerve ( VIII ) ; and the medulla has the nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve ( IX ) , vagus nerve ( X ) , accessory nerve ( XI ) and hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) . The fibers of these cranial nerves exit the brainstem from these nuclei .
= = = = Ganglia = = = =
Some of the cranial nerves have sensory or parasympathetic ganglia ( collections of cell bodies ) of neurons , which are located outside of the brain ( but can be inside or outside of the skull ) .
The sensory ganglia are directly correspondent to dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and are known as cranial sensory ganglia . Sensory ganglia exist for nerves with sensory function : V , VII , VIII , IX , X. There are also parasympathetic ganglia , which are part of the autonomic nervous system for cranial nerves III , VII , IX and X.
The trigeminal ganglia of the trigeminal nerve ( V ) occupies a space in the dura mater called Trigeminal cave . This ganglion contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the three branches of the trigeminal nerve .
The geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve ( VII ) is found just after the nerve enters the facial canal ; it contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the facial nerve .
Superior and inferior ganglia of the glossopharyngeal nerve ( IX ) , are located just after the nerve passes through the jugular foramen and contain the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of this nerve .
inferior ganglion of vagus nerve ( nodose ganglion ) is located below the jugular foramen and contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the vagus nerve ( X ) .
= = = = Exiting the skull and Extracranial Course = = = =
After emerging from the brain , the cranial nerves travel within the skull , and some must leave this bony compartment in order to reach their destinations . Often the nerves pass through holes in the skull , called foramina , as they travel to their destinations . Other nerves pass through bony canals , longer pathways enclosed by bone . These foramina and canals may contain more than one cranial nerve , and may also contain blood vessels .
The olfactory nerve ( I ) , actually composed of many small separate nerve fibers , passes through perforations in the cribiform plate part of the ethmoid bone . These fibers terminate in the upper part of the nasal cavity and function to convey impulses containing information about odors to the brain .
The optic nerve ( II ) passes through the optic foramen in the sphenoid bone as it travels to the eye . It conveys visual information to the brain .
The oculomotor nerve ( III ) , trochlear nerve ( IV ) , abducens nerve ( VI ) and the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve ( V1 ) travel through the cavernous sinus into the superior orbital fissure , passing out of the skull into the orbit . These nerves control the small muscles that move the eye and also provide sensory innervation to the eye and orbit .
The maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve ( V2 ) passes through foramen rotundum in the sphenoid bone to supply the skin of the middle of the face .
The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve ( V3 ) passes through foramen ovale of the sphenoid bone to supply the lower face with sensory innervation . This nerve also sends branches to almost all of the muscles that control chewing .
The facial nerve ( VII ) and vestibulocochlear nerve ( VIII ) both enter the internal auditory canal in the temporal bone . The facial nerve then reaches the side of the face by using the stylomastoid foramen , also in the temporal bone . Its fibers then spread out to reach and control all of the muscles of facial expression . The vestibulocochlear nerve reaches the organs that control balance and hearing in the temporal bone , and therefore does not reach the external surface of the skull .
The glossopharyngeal ( IX ) , vagus ( X ) and accessory nerve ( XI ) all leave the skull via the jugular foramen to enter the neck . The glossopharyngeal nerve provides innervation to the upper throat and the back of the tongue , the vagus provides innervation to the muscles in the voicebox , and continues downward to supply parasympathetic innervation to the chest and abdomen . The accessory nerve controls two muscles in the neck and shoulder .
The hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) exits the skull using the hypoglossal canal in the occipital bone and reaches the tongue to control almost all of the muscles involved in movements of this organ .
= = Function = =
The cranial nerves provide motor and sensory innervation mainly to the structures within the head and neck . The sensory innervation includes both " general " sensation such as temperature and touch , and " special " innervation such as taste , vision , smell , balance and hearing
The vagus nerve ( X ) provides sensory and autonomic ( parasympatheic ) motor innervation to structures in the neck and also to most of the organs in the chest and abdomen .
= = = Smell ( I ) = = =
The olfactory nerve ( I ) conveys the sense of smell .
Damage to the olfactory nerve ( I ) can cause an inability to smell ( anosmia ) , a distortion in the sense of smell ( parosmia ) , or a distortion or lack of taste . If there is suspicion of a change in the sense of smell , each nostril is tested with substances of known odors such as coffee or soap . Intensely smelling substances , for example ammonia , may lead to the activation of pain receptors ( nociceptors ) of the trigeminal nerve that are located in the nasal cavity and this can confound olfactory testing .
= = = Vision ( II ) = = =
The optic nerve ( II ) transmits visual information .
Damage to the optic nerve ( II ) affects specific aspects of vision that depend on the location of the lesion . A person may not be able to see objects on their left or right sides ( homonymous hemianopsia ) , or may have difficulty seeing objects on their outer visual fields ( bitemporal hemianopsia ) if the optic chiasm is involved . Vision may be tested by examining the visual field , or by examining the retina with an ophthalmoscope , using a process known as funduscopy . Visual field testing may be used to pin @-@ point structural lesions in the optic nerve , or further along the visual pathways .
= = = Eye movement ( III , IV , VI ) = = =
The oculomotor nerve ( III ) , trochlear nerve ( IV ) and abducens nerve ( VI ) coordinate eye movement .
Damage to nerves III , IV , or VI may affect the movement of the eyeball ( globe ) . Both or one eye may be affected ; in either case double vision ( diplopia ) will likely occur because the movements of the eyes are no longer synchronized . Nerves III , IV and VI are tested by observing how the eye follows an object in different directions . This object may be a finger or a pin , and may be moved at different directions to test for pursuit velocity . If the eyes do not work together , the most likely cause is damage to a specific cranial nerve or its nuclei .
Damage to the oculomotor nerve ( III ) can cause double vision ( diplopia ) and inability to coordinate the movements of both eyes ( strabismus ) , also eyelid drooping ( ptosis ) and pupil dilation ( mydriasis ) . Lesions may also lead to inability to open the eye due to paralysis of the levator palpebrae muscle . Individuals suffering from a lesion to the oculomotor nerve may compensate by tilting their heads to alleviate symptoms due to paralysis of one or more of the eye muscles it controls .
Damage to the trochlear nerve ( IV ) can also cause diplopia with the eye adducted and elevated . The result will be an eye which can not move downwards properly ( especially downwards when in an inward position ) . This is due to impairment in the superior oblique muscle , which is innervated by the trochlear nerve .
Damage to the abducens nerve ( VI ) can also result in diplopia . This is due to impairment in the lateral rectus muscle , which is innervated by the abducens nerve .
= = = Trigeminal Nerve ( V ) = = =
The trigeminal nerve ( V ) is composed of three distinct parts : The Ophthalmic ( V1 ) , the Maxillary ( V2 ) , and the Mandibular ( V3 ) nerves . Combined , these nerves provide sensation to the skin of the face and also controls the muscles of mastication ( chewing ) . Conditions affecting the trigeminal nerve ( V ) include trigeminal neuralgia , cluster headache , and trigeminal zoster . Trigeminal neuralgia occurs later in life , from middle age onwards , most often after age 60 , and is a condition typically associated with very strong pain distributed over the area innervated by the maxillary or mandibular nerve divisions of the trigeminal nerve ( V2 and V3 ) .
= = = Facial expression ( VII ) = = =
Lesions of the facial nerve ( VII ) may manifest as facial palsy . This is where a person is unable to move the muscles on one or both sides of their face . A very common and generally temporarily facial palsy is known as Bell 's palsy . Bell 's Palsy is the result of an idiopathic ( unknown ) , unilateral lower motor neuron lesion of the facial nerve and is characterized by an inability to move the ipsilateral muscles of facial expression , including elevation of the eyebrow and furrowing of the forehead . Patients with Bell 's palsy often have a drooping mouth on the affected side and often have trouble chewing because the buccinator muscle is affected .
= = = Hearing and balance ( VIII ) = = =
The vestibulocochlear nerve ( VIII ) splits into the vestibular and cochlear nerve . The vestibular part is responsible for innervating the vestibules and semicircular canal of the inner ear ; this structure transmits information about balance , and is an important component of the vestibuloocular reflex , which keeps the head stable and allows the eyes to track moving objects . The cochlear nerve transmits information from the cochlea , allowing sound to be heard .
When damaged , the vestibular nerve may give rise to the sensation of spinning and dizziness . Function of the vestibular nerve may be tested by putting cold and warm water in the ears and watching eye movements caloric stimulation . Damage to the vestibulocochlear nerve can also present as repetitive and involuntary eye movements ( nystagmus ) , particularly when looking in a horizontal plane . Damage to the cochlear nerve will cause partial or complete deafness in the affected ear .
= = = Oral sensation , taste , and salivation ( IX ) = = =
The glossopharyngeal nerve ( IX ) innervates the stylopharyngeus muscle and provides sensory innervation to the oropharynx and back of the tongue . The glossopharyngeal nerve also provides parasympathetic innervation to the parotid gland . Unilateral absence of a gag reflex suggests a lesion of the glossopharyngeal nerve ( IX ) , and perhaps the vagus nerve ( X ) .
= = = Vagus nerve ( X ) = = =
Loss of function of the vagus nerve ( X ) will lead to a loss of parasympathetic innervation to a very large number of structures . Major effects of damage to the vagus nerve may include a rise in blood pressure and heart rate . Isolated dysfunction of only the vagus nerve is rare , but can be diagnosed by a hoarse voice , due to dysfunction of one of its branches , the recurrent laryngeal nerve .
Damage to this nerve may result in difficulties swallowing .
= = = Shoulder elevation and head @-@ turning ( XI ) = = =
Damage to the accessory nerve ( XI ) will lead to ipsilateral weakness in the trapezius muscle . This can be tested by asking the subject to raise their shoulders or shrug , upon which the shoulder blade ( scapula ) will protrude into a winged position . Additionally , if the nerve is damaged , weakness or an inability to elevate the scapula may be present because the levator scapulae muscle is now solely able to provide this function . Depending on the location of the lesion there may also be weakness present in the sternocleidomastoid muscle , which acts to turn the head so that the face points to the opposite side .
= = = Tongue movement ( XII ) = = =
The hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) is unique in that it is innervated from both the motor cortex of both hemispheres of the brain . Damage to the nerve at lower motor neuron level may lead to fasciculations or atrophy of the muscles of the tongue . The fasciculations of the tongue are sometimes said to look like a " bag of worms " . Upper motor neuron damage will not lead to atrophy or fasciculations , but only weakness of the innervated muscles .
When the nerve is damaged , it will lead to weakness of tongue movement on one side . When damaged and extended , the tongue will move towards the weaker or damaged side , as shown in the image .
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Examination = = =
Physicians , neurologists , and other medical professionals may conduct a cranial nerve examination as part of a neurological examination to examine the functionality of the cranial nerves . This is a highly formalized series of tests that assess the status of each nerve . A cranial nerve exam begins with observation of the patient because some cranial nerve lesions may affect the symmetry of the eyes or face . The visual fields are tested for nerve lesions or nystagmus via an analysis of specific eye movements . The sensation of the face is tested , and patients are asked to perform different facial movements , such as puffing out of the cheeks . Hearing is checked by voice and tuning forks . The position of the patient 's uvula is examined because asymmetry in the position could indicate a lesion of the glossopharyngeal nerve . After the ability of the patient to use their shoulder to assess the accessory nerve ( XI ) , and the patient 's tongue function is assessed by observing various tongue movements .
= = = Damage = = =
= = = = Compression = = = =
Nerves may be compressed because of increased intercranial pressure , a mass effect of an intracerebral haemorrhage , or tumour that presses against the nerves and interferes with the transmission of impulses along the nerve . A loss of functionality of a single cranial nerve may sometimes be the first symptom of an intracranial or skull base cancer .
An increase in intracranial pressure may lead to impairment of the optic nerves ( II ) due to compression of the surrounding veins and capillaries , causing swelling of the eyeball ( papilloedema ) . A cancer , such as an optic glioma , may also impact the optic nerve ( II ) . A pituitary tumour may compress the optic tracts or the optic chiasm of the optic nerve ( II ) , leading to visual field loss . A pituitary tumour may also extend into the cavernous sinus , compressing the oculuomotor nerve ( III ) , trochlear nerve ( IV ) and abducens nerve ( VI ) , leading to double @-@ vision and strabismus . These nerves may also be affected by herniation of the temporal lobes of the brain through the falx cerebri .
The cause of trigeminal neuralgia , in which one side of the face is exquisitely painful , is thought to be compression of the nerve by an artery as the nerve emerges from the brain stem . An acoustic neuroma , particularly at the junction between the pons and medulla , may compress the facial nerve ( VII ) and vestibulocochlear nerve ( VIII ) , leading to hearing and sensory loss on the affected side .
= = = = Stroke = = = =
Occlusion of blood vessels that supply the nerves or their nuclei , an ischemic stroke , may cause specific signs and symptoms that can localise where the occlusion occurred . A clot in a blood vessel draining the cavernous sinus ( cavernous sinus thrombosis ) affects the oculomotor ( III ) , trochlear ( IV ) , opthalamic branch of the trigeminal nerve ( V1 ) and the abducens nerve ( VI ) .
= = = = Inflammation = = = =
Inflammation resulting from infection may impair the function of any of the cranial nerves . Inflammation of the facial nerve ( VII ) may result in Bell 's palsy .
Multiple sclerosis , an inflammatory process that may produce a loss of the myelin sheathes which surround the cranial nerves , may cause a variety of shifting symptoms affecting multiple cranial nerves .
= = = = Other = = = =
Trauma to the skull , disease of bone such as Paget 's disease , and injury to nerves during neurosurgery ( such as tumor removal ) are other possible causes of cranial nerve damage .
= = History = =
Galen ( AD 129 @-@ 210 ) named seven pairs of cranial nerves . Much later , in 1664 , Sir Thomas Willis suggested that there were actually 10 pairs of nerves . Finally , in 1778 , Soemmering described the 12 pairs of nerves that are generally accepted today . However , because many of the nerves emerge from the brain stem as rootlets , there is continual debate as to how many nerves there actually are , and how they should be grouped . There is reason to consider both the olfactory ( I ) and Optic ( II ) nerves to be brain tracts , rather than cranial nerves . Further , the very small terminal nerve ( nerve N or O ) exists in humans but may not be functional . In other animals , it appears to be important to sexual receptivity based on perceptions of phermones
= = Other animals = =
Cranial nerves are also present in other vertebrates . Other amniotes ( non @-@ amphibian tetrapods ) have cranial nerves similar to those of humans . In anamniotes ( fishes and amphibians ) , the accessory nerve ( XI ) and hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) do not exist , with the accessory nerve ( XI ) being an integral part of the vagus nerve ( X ) ; the hypoglossal nerve ( XII ) is represented by a variable number of spinal nerves emerging from vertebral segments fused into the occiput . These two nerves only became discrete nerves in the ancestors of amniotes ( non @-@ amphibian tetrapods ) .
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= Doris Stevens =
Doris Stevens ( October 26 , 1888 – March 22 , 1963 ) was an American suffragist , woman 's legal rights advocate and author . She was the first female member of the American Institute of International Law and first chairman of the Inter @-@ American Commission of Women .
Born in 1888 in Omaha , Nebraska , Stevens became involved in the fight for suffrage while a college student at Oberlin College . After graduating with a degree in sociology in 1911 , she taught briefly before becoming a paid regional organizer for the National American Woman Suffrage Association 's Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage ( CUWS ) . When the CUWS broke from the parent organization in 1914 , Stevens became the national strategist . She was in charge of coordinating the women 's congress , held at the Panama Pacific Exposition in 1915 . When the CUWS became the National Woman 's Party ( NWP ) in 1916 , Stevens organized party delegates for each of the 435 Congressional Districts in an effort to attain national women 's enfranchisement and defeat candidates who were opposed to women 's rights . Between 1917 and 1919 , Stevens was a prominent participant in the Silent Sentinels vigil at Woodrow Wilson 's White House to urge the passage of a constitutional amendment for women 's voting rights and was arrested several times for her involvement . After the 19th Amendment secured women 's right to vote , she wrote a book , titled Jailed for Freedom ( 1920 ) , which recounted the sentinel 's ordeals .
Once the right to vote was secured , Stevens turned her attention to women 's legal status . She supported passage of the Equal Rights Amendment and worked with Alice Paul from 1927 – 1933 on a volume of work comparing varying impact on law for women and men . The goal in compiling the data was to obtain an international law protecting women 's right of citizenship . The research was completed with the help of feminists in 90 countries and evaluated laws controlling women 's nationality from every country . Gaining approval for the work from the League of Nations in 1927 , Stevens presented the proposal Pan American Union in 1928 , convincing the governing body to create the Inter @-@ American Commission of Women ( CIM ) . In 1931 , she joined the American Institute of International Law , becoming its first female member . In 1933 , her work resulted in the first treaty to secure international rights for women . The Convention on the Nationality of Women established that women retained their citizenship after marriage and Convention on Nationality provided that neither marriage nor divorce could affect the nationality of the members of a family , extending citizenship protection to children .
Ousted from the CIM in 1938 , and the NWP in 1947 over policy disputes , Stevens became vice president of the Lucy Stone League in 1951 , of which she had been a member since the 1920s . She fought the roll @-@ back of policies removing the gains women had made to enter the work force during World War II and worked to establish feminism as an academic field of study . She continued fighting for feminist causes until her death in 1963 .
= = Early life = =
Dora Caroline Stevens was born on October 26 , 1888 in Omaha , Nebraska to Caroline D. ( née Koopman ) and Henry Henderbourck Stevens . Her father was a pastor of the Dutch Reformed Church for forty years and her mother was a first generation immigrant from Holland . One of four children , Stevens grew up in Omaha and graduated in 1905 from Omaha High School . She went on to further her education graduating from Oberlin College in 1911 with a degree in sociology , though she had originally pursued music . While in college , she was known for her romances and for being a spirited suffragette . Her unruly behavior and disdain for feminine propriety were cultivated during her college years . After graduation , Stevens worked as a music teacher and social worker in Ohio , Michigan. and Montana before moving to Washington , D.C. , where she became a regional organizer with the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) .
= = Suffrage = =
In 1913 , Stevens arrived in Washington to take part in the June picketing of the Senate . She did not plan to stay , but Alice Paul convinced her to do so . She was hired by the NAWSA , and was assigned to the newly formed Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage ( CUWS ) , which had been created by Alice Paul and Mary Ritter Beard . At that time , the Congressional Union was a subdivision of the NAWSA , though it operated independently . Stevens was hired to serve as executive secretary in Washington , D. C. , as well as serve as regional organizer and was assigned the eastern district . Paul had divided the nation into quadrants of twelve states each and assigned Stevens to the eastern area , Mabel Vernon to the middle west , Anne Martin to the far west , and Maud Younger to the south . The regional organizers were tasked with educating groups about the suffrage bills that were in Congress and garnering support from each state for ratifying national suffrage . Rather than follow the previous strategy of achieving enfranchisement on a state @-@ by @-@ state basis , the Congressional Union Strategy was full federal approval . This issue , caused a rift in the suffrage movement at the 1913 Convention , causing Paul and her supporters to break ties with the NAWSA and become an independent organization .
With the fissure , the Congressional Union began a reorganization to push for campaigns against Democratic candidates because they had not supported suffrage while they were in control of the legislature . Paul established an all @-@ woman advisory council of suffrage workers and prominent women which included Bertha Fowler , Charlotte Perkins Gilman , Helen Keller , Belle Case La Follette , May Wright Sewall and educators such as Emma Gillett , Maria Montessori , and Clara Louise Thompson , a Latin Professor at Rockford College , among others , to lend credibility to the new organization . Stevens became the national organizer , charged with organizing women in states in which they were able to vote to use their ballots and oppose any candidate not in favor of full enfranchisement of women . One of the first places Stevens traveled to was Colorado , where CUWS was successful in attaining commitment from one congressman to support the women 's cause . Returning from that success in January 1915 , she went to New York and Newport , Rhode Island to campaign before heading west . She campaigned in Kansas , hoping to secure delegates for a convention planned in San Francisco for September .
Arriving in California in June , Stevens accompanied a group of women led by Charlotte Anita Whitney to meet with House Appropriations Committee members who were meeting at the Palace Hotel , in San Francisco . The women had been assured that they would be able to present their issues , but the chair , Representative John J. Fitzgerald of New York , refused to allow it . Undaunted , Whitney and Stevens continued their planning efforts for the Panama Pacific Exposition CUWS Congress in San Francisco . In San Francisco at the CUWS headquarters in 1915 , Stevens discussed the strategy of employing a " million @-@ vote smile " , positing that smiling was a useful tool in the fight to win over men 's support . " Smile on men and they will give you a vote . Look severe and they won 't , " she stated . However , when Alice Paul arrived two weeks before the event , she canceled choral events , a parade and a mass meeting that had been planned for the Scottish Rite Hall . Stevens had been involved in supervising each of these events , though local women planned and orchestrated them . Paul did keep the luncheon and a ball to be held at the California building of the exposition . After the September Congress , Stevens had planned to remain in San Francisco and run the exposition booth of CUWS , but she was forced to return to Washington because the eastern delegate Margaret Whittemore had left due to her marriage . Stevens immediately began planning for a convention to be held in Washington in December .
At the beginning of 1916 , Stevens announced the policy that the CUWS had organized in twenty @-@ two states and planned on recruiting delegates for each of the 435 House Districts . The delegates were required to form committees to press Congressional Members to favor suffrage and make them aware that their constituents were in favor of women attaining the vote . Another strategy Stevens began implementing early in 1916 required CUWS members to go to other states in which women were allowed to vote , establish residence and register to vote . In this way , they could vote in state and national elections in the hope of filling the legislature with legislators who favored suffrage . Stevens registered to vote in Kansas that year . On 5 June 1916 , the CUWS became the National Woman 's Party ( NWP ) , having a single platform to acquire a constitutional amendment for national women 's suffrage . After attending the NWP convention in Chicago in June , Stevens headed to a convention in Colorado . By October , Stevens was organizing and managing the NWP election campaign in California .
= = Arrest = =
Due to the United States ' entry into World War I , some suffragists stopped their activism in 1917 because it might be seen as " unpatriotic ; " Stevens , instead , insisted that it was " arrogant of Wilson to fight for democracy abroad when women were not included in democracy at home . " In January after a delegation of NWP members had a disappointing meeting with President Woodrow Wilson , it was decided that they would protest at the White House every day , standing as Silent Sentinels until Wilson recognized the importance of their cause . The women maintained their post for over a year disregarding weather conditions and the threat of arrest . Though she performed other organizational tasks , such as organizing the North Carolina branch of the NWP in March , Stevens participated as a sentinel . She and fifteen other women were arrested for picketing at the White House on Bastille Day , in July 1917 , charged with obstructing the sidewalk , and served three days of their 60 @-@ day sentence at Occoquan Workhouse before receiving a pardon from President Wilson . The women were placed within the prison population , given no toothbrushes , combs or toiletries and were surprised that they were required to share a water dipper with the rest of the prisoners .
Stevens met her first husband , Dudley Field Malone , when he represented her for her protest in front of the White House . He had been serving as an Assistant Secretary of State in the Wilson cabinet , but was converted to the suffragist cause and resigned his post . He appeared with Stevens at fundraising events and helped raise thousands of dollars for their cause , which was gaining momentum , as President Wilson finally endorsed enfranchisement . Between 1918 and 1919 , Stevens continued alternating speaking engagements and picketing . She was arrested again , along with Elsie Hill , Alice Paul and three " Jane Doe " suffragists at the NWP demonstration of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York in March 1919 . On 4 September 1920 , the fight was won when Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby proclaimed the necessary 36 states had ratified the 19th Amendment with Tennessee 's ratification . Stevens published the quintessential insider account of the imprisonment of NWP activists , Jailed for Freedom , in 1920 .
Over the years , Stevens held several important NWP leadership positions , including Legislative Chairman and membership on the executive committee . In 1920 , Alva Belmont was elected president of he NWP and Stevens served as Belmont ’ s personal assistant , even writing Belmont 's autobiography . Belmont and Steven 's relationship was contentious , but the younger Stevens accepted years of control by Belmont over many of her personal actions . Traveling to Europe with Belmont for work of the NWP , Belmont insisted that Steven 's fiance could not join them and when he did , Belmont removed to France without Stevens .
On 5 December 1921 in Peekskill , New York , Stevens and Malone were secretly married by a hardware store owner who was a Justice of the Peace and immediately sailed for their two @-@ month honeymoon in Paris . Stevens announced she would not take Malone 's name and would remain " Doris Stevens " . From the middle of the 1920s , Stevens lived primarily in Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson , New York , where she became friends with leading members of the Greenwich Village radical scene and bohemians , including Louise Bryant , Max and Crystal Eastman , Edna St. Vincent Millay , John Reed and others . Stevens divorced Malone in 1929 after a string of infidelities on both sides and failed attempts at reconciliation .
= = Equality activism = =
The focus of the NWP shifted to equality under the law , including equal employment opportunities , jury service , nationality for married women and any other provision which legally prohibited women from having full legal equality . In 1923 , the Equal Rights Amendment was introduced by Daniel Read Anthony , Jr. and the women pushed for its passage , lobbying for support from both political parties . Stevens served as vice chairman of NWP ’ s New York branch , spearheading the NWP Women for Congress campaign in 1924 . Unable to run herself due to her having established a legal residence in France , Stevens worked toward the goal of securing the election of 100 women to Congress in states where female candidates were among contenders for office . The campaign had negligible results and the women shifted back to equality measures . Beginning in 1926 , one of the proposals Stevens focused on for the next several years was the " Wages for Wives " marriage contract . Campaigning vigorously for its adoption , the " Wages for Wives " proposal called for a flexible contract which split marital assets 50 @-@ 50 rather than treating married couples as a single entity and called for women to be paid a wage for domestic services and raising children as a protection for children 's continuous support .
From the end of the War , a growing belief among women 's organizations was the notion that all women faced similar problems as subordinates to men and that combining their interests might lead to gains . At the International Council of Women ( ICW ) conference held in Washington in 1925 , the sentiment was expressed by Lady Aberdeen , welcoming all women to the " sisterhood , of whatever creed , party , section or class they may belong " . In 1927 , Stevens and Alice Paul undertook a massive study of how laws affected women 's nationality ; studying for example , if they lost their nationality by marrying or even became stateless . Stevens met with feminists throughout Europe and held public meetings to gather data , including Dr. Luisa Baralt of Havana , Dr. Ellen Gleditsch of Oslo , Chrystal Macmillan and Sybil Thomas , Viscountess Rhondda of the UK , the Marquesa del Ter of Spain , Maria Vérone of France and Hélène Vacaresco of Romania , as well as various officers of the International Federation of University Women and others . Paul reviewed the laws of each country . Together , they compiled a monumental report , which indexed all laws controlling women 's nationality from every country in its native language and then translated each law on an accompanying page . Tables were provided for easy comparison and a synopsis of the laws was given . The report was initially prepared for a meeting that was to take place at the League of Nations in 1930 to discuss codification of international laws . Stevens felt that nationality of women should be included in that discussion and spearheaded the research , believing " feminism should strive for equal rights for women , and that women should be considered first and foremost as human beings . " In September 1927 , she attended a preliminary meeting of the League of Nations in Geneva and obtained their unanimous support of her proposal . She continued meeting with women and gathering data until January 1928 , when she attended the Pan @-@ American Conference in Havana . Stevens convinced the governing body of the Pan American Union to create the Inter @-@ American Commission of Women ( Spanish : Comisión Interamericana de Mujeres ) ( CIM ) on 4 April 1928 .
The initial Inter @-@ American Commission of Women ( CIM ) was made up of seven women delegates who were charged with finalizing the report for the next Pan @-@ American Conference ( 1933 ) to review civil and political equality for women . Stevens served as chair of the CIM from its creation in 1928 until her ouster in 1938 . By August , Stevens was back in Paris working on the report . She and other suffragists picketed the French president , Gaston Doumergue , in 1928 in an attempt to get the world peace delegates to support an equal rights treaty . They were dismissively described by a journalist who did cover the event as " militant suffragettes , " and a Paris paper called the protest " an amusing incident . " Though arrested , they were released upon providing proof of their identities .
In 1929 , Stevens returned to the United States and began to study law , taking classes at the American University and Columbia University in international law and foreign policy . In 1930 , she returned to Havana in February for the first meeting of the CIM women which included Flora de Oliveira Lima ( Brazil ) , Aída Parada ( Chile ) , Lydia Fernández ( Costa Rica ) , Elena Mederos de González ( Cuba ) , Gloria Moya de Jiménez ( Dominican Republic ) , Irene de Peyré ( Guatemala ) , Margarita Robles de Mendoza ( Mexico ) , Juanita Molina de Fromen ( Nicaragua ) , Clara González ( Panama ) , Teresa Obregoso de Prevost ( Peru ) . From Cuba , she went to the The Hague for the first World Conference on the Codification of International Law held on 13 March . Presenting her data on what had been accomplished in the Americas , Stevens asked that the international community enact laws to protect women 's citizenship . She returned to the United States and her studies . Though she didn 't graduate , in 1931 she became the first woman member of American Institute of International Law . That same year , she , Belmont and Paul attended the League of Nations meeting in September to present their nationality findings .
= = Seventh Pan @-@ American Conference = =
Stevens was very active in working with Latina feminists through the CIM . At the Seventh Pan @-@ American Conference , held in 1933 in Montevideo , Uruguay , the women presented their analysis of the legal status of women in each of the 21 member countries . The first report ever to study in detail the civil and political rights of women , it had been prepared solely by women . They proposed a Treaty on the Equality of Rights for Women , and it was rejected by the conference , though it was signed by Cuba , Ecuador , Paraguay , and Uruguay . Three of those states had already granted suffrage to women , and none of the four ratified the Treaty after the conference . However , the women had presented the first international resolution to recommend suffrage for women . Next , Stevens presented their materials which showed the disparity between rights of men and women . For example , in 16 countries of the Americas women could not vote at all , in two countries they could vote with restrictions , and in three countries they had equal enfranchisement . In 19 of the American countries , women did not have equal custody over their children , including in seven US states , and only two countries allowed joint authority for women of their own children . None of the Latin American countries allowed women to serve on juries , and 27 US states prohibited women from participating in juries . Divorce grounds in 14 countries and 28 states were disparate for men and women , and a woman could not administer her own separate property in 13 countries and two US states .
After reviewing the data , the conference approved the first international agreement ever adopted on women 's rights . The Convention on the Nationality of Women made it clear that should a woman marry a man of a different nationality , her citizenship could be retained . The text stated , " There shall be no distinction based on sex as regards to nationality " . The conference also passed the Convention on Nationality , which established that neither marriage nor divorce could affect the nationality of the members of a family , extending citizenship protection to children as well . The Roosevelt administration , hoping to get rid of Stevens , then argued that the women 's task was completed and the CIM should be abandoned . Not wanting to bow to US pressure , the Conference did not vote to continue the CIM , but instead voted as a unit , with the exception of Argentina , to block the US proposal .
= = Later career = =
It would take FDR another five years , with the help of the League of Women Voters to replace Stevens . Making the argument that Stevens was appointed by the Conference of the Pan @-@ American States and not as a U.S. delegate , FDR agreed to give permanent status to the CIM , if each state was allowed to appoint their own delegates . Securing approval , he then immediately replaced Stevens with Mary Nelson Winslow . Stevens did not go quietly and the clash continued throughout 1939 with Eleanor Roosevelt backing Winslow and suffragists backing Stevens . Eleanor 's objection to Stevens was multi @-@ faced , in that she did not think that the Equal Rights Amendment would protect women and on a personal level , she believed Stevens behaved in an unladylike manner .
In 1940 , Stevens was elected to serve on the National Council of the National Woman 's Party . The following year , when Alice Paul returned from a two @-@ year trip to Switzerland to establish the World Woman ’ s Party ( WWP ) , difficulties arose . Paul experienced both challenges to the direction she was taking the NWP and had personality conflicts with members , including Stevens . When Alva Belmont died in 1933 , the bequest she had promised Stevens for years of personal service was instead directed to the NWP . Stevens sued the estate , eventually receiving US $ 12 @,@ 000 , but she believed that Paul had sabotaged her relationship with Belmont . After Paul 's resignation in 1945 , Stevens did not support Paul 's hand @-@ selected replacement , Anita Pollitzer and led an unsuccessful attempt to challenge her leadership . Pollitzer was seen as a figurehead for Paul and an internal dispute arose over the NWP ’ s emphasis on the WWP and international rights rather than domestic organizing . During these tensions , a dissenting faction of NWP members tried to take over party headquarters and elect their own slate of officers , but Pollitzer ’ s claim to leadership was supported by a ruling of a federal district judge .
Stevens parted ways with the NWP in 1947 and turned instead to activity in the Lucy Stone League , a women ’ s rights organization based on Lucy Stone 's retention of her maiden name after marriage . After World War II ended , the organization was revived in 1950 because the rights women had seen surge during the war were reverting to their pre @-@ war state . Stevens was one of the reorganizers along with Freda Kirchwey , Frances Perkins and others . Stevens had long been a proponent of a woman retaining her own name and did not take her husband 's name in either of her marriages . She had remarried to Jonathan Mitchell on August 31 , 1935 in Portland , Maine . Mitchell was a reporter for the The New Republic during the Roosevelt years and later for the National Review , and was an anti @-@ communist . He took part in the McCarthy hearings and Stevens , after her marriage to him , moved politically to the right , from her previously socialist leanings .
From 1951 to 1963 , Stevens served as vice @-@ president of the Lucy Stone League , though she struggled with maintaining militancy . Stevens was not anti @-@ male , rather pro @-@ female . She did not follow a belief that for women to succeed , men had to be omitted ; rather , she believed that collaboration with men was essential . In her last years , Stevens supported the establishment of feminist studies as a legitimate field of academic inquiry in American universities and tried to establish a Lucy Stone Chair of Feminism at Radcliffe College .
Stevens died on March 22 , 1963 in New York City , two weeks after having a stroke . Princeton University has an endowed chair in women 's studies created by the Doris Stevens Foundation in 1986 .
= = Legacy = =
In 1986 , Princeton University established an endowed chair through the Doris Stevens Foundation in women ’ s studies . In 2004 the HBO film Iron Jawed Angels was made about the early days of the suffrage movement . Doris Stevens was portrayed by Laura Fraser .
= = Selected works = =
Stevens , Doris ( 1919 ) . The militant campaign . Washington , D.C. : The National Woman 's Party . OCLC 71644630 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1920 ) . Jailed for Freedom . New York , New York : Boni and Liveright . OCLC 574971418 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1928 ) . L 'Egalité des droits pour les femmes par Convention Internationale : Discours prononcé à la session plénière non @-@ officielle de la 6ème conférence Pan @-@ Américaine . Pan @-@ American Conference publication ( in French ) . Washington , D.C. : The National Woman 's Party . OCLC 758520361 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1933 ) . Tribute to Alva Belmont : late president of the National Woman 's Party . Washington , D.C. : Inter American Commission of Women , Pan American Union . OCLC 731402801 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1934 ) . History of equal rights treaty signed at the VII International Conference of American States by Uruguay , Paraguay , Ecuador and Cuba . Washington , D.C. : Inter American Commission of Women , Pan American Union . OCLC 827304625 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1936 ) . A comparison of the political and civil rights of men and women in the United States : statement interpreting the laws of the United States ... and presented for action by the 7th International Conference of American States . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office . OCLC 276997382 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1936 ) . En prison pour la liberté ! Comment nous avons conquis le vote des femmes aux États @-@ Unis ( in French ) . Paris , France : A. Pedone . OCLC 9513999 .
Stevens , Doris ( 1940 ) . Paintings & drawings of Jeannette Scott . Mount Vernon , New York : Privately printed for James Brown Scott . OCLC 423924981 .
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= Christmas Carol ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Christmas Carol " is the sixth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Peter Markle . The episode explores the series ' overarching mythology . The episode premiered in the United States on December 7 , 1997 on the Fox network , earning a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 8 and being watched by 20 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . It received moderately positive reviews from television critics , with many complimenting Gillian Anderson 's performance .
The show centers on FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Scully , on Christmas vacation with her family , receives a mysterious phone call that leads her to a case involving a little girl that she believes to be the daughter of her dead sister , Melissa .
" Christmas Carol " is the first of a two @-@ part story that concludes with episode seven , " Emily " . The episode was inspired by the 1951 British film Scrooge , starring Alastair Sim . The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in the episode 's sequel " Emily " , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her including her scene featured in this episode . Gillian Anderson 's younger sister , Zoe , was chosen to play Scully in a flashback sequence .
= = Plot = =
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her mother visit her brother Bill and his pregnant wife Tara around Christmas time . Scully answers the phone , and the person on the other line , who sounds just like her dead sister Melissa , tells her that someone needs her help . Scully traces the call to a nearby home in San Diego where a group of cops are investigating the suicide of a woman , Roberta Sim . The lead detective , Kresge , tells Scully that it was impossible for Roberta to have dialed , as she died before the telephone call was made . That night after dinner Scully reveals to her mother that due to her abduction and cancer she is unable to bear children . Scully flashes back to when as a child , she hid her pet rabbit from her brother in a lunchbox , only for it to suffocate and die . Scully receives another telephone call from the same person on her cell phone , which was once again made from the Sim home . Roberta 's husband , Marshall , is meeting with two dark @-@ suited men inside his house and has no desire to listen to and help Scully figure out what is going on .
Scully visits Kresge , wanting to look further into Roberta Sim 's suicide , despite the fact that the police think it is a simple suicide . Scully finds a striking resemblance between the Sims ' daughter , Emily , and her sister Melissa from when she was that age . Scully flashes back to a funeral she attended when she was a little girl but imagines Marshall Sim holding her hand . Scully insists on performing an autopsy on Roberta , thinking that she was murdered . Scully finds a needle puncture in Roberta 's foot , causing her to believe that she was anesthetized and her suicide was staged . The police search the Sim 's house and find a used hypodermic needle , which Marshall claims was used for injecting the anemic Emily with treatment . Scully spots the dark @-@ suited men watching from a nearby car . Scully receives DNA data on Melissa , and matching it up to Emily 's finds them nearly identical , causing her to believe that Emily is Melissa 's daughter . Scully believes that Melissa gave birth to her while on the west coast and gave her up for adoption without ever telling the rest of the family . Scully flashes back to when she and Melissa were teenagers and were given cross necklaces from their mother for Christmas .
Kresge comes to see Scully , telling her that the Sims received several large payments from a pharmaceutical company , Prangen Industries . The two visit Dr. Calderon , who tells them that Emily was part of clinical trials and that Roberta was paid the money to keep her from pulling Emily from the program . Marshall Sim is arrested for the murder of his wife . Scully visits Emily and gives her the cross necklace . Marshall confesses soon after , but is found dead in his cell shortly after being visited by the two dark @-@ suited men . Bill shows Scully a photo of Melissa , who is clearly not pregnant , shortly before Emily was born , which he thinks proves that she isn 't Emily 's mother . Scully meets with someone from an adoptive agency , wanting to adopt Emily . The woman is very hesitant considering Scully 's job and the fact that Emily is a special needs child . Scully flashes back to talking with Melissa around Christmas time shortly before she joined the FBI . On Christmas morning Scully receives the results of a DNA test from the FBI proving that Melissa is not Emily 's mother — she is .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
During the second week of October 1997 , David Duchovny was scheduled to be away from Vancouver for promotional purposes for the movie Playing God . As a result , the producers delayed shooting of the episode " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " and developed a Scully @-@ centric episode to take its place in the queue . With the episode scheduled to air during December , Vince Gilligan , John Shiban , and Frank Spotnitz decided to craft a Christmas episode and put Dana Scully into a situation similar to that of Scrooge in the 1951 film Scrooge , starring Alastair Sim . After failing to write an episode paralleling that story , the writers decided instead to feature Scully being visited by earlier versions of herself , resulting in the flashback sequences appearing in the episode . They also decided to have her be taken on an emotional journey by her descendant .
= = = Filming = = =
The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in the episode 's sequel " Emily " , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her including her scene featured in this episode . The show 's casters replaced her with Lauren Diewold , who had previously appeared on an episode of Millennium . Due to the show 's shooting schedule , the producers were unable to use Gillian Anderson to reshoot the necessary scenes in " Christmas Carol " , resulting in Anderson 's double being used instead , with the footage pieced together in the editing room .
Props specialist Ken Hawryliw claimed the biggest challenge in producing the episode was finding Christmas paper from the 1980s for the flashback sequences . Casting director Corrine Mays had difficulty finding an actress to play Dana Scully 's 1976 self before executive producer Robert Goodwin came up with the idea of using Gillian Anderson 's fourteen @-@ year @-@ old sister Zoë for the role . Gillian Anderson , while liking the finalized episode , believed that she never was able to capture the complex relationship between herself and Emily , stating : " I felt in the end that I was a little low energy , a little too melancholy . It was hard to find the right attitude for Scully in dealing with a child that 's apparently hers ; to find the right flavor of relationship to her and this disease she 's going through , all mixed up with the aspect of the paranormal . " Anderson also admitted that another issue she had was that " she had no history with this child " so she was unable to " play the kind of attachment I would feel if my own daughter , Piper , were going through the same thing .
= = Reception = =
" Christmas Carol " premiered on the Fox network on December 7 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 8 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 20 @.@ 91 million viewers .
The episode received moderately positive reviews from television critics . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode an A and called it " generally a terrific episode " . Handlen wrote that he was " delighted to get another Scully @-@ centric episode [ especially ] one that doesn 't end up with her looking pale and deathly in a hospital bed . " Despite his approval of the script , he slightly criticized the series for writing Scully @-@ centric episodes based solely on the idea that " something is being done to her " as opposed to against or with her . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode was an interesting and uncommon in @-@ depth look at Scully 's psychology . The writers rarely had such an opportunity , and along with Gillian Anderson , they run with the opportunity . The religious metaphor is a bit thick throughout , but this is actually a bit more subtle than would become the norm . Making the child sick works for the mythology , but in a lot of ways , it seems like a plot contrivance . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote that the script was " really sharp " and features " natural dialogue " that disguises the stumbles in the character study . Shearman and Pearson also praised Anderson 's performance , calling it " terrific " and noted that her acting " hint [ ed ] years before it happens to the relationship Anderson will enjoy with Robert Patrick " , the actor who would go on to portray agent John Doggett . Matt Hurwtiz and Chris Knowles , in their book The Complete X @-@ Files called the episode " a showcase for Gillian Anderson 's startling acting chops . "
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique , on the other hand , gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She described the episode as " one [ where ] disbelief isn 't suspended so much as hung by the neck until dead " . She heavily derided the episode 's " overnight DNA tests " , " helpful couriers that deliver the results at Christmas " , and the fact that Scully fills out an adoption paper and is visited by a Social Service agent on Christmas Eve .
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= 2010 East – West Shrine Game =
The 2010 East – West Shrine Game was the 85th staging of the all @-@ star college football exhibition game featuring NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision players . The game featured over 100 players from the 2009 college football season , and prospects for the 2010 Draft of the professional National Football League ( NFL ) , as well as for the United Football League 's inaugural draft . In the week prior to the game , scouts from all 32 NFL teams attended . The proceeds from the East @-@ West Shrine Game benefit Shriners Hospitals for Children .
Marty Schottenheimer and Romeo Crennel served as the two teams ' coaches for the game . The East team won by a 13 – 10 margin on the strength of a touchdown with just six seconds remaining . According to some reliable sources , Wisconsin defensive end O 'Brien Schofield and Northwestern quarterback Mike Kafka of the east team were defensive and offensive MVPs , respectively . However , other sources point to East Carolina cornerback Van Eskridge also of the east team was selected as defensive MVP .
Although no players from this game were chosen in the first round of the NFL Draft and only 7 were chosen on the second day of the draft ( rounds 2 & 3 ) , a total of 34 participants were selected during the draft 's seven rounds . This includes four selections by the Pittsburgh Steelers and three each by the Philadelphia Eagles and Green Bay Packers . Three Utah Utes football players and five offensive tackles from this game were selected in the draft .
= = Game notes = =
The West team was coached by Schottenheimer and the East by Crennel . The game was played on January 23 , 2010 at 3 : 00 p.m. local time at Citrus Bowl in Orlando , Florida . It was the first time the game was played at the Citrus Bowl . In fact , it was the first time the game was played in the state of Florida . The game had been hosted in California since 1925 until 2006 when it was moved to Texas . The game was broadcast on ESPN2 . The combined score of 23 was the lowest since the 14 – 6 1992 East @-@ West Shrine Game . The total attendance of 8 @,@ 345 was the lowest in the history of the self @-@ described longest running college all @-@ star game . During the week before the game was played , the players interacted with general managers and scouts between practices .
In the first half , the East posted two interceptions . Schofield , who also had three tackles , made an interception of a pass by BYU quarterback Max Hall . Subsequently , Eskridge also intercepted a pass by Kansas quarterback Todd Reesing . The only first half scoring came on field goals . Joshua Shene of Ole Miss posted field goals of 44 and 40 yards for the East . Texas placekicker Hunter Lawrence had a 47 @-@ yarder for the West . Shene 's field goals both came in the final two minutes and fifteen seconds of the first half .
The West took a 10 – 6 lead with 6 : 59 left in the game when Hall connected with UCLA fullback Ryan Moya for an 8 @-@ yard touchdown pass . A key play on the drive was a 41 @-@ yard pass from Hall to Eastern Washington tight end Nathan Overbay as he was cutting across the middle of a wide @-@ open field . BYU 's Dennis Pitta then caught a 17 yard reception .
Kafka threw the game @-@ winning touchdown to Penn State tight end Andrew Quarless with six seconds left , resulting in the 13 – 10 victory over the West . The touchdown capped an 11 @-@ play 55 @-@ yard game @-@ winning drive . The play before the touchdown , Kafka had scrambled out of the grasp of a swarm of defenders for a 9 @-@ yard gain . During the drive Freddie Barnes of Bowling Green caught three consecutive passes of 12 , 7 , and 10 yards . The final play was set up after Kafka eluded a sack during a 2nd down and 10 yards situation on the West 11 yardline which led to a timeout with 12 seconds left before Kafka connected with Quarless in the back of the end zone .
Kafka was 18 of 27 for 150 yards and Michigan State 's Blair White made 7 receptions for 93 yards for the East . Hall was 7 of 12 for 119 yards , a touchdown , and an interception and Pitta recorded 4 receptions for 72 yards for the West . The game saw no one accumulate more than 28 total rushing yards from scrimmage and no run was longer than 16 yards . In addition to the aforementioned players , the defensive standouts for the East on Saturday were Virginia Tech 's Kam Chancellor ( 7 tackles ) , USF 's Kion Wilson ( 6 tackles , forced fumble ) and Ole Miss ' Greg Hardy , Jr . ( 5 tackles , sack ) . The West were led by seven tackles from Kansas ' Darrell Stuckey and six tackles and three pass breakups from Texas Tech 's Jamar Wall .
According to the release from Shriners International Headquarters and several other sources , Schofield and Kafka of the east team were defensive and offensive MVPs , respectively . However , according to the Associated Press press release that was published by ESPN , Sports Illustrated and several other sources , Eskridge was selected as defensive MVP .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = = Statistical leaders = = =
= = Coaching staff = =
= = = West Team = = =
= = = East Team = = =
= = Rosters = =
= = = East team = = =
= = = West team = = =
= = 2010 NFL Draft = =
Below is a list of the 34 players from this game that were drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . The Pittsburgh Steelers drafted four players that they scouted at this game and both the Philadelphia Eagles and the Green Bay Packers scouted three . The Arizona Cardinals , Buffalo Bills , Houston Texans , Tennessee Titans and Baltimore Ravens each selected two . Five offensive tackles , four defensive tackles , defensive ends , tight ends and wide receivers were drafted from this game . Three players from the Utah Utes as well as two each from the UCLA Bruins and Kansas Jayhawks were selected . Although 34 players were selected during the seven round draft , none were selected in the first round , while ten were chosen in the fifth and an additional 7 were chosen in the final seventh round .
The east team 's Matt Morencie had already been drafted with the fifth pick of the third round in the 2009 CFL Draft by the BC Lions . Jordan Sisco was selected with the first pick in the second round ( 8th overall ) of the 2010 CFL Draft by the Saskatchewan Roughriders .
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= Markus Näslund =
Markus Sten Näslund ( born July 30 , 1973 ) is a Swedish retired ice hockey player and former general manager for Modo Hockey of the Swedish Hockey League ( SHL , formerly named Elitserien ) . He played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Pittsburgh Penguins , Vancouver Canucks and New York Rangers , as well as in the Elitserien with Modo Hockey . Nicknamed " Nazzy " by Canucks fans and " Macke " or " Mackan " in his native Sweden , he was known for his offensive skills , particularly his wrist shot and stickhandling .
After playing junior hockey within the Modo organization , Näslund turned professional with the club 's Elitserien team in 1990 – 91 . Selected in the first round , 16th overall by the Penguins in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft , he joined the NHL in 1993 – 94 . After his tenure with Pittsburgh , Näslund was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in 1996 , where he spent 12 years , including a team record 8 as captain . He received the Cyclone Taylor Trophy as the Canucks ' most valuable player five times and the Cyrus H. McLean Trophy as the leading point @-@ scorer for seven consecutive seasons — both club records — en route to becoming the franchise leader in goals and points . In 2008 , Näslund signed with the Rangers , where he spent one season before announcing his retirement from the NHL . In 15 NHL seasons , Näslund was thrice First Team All @-@ Star , chosen in 2002 , 2003 and 2004 , and a Lester B. Pearson Award recipient ( now known as the Ted Lindsay award ) , winning in 2003 . He was the runner @-@ up for the Hart Memorial Trophy in 2003 . Midway through the 2009 – 10 season , he returned to play for Modo before retiring a second time . In December 2010 , he became the third Canucks player to have his jersey retired , joining Stan Smyl and Trevor Linden .
Internationally , Näslund has competed with the Swedish national team in two European Junior Championships , two World Junior Championships , four World Championships , two World Cups and one Winter Olympics . He holds the World Junior record for most goals scored in a single tournament , scoring 13 in 1993 , while also winning back @-@ to @-@ back silver medals at the competition . In World Championship play , he won a silver medal in 1993 and two bronze medals in 1999 and 2002 . On April 21 , 2014 , Naslund was inducted into the Swedish Hockey Hall Of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Näslund was born to Sture and Ulla Näslund on 30 July 1973 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden . The city has produced numerous NHL players , including childhood friend and future Modo Hockey teammate Peter Forsberg , as well as Victor Hedman and future Canucks teammates Henrik and Daniel Sedin .
Growing up idolizing Swedish NHL and Elitserien star Håkan Loob , he played most of his organized hockey at an outdoor rink in his neighbourhood during his youth . At age 14 , Näslund competed with the regional all @-@ star team from Ångermanland , helping the squad win a national under @-@ 16 championship at TV @-@ pucken in 1988 . He received the Sven Tumba Award as the tournament 's best forward .
Born within 10 days of each other , Näslund and Forsberg became well @-@ acquainted while playing on separate youth teams . They went on to join the Ångermanland team together , before competing on the same side at the junior and senior levels for Modo Hockey and the Swedish national team . They attended high school together and had summer jobs at the age of 18 with the same electrical company that employed both Näslund 's mother and Forsberg 's father , Kent .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Modo Hockey = = =
At age 15 , Näslund played a season with Örnsköldsviks SK in Sweden 's third @-@ tier men 's league . Appearing in 14 games , he scored 7 goals and 13 points . The following season , in 1989 – 90 , Näslund joined the Modo Hockey organization , playing in Sweden 's highest @-@ level junior league , the J20 SuperElit , where he and Peter Forsberg skated together on one of the most productive lines in the league . The pair helped Modo to win back @-@ to @-@ back junior championships . After a season of junior , in 1990 – 91 Näslund joined Modo 's professional team in the Elitserien , Sweden 's premiere league . The Modo equipment manager designated him with the jersey number 19 , which Näslund thereafter opted to wear with the Swedish national teams he played on . He recorded 10 goals and 19 points in his rookie season , a record points total for a 17 @-@ year @-@ old in the league , until Robert Nilsson scored 21 in 2002 – 03 .
In the off @-@ season , Näslund was drafted 16th overall in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins . The team 's general manager , Craig Patrick , hailed Näslund and Forsberg as the draft 's top two prospects behind first @-@ overall selection Eric Lindros . He compared Näslund to the Los Angeles Kings ' Swedish forward Tomas Sandström , although he did not consider him as aggressive a player , and further claimed that he was a more natural goal @-@ scorer than Penguins forward Jaromír Jágr , who had just completed his rookie year with the club .
Näslund remained in Sweden with Modo for two more years , recording a team @-@ leading 39 points in 1991 – 92 . He matched that points total the following season before helping Modo to the quarterfinals of the Elitserien playoffs .
= = = Pittsburgh Penguins = = =
Following the 1992 – 93 season , his contract with Modo expired on 30 April 1993 , and he had not yet come to terms with the Penguins . According to the collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) between the NHL and NHL Players Association ( NHLPA ) , he was entitled to free agency within the league , beginning on 1 July . However , a conflicting agreement between the league and Swedish ice hockey officials required that he sign an NHL contract on or before 30 June in order to leave Sweden . With the deadline approaching , Näslund filed a federal lawsuit against the NHL claiming that their agreement with Swedish officials could not override his rights as a player under the CBA . The case went to a federal judge in Newark , New Jersey , who ruled in favour of Näslund on 29 June . League president and lawyer Gil Stein released an affidavit stating the NHL @-@ Swedish agreement did not apply to Näslund , as he was not under contract with any Swedish team .
Näslund became a Group 4 restricted free agent on 1 July . He did not receive any offers from other teams due to an apparent promise from the Penguins organization to exercise their right to match . After two months of free agency , Näslund and the Penguins agreed to a deal on 9 September 1993 , worth approximately US $ 1 @.@ 8 million over three years , including a $ 750 @,@ 000 signing bonus .
Näslund subsequently joined the Penguins for the 1993 – 94 season . Due to teammate Bryan Trottier already wearing his Modo jersey number , 19 , he chose number 29 instead . He appeared in his first NHL game on 5 October 1993 against the Philadelphia Flyers . Five days later , he registered his first NHL point , an assist , during a game against the Quebec Nordiques . His first NHL goal came the following month on 9 November 1993 in a 3 – 3 tie against the St. Louis Blues . The goal came in the first period on the powerplay against goaltender Curtis Joseph , assisted by Doug Brown and Marty McSorley . Upon entering the NHL , Näslund struggled and was admittedly frustrated with himself . As a result , he was demoted to the Penguins ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate , the Cleveland Lumberjacks , on several occasions . He finished his rookie campaign with four goals and seven assists in 71 games . Although the Penguins qualified for the 1994 playoffs , Näslund did not participate in post @-@ season play , being made a healthy scratch ( non @-@ dressing player ) , and watched as Washington eliminated Pittsburgh in the first round .
The following season , shortened due to the 1994 – 95 labour dispute , he continued to split playing time between the NHL and IHL . In 14 games with Pittsburgh , he scored two goals and four points , while recording seven points in seven games with Cleveland . He did not appear in the NHL playoffs for a second straight season , despite the Penguins qualifying . Instead , he was assigned to Cleveland for their playoff season , in which he recorded four points in four games . Frustrated by his ongoing demotions to the IHL , at one point during the season he requested to be traded from Pittsburgh .
Näslund impressed in his third training camp with the Penguins , held prior to the 1995 – 96 season . He was labelled in the media as " Mr. September " , referring to his ability to show promise before struggling once the season began . Due to the departures of All @-@ Star left @-@ wingers Kevin Stevens and Luc Robitaille from the Penguins , Näslund had an opportunity for a more prominent role with the club in 1995 – 96 . He played on the second offensive unit with winger Jaromír Jágr and centre Ron Francis during training camp before being moved up to the first line with Mario Lemieux . He showed an immediate improvement , starting the season with 36 points in 29 games . He recorded his first NHL career hat @-@ trick on 28 November 1995 in a 7 – 2 win over the Ottawa Senators . However , his production slowed later in the season ; he was scratched on several occasions and was demoted to the third and fourth lines by February .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= = = = 1996 – 2000 : Trade to Vancouver and captaincy = = = =
In the final year of his contract with Pittsburgh , he was the subject of trade rumours . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette listed the Edmonton Oilers as the most likely candidate to deal for Näslund . However , on 20 March 1996 , he was dealt to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for forward Alek Stojanov . The deal would be regarded as one of the most lopsided trades in NHL history once Näslund displayed his full offensive capabilities later in his career . Stojanov , who had been drafted eight spots ahead of Näslund in the 1991 Draft , went on to play 45 games , scoring two goals and four assists for the Penguins over the next two seasons . He became a career minor @-@ leaguer and retired by age 29 , while Näslund would eventually play 884 games with the Canucks in 12 seasons .
Näslund made his debut with the team two days following the trade against the Dallas Stars . As his desired jersey number 19 was already being worn on the team by Tim Hunter , the Canucks gave him number 22 . Going pointless in his first nine games with his new club , Näslund recorded a hat @-@ trick in the last game of the regular season , a 5 – 0 win over the Calgary Flames on 13 April 1996 . The victory qualified the Canucks for the 1996 playoffs . He finished the regular season with a combined 22 goals and 55 points over 76 games between Pittsburgh and Vancouver . Näslund competed in his first NHL playoffs as the Canucks faced the Colorado Avalanche in the first round . He scored his first career NHL playoff goal in the final game of the series , opening the scoring against goaltender Patrick Roy on the powerplay . Colorado won 3 – 2 to eliminate Vancouver in six games . Näslund added two assists over the course of the series for three points total .
In the off @-@ season , he was re @-@ signed by the Canucks on 8 August 1996 . Näslund switched his jersey number back to 19 from his time with Modo , as Hunter left the team . In his first full campaign with the Canucks , he recorded 21 goals and 41 points over 78 games . The Canucks failed to qualify for the playoffs that season ; they would not return to the post @-@ season until 2001 . At the start of the 1997 – 98 season , Canucks head coach Mike Keenan scratched a healthy Näslund , prompting him to request a trade once again . He finished the year with 14 goals and 34 points over 76 games .
The following campaign , Näslund emerged as an offensive leader with the Canucks . Injuries to forwards Alexander Mogilny and Todd Bertuzzi , as well as the absence of Pavel Bure , resulted in Näslund earning more ice time . He scored his third NHL career hat @-@ trick on 5 December 1998 during a 4 – 1 win against the Dallas Stars . At mid @-@ season , he was named to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , held in January 1999 . He went on to record a team @-@ leading 36 goals and 66 points , resulting in him being awarded the Cyclone Taylor Trophy as the Canucks ' most valuable player — his first of five during his tenure with Vancouver — as well as his first of two of the team 's annual Most Exciting Player Awards ( he received his second two years later ) . In the off @-@ season , he was re @-@ signed by the Canucks to a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 2 million contract .
During the Canucks ' 2000 – 01 training camp in Sweden , Näslund was named team captain on 15 September 2000 . He replaced Mark Messier , who had returned as a free agent to the New York Rangers , and became the first European @-@ born captain in Canucks ' history . Näslund has cited Messier as his greatest playing influence , having played alongside him the previous three seasons . In his first year as team captain , Näslund continued to improve offensively and was named to his second NHL All @-@ Star Game , held in February 2001 . With 10 games remaining in the season , he suffered a broken leg on 16 March 2001 during a contest against the Buffalo Sabres . Chasing a loose puck in the third period , he was hit by Sabres defencemen Jay McKee and Rhett Warrener simultaneously , falling awkwardly on his right leg . Näslund was sidelined for the remainder of the season , as he required surgery to repair broken tibia and fibula bones . His 41 goals at the time of the injury were tied for third in the league , while his 75 points ranked in 11th place . As a result , he received his first of three career Viking Awards , given to the best Swedish player in the NHL . Without Näslund in the lineup , the Canucks finished the season with the eighth and final seed in the Western Conference , but were swept in the first round by the Colorado Avalanche in four games .
The Canucks ' return to the playoffs marked a turning point in the team 's success . After undergoing a rebuilding period in the late @-@ 90s under leading point @-@ scorers Messier , Bure and Mogilny , Näslund formed a new core that included Bertuzzi , Brendan Morrison , Ed Jovanovski and Mattias Öhlund . He recalls " grow [ ing ] up together in the early 2000s " with this group of players as his " fondest memory " in the NHL .
= = = = 2001 – 2005 West Coast Express = = = =
Set to enter the final year of his contract , Näslund re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a three @-@ year extension on 28 June 2001 . He spent the off @-@ season rehabilitating his leg , which was held together with a titanium rod and screws following surgery , at his private gym in his hometown of Örnsköldsvik . He returned from his injury in 2001 – 02 and improved to 40 goals and 90 points , which ranked second in the league behind Jarome Iginla . The 2001 – 02 campaign marked the beginning of what was widely considered the most effective line combination in the league for several seasons . Näslund and Bertuzzi had already formed a duo as wingers on the Canucks ' top line for more than two seasons when head coach Marc Crawford replaced centre Andrew Cassels with Brendan Morrison during a game on 9 January 2002 . The trio were dubbed the " West Coast Express " , named after Vancouver 's commuter rail service of the same name .
The formation of Näslund 's new line coincided with an eight @-@ goal , 21 @-@ point effort over 14 games in January 2002 , earning him NHL Player of the Month honours . He was later chosen to represent the World Team at the 2002 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Los Angeles and scored the game @-@ winning goal in an 8 – 5 victory over the North American team . The Canucks finished the season with the eighth seed in the Western Conference for the second straight year , resulting in a first @-@ round playoff match @-@ up with the Detroit Red Wings . It was Näslund 's first appearance in the post @-@ season since his initial year with the Canucks in 1996 . He was limited to a goal and an assist as Vancouver was eliminated by Detroit in six games . In the off @-@ season , Näslund received NHL First Team All @-@ Star honours as the league 's top left @-@ winger . He also finished fifth in Hart Memorial Trophy balloting .
In 2002 – 03 , with the West Coast Express line intact for a full season , Näslund finished with a career @-@ high of 48 goals and 104 points , finishing second in the league in both categories . Furthermore , he led the league with 54 powerplay points and 12 game @-@ winning goals . Näslund 's linemates also produced career seasons as Bertuzzi recorded 97 points , which ranked fifth in league scoring , while Morrison tallied 71 . Together , the trio accounted for 45 % of the Canucks ' 264 goals .
Early in the season , Näslund scored his eighth career NHL hat @-@ trick , scoring three goals in a seven @-@ minute span during the second period of a 5 – 2 win over the San Jose Sharks on 21 October 2002 . On 14 December , he scored a career @-@ high four goals in a 6 – 3 win over the Edmonton Oilers , tying a Canucks record for most goals in a single game . Named to his third consecutive All @-@ Star Game , held in February 2003 , Näslund scored a goal in the first shootout in All @-@ Star Game history to help the Western Conference defeat the Eastern Conference 6 – 5 . He was joined on the All @-@ Star squad by three other Canucks – Bertuzzi , Ed Jovanovski and head coach Marc Crawford . Crawford paired Näslund on a line with Peter Forsberg , marking the first time in nearly 10 years the two had played together . Later that month , Näslund registered another career @-@ high game with a six @-@ point night ( one goal , five assists ) in an 8 – 0 victory over the Atlanta Thrashers on 14 February 2003 . The win extended the Canucks ' franchise record unbeaten streak to 14 games . On 27 March , he recorded an assist in a 5 – 1 win against the Phoenix Coyotes for his 100th point of the season , becoming the third Canuck to reach the plateau after Pavel Bure and Alexander Mogilny .
On the last day of the 2002 – 03 regular season , the Canucks lost the Northwest Division title to the Colorado Avalanche through a defeat against the Los Angeles Kings . Näslund had also begun the night as the league 's leading point – and goal @-@ scorer , but was surpassed by Avalanche forwards Peter Forsberg and Milan Hejduk , respectively . After the game , Näslund apologized to the home fans at General Motors Place , saying the team " choked . " Qualifying for the 2003 playoffs , Vancouver won its first @-@ round matchup against the St. Louis Blues in seven games after trailing the series three games to one . Näslund scored a goal in the deciding game to help the Canucks advance . Against the Minnesota Wild in the next round , the Canucks were eliminated by relinquishing a three @-@ to @-@ one series lead of their own . Näslund finished the playoffs with a career @-@ high 14 points in 14 games .
In the off @-@ season , Näslund received the Lester B. Pearson Award ( since renamed the Ted Lindsay Award ) , given to the league 's best player as voted by the NHLPA . By beating out fellow award nominees Forsberg and Boston Bruins centre Joe Thornton , he became the first Swedish @-@ born recipient of the award , as well as the first Canucks player . He was presented the trophy during a ceremony at the Hockey Hall of Fame . Näslund was also a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy , awarded to the league 's most valuable player as voted by the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association . He finished as first runner @-@ up to Forsberg , receiving five first @-@ place ballots out of 62 compared to Forsberg 's 38 . Second runner @-@ up Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils had 14 first @-@ place ballots , but less voting points overall than Näslund . Despite losing the Hart , he was chosen by The Hockey News as the league 's most valuable player that year . Näslund also received both the Viking Award and First Team All @-@ Star honours for the second time .
The following season , Näslund led the Canucks in scoring for the sixth @-@ straight year . His 84 points ranked fourth in the league , while his 35 goals was seventh . His even @-@ strength points topped the league at 58 . It marked , however , the beginning of a consistent decline in offensive production for the remainder of his NHL career . He was briefly sidelined in early December 2003 due to a groin injury , but returned to score his second career four @-@ goal game , scoring all the Canucks ' goals in a 4 – 3 overtime win against the Pittsburgh Penguins , on 9 December 2003 . At mid @-@ season , he was selected as team captain for the Western Conference at the 2004 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Minnesota .
On 16 February 2004 , during a game against the Colorado Avalanche , Näslund received a body @-@ check to the head from opposing forward Steve Moore . Outstretched to retrieve a loose puck , he was hit by Moore with his elbow and shoulder . The league 's leading scorer at the time , he sustained a minor concussion , requiring 13 stitches on his forehead and nose , and was sidelined for three games . He also suffered a hyper @-@ extended elbow when he fell to the ice , which he played with through the remainder of the regular season and playoffs . Moore 's hit went unpenalized and several Canucks players vowed to exact revenge when the Canucks and Avalanche were set to play each other again on 8 March . Late in the third period of that subsequent game , Todd Bertuzzi skated behind Moore around the ice , punched him in the head and pushed him to the ice . Moore suffered career @-@ ending injuries and Bertuzzi was suspended indefinitely by the league . A close friend of Bertuzzi 's , Näslund was deeply affected by the incident , as subsequent lawsuits and public scrutiny negatively impacted Bertuzzi 's career . Several years later , Näslund stated , " It still bothers me what Todd has had to go through ... There 's no question he was standing up for me ... it all went too far . "
Despite the absence of Bertuzzi for the remainder of the season , Näslund led the Canucks to the Northwest Division title they had lost the previous season . Bertuzzi was replaced on the top line by Matt Cooke . The Canucks ' division title placed them third in the Western Conference standings , matching them against the sixth @-@ placed Calgary Flames in the opening round of the 2004 playoffs . In the seventh and deciding game of the series between the two teams , the Canucks faced a one @-@ goal deficit in the final minute of regulation time . With the Canucks having pulled their goaltender for an extra attacker , Näslund stickhandled the length of the ice past two defenders , before shooting the puck on goal . Calgary goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff saved the shot before Cooke scored on the rebound with six seconds left in the game . Despite the effort , Calgary subsequently eliminated Vancouver a minute @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half into the subsequent overtime period on a powerplay goal . Näslund finished the playoffs with nine points in seven games .
At the end of the campaign , he received his second consecutive and third career Viking Award and First Team All @-@ Star mention . In the three seasons from 2001 – 02 to 2003 – 04 , Näslund scored the most goals ( 123 ) and points ( 278 ) of any NHL player .
During the NHL labour conflict , he returned to play for Modo Hockey of the Elitserien in 2004 – 05 . Näslund announced his return in mid @-@ January in order to meet the 31 January player @-@ transfer deadline for European clubs , joining Canucks teammates Daniel and Henrik Sedin , as well as former Modo teammate Peter Forsberg on the squad . He was originally expected to sign with Modo before the season started in September , but he returned to Vancouver after spending the summer in Sweden . Vancouver radio @-@ station Team 1040 cited high tax premiums explaining the decision , while Näslund later reasoned that he preferred to be readily available for the NHL , just in case the league and NHLPA could come to an agreement and the season was salvaged .
He played his first game for Modo in nearly 12 years on 20 January 2005 , receiving a standing ovation from the home crowd . Näslund went on to appear in 13 games , scoring 17 points . Modo finished in sixth place during the regular season before being eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Färjestads BK .
= = = = Post @-@ lockout = = = =
As NHL play was set to resume for the 2005 – 06 season , Näslund became an unrestricted free agent . On the open market for several days , he re @-@ signed with the Canucks for three more years on 3 August 2005 , at $ 6 million per season . Vancouver newspaper The Province reported that two other teams had offered deals that matched the contract he signed , but Näslund ultimately chose to remain with the Canucks because he felt the club had a better chance of winning the Stanley Cup . At the time , Näslund said he hoped to retire as a Canuck .
For a franchise @-@ record seventh consecutive season , he led the Canucks in scoring , with 32 goals and 79 points . Despite new NHL rules set in place after the lockout that sought to allow skilled players such as Näslund and his linemates to thrive , all three members of the Canucks ' top line saw decreased offensive production in 2005 – 06 . Furthermore , the Canucks failed to make the playoffs for the first time in four seasons , finishing at ninth place in the Western Conference , despite early @-@ season projections to be Stanley Cup contenders . Consequently , significant changes to the Canucks ' personnel were made in the off @-@ season . Of particular significance to Näslund , longtime linemate Bertuzzi was traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for goaltender Roberto Luongo , while Alain Vigneault replaced Marc Crawford with a more defensive @-@ minded coaching approach . Crawford later recalled the 2005 – 06 season as a turning point in Näslund 's role as the offensive leader on the team , noting that Henrik and Daniel Sedin had surpassed him and Bertuzzi in that respect as the campaign progressed .
Facing significant changes in the 2006 – 07 season , Näslund 's points total continued to decrease . He began the season by scoring his 300th goal as a Canuck during the team 's home @-@ opener against the San Jose Sharks on 14 October 2006 . The goal tied Canucks teammate Trevor Linden for the franchise lead in all @-@ time goals . He soon surpassed Linden with his 301st goal against the Edmonton Oilers on 17 October . Near the midway point of the season , however , Näslund went through a 17 @-@ game stretch without a goal . He completed the season with 60 points , his lowest output since 1997 – 98 . Teammate Daniel Sedin had 84 points , marking the first time in eight seasons that Näslund did not lead the team in scoring . In the 2007 post @-@ season , Näslund contributed five points before the team was eliminated by the Anaheim Ducks in the Conference Semifinals .
In 2007 – 08 , Näslund set several more career marks . On 21 November 2007 , Näslund tied the Canucks ' franchise record of 10 hat @-@ tricks with a three @-@ goal game against the Minnesota Wild , a 4 – 2 win for Vancouver . It was his first hat @-@ trick since December 2003 and 11th in his career overall . Several games later , on 5 December , Näslund became the Canucks ' franchise leading point @-@ scorer , assisting on defenceman Mattias Öhlund 's goal and passing Linden with 725 points . The following month , on 17 January 2008 , Näslund played his 1,000th career game against the Detroit Red Wings , scoring a goal in a 3 – 2 shootout loss . Playing parts of the season on a line with Daniel and Henrik Sedin , he recorded 25 goals and 55 points .
As Näslund 's free agency approached on 1 July 2008 , Näslund made it clear that the style of play and the player personnel of a team would be important factors in determining which team he would sign with after his contract with the Canucks expired . He was admittedly frustrated with Vigneault 's defensive coaching style . Furthermore , since Bertuzzi 's departure in the summer of 2006 , Vigneault placed Näslund on inconsistent line combinations , often with career minor @-@ leaguers . While he did not rule out the possibility of returning to Vancouver , he sold his Vancouver home and described his return as questionable .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
Näslund signed a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract , including a $ 1 million signing bonus , with the New York Rangers on 3 July 2008 . Upon signing , he revealed New York was his preferred destination heading into free agency . He left Vancouver as the franchise 's all @-@ time leader in goals and points with 346 and 756 , respectively . His departure also ended his eight @-@ year tenure as team captain , matching Stan Smyl 's captaincy as the longest in franchise history . General manager Mike Gillis , who formerly acted as Näslund 's agent , released a statement on behalf of the Canucks organization , commending him as " one of the greatest athletes to ever represent the Canucks both on and off of the ice " .
As the Rangers held their training camp for the 2008 – 09 season overseas in Europe , they competed in a one @-@ game challenge against Russian squad Metallurg Magnitogorsk on 1 October 2008 in Bern , Switzerland . The Rangers won the game 4 – 3 , capturing the inaugural Victoria Cup . On 3 October , Näslund was named an alternate captain for the Rangers . The next day , he scored his first goal as a Ranger during the season @-@ opener in Prague , Czech Republic , a 2 – 1 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning . In his only season with the Rangers , Näslund led the team in scoring with 24 goals and was fourth in points with 46 . He added three points in the playoffs , as the Rangers were eliminated in the first round by the Washington Capitals .
Following the Rangers ' defeat , he announced his retirement from the NHL on 4 May 2009 , at the age of 35 . Näslund had informed Rangers general manager Glen Sather , head coach John Tortorella , and his teammates of his intention to retire prior to the team 's playoff elimination . By announcing his retirement early in the off @-@ season , Näslund forfeited a $ 2 million buyout from the Rangers , which would have counted against the team 's salary cap for the following season had he waited until he was formally bought out . Näslund retired from the NHL second among all @-@ time Swedish players with 395 goals ( behind Mats Sundin 's 564 ; he retired the same year ) . His 869 points ranked fifth , while his 1 @,@ 117 games played ranked fourth .
= = = Return to Modo and retirement = = =
Näslund returned to Sweden with his family in the summer of 2009 . During this time , Peter Forsberg was attempting a return to the NHL for the 2009 – 10 season , playing with Modo and the Swedish national team for conditioning purposes . Among the NHL teams interested were the Vancouver Canucks . Näslund had previously tried recruiting Forsberg to play for the Canucks prior to the 2007 – 08 season , when Forsberg was an unrestricted free agent , without any luck . Weighing in on Forsberg 's possible NHL return , Näslund speculated that Forsberg would remain in Sweden to continue playing for Modo . Several days later , Canucks general manager Mike Gillis confirmed Näslund 's speculation , asserting that Forsberg intended on finishing the season with Modo .
The following day , on 17 November 2009 , Näslund announced he was coming out of retirement to join Forsberg with Modo for the remainder of the 2009 – 10 Elitserien season . He explained that while he did not miss playing , both he and Forsberg desired to help their former club out of financial troubles and a last @-@ place standing in the league , facing potential relegation . The announcement crashed the Modo web server as a result of the heavy volume of people visiting the site . As a board member of the club , Näslund said he and Forsberg would play without salary .
Näslund played in his first game back with Modo on 28 November , 11 days after the announcement , registering an assist on the first goal of the game by Forsberg . Modo won the game 4 – 1 over Rögle BK . The following match , on 1 December , he registered two assists , setting up the game @-@ tying goal with two seconds remaining in regulation by team captain Per Svartvadet and the overtime @-@ winner by Forsberg . He scored his first goal since his return on 8 December in a 4 – 1 win over HV71 . On 27 February , he notched a hat @-@ trick against Färjestads BK in a 10 – 3 win . Playing in 29 of Modo 's 55 games , Näslund scored at a point @-@ per @-@ game pace with 10 goals and 19 assists . Ranked last in the league prior to Näslund 's return , Modo went on to earn 58 points in the remaining 36 games of the season , but finished one point out of a playoff spot . Näslund confirmed his second retirement following the campaign .
At the start of the 2010 – 11 NHL season , the NHL and NHLPA honoured Näslund with a tribute and ceremonial puck drop prior to a game held in Stockholm , Sweden , between the San Jose Sharks and Columbus Blue Jackets . Several months later , the Canucks retired his number 19 jersey prior to a home game against the Tampa Bay Lightning on 11 December 2010 . Attending the on @-@ ice ceremony were his wife , three children , parents and sister , as well as former Canucks teammates , coaches and executives . The night included a video tribute highlighting his hockey career , speeches from team personalities and gift presentations from the organization . In honour of Näslund and his wife 's past philanthropy in the Vancouver community , the team also announced the establishment of a sports equipment centre for underprivileged children . Prior to the jersey raising , Näslund thanked those involved in his career . Reflecting on his career , he commented , " Young hockey players from northern Sweden never dream of a night like this ... To go from sitting up in the press box as a healthy scratch to be standing here in front of you is quite amazing . " By having his jersey retired , he became the third player in team history to receive the honour , after Stan Smyl and Trevor Linden .
= = International play = =
Näslund made his first international appearance for Sweden at the 1989 Four Nations Tournament in the Soviet Union . The following year , he competed in the 1990 European Junior Championships , an under @-@ 18 tournament . He went pointless in six games , but helped Sweden to a gold medal finish . He improved the following year with a tournament @-@ leading 14 goals . His 16 points ranked second overall to teammate Peter Forsberg . Sweden failed to defend their gold medal .
Näslund continued to play in junior tournaments over the next two years , competing in the 1992 and 1993 World Junior Championships , where Sweden won back @-@ to @-@ back silver medals . During his first tournament appearance in Germany , he recorded 10 points , ranking third among all players , including a tournament @-@ leading eight goals ( tied with four others ) . Sweden finished second in the tournament 's round @-@ robin format to the Commonwealth of Independent States with a record of five wins , one loss and one tie .
The following year , Sweden hosted the World Junior tournament in Gävle . Näslund set a competition record for most goals scored in a single year with 13 , while playing on a line with Forsberg and Niklas Sundström . His 24 points were second in the tournament behind Forsberg 's 31 . Although Sweden and Canada finished with identical records of six wins and one loss , Canada was awarded the gold medal by virtue of their 3 – 2 win against Sweden during round @-@ robin play . Näslund was named along with Forsberg to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team .
Näslund made his senior international debut later that year at the 1993 World Championships in Munich and Dortmund , Germany , where he earned another silver medal with Sweden . He contributed a goal and an assist over eight games . Three years later , he was added to Sweden 's roster for the 1996 World Championships in Vienna , Austria , after the Canucks were eliminated in the NHL playoffs . He was pointless while competing in one game , as Sweden failed to medal . Several months later , Näslund competed in the inaugural 1996 World Cup , but was again limited to one game . Sweden reached the semifinal , where they were eliminated by Canada . Competing in his third World Championships in 1999 , Näslund helped Sweden to a bronze medal with a 10 @-@ point effort in 10 games .
In 2002 , Näslund made his first and only appearance in the Winter Olympics at the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City . He scored his first and only two Olympic goals during a 7 – 1 win against Germany . After going undefeated in the round @-@ robin and heralded as medal favourites , Sweden was defeated by Belarus 4 – 3 in the quarterfinal . The loss was widely considered one of the most surprising results in Olympic history , while Näslund described the defeat in a post @-@ game interview as " devastating ... for us and our country . " He finished the tournament with two goals and an assist over four games , ranking fourth on the team in scoring .
Several months later , he participated in his final World Championships in 2002 , a tournament Sweden hosted in the cities of Gothenburg , Karlstad and Jönköping . He was added to the roster prior to the quarterfinal , following the Canucks ' first @-@ round elimination in the NHL playoffs . Sweden was defeated by Slovakia 3 – 2 in the semifinal . They went on to win their consolation match against Finland 5 – 3 to capture the bronze medal . It was Näslund 's second bronze medal in as many tournament appearances ; he scored three points in three games .
Prior to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Näslund participated in his final international competition at the 2004 World Cup , where he failed to score a goal in four games played . Although he was named to Team Sweden for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Näslund chose not to play due to a groin injury . Sweden went on to win the gold medal , defeating Finland in the final .
= = Playing style = =
Näslund was known as a highly skilled offensive player with good skating and puck @-@ handling abilities . The most prominent aspect of his game was his wrist shot , which was known to be one of the most accurate in the league and accounted for a large portion of his goals . He also earned many of his points on the powerplay . Regarding his skill level and creativity , his first Canucks head coach , Marc Crawford , heralded him as one of " a handful of players in this game who can take a play where there 's nothing ... and turn it into a scoring chance " .
Näslund 's prime coincided with the contributing performances of his linemates Bertuzzi and Morrison . His finesse and goal @-@ scoring abilities were complemented by Morrison 's playmaking and Bertuzzi 's strength and aggression as a power forward . They were known for playing a fast and entertaining style . As a result , head coach Marc Crawford implemented a highly offensive coaching strategy .
As captain of the Canucks for eight years , Näslund was a self @-@ professed " leader by example " with his work ethic and play on the ice . He was often criticized by the media and fans in his final few seasons with the Canucks for not being sufficiently vocal or emotional as the team 's captain . Former teammates in Vancouver have described him as a quiet leader that spoke when needed nonetheless . They have also commended him for his integrity , professionalism and the caring manner in which he treated everyone in the organization . In particular , fellow Swedes Daniel and Henrik Sedin have singled him out as a player that mentored them early in their NHL career . New York Rangers general manager Glen Sather reiterated the guiding influence Näslund had on young players coming into the league .
These criticisms began especially in light of his decreasing offensive production following the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . The decline was often attributed in the media to him becoming more defensively responsible under new Canucks coach Alain Vigneault . Bertuzzi 's absence following the 2005 – 06 season was also seen as a negative factor for Näslund individually . It was further proposed that the physical effects of his concussion , as a result of Steve Moore 's hit against him in 2004 , as well as the emotional toll of Bertuzzi 's subsequent retaliation against Moore strained his playing efficiency .
= = Management career = =
Midway through the 2010 – 11 Elitserien season on 17 December 2010 , Näslund was named the general manager of the Modo organization , overseeing all the organization 's sports clubs . In his first season with the organization , the hockey club finished last in the Elitserien , six points out of a playoff spot . Facing relegation to the second @-@ tier HockeyAllsvenskan , Modo finished second in the 2011 Kvalserien , retaining their Elitserien status for the 2011 – 12 season .
In the off @-@ season , Näslund was joined by Peter Forsberg on Modo 's management team . Forsberg was announced as Modo 's assistant manager in April 2011 .
= = Off the ice = =
= = = Personal = = =
Näslund and his wife Lotta have three children : Rebecca , Isabella , and Alex . During his NHL career , they spent their summers in Sweden . Like Swedes Nicklas Lidström and his childhood idol , Håkan Loob , Näslund had expressed a desire to raise his children in his homeland Sweden . He made headlines when he first publicly contemplated an early retirement from the NHL to serve those purposes during the 2002 – 03 season . However , he also considered Vancouver his home and cherished his time spent in the city as a member of the Canucks .
Upon being signed by the Rangers , Näslund and his family moved to Tarrytown , New York . Following his retirement from the NHL in 2009 , they returned to Sweden , where Näslund began coaching his son 's minor @-@ league hockey team before he became the general manager of Modo . He participated in the construction of a new house in Örnsköldsvik that his family moved into .
It has been reported that Naslund is a devout Christian when he has actually not been a part of the Christian Church for many years .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 2002 , Näslund and Forsberg founded Icebreakers , an organization that raises money for sick and disabled children in their home region of Västernorrland . A team of Swedish all @-@ stars are annually assembled to host exhibition charity games against varying challengers .
In Vancouver , Näslund ran a program called " Nazzy 's Suite 19 " that gave underprivileged children the opportunity to watch Canucks games from a private suite in GM Place . Game attendees were chosen through local children 's charities . The program was later taken over by Canucks goaltender Roberto Luongo and renamed " Lui 's Crease Club " after Näslund 's departure from Vancouver . Along with other Canucks players , Näslund made regular visits to Canuck Place , a children 's hospice that provides specialized care for children with life @-@ threatening illnesses ; BC Children 's Hospital ; and was a contributor to the Canucks For Kids Fund . He also appeared in a public service announcement with BC Children 's Hospital , educating provincial viewers on mental health issues .
Following his NHL retirement , he joined the anniversary tour of the NHLPA 's Goals and Dreams program , a charity that donates hockey equipment to underprivileged children . Näslund began the tour in Örnsköldsvik before joining former Canucks teammates Jyrki Lumme and Pavel Bure for stops in Helsinki and Moscow , respectively .
= = = Endorsements = = =
At the peak of his career , Näslund signed multiple endorsement deals , most notably with Nike Bauer and Electronic Arts ( EA ) . In 2004 , EA Sports selected Näslund to appear on the cover of NHL 2005 , EA 's yearly hockey video game . He is also on the European cover of NHL 2000 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Sweden = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks team awards = = =
= = Records = =
= = = International = = =
World Junior Championships ' record ; most goals , single tournament : 13 ( 1993 )
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
All @-@ time hat @-@ tricks : 10 ( tied with Tony Tanti )
All @-@ time powerplay goals : 114
Longest tenured captain : 8 years ( 2000 – 08 )
Single @-@ season points by a left wing : 104 ( 2002 – 03 )
Single @-@ season goals by a left wing : 48 ( 2002 – 03 )
Single @-@ game goals : 4 ( twice ; 14 December 2002 vs. Edmonton Oilers ; 9 December 2003 vs. Pittsburgh Penguins ; tied with 10 others )
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= Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good =
Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good is the first long @-@ form video by American singer Jennifer Lopez . It was released in the United States on DVD and VHS on November 7 , 2000 by SMV Enterprises , the home media division of Sony 's music and entertainment label . With a running time of 60 minutes , the video provides a documentary @-@ style look at the launch of Lopez 's music career , through a mixture of interviews , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , music videos and live performances . The interview segments were conducted by Lopez 's sister Lynda , who interviews not only Lopez , but also their mother , Benny Medina and Marc Anthony .
Beginning her career in musical theater , Lopez re @-@ entered the music scene upon her portrayal of the title role in the Selena biopic of the same name ( 1997 ) . The role inspired her to launch a career in music ; critics deemed it risky , noting that if she was unsuccessful in doing so , it would be an embarrassment and could damage her career . During the production of her debut album , On the 6 ( 1999 ) , Lopez was aware that she received her recording contract on the premise of having an already established name in the entertainment industry ; her goal for the album was to prove she had musical talent . The success of her debut single " If You Had My Love " and On the 6 came as a surprise to critics ; their release made the " popular actor even more popular " , with both the music industry and the public becoming intrigued by " this woman who seemed to have so many different talents " .
Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good received generally favorable reviews from critics , although it was noted that it would be of no interest to those who were not fans of Lopez . It was additionally praised for showing the singer 's transition from her acting career to a music career . The interview segments of the video were deemed to be " slick and promotional " . In the United States , Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good was certified as a Gold Video Longform by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units .
= = Background = =
From a young age , Lopez 's Puerto Rican parents stressed the importance of work ethic and being able to speak English . They encouraged their three daughters to put on performances at home , singing and dancing in front of each other and their friends so that they would stay " out of trouble " . While attending her final year of high school , Lopez learned about a film casting that was seeking several teenage girls for small roles . She auditioned and was cast in My Little Girl ( 1986 ) , an low @-@ budget film co @-@ written and directed by Connie Kaiserman . After she finished filming her role in the film , Lopez knew that she wanted to become a " famous movie star " . She told her parents this , but they ensisted that it was a " really stupid " idea and that " no Latinos did that " . Their disagreements led Lopez to move out of their family home and into an apartment in Manhattan . During this period , Lopez performed in regional productions of several musicals , before being hired for the chorus in a musical that toured Europe for five months . She was unhappy with the role , as she was the only member of the chorus not to have a solo . From there , she got a job on the show Synchronicity in Japan , where she acted as a dancer , singer and a choreographer . Lopez then gained her first regular high @-@ profile job as a Fly Girl dancer on the television comedy program In Living Color . She moved to Los Angeles with then @-@ boyfriend David Cruz to film the series and remained a regular cast member until 1993 when she decided to pursue a full @-@ time acting career .
After a series of co @-@ starring film roles , Lopez received her big break came in 1996 , when she was cast to play the title role in Selena , a biopic of the late American singer @-@ songwriter Selena . In the film , Selena 's real voice is used for the musical sequences in Selena , but Lopez would nonetheless sing the lyrics during the scenes instead of lip syncing . When asked in an interview if Selena inspired her to launch a music career , Lopez stated : " I really , really became inspired , because I started my career in musical theater on stage . So doing the movie just reminded me of how much I missed singing , dancing , and the like ... " After filming Selena , Lopez was " really feeling [ her ] Latin roots " and cut a demo in Spanish . Lopez 's manager then sent the song , entitled " Vivir Sin Ti " , to Sony Music Entertainment 's Work Group , who showed an interest in signing Lopez . Tommy Mottola , the head of the label suggested to her that she sing in English instead . She complied and began recording her debut studio album On the 6 . During production of the album , Lopez was aware of the fact that she received her recording contract on the premise of her looks and having an already established name in the entertainment industry , and wanted to prove that she had musical talent . Prior to the debut of her music , critics wondered why she would take the risk of launching a music career . It was noted that : " If the album was a flop , not only would it embarrass Lopez , but it might even damage her career . "
Lopez 's debut single , " If You Had My Love " , was released in May 1999 . The song reached the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated June 12 , 1999 , dethroning Ricky Martin 's " Livin ' La Vida Loca " as the number @-@ one song in the country . The song stayed atop the Billboard Hot 100 for a period of a month and remained in the top ten until September 1999 . " If You Had My Love " was also a success internationally ; topping the charts in countries including New Zealand , Australia , and Canada . The song also peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and reached the top ten of seven other countries . " No Me Ames " , a duet with American recording artist Marc Anthony was released as a B @-@ side to " If You Had My Love " and as the album 's second single . The song was promoted by Sony Discos , who released a salsa and a ballad version of the song on their respective radio formats . The success of " If You Had My Love " and On the 6 came as a surprise to critics ; their release made the " popular actor even more popular " . Both the music industry and the public became intrigued by " this woman who seemed to have so many different talents " . Following the release of " If You Had My Love " and " No Me Ames " , three additional singles were released from the album . By the end of 1999 , Lopez had successfully converted herself from a film star to a pop star .
= = Synopsis = =
Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good opens with an intertitle that features a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at Lopez during the artwork shoot for On the 6 , artist 's proof of said photoshoot and brief clips of the music videos to the album 's five singles . In the second chapter , " Why Risk a Music Career ? " , Lopez is interviewed by her sister Lynda Lopez , who oversees each interview segment , about the risks of starting a music career after having an already thriving movie career . Critics believed that she was only launching a music career with an intent to expand her brand , while Lopez felt as if it was simply the " next natural step " in her career . Lopez 's manager Benny Medina further discusses this , labeling her as the " ultimate " triple threat – " the actor , singer and dancer " . Lopez then confers , in the chapter " Press Tours / Promotions " , about the extensive promotional schedule she was on to promote the album . She examines the differences in promoting an album and a film , stating that promoting an album is more " personal " as it is something that is " closer to your heart " and something she " really believes in " . According to Lopez , by the end of the promotional tour for the album she " lost " her voice from the amount of interviews she had . Following this , Lopez 's performance of the Darkchild remix of " If You Had My Love " at the 1999 VH1 Fashion Awards is shown .
In the fifth chapter , " Beginning of the Year " , Lopez discusses her hectic schedule at the beginning of 1999 ; balancing film events and choosing the album 's first single and shooting its music video . Lopez then goes into detail about the concept behind the music video for " If You Had My Love " . Lopez 's sister Lynda makes a formal introduction to the music video , as having a " special place " in her heart , and it is shown . Lopez then explains how her duet with Marc Anthony on " No Me Ames " came about and the concept of the video . Video footage is shown , as Lopez discusses her first ever live performance , with " No Me Ames " , in April 1999 at Madison Square Garden alongside Anthony . Following this , the official music video to " No Me Ames " is shown . In the eleventh chapter of Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good , appropriately entitled " First Number One Single " , Lopez reveals the moment she found out that " If You Had My Love " went number one in the United States . She went on to discuss the events that occurred during the release week of On the 6 in " Record Release Week " . Lopez then reveals how she came to record " Let 's Get Loud " and her performance of the song at the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup is shown .
In " Jennifer 's Energy " , Medina discusses Lopez 's ability to work at late hours of the night . Her 1999 Billboard Music Awards performance of the Hex Hector remix of " Waiting for Tonight " is then shown . Lopez then speaks of filming the music video for " Waiting for Tonight " and behind the scenes footage on set of the video is shown . She also explains how the Hex Hector remix of the song came about and the alternative music video that was created for it . A megamix video of the original and Hex Hector remix follows . The twentieth chapter , " Jennifer 's Mom " , is an interview with Lopez 's mother , discussing what was like to see Lopez on television for the first time . Lopez then discusses her surprise to the amount of fans she had and their dedication in " Fan Support " . In " Working on Record " , the twenty @-@ second chapter of Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good , Lopez discusses the process of writing and recording the album . Lopez 's sister Lynda interviews her choreographer Tina Landon on what it is like to work with her , before her 1999 Blockbuster Awards performance of " If You Had My Love " is shown . Footage is then shown of Lopez " goofing around " during a photoshoot , before the music video to her song " Baila " is debuted . In " Film Energy vs. Music Energy " Lopez compares the difference between the fans of her movies and of her music . In the final interview footage of Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good , Lopez explains the concept behind the music video of " Feelin ' So Good " and why Big Pun and Fat Joe were chosen to be featured on the song . The music video is then shown and is faded out into the end credits .
= = Release = =
Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good was released on DVD and VHS formats in the United States on November 7 , 2000 by SMV Enterprises , the home media division of Sony Corporation 's music and entertainment label Sony Music Entertainment . It was released in Canada the following week by CBS Video on DVD and VHS . In the United Kingdom , the video received a DVD release on January 30 , 2001 and a VHS release on April 30 , 2001 by SMV Enterprises . Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good was released on DVD in Japan on June 20 , 2001 by Sony Music Records , and on DVD and VHS in France on April 8 , 2002 by Sony BMG . The Region 1 cover features a black and white photo of Lopez during the photoshoot of On the 6 , while the Region 2 edition features a golden hue image also taken during the same photoshoot . Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good and Let 's Get Loud were released as a two disc DVD set in France on October 20 , 2003 . Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good was re @-@ released on DVD in Japan on November 21 , 2007 . Cory Rooney and Lopez acted as album executive producers of the DVD , while Lopez acted as a video executive producer , alongside Medina . Jeffrey Norskog acted as a video associate producer .
Digitally remastered with Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound , the DVD edition of Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good contains interactive menus and chapter access to songs . It contains song lyrics and a biography of Lopez in English and Spanish , as well as an exclusive photo gallery . Additionally , the video contains the music videos to Lopez 's songs : " If You Had My Love " , " Waiting for Tonight " , " No Me Ames " , " Feelin ' So Good " and " Baila " . It contains four live televised performances by Lopez in 1999 . First is her Blockbuster Movie Awards performance of " If You Had My Love " , followed by her VH1 Fashion Awards performance of the Darkchild remix of the same song . Then , her performance at the Billboard Music Awards of the Hex Hector remix of " Waiting for Tonight " and lastly her Woman 's World Cup Finale performance of " Let 's Get Loud " .
= = Critical response = =
Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good received generally favorable reviews from critics . Perry Seibert of Allmusic awarded the DVD three out of five stars , commenting that fans of Lopez will " greatly enjoy this disc " , but it carries little interest to the average DVD consumer . Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk stated that : " It 's interesting to watch this disc after watching Lopez in The Cell . I think it 's been impressive to watch her mature as an actress ; although much has been made of her supposedly demanding attitude , I think she 's talented as not only a singer / dancer but as a dramatic actress – I 'm sure a comedic role is right around the corner " . The reviewer additionally stated that the most interesting segment of the release was the " Waiting for Tonight " music video . He concluded by stating that : " Although I 'm not really a big fan of her music , I do appreciate it and found it enjoyable and entertaining to listen to throughout . " Beierle compared Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good to the video releases of Mariah Carey . The interview footage in @-@ between the performance segments has been described as " very slick and promotional " . It was also noted that in the interview footage Lopez " comes through energetically " and without " much star @-@ ego " . In the United States , Jennifer Lopez : Feelin ' So Good was certified as a Gold Video Longform by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units .
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= Adderall =
Adderall is a combination drug containing salts of the two enantiomers of amphetamine , a central nervous system ( CNS ) stimulant of the phenethylamine class . Adderall is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and narcolepsy . It is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer , and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant . By salt content , the active ingredients of Adderall are 25 % levoamphetamine salts ( the levorotary or ' left @-@ handed ' enantiomer ) and 75 % dextroamphetamine salts ( the dextrorotary or ' right @-@ handed ' enantiomer ) .
Adderall is generally well @-@ tolerated and effective in treating the symptoms of ADHD and narcolepsy . At therapeutic doses , Adderall causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria , change in desire for sex , increased wakefulness , and improved cognitive control . At these doses , it induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time , fatigue resistance , and increased muscle strength . In contrast , much larger doses of Adderall can impair cognitive control , cause rapid muscle breakdown , or induce a psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) . The side effects of Adderall vary widely among individuals , but most commonly include insomnia , dry mouth , and loss of appetite . The risk of developing an addiction is insignificant when Adderall is used as prescribed at fairly low daily doses , such as those used for treating ADHD ; however , the routine use of Adderall in larger daily doses poses a significant risk of addiction due to the pronounced reinforcing effects that are present at higher doses . Recreational doses of Adderall are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses , and carry a far greater risk of serious adverse effects .
The two amphetamine enantiomers that compose Adderall ( i.e. , levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine ) alleviate the symptoms of ADHD and narcolepsy by increasing the activity of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain , which results from their interactions with trace amine associated receptor 1 ( TAAR1 ) and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 ( VMAT2 ) in neurons . Dextroamphetamine is a more potent CNS stimulant than levoamphetamine , but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects and a longer elimination half @-@ life ( i.e. , it remains in the body longer ) than dextroamphetamine . The levoamphetamine component of Adderall has been reported to improve the treatment response in some individuals relative to dextroamphetamine alone . Adderall 's active ingredient , amphetamine , shares many chemical and pharmacological properties with the human trace amines , particularly phenethylamine and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , the latter of which is a positional isomer of amphetamine .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medical = = =
Adderall is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and narcolepsy ( a sleep disorder ) . Long @-@ term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage , but , in humans with ADHD , pharmaceutical amphetamines appear to improve brain development and nerve growth . Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) studies suggest that long @-@ term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD , and improves function in several parts of the brain , such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia .
Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long @-@ term amphetamine use for ADHD . Controlled trials spanning two years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety . One review highlighted a nine @-@ month randomized controlled trial in children with ADHD that found an average increase of 4 @.@ 5 IQ points , continued increases in attention , and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity .
Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain 's neurotransmitter systems ; these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the locus coeruleus and prefrontal cortex . Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems . Approximately 80 % of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms . Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members , perform better in school , are less distractible and impulsive , and have longer attention spans . The Cochrane Collaboration 's reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children , adolescents , and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that while these drugs improve short @-@ term symptoms , they have higher discontinuation rates than non @-@ stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects . A Cochrane Collaboration review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse , but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals .
Adderall is available as immediate release tablets or extended @-@ release capsules . The extended release capsule is generally used in the morning . The extended release formulation available under the brand Adderall XR is designed to provide a therapeutic effect and plasma concentrations identical to taking two doses 4 hours apart .
= = = Enhancing performance = = =
In 2015 , a systematic review and a meta @-@ analysis of high quality clinical trials found that , when used at low ( therapeutic ) doses , amphetamine produces modest , unambiguous improvements in cognition , including working memory , episodic memory , inhibitory control and some aspects of attention , in normal healthy adults ; the cognition @-@ enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to occur through its indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor α2 in the prefrontal cortex . A systematic review from 2014 noted that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation , in turn leading to improved recall of information . Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency , an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals . Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency ( motivation to perform a task ) and increase arousal ( wakefulness ) , in turn promoting goal @-@ directed behavior . Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test @-@ taking aid . Based upon studies of self @-@ reported illicit stimulant use , 5 – 35 % of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants , which are primarily used for performance enhancement rather than as recreational drugs . However , high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control .
Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance @-@ enhancing effects , such as increased endurance and alertness ; however , non @-@ medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate , national , and international anti @-@ doping agencies . In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses , amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength , acceleration , athletic performance in anaerobic conditions , and endurance ( i.e. , it delays the onset of fatigue ) , while improving reaction time . Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and effluxion of dopamine in the central nervous system . Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a " safety switch " that allows the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off @-@ limits . At therapeutic doses , the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance ; however , at much higher doses , amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance , such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature .
Adderall has been banned in the National Football League ( NFL ) , Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , and the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) . In leagues such as the NFL , there is a very rigorous process required to obtain an exemption to this rule even when the athlete has been medically prescribed the drug by their physician .
= = = Recreational = = =
Adderall is considered to have a high potential for misuse as a recreational drug . Adderall tablets can be crushed and snorted , or dissolved in water and injected . Injection into the bloodstream can be dangerous because insoluble fillers within the tablets can block small blood vessels .
= = Contraindications = =
According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety ( IPCS ) and United States Food and Drug Administration ( USFDA ) , amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse , heart disease , severe agitation , or severe anxiety . It is also contraindicated in people currently experiencing arteriosclerosis ( hardening of the arteries ) , glaucoma ( increased eye pressure ) , hyperthyroidism ( excessive production of thyroid hormone ) , or moderate to severe hypertension . People who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants in the past or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) are advised not to take amphetamine , although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented . These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa , bipolar disorder , depression , hypertension , liver or kidney problems , mania , psychosis , Raynaud 's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems , tics , or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine . Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in the fetus or newborns ( i.e. , it is not a human teratogen ) , but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus . Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk , so the IPCS and USFDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it . Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments , the USFDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical .
= = Side effects = =
The side effects of Adderall are many and varied , but the amount of substance consumed is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of side effects . Adderall is currently approved for long @-@ term therapeutic use by the USFDA . Recreational use of Adderall generally involves far larger doses and is therefore significantly more dangerous , involving a much greater risk of serious side effects .
= = = Physical = = =
At normal therapeutic doses , the physical side effects of amphetamine vary widely by age and from person to person . Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response , Raynaud 's phenomenon ( reduced blood flow to extremities ) , and tachycardia ( increased heart rate ) . Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction , frequent erections , or prolonged erections . Abdominal side effects may include abdominal pain , appetite loss , nausea , and weight loss . Other potential side effects include blurred vision , dry mouth , excessive grinding of the teeth , nosebleed , profuse sweating , rhinitis medicamentosa ( drug @-@ induced nasal congestion ) , reduced seizure threshold , and tics ( a type of movement disorder ) . Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses .
Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers , producing faster and deeper breaths . In a normal person at therapeutic doses , this effect is usually not noticeable , but when respiration is already compromised , it may be evident . Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter , the muscle which controls urination , which can result in difficulty urinating . This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control . The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable . If intestinal activity is high , amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility ( the rate at which content moves through the digestive system ) ; however , amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed . Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids .
USFDA @-@ commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children , young adults , and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events ( sudden death , heart attack , and stroke ) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants .
= = = Psychological = = =
Common psychological effects of therapeutic doses can include increased alertness , apprehension , concentration , decreased sense of fatigue , mood swings ( elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood ) , increased initiative , insomnia or wakefulness , self @-@ confidence , and sociability . Less common side effects include anxiety , change in libido , grandiosity , irritability , repetitive or obsessive behaviors , and restlessness ; these effects depend on the user 's personality and current mental state . Amphetamine psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) can occur in heavy users . Although very rare , this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long @-@ term therapy . According to the USFDA , " there is no systematic evidence " that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility .
Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses , meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine .
= = Overdose = =
An amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms , but is rarely fatal with appropriate care . The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine . Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5 grams of amphetamine in a day , which is roughly 100 times the maximum daily therapeutic dose . Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below ; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma . In 2013 , overdose on amphetamine , methamphetamine , and other compounds implicated in an " amphetamine use disorder " resulted in an estimated 3 @,@ 788 deaths worldwide ( 3 @,@ 425 – 4 @,@ 145 deaths , 95 % confidence ) .
Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway , a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens , plays a central role in amphetamine addiction . Individuals who frequently overdose on amphetamine during recreational use have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction , since repeated overdoses gradually increase the level of accumbal ΔFosB , a " molecular switch " and " master control protein " for addiction . Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior ( i.e. , compulsive drug @-@ seeking ) with further increases in its expression . While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction , regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction . Sustained aerobic exercise on a regular basis also appears to be an effective treatment for amphetamine addiction ; exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as a combination therapy with cognitive behavioral therapy , which is currently the best clinical treatment available .
= = = Addiction = = =
Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use but is unlikely to arise from typical long @-@ term medical use at therapeutic doses . Drug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse ( i.e. , a recreational amphetamine overdose ) , so periods of extended use require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect .
= = = = Biomolecular mechanisms = = = =
Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in certain parts of the brain , particularly the nucleus accumbens . The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB , cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) , and nuclear factor kappa B ( NF @-@ κB ) . ΔFosB plays a crucial role in the development of drug addictions , since its overexpression in D1 @-@ type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for most of the behavioral and neural adaptations that arise from addiction . Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression . It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others .
ΔJunD , a transcription factor , and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme , both directly oppose the induction of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens ( i.e. , they oppose increases in its expression ) . Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse ( i.e. , the alterations mediated by ΔFosB ) . ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food , sex , and exercise . Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce expression of ΔFosB ( i.e. , they cause the brain to produce more of it ) , chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction . Consequently , ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine @-@ induced sex addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use . These sex addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs .
The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route @-@ dependent . Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses . The few studies that have used equivalent ( weight @-@ adjusted ) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes , if they occur , are relatively minor . This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation .
= = = = Pharmacological treatments = = = =
As of May 2014 , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction . Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions ; however , as of February 2016 , the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists are experimental drugs . Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and co @-@ localized NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens ; magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel . One review suggested that , based upon animal testing , pathological ( addiction @-@ inducing ) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain . Supplemental magnesium treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self @-@ administration ( i.e. , doses given to oneself ) in humans , but it is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction .
= = = = Behavioral treatments = = = =
Cognitive behavioral therapy is currently the most effective clinical treatment for psychostimulant addictions . Additionally , research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise , especially endurance exercise ( e.g. , marathon running ) , prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy ( i.e. , a supplemental treatment ) for amphetamine addiction . Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment , particularly for psychostimulant addictions . In particular , aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self @-@ administration , reduces the reinstatement ( i.e. , relapse ) of drug @-@ seeking , and induces increased dopamine receptor D2 ( DRD2 ) density in the striatum . This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use , which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density . One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or c @-@ Fos immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system .
= = = Dependence and withdrawal = = =
According to another Cochrane Collaboration review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine , " when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use , many report a time @-@ limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose . " This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic , high @-@ dose users are frequent , occurring in up to 87 @.@ 6 % of cases , and persist for three to four weeks with a marked " crash " phase occurring during the first week . Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety , drug craving , depressed mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation , sleeplessness or sleepiness , and lucid dreams . The review indicated that withdrawal symptoms are associated with the degree of dependence , suggesting that therapeutic use would result in far milder discontinuation symptoms . Manufacturer prescribing information does not indicate the presence of withdrawal symptoms following discontinuation of amphetamine use after an extended period at therapeutic doses .
= = = Toxicity and psychosis = = =
In rodents and primates , sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity , or damage to dopamine neurons , which is characterized by reduced transporter and receptor function . There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans . However , large doses of amphetamine may cause indirect neurotoxicity as a result of increased oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species and autoxidation of dopamine .
A severe amphetamine overdose can result in a stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms , such as paranoia and delusions . A Cochrane Collaboration review on treatment for amphetamine , dextroamphetamine , and methamphetamine psychosis states that about 5 – 15 % of users fail to recover completely . According to the same review , there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis . Psychosis very rarely arises from therapeutic use .
= = Interactions = =
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) taken with Adderall may result in a hypertensive crisis if taken within two weeks after last use of an MAOI type drug .
Inhibitors of enzymes that directly metabolize amphetamine ( particularly FMO3 and CYP2D6 ) will prolong the elimination of amphetamine .
Stimulants and antidepressants ( sedatives and depressants ) may increase ( decrease ) the drug effects of Adderall , and vice versa .
Dietary pH affects the absorption and elimination half @-@ life of Adderall ; an alkaline diet increases the rate of absorption and decreases the rate of excretion , while acidic diets decrease absorption and increase excretion rates .
Proton @-@ pump inhibitors ( PPIs ) modify the pharmacokinetics of Adderall XR . Co @-@ administration requires monitoring for changes in clinical effect .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Mechanism of action = = =
Amphetamine , the active ingredient of Adderall , works primarily by increasing the activity of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain . It also triggers the release of several other hormones ( e.g. , epinephrine ) and neurotransmitters ( e.g. , serotonin and histamine ) as well as the synthesis of certain neuropeptides ( e.g. , cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript [ CART ] peptides ) , . Both active ingredients of Adderall , dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine , bind to the same biological targets , but their binding affinities ( that is , potency ) differ somewhat . Dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are both potent full agonists ( activating compounds ) of trace amine @-@ associated receptor 1 ( TAAR1 ) and interact with vesicular monoamine transporter 2 ( VMAT2 ) , with dextroamphetamine being the more potent agonist of TAAR1 . Consequently , dextroamphetamine produces more CNS stimulation than levoamphetamine ; however , levoamphetamine has slightly greater cardiovascular and peripheral effects . Levoamphetamine provides Adderall with a quicker onset and longer @-@ lasting effects than dextroamphetamine alone . It has been reported that certain children have a better clinical response to levoamphetamine .
In the absence of amphetamine , VMAT2 will normally move monoamines ( e.g. , dopamine , histamine , serotonin , norepinephrine , etc . ) from the intracellular fluid of a monoamine neuron into its synaptic vesicles , which are essentially chemical storage units inside a neuron . When amphetamine enters a neuron and interacts with VMAT2 , the transporter reverses its direction of transport , thereby releasing stored monoamines inside synaptic vesicles back into the neuron 's intracellular fluid . Meanwhile , when amphetamine activates TAAR1 , the receptor causes the neuron 's cell membrane @-@ bound monoamine transporters ( i.e. , the dopamine transporter , norepinephrine transporter , or serotonin transporter ) to either stop transporting molecules altogether ( via internalization ) or even transport them in reverse ; in other words , the reversed membrane transporter will push dopamine , norepinephrine , and serotonin out of the neuron 's intracellular fluid and into the synaptic cleft . In summary , by interacting with both VMAT2 and TAAR1 , amphetamine releases neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles ( the effect from VMAT2 ) into the intracellular fluid where they subsequently exit the neuron through the membrane @-@ bound , reversed monoamine transporters ( the effect from TAAR1 ) .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
The oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH ; it is well absorbed from the gut , and bioavailability is typically over 75 % for dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine is a weak base with a pKa of 9 – 10 ; consequently , when the pH is basic , more of the drug is in its lipid soluble free base form , and more is absorbed through the lipid @-@ rich cell membranes of the gut epithelium . Conversely , an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water @-@ soluble cationic ( salt ) form , and less is absorbed . Approximately 15 – 40 % of amphetamine circulating in the bloodstream is bound to plasma proteins .
The half @-@ life of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH . At normal urine pH , the half @-@ lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are 9 – 11 hours and 11 – 14 hours , respectively . An acidic diet will reduce the enantiomer half @-@ lives to 8 – 11 hours ; an alkaline diet will increase the range to 16 – 31 hours . The immediate @-@ release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach peak plasma concentrations at 3 hours and 7 hours post @-@ dose respectively . Amphetamine is eliminated via the kidneys , with 30 – 40 % of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH . When the urinary pH is basic , amphetamine is in its free base form , so less is excreted . When urine pH is abnormal , the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1 % to a high of 75 % , depending mostly upon whether urine is too basic or acidic , respectively . Amphetamine is usually eliminated within two days of the last oral dose . Apparent half @-@ life and duration of effect increase with repeated use and accumulation of the drug .
CYP2D6 , dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase , flavin @-@ containing monooxygenase 3 , butyrate @-@ CoA ligase , and glycine N @-@ acyltransferase are the enzymes known to metabolize amphetamine or its metabolites in humans . Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products , including 4 @-@ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 @-@ hydroxynorephedrine , 4 @-@ hydroxyphenylacetone , benzoic acid , hippuric acid , norephedrine , and phenylacetone . Among these metabolites , the active sympathomimetics are 4 ‑ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 ‑ hydroxynorephedrine , and norephedrine . The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para @-@ hydroxylation , aliphatic alpha- and beta @-@ hydroxylation , N @-@ oxidation , N @-@ dealkylation , and deamination . The known pathways and detectable metabolites in humans include the following :
= = = Related endogenous compounds = = =
Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines , which are naturally occurring neurotransmitter molecules produced in the human body and brain . Among this group , the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine , the parent compound of amphetamine , and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , an isomer of amphetamine ( i.e. , it has an identical molecular formula ) . In humans , phenethylamine is produced directly from L @-@ phenylalanine by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase ( AADC ) enzyme , which converts L @-@ DOPA into dopamine as well . In turn , N ‑ methylphenethylamine is metabolized from phenethylamine by phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase , the same enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine into epinephrine . Like amphetamine , both phenethylamine and N ‑ methylphenethylamine regulate monoamine neurotransmission via TAAR1 ; unlike amphetamine , both of these substances are broken down by monoamine oxidase B , and therefore have a shorter half @-@ life than amphetamine .
= = History , society , and culture = =
Richwood Pharmaceuticals , which later merged with Shire plc , introduced the current Adderall brand in 1996 as an instant @-@ release tablet . In 2006 , Shire agreed to sell rights to the Adderall name for this instant @-@ release medication to Duramed Pharmaceuticals . DuraMed Pharmaceuticals was acquired by Teva Pharmaceuticals in 2008 during their acquisition of Barr Pharmaceuticals , including Barr 's Duramed division .
The first generic version of Adderall IR was introduced to market in 2002 . Later on , Barr and Shire reached a settlement agreement permitting Barr to offer a generic form of the drug beginning in April 2009 .
= = = Commercial formulation = = =
Chemically , Adderall is a mixture of several amphetamine salts ; specifically , it is composed of equal parts ( by mass ) of amphetamine aspartate monohydrate , amphetamine sulfate , dextroamphetamine sulfate , and dextroamphetamine saccharate . This drug mixture has slightly stronger CNS effects than racemic amphetamine due to the higher proportion of dextroamphetamine . Adderall is produced as both an immediate release ( IR ) and extended release ( XR ) formulation . As of December 2013 , ten different companies have produced generic Adderall IR at one point , while Teva Pharmaceutical Industries , Actavis , and Barr Pharmaceuticals currently manufacture generic Adderall XR . Shire plc , the company that held the original patent for Adderall and Adderall XR , still manufactures brand name Adderall XR , but not Adderall IR .
= = = Comparison to other formulations = = =
Adderall is one of several formulations of pharmaceutical amphetamine , including singular or mixed enantiomers and as an enantiomer prodrug . The table below compares these medications ( based on US approved forms ) :
= = = Past formulations = = =
Rexar , a pharmaceutical company , reformulated another drug , branded as Obetrol , and continued to sell this new formulation under the same brand name . This new unapproved formulation was later rebranded and sold as Adderall by Richwood after it acquired Rexar resulting in FDA warning in 1994 . Richwood submitted this formulation as NDA 11 @-@ 522 and Adderall gained FDA approval for the treatment of attention @-@ deficit / hyperactivity disorder on 13 February 1996 .
= = = Legal status = = =
In Canada , amphetamines are in Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act , and can only be obtained by prescription .
In Japan , the use , production , and import of any medicine containing amphetamine are prohibited .
In South Korea , amphetamines are prohibited .
In Thailand , Amphetamines are classified as Type 1 Narcotics .
In the United Kingdom , amphetamines are regarded as Class B drugs . The maximum penalty for unauthorized possession is five years in prison and an unlimited fine . The maximum penalty for illegal supply is 14 years in prison and an unlimited fine .
In the United States , amphetamine is a Schedule II prescription drug , classified as a CNS stimulant .
Internationally ( United Nations ) , amphetamine is in Schedule II of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances .
= = Reference notes = =
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= Star Trek : Secret of Vulcan Fury =
Star Trek : Secret of Vulcan Fury is a cancelled action @-@ adventure game , in development by Interplay Entertainment from 1997 until its cancellation in 1999 . Based on the Star Trek : The Original Series licence , the game would have followed Captain James T. Kirk and the crew of the USS Enterprise through a series of adventures regarding the Vulcan and Romulan races . Secret of Vulcan Fury was to have been the latest in a series of games produced by Interplay based on the licence . It would have featured a control method similar to those seen in LucasArts games of that period , and nearly seven hours of full motion video capture using clay models .
The storyline was written by former Star Trek writer D.C. Fontana , while the script was created by John Meredyth Lucas . A promotional cereal competition was run in conjunction with Quaker Oats , the first for the licence in the United States . Despite this promotion , the game was cancelled with estimates placing it at only 5 % completion . The cast of The Original Series had already recorded their voices . Lead engineer Thom Robertson later explained the studio had underestimated the cost of the game and the difficulties in filming the clay models .
= = Overview = =
The game was to be set in the 23rd century and across four independent stories which would have revolved around ancient secrets in the history of the Vulcan and Romulan races . The episodes allow the player to assume the roles of Captain James T. Kirk , Mr. Spock , Dr. Leonard McCoy , Lt. Hikaru Sulu , Ensign Pavel Chekov , and Engineer Montgomery " Scotty " Scott . The first episode was to involve the murder of a Romulan ambassador who was seeking to reunite the races , placing the player in control of Dr. McCoy initially .
The character that the player controlled would change as they progressed through the game . The creators sought to have the player control Spock during one of the Vulcan 's mind melds . The ending of the game would have seen the player control Kirk , Spock and Chekov in an attempt to stop the titular superweapon . The interface for the game revolved around a menu which appears after the mouse button is held down while the cursor is hovering over an object . This was to prevent the need for controls to be shown on screen at all times , in a manner similar to LucasArts games of that period .
= = Development = =
The game was announced by Interplay Entertainment on June 19 , 1997 and was initially scheduled to be released on CD @-@ ROM for Windows 95 in November 1997 . Interplay had previously produced a number of Star Trek games , including Star Trek : 25th Anniversary , Star Trek : Starfleet Academy and Star Trek : Judgment Rites . The game was developed by Trible Dreams , an in @-@ house division of Interplay .
The storyline was written D. C. Fontana , who was a writer on both Star Trek : The Original Series and season one of Star Trek : The Next Generation , and the script was directed by John Meredyth Lucas who had previously written and directed episodes of The Original Series . Fontana and Lucas had previously collaborated on the episodes " The Enterprise Incident " and " The Ultimate Computer " . In writing the storyline , Fontana wrote dialogue for more puzzle branches than were planned by the developers . The entire main cast of The Original Series recorded their voices for the project . Brian Murray , who was hired to storyboard the game , suggested spinning the camera around the Enterprise crew as they used the transporter to merge their original location into their destination .
The game was expensive to create , and used motion capture techniques of clay models for the on @-@ screen 3 @-@ D animation . The game used the same graphics engine both for normal gameplay and for cutscenes . The quality of the footage was described as similar to the cutscenes in Blade Runner ( 1997 ) , but Tribal Dreams intended to remove the " robotlike stare " of the characters as seen in that game . Quaker Oats signed a promotional deal to feature the game on cereal boxes in a promotion beginning in April 1998 , which featured both a competition to win a visit to the one of the series sets and a $ 10 rebate for either Secret of Vulcan Fury or Starfleet Academy . It was the first Star Trek cereal promotion in the United States .
Secret of Vulcan Fury was cancelled in February 1999 , following the continued departure of staff and because of financial problems at Interplay . During the production , three separate producers and the lead artist quit . At the time the project was shut down , it was estimated that less than 5 % of the game had been completed . Lead engineer Thom Robertson later explained that the company had massively underestimated the cost of production , having expected to produce nearly seven hours of full motion video for 5 % of the budget of a computer generated film such as Toy Story . They also had problems with the filming of the stop motion , as one three @-@ day shoot was ruined when the director had red dots painted across the green screen in the hope that it would help with camera tracking . Further issues arose with the shoot as they had used a painted screen , which faded during the shoot causing problems in merging the video . Additional artists were then taken from other projects in order to mitigate those issues . The graphics designed for a Vulcan character were later used by artist Scott Bieser as a basis for the Klingon captain Klunk for the video game Star Trek : New Worlds .
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= The Supremes =
The Supremes were an American female singing group and the premier act of Motown Records during the 1960s . Founded as the Primettes in Detroit , Michigan , in 1959 , the Supremes were the most commercially successful of Motown 's acts and are , to date , America 's most successful vocal group with 12 number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 . Most of these hits were written and produced by Motown 's main songwriting and production team , Holland – Dozier – Holland . At their peak in the mid @-@ 1960s , the Supremes rivaled the Beatles in worldwide popularity , and it is said that their success made it possible for future African American R & B and soul musicians to find mainstream success .
Founding members Florence Ballard , Mary Wilson , Diana Ross , and Betty McGlown , all from the Brewster @-@ Douglass public housing project in Detroit , formed the Primettes as the sister act to the Primes ( with Paul Williams and Eddie Kendricks , who went on to form the Temptations ) . Barbara Martin replaced McGlown in 1960 , and the group signed with Motown the following year as the Supremes . Martin left the act in early 1962 , and Ross , Ballard , and Wilson carried on as a trio .
During the mid @-@ 1960s , the Supremes achieved mainstream success with Ross as lead singer . In 1967 , Motown president Berry Gordy renamed the group Diana Ross & the Supremes , and replaced Ballard with Cindy Birdsong . Ross left to pursue a solo career in 1970 and was replaced by Jean Terrell , at which point the group 's name reverted to the Supremes . After 1972 , the lineup changed more frequently ; Lynda Laurence , Scherrie Payne , and Susaye Greene all became members of the group during the mid @-@ 1970s . The Supremes disbanded in 1977 after 18 years .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1958 , Florence Ballard — a junior high school student living in the Brewster @-@ Douglass Housing Projects in Detroit — met Paul Williams and Eddie Kendricks , two members of a Detroit male singing group known as the Primes . Since Ballard sang , as did Paul Williams ' girlfriend Betty McGlown , the Primes 's manager Milton Jenkins decided to create a sister group to the Primes called the Primettes . Ballard recruited her best friend Mary Wilson , who in turn recruited classmate Diane Ross . Mentored and funded by Jenkins , the Primettes began by performing hit songs by artists such as Ray Charles and the Drifters at sock hops , social clubs and talent shows around the Detroit area . Receiving additional guidance from group friend and established performer Jesse Greer , the quartet quickly earned a local fan following . The girls crafted an age @-@ appropriate style that was inspired by the collegiate dress of popular doo @-@ wop group Frankie Lymon & the Teenagers ; and , for the most part , Ballard , Ross and Wilson performed equal leads on songs . Within a few months , guitarist Marvin Tarplin was added to the Primettes ' lineup — a move that helped distinguish the group from Detroit 's many other aspiring acts by allowing the girls to sing live instead of lip @-@ synching .
After winning a prestigious local talent contest , the Primettes ' sights were set on making a record . In hopes of getting the group signed to the local upstart Motown label , in 1960 Ross asked an old neighbor , Miracles lead singer Smokey Robinson , to help the group land an audition for Motown executive Berry Gordy , who had already proven himself a capable songwriter . Robinson liked " the girls " ( as they were then known around Motown ) and agreed to help , but he liked their guitarist even more ; with the Primettes ' permission he hired Tarplin , who became the guitarist for the Miracles . Robinson arranged for the Primettes to audition a cappella for Gordy — but Gordy , feeling the girls too young and inexperienced to be recording artists , encouraged them to return when they had graduated from high school . Undaunted , later that year the Primettes recorded a single for Lu Pine Records , a label created just for them , titled " Tears of Sorrow " , which was backed with " Pretty Baby " . The single failed to find an audience , however . Shortly thereafter , McGlown became engaged and left the group . Local girl Barbara Martin was McGlown 's prompt replacement .
Determined to leave an impression on Gordy and join the stable of rising Motown stars , the Primettes frequented his Hitsville , U.S.A. recording studio every day after school . Eventually , they convinced Gordy to allow them to contribute hand claps and background vocals for the songs of other Motown artists including Marvin Gaye and Mary Wells . In January 1961 , Gordy finally relented and agreed to sign the girls to his label – but under the condition that they change the name of their group . The Primes had by this time combined with Otis Williams & the Distants and would soon sign to Motown as the Temptations . Gordy gave Ballard a list of names to choose from that included suggestions such as " the Darleens " , " the Sweet Ps " , " the Melodees " , " the Royaltones " and " the Jewelettes " . Ballard chose " the Supremes " , a name that Ross initially disliked as she felt it too masculine . Nevertheless , on January 15 the group signed with Motown as the Supremes . In the spring of 1962 , Martin left the group to start a family . Thus , the newly named Supremes continued as a trio .
Between 1961 and 1963 , the Supremes released six singles , none of which charted in the Top 40 positions of the Billboard Hot 100 . Jokingly referred to as the " no @-@ hit Supremes " around Motown 's Hitsville U.S.A. offices , the group attempted to compensate for their lack of hits by taking on any work available at the studio , including providing hand claps and singing backup for Motown artists such as Marvin Gaye and the Temptations . During these years , all three members took turns singing lead : Wilson favored soft ballads ; Ballard favored soulful , hard @-@ driving songs ; and Ross favored mainstream pop songs . Most of their early material was written and produced by Berry Gordy or Smokey Robinson . In December 1963 , the single " When the Lovelight Starts Shining Through His Eyes " peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Lovelight " was the first of many Supremes songs written by the Motown songwriting and production team known as Holland – Dozier – Holland . In late 1963 , Berry Gordy chose Diane Ross — who began going by " Diana " in 1965 — as the official lead singer of the group . Ballard and Wilson were periodically given solos on Supremes albums , and Ballard continued to sing her solo number , " People " , in concert for the next two years .
In the spring of 1964 , the Supremes recorded the single " Where Did Our Love Go " . The song was originally intended by Holland @-@ Dozier @-@ Holland for the Marvelettes , who rejected it . Although the Supremes disliked the song , the producers coerced them into recording it . In August 1964 , while the Supremes toured as part of Dick Clark 's Caravan of Stars , " Where Did Our Love Go " reached number one on the US pop charts , much to the surprise and delight of the group . It was also their first song to appear on the UK pop charts , where it reached number three .
" Where Did Our Love Go " was followed by four consecutive US number @-@ one hits : " Baby Love " ( which was also a number @-@ one hit in the UK ) , " Come See About Me " , " Stop ! In the Name of Love " and " Back in My Arms Again " . " Baby Love " was nominated for the 1965 Grammy Award for Best R & B Song .
= = = Impact = = =
The Supremes deliberately embraced a more glamorous image than previous black performers . Much of this was accomplished at the behest of Motown chief Berry Gordy and Maxine Powell , who ran Motown 's in @-@ house finishing school and Artist Development department . Unlike many of her contemporaries , Ross sang in a thin , calm voice , and her vocal styling was matched by having all three women embellish their femininity instead of imitate the qualities of male groups . Eschewing plain appearances and basic dance routines , the Supremes appeared onstage in detailed make @-@ up and high @-@ fashion gowns and wigs , and performed graceful choreography created by Motown choreographer Cholly Atkins . Powell told the group to " be prepared to perform before kings and queens . " Gordy wanted the Supremes , like all of his performers , to be equally appealing to black and white audiences , and he sought to erase the image of black performers as being unrefined or lacking class .
Public magazines such as Time and The Detroit News commented on the Supremes ' polished presentation . Time called the Supremes the " pride of [ the ] Detroit [ sound ] " and described them as " three thrushes who have a touch of gospel and sweet lyrics like ' I 'm standing at the crossroads of love ' . " Arnold S. Hirsch of The Detroit News said about the Supremes : " they don 't scream or wail incoherently . An adult can understand nine out of every 10 words they sing . And , most astounding , melody can be clearly detected in every song . " In addition , unlike most American vocal groups , the group members became easily identifiable by their fans , thanks partially to the cover of their album , More Hits by the Supremes , which each member was pictured separately on the front , with her signature above it .
By 1965 , the Supremes were international stars . They toured the world , becoming almost as popular abroad as they were in the US . Almost immediately after their initial number @-@ one hits , they recorded songs for motion picture soundtracks , appeared in the 1965 film Beach Ball , and endorsed dozens of products , at one point having their own brand of bread . By the end of 1966 , their number @-@ one hits included " I Hear a Symphony " , " You Can 't Hurry Love " and " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " . That year the group also released The Supremes A ' Go @-@ Go , which became the first album by an all @-@ female group to reach number one on the US Billboard 200 , knocking the Beatles ' Revolver out of the top spot . Because the Supremes were popular with white audiences as well as with black ones , Gordy had the group cater to its middle American audience with performances at renowned supper clubs such as the Copacabana in New York . Broadway and pop standards were incorporated into their repertoire alongside their own hit songs . As a result , the Supremes became one of the first black musical acts to achieve complete and sustained crossover success . Black rock and roll musicians of the 1950s had seen many of their original hit tunes covered by white musicians , with these covers usually achieving more fame and sales success than the originals . The Supremes ' success , however , counteracted this trend . Featuring three group members who were marketed for their individual personalities ( a move unprecedented at the time ) and Diana Ross 's pop @-@ friendly voice , the Supremes broke down racial barriers with rock and roll songs underpinned by R & B stylings . The group became extremely popular both domestically and abroad , becoming one of the first black musical acts to appear regularly on television programs such as Hullabaloo , The Hollywood Palace , The Della Reese Show , and , most notably , The Ed Sullivan Show , on which they made 17 appearances . The Supremes ' cross @-@ cultural success effectively paved the way for the mainstream success of contemporaneous label mates such as the Temptations , the Four Tops and the Jackson 5 .
= = = Name and personnel changes = = =
Personnel problems within the group and within Motown Records ' stable of performers led to tension among the members of the Supremes . Many of the other Motown performers felt that Berry Gordy was lavishing too much attention upon the group and upon Ross , in particular . In early 1967 , the name of the act was officially changed briefly to " the Supremes with Diana Ross " before changing again to " Diana Ross & the Supremes " by mid @-@ summer . The Miracles had become " Smokey Robinson & the Miracles " two years prior . The fall of 1967 saw Martha & the Vandellas become " Martha Reeves & the Vandellas " . Having learned that Ross would receive top billing , David Ruffin lobbied , unsuccessfully , to have the Temptations renamed as " David Ruffin & the Temptations " , although Gordy maintained that the name changes were done so that Motown could demand more money for live bookings ( because they would be providing two acts — a lead singer and a group — instead of just one ) .
The Supremes ' name change fueled already present rumors of a solo career for Ross and contributed to the professional and personal dismantling of the group . In fact , Gordy intended to replace Ross with Barbara Randolph as early as the fall of 1966 , but changed his mind and instead kept Ross in the group for several more years . Gordy 's caution may have been sparked by an incident in early 1966 as the group prepared to make their second appearance at the Copacabana . Angered by Ballard 's erratic behavior , Gordy intended to replace her with Marlene Barrow , a member of the Motown in @-@ house singing group the Andantes . However , when club management heard of this change , they threatened to cancel the group 's appearance if Ballard was replaced , as they saw Ballard 's banter with her group mates as a major part of their act 's success .
As Ross became the focal point of the Supremes , Ballard felt pushed aside in the group . Depression ensued , and Ballard began to drink excessively , gaining weight until she could no longer comfortably wear many of her stage outfits . The friendship , and later the working relationship , between Ross and Ballard became strained . During this turbulent period , Ballard relied heavily upon the advice of group mate Mary Wilson , with whom she had maintained a close friendship . Wilson , while outwardly demure and neutral in hopes of keeping the group stable , privately advised Ballard that Ross and Gordy were eager to oust Ballard . Although the Supremes scored two number @-@ one hits during the first quarter of 1967 , " Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone " and " The Happening " , the group as a unit began to disintegrate .
By 1967 , Ballard would not show up for recording dates , or would arrive at shows too inebriated to perform . For some early 1967 shows , she was replaced by Marlene Barrow . Looking for a more permanent replacement , Gordy once again thought of Barbara Randolph , possibly believing that Randolph could be groomed as lead singer for the group once it was decided to take Ross solo . However , Ross did not receive Randolph well . In April 1967 , Gordy then contacted Cindy Birdsong , a member of Patti LaBelle & the Blue Belles who superficially resembled Ballard , with plans to bring her in as Ballard 's replacement . He made his plans clear to Ballard and her group mates at a mid @-@ April meeting , and Birdsong was brought in to begin rehearsals . Gordy did not fire Ballard outright at that time , asking Ballard instead to quit on her own .
Birdsong first appeared with the Supremes in Ballard 's place at a benefit concert at the Hollywood Bowl on April 29 , 1967 . Following the performance , Gordy quickly learned that Birdsong was still contractually committed to the Blue Belles when that group 's lawyers filed an injunction against him . In May , Ballard returned for what she believed was a probationary period , although in reality it was a stopgap measure until Gordy was able to buy out Birdsong 's contract . During May and June , knowing that she was one step away from being dismissed , Ballard made an attempt to toe the line , slimming down and showing up to commitments on time and sober . Despite this , Birdsong was secretly traveling with the Supremes , studying their routines .
On June 29 , 1967 the group returned to the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas billed as " the Supremes with Diana Ross " , the first time in which Ross was billed separately from the group . One month later , Gordy renamed the group " Diana Ross & the Supremes , " putting Ross 's name ahead of the group .
The first two days of the Flamingo engagement went by smoothly . On July 1 , when reporting for makeup and wardrobe before their first show of the evening , Ballard discovered an extra set of gowns and costumes that had been brought along for Cindy Birdsong . Angered , Ballard performed the first concert of the night inebriated , leading to an embarrassing on @-@ stage incident in which her stomach was revealed when she purposely thrust it forward during a dance routine . Enraged , Gordy ordered her back to Detroit and permanently dismissed her from the group . Birdsong officially assumed her place during the second July 1 show .
Ballard 's release from Motown was made final on February 22 , 1968 , when she received a one @-@ time payment of US $ 139 @,@ 804 @.@ 94 in royalties and earnings . She attempted a solo career with ABC Records , and was forced to formally reject a solo contract offered by Motown as part of her settlement . Ballard 's two 1968 singles failed to chart and her solo album was shelved . In 1971 , Ballard sued Motown for $ 8 @.@ 7 million , claiming that Gordy and Diana Ross had conspired to force her out of the group ; the judge ruled in favor of Motown . Ballard eventually sank into poverty and died abruptly on February 22 , 1976 from coronary thrombosis at the age of 32 . At the time of her death , she had begun to make financial and personal strides and was planning to reinvigorate her solo career .
= = = Ross ' departure = = =
Holland @-@ Dozier @-@ Holland left Motown in early 1968 after a dispute with the label over royalties and profit sharing . The quality of Motown 's output ( and Diana Ross & the Supremes ' records in particular ) began to falter as a result . From " Reflections " in 1967 to " The Weight " in 1969 , only six out of the eleven released singles reached the Top 20 , and only one of those , 1968 's " Love Child " , made it to number one . Due to the tension within the group and stringent touring schedules , neither Mary Wilson nor Cindy Birdsong appear on many of these singles ; they were replaced on these recordings by session singers such as the Andantes . The changes within the group and their decreasing sales were signs of changes within the music industry . The gospel @-@ based soul of female performers such as Aretha Franklin had eclipsed the Supremes ' pop @-@ based sound , which had by now evolved to include more middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road material . In a cultural climate now influenced more than ever by countercultural movements such as the Black Panther Party , the Supremes found themselves attacked for not being " black enough " , and lost ground in the black music market .
In mid @-@ 1968 , Motown initiated a number of high @-@ profile collaborations for the Supremes with their old colleagues , the Temptations . Besides the fact that both groups had come up together , the pairings made financial sense : the Supremes had a mostly white fanbase , while the Temptations a mostly black fanbase . By 1969 , the label began plans for a Diana Ross solo career . A number of candidates — most notably Syreeta Wright — were considered to replace Ross . After seeing 24 @-@ year @-@ old Jean Terrell perform with her brother Ernie in Florida , Berry Gordy decided on Ross ' replacement . Terrell was signed to Motown and began recording the first post @-@ Ross Supremes songs with Wilson and Birdsong during the day , while Wilson and Birdsong toured with Ross at night . At the same time , Ross began to make her first solo recordings . In November 1969 , Ross ' solo career was publicly announced .
" Someday We 'll Be Together " was recorded with the intent of releasing it as the first solo single for Diana Ross . Desiring a final Supremes number @-@ one record , Gordy instead had the song released as a Diana Ross & the Supremes single , despite the fact that neither Wilson nor Birdsong sang on the record . " Someday We 'll Be Together " hit number one on the American pop charts , becoming not only the Supremes ' 12th and final number @-@ one hit , but also the final number @-@ one hit of the 1960s . This single also would mark the Supremes ' final television appearance together with Ross , performing on The Ed Sullivan Show on December 21 , 1969 . The Supremes without Ross made their final appearance altogether on Ed Sullivan on February 15 , 1970 .
= = = The Supremes in the 1970s = = =
Diana Ross & the Supremes gave their final performance on January 14 , 1970 at the Frontier Hotel in Las Vegas . At the final performance , the replacement for Diana Ross , Jean Terrell , was introduced . According to Mary Wilson , after this performance , Berry Gordy wanted to replace Terrell with Syreeta Wright . Wilson refused , leading to Gordy stating that he was washing his hands of the group thereafter . This claim is also made by Mark Ribowsky . After the Frontier Hotel performance , Ross officially began her career as a solo performer . Mary Wilson and Cindy Birdsong continued working with Jean Terrell on the first post @-@ Ross Supremes album , Right On .
The Terrell @-@ led Supremes — now rebranded as " the Supremes ; " known unofficially at first as " the New Supremes " , and in later years informally called " The ' 70s Supremes " — scored hits including " Up the Ladder to the Roof " ( US number 10 , UK number 6 ) , " Stoned Love " ( US number 7 , UK number 3 ) and " Nathan Jones " ( US number 16 , UK number 5 ) , all of which were produced by Frank Wilson . These three singles were also R & B Top Ten hits , with " Stoned Love " becoming their last No.1 R & B hit in December 1970 . Songwriting / production team Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson produced another Top 20 hit for the group , a Supremes / Four Tops duet version of Ike & Tina Turner 's " River Deep – Mountain High " .
In 1972 , the Supremes had their last Top 20 hit single release , " Floy Joy " , written and produced by Smokey Robinson , followed by the final US Top 40 hit for the Jean Terrell @-@ led version of the group , " Automatically Sunshine " ( US number 37 , UK number 10 ) . " Automatically Sunshine " later became the group 's final top 10 single in the UK . On both " Floy Joy " and " Sunshine " Terrell shared lead with Mary Wilson . Motown , by then moving from Detroit to Los Angeles to break into motion pictures , put only limited effort into promoting the Supremes ' new material , and their popularity and sales began to wane . Cindy Birdsong left the group in April 1972 , after recording the Floy Joy album , to start a family ; her replacement was Lynda Laurence , a former member of Stevie Wonder 's backup group , Third Generation ( a predecessor to Wonderlove ) . Jimmy Webb was hired to produce the group 's next LP , The Supremes Produced and Arranged by Jimmy Webb , but the album and its only single " I Guess I 'll Miss the Man " failed to make an impact on the Billboard pop chart , with the single charting at number 85 .
In early 1973 , Laurence prevailed upon her old mentor Stevie Wonder to write and produce a hit for the Supremes , but the resulting " Bad Weather " peaked at number 87 on the US pop charts and number 37 in the UK . Laurence can be heard briefly , shouting several times at the end of the song ( the only recording on which Laurence is heard ) . Laurence left to start a family ; her replacement : a returning Cindy Birdsong .
Dismayed by this poor @-@ performing record and the lack of promotional support from Motown , Jean Terrell left the group and was replaced by Scherrie Payne , the sister of Invictus Records recording artist Freda Payne .
Between the 1973 departures of Laurence and Terrell and the first Supremes single with Scherrie Payne , " He 's My Man " , a disco single on which Payne and Wilson shared lead vocal , Motown was slow in producing contracts for Payne and the returning Birdsong . Before the release of the album in 1975 , the Supremes remained a popular live act , and continued touring overseas , particularly in the UK and Japan . The group 's new recordings were not as successful as their earlier releases , although " He 's My Man " from the album The Supremes was a popular disco hit in 1975 . In 1976 , Birdsong , dissatisfied with the management of the Supremes ( handled at the time by Mary Wilson 's then @-@ husband Pedro Ferrer ) , left again and was replaced by Susaye Greene , another former member of Wonderlove .
This final version of the Supremes released two albums , both of which reunited the Supremes with Holland @-@ Dozier @-@ Holland : High Energy , which includes Birdsong on all of the tracks , and Mary , Scherrie & Susaye . During that year , the Supremes released " I 'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking " , their final Top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 .
On June 12 , 1977 , the Supremes performed their farewell concert at the Drury Lane Theater in London and disbanded .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Works inspired by the Supremes = = =
Several fictional works have been published that are based in part on the career of the group . The 1976 film Sparkle features the story of a Supremes @-@ like singing trio called " Sister & the Sisters " from Harlem , New York . The film 's score was composed by Curtis Mayfield , and the soundtrack album by Aretha Franklin was a commercial success . A remake of Sparkle was in development in the early 2000s with R & B singer Aaliyah as the lead , but the project was shelved when Aaliyah died in 2001 . A remake of Sparkle eventually was released to film theaters in August 2012 . The remake starred Jordin Sparks and Whitney Houston , in her final film role before her death . On December 21 , 1981 , the Tony Award @-@ winning musical Dreamgirls opened at the Imperial Theatre on Broadway and ran for 1 @,@ 522 performances . The musical , loosely based on the history of the Supremes , follows the story of the Dreams , an all @-@ female singing trio from Chicago who become music superstars . Several of the characters in the play are analogues of real @-@ life Supremes / Motown counterparts , with the story focusing upon the Florence Ballard doppelgänger Effie White . While influenced by the Supremes ' and Motown 's music , the songs in the play are a broader mix of R & B / soul and Broadway music . Mary Wilson loved the musical , but Diana Ross was reportedly angered by it and refused to see it .
A film adaptation of Dreamgirls was released by DreamWorks and Paramount Pictures in December 2006 . The film contains more overt references to Motown and the Supremes than does the play that inspired it : for example , in the film , many of the Dreams ' album covers are identical in design to Supremes album covers , and the Dreams themselves hail from Detroit – not Chicago , as do their Broadway counterparts .
= = = Awards and followers = = =
The Supremes were twice nominated for a Grammy Award — for Best Rhythm & Blues Recording ( " Baby Love " , 1965 ) and Best Contemporary Rock & Roll Group Vocal Performance ( " Stop ! In the Name of Love " , 1966 ) — but never won an award in competition . Three of their songs have been named to the Grammy Hall of Fame : " Where Did Our Love Go " and " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " ( both 1999 ) and " Stop ! In the Name of Love " ( 2001 ) .
The group 's songs " Stop ! In the Name of Love " and " You Can 't Hurry Love " are among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . The Ross @-@ Wilson @-@ Ballard lineup was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 , received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994 , and entered into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2004 , Rolling Stone placed the group at number 97 on their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . The Supremes are notable for the influences they have had on the black girl groups who have succeeded them in popular music , such as The Three Degrees , The Emotions , The Pointer Sisters , En Vogue , TLC , Destiny 's Child and Cleopatra .
= = = Reunions = = =
Fan interest made the idea of a Supremes reunion tour a very profitable one during the 1980s . In 1982 , around the time that Motown reunited all of the Temptations , it was rumored that Motown would reunite the Supremes . The 1974 line @-@ up of the Supremes ( Wilson , Birdsong and Payne ) was considered for this reunion , which was to include new recordings and a tour . Under advisement from Berry Gordy , Wilson declined to reunite , and the idea was scrapped . Ross briefly reunited with Wilson and Birdsong to perform " Someday We 'll Be Together " on the Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever television special , taped on March 25 , 1983 , and broadcast on NBC on May 16 , 1983 .
In 2000 , plans were made for Ross to join Wilson and Birdsong for a planned " Diana Ross & the Supremes : Return to Love " reunion tour . However , Wilson passed on the idea , because while the promoters offered Ross $ 15 million to perform , Wilson was offered $ 4 million and Birdsong less than $ 1 million . Ross herself offered to double the amounts both Wilson and Birdsong had originally been offered , but while Birdsong accepted , Wilson remained adamant , and as a result the deal fell through with both former Supremes . Eventually , the " Return to Love " tour went on as scheduled , but with Payne and Laurence joining Ross , although none of the three had ever been in the group at the same time and neither Payne nor Laurence had sung on any of the original hit recordings that they were now singing live . Susaye Greene was also considered for this tour , but refused to audition for it . The music critics cried foul and many fans were disappointed by both this and the shows ' high ticket prices . Though the tour did well in larger markets including near capacity at the opening night in Philadelphia and a sellout at Madison Square Garden in New York , it under performed in smaller / medium markets . The tour was canceled after playing only half of the dates on itinerary .
= = = Post @-@ Supremes groups = = =
In 1986 , Jean Terrell , Scherrie Payne and Lynda Laurence began to perform as " The FLOS " : Former Ladies of the Supremes . When Terrell quit in 1992 , Sundray Tucker , Laurence ’ s sister , stepped in for a short time , but was replaced by Freddi Poole in 1996 . More recently in September 2009 , Poole was replaced by Joyce Vincent , formerly of Tony Orlando and Dawn . The group , now called Former Supremes Scherrie Payne and Lynda Laurence with Joyce Vincent , are working on a new recording .
Kaaren Ragland performed with Mary Wilson from 1978 though the mid @-@ 1980s . In 1989 she formed her own group called " the Sounds of the Supremes " . She has claimed numerous times that she was a member of the Supremes because of her performances with Wilson , but she was never signed by Motown and performed with Wilson only after the Supremes disbanded in 1977 and is not considered as a member of the Supremes .
= = Personnel = =
The Supremes ( aka the Primettes and Diana Ross & the Supremes )
Florence Ballard ( 1959 – 67 )
Mary Wilson ( 1959 – 77 )
Diana Ross ( 1959 – 70 )
Betty McGlown ( 1959 – 60 )
Barbara Martin ( 1960 – 62 )
Cindy Birdsong ( 1967 – 72 , 1973 – 76 )
Jean Terrell ( 1970 – 73 )
Lynda Laurence ( 1972 – 73 )
Scherrie Payne ( 1973 – 77 )
Susaye Greene ( 1976 – 77 )
= = Lineups = =
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= M19 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage =
The M19 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage ( MGMC ) was a World War II United States Army self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft weapon on the M24 light tank chassis . It was equipped with two Bofors 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns . It was produced by Cadillac near the end of 1944 .
The M19 was developed from the T65 which was based on the M5 light tank chassis . The original design was improved upon and designated the T65E1 . It was accepted into service in May 1944 as the M19 MGMC , equipping several U.S. Army anti @-@ aircraft units during World War II . The M19A1 was an improved variant with an auxiliary engine and spare barrels for the 40 mm Bofors guns .
During World War II , the M19 and M19A1 saw action in the European Theater of Operations as an assault gun , since the Allies had air supremacy over the skies of Europe . The M19 and M19A1 were also used during the Korean War in the same role .
= = Specifications = =
The M19 MGMC had similar specifications to the M24 Chaffee . It was 17 @.@ 9 ft ( 5 @.@ 46 m ) long , 9 @.@ 33 ft ( 2 @.@ 845 m ) wide , and 9 @.@ 83 ft ( 2 @.@ 997 m ) high . It had a weight of 38 @,@ 499 lb ( 17 @,@ 463 kg ) , and was powered with a 220 hp ( 160 kW ) Twin Cadillac Model 42 , V @-@ 8 engine installation . It could achieve a speed of 35 mph ( 56 @.@ 3 km / h ) , and had a range of 150 mi ( 241 km ) . The vehicle was operated with a crew of six .
= = Development = =
The M19 evolved from the 40 mm Gun Motor Carriage T65 project , which was based on an Armored Force requirement for a light anti @-@ aircraft vehicle based on the M5 light tank chassis . Although trials were successful and a production of 1 @,@ 000 T65s had been requested , the project was stopped by the Ordnance Department since the M5A1 light tank chassis was being phased out of production .
Since the T65 project was fading away , the Armored Force still needed a light anti @-@ aircraft vehicle , so they made a new project ( called T65E1 ) based on the new T24 chassis ( a prototype of the M24 Chaffee ) . The T65E1 had the same overall layout as the T65 GMC – gun turret at rear with the engines in the middle of the chassis – with a few minor tweaks ( including an angular gun shield instead of a straight one ) .
= = = M19 and M19A1 = = =
The T65E1 was accepted into service as the M19 Gun Motor Carriage in May 1944 with an order for 904 production models , which was sent to Cadillac . Production did not start until August of that year , and only 285 were produced by the end of the war . The M19A1 had an auxiliary engine and generator to operate the 40 mm guns when the main engine was shut down , and fixtures for carrying two spare gun barrels .
= = Service history = =
The full order was not completed as the requirements for anti @-@ aircraft weapons had changed and chassis were diverted to produce more of the Chaffee light tank .
The M19 MGMC served in Europe in World War II with the U.S. Army . By the time the M19 arrived , the Luftwaffe had been driven from the skies by Allied air power , so the M19 found use as an assault gun , which was a role it performed very well . It was never delivered to other countries for Lend @-@ Lease or the Military Aid Program . It also served in the Korean War , for the same purpose as it was used in World War II . It was used in the defense against the North Korean forces in the Pusan Perimeter fighting and later fighting in Korea . The 40 mm guns were especially effective against Chinese mass infantry charges in North Korea .
When it was decided to phase out the M24 Chaffee and other vehicles on the same chassis , the M19 turrets were re @-@ mounted on a M41 Light Tank chassis to produce the M42 Duster .
= = Comparable vehicles = =
Möbelwagen
Ostwind
40M Nimród
Crusader Mk . III Anti @-@ Aircraft Tank Mk . I
ZSU @-@ 37
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= African crake =
The African crake ( Crex egregia ) is a bird in the rail family that breeds in most of sub @-@ Saharan Africa away from the arid south and southwest . It is seasonally common in most of its range other than the rainforests and areas that have low annual rainfall . This crake is a partial migrant , moving away from the equator as soon as the rains provide sufficient grass cover to allow it to breed elsewhere . There have been a few records of vagrant birds reaching Atlantic islands . This species nests in a wide variety of grassland types , and agricultural land with tall crops may also be used .
A smallish crake , the African crake has brown @-@ streaked blackish upperparts , bluish @-@ grey underparts and black @-@ and @-@ white barring on the flanks and belly . It has a stubby red bill , red eyes , and a white line from the bill to above the eye . It is smaller than its closest relative , the corn crake ; that species is also lighter @-@ plumaged , and has an eye stripe . The African crake has a range of calls , the most characteristic being a series of rapid grating krrr notes . It is active during the day , and is territorial on both the breeding and non @-@ breeding grounds ; the male has a threat display , and may fight at territory boundaries . The nest is a shallow cup of grass leaves built in a depression under a grass tussock or small bush . The 3 – 11 eggs start hatching after about 14 days , and the black , downy precocial chicks fledge after four to five weeks . The African crake feeds on a wide range of invertebrates , along with some small frogs and fish , and plant material , especially grass seeds . It may itself be eaten by large birds of prey ; snakes ; or mammals , including humans , and can host parasites . Although it may be displaced temporarily by the burning of grassland , or permanently by agriculture , wetland drainage or urbanisation , its large range and population mean that it is not considered to be threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and the most primitive forms are found in the Old World , suggesting that this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the African crake is the corn crake , C. crex , which breeds in Europe and Asia , but winters in Africa . The African crake was first described as Ortygometra egregia by Wilhelm Peters in 1854 from a specimen collected in Mozambique , but the genus name failed to become established . For some time it was placed as the sole member of the genus Crecopsis but subsequently moved to Crex , created for this species by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 . Richard Bowdler Sharpe considered that the African bird differed sufficiently from the corn crake to have its own genus Crecopsis , and later authors sometimes placed it in Porzana , based on a resemblance to the ash @-@ throated crake , P. albicollis . Structural differences rule out Porzana , and the placement in Crex is now the most common and best @-@ supported treatment . Phylogeny and morphology confirm that the Porzana crakes are the closest relatives of the Crex genus . The genus name is onomatopoeic , referring to the repetitive grating call of the corn crake , and the species name egregia derives from Latin egregius , " outstanding , prominent " .
= = Description = =
The African crake is a smallish crake , 20 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long with a 40 – 42 cm ( 16 – 17 in ) wingspan . The male has blackish upperparts streaked with olive @-@ brown , apart from the nape and hindneck which are plain pale brown ; there is a white streak from the base of the bill to above the eye . The sides of the head , foreneck , throat and breast are bluish @-@ grey , the flight feathers are dark brown , and the flanks and sides of the belly are barred black and white . The eye is red , the bill is reddish , and the legs and feet are light brown or grey . The sexes are similar in appearance , although the female is slightly smaller and duller than the male , with a less contrasting head pattern . Immature birds have darker and duller upperparts than the adult , a dark bill , grey eye , and less barring on the underparts . There are no subspecific or other geographical variations in plumage . This crake has a complete moult after breeding , mainly prior to migration . Although this species occurs in fairly open habitats , it lacks the pure white undertail used for signalling in open water or gregarious species like the coots and moorhens .
The African crake is smaller than the corn crake , which also has darker upperparts , a plain grey face and different underparts barring pattern . In flight , the African species has shorter , blunter wings with a less prominent white leading edge , and deeper wingbeats than its relative . Other sympatric crakes are smaller with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and a shorter bill . The African rail has dark brown upperparts , a long red bill and red legs and feet .
= = = Voice = = =
Like other rails , this species has a wide range of vocalisations . The male 's territorial and advertising call is a series of rapid grating krrr notes repeated two or three times a second for several minutes . It is given most often in the breeding season , usually early or late in the day , but sometimes continues after dark or starts before dawn . The male stands upright with his neck extended when advertising , but will also call when chasing intruders on the ground or in flight . Both sexes give a sharp , loud kip call as an alarm or during territorial interactions , adapting a similar pose as for the advertising call . Once breeding starts , the birds become much quieter , but territorial birds commence the kip call again during the non @-@ breeding season , especially when there is a high density of African crakes in the area . A wheezy kraaa is associated with threat displays and copulation ; imitation of this call by a human can bring a rail to within 10 m ( 33 ft ) . Newly hatched chicks make a soft wheeeez call , and older chicks cheep .
The rasping advertising call is readily distinguished from the hwitt @-@ hwitt @-@ hwitt of spotted crake , the monotonous clockwork tak @-@ tak @-@ tak @-@ tak @-@ tak of striped crake , or the quick @-@ quick of Baillon 's crake . The corn crake is silent in Africa .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The African crake occurs throughout sub @-@ Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya , and south to KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa , except in arid areas of south and southwest Africa where the annual summer rainfall is less than 300 mm ( 12 in ) . It is widespread and locally common in most of its range , apart from the rainforests and the drier regions . Nearly all the South Africa population of about 8 @,@ 000 birds occur in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and much good habitat is protected in the Kruger National Park and iSimangaliso Wetland Park . This crake is only a vagrant to southern Mauritania , southwest Niger , Lesotho , South Africa 's northern and eastern Cape Province and North West Province , and southern Botswana . Further afield , it is rare on Bioko Island ( Equatorial Guinea ) , and there have been two records each for Sao Tome and Tenerife , the Canary Islands birds being the first records for the Western Palaeartic . Holocene remains from North Africa suggest that the species may have been more widespread when the climate was wetter in what is now the Sahara .
This crake is a partial migrant , but although it is less skulking than many of its relatives , its movements are complex and poorly studied ; the distribution map is therefore largely hypothetical . It is mainly a wet @-@ season breeder , and many birds move away from the equator as soon as the rains provide sufficient grass cover to allow them to breed elsewhere . Southward movement is mainly from November to April , the return north beginning when burning or drought reduces the grass cover again . This species is present throughout the year in some West African countries , and in equatorial regions , but even in those areas numbers vary seasonally due to local movements ; north @-@ south migration has been noted within countries including Nigeria , Senegal , The Gambia , Ivory Coast and Cameroon . Migration takes place at night and involves small groups of up to eight birds ; It may be one or two months after the rains begin before the grass is sufficiently high for breeding birds to arrive . Even in southern Africa , some birds may stay after breeding if enough usable habitat remains .
The habitat is predominantly grassland , ranging from wetland edges and seasonal floodlands to savanna , lightly wooded dry grassland , and grassy forest clearings . The crake also frequents maize , rice and cotton crops , derelict farmland and sugarcane plantations close to water . A wide range of grass species are used , with a preferred height of 0 @.@ 3 – 1 m ( 0 @.@ 98 – 3 @.@ 28 ft ) tall but vegetation is acceptable up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . It normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake , and its breeding territories often contain or are close to thickets or termite mounds . It occurs from sea level to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) but is rare in the higher altitude grasslands . Its grassland habitat is frequently burned in the dry season , forcing the birds to move elsewhere . In an East African study , the average area occupied by one bird was 2 @.@ 6 hectares ( 6 @.@ 4 acres ) when breeding , and 1 @.@ 97 to 2 @.@ 73 ha ( 4 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 7 acres ) at other times . The highest densities occur in lush or moist grassland such as the Okavango Delta .
= = Behaviour = =
The African crake is active during the day , especially at dusk , during light rain , or after heavier rain . It is less skulking and easier to flush from cover than other crakes , and is often seen at the edges of roads and tracks . An observer in a vehicle can approach to within 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . When a bird is flushed it normally flies less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , but new arrivals may occasionally fly twice as far . A flushed crake will frequently land in a wet area or behind a thicket , and crouch on landing . In short grass , it can escape from a dog using its speed and manoeuvrability , running with the body held almost horizontal . It may roost in a depression near grass tussock and it will bathe in puddles .
The African crake is territorial on both the breeding and non @-@ breeding grounds ; the male threat display involves the bird standing upright and spreading the feathers of the flanks and belly like a fan to show the barred underparts . He may march towards the intruder , or walk side by side with another displaying male . The female may accompany the male , but with feathers less widely fanned . Fighting at territorial boundaries involves the male birds jumping at each other and pecking . Paired females will attack other females in the territory , especially if the male has shown an interest in them .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding behavior commences with a courtship chase with the female running in a crouch , pursued by the male , who adopts a more upright stance and has his neck outstretched . The female may stop and lower her head and tail to allow copulation ; this takes just a few seconds , but may be repeated several times in an hour . The nest is a shallow cup of grass leaves , sometimes with a loose canopy , built in a depression and hidden under a grass tussock or small bush ; it may be on dry ground or slightly raised above standing water , or occasionally floating . The nest is about 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) across with the internal cup 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 97 in ) deep , and 11 – 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) wide . The clutch size is from 3 to 11 pink @-@ coloured eggs ; the first is often laid when the nest is little more than a pad of grass , and a further egg is laid on each subsequent day . Both sexes incubate , and the eggs start hatching after about 14 days ; all hatch with 48 hours despite the extended laying period . The black , downy precocial chicks soon leave the nest but are fed and protected by the parents . Fledging occurs after four to five weeks , and the young can fly before they are fully grown . It is not known whether a second brood is raised .
= = = Feeding = = =
The African crake feeds on invertebrates including earthworms , gastropods , molluscs and the adults and larvae of insects , especially termites , ants , beetles and grasshoppers . Vertebrate prey such as small frogs or fish may also be taken . Plant material is eaten , especially grass seeds , but also green shoots , leaves and other seeds . The crake searches for food both within vegetation and in the open , picking insects and seeds from the ground , turning over leaf litter , or digging with its bill in soft or very dry ground . It will chase faster moving prey , reach up to take food from plants , and wade to pluck food items from the water . Crop plants such as rice , maize and peas may sometimes be eaten , but this bird is not an agricultural pest species . It forages singly , in pairs or in family groups , sometimes in association with other grassland birds such as great snipes , blue quails and corn crakes . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Predators include the leopard , serval , cats , the black @-@ headed heron , dark chanting goshawk , African hawk @-@ eagle and Wahlberg 's eagle . In South Africa , newly hatched chicks were taken by a boomslang . If surprised , an African crake will leap vertically into the air before running away , a tactic believed to help it to evade snakes or terrestrial mammals .
Parasites of this species include ticks of the family Ixodidae , and a feather mite , Metanalges elongatus , of the subspecies M. e. curtus . The nominate form of the mite occurs thousands of kilometres away in New Caledonia .
= = Status = =
The African crake has a huge breeding range estimated at 11 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 mi2 ) . Its population is unknown , but it is common in most of its range , and its numbers appear to be stable . It is therefore classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . Overgrazing , agriculture and the loss of wetland and moist grassland have reduced the availability of suitable habitat in many areas , such as some parts of the southern KwaZulu @-@ Natal coast which have been urbanised or planted with sugarcane . In other areas , grassland may have increased locally in recent years as woodland is cleared . This crake is considered to be good eating , and is killed for food in some regions . Despite these adverse factors , it appears to be under no real threat .
Although most rails in the Old World are covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) , the African crake is not listed even in Kenya , where it is considered " near @-@ threatened " . Like its relative , the corn crake , it is too terrestrial to be classed as a wetland species .
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= Jos LeDuc =
Michel Pigeon ( August 31 , 1944 – May 1 , 1999 ) was a Canadian professional wrestler better known by his ring name , Jos LeDuc .
Wrestling with a lumberjack gimmick , he debuted in Stampede Wrestling with his kayfabe brother , Paul LeDuc . The pair later won several titles in Montreal , where they feuded with the Rougeau wrestling family , and Florida , where they held the NWA Florida Tag Team Championship . After an injury ended Paul 's career , LeDuc competed as a singles wrestler and involved in a heated feud with Dusty Rhodes . LeDuc then moved to Tennessee , where he had a rivalry with Jerry Lawler over the NWA Mid @-@ America Southern Tag Team Championship , notably legitimately breaking Lawler 's leg when he threw him over the top rope onto the announcer 's desk .
LeDuc spent many years traveling between Florida and Tennessee , and he won belts in both locations as a singles wrestler and as a tag team competitor . He also spent time on wrestling tours of Japan and New Zealand . One of LeDuc 's biggest storylines was with manager Oliver Humperdink , whom LeDuc had accused of stealing his money . This led to a feud , during which LeDuc won the NWA Television Championship from one of Humperdink 's wrestlers . LeDuc continued to split his time between singles and tag team wrestling , and he resumed his feud with Lawler in Tennessee . In his later career , LeDuc competed in Puerto Rico and had a brief stint in the World Wrestling Federation . Altogether , LeDuc held 32 championships — 15 singles belts and 17 tag team titles . He died of a lung infection on May 1 , 1999 .
= = Career = =
= = = Canada ( 1968 – 1973 ) = = =
Prior to entering professional wrestling , Pigeon gained combat sport experience by studying judo . He worked for the Quebec Provincial Police until the mid @-@ 1960s , when he decided to become a wrestler . His friend Paul LeDuc had competed as a professional wrestler in Mexico and wanted a tag team partner . He convinced Pigeon to train as a wrestler , and Pigeon trained under Stu Hart in Calgary , Alberta .
Along with Paul , Pigeon began wrestling in Hart 's Stampede Wrestling in 1968 under the ring name Jos LeDuc , Paul 's tag team partner and kayfabe brother . The LeDucs ' gimmick was inspired by " Yukon " Eric Holmback , a professional wrestler who had died three years earlier . They portrayed stereotypical Canadian lumberjacks and wore flannel shirts to the ring . They received a push from the promoters and won the Stampede International Tag Team Championship in 1969 , but they lost the belts later that year .
After moving to the Montreal area , the LeDucs debuted in the International Wrestling Association with a scripted attack on local wrestler Johnny Rougeau . This led to a feud between the LeDucs and the Rougeaus ( Johnny and his real @-@ life brother Jacques ) . Jos LeDuc was booked to win the Montreal version of the International Heavyweight Championship by defeating Johnny Rougeau in 1971 . The bookers also decided to give him a run with the International Tag Team Championship that year , which LeDuc won while teaming with Tony Baillargeon . While in Montreal , the LeDucs also competed for Grand Prix Wrestling and were booked in a feud with the Vachon brothers ( Mad Dog and Butcher ) as well as Killer Kowalski . The LeDucs had two reigns as the Grand Prix Wrestling Tag Team Championship in 1972 and 1973 .
= = = Southern United States ( 1973 – 1980 ) = = =
LeDuc 's next stop was in Championship Wrestling from Florida ( CWF ) , where he resumed teaming with Paul LeDuc . Wrestling under the name The Canadian Lumberjacks , they were soon pushed to win the NWA Florida Tag Team Championship in December 1973 by defeating Dusty Rhodes and Dick Slater . They defended the belts for two months before dropping them to Slater and his new partner Stan Vachon , a kayfabe brother of the Vachons from Montreal . This was the final time the LeDuc 's held a title together , as Paul LeDuc sustained a legitimate injury that forced Jos to wrestle without him . Jos LeDuc also wrestled as a singles competitor in Florida . He was booked to win the NWA Florida Southern Heavyweight Championship by defeating Rhodes in late 1973 . He dropped the title to Rhodes in January 1974 , however . LeDuc and Rhodes were placed in a heated feud at this time , and they frequently faced each other in Death matches .
LeDuc made his AWA television debut on August 2 , 1975 defeating Angel Rivera . LeDuc was given wins over Buddy Wolff and Boris Breznikoff ( Nicolai Volkoff ) before forming the team with Larry Hennig . Leduc and Hennig first teamed on September 12 , 1975 in Denver , Colorado losing to Jimmy and Johnny Valiant . Leduc and Hennig feuded with the Valiant Brothers for several months before entering a feud with Baron Von Raschke and Mad Dog Vachon . Jos and Larry also received a few title shots against AWA tag champs Blackjack Lanza and Bobby Duncum in August 1976 . Probably his most memorable accomplishment while working for the promotion was a bus @-@ pulling stunt filmed in Minneapolis that was also used in promo videos while appearing in the Memphis and Atlanta territories , among others . LeDuc departed the AWA in September 1976 .
Wrestling in Tennessee in 1977 , LeDuc teamed with Bob Armstrong to win the NWA Southeast Tag Team Championship in September . They were put over Bob Orton , Jr. and Mr. Knoxville for the belts but lost them in a rematch . While in Tennessee , LeDuc gained notoriety from a worked feud with Jerry Lawler . Wrestling as a heel , he faced Jerry Lawler , who was a favorite in the state , in many matches throughout the year . LeDuc was placed with a new partner , Jean Louie , to win the NWA Mid @-@ America Southern Tag Team Championship in May . They faced Lawler and Jimmy Valiant on May 22 to defend the belts , but the match was declared a no contest and the title was vacated . Lawler and Valiant won the belts in a rematch the following week , but LeDuc and Louie regained them the following month . In September , LeDuc and Louie dropped the belts once again , this time to Lawler and the Mongolian Stomper .
LeDuc returned to Florida in 1978 and was given a title reign as the NWA Florida Heavyweight Championship after defeating Mr. Uganda on December 18 . He held the belt for two weeks before dropping it to his old kayfabe rival Dick Slater . He was soon a champion again , however , as he and Thor the Viking were booked to win the NWA Florida United States Tag Team Championship in early 1979 . They dropped the belts to Killer Karl Kox and Jimmy Garvin , but LeDuc soon regained the title by teaming with Pak Song . LeDuc and Song vacated the title shortly after winning it , but LeDuc teamed with yet another partner , Don Muraco , to win the belts back later that year .
During this stint in Florida , LeDuc made a scripted turn from face to heel . Garvin claimed that LeDuc was aligned with heel manager Sonny King , but LeDuc denied the claim . Garvin then showed video footage to prove that LeDuc had secret dealings with King . LeDuc responded by attacking Garvin in front of the crowd , solidifying a heel turn for LeDuc . In a storyline several months later , LeDuc and King Curtis Iaukea attacked Buddy Rogers , a veteran then working as a face . The injuries Rogers received were said to be so severe that he was forced to retire , although , in reality , Rogers had simply moved to another wrestling promotion .
Later that year , LeDuc wrestled in Japan during a brief tour . He was successful during several matches on the tour , but his wrestling style was noticeably different from the traditional Japanese style . In the Japanese media , he was referred to as " maniacal " and " demented " .
LeDuc had more success in Southeast Championship Wrestling after returning to the Tennessee area . He was pushed to win his first NWA Southeast Heavyweight Championship in a victory over Killer Karl Kox in March 1980 before losing the belt back to Kox in a rematch . In October , he regained the Southeastern Tag Team Championship while teaming with Robert Fuller . They lost the belts to Super Pro and Ron Bass , but LeDuc teamed with Armstrong again to regain the belts .
= = = New Zealand ( 1981 ) = = =
LeDuc travelled to New Zealand to wrestle in 1981 . While there , he was booked in two title reigns . On April 23 , he won the NWA New Zealand British Commonwealth Championship by defeating Steve Rickard . He dropped the belt to Mark Lewin one week later but regained it in a rematch on July 9 . His second and final reign came to an end when he lost the belt to Rickard in mid @-@ August .
= = = Return to the Southern United States ( 1981 – 1984 ) = = =
Later that year , LeDuc returned to Southeastern Championship Wrestling and was given two more tag team title reigns while teaming with Fuller . Ultimately , however , the team split up and vacated the title . LeDuc was then booked in singles competition , winning the Southeastern Heavyweight Championship twice more with victories over Jacques Rougeau , Jr. and Terry Gordy . He was also put over Terry Gordy to win the NWA Alabama Heavyweight Championship in May 1982 , but LeDuc dropped the title that summer to Austin Idol .
In the early 1980s , LeDuc wrestled in Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship Wrestling , where the bookers had him join Oliver Humperdink 's " House of Humperdink " stable . Under Humperdink 's management , LeDuc was booked to win the NWA Television Championship by defeating Jimmy Valiant in 1982 . The title reign did not last long , however , as the belt was soon taken away because of an angle that saw LeDuc cheat in a title defense against Johnny Weaver . Eventually , the storyline had LeDuc claim that Humperdink had stolen his money , and LeDuc left the stable . This led to a worked feud between LeDuc and the members of Humperdink 's stable , although the main rivalry that was portrayed was between LeDuc and Dick Slater . As part of the feud , LeDuc and Slater faced each other on April 30 , 1983 in a Lumberjack match . At this time , LeDuc received a push and won the match and Slater 's NWA Television Championship .
LeDuc then returned to Florida , where he was kept mainly in the singles division . In October 1983 , he was put over Scott McGhee to win the NWA Florida Heavyweight Championship for a second time . He dropped the belt to Barry Windham the following month . In a rematch with Windham the following night , LeDuc won the belt once again . His final reign as Florida Heavyweight Champion was short @-@ lived , however , as the bookers had him drop the belt in a rematch with Windham the next night .
Another short stint in Southeastern Championship Wrestling followed , with LeDuc being given two more reigns with the Southeastern Heavyweight title . He was put over his former partner Bob Armstrong for the belt in August 1983 and began a feud with Robert Fuller , another former partner . During the course of this feud , the belt changed hands twice . Fuller was booked to win the belt from LeDuc , but LeDuc won a subsequent match to win the title for his sixth and final reign . LeDuc held the belt until vacating the title when he left the promotion .
On March 12 , 1984 , LeDuc teamed with former kayfabe rival Jerry Lawler to win the AWA Southern Tag Team Championship from Elijah Akeem and Kareem Muhammad . In a six @-@ man match the following week , LeDuc teamed with Lawler and Jimmy Hart , who was their manager but wrestled on occasion . During the match , LeDuc revealed that his reconciliation with Lawler was a setup , as LeDuc and Hart turned on Lawler by walking away to leave Lawler by himself . As a result , the tag team title was vacated and the feud was rekindled .
= = = Puerto Rico ( 1986 ) = = =
While wrestling in Puerto Rico , LeDuc was booked in his final championship reign . He defeated Hercules Ayala on January 6 , 1986 to win the World Wrestling Council 's North American Heavyweight Championship . He held the belt for just over two months before dropping it to Al Perez on March 7 .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1988 ) = = =
LeDuc made his first appearance for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) on March 19 , 1988 when he defeated Brady Boone in a dark match at a WWF Superstars taping . He made his first house show appearance on April 22 , defeating Jose Luis Rivera in White Plains , NY on April 22 . On May 9 at a show in Ontario , LeDuc added Frenchy Martin as his manager . On July 4 ( in a match taped on June 21st in Glens Falls , NY , LeDuc made his first television appearance as " The Headbanger Butcher " on WWF PrimeTime Wrestling . He lost to Brian Costello via disqualification after he refused to cease headbutting his preliminary opponent . On July 16 in Landover , MD he sustained his first pinfall loss when he was defeated by Sam Houston . His final WWF match came a day later when he again lost to Houston in Hershey , PA although he did have a match versus Tito Santana which was broadcast on July 25th on Prime Time Wrestling but was likely recorded much earlier . He suffered a pinball loss in that encounter with Santana .
= = = Later career ( 1989 – 1995 ) = = =
The following year , LeDuc returned to Japan for another brief wrestling tour . He wrestled primarily in tag teams with Masanobu Kurisu . They were booked to lose each of these matches , however . LeDuc 's only victory in Japan came when he was put over Tarzan Goto in a singles match .
Following his stint in Japan , LeDuc retired from wrestling . On June 10 , 1995 , he wrestled one final event , teaming with Phil Hickerson to face Lawler and Valiant at the United States Wrestling Association 's " Memphis Memories II " event . The match built upon the storyline feud between LeDuc and Lawler , and Lawler won the match for his team by pinning LeDuc .
In November 1995 , he was scheduled to wrestle for Smoky Mountain Wrestling , teaming with Buddy Landel in a series of matches against The Punisher and Tommy Rich , but due to LeDuc retiring , The Bullet took his place teaming with Landel .
= = Personal life = =
LeDuc 's first wife died in a car accident in 1981 . He remarried and was married at the time of his death in 1999 . He had three children : two daughters , Nadine and Michele , and a son , Robert .
LeDuc appeared in the 1989 movie No Holds Barred , which starred fellow professional wrestler Hulk Hogan .
LeDuc had many problems with diabetes toward the end of his life . While visiting his son in Atlanta , Georgia , LeDuc slipped in the shower . As a result of the injuries , he developed an infection that ultimately led to his death . He died of a lung infection on May 1 , 1999 in Atlanta . After his death , the revelation that he and Paul LeDuc were not related caused a minor scandal on talk shows in Quebec .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
One @-@ armed backbreaker
Signature moves
Bearhug
Nicknames
" The Canadian Freight Train "
Managers
Paul Ellering
Jimmy Hart
Oliver Humperdink
Sonny King
Frenchy Martin
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
NWA Florida Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Paul LeDuc
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time )
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 3 times ) – with Thor the Viking ( 1 ) , Pak Song ( 1 ) , and Don Muraco
Grand Prix Wrestling ( Montreal )
Grand Prix Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Paul LeDuc
International Wrestling Association ( Montreal )
IWA International Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IWA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Tony Baillargeon
Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship Wrestling
NWA Television Championship ( 2 times )
NWA Mid @-@ America – Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jerry Lawler
NWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ America version ) ( 1 time ) – with Jean Louie
NWA New Zealand
NWA British Commonwealth Heavyweight Championship ( New Zealand version ) ( 2 times )
Southeastern Championship Wrestling
NWA Alabama Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship ( Northern Division ) ( 6 times )
NWA Southeastern Tag Team Championship ( 5 times ) – with Bob Armstrong ( 2 ) and Robert Fuller ( 3 )
Stampede Wrestling
NWA International Tag Team Championship ( Calgary version ) ( 1 time ) – with Paul LeDuc
United States Wrestling Association
Memphis Wrestling Hall of Fame ( Class of 1995 )
World Wrestling Council
WWC North American Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
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= Action of 6 November 1794 =
The Action of 6 November 1794 ( Known in French as the Combat du 16 Brumaire an III ) was a naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars . Two British ships of the line , HMS Alexander and HMS Canada were intercepted while returning to Britain through the Celtic Sea by a large French squadron . The French squadron had sailed from Brest in search of an inward bound British convoy in October , but instead encountered the two British ships returning from escorting an outward @-@ bound convoy . There had been no warning of the French approach as the British force assigned to watch Brest was absent at Plymouth due to the policy of operating a distant blockade .
The British ships separated and attempted to escape , but the French commander Contre @-@ amiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly simply split his forces in response , and although Canada was eventually able to outrun pursuit , Alexander was slower and was caught by several French ships in succession . The first two opponents were driven off , but the third succeeded in coming alongside and , in a fierce and close fought duel , compelled Captain Richard Rodney Bligh to surrender his ship in the face of overwhelming odds . The battle was a rare French victory , lying between the significant British victories at the Glorious First of June and the Battle of Groix , in the Royal Navy campaign against the French fleet at Brest .
= = Background = =
In February 1793 , following years of rising tension , the French Republic that had emerged from the French Revolution declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain . For the Royal Navy one of the most immediate concerns was to contain the French Atlantic Fleet based in the massively fortified harbour at Brest in Brittany . This port was ideally positioned to disrupt the merchant shipping convoys that passed through the Celtic Sea and the Bay of Biscay en route to Britain from all over the world , and it was therefore imperative that the French fleet was not permitted to put to sea without being challenged . For the French , Brest was a vital port for the receipt of grain supplies from the Americas and so French fleets regularly sailed on missions to escort these convoys into the harbour and to disrupt British convoys entering the English Channel .
In May 1794 , a large French fleet put to sea to ensure the safety of an American grain convoy and was intercepted far out in the Atlantic at the Glorious First of June by the British Channel Fleet , the most powerful of the Royal Navy 's fleets and the force assigned to restrict French movements from Brest . The French suffered a serious defeat , losing seven ships , but managed to retire in good order and saved the grain convoy . Later in June 1794 the British Fleet again put to sea , but was caught in a storm and many ships were badly damaged . Its commander Lord Howe retired with his fleet to the anchorage in Torbay and thus there was no British fleet at sea in late October when a powerful French squadron sailed from Brest with the intention of attacking a large merchant convoy sailing from Lisbon to Britain . The force , under the command of Contre @-@ amiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly , consisted of the 74 @-@ gun ships of the line Marat , Tigre , Droits de l 'Homme , Pelletier and Jean @-@ Bart with the frigates Charente , Fraternité , Gentille and the corvette Papillon .
In addition to the Lisbon convoy , a number of other vulnerable British targets were in the region , including a second convoy from the Mediterranean Sea under Rear @-@ Admiral Philip Cosby en route to Britain and the first @-@ rate HMS Victory , which was sailing independently with Lord Hood on board . Nielly had information concerning these movements , and was cruising in a pattern that was intended to cover the Western approaches to the English Channel . The French force cruised in the Celtic Sea for several days , until on 6 November at 02 : 30 two unidentified ships were spotted on the northeastern horizon . These vessels were the British 74 @-@ gun ships of the line HMS Alexander under Captain Richard Rodney Bligh and HMS Canada under Captain Charles Powell Hamilton , returning northeastwards to rejoin the Channel Fleet after escorting a Lisbon and Mediterranean bound convoy to a safe latitude .
= = Chase = =
On sighting the French force , the British captains first sought to establish the identity of the strange ships , shortening sail and tacking to port so that they could close with the squadron . At 04 : 00 they were about 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 0 @.@ 93 km ; 0 @.@ 58 mi ) away , ordering their crews to set more sail , ready to attempt to escape should the squadron be revealed to be French . At 05 : 00 , lookouts on the British ships discovered that the squadron , which had favourable wind , was approaching fast and this convinced Bligh and Hamilton that the unidentified ships were hostile . Bligh ordered Hamilton to separate in the hope that he could escape without the slower Alexander , Hamilton adjusting his course to a more northerly direction . Nielly had deliberately sought to disguise his squadron 's nationality in an effort to lure the British close enough that he could catch and overwhelm them , the trap springing successfully as three ships of the line pursued Alexander while two ships of the line , including Nielly 's flagship , and two frigates followed Canada . To continue the deception , Nielly ordered his ships to raise the Union Flag at 07 : 30 , to which the British ships replied at 08 : 15 by raising their own , having shifted their direction of flight to the eastwards to make better use of the available wind .
The raising of the British flags on Alexander and Canada was a clear indicator to Nielly that the British were aware of his identity , and he instead ordered his squadron to hoist the French tricolour , finally abandoning the ruse that his ships were British . During the preceding three hours , the division of the French squadron in pursuit of Alexander had steadily closed the gap between the ships , Alexander responding by firing stern @-@ chasers at the pursuers . The French ships responded by firing their bow @-@ chasers at the British vessel . At 09 : 00 Canada too came in range , Nielly ordering his flagship Marat to fire on the Hamilton 's ship , the shot flying over the vessel and harmlessly into the sea . Hamilton responded with fire from his own stern @-@ chasers and Bligh issued signals for Alexander and Canada to form a line , Canada in the lead , so that the British vessels might mutually support one another .
Nielly recognised Bligh 's intentions as soon as Canada began to move however , and interposed his division so that they blocked Hamilton 's manoeuvre , both ships of the division now firing on Hamilton 's ship . Bligh was thus isolated , Alexander falling further behind Canada . At 11 : 00 , the French ship Jean @-@ Bart was able to draw close enough to Alexander to discharge its main broadside at the British vessel , the two ships engaging in a fierce duel for 30 minutes , both suffering damage . At 11 : 30 Jean @-@ Bart sheered away from the engagement , assisted by a French frigate , and its place was taken by the next French ship in line , Tigre . Tigre could not pull directly alongside Bligh 's ship , but was still able to attack the British ship with heavy fire , receiving a battering in turn that shot away the French ship 's main and mizen topmasts and inflicted severe damage to its rigging .
Tigre too turned away at about 12 : 00 and was again replaced by the third ship in the French line , Marat , which pulled alongside and battered the already damaged Alexander for an hour , taking damage in its turn . At 13 : 00 , with his rigging and sails tattered , his masts shot through , hull shattered and several fires raging on board , Bligh surrendered Alexander in the face of overwhelming French odds as Nielly 's division pulled within range and began to fire on his ship . Hamilton in Canada had been able to pull ahead of Nielly and escape , most of the French shot flying over the British ship : so ineffectual had been the attack on Canada that Hamilton reported no damage or casualties at all .
= = Aftermath = =
Consolidating his battered prize , Nielly ordered his squadron to return to Brest without waiting for the British convoys that had been his intended targets : unknown to the French , both the Lisbon and Mediterranean convoys were less than 180 nautical miles ( 330 km ; 210 mi ) away from the action . Alexander was in a sinking condition , and it was only with difficulty that the ship was brought back to port afloat . The captured crew were distributed among the French squadron and as a result Bligh was unable to make a full casualty list . He later estimated losses of approximately 40 men killed or wounded aboard Alexander , although French accounts give 28 killed and 30 wounded . British histories reported French casualties in the engagement as the enormous figure of 450 men killed and wounded , although as French historian Charles Rouvier noted in 1868 , this is an absurdly inflated total : Rouvier gave French losses as 10 wounded , all on Marat . Bligh was returned to Brest in the custody of Captain Jean François Renaudin , who had commanded the ship Vengeur du Peuple at the Glorious First of June until his ship was sunk . Bligh , who had , unknown to him , been promoted to rear @-@ admiral whilst at sea , later commended Renaudin for his conduct while Bligh was a prisoner and wrote to the Admiralty that he had been treated with " great Kindness and Humanity " . However , historian Edward Pelham Brenton reported in 1825 that at Brest :
" the populace insulted the prisoners as they marched to their place of confinement : officers and men shared the same lot ; they were denied the commonest rations of provisions , and reduced to starvation . A wretched dog that crept into the cells was killed , and his head alone sold for a dollar , to satisfy the cravings of nature : a prisoner , in a state of delirium , threw himself in the well within the prison walls , and his dead body , after lying some time , was taken out , but no other water was allowed to the people to drink . "
Bligh was exchanged shortly after the action and returned to Britain . On 27 May 1795 he sat before a court @-@ martial , standard practice when a Royal Navy ship was lost in action , and was honourably acquitted of blame in the loss of Alexander . In France , the National Convention commended Nielly on his victory and the captured ship was repaired and taken into the French Navy , joining the Atlantic Fleet . It was however a poor sailor and in June 1795 was with the French fleet that participated in Cornwallis 's Retreat and the Battle of Groix : at the latter action Alexandre was overrun by the British fleet and recaptured , rejoining the Royal Navy . The historical assessment of the capture of Alexander has been summed up by the historian Robert Gardiner , who wrote in 1996 that " The capture of a British 74 was a rare event during these wars – only five were lost . . . However , the one sided nature of the conflict was not apparent in 1794 and what has been called the Royal Navy 's ' habit of victory ' was not yet established . "
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= Gloria Steinem =
Gloria Marie Steinem ( born March 25 , 1934 ) is an American feminist , journalist , and social and political activist , who became nationally recognized as a leader and a spokeswoman for the feminist movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s .
Steinem was a columnist for New York magazine , and a founder of Ms. magazine . In 1969 , Steinem published an article , " After Black Power , Women 's Liberation , " which brought her to national fame as a feminist leader .
In 2005 , Steinem , Jane Fonda , and Robin Morgan co @-@ founded the Women 's Media Center , an organization that works " to make women visible and powerful in the media . "
Steinem currently travels internationally as an organizer and lecturer , and is a media spokeswoman on issues of equality .
= = Early life = =
Steinem was born on March 25 , 1934 in Toledo , Ohio , the daughter of Ruth ( née Nuneviller ) and Leo Steinem . Her mother was a Presbyterian of mostly German ( including Prussian ) , and some Scottish , descent . Her father was Jewish , the son of immigrants from Württemberg , Germany and Radziejów , Poland . Her paternal grandmother , Pauline Perlmutter Steinem , was chairwoman of the educational committee of the National Woman Suffrage Association , a delegate to the 1908 International Council of Women , and the first woman to be elected to the Toledo Board of Education , as well as a leader in the movement for vocational education . Pauline also rescued many members of her family from the Holocaust .
The Steinems lived and traveled about in the trailer from which Leo carried out his trade as a traveling antiques dealer . Before Steinem was born , her mother Ruth , then aged 34 , had a " nervous breakdown " that left her an invalid , trapped in delusional fantasies that occasionally turned violent . She changed " from an energetic , fun @-@ loving , book @-@ loving " woman into " someone who was afraid to be alone , who could not hang on to reality long enough to hold a job , and who could rarely concentrate enough to read a book . " Ruth spent long periods in and out of sanatoriums for the mentally ill . Steinem was ten years old when her parents finally separated in 1944 . Her father went to California to find work , while she and her mother continued to live together in Toledo .
While her parents divorced as a result of her mother 's illness , Steinem did not attribute it to a result of chauvinism on the father 's part , and she claims to have " understood and never blamed him for the breakup . " Nevertheless , the impact of these events had a formative effect on her personality : while her father , a traveling salesman , had never provided much financial stability to the family , his exit aggravated their situation . Steinem concluded that her mother 's inability to hold on to a job was evidence of general hostility towards working women . She also concluded that the general apathy of doctors towards her mother emerged from a similar anti @-@ woman animus . Years later , Steinem described her mother 's experiences as having been pivotal to her understanding of social injustices . These perspectives convinced Steinem that women lacked social and political equality .
Steinem attended Waite High School in Toledo and Western High School in Washington , D.C. , graduating from the latter . She then attended Smith College , an institution with which she continues to remain engaged , and from which she graduated as a member of Phi Beta Kappa . In the late 1950s , Steinem spent two years in India as a Chester Bowles Asian Fellow . After returning to the U.S. , she served as director of the Independent Research Service , an organization funded in secret by a donor that turned out to be the CIA . She worked to send non @-@ Communist American students to the 1959 World Youth Festival . In 1960 , she was hired by Warren Publishing as the first employee of Help ! magazine .
= = Journalism career = =
Esquire magazine features editor Clay Felker gave freelance writer Steinem what she later called her first " serious assignment " , regarding contraception ; he didn 't like her first draft and had her re @-@ write the article . Her resulting 1962 article about the way in which women are forced to choose between a career and marriage preceded Betty Friedan 's book The Feminine Mystique by one year .
In 1963 , while working on an article for Huntington Hartford 's Show magazine , Steinem was employed as a Playboy Bunny at the New York Playboy Club . The article , published in 1963 as " A Bunny 's Tale " , featured a photo of Steinem in Bunny uniform and detailed how women were treated at those clubs . Steinem has maintained that she is proud of the work she did publicizing the exploitative working conditions of the bunnies and especially the sexual demands made of them , which skirted the edge of the law . However , for a brief period after the article was published , Steinem was unable to land other assignments ; in her words , this was " because I had now become a Bunny – and it didn 't matter why . " Steinem eventually landed a job at Felker 's newly founded New York magazine in 1968 .
In the interim , she conducted a 1964 interview with John Lennon for Cosmopolitan magazine . In 1965 , she wrote for NBC @-@ TV 's weekly satirical revue , That Was The Week That Was ( TW3 ) , contributing a regular segment entitled " Surrealism in Everyday Life " .
In 1969 , she covered an abortion speak @-@ out for New York Magazine , which was held in a church basement in Greenwich , New York . Steinem had had an abortion herself in London at the age of 22 . She felt what she called a " big click " at the speak @-@ out , and later said she didn 't " begin my life as an active feminist " until that day . As she recalled , " It [ abortion ] is supposed to make us a bad person . But I must say , I never felt that . I used to sit and try and figure out how old the child would be , trying to make myself feel guilty . But I never could ! I think the person who said : ' Honey , if men could get pregnant , abortion would be a sacrament ' was right . Speaking for myself , I knew it was the first time I had taken responsibility for my own life . I wasn 't going to let things happen to me . I was going to direct my life , and therefore it felt positive . But still , I didn 't tell anyone . Because I knew that out there it wasn 't [ positive ] . " She also said , " In later years , if I 'm remembered at all it will be for inventing a phrase like ' reproductive freedom ' ... as a phrase it includes the freedom to have children or not to . So it makes it possible for us to make a coalition . "
In 1972 , she co @-@ founded the feminist @-@ themed magazine Ms. with Dorothy Pitman Hughes ; it began as a special edition of New York , and Clay Felker funded the first issue . Its 300 @,@ 000 test copies sold out nationwide in eight days . Within weeks , Ms. had received 26 @,@ 000 subscription orders and over 20 @,@ 000 reader letters . The magazine was sold to the Feminist Majority Foundation in 2001 ; Steinem remains on the masthead as one of six founding editors and serves on the advisory board .
Also in 1972 , Steinem became the first woman to speak at the National Press Club .
In 1978 , Steinem wrote a semi @-@ satirical essay for Cosmopolitan titled " If Men Could Menstruate " in which she imagined a world where men menstruate instead of women . She concludes in the essay that in such a world , menstruation would become a badge of honor with men comparing their relative sufferings , rather than the source of shame that it had been for women .
= = Activism = =
In 1959 , Steinem led a group of activists in Cambridge , Massachusetts , to organize the Independent Service for Information on the Vienna festival , to advocate for American participation in the World Youth Festival , a Soviet @-@ sponsored youth event .
In 1968 , Steinem signed the " War Tax Protest " pledge , vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War .
In 1969 , she published an article , " After Black Power , Women 's Liberation " which brought her to national fame as a feminist leader . As such she campaigned for the Equal Rights Amendment , testifying before the Senate Judiciary Committee in its favor in 1970 . That same year she published her essay on a utopia of gender equality , " What It Would Be Like If Women Win " , in Time magazine .
On July 10 , 1971 , Steinem was one of over three hundred women who founded the National Women 's Political Caucus ( NWPC ) , including such notables as Bella Abzug , Betty Friedan , Shirley Chisholm , and Myrlie Evers @-@ Williams . As a co @-@ convener of the Caucus , she delivered the speech " Address to the Women of America " , stating in part :
This is no simple reform . It really is a revolution . Sex and race because they are easy and visible differences have been the primary ways of organizing human beings into superior and inferior groups and into the cheap labor on which this system still depends . We are talking about a society in which there will be no roles other than those chosen or those earned . We are really talking about humanism .
In 1972 , she ran as a delegate for Shirley Chisholm in New York , but lost .
In March 1973 , she addressed the first national conference of Stewardesses for Women 's Rights , which she continued to support throughout its existence . Stewardesses for Women 's Rights folded in the spring of 1976 .
Steinem , who grew up reading Wonder Woman comics , was also a key player in the restoration of Wonder Woman 's powers and traditional costume , which were restored in issue # 204 ( January – February 1973 ) . Steinem , offended that the most famous female superhero had been depowered , had placed Wonder Woman ( in costume ) on the cover of the first issue of Ms. ( 1972 ) – Warner Communications , DC Comics ' owner , was an investor – which also contained an appreciative essay about the character .
In 1976 , the first women @-@ only Passover seder was held in Esther M. Broner 's New York City apartment and led by Broner , with 13 women attending , including Steinem .
In 1984 Steinem was arrested along with a number of members of Congress and civil rights activists for disorderly conduct outside the South African embassy while protesting against the South African apartheid system .
At the outset of the Gulf War in 1991 , Steinem , along with prominent feminists Robin Morgan and Kate Millett , publicly opposed an incursion into the Middle East and asserted that ostensible goal of " defending democracy " was a pretense .
During the Clarence Thomas sexual harassment scandal in 1991 , Steinem voiced strong support for Anita Hill and suggested that one day Hill herself would sit on the Supreme Court .
In 1992 , Steinem co @-@ founded Choice USA , a non @-@ profit organization that mobilizes and provides ongoing support to a younger generation that lobbies for reproductive choice .
In 1993 Steinem co @-@ produced and narrated an Emmy Award winning TV documentary for HBO about child abuse , called , " Multiple Personalities : The Search for Deadly Memories . " Also in 1993 , she and Rosilyn Heller co @-@ produced an original TV movie for Lifetime , " Better Off Dead , " which examined the parallel forces that both oppose abortion and support the death penalty .
She contributed the piece " The Media and the Movement : A User 's Guide " to the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever : The Women 's Anthology for a New Millennium , edited by Robin Morgan .
On June 1 , 2013 Steinem performed on stage at the " Chime For Change : The Sound Of Change Live " Concert at Twickenham Stadium in London , England . Later in 2014 , UN Women began its commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women , and as part of that campaign Steinem ( and others ) spoke at the Apollo Theater in New York City . Chime For Change funded by Gucci , focusing on using innovative approaches to raise funds and awareness especially regarding girls and women .
Steinem has stated , " I think the fact that I 've become a symbol for the women 's movement is somewhat accidental . A woman member of Congress , for example , might be identified as a member of Congress ; it doesn 't mean she 's any less of a feminist but she 's identified by her nearest male analog . Well , I don 't have a male analog so the press has to identify me with the movement . I suppose I could be referred to as a journalist , but because Ms. is part of a movement and not just a typical magazine , I 'm more likely to be identified with the movement . There 's no other slot to put me in . "
Contrary to popular belief , Steinem did not coin the feminist slogan " A woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle . " Although she helped popularize it , the phrase is actually attributable to Irina Dunn . When Time magazine published an article attributing the saying to Steinem , Steinem wrote a letter saying the phrase had been coined by Dunn .
Another phrase sometimes wrongly attributed to Steinem is , " If men could get pregnant , abortion would be a sacrament . " Steinem herself attributed it to " an old Irish woman taxi driver in Boston , " who she said she and Florynce Kennedy met .
As for 2015 , she joined the thirty leading international women peacemakers and became an honorary co @-@ chairwoman of 2015 Women 's Walk For Peace In Korea with Mairead Maguire . The group 's main goal is to advocate disarmament and seek Korea 's reunification . It will be holding international peace symposiums both in Pyongyang and Seoul in which women from both North Korea and South Korea can share experiences and ideas of mobilizing women to stop the Korean crisis . The group 's specific hope is to walk cross the 2 @-@ mile wide Korean Demilitarized Zone that separates North Korea and South Korea which is meant to be a symbolic action taken for peace in the Korean peninsular suffering for 70 years after its division at the end of World War II . It is especially believed that the role of women in this act would help and support the reunification of family members divided by the split prolonged for 70 years .
= = Involvement in political campaigns = =
Steinem 's involvement in presidential campaigns stretches back to her support of Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential campaign .
= = = 1968 election = = =
A proponent of civil rights and fierce critic of the Vietnam War , Steinem was initially drawn to Senator Eugene McCarthy because of his " admirable record " on those issues , but in meeting him and hearing him speak , she found him " cautious , uninspired , and dry . " As the campaign progressed , Steinem became baffled at " personally vicious " attacks that McCarthy leveled against his primary opponent Robert Kennedy , even as " his real opponent , Hubert Humphrey , went free . "
On a late @-@ night radio show , Steinem garnered attention for declaring , " George McGovern is the real Eugene McCarthy . " In 1968 , Steinem was chosen to pitch the arguments to McGovern as to why he should enter the presidential race that year ; he agreed , and Steinem " consecutively or simultaneously served as pamphlet writer , advance " man " , fund raiser , lobbyist of delegates , errand runner , and press secretary . "
McGovern lost the nomination at the 1968 Democratic National Convention , and Steinem later wrote of her astonishment at Hubert Humphrey 's " refusal even to suggest to Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley that he control the rampaging police and the bloodshed in the streets . "
= = = 1972 election = = =
Steinem was reluctant to re @-@ join the McGovern campaign , as although she had brought in McGovern 's single largest campaign contributor in 1968 , she " still had been treated like a frivolous pariah by much of McGovern 's campaign staff . " In April 1972 , Steinem remarked that he " still doesn 't understand the Women 's Movement " .
McGovern ultimately excised the abortion issue from the party 's platform , and recent publications show McGovern was deeply conflicted on the issue . Steinem later wrote this description of the events :
The consensus of the meeting of women delegates held by the caucus had been to fight for the minority plank on reproductive freedom ; indeed our vote had supported the plank nine to one . So fight we did , with three women delegates speaking eloquently in its favor as a constitutional right . One male Right @-@ to @-@ Life zealot spoke against , and Shirley MacLaine also was an opposition speaker , on the grounds that this was a fundamental right but didn 't belong in the platform . We made a good showing . Clearly we would have won if McGovern 's forces had left their delegates uninstructed and thus able to vote their consciences .
However , Germaine Greer flatly contradicted Steinem 's account , reporting , " Jacqui Ceballos called from the crowd to demand abortion rights on the Democratic platform , but Bella [ Abzug ] and Gloria stared glassily out into the room , " thus killing the abortion rights platform , " and asking " Why had Bella and Gloria not helped Jacqui to nail him on abortion ? What reticence , what loserism had afflicted them ? " Steinem later recalled that the 1972 Convention was the only time Greer and Steinem ever met .
The cover of Harper 's that month read , " Womanlike , they did not want to get tough with their man , and so , womanlike , they got screwed . "
= = = 2004 election = = =
In the run @-@ up to the 2004 election , Steinem voiced fierce criticism of the Bush administration , asserting , " There has never been an administration that has been more hostile to women 's equality , to reproductive freedom as a fundamental human right , and has acted on that hostility , " adding , " If he is elected in 2004 , abortion will be criminalized in this country . " At a Planned Parenthood event in Boston , Steinem declared Bush " a danger to health and safety , " citing his antagonism to the Clean Water Act , reproductive freedom , sex education , and AIDS relief .
= = = 2008 election = = =
Steinem was an active participant in the 2008 presidential campaign , and praised both the Democratic front @-@ runners , commenting ,
Both Senators Clinton and Obama are civil rights advocates , feminists , environmentalists , and critics of the war in Iraq ... Both have resisted pandering to the right , something that sets them apart from any Republican candidate , including John McCain . Both have Washington and foreign policy experience ; George W. Bush did not when he first ran for president .
Nevertheless , Steinem endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton , citing her broader experience , and saying that the nation was in such bad shape it might require two terms of Clinton and two of Obama to fix it .
She also made headlines for a New York Times op @-@ ed in which she cited gender and not race as " probably the most restricting force in American life " . She elaborated , " Black men were given the vote a half @-@ century before women of any race were allowed to mark a ballot , and generally have ascended to positions of power , from the military to the boardroom , before any women . " This was attacked , however , from critics saying that white women were given the vote unabridged in 1920 , whereas many blacks , female or male , could not vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , and some were lynched for trying , and that many white women advanced in the business and political worlds before black women and men .
Steinem again drew attention for , according to the New York Observer , seeming " to denigrate the importance of John McCain 's time as a prisoner of war in Vietnam " ; Steinem 's broader argument " was that the media and the political world are too admiring of militarism in all its guises . "
Following McCain 's selection of Sarah Palin as his running mate , Steinem penned an op @-@ ed in which she labeled Palin an " unqualified woman " who " opposes everything most other women want and need , " described her nomination speech as " divisive and deceptive " , called for a more inclusive Republican Party , and concluded that Palin resembled " Phyllis Schlafly , only younger . "
= = = 2016 election = = =
In an HBO interview with Bill Maher , Steinem , when asked to explain the broad support for Bernie Sanders among young Democratic women , responded , " When you ’ re young , you ’ re thinking , ' Where are the boys ? The boys are with Bernie . ' " Her comments triggered widespread criticism , and Steinem later issued an apology and said her comments had been " misinterpreted " .
= = CIA ties = =
In May 1975 , Redstockings , a radical feminist group , published a report on the Vienna Youth Festival that Steinem and others had put together for the Independent Research Service . Though she acknowledged having worked for the CIA @-@ financed foundation in the late 1950s and early 1960s in interviews given to the New York Times and Washington Post in 1967 in the wake of the Ramparts magazine CIA exposures ( nearly two years before Steinem attended her first Redstockings or feminist meeting ) , Steinem in 1975 denied any continuing involvement .
= = Personal life = =
Steinem was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1986 and trigeminal neuralgia in 1994 .
On September 3 , 2000 , at age 66 , Steinem married David Bale , father of actor Christian Bale . The wedding was performed at the home of her friend Wilma Mankiller , the first female Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation . Steinem and Bale were married for only three years before he died of brain lymphoma on December 30 , 2003 , at age 62 .
Previously , she had had a four @-@ year relationship with the publisher Mortimer Zuckerman .
Commenting on aging , Steinem says that as she approached 60 she felt like she entered a new phase in life that was free of the " demands of gender " that she faced from adolescence onward .
= = Feminist positions = =
Although most frequently considered a liberal feminist , Steinem has repeatedly characterized herself as a radical feminist . More importantly , she has repudiated categorization within feminism as " nonconstructive to specific problems , " saying : " I 've turned up in every category . So it makes it harder for me to take the divisions with great seriousness . " Nevertheless , on concrete issues , Steinem has staked several firm positions .
= = = Female genital mutilation and male circumcision = = =
In 1979 , Steinem wrote the article on female genital mutilation that brought it into the American public 's consciousness ; the article , " The International Crime of Female Genital Mutilation , " was published in the March 1979 issue of Ms .. The article reported on the " 75 million women suffering with the results of genital mutilation . " According to Steinem , " The real reasons for genital mutilation can only be understood in the context of the patriarchy : men must control women 's bodies as the means of production , and thus repress the independent power of women 's sexuality . " Steinem 's article contains the basic arguments that would later be developed by philosopher Martha Nussbaum .
On male circumcision , she commented , " These patriarchal controls limit men 's sexuality too ... That 's why men are asked symbolically to submit the sexual part of themselves and their sons to patriarchal authority , which seems to be the origin of male circumcision , a practice that , even as advocates admit , is medically unnecessary 90 % of the time . Speaking for myself , I stand with many brothers in eliminating that practice too . "
= = = Feminist theory = = =
Steinem has frequently voiced her disapproval of the obscurantism and abstractions some claim to be prevalent in feminist academic theorizing . She said , " Nobody cares about feminist academic writing . That 's careerism . These poor women in academia have to talk this silly language that nobody can understand in order to be accepted ... But I recognize the fact that we have this ridiculous system of tenure , that the whole thrust of academia is one that values education , in my opinion , in inverse ratio to its usefulness — and what you write in inverse relationship to its understandability . " Steinem later singled out deconstructionists like Judith Butler for criticism , saying , " I always wanted to put a sign up on the road to Yale saying , ' Beware : Deconstruction Ahead ' . Academics are forced to write in language no one can understand so that they get tenure . They have to say ' discourse ' , not ' talk ' . Knowledge that is not accessible is not helpful . It becomes aerialised . "
= = = Pornography = = =
Steinem has criticized pornography , which she distinguishes from erotica , writing : " Erotica is as different from pornography as love is from rape , as dignity is from humiliation , as partnership is from slavery , as pleasure is from pain . " Steinem 's argument hinges on the distinction between reciprocity versus domination , as she writes , " Blatant or subtle , pornography involves no equal power or mutuality . In fact , much of the tension and drama comes from the clear idea that one person is dominating the other . "
On the issue of same @-@ sex pornography , Steinem asserts , " Whatever the gender of the participants , all pornography including male @-@ male gay pornography is an imitation of the male @-@ female , conqueror @-@ victim paradigm , and almost all of it actually portrays or implies enslaved women and master . " Steinem has also cited " snuff films " as a serious threat to women .
= = = Same @-@ sex marriage = = =
In an essay published in Time magazine on August 31 , 1970 , " What Would It Be Like If Women Win , " Steinem wrote about same @-@ sex marriage in the context of the " Utopian " future she envisioned , writing :
What will exist is a variety of alternative life @-@ styles . Since the population explosion dictates that childbearing be kept to a minimum , parents @-@ and @-@ children will be only one of many " families " : couples , age groups , working groups , mixed communes , blood @-@ related clans , class groups , creative groups . Single women will have the right to stay single without ridicule , without the attitudes now betrayed by " spinster " and " bachelor . " Lesbians or homosexuals will no longer be denied legally binding marriages , complete with mutual @-@ support agreements and inheritance rights . Paradoxically , the number of homosexuals may get smaller . With fewer over @-@ possessive mothers and fewer fathers who hold up an impossibly cruel or perfectionist idea of manhood , boys will be less likely to be denied or reject their identity as males .
Although Steinem did not mention or advocate same @-@ sex marriage in any published works or interviews for more than three decades , she again expressed support for same @-@ sex marriage in the early 2000s , stating in 2004 that " [ t ] he idea that sexuality is only okay if it ends in reproduction oppresses women — whose health depends on separating sexuality from reproduction — as well as gay men and lesbians . " Steinem is also a signatory of the 2008 manifesto , " Beyond Same @-@ Sex Marriage : A New Strategic Vision For All Our Families and Relationships " , which advocates extending legal rights and privileges to a wide range of relationships , households , and families .
= = = Transgender rights = = =
In 1977 , Steinem expressed disapproval that the heavily publicized sex reassignment surgery of tennis player Renée Richards had been characterized as " a frightening instance of what feminism could lead to " or as " living proof that feminism isn 't necessary . " Steinem wrote , " At a minimum , it was a diversion from the widespread problems of sexual inequality . " She also wrote that , while she supported the right of individuals to identify as they choose , she claimed that , in many cases , transsexuals " surgically mutilate their own bodies " in order to conform to a gender role that is inexorably tied to physical body parts . She concluded that " feminists are right to feel uncomfortable about the need for and uses of transsexualism . " The article concluded with what became one of Steinem 's most famous quotes : " If the shoe doesn 't fit , must we change the foot ? " Although clearly meant in the context of transsexuality , the quote is frequently mistaken as a general statement about feminism .
On October 2 , 2013 , Steinem clarified her remarks on transsexualism in an op @-@ ed for The Advocate , writing that critics failed to consider that her 1977 essay was " written in the context of global protests against routine surgical assaults , called female genital mutilation by some survivors . " Steinem later in the piece expressed unequivocal support for transgender people , saying that transgender people " including those who have transitioned , are living out real , authentic lives . Those lives should be celebrated , not questioned . " She also apologized for any pain her words might have caused .
= = Awards and honors = =
American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California 's Bill of Rights Award
American Humanist Association 's 2012 Humanist of the Year ( 2012 )
Biography magazine 's 25 most influential women in America ( Steinem was listed as one of them )
Clarion award
DVF Lifetime Leadership Award ( 2014 )
Emmy Citation for excellence in television writing
Esquire magazine 's 75 greatest women of all time ( Steinem was listed as one of them ) ( 2010 )
Equality Now 's international human rights award , given jointly to her and Efua Dorkenoo ( 2000 )
Front Page award
Glamour magazine 's " The 75 Most Important Women of the Past 75 Years " ( Steinem was listed as one of them ) ( 2014 )
Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund 's Liberty Award
Library Lion award ( 2015 )
The Ms. Foundation for Women 's Gloria Awards , given annually since 1988 , are named after Steinem .
National Gay Rights Advocates Award
National Magazine awards
National Women 's Hall of Fame inductee ( 1993 )
New York Women 's Foundation 's Century Award ( 2014 )
Parenting magazine 's Lifetime Achievement Award ( 1995 )
Penney @-@ Missouri Journalism Award
Presidential Medal of Freedom ( 2013 )
Rutgers University announced the Gloria Steinem Endowed Chair in September 2014 . The Chair will fund teaching and research for someone ( not necessarily a woman ) who exemplifies Steinem 's values of equal representation in the media . This person will teach at least one undergraduate course per semester .
Sara Curry Humanitarian Award ( 2007 )
Simmons College 's Doctorate of Human Justice
Society of Professional Journalists ' Lifetime Achievement in Journalism Award
Supersisters trading card set ( card number 32 featured Steinem 's name and picture ) ( 1979 )
United Nations ' Ceres Medal
United Nations ' Society of Writers Award
University of Missouri School of Journalism Award for Distinguished Service in Journalism
Women 's Sports Journalism Award
2015 Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award of the Dayton Literary Peace Prize
= = In media = =
In 1995 , Education of a Woman : The Life of Gloria Steinem , by Carolyn Heilbrun , was published .
In 1997 , Gloria Steinem : Her Passions , Politics , and Mystique , by Sydney Ladensohn Stern , was published .
In the musical Legally Blonde , which premiered in 2007 , Steinem is mentioned in the scene where Elle Woods wears a flashy Bunny costume to a party , and must pretend to be dressed as Gloria Steinem " researching her feminist manifesto ' I Was A Playboy Bunny ' . "
In 2011 , Gloria : In Her Own Words , a documentary , first aired .
In 2013 , Female Force : Gloria Steinem , a comic book by Melissa Seymour , was published .
Also in 2013 , Steinem was featured in the documentary MAKERS : Women Who Make America about the feminist movement .
In 2014 , Who Is Gloria Steinem ? , by Sarah Fabiny , was published .
Also in 2014 , Steinem appeared in Season 1 , Episode 8 of the television show The Sixties .
Also in 2014 , Steinem appeared in Season 6 , Episode 3 of the television show The Good Wife .
In 2016 , Steinem was featured in the catalog of clothing retailer Lands ' End . After an outcry from anti @-@ abortion customers , the company removed Steinem from their website , stating on their Facebook page : " It was never our intention to raise a divisive political or religious issue , so when some of our customers saw the recent promotion that way , we heard them . We sincerely apologize for any offense . " The company then faced further criticism online , this time both from customers who were still unhappy that Steinem had been featured in the first place , and customers who were unhappy that Steinem had been removed .
In Jennifer Lopez 's 2016 music video for her song " Ain 't Your Mama " , Steinem can be heard saying part of her " Address to the Women of America " speech , specifically , " This is no simple reform . It really is a revolution . "
Also in 2016 , the television series Woman premiered , featuring Steinem as producer and host ; it is a documentary series concerning sexist injustice and violence worldwide .
The Gloria Steinem Papers are held in the Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College , under collection number MS 237 .
= = Works = =
The Thousand Indias ( 1957 )
The Beach Book ( 1963 ) , New York : Viking Press . OCLC 1393887
Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions ( 1983 ) , New York : Holt , Rinehart , and Winston . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 03 @-@ 063236 @-@ 5
Marilyn : Norma Jean ( 1986 ) , with George Barris , New York : Holt . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 0060 @-@ 3
Revolution from Within ( 1992 ) , Boston : Little , Brown . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 81240 @-@ 5
Moving beyond Words ( 1993 ) , New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 64972 @-@ 2
Doing Sixty & Seventy ( 2006 ) , San Francisco : Elders Academy Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9758744 @-@ 2 @-@ 4
My Life on the Road ( 2015 ) , New York : Random House . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 45620 @-@ 9
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= Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England =
The medieval cathedrals of England , which date from between approximately 1040 and 1540 , are a group of twenty @-@ six buildings that constitute a major aspect of the country ’ s artistic heritage and are among the most significant material symbols of Christianity . Though diversified in style , they are united by a common function . As cathedrals , each of these buildings serves as central church for an administrative region ( or diocese ) and houses the throne of a bishop ( cathedra , from the Greek ) . Each cathedral also serves as a regional centre and a focus of regional pride and affection .
Only sixteen of these buildings had been cathedrals at the time of the Reformation : eight that were served by secular canons , and eight that were monastic . A further five cathedrals are former abbey churches which were reconstituted with secular canons as cathedrals of new dioceses by Henry VIII following the dissolution of the monasteries and which comprise , together with the former monastic cathedrals , the " Cathedrals of the New Foundation " . Two further pre @-@ Reformation monastic churches , which had survived as ordinary parish churches for 350 years , became cathedrals in the 19th and 20th centuries , as did the three medieval collegiate churches that retained their foundations for choral worship .
While there are characteristics of each building that are distinctly English , these cathedrals are marked by their architectural diversity , both from one to another and also within each individual building . This is much more the case than in the medieval cathedrals of Northern France , for example , where the cathedrals and large abbeys form a relatively homogenous group and the architectural development can easily be traced from building to building .
One of the points of interest of the English cathedrals is the way in which much of the history of medieval architecture can be demonstrated within a single building , which typically has important parts constructed in several different centuries with no attempt whatever to make the later work match or follow through on an earlier plan . For this reason a comprehensive architectural chronology must jump backwards and forwards from one building to another . Only at one building , Salisbury Cathedral , is stylistic unity demonstrated .
= = Background = =
= = = Historical = = =
Christianity was carried to England by the Romans and spread throughout Britain , until the 5th century , when it waned through the departure of the Romans and the invasion by Saxons . In 597 Pope Gregory sent Augustine as a missionary from Rome to Canterbury where a church was established and run initially by secular canons , then Benedictine monks from the late Saxon period until 1540 . The present cathedral church at Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury , Primate of All England .
As begun by Alfred the Great in 871 and consolidated under William the Conqueror in 1066 , England became a politically unified entity at an earlier date than other European countries . One of the effects was that the units of government , both of church and state , were comparatively large . England was divided into the See of Canterbury and the See of York under two archbishops . During the Medieval period there were no more than 17 bishops , far fewer than the numbers in France and Italy .
Benedictine monasticism , present in England from the 6th century , was greatly extended after the Norman Invasion in 1066 . There were also a number of Cistercian abbeys , but these were often in remote areas and not destined to become cathedrals . The Romanesque architecture of Normandy replaced that of Saxon England , the buildings being generally larger and more spacious , the general arrangement of monastic buildings following those of the great Abbey of Cluny . The Romanesque style , of which the English form is often known as Norman architecture , developed local characteristics .
At the Norman conquest , most English cathedrals were already richly endowed , and as major centres of Norman power they were then able to acquire further lands formerly held by dispossessed English landowners . Furthermore , the development of tithe as a compulsory tax on agricultural production resulted in greatly increased incomes for incumbent clergy . Although all cathedrals gathered donations from worshippers and pilgrims ; in practice major building campaigns were largely , or entirely , funded from the accumulated wealth of the bishop and the chapter clergy . The availability of finance largely determined the speed of construction for major projects . When money was readily available , cathedral works could proceed with great speed . At Winchester , during the Norman period , an entire cathedral of unprecedented size was built from scratch in less than 20 years .
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints , and the associated pilgrimages to places where particular saint 's relics were interred and their tradition honoured . The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefices in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid , a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person . Among those churches to benefit in particular were St. Alban 's Abbey , which contained the relics of England 's first Christian martyr , Ripon with the shrine of it founder St. Wilfrid ; Durham , which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne ; and Aidan , Ely with the shrine of St. Ethelreda , Westminster Abbey with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor and at Chichester , the remains of St. Richard .
All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches , but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket , the late Archbishop of Canterbury , assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170 . As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was , in the 13th century , second only to Santiago de Compostela .
In the 1170s Gothic architecture was introduced from France at Canterbury and Westminster Abbey . Over the next 400 years it developed in England , sometimes in parallel with and influenced by Continental forms , but generally with great local diversity and originality .
In the 16th century the Reformation brought about changes in the governance of the cathedrals as discussed below . Some existent buildings became cathedrals at this time . Several of the buildings were structurally damaged or left incomplete because of the Dissolution of the Monasteries , 1537 – 40 . Many of the large abbey churches , particularly those outside the towns , were robbed , burnt out and abandoned . The late 16th and early 17th centuries saw repairs to the fabric of many cathedrals and some new building and stained glass as well as many new fittings .
During the period of the Commonwealth , 1649 – 60 , wholesale iconoclasm was wrought on all the pictorial elements of Christian buildings . Most of England ’ s medieval stained glass was smashed . The majority of England ’ s medieval statues were smashed or defaced leaving only a few isolated examples intact . Medieval paintings almost disappeared . Vestments embroidered in the famous style known as Opus Anglicanum were burnt . Those medieval Communion vessels that had escaped the Dissolution were melted down so that only about 50 items of pre @-@ Reformation church plate remain .
The Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 also brought about some restoration of churches and cathedrals such as that at Lichfield by Sir William Wilson , and their enrichment with new fittings , new church plate and many elaborate memorials . The loss of the ancient St. Paul ’ s Cathedral in the Great Fire of London in 1666 meant that an entirely new cathedral , the present St Paul ’ s , was built on its site to a design in the Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren .
In general , from the time of the Reformation onwards , apart from necessary repairs so that buildings might remain in use , and the internal adornments of successive generations who wished to be commemorated , there was little building work and only piecemeal restoration . This situation lasted for about 250 years with the fabric of many major cathedrals suffering from neglect . The severity of the problem was demonstrated by the spectacular collapse of the spire of Chichester Cathedral , which suddenly telescoped in on itself in 1861 .
By this date medieval architecture was back in fashion . A growing awareness of the value of England ’ s medieval heritage had begun in the late 18th century , leading to some work on a number of the cathedrals by the architect James Wyatt . The consciousness accelerated until in the 1840s two academic groups , the Oxford Society and the Cambridge Camden Society both pronounced that the only suitable style in which to design a church was Gothic . The critic John Ruskin was an ardent advocate of all things medieval and popularised these ideas . The architect Augustus Welby Pugin , who designed mainly for the growing Roman Catholic Church , set himself to recreate not only the structural appearance of medieval churches , but also the richly decorated and colourful interiors that had been almost entirely lost , existing only as a painted screen here and there , a few tiled floors such as those at Winchester and Canterbury and the intricate painted wooden ceiling of Peterborough Cathedral .
The Victorian era saw the restoration of all of England ’ s cathedrals and remaining major abbey churches . Some buildings left incomplete were completed at this time and the greater part of existent church furniture , fittings and stained glass dates from this period . The architects included George Gilbert Scott , John Loughborough Pearson , George Frederick Bodley , Arthur Blomfield and George Edmund Street .
= = = Scope = = =
The 26 cathedrals described in this article are those of Bristol , Canterbury , Carlisle , Chester , Chichester , Durham , Ely , Exeter , Gloucester , Hereford , Lichfield , Lincoln , Manchester Norwich , Oxford , Peterborough , Ripon , Rochester , St. Alban 's , Salisbury , Southwark , Southwell , Wells , Winchester , Worcester and York with reference also to Westminster Abbey and the ancient cathedral of London generally known as Old St. Paul ’ s .
All the medieval buildings that are now cathedrals of England were Roman Catholic in origin , as they predate the Reformation . All these buildings now serve the Church of England as a result of the change to the official religion of the country , which occurred in 1534 during the reign of Henry VIII .
The cathedrals fall into three distinct groups , depending on their earlier organisational structure . Firstly , there are those that , during the Medieval period as now , were governed by a body of secular clergy or chapter , presided over by a dean . These cathedrals are Chichester , Exeter , Hereford , Lichfield , Lincoln , London , Salisbury , Wells , and York , all of which built specifically to serve as cathedral churches .
Secondly , there was a group of monastic cathedrals in which the bishop was titular abbot . These cathedrals are Canterbury , Carlisle , Durham , Ely , Norwich , Rochester , Winchester and Worcester . These monasteries were Benedictine except in the case of Carlisle , which was Augustinian . Six of these churches were built from the start as cathedrals . Carlisle and Ely are purely monastic churches , which then became the seat of a bishop during the course of construction . At the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII , all the previously monastic cathedrals became governed by secular canons like the first group .
The third group are those churches established as new cathedrals since the Reformation . They include five great medieval abbey churches established as new cathedrals under Henry VIII : Bristol , Chester , Gloucester , Oxford , and Peterborough . Five further large churches later became cathedrals : St Albans and Southwark , which were of monastic foundation , and Manchester , Ripon , and Southwell , which were collegiate churches ( and all of which consequently combine the functions of cathedral and parish church ) . Westminster Abbey was a Benedictine monastery that became a cathedral after the Dissolution of the Monasteries , but only for ten years .
Four other churches are associated with this tradition : St John the Baptist 's Church , Chester , Old St. Paul 's Cathedral , London , Bath Abbey and the destroyed Benedictine Abbey of Coventry . The collegiate church of St John in Chester was raised to cathedral status in 1075 , but became a co @-@ cathedral in 1102 , when the see was removed to Coventry . The current building was probably begun around the time of the see 's removal . St. Paul ’ s , a cathedral with a secular chapter , was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and was replaced by the present cathedral in the Baroque style designed by Christopher Wren . Bath Abbey was co @-@ cathedral of the Diocese of Bath and Wells , along with Wells Cathedral . Although a large church , architecturally it does not fit the cathedral tradition , but has much in common with King ’ s College Chapel , Cambridge and St. George ’ s Chapel , Windsor . The abbey church at Coventry , was co @-@ cathedral with Lichfield and St John Chester in the Diocese of Lichfield , but was destroyed at the Dissolution . The large parish church of St. Michael ’ s , Coventry , became Coventry Cathedral in 1918 . It was bombed during World War II , leaving intact only its spire , regarded as one of the finest in England . The new Coventry Cathedral designed by Sir Basil Spence was consecrated in 1962 and adjoins the shell of the ancient church .
= = = Liturgical and organisational = = =
Cathedrals are places where the Christian rituals particular to a bishop , especially ordination and enthronement , can be performed , and are structured and furnished for these purposes . Each cathedral contains the seat of the local bishop , often literally a large throne . The bishop 's throne is located towards the eastern end of the cathedral , near the high altar , which is main focus of worship . On the altar is served the Eucharist , a symbolic meal of bread and wine in memory of Jesus ’ last supper with his disciples . In the early Medieval period , the altar always contained , or was associated with , the relics of a saint . Sometimes the relics were held in a separate shrine , near the high altar . In this part of the church are often located the tombs of former bishops , typically arranged either side of the major shrine , so the worshipping congregation symbolically comprised the whole body of clergy of the diocese , both living and dead , in communion with their patron saint . Seats are provided for the other significant clergy of the cathedral : the dean who is the foremost priest at the cathedral , the precentor , sacristan , archdeacon and canons .
Each of these priests , either as secular clergy , or as previously , members of a religious order , is obligated to say the “ Holy Office ” every day . To this end , cathedrals normally have a number of small chapels used for private devotion or for small groups . In England there is a strong tradition that each chapel should face the east . For this reason the transepts of English cathedrals are longer than those in most other countries , and there is often a second transept , as at Salisbury . This arrangement permits a greater number of eastward @-@ facing chapels . That part of the main interior which is furthest to the east and reserved for the prayers of the clergy is the presbytery .
English cathedrals maintain a traditional form of church service , of which canticles , the set psalm of the day , responses , and an anthem are sung by a choir traditionally composed of about thirty men and boys . ( Many cathedrals now also have a girls choir , and a lay choir ) . Because of this tradition , that part of the building that contains the stalls , usually to the east of the central tower but sometimes extending under it , is called the choir or quire . The choir is sometimes divided from the nave of the cathedral by a wide medieval screen constructed of stone and in some instances carrying a large pipe organ . This screen traditionally separated the quire from the nave and the clergy from the laity , who were expected to worship at parish churches , rather than at the cathedral . The nave of the cathedral , in medieval times , was used primarily for processions . At its western end it contains the font for the ritual washing service of Baptism , at which a person , most often an infant , is symbolically accepted into the church . The font is usually made of stone and is usually the oldest fitting in the cathedral , many of them being Norman .
Since the Reformation , the nave is that part of the building which is usually open to and most used by the congregation and general public . There is also , usually in the nave , a raised pulpit from which the dean or other clergy can expound the scriptures . In the late 20th century it became customary in some cathedrals for an hourly prayer to be said , for the benefit of visitors , and this is often presented from the nave pulpit . In a large cathedral , particularly in those where the building is divided by a screen as at Canterbury , an altar may be set at the eastern end of the nave so that services might be held there for large congregations . At each place where services are held there is a lectern on which rests a Bible .
= = General characteristics of English cathedrals = =
Note : all the dimensions are those given by John Harvey unless otherwise cited . The periods and style names are those used by Banister Fletcher and others , based on Rickman and Sharpe .
= = = Plan and section = = =
Like the majority of medieval cathedrals , those of England are cruciform . While most are of the Latin Cross shape with a single transept , several including Salisbury , Lincoln , Wells and Canterbury have two transepts , which is a distinctly English characteristic . The transepts , unlike those of many French cathedrals , always project strongly . The cathedral , whether of monastic or secular foundation , often has several clearly defined subsidiary buildings , in particular the chapter house and cloister .
With two exceptions , the naves and eastern arms of the cathedrals have single lower aisles on either side with a clerestory that illuminates the central space . At Bristol the aisles are at the same height as the medieval choir like some German cathedrals , and at Chichester there are two aisles on either side of the nave like some French cathedrals . At a number of the cathedrals where the transepts are large they also have aisles , either on the eastern side as at Peterborough , Durham , Lincoln and Salisbury or both , as at Winchester , Wells , Ely and York .
= = = Length = = =
The nave and sometimes the eastern arm are often of great length by comparison with the medieval cathedrals of other countries , seven of the twenty @-@ five English cathedrals , Canterbury , Durham , Ely , Lincoln , St Albans , Winchester and York , exceeding 150 metres ( being between 509 and 554 feet , 155 – 169 metres ) , only equalled by the cathedrals of Milan and Florence . Another 9 of the cathedrals , Norwich , Peterborough , Salisbury , Worcester , Gloucester , Wells , Exeter , Chichester and Lichfield , are between 120 – 150 metres long ( being between 397 – 481 feet , 121 @-@ 146 @.@ 5 metres ) . By comparison , the largest cathedrals of Northern France , Notre Dame de Paris , Amiens , Rouen , Reims and Chartres , are all about 135 – 140 metres in length , as is Cologne in Germany . The longest cathedrals of Spain , including Seville , which has the largest floor area of any medieval church , are about 120 metres . Five English cathedrals : Chester , Hereford , Rochester , Southwell , and Ripon are 90 – 115 metres ( 318 – 371 feet , 97 – 113 metres ) . The last four cathedrals all , for various reasons , either have no medieval nave or only a few remaining bays . At Bristol and Southwark the naves were built in the Victorian era , leaving Carlisle and Oxford , with naves of only two and four bays respectively , as the smallest of England ’ s ancient cathedrals at 73 metres ( 239 feet ) and 57 metres ( 187 feet . )
= = = Height = = =
By contrast with their tendency towards extreme length , the vaults of English cathedrals are low compared with many of those found in other countries . The highest medieval stone vault in England is at Westminster Abbey at 102 feet ( 31 m ) , that at York Minster being of the same height but despite its appearance , not actually of stone , but wood . The majority of English cathedrals have vaults ranging in height from 20 – 26 metres ( 65 – 86 feet ) . These contrast with cathedrals such as Beauvais , Amiens and Cologne with internal heights of over 42 metres ( 140 ft ) .
= = = Towers = = =
An important feature of English cathedrals , uncommon elsewhere except in Normandy , is the large and often elaborate square central tower over the crossing . The larger of these towers range from 55 metres ( 182 ft ) at Wells to 82 @.@ 5 metres ( 271 ft ) at Lincoln . The central tower may exist as a single feature as at Salisbury , Gloucester , Worcester , Norwich and Chichester or in combination with paired towers at the west front as at York , Lincoln , Canterbury , Durham and Wells . Among the cathedrals that have three towers , the central tower is usually much the tallest . At Southwell the two western towers are capped by pyramidal spires sheathed in lead .
Tall Gothic central spires remain at Salisbury and Norwich , that at Chichester having been rebuilt in the 19th century after its collapse . The spire of Salisbury at 404 feet ( 123 m ) is the tallest in Britain . It is also the tallest 14th @-@ century spire , the tallest ashlar masonry spire ( as against the openwork spires of Germany and France ) , and tallest spire in the world that remains from the Medieval period that has not been entirely rebuilt . However , it was greatly surpassed in height by the spires of Lincoln and Old St. Paul ’ s . At Lincoln , between the early 14th century and 1548 , the central tower was surmounted by the tallest spire in the world at about 170 metres ( 557 ft ) but this fell in a storm . Lichfield Cathedral , uniquely in England , has three medieval masonry spires .
Although single western towers are common in English parish churches , only one medieval cathedral , Ely , retains a centrally placed western tower , and in that case , it was framed by two lower lateral towers , one of which has since fallen down . Ely , alone among England ’ s cathedrals , has a central feature over the crossing that somewhat resembles the polygonal vaulted lantern towers of Spain . This elaborate lantern @-@ like structure known as “ The Octagon ” spans both the nave and aisles , and is thus said to have inspired Christopher Wren ’ s design for the dome of St. Paul ’ s Cathedral . Its upper parts are supported by hidden wooden hammer @-@ beams , an architectural device unique to English Gothic .
= = = Facades = = =
The facades of English cathedrals show a considerable diversity , rather than a consistent progression , as is the case in Northern France and other cathedrals influenced by the French Gothic style . In many cases , regardless of the architectural form , the English façade was treated as a decorative screen with many niches occupied by statues . A great number of these were toppled or defaced during the 17th century , however a “ Gallery of Kings ” remains high on the façade of Lincoln , and many of the original weather @-@ worn figures remain at Exeter .
Most English cathedral facades fall into two basic types , with several variations .
The most typical cathedrals are those that have large paired towers at their western end , as at Canterbury , Durham , Southwell , Wells , Ripon and York .
Between the towers is either a single large traceried window , as at York and Canterbury , or an arrangement of untraceried lancets , as at Ripon and Wells , rather than the rose windows typical of French facades . There are usually three doors but unlike those of French cathedrals , they are rarely highly elaborate and far more emphasis is placed on the central door than those to either side . The entrance in most common use is sometimes located in a porch at one side of the nave . Where there are not two large towers at the west front , there are generally two pinnacled turrets that frame the façade or the central nave much in the nature of very large buttresses . This arrangement may be seen at Salisbury , Winchester and Rochester .
At Lincoln a vast Gothic screen with similar buttress @-@ like terminals was built across the front of the cathedral , incorporating the Norman portals , but hiding the Norman towers . The towers were then greatly heightened to be visible above the screen .
A Gothic screen was also added to the Norman nave at Peterborough , but this is an architectural oddity with no precedent or successor . The screen is composed of three enormous open arches , the two outer ones being much wider than that which frames the central door . The overwhelming composition is somewhat spoilt by the later porch and the fact that two towers of very different height pop up from behind the screen . Despite this , it is regarded as one of the supreme masterpieces of Gothic , revealing the enormous diversity and imagination of English medieval architects .
= = = Eastern end = = =
The eastern ends of English cathedrals show a greater diversity than those of any other country . Those built in the Norman era had high apsidal ends surrounded by a lower ambulatory , as is typical of Northern France . This arrangement still exists at Norwich and in part at Peterborough and also , with variation , in the Early English Gothic east end at Canterbury , but in every other case has been modified .
The typical arrangement for an English Gothic east end is square , and may be an unbroken cliff @-@ like design as at York , Lincoln , Ripon , Ely and Carlisle or may have a projecting Lady Chapel of which there is a great diversity as at Salisbury , Lichfield , Hereford , Exeter and Chichester .
The ends of Norwich and Canterbury also have projecting chapels , that at Norwich being a Gothic addition to the Norman east end , while that at Canterbury , known as the Corona , being designed as part of the Early English plan , specifically to enshrine the relic of the crown of Thomas Becket ’ s skull , sliced off at the time of his assassination . The east ends of a number of other cathedrals , such as Durham , Peterborough and Gloucester , have been modified in various ways and do not fit any particular model .
= = = External appearance = = =
As English cathedrals are often surrounded by an expanse of green lawn , the plan is usually clearly visible at ground level , which is not the case with the many European cathedrals that are closely surrounded by town or monastic buildings . The general impression is that the English cathedral sprawls across its site with many projecting limbs . These horizontal projections are visibly balanced by the strong verticals of the massive towers , which may be one , two or three in number . Many of the cathedrals , particularly those like Winchester , St. Albans and Peterborough where the towers are not particularly high , give an impression of tremendous length and have been described as resembling “ aircraft carriers ” .
While all the cathedrals are impressive , some , because of their location , are highly significant landmarks and landscape elements . Among these is Chichester , which can be seen for many miles across a landscape of open fields and is the only one of England ’ s cathedrals that is visible from the sea . The grey spire of Norwich rises serenely from its surrounding city , to be a focus of the Norwich School of landscape painters . Ely , on a small hill , dominates the rural countryside and its appearance in times of flood causes it to be known as The Ship of the Fens . The three spires of Lichfield are known as The Ladies of the Vale . The “ exquisite tower ” of Worcester is seen best across the River Severn . Lincoln with its vast façade and three towers , the tallest being over 80 metres ( 270 ft ) , rises majestically from a steep hill above the town . Salisbury Cathedral with its “ faultless spire ” constitutes one of the iconic views of England , made famous by the landscape painter John Constable . In the north of England , Durham makes a “ spectacular ” view as it sits dramatically on its steep rocky peninsula above the River Wear , “ half Church of God , half castle ‘ gainst the Scots ” .
= = = Internal appearance = = =
= = = = Horizontal emphasis = = = =
Because the architecture of English cathedrals is so diverse and inventive , the internal appearances differ a great deal . However , in general , English cathedral interiors tend to give an impression of length . This is in part because many of the buildings are actually very long , but also because more than in the medieval architecture of any other country , the horizontal direction is given as much visual emphasis as the vertical . This is particularly the case at Wells where , unlike most Gothic buildings , there are no vertical shafts that continue from the arcade to the vault and there is a very strong emphasis on the triforium gallery with its seemingly endless and undifferentiated row of narrow arches . Salisbury has a similar lack of verticals while the course below the triforium and the undecorated capitals of Purbeck stone create strong visual horizontals . In the cases of Winchester , Norwich and Exeter the horizontal effect is created by the emphasis on the ridge rib of the elaborate vaults .
= = = = Complex vaulting = = = =
The complexity of the vault is another significant feature of English cathedrals . The vaults range from the simple quadripartite vault in the French manner at Chichester through increasingly elaborate forms including the multi @-@ ribbed ( “ tierceron ” ) vault at Exeter , the similar vault with inter @-@ connecting ( “ lierne ” ) ribs at Norwich , the still more elaborate variation at Winchester , the array of unique lierne vaults at Bristol , the net @-@ like stellar vaulting of the choirs at Gloucester and York , the fan vaulting of the retro @-@ choir at Peterborough , and the pendant vaulting of the choir at Oxford , where elaborate long stone bosses are suspended from the ceiling like lanterns . Many of the more elaborate forms are unique to England , with stellar vaulting also occurring in Spain and Germany .
= = Architectural styles = =
= = = Saxon = = =
While in most cases a Norman church entirely replaced a Saxon one , at Ripon the cathedral uniquely retains its early Saxon crypt , while a similar crypt also survives below the former cathedral of Hexham . At Winchester the excavated foundations of the 10th @-@ century cathedral – when built , the largest church in northern Europe – are marked on grass of the cathedral close . At Worcester , a new cathedral was built in the Norman style from 1084 , but the crypt contains re @-@ used stonework and columns from its two Saxon predecessor churches . Elsewhere , the abbey church of Sherborne preserves much masonry from the former Saxon cathedral , in the west front , transepts and crossing , so that the nave and crossing of present late medieval abbey retains the proportions of the previous Saxon structure .
= = = Norman = = =
The comprehensive reconstruction of the Saxon cathedral churches of England by the Normans represented the single largest ecclesiastical building programme of medieval Europe and when built , these were the biggest structures to have been erected in Christian Europe since the end of the Roman Empire . All the medieval cathedrals of England , with the exception of Salisbury , Lichfield and Wells have evidence of Norman architecture . Peterborough , Durham and Norwich remain for the greater part Norman buildings , while at many others there are substantial parts of the building in the Norman style , such as the naves of Ely , Gloucester and Southwell , and the transepts at Winchester . The Norman architecture is distinguished by its round @-@ headed arches , and bold tiers of arcades on piers , which originally supported flat wooden roofs of which two survive , at Peterborough and Ely . Columns , where used , are massive , as in the nave at Gloucester , and are alternated with piers at Durham . Mouldings were cut with geometric designs and arcading was a major decorative form , particularly externally . Little figurative sculpture has survived , notably the " barbaric " ornament around the west doors at Lincoln , the bestial capitals of the crypt at Canterbury and the tympanum of the west door at Rochester .
= = = Lancet Gothic = = =
Many of the cathedrals have major parts in the late @-@ 12th @-@ to @-@ early @-@ 13th @-@ century style known as Lancet Gothic or Early English Gothic , and defined by its simple , untraceried lancet @-@ like openings . Salisbury Cathedral is the major example of this style , which is also seen at Wells and Worcester , at the eastern arms of Canterbury , Hereford and Southwark , and at the transepts of York . Also of this period is the spectacular façade of Peterborough , and the less grand but harmonious façade of Ripon .
= = = Decorated Gothic = = =
The Decorated Gothic style , with traceried windows , is further subdivided dependent upon whether the tracery is Geometric or Curvilinear . Many cathedrals have important parts in the Geometric style of the mid 13th to early 14th centuries , including much of Lincoln , Lichfield , the choir of Ely and the chapter houses of Salisbury and Southwell . By the late 13th century the style of tracery evolved to include a greater number of narrow shapes that adapted easily to Gothic openings in combination with circular shapes as can be seen in the windows of the chapter house of York , the Octagon of Ely and the west window of Exeter .
Further development included the repetition of Curvilinear or flame @-@ like forms that occur in a great number of windows of around 1320 , notably in the retro @-@ choir at Wells and the nave of Exeter Cathedral . This type of tracery is often seen in combination with vaulting ribs of extreme projection and very rich moulding , as is seen in the chapter house at Wells , and the vault at Exeter , which stretches , uninterrupted by a central tower , for 91 metres ( 300 ft ) and is the longest medieval vault in the world .
The last stage of Curvilinear or Flowing Decorated Gothic , is expressed in tracery of very varied and highly complex forms . Many of the largest and most famous windows of England date from 1320 – 30 and are in this style . They include the south transept rose window known as the “ Bishop ’ s Eye ” at Lincoln , the “ Heart of Yorkshire ” window in the west end of York and the famous nine @-@ light east window of Carlisle .
There are many smaller architectural works within cathedrals which have the curvilinear tracery . These include the arcading in the Lady Chapel at Ely , which also has the widest vault in England , the pulpitum screen at Lincoln and richly decorated doorways at Ely and Rochester . Characteristic of this period of Gothic is elaborate lierne vaulting in which the main ribs are connected by intermediate ribs which do not spring from the wall and so are not major structural members . The vaults of Bristol are the most famous examples of this style , which can also be seen at York .
= = = Perpendicular Gothic = = =
In the 1330s , when the architects of Europe were embracing the Flamboyant style , English architecture moved away from the Flowing Decorated in an entirely different and much more sober direction with the reconstruction , in highly modular form , of the choir of the Norman abbey , now cathedral , at Gloucester . The Perpendicular style , which relies on a network of intersecting mullions and transoms rather than on a diversity of richly carved forms for effect , gives an overall impression of great unity , in which the structure of the vast windows of both clerestory and east end are integrated with the arcades below and the vault above . The style proved very adaptable and continued with variations in the naves of Canterbury and Winchester , and in the choir of York .
During the 15th century , many of England ’ s finest towers were either built or extended in the Perpendicular style including those of the cathedrals of Gloucester , Worcester , Wells , York , Durham and Canterbury , and the spires of Chichester and Norwich .
The design of church interiors went through a final stage that lasted into the 16th century . This was the development of fan vaulting , first used in about 1370 in the cloisters at Gloucester , then in the retrochoir at Peterborough in the early 15th century . In a still more elaborate form with stone pendants it was used to roof the Norman choir at Oxford and in the great funerary chapel of Henry VII at Westminster Abbey , at a time when Italy had embraced the Renaissance .
= = Architectural diversity = =
The plan of Salisbury Cathedral is that most often reproduced in architectural histories for the purpose of comparing English Gothic architecture with that of France , Italy and other countries . It has many features that , on paper at least , are typical . The plan of Worcester Cathedral , for example , closely resembles that of Salisbury . Both have two transepts , a large central tower , a large porch to the north side of the nave , a cloister to the south , off which opens a polygonal chapter house . Internally , there are also strong visual similarities in the simple lancet windows of the east end and the contrasting profusion of Purbeck marble shafts . But the histories of the two buildings are very different . Salisbury Cathedral took 160 years to complete , from its foundations in 1220 to the top of its massive spire in 1380 . Worcester took 420 years from its Norman crypt of 1084 to its chapel in memory of Prince Arthur in 1504 . The history of Worcester is much more representative of the history of most of England ’ s medieval cathedrals than is that of Salisbury .
= = = The building of Salisbury Cathedral = = =
An earlier cathedral was located , between 1075 and 1228 , on the hill top near the ancient fort at Old Sarum . In the early 13th century it was decided to move the location of the cathedral to the plain . The new building was designed in the Lancet Gothic style ( otherwise known as Early English Gothic ) by Elias of Dereham and Nicholas of Ely and begun in 1220 , starting at the eastern end , and rising westward until by 1258 it was complete , except for the façade and central tower . The façade , huge cloister and polygonal chapter house were then constructed by Richard Mason and were completed by about 1280 , the later work employing Geometric Decorated tracery in the openings of windows and arcades . It was about fifty years before the major undertaking of the tower and spire was commenced , the architect being Richard Farleigh and the details being rather more intricate and elaborate than the earlier work . The entire cathedral was complete by 1380 , and the only subsequent inclusion of note has been the reinforcement of the arches of the tower when one of the piers developed a bend . This three @-@ part building program spanning 160 years with a fifty @-@ year gap in the middle is the shortest and least diverse and makes Salisbury by far the most homogenous of all the cathedrals .
= = = The building of Worcester Cathedral = = =
Worcester Cathedral , unlike Salisbury , has important parts of the building dating from every century from the 11th to the 16th . The earliest part of the building at Worcester is the multi @-@ columned Norman crypt with cushion capitals remaining from the original monastic church begun by St Wulfstan in 1084 . Also from the Norman period is the circular chapter house of 1120 , made octagonal on the outside when the walls were reinforced in the 14th century . The nave was built and rebuilt piecemeal and in different styles by several different architects over a period of 200 years , some bays being a unique and decorative transition between Norman and Gothic . It dates from 1170 to 1374 . The east end was rebuilt over the Norman crypt by Alexander Mason between 1224 and 1269 , coinciding with , and in a very similar Early English style to the greater part of Salisbury . From 1360 John Clyve finished off the nave , built its vault , the west front , the north porch and the eastern range of the cloister . He also strengthened the Norman chapter house , added buttresses and changed its vault . His masterpiece is the central tower of 1374 , originally supporting a timber , lead @-@ covered spire , now gone . Between 1404 and 1432 an unknown architect added the north and south ranges to the cloister , which was eventually closed by the western range by John Chapman , 1435 – 38 . The last important addition is the Prince Arthur ’ s Chantry Chapel to the right of the south choir aisle , 1502 – 04 .
= = Famous features of the cathedrals = =
Note : all the dates are those given by John Harvey .
= = = Bristol Cathedral = = =
Begun in 1140 and completed in 1888 , Bristol Cathedral ’ s fame lies in the unique 14th @-@ century lierne vaults of the choir and choir aisles , which are of three different designs and , according to Nikolaus Pevsner , “ ... from a point of view of spatial imagination are superior to anything else in England . ”
= = = Canterbury Cathedral = = =
Founded as a cathedral in 597 , the earliest parts are from 1070 , completed 1505 , except the north west tower of 1834 . Canterbury is one of the biggest cathedrals in England , and seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury . It is famous for the Norman crypt with sculptured capitals , the east end of 1175 – 84 by William of Sens , the 12th- and 13th @-@ century stained glass , the “ supremely beautiful ” Perpendicular nave of 1379 – 1405 by Henry Yevele , the fan vault of the tower of 1505 by John Wastell , the tomb of the Black Prince and the site of the murder of St. Thomas Becket .
= = = Carlisle Cathedral = = =
Founded in 1092 and completed in the early 15th century , Carlisle Cathedral is one of England ’ s smallest cathedrals since the demolition of its nave by the Scottish Presbyterian Army in 1649 . Its most significant feature is its nine @-@ light Flowing Decorated east window of 1322 , still containing medieval glass in its upper sections , forming a “ glorious termination to the choir ” and regarded by many as having the finest tracery in England .
= = = Chester Cathedral = = =
Built between 1093 and 1537 , Chester Cathedral includes a set of medieval choir stalls dating from 1380 , with exquisite figurative carving . An unusual feature is the very large south transept . The Early English Lady Chapel is a harmonious composition in Lancet Gothic . It retains substantial monastic buildings including a large refectory .
= = = Chichester Cathedral = = =
Built between 1088 and the early 15th century , the unusual features of Chichester Cathedral are a Transitional retro choir , a pair of early Norman relief carvings and its freestanding belfry of the 15th century . The spire , rebuilt after its collapse in 1860 , can be seen from the English Channel .
= = = Durham Cathedral = = =
Built between 1093 and 1490 , Durham Cathedral , with the exception of the upper parts of its towers , the eastern extension known as the Chapel of Nine Altars , and the large west window of 1341 , is entirely Norman and is regarded by Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor as " the incomparable masterpiece of Romanesque architecture " . The interior is “ overwhelmingly impressive ” . The western Lady Chapel known as the Galilee Chapel is a unique Norman building different in style to the cathedral itself . The view of the cathedral from the south west is particularly famous because of its “ incomparable setting ” on a steep promontory above the River Wear . The Venerable C.J. Stranks wrote “ It stands today vast and impressive in its massive strength , and yet so well proportioned that there is nothing about it which seems ponderous . ”
= = = Ely Cathedral = = =
With the present building dating between 1090 and 1536 , Ely Cathedral has a significant Norman nave and Decorated Gothic choir , but its most important features are its unique western tower of 1174 and central octagon of 1322 , which Clifton @-@ Taylor describes as “ one of the wonders of English cathedral architecture ” . It also has a unique , very large , free @-@ standing Lady Chapel with a very wide vault and intricately carved stone arcades around the sedilia .
= = = Exeter Cathedral = = =
Dating from 1112 to 1519 , Exeter Cathedral is the major example of a cathedral built mainly in the later Decorated Gothic style of the 14th century . It has an impressive vault , the longest medieval vault in the world , which runs between two Norman towers placed , uniquely among the cathedrals , over the transepts . Exeter has many sculptural details , including the figures of its west front .
= = = Gloucester Cathedral = = =
Dating from 1098 to 1493 , Gloucester Cathedral has a Norman nave with massive masonry piers , and a fine 15th @-@ century Perpendicular tower , but its main feature is the eastern end , reconstructed in the 14th century as an early example of Perpendicular Gothic and with the largest medieval window in the world , the area of a tennis court . The cloisters have the earliest example of fan @-@ vaulting .
= = = Hereford Cathedral = = =
Built between 1079 and 1530 , with a 19th @-@ century west front , Hereford Cathedral has a Norman nave and large central tower . Other important features being the unusual style of the north transept and the north porch , also of the 13th century , but greatly extended in the 16th . Its Early English Lady Chapel is considered “ one of the most beautiful of the thirteenth century ” .
= = = Lichfield Cathedral = = =
Although dating from 1195 to about 1400 , Lichfield Cathedral has an interior which presents a harmonious appearance , much of which is due to its having undergone extensive restoration and refurnishing in the 19th century . The nave is very fine and the Lady Chapel is apsidal with very tall windows , giving a rather French impression . Lichfield is the only one of the cathedrals to have retained three spires .
= = = Lincoln Cathedral = = =
Dating from 1074 to 1548 , Lincoln Cathedral is one of the largest of England ’ s cathedrals and it has been claimed by John Ruskin that , architecturally , it is worth any two of the others put together . Edward Freeman described it as “ one of the loveliest of human works . ” It retains portions of the three massive arches of the Norman west front and much heavily restored sculpture around the central portal . The central tower is the tallest in England and is visible for many miles as it rises in spectacular fashion from a high hill . The decagonal Chapter House with its huge flying buttresses is the first polygonal chapter house in England . Of the interior , the finest part is considered to be the late @-@ 13th @-@ century “ Angel Choir ” with “ gorgeous layers of tracery ” and enriched with carved angels . The transepts have two rose windows , the “ Dean ’ s Eye ” on the north dating from c . 1200 and retaining its original glass , while the Flowing Decorated “ Bishop ’ s Eye ” on the south is filled with salvaged medieval fragments .
= = = Manchester Cathedral = = =
Manchester Cathedral began as a parish church and was re @-@ founded as a religious college in 1422 , much of its structure being designed by John Wastell ( 1485 to 1506 ) . It is very different in style from the earlier great churches , sometimes being listed with the 13 Anglican ' parish @-@ church cathedrals ' . Double aisles give it the widest nave of any English cathedral ( 115 feet ) ; and it also has the richest set of late medieval choir stalls and misericords in the country .
= = = Norwich Cathedral = = =
Built between 1096 and 1536 , Norwich Cathedral has a Norman form , retaining the greater part of its original stone structure , which was then vaulted between 1416 and 1472 in a spectacular manner with hundreds of ornately carved , painted , and gilded bosses . It also has the finest Norman tower in England , surmounted by a 15th @-@ century spire , and a large cloister with many more bosses .
= = = Oxford Cathedral = = =
Dating from 1158 to the early 16th century , Oxford Cathedral was always a small cathedral and was made smaller by the destruction of much of the nave in the 16th century . The stone spire , from 1230 , is one of the oldest in England and contributes to Oxford ’ s tradition as “ the city of dreaming spires ” . Its most unusual feature is the late @-@ 15th @-@ century pendant vault over the Norman chancel .
= = = Peterborough Cathedral = = =
Built between 1117 and 1508 , Peterborough Cathedral is remarkable as the least altered of the Norman cathedrals with only its famous Early English west front , with its later porch and the Perpendicular rebuilding of the eastern ambulatory by John Wastell being in different styles . J.L. Cartwright wrote of the west front that it is “ as magnificent an entrance to a sacred building as could well be imagined . ” The long wooden roof of the nave is original and has retained its painting from 1220 .
= = = Ripon Cathedral = = =
Dating from the 7th century to 1522 , Ripon Cathedral preserves the crypt of the original church built by Saint Wilfred . The west front is an unaltered and harmonious composition in Early English Gothic . The choir has retained richly carved 14th @-@ century stalls , famous for the many lively figures among the carvings .
= = = Rochester Cathedral = = =
Dating from 1177 to 1512 , Rochester Cathedral has a Norman nave and crypt , and Early English choir . Its most remarkable feature is the rare , exuberantly carved Norman portal , which has , unfortunately , suffered much damage .
= = = St Albans Cathedral = = =
Built between 1077 and 1521 , St Albans Cathedral is unique among the cathedrals in that much of it , including the large Norman tower , is built of bricks salvaged from the Roman town of Verulamium . Both internally and externally , the tower is the most significant feature . St Albans also retains some medieval wall paintings , as well as a painted wooden roof of the late 13th century .
= = = Salisbury Cathedral = = =
Built between 1220 and 1380 with additional structural reinforcement in the next century , Salisbury Cathedral epitomises the ideal English Cathedral , even though its stylistic unity makes it far from typical . Its fame lies in its harmonious proportions , particularly from the exterior where the massing of the various horizontal parts in contrast to the vertical of the spire make it one of the most famous architectural compositions of the Medieval period . Canon Smethurst wrote “ It symbolises the peaceful loveliness of the English countryside … , the eternal truths of the Christian faith expressed in stone … ”
= = = Southwark Cathedral = = =
Built between 1220 and 1420 , Southwark Cathedral had its nave demolished and rebuilt in the late 19th century by Arthur Blomfield . It has a fine Early English tower and choir which retains an elaborate 16th @-@ century reredos , fitted with statues replacing those destroyed in the 17th century .
= = = Southwell Minster = = =
Built between 1208 and 1520 , Southwell Minster has its Norman façade intact , except for the insertion of a large window in the Perpendicular Style to give light to the Norman nave . The particular fame of Southwell is its late @-@ 13th @-@ century chapter house , which contains the most famous medieval floral carvings in England , described by Nikolaus Pevsner as “ throbbing with life ” .
= = = Wells Cathedral = = =
Built between 1175 and 1490 , Wells Cathedral has been described as “ the most poetic of the English Cathedrals ” . Much of the structure is in the Early English style and is greatly enriched by the deeply sculptural nature of the mouldings and the vitality of the carved capitals in a foliate style known as “ stiff leaf ” . The eastern end has retained much original glass , which is rare in England . The exterior has the finest Early English façade and a large central tower .
= = = Winchester Cathedral = = =
Built between 1079 and 1532 , Winchester Cathedral has had an unusual architectural history . The exterior , apart from the modified windows , gives the impression of a massive Norman building and indeed , it is the longest medieval church in the world . However , the west front is now Perpendicular , with its huge window filled with fragments of medieval glass . Inside , only the crypt and the transepts have retained their Norman appearance . The spectacular Perpendicular nave with its tall arcade arches and strong vertical emphasis has been literally carved out of the original Norman interior . The Very Rev. Sykes wrote of it “ Well might the visitor who enters … by the west door gasp with amazement . ” Winchester is also famous for its carved wooden fittings of many different periods .
= = = Worcester Cathedral = = =
Built between 1084 and 1504 , Worcester Cathedral represents every medieval style from Norman to Perpendicular . It is famous for its Norman crypt , and for its circular chapter house , which became the model from which derives the series of uniquely British polygonal chapter houses . Also notable are a series of unusual Transitional Gothic bays , fine woodwork and the central tower , which , though not large , is nevertheless of particularly fine proportions .
= = = York Minster = = =
Built between 1154 and 1500 , York Minster is one of the biggest Gothic churches in the world . The deceptively simple plan with square eastern and western ends and a single transept dividing the building into equal parts belies the architectural richness of this building . The remains of the Norman crypt indicate that the older building must have been as massive and ornamental in its architecture as Durham . The Early English transepts are both famous , that of the south having a complex arrangements of lancets and a rose window making up an entrance façade . On the north side are lancet windows called the “ Five Sisters ” each only 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide , but 57 feet ( 17 m ) tall . The interior of York is very spacious . The West front with its paired towers is a harmonious arrangement of the late Decorated period and the large central window has fine Flowing Decorated tracery called the " Heart of Yorkshire " , while the large eastern window is Perpendicular in style . A rare feature of York Minster is that these important windows have all retained their medieval glass , from c . 1270 , 1335 and 1405 , respectively .
= = Architects = =
The researches of John Harvey have uncovered the names of many English medieval architects , and by tracing stylistic characteristics , it has sometimes proved possible to track their careers from one building to another . Leading architects were highly paid - especially those employed in the King 's works - and they can often be identified from regular payments in cathedral accounts .
No architectural drawings survive for any English cathedral earlier than 1525 ( although an engineer 's design for a proposed new water supply at Canterbury cathedral priory exists in a 12th @-@ century plan ) . Architectural details , such as window tracery designs , were not executed as scale drawings , but were incised full @-@ size onto a large flat gypsum tracing @-@ floor , examples of which survive at York and Wells .
Medieval construction was seasonal , work on site being undertaken only in the spring and summer , when the light was good and the weather more reliable . Each autumn , all exposed surfaces were covered and lagged against frost damage . The architects worked over winter in the tracing house ( that of York has both a fireplace and a privy ) to prepare designs for the next season 's campaign . They translated the designs into sets of planed oak cross @-@ sectional templates , which were given to the stone @-@ cutters . Construction of cathedrals and major churches almost invariably started at the eastern arm , and then proceeded westwards , with towers erected last .
Robert the Mason , c 1100 , St Albans abbey , William of Sens , d 1184 , Canterbury choir , William the Englishman d 1214 , Canterbury choir , Elias of Dereham d 1246 , Salisbury , Michael of Canterbury d 1321 , Canterbury , Henry Wy c 1324 , St Albans nave , William Ramsey ( architect ) d 1349 , Norwich , Ely , Old St Paul 's chapter house , Lichfield presbytry , William Hurley d 1354 , Ely lantern , Richard of Farleigh d 1364 , Salisbury tower and spire , ExeterAlan of Walsingham d 1364 , Ely octagonJohn Clyve d 1374 , Worcester nave , tower , west front , Henry Yevele d 1400 , Canterbury nave , Durham Neville screenWilliam Wynford d 1405 , Winchester nave , Thomas Mapilton d 1438 , Canterbury SW tower , William Smyth d 1490 , Wells vaults , William Orchard ( architect ) d 1504 , Oxford vaults , John Wastell d 1515 , Canterbury tower , Peterborough retrochoir , Manchester ,
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= HD 217107 =
HD 217107 ( 6 G. Piscium ) is a yellow subgiant star approximately 65 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Pisces ( the Fish ) . Its mass is very similar to the Sun 's , although it is considerably older . Two planets have been discovered orbiting the star : one is extremely close and completes an orbit every seven days , while the other is much more distant , taking eight years to complete an orbit .
= = Distance , age , and mass = =
HD 217107 is fairly close to the Sun : the Hipparcos astrometric satellite measured its parallax as 50 @.@ 71 Milliarcseconds , which corresponds to a distance of 65 light years . Its apparent magnitude is 6 @.@ 17 , making it just barely visible to the naked eye under favourable conditions .
Spectroscopic observations show that its spectral type is G7 or G8 , which means its temperature is about 5 @,@ 000 K. Its mass is thought to be roughly the same as the Sun 's , although its estimated age of 7 @.@ 7 billion years is rather older than the Sun 's 4 @.@ 6 billion years , and it is thought to be beginning to evolve away from the main sequence , having consumed almost all the hydrogen in its core in nuclear fusion reactions .
= = Planetary system = =
A study of the radial velocity of HD 217107 carried out in 1998 revealed that its motion along the line of sight varied over a 7 @.@ 1 @-@ day cycle . The period and amplitude of this variation indicated that it was caused by a planetary companion in orbit around the star , with a minimum mass slightly greater than that of Jupiter . The companion planet was designated HD 217107 b .
While most planets with orbital periods of less than 10 days have almost circular orbits , HD 217107 b has a somewhat eccentric orbit , and its discoverers hypothesized that this could be due to the gravitational influence of a second planet in the system at a distance of several astronomical units ( AU ) . Confirmation of the existence of a second planet followed in 2005 , when long term observations of the star 's radial velocity variations revealed a variation on a period of about eight years , caused by a planet with a mass at least twice that of Jupiter in a very eccentric orbit with a semimajor axis of about 4 @.@ 3 AU . The second planet was designated HD 217107 c .
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= The Myst Reader =
The Myst Reader is a collection of three novels based on the Myst series of adventure games . The collection was published in September 2004 and combines three works previously published separately : The Book of Atrus ( 1995 ) , The Book of Ti 'ana ( 1996 ) , and The Book of D 'ni ( 1997 ) . The novels were each written by British science @-@ fiction writer David Wingrove with assistance from Myst 's creators , Rand and Robyn Miller .
Each novel centers on the family of Atrus , a scientist and explorer who has the ability to write special books which serve as links to other worlds , known as Ages . This ability , known as the Art , was practiced extensively by an ancient civilization known as the D 'ni , who were only mentioned briefly in the original Myst game . The plot of each book reveals more of the Myst back @-@ story and the workings of the D 'ni .
Upon release , reception of the novels have been mixed . Many reviewers expressed surprise that a novel based on a videogame worked ; others found the prose dull and uninteresting , or that the book could not stand on its own without the game . The individual books sold well , with The Book of Atrus making USA Today 's Best @-@ Selling Books list . Two more novels are planned ; a sample of the first , The Book of Marrim , was packaged with an edition of Myst V : End of Ages . The plots to the novels have also been adapted by fans into a planned film based on The Book of Ti 'ana , with the blessing of Cyan Worlds .
= = Background = =
Myst co @-@ creators and brothers Rand and Robyn Miller often created fictional worlds and stories as young children . Their vision was refined by the works of fantasy and science fiction writers such as J. R. R. Tolkien , Robert A. Heinlein , and Isaac Asimov ; Star Wars offered them a glimpse at an exciting , fully realized fictional world . Younger brother Robyn began working on a children 's novel called Dunnyhut ; though he never completed the work , elements from the story influenced aspects of Myst 's story .
The video game Myst tells the story of a special book which serves as a link to a world known as Myst . Myst is the home of an explorer named Atrus , who lives on the island with his wife Catherine and two sons , Sirrus and Achenar . An unnamed protagonist drops into Myst and finds the island strangely deserted . As the player explores Myst , they discover Sirrus and Achenar trapped inside two books . Both swear that their parents are dead due to the machinations of the other brother , and instruct the player to repair their books so they can be freed . In truth , Atrus and Catherine are merely imprisoned , and both Sirrus and Achenar are guilty of growing power @-@ hungry and destroying Atrus ' books . The player frees Atrus , leading to the events of the sequel Riven .
The Millers began the game 's development by sketching out puzzles and each individual world the player would explore in the game . As the brothers were conceptualizing the various worlds , they also wrote down pieces of the story . At some point in the development of these bits of story , Robyn explained in an interview , " We started realizing this story is actually something we thought the public would enjoy , so we started pressing to make [ the novel ] happen . " Buoyed by strong sales of the video game , publisher Hyperion signed a three @-@ novel , US $ 1 million deal with the brothers .
The Miller brothers wrote the entire first novel , but were unsatisfied with the result ; the Millers pointed out that writing a character for a novel is much harder than writing the characters of a game . Hyperion recruited author David Wingrove to assist with the project ; the Millers ended up giving Wingrove a detailed draft , and the author rewrote the entire book . The book 's design was made to fit the themes of the game ; the novels are made to look like journals found in Myst , with embossed covers and pages darkened as though with time and use .
To promote the release of The Book of Atrus , the Millers embarked on an eleven @-@ city book tour . The publicity stemming from the book and game surprised the Millers , who remained unaccustomed to their new @-@ found fame . " The excitement is in talking to people who 've walked through our world , " Rand Miller said in an interview . " But we 're not used to signing books - we 're a bit out of our element . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Book of Atrus = = =
The Book of Atrus serves as a prequel to the events of the eponymous first game in the Myst series , and introduces both new characters and old characters seen in the games . The book 's protagonist is Atrus . He is raised by his grandmother Anna after his mother dies and his father abandons him . Eventually , Atrus ' father Gehn returns from his explorations of the ruins of the D 'ni empire and enlists Atrus to come follow him back to the fallen city . Gehn teaches Atrus the Art , a skill the D 'ni used to create special books which allow transport between worlds known as Ages . Atrus is awed by the Art at first , but he is horrified when he witnesses Gehn 's manipulation and dismissive attitude to the inhabitants of the Ages . He also comes to understand Gehn 's selfish , cold cruelty and his own power @-@ hungry nature ; Gehn believes that he creates the Ages he writes , instead of creating links to preexisting universes . Gehn destroys Atrus ' first Age , Inception , because it does not follow Gehn 's style of writing . After attempting to escape his father , Gehn traps Atrus in a locked chamber in D 'ni , with the only escape Gehn 's own Age of Riven . On Riven Atrus falls in love with a villager named Catherine .
Catherine and Atrus hatch a plan to trap Gehn on Riven . Gehn is stranded when Atrus and Catherine destroy all linking books on Riven , escaping by using a book Ti 'ana wrote for them , leading to the Age of Myst . Atrus drops the Myst linking book into a massive disturbance on Riven known as the Star Fissure ; the book falls through the fissure to be picked up by the Stranger in Myst . The closing words of the book are the opening narrative from the video game .
= = = Book of Ti 'ana = = =
The Book of Ti 'ana takes place earlier than The Book of Atrus . The first part of the book focuses on life of Atrus ' grandfather Aitrus with his parents Kahlis and Tasera , Aitrus ' meeting with Ti 'ana , and the birth of their son Gehn . The book also explains the destruction of the D 'ni civilization . Two D 'ni , Veovis and A 'Gaeris , plot to destroy their civilization , which they believe has been corrupted . Veovis and A 'Gaeris create a plague which wipes out many of the D 'ni and follows them through the Ages . Veovis is murdered by A 'Gaeris for refusing to write an Age where the two of them would have been worshipped as gods , and Aitrus sacrifices himself in order to lure A 'Gaeris to an unstable Age , killing them both .
= = = Book of D 'ni = = =
In The Book of D 'ni , Atrus opens the crumbled exit of the room in K 'veer , where he had been imprisoned by Gehn , and gains access to the rest of D 'ni . Atrus and his team set out to find linking books and search for D 'ni survivors . Eventually , Atrus and the rest of the D 'ni plan on rebuilding the civilization , but this plan is put to a halt when a book leading to a great lost Age called Terahnee is found . Terahnee is a sister Age to D 'ni and is populated by descendants of the same ancestors as the D 'ni .
At first sight , Terahnee seems like a Utopia . Everyone lives in sumptuous palaces , and nobody goes hungry ; in reality , the society is run by slave labor . After writing new Ages , the Terahnee people capture the inhabitants to use as slaves , considering themselves gods over their Ages . The Terahnee people are taught not to ' see ' the slaves ; only the servants interact with the lower orders . The Terahnee are suddenly stricken by a plague the D 'ni brought with them ; Atrus and his companions help the Age 's slaves recover and create a new society before returning to D 'ni and sealing up the path to Terahnee .
= = Reception = =
Reception to the Myst novels has been mixed . Sybil Steinberg of Publishers Weekly reviewed The Book of Atrus and stated that Wingrove 's achievement of a " rollicking adventure tale " was improbable , given that previous game @-@ to @-@ book attempts had failed horribly . Booklist also gave the book a positive review , stating that the plot was predictable but the book served its purpose " to either introduce readers to the game , or supply players with back stories " . A reviewer for New Scientist called the story " a good , light read for the holiday season . "
Other reviewers felt that the novel could not stand on its own , and relied on the games to maintain relevancy . Albert Kim of Entertainment Weekly also gave the novel a mediocre score , saying the main issue that doomed The Book of Atrus was that it removed the mystery from Myst . " Much of the game 's charm is derived from its eeriness , a haunting aura that is lost in the text , " Kim wrote . Fantasy and Science Fiction stated that the prose was not up to the task of bringing the characters to life . Steinberg later stated that with the books " bereft of the game 's dazzling graphics and its hypnotic interactive dimension " , the second and third novels plodded along with boring prose .
Despite the mixed reviews , the Myst novels sold well . The Book of Atrus reached a top spot of 176 on USA Today 's Best @-@ Selling Books list . More than 450 @,@ 000 copies of Book of Atrus and Book of Ti 'ana have been sold . A fourth and fifth Myst novel were planned . The first , entitled Myst : The Book of Marrim , was announced in 2004 ; a preview of the novel was packaged in the Myst V : End of Ages special edition . A group of independent filmmakers adapted The Book of Ti 'ana into a screenplay , with the blessing of the Millers .
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= Shuttle – Mir Program =
The Shuttle – Mir Program was a collaborative space program between Russia and the United States , which involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station Mir , Russian cosmonauts flying on the shuttle , and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to engage in long @-@ duration expeditions aboard Mir .
The project , sometimes called " Phase One " , was intended to allow the United States to learn from Russian experience with long @-@ duration spaceflight and to foster a spirit of cooperation between the two nations and their space agencies , the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roskosmos ) . The project helped to prepare the way for further cooperative space ventures ; specifically , " Phase Two " of the joint project , the construction of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The program was announced in 1993 , the first mission started in 1994 and the project continued until its scheduled completion in 1998 . Eleven Space Shuttle missions , a joint Soyuz flight and almost 1000 cumulative days in space for American astronauts occurred over the course of seven long @-@ duration expeditions .
During the four @-@ year program , many firsts in spaceflight were achieved by the two nations , including the first American astronaut to launch aboard a Soyuz spacecraft , the largest spacecraft ever to have been assembled at that time in history , and the first American spacewalk using a Russian Orlan spacesuit .
The program was marred by various concerns , notably the safety of Mir following a fire and a collision , financial issues with the cash @-@ strapped Russian Space Program and worries from astronauts about the attitudes of the program administrators . Nevertheless , a large amount of science , expertise in space station construction and knowledge in working in a cooperative space venture was gained from the combined operations , allowing the construction of the ISS to proceed much more smoothly than would have otherwise been the case .
= = Background = =
The origins of the Shuttle – Mir Program can be traced back to the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project , that resulted in an joint US / Soviet mission during the détente period of the Cold War and the docking between an US Apollo spacecraft and an Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975 . This was followed by the talks between NASA and Intercosmos in the 1970s about a " Shuttle @-@ Salyut " program to fly Space Shuttle missions to a Salyut space station , with later talks in the 1980s even considering flights of the future Soviet shuttles from the Buran programme to a future US space station – this " Shuttle @-@ Salyut " program never materialized however during the existence of the Soviet Intercosmos program .
This changed after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union : the end of Cold War and Space Race resulted in funding for the US modular space station ( originally named Freedom ) , which was planned since the early 1980s , being slashed . Similar budgetary difficulties were being faced by other nations with space station projects , prompting American government officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe , Russia , Japan , and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative , multi @-@ national , space station project . In the Russian Federation , as the successor to much of the Soviet Union and its space program , the deteriorating economic situation in the post @-@ Soviet economic chaos lead to growing financial problems of the now Russian space station program . The construction of the Mir @-@ 2 space station as an replacement for the aging Mir became illusionary , though only after its base block , DOS @-@ 8 , had been built . These developments resulted in bringing the former adversaries together with the Shuttle – Mir Program , which would pave the way to the International Space Station , a joint project with several international partners .
In June 1992 , American President George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to co @-@ operate on space exploration by signing the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes . This agreement called for setting up a short , joint space project , during which one American astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a Space Shuttle .
In September 1993 , American Vice @-@ President Al Gore , Jr . , and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station , which eventually became the International Space Station . They also agreed , in preparation for this new project , that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir project in the years ahead , under the code name " Phase One " ( the construction of the ISS being " Phase Two " ) .
The first Space Shuttle flight to Mir was an rendezvous mission without docking on STS @-@ 63 . This was followed during the course of the project by a total of 9 Shuttle @-@ Mir docking missions , from STS @-@ 71 to STS @-@ 91 . The Shuttle rotated crews and delivered supplies , and one mission , STS @-@ 74 , carried a docking module and a pair of solar arrays to Mir . Various scientific experiments were also conducted , both on shuttle flights and long @-@ term aboard the station . The project also saw the launch of two new modules , Spektr and Priroda , to Mir , which were used by American astronauts as living quarters and laboratories to conduct the majority of their science aboard the station . These missions allowed NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to learn a great deal about how best to work with international partners in space and how to minimize the risks associated with assembling a large space station in orbit , as would have to be done with the ISS .
The project also served as a political ruse on the part of the American government , providing a diplomatic channel for NASA to take part in the funding of the cripplingly under @-@ funded Russian space program . This in turn allowed the newly fledged Russian government to keep Mir operating , in addition to the Russian space program as a whole , ensuring the Russian government remained ( and remains ) friendly towards the United States .
= = = Increments = = =
In addition to the flights of the Shuttle to Mir , Phase One also featured seven " Increments " aboard the station , long @-@ duration flights aboard Mir by American astronauts . The seven astronauts who took part in the Increments , Norman Thagard , Shannon Lucid , John Blaha , Jerry Linenger , Michael Foale , David Wolf and Andrew Thomas , were each flown in turn to Star City , Russia , to undergo training in various aspects of the operation of Mir and the Soyuz spacecraft used for transport to and from the Station . The astronauts also received practice in carrying out spacewalks outside Mir and lessons in the Russian language , which would be used throughout their missions to talk with the other cosmonauts aboard the station and Mission Control in Russia , the TsUP .
During their expeditions aboard Mir , the astronauts carried out various experiments , including growth of crops and crystals , and took hundreds of photographs of the Earth spinning serenely beneath them . They also assisted in the maintenance and repair of the aging station , following various incidents with fires , collisions , power losses , uncontrolled spins and toxic leaks . In all , the American astronauts would spend almost a thousand days aboard Mir , allowing NASA to learn a great deal about long @-@ duration spaceflight , particularly in the areas of astronaut psychology and how best to arrange experiment schedules for crews aboard space stations .
= = = Mir = = =
Mir was constructed between 1986 and 1996 and was the world 's first modular space station . It was the first consistently inhabited long @-@ term research station in space , and previously held the record for longest continuous human presence in space , at eight days short of ten years . Mir 's purpose was to provide a large and habitable scientific laboratory in space , and , through a number of collaborations , including Intercosmos and Shuttle @-@ Mir , was made internationally accessible to cosmonauts and astronauts of many different countries . The station existed until March 23 , 2001 , at which point it was deliberately deorbited , and broke apart during atmospheric re @-@ entry .
Mir was based upon the Salyut series of space stations previously launched by the Soviet Union ( seven Salyut space stations had been launched since 1971 ) , and was mainly serviced by Russian @-@ manned Soyuz spacecraft and Progress cargo ships . The Buran space shuttle was anticipated to visit Mir , but its program was canceled after its first unmanned spaceflight . Visiting US Space Shuttles used an Androgynous Peripheral Attach System docking collar originally designed for Buran , mounted on a bracket originally designed for use with the American Space Station Freedom .
With the Space Shuttle docked to Mir , the temporary enlargements of living and working areas amounted to a complex that was the world 's largest spacecraft at that time , with a combined mass of 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ; 280 short tons ) .
= = = Space Shuttle = = =
NASA 's Space Shuttle , officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS ) , is the United States government 's most recent manned launch vehicle . A total of five usable orbiters were built , of which three were in use until the program 's retirement in 2011 . The winged shuttle Orbiter is launched vertically , usually carrying five to seven astronauts ( although eight have been carried and eleven could be accommodated in an emergency ) along with up to 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( 23 @,@ 000 kg ) of payload into low earth orbit . When its mission is complete , it fires its manoeuvring thrusters to drop out of orbit and re @-@ enters the Earth 's atmosphere . During the descent and landing , the shuttle Orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing .
The Shuttle is the first orbital spacecraft designed for partial reusability . It carries large payloads to various orbits , and , during the Shuttle – Mir and ISS programs , provides crew rotation and carries various supplies , modules and pieces of equipment to the stations . Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or 10 years ' operational life .
In total 9 docking missions were flown to Mir , from 1995 to 1997 during " Phase One " : Space Shuttle Atlantis docked 7 times to Mir , with Discovery and Endeavour each flying one docking mission to Mir . As Space Shuttle Columbia was the oldest and heaviest of the fleet , it was not suited for efficient operations at Mir 's ( and later the ISS 's ) 51 @.@ 6 @-@ degree inclination – Columbia was therefore not retrofitted with the necessary external airlock and Orbital Docking System , and never flew to a space station .
= = Timeline = =
= = = New cooperation begins ( 1994 ) = = =
Phase One of the Shuttle – Mir Program began on February 3 , 1994 , with the launch of Space Shuttle Discovery on its 18th mission , STS @-@ 60 . The eight @-@ day mission was the first shuttle flight of that year , the first flight of a Russian Cosmonaut , Sergei Krikalev , aboard the American shuttle , and marked the start of increased cooperation in space for the two nations , 37 years after the Space Race began . Part of an international agreement on human space flight , the mission was the second flight of the Spacehab pressurized module and marked the hundredth " Getaway Special " payload to fly in space . The primary payload for the mission was the Wake Shield Facility ( or WSF ) , a device designed to generate new semiconductor films for advanced electronics . The WSF was flown at the end of Discovery 's robotic arm over the course of the flight . During the mission , the astronauts aboard Discovery also carried out various experiments aboard the Spacehab module in the Orbiter 's payload bay , and took part in a live bi @-@ directional audio and downlink video hookup between themselves and the three Cosmonauts on board Mir , Valeri Polyakov , Viktor Afanasyev and Yury Usachev ( flying Mir expeditions LD @-@ 4 and EO @-@ 15 ) .
= = = America arrives at Mir ( 1995 ) = = =
1995 began with the launch of the Space Shuttle Discovery on February 3 . Discovery 's mission , STS @-@ 63 , was the second Space Shuttle flight in the program and the first flight of the shuttle with a female pilot , Eileen Collins . Referred to as the " near @-@ Mir " mission , the eight @-@ day flight saw the first rendezvous of a Space Shuttle with Mir , as Russian Cosmonaut Vladimir Titov and the rest of Discovery 's crew approached within 37 feet ( 11 m ) of Mir . Following the rendezvous , Collins performed a flyaround of the station . The mission , a dress rehearsal for the first docked mission in the program , STS @-@ 71 , also carried out testing of various techniques and pieces of equipment that would be used during the docking missions that followed .
Five weeks after Discovery 's flight , the March 14 launch of Soyuz TM @-@ 21 carried expedition EO @-@ 18 to Mir . The crew consisted of Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov and NASA Astronaut Norman Thagard , who became the first American to fly into space aboard the Soyuz spacecraft . During the course of their 115 @-@ day expedition , the Spektr science module ( which served as living and working space for American astronauts ) was launched aboard a Proton rocket and docked to Mir . Spektr carried more than 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of research equipment from America and other nations . The expedition 's crew returned to Earth aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis following the first Shuttle – Mir docking during mission STS @-@ 71 .
The primary objectives of STS @-@ 71 , launched on June 27 , called for the Space Shuttle Atlantis to rendezvous and perform the first docking between an American Space Shuttle and the station . On June 29 , Atlantis successfully docked with Mir , becoming the first US spacecraft to dock with a Russian spacecraft since the Apollo @-@ Soyuz Test Project in 1975 . Atlantis delivered Cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin , who would form the expedition EO @-@ 19 crew , and retrieved Astronaut Norman Thagard and Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov of the expedition EO @-@ 18 crew . Atlantis also carried out on @-@ orbit joint US @-@ Russian life sciences investigations aboard a Spacelab module and performed a logistical resupply of the station .
The final Shuttle flight of 1995 , STS @-@ 74 , began with the November 12 launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis , and delivered the Russian @-@ built Docking Module to Mir , along with a new pair of solar arrays and other hardware upgrades for the station . The Docking Module was designed to provide more clearance for Shuttles in order to prevent any collisions with Mir 's solar arrays during docking , a problem which had been overcome during STS @-@ 71 by relocating the station 's Kristall module to a different location on the station . The module , attached to Kristall 's docking port , prevented the need for this procedure on further missions . During the course of the flight , nearly 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) of water were transferred to Mir and experiment samples including blood , urine and saliva were moved to Atlantis for return to Earth .
= = = Priroda ( 1996 ) = = =
Continuous US presence aboard Mir started in 1996 with the March 22 launch of Atlantis on mission STS @-@ 76 , when the Second Increment astronaut Shannon Lucid was transferred to the station . STS @-@ 76 was the third docking mission to Mir , which also demonstrated logistics capabilities through deployment of a Spacehab module , and placed experiment packages aboard Mir 's docking module , which marked the first spacewalk which occurred around docked vehicles . The spacewalks , carried out from Atlantis 's crew cabin , provided valuable experience for astronauts in order to prepare for later assembly missions to the International Space Station .
Lucid became the first American woman to live on station , and , following a six @-@ week extension to her Increment due to issues with Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters , her 188 @-@ day mission set the US single spaceflight record . During Lucid 's time aboard Mir , the Priroda module , with about 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of US science hardware , was docked to Mir . Lucid made use of both Priroda and Spektr to carry out 28 different science experiments and as living quarters .
Her stay aboard Mir ended with the flight of Atlantis on STS @-@ 79 , which launched on September 16 . STS @-@ 79 was the first Shuttle mission to carry a double Spacehab module . More than 4 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) of supplies were transferred to Mir , including water generated by Atlantis 's fuel cells , and experiments that included investigations into superconductors , cartilage development , and other biology studies . About 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) of experiment samples and equipment were also transferred back from Mir to Atlantis , making the total transfer the most extensive yet .
This , the fourth docking , also saw John Blaha transferring onto Mir to take his place as resident Increment astronaut . His stay on the station improved operations in several areas , including transfer procedures for a docked space shuttle , " hand @-@ over " procedures for long duration American crew members and " Ham " amateur radio communications .
Two spacewalks were carried out during his time aboard . Their aim was to remove electrical power connectors from a 12 @-@ year @-@ old solar power array on the base block and reconnect the cables to the more efficient new solar power arrays . In all , Blaha spent four months with the Mir @-@ 22 Cosmonaut crew conducting material science , fluid science , and life science research , before returning to Earth the next year aboard Atlantis on STS @-@ 81 .
= = = Fire and collision ( 1997 ) = = =
In 1997 STS @-@ 81 replaced Increment astronaut John Blaha with Jerry Linenger , after Blaha 's 118 @-@ day stay aboard Mir . During this fifth shuttle docking , the crew of Atlantis moved supplies to the station and returned to Earth the first plants to complete a life cycle in space ; a crop of wheat planted by Shannon Lucid . During five days of mated operations , the crews transferred nearly 6 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 700 kg ) of logistics to Mir , and transferred 2 @,@ 400 pounds ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of materials back to Atlantis ( the most materials transferred between the two spacecraft to that date ) .
The STS @-@ 81 crew also tested the Shuttle Treadmill Vibration Isolation and Stabilization System ( TVIS ) , designed for use in the Zvezda module of the International Space Station . The shuttle 's small vernier jet thrusters were fired during the mated operations to gather engineering data for " reboosting " the ISS . After undocking , Atlantis performed a fly @-@ around of Mir , leaving Linenger aboard the station .
During his Increment , Linenger became the first American to conduct a spacewalk from a foreign space station and the first to test the Russian @-@ built Orlan @-@ M spacesuit alongside Russian cosmonaut Vasili Tsibliyev . All three crewmembers of expedition EO @-@ 23 performed a " fly @-@ around " in the Soyuz spacecraft , first undocking from one docking port of the station , then manually flying to and redocking the capsule at a different location . This made Linenger the first American to undock from a space station aboard two different spacecraft ( Space Shuttle and Soyuz ) .
Linenger and his Russian crewmates Vasili Tsibliyev and Aleksandr Lazutkin faced several difficulties during the mission . These included the most severe fire aboard an orbiting spacecraft ( caused by a backup oxygen @-@ generating device ) , failures of various on board systems , a near collision with a Progress resupply cargo ship during a long @-@ distance manual docking system test and a total loss of station electrical power . The power failure also caused a loss of attitude control , which led to an uncontrolled " tumble " through space .
The next NASA astronaut to stay on Mir was Michael Foale . Foale and Russian mission specialist Elena Kondakova boarded Mir from Atlantis on mission STS @-@ 84 . The STS @-@ 84 crew transferred 249 items between the two spacecraft , along with water , experiment samples , supplies and hardware . One of the first items transferred to Mir was an Elektron oxygen @-@ generating unit . Atlantis was stopped three times while backing away during the undocking sequence on May 21 . The aim was to collect data from a European sensor device designed for future rendezvous of ESA 's Automated Transfer Vehicle ( ATV ) with the International Space Station .
Foale 's Increment proceeded fairly normally until June 25 , when a resupply ship collided with solar arrays on the Spektr module during the second test of the Progress manual docking system , TORU . The module 's outer shell was hit and holed , which caused the station to lose pressure . This was the first on @-@ orbit depressurization in the history of spaceflight . The crew quickly cut cables leading to the module and closed Spektr 's hatch in order to prevent the need to abandon the station in their Soyuz lifeboat . Their efforts stabilized the station 's air pressure , whilst the pressure in Spektr , containing many of Foale 's experiments and personal effects , dropped to a vacuum . Fortunately , food , water and other vital supplies were stored in other modules , and salvage and replanning effort by Foale and the science community minimized the loss of research data and capability .
In an effort to restore some of the power and systems lost following the isolation of Spektr and to attempt to locate the leak , Mir 's new commander Anatoly Solovyev and flight engineer Pavel Vinogradov carried out a salvage operation later in the mission . They entered the empty module during a so @-@ called " IVA " spacewalk , inspecting the condition of hardware and running cables through a special hatch from Spektr 's systems to the rest of the station . Following these first investigations , Foale and Solovyev conducted a 6 @-@ hour EVA on the surface of Spektr to inspect the damaged module .
After these incidents , the US Congress and NASA considered whether to abandon the program out of concern for astronauts ' safety but NASA administrator Daniel Goldin decided to continue the program . The next flight to Mir , STS @-@ 86 , brought Increment astronaut David Wolf to the station .
STS @-@ 86 performed the seventh Shuttle – Mir docking , the last of 1997 . During Atlantis 's stay crew members Titov and Parazynski conducted the first joint US – Russian extravehicular activity during a Shuttle mission , and the first in which a Russian wore a US spacesuit . During the five @-@ hour spacewalk , the pair affixed a 121 @-@ pound ( 55 kg ) Solar Array Cap to the Docking Module , for a future attempt by crew members to seal off the leak in Spektr 's hull . The mission returned Foale to Earth , along with samples , hardware , and an old Elektron oxygen generator , and dropped Wolf off on the Station ready for his 128 @-@ day Increment . Wolf had originally been scheduled to be the final Mir astronaut , but was chosen to go on the Increment instead of astronaut Wendy Lawrence . Lawrence was deemed ineligible for flight because of a change in Russian requirements after the Progress supply vehicle collision . The new rules required that all Mir crew members should be trained and ready for spacewalks , but a Russian spacesuit could not be prepared for Lawrence in time for launch .
= = = Phase One closes down ( 1998 ) = = =
The final year of Phase One began with the flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS @-@ 89 . The mission delivered Cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov to Mir and replaced David Wolf with Andy Thomas , following Wolf 's 119 day Increment .
During his Increment , the last of the program , Thomas worked on 27 science investigations into areas of advanced technology , Earth sciences , human life sciences , microgravity research , and ISS risk mitigation . His stay on Mir , considered the smoothest of the entire Phase One program , featured weekly " Letters from the Outpost " from Thomas and passed two milestones for length of spaceflight — 815 consecutive days in space by American astronauts since the launch of Shannon Lucid on the STS @-@ 76 mission in March 1996 , and 907 days of Mir occupancy by American astronauts dating back to Norman Thagard 's trip to Mir in March 1995 .
Thomas returned to Earth on the final Shuttle – Mir mission , STS @-@ 91 . The mission closed out Phase One , with the EO @-@ 25 and STS @-@ 91 crews transferring water to Mir and exchanging almost 4 @,@ 700 pounds ( 2 @,@ 100 kg ) of cargo experiments and supplies between the two spacecraft . Long @-@ term American experiments that had been on board Mir were also moved into Discovery . Hatches were closed for undocking at 9 : 07 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time ( EDT ) on June 8 and the spacecraft separated at 12 : 01 p.m. EDT that day .
= = = Phases Two and Three : ISS ( 1998 – 2024 ) = = =
With the landing of Discovery on June 12 , 1998 , the Phase One program concluded . Techniques and equipment developed during the program assisted the development of Phase Two : initial assembly of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The arrival of the Destiny Laboratory Module in 2001 marked the end of Phase Two and the start of Phase Three , the final outfitting of the station , completed in 2012 . In 2015 , a reconfiguration of the American segment was completed to allow its docking ports to accommodate NASA @-@ sponsored commercial crew vehicles , that are expected to start visiting the ISS in 2017 .
As of June 2015 , the ISS has a pressurized volume of 915 cubic metres ( 32 @,@ 300 cu ft ) , and its pressurized modules total 51 metres ( 167 ft ) in length , plus a large truss structure that spans 109 metres ( 358 ft ) , making it the largest spacecraft ever assembled . The completed station consists of five laboratories and is able to support six crew members . With over 332 cubic metres ( 11 @,@ 700 cu ft ) of habitable volume and a mass of 400 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 880 @,@ 000 lb ) the completed station is almost twice the size of the combined Shuttle – Mir spacecraft .
Phases Two and Three are intended to continue both international cooperation in space and zero @-@ gravity scientific research , particularly regarding long @-@ duration spaceflight . By spring 2015 , Roscosmos , NASA , and the Canadian Space Agency ( CSA ) have agreed to extend the ISS 's mission from 2020 to 2024 . The results of this research will provide considerable information for long @-@ duration expeditions to the Moon and flights to Mars .
Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on 23 March 2001 , the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth . It retained that distinction until the launch of Chinese Tiangong @-@ 1 space laboratory on 29 September 2011 . Mir 's legacy lives on in the station , bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space , to the Moon , Mars and beyond .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Safety and scientific return = = =
Criticism of the program was primarily concerned with the safety of the aging Mir , particularly following the fire aboard the station and collision with the Progress supply vessel in 1997 .
The fire , caused by the malfunction of a backup solid @-@ fuel oxygen generator ( SFOG ) , burned for , according to various sources , between 90 seconds and 14 minutes , and produced large amounts of toxic smoke that filled the station for around 45 minutes . This forced the crew to don respirators , but some of the respirator masks initially worn were broken . Fire extinguishers mounted on the walls of the modules were immovable . The fire occurred during a crew rotation , and as such there were six men aboard the station rather than the usual three . Access to one of the docked Soyuz lifeboats was blocked , which would have prevented escape by half of the crew . A similar incident had occurred on an earlier Mir expedition , although in that case the SFOG burned for only a few seconds .
The near @-@ miss and collision incidents presented further safety issues . Both were caused by failure of the same piece of equipment , the TORU manual docking system , which was undergoing tests at the time . The tests were called in order to gauge the performance of long @-@ distance docking in order to enable the cash @-@ strapped Russians to remove the expensive Kurs automatic docking system from the Progress ships .
The accidents also added to the increasingly vocal criticism of the aging station 's reliability . Astronaut Blaine Hammond claimed that his safety concerns about Mir were ignored by NASA officials , and that records of safety meetings " disappeared from a locked vault " . Mir was originally designed to fly for five years but eventually flew for three times that length of time . During Phase One and afterward , the station was showing her age — constant computer crashes , loss of power , uncontrolled tumbles through space and leaking pipes were an ever @-@ present concern for crews . Various breakdowns of Mir 's Elektron oxygen @-@ generating system were also a concern . These breakdowns led crews to become increasingly reliant on the SFOG systems that caused the fire in 1997 . SFOG systems continue to be a problem aboard the ISS .
Another issue of controversy was the scale of its actual scientific return , particularly following the loss of the Spektr science module . Astronauts , managers and various members of the press all complained that the benefits of the program were outweighed by the risks associated with it , especially considering the fact that most of the US science experiments had been contained within the holed module . As such , a large amount of American research was inaccessible , reducing the science that could be performed . The safety issues caused NASA to reconsider the future of the program at various times . The agency eventually decided to continue and came under fire from various areas of the press regarding that decision .
= = = Attitudes = = =
Attitudes of the Russian space program and NASA towards Phase One were also of concern to the astronauts involved . Because of Russia 's financial issues , many workers at the TsUP felt that the mission hardware and continuation of Mir was more important than the lives of the cosmonauts aboard the station . As such the program was run very differently compared to American programs : cosmonauts had their days being planned for them to the minute , actions ( such as docking ) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically , and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights . Americans learned aboard Skylab and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible . The Russians , however , would not budge , and many felt that significant work time was lost because of this .
Following the two accidents in 1997 , astronaut Jerry Linenger felt that the Russian authorities attempted a cover @-@ up to downplay the significance of the incidents , fearing that the Americans would back out of the partnership . A large part of this " cover @-@ up " was the seeming impression that the American astronauts were not in fact " partners " aboard the station , but were instead " guests " . NASA staff did not find out for several hours about the fire and collision and found themselves kept out of decision @-@ making processes . NASA became more involved when Russian mission controllers intended to place blame for the accident entirely on Vasily Tsibliyev . It was only after the application of significant pressure from NASA that this stance was changed .
At various times during the program , NASA managers and personnel found themselves limited in terms of resources and manpower , particularly as Phase Two geared up , and had a hard time getting anywhere with NASA administration . One particular area of contention was with crew assignments to missions . Many astronauts allege that the method of selection prevented the most skilled people from performing roles they were best @-@ suited for .
= = = Finances = = =
Since the breakup of the Soviet Union a few years earlier , the Russian economy had been slowly collapsing and the budget for space exploration was reduced by around 80 % . Before and after Phase One , a great deal of Russia 's space finances came from flights of astronauts from Europe and other countries , with one Japanese TV station paying $ 9 @.@ 5 million to have one of their reporters , Toyohiro Akiyama , flown aboard Mir . By the start of Phase One , cosmonauts regularly found their missions extended to save money on launchers , the six @-@ yearly flights of the Progress had been reduced to three , and there was a distinct possibility of Mir being sold for around $ 500 million .
Critics argued that the $ 325 million contract NASA had with Russia was the only thing keeping the Russian space program alive , and only the Space Shuttle was keeping Mir aloft . NASA also had to pay hefty fees for training manuals and equipment used by astronauts training at Star City . Problems came to a head when ABC 's Nightline revealed that there was a distinct possibility of embezzlement of American finances by the Russian authorities in order to build a suite of new cosmonaut houses in Moscow , or else that the building projects were being funded by the Russian Mafia . NASA administrator Goldin was invited onto Nightline to defend the homes but he refused to comment . NASA 's office for external affairs was quoted as saying that " What Russia does with its own money is their business . "
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= Tropical Storm Omeka =
Tropical Storm Omeka was the latest forming Eastern Pacific named storm since reliable records began in the 1960s . The storm was part of the 2010 Pacific typhoon and hurricane season . On December 18 , 2010 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) began monitoring a subtropical cyclone near the International Dateline for possible tropical cyclogenesis . Over the following two days , the system tracked southwestward , entering the Western Pacific basin . It then began to transition into a tropical cyclone . Shortly before crossing the dateline on December 20 , the CPHC assessed the system to have become a tropical storm . The storm was assigned the name Omeka several hours later as it moved into the CPHC 's area of responsibility – which is from 140 ° W to the International Dateline . Upon doing so , Omeka attained its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Later on December 20 , wind shear in the region increased , causing the system to weaken . By December 21 , the center of Omeka was devoid of convection and dissipated on the next day . Omeka brushed Lisianski Island with no damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Omeka were from an extratropical cyclone in the western Pacific Ocean . The storm tracked southeastward near the International Dateline , and by December 18 it transitioned into a kona storm and soon into a subtropical cyclone . A large , sprawling system , little development was initially expected to take place as the storm moved towards the southwest . As the low moved over warmer waters , the cyclone was able to maintain an area of deep convection near its center . According to the CPHC , the system was nearly fully tropical early on December 19 as it moved west of the dateline . However , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) considered the low to be fully subtropical as a cold @-@ core was present over the center of circulation . At this time , the storm had an eye @-@ like feature , and attained its peak strength with winds of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 997 millibars ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Later on December 19 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression as the low turned towards the southeast . Early on December 20 , the JMA issued their final advisory on the depression as it moved east of the dateline and reentered the CPHC 's area of responsibility .
Already classifying it as a tropical storm , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) issued their first advisory on the system at 0900 UTC on December 20 , at which time it was situated roughly 505 miles ( 815 km ) south of Midway Island . Upon issuing this advisory , they designated the system as Tropical Storm Omeka , the first named storm of the Central Pacific season . The storm generally tracked towards the northeast , in response to a mid @-@ level low to the west , throughout the remainder of its existence . Traversing an area of decreased sea surface temperatures and increasing wind shear , Omeka quickly weakened to a minimal tropical storm later on December 20 , with winds of 40 miles per hour ( 65 km / h ) . Intermittent bursts of convection allowed the system to maintain gale @-@ force winds through December 21 ; however , persistent shear finally took its toll later that morning . Between 0700 and 0800 UTC , Omeka brushed Lisianski Island . Around 0900 UTC , the CPHC issued their final advisory on Omeka , as it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone roughly 280 miles ( 450 km ) east @-@ southeast of Midway Island , near Lisianski Island . The extratropical cyclone dissipated on December 23 .
= = Impact and records = =
On December 21 , the center of Omeka brushed Lisianski Island , with winds of 40 miles per hour ( 65 km / h ) . However , no tropical storm watches or warnings were issued since the CPHC anticipated weakening prior to the storm passing the island . Crossing the International Dateline into the northeast Pacific on December 20 , being the first tropical cyclone to do so since Tropical Storm Wene in 2000 , Omeka existed in the northeast Pacific later than any other storm since the 1960s , when reliable records begin in the basin . However , according to the CPHC 's database , there are two possible tropical cyclones in 1903 and 1904 which developed on December 23 . Omeka was the first December storm in the Central Pacific since Tropical Storm Paka in 1997 . Throughout 2010 , the entire Pacific Ocean experienced record @-@ low tropical cyclone activity due to a strong La Niña . Since Omeka was the first storm in the Central Pacific during the year , it marked the latest start to a season since reliable records began , excluding seasons with no storms . In addition , even though it did not become a named storm , Tropical Depression Nine @-@ C of the 2015 Pacific hurricane season marked the latest forming tropical cyclone on record as it spanned two calendars and dissipated on January 1 , 2016 .
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= USS Florida ( BB @-@ 30 ) =
USS Florida ( BB @-@ 30 ) was the lead ship of the Florida class of dreadnought battleships of the United States Navy . She had one sister ship , Utah . Florida was laid down at the New York Navy Yard in March 1909 , launched in May 1910 , and commissioned into the US Navy in September 1911 . She was armed with a main battery of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and was very similar in design to the preceding Delaware @-@ class battleships .
Florida was one of the first ships to arrive during the United States occupation of Veracruz in early 1914 , and part of her crew joined the landing party that occupied the city . She was assigned to United States Battleship Division 9 after the American entrance into World War I in April 1917 ; the division was sent to Europe to reinforce the British Grand Fleet . During the war , Florida and the rest of her unit , reassigned as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet , conducted patrols in the North Sea and escorted convoys to Norway . She saw no action with the German High Seas Fleet , however .
Florida returned to normal peacetime duties in 1919 . She was heavily modernized in 1924 – 1926 , including a complete overhaul of her propulsion system . She remained in service until 1930 , when the London Naval Treaty was signed . Under the terms of the treaty , Florida and Utah were removed from active service . Therefore , Florida was decommissioned in 1931 and scrapped the next year in Philadelphia .
= = Design = =
Florida was 521 ft 6 in ( 158 @.@ 95 m ) long overall and had a beam of 88 ft 3 in ( 26 @.@ 90 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in ( 8 @.@ 69 m ) . She displaced 21 @,@ 825 long tons ( 22 @,@ 175 t ) as designed and up to 23 @,@ 033 long tons ( 23 @,@ 403 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 20 @.@ 75 kn ( 38 @.@ 43 km / h ; 23 @.@ 88 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 776 nmi ( 6 @,@ 650 mi ; 10 @,@ 700 km ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 1 @,@ 001 officers and men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 8 gun turrets on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . The main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , while the armored deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces and the conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Florida was laid down at the New York Navy Yard on 9 March 1909 . She was launched on 12 May 1910 , and commissioned into the US Navy on 15 September 1911 . She spent the next several months on training cruises in the Caribbean and off Maine , after which she moved to Hampton Roads to join the Atlantic Fleet . She arrived on 29 March 1912 , and was made the flagship of the 1st Battleship Division ( BatDiv ) . For the next two years , she participated in the normal routine of peacetime exercises with her division and squadron and with the entire Atlantic Fleet . She also conducted extensive gunnery training and took midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on midshipman training cruises .
In early 1914 during the Mexican Revolution , the United States intervened in the fighting and occupied Veracruz . Florida and her sister Utah were the first capital ships to arrive in Veracruz , on 16 February . These two ships and Prairie landed a total contingent of over a thousand Marines and bluejackets to begin the occupation of the city on 21 April . Over the next three days , the Marines battled Mexican defenders in the city and suffered ninety @-@ four casualties ( 19 dead ) , while killing hundreds of Mexicans in return . Fourteen men from Florida 's crew won the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle . In July , Florida departed Mexican waters to return to normal fleet operations , and in October , she was reassigned to the 2nd Battleship Division .
= = = World War I = = =
On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany over its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign . Florida participated in wartime readiness exercises in 1917 , before steaming across the Atlantic with Battleship Division 9 . The division , which consisted of Florida , New York , Wyoming , and Delaware , left the United States on 25 November . The division was sent to European waters to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea . After arriving in Scapa Flow , Battleship Division 9 became the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet .
Starting in late 1917 , the Germans had begun to use surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia ; this forced the British to send squadrons from the Grand Fleet to escort the convoys . On 6 February 1918 , the 6th Battle Squadron and eight British destroyers escorted a convoy of merchant ships to Norway . While on the operation , Florida 's lookouts reported spotting a U @-@ boat , though the commander of Wyoming later argued that this and others issued by the rest of the squadron were false reports . The squadron was back in Scapa Flow on 10 February ; Delaware escorted two more such convoys in March and April . During the March convoy , Florida , Wyoming , Texas , and four destroyers became separated from the convoy in heavy fog , and only relocated it the following morning when the fog had lifted . The squadron returned to Scapa Flow on 13 March .
On 22 – 24 April , the German High Seas Fleet sortied to intercept one of the convoys in the hope of cutting off and destroying the escorting battleship squadron . Florida and the rest of the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow on 24 April in an attempt to intercept the Germans , but the High Seas Fleet had already broken off the operation and was on its way back to port . On 30 June , the 6th Squadron was cruising in the North Sea in support of a mine @-@ laying operation ; while on patrol , Florida and several other ships fired on what they incorrectly believed to be U @-@ boat wakes . By early November , the Spanish Flu pandemic had spread to the Grand Fleet ; Florida was the only ship of the American contingent not to be quarantined for the virus . On 20 November , Florida and the rest of the Grand Fleet rendezvoused with the High Seas Fleet , which was then interned in Scapa Flow , following the Armistice with Germany that ended the war . Shortly thereafter , Florida was replaced with the newly commissioned Nevada .
Florida then joined the passenger ship SS George Washington on 12 December , which was carrying President Woodrow Wilson on his way to France to participate in the peace negotiations . The ships arrived in Brest , France on 13 December , after which Florida returned to the United States . She was present during the Victory Naval Review in the North River in New York City at the end of December .
= = = Inter @-@ War Period = = =
Florida returned to normal peacetime duties in January 1919 , when she arrived in Norfolk on the 4th . She steamed to the Azores to take weather observations for Navy seaplanes that were to make the first aerial crossing the Atlantic . In August 1920 , Florida was present during the 300th anniversary of the Pilgrims ' landing at Provincetown , Massachusetts . In December 1920 , she made a good @-@ will cruise to South America with US Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby aboard and over the next three years conducted amphibious operation training with the Marine Corps in the Caribbean . Florida also participated in the normal routine of exercises and midshipman cruises . During this period , she was made the flagship of the Commander , Control Force , US Fleet .
In early 1924 , Florida took part in the Fleet Problem III maneuvers , where she and her sister Utah acted as stand @-@ ins for the new Colorado @-@ class battleships . In June 1924 , Florida was taken out of service for a modernization at the Boston Navy Yard , which lasted from 1 April 1925 to 1 November 1926 . During the reconstruction , her deck armor was strengthened and anti @-@ torpedo blisters were installed to increase her resistance to underwater damage . Her secondary battery was rearranged to improve its efficiency , and four of her 5 @-@ inch guns , which were mounted in sponsons , were removed . She was also reboilered with four White @-@ Forster oil @-@ fired models that had been removed from the battleships and battlecruisers scrapped as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty . Her Parsons turbines were replaced with new Curtis geared turbines and her two funnels were trunked into one stack . The rear lattice mast was replaced with a pole mast , which was moved further aft . Her two submerged torpedo tubes were also removed .
Florida remained in service for a few years in her modernized form , and participated in joint Army @-@ Navy coast defense exercises in June 1928 . Under the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , which reduced the battle fleets of the signatory countries , she was to be disposed of , along with her sister Utah and either Arkansas or Wyoming ( Wyoming would be the second affected vessel , demilitarized in May 1931 for use as a training ship ) . She was accordingly decommissioned on 16 February 1931 at the Philadelphia Naval Yard , and was broken up in Philadelphia later that year . The one @-@ ton ship 's bell was saved and transported to the University of Florida in Gainesville , where it was first installed in a clock atop a classroom building . The clock was removed in the early 1950s and the bell was put in storage . In 1960 , it was installed atop the stands in the north end zone at Florida Field , where it was traditionally rung by either cheerleaders or fans at the conclusion of a victory by the Florida Gator football team . As the stadium underwent successive expansions and renovations , the bell was moved to a location under the north end zone concourse and then was removed from the stadium in 1992 . It has been restored and is now housed in the lobby of the Museum of Florida History .
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= Petropavlovsk @-@ class battleship =
The Petropavlovsk class , sometimes referred to as the Poltava class , was a class of three pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the 1890s . They were transferred to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 . All three ships participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . Petropavlovsk sank two months after the war began after striking one or more mines laid by the Japanese . The remaining two ships participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904 and were sunk or scuttled during the final stages of the Siege of Port Arthur .
Poltava was salvaged after the Japanese captured Port Arthur and incorporated into the Imperial Japanese Navy . The ship , renamed Tango in Japanese service , participated in the Battle of Tsingtao in late 1914 , during World War I. She was sold back to the Russians in 1916 and renamed Chesma as her original name was in use by another battleship . The ship became the flagship of the Russian Arctic Flotilla in 1917 and her crew supported the Bolsheviks later that year . She was seized by the British in early 1918 when they intervened in the Russian Civil War , abandoned by them when they withdrew and scrapped by the Soviets in 1924 .
= = Design and description = =
Design work for the Petropavlovsk class began as an enlarged and improved version of the battleship Imperator Nikolai I , but with her main armament of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in barbettes . Based on experience with Imperator Aleksandr II in which the casemate @-@ mounted secondary armament could often not be worked in rough weather , the Naval Technical Committee adopted the layout of the American Indiana @-@ class battleships with the secondary armament of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns mounted in turrets on the upper deck . Use of the lighter barbette mounting allowed for a flush @-@ deck hull which gave the ship high freeboard . The class was designed with a displacement of 10 @,@ 960 long tons ( 11 @,@ 136 t ) , a full @-@ length waterline armor belt , and the upper hull featured a modest amount of tumblehome . It was approved in January 1891 .
The design was intended to have a maximum speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) using forced draft , but model testing of the hull showed that it could only reach 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Rather than delay construction by redesigning the hull to reach the desired speed , the navy accepted the slower speed . Development of the quick @-@ firing gun meant that an upper belt of armor was necessary and the weight required was gained by shortening the waterline armor belt , which left the ships ' ends protected only by the sloping armor deck . Other changes included the replacement of the barbettes with turrets of the same type as used in the battleship Sissoi Veliky and the substitution of 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns for the original eight @-@ inch guns . This saved enough weight that four additional six @-@ inch guns could be added .
The Petropavlovsk @-@ class ships were 376 feet ( 114 @.@ 6 m ) long overall , had a beam of 70 feet ( 21 m ) and a draft of 28 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 6 m ) . Designed to displace 10 @,@ 960 long tons ( 11 @,@ 140 t ) , they were 400 – 800 long tons ( 410 – 810 t ) overweight and actually displaced 11 @,@ 354 – 11 @,@ 842 long tons ( 11 @,@ 536 – 12 @,@ 032 t ) . The ships were the first flush @-@ decked battleships built for the Navy . They had a partial double bottom and the hull was divided by 10 watertight transverse bulkheads ; a centerline bulkhead divided the machinery spaces . The upper part of the hull between the main and upper decks curved inwards ( tumblehome ) , although the tumblehome on these ships was much less pronounced than that found on French battleships of the time , which began curving inwards at the waterline . They had a designed metacentric height of 5 @.@ 43 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) and were good seagoing ships . Their crew consisted of 26 – 27 officers and 605 – 25 enlisted men ; Petropavlovsk had a crew of 750 when serving as a flagship .
The ships were powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 14 cylindrical boilers at a working pressure of 8 @.@ 8 atm ( 892 kPa ; 129 psi ) . Unlike her sisters , Sevastopol had 16 boilers . The engines were rated at 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 900 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 16 knots . The machinery for Poltava and Petropavlovsk was ordered from British companies and slightly exceeded their specifications ; the ships reached maximum speed of 16 @.@ 29 and 16 @.@ 38 knots ( 30 @.@ 17 and 30 @.@ 34 km / h ; 18 @.@ 75 and 18 @.@ 85 mph ) from 11 @,@ 213 and 11 @,@ 255 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 362 and 8 @,@ 393 kW ) , respectively , during their sea trials . Sevastopol , using domestically built machinery , only reached a speed of 15 @.@ 3 knots ( 28 @.@ 3 km / h ; 17 @.@ 6 mph ) from 9 @,@ 368 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 986 kW ) , despite the extra boilers , but the Naval Ministry chose not to exercise the penalty provisions of the contract for failing to attain the design speed because it had specified the machinery to be used . They carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 3 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 940 km ; 4 @,@ 320 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in French @-@ style center @-@ pivot twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . They used hydraulic power for loading and traversing , but the ammunition hoists were electrically powered . They were designed to fire one shell every 90 seconds , but the rate of fire in service proved to be one round every three minutes . The structure of the turrets proved to be too weak to withstand extra @-@ strength charges and had to be reinforced . These guns had a maximum elevation of 15 ° and could traverse 270 ° . 58 rounds per gun were carried . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 598 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) to a range of 12 @,@ 010 yards ( 10 @,@ 980 m ) at an elevation of 10 ° .
The secondary armament of the ships consisted of a dozen 45 @-@ caliber Canet Model 1892 six @-@ inch quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , eight mounted in four twin @-@ gun turrets on the upper deck and four pedestal @-@ mounted guns in embrasures on the sides of the hull , one deck below and between the turrets . The turrets were traversed by and the ammunition hoists were worked by electric motors , but the guns were elevated manually . They had an 135 ° arc of fire and the guns could elevate to a maximum of + 15 ° and depress to − 5 ° . The rate of fire of the turret @-@ mounted guns was generally only about half that ( 2 – 3 rounds per minute ) of the pedestal @-@ mounted guns . The motors and mechanism of the ammunition hoists were problematic and sometimes reduced the rate of fire down of one round per minute . The guns in the hull could traverse 100 ° and each six @-@ inch gun was provided with 200 rounds . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 27 lb ( 41 @.@ 40 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 yards ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° .
A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included twelve 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in hull embrasures and on the superstructure . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . Twenty smaller 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were positioned in hull embrasures , on the superstructure and in the fighting tops . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) . They had a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute and a maximum range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
The Petropavlovsk @-@ class ships carried four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , all above water , mounted on the broadside and two broadside 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) underwater tubes . The forward 15 @-@ inch tubes were near the forward main gun turret and were unprotected by any armor ; aft , the 15 @-@ inch tubes were protected by the upper armor belt . The underwater tubes were protected underneath the armor deck , forward of the forward 12 @-@ inch magazine . The 15 @-@ inch Type L torpedo carried a 141 @-@ pound ( 64 kg ) warhead of TNT . It had two speed settings which gave it a maximum range of 980 yards ( 900 m ) at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) or 660 yards ( 600 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . No data is available for the 18 @-@ inch torpedo . The ship also carried 50 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas .
The ships were fitted with Liuzhol stadiametric rangefinders that used the angle between two vertical points on an enemy ship , usually the waterline and the crow 's nest , to estimate the range . The gunnery officer consulted his references to get the range and calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target . He transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro @-@ mechanical fire @-@ control transmission system to each gun or turret .
= = = Protection = = =
The Russian armor plate industry had not yet mastered the process for forming thick steel plates so the armor for these ships was ordered from companies in Germany and the United States . Even they could not produce enough of the latest types of armor plate in the quantities required for all three ships . Petropavlovsk had ordinary nickel steel , while Sevastopol used Harvey armor and Poltava used the latest Krupp armor . The thicknesses of the armor plates varied in an attempt to equalize their effectiveness . In Petropavlovsk , the maximum thickness of the waterline armor belt over the machinery spaces was 16 inches ( 406 mm ) which reduced to 12 inches ( 305 mm ) abreast the magazines . The belt tapered to a thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) at its bottom edge . The belt armor in the other two ships was 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 368 mm ) over the machinery spaces and thinned to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) over the magazines . Their belt tapered to a thickness of 7 @.@ 25 inches ( 184 mm ) at its lower edge . The belt covered 240 feet ( 73 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship 's length and was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , of which the upper 36 inches ( 914 @.@ 4 mm ) was intended to be above the waterline . The belt terminated in a transverse bulkhead 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick forward and eight inches thick aft , leaving the ends of the ships unprotected . Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) armor that ran between the turret bases , seven and a half feet high . The ends of the upper belt were closed off by five @-@ inch angled transverse bulkheads that connected the ends of the upper belt to the turret support tubes .
The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was ten inches thick ( Krupp armor in Poltava , nickel steel in the other two ) with roofs 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick . The turrets of the secondary armament had five @-@ inch sides with 1 inch ( 25 mm ) roofs . The six @-@ inch guns in the hull embrasures were unprotected . The sides of the conning tower were nine inches thick while the armor deck in the central citadel was two inches thick . Outside the area covered by the belt armor , the flat portion of the deck was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick , while the sloped portion was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Petropavlovsk was the first of the three ships to enter service ; she departed Kronstadt on 17 October 1899 and reached Port Arthur on 10 May 1900 . She became flagship of the Pacific Squadron commander , Vice Admiral Nikolai I. Skrydlov , upon her arrival . The ship supported international efforts to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in mid @-@ 1900 . Poltava and Sevastopol departed for Port Arthur on 15 October 1900 and arrived on 12 and 13 April 1901 respectively . Petropavlovsk was the flagship of Vice Admiral Oskar Victorovich Stark at the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 .
During the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war , Poltava was hit twice in the aft hull , Petropavlovsk was hit three times in the bow and Sevastopol was hit once . Between them , the three ships lost two men killed and seven wounded and none of them suffered any significant damage . Tsar Nicholas II relieved Stark and he was replaced by Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov who assumed command on 7 March . On 31 March , Petropavlovsk and Poltava sortied to support Russian cruisers and destroyers engaging their Japanese counterparts , but they headed back to Port Arthur to join the rest of the Pacific Squadron when the main Japanese battlefleet appeared . They ran into a newly laid minefield en route and Petropavlovsk struck at least one of the mines . Observers saw three explosions , one of which appeared to be that of her magazines , and the ship sank in less than two minutes . Casualties included Admiral Makarov and his guest , Russian battle artist Vasily Vereshchagin , 26 officers and 652 enlisted men . Only seven officers and 73 crewmen were rescued .
The new commander , Vice Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , made an attempt to lead the Pacific Squadron to Vladivostok on 23 June , but abandoned the sortie when the squadron was discovered and pursued by the Japanese . While returning to Port Arthur , Sevastopol struck a mine and the ship took on an estimated 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of water ; despite the flooding she was able to keep up with the fleet and reached port successfully . While under repair , which lasted until 9 July , a fire broke out aboard the ship and killed two crewmen and injured an additional 28 . All of the 47- and 37 @-@ millimeter guns in the lower hull embrasures were removed from Poltava and Sevastopol during this time ; some were remounted on the superstructure , but others were used to reinforce the land defenses of Port Arthur .
Vitgeft made another attempt to break through the Japanese blockade on 10 August in accordance to a direct order from the Tsar . The squadron was spotted relatively quickly and the Japanese main fleet intercepted the Russians in the early afternoon . During the Battle of the Yellow Sea , Poltava and Sevastopol were the last battleships in the Russian column and Poltava , which was slowed by engine problems , became the primary target of the Japanese battleships and armored cruisers when Vitgeft maneuvered the squadron past the Japanese and forced them into a stern chase . Shortly before sunset , a lucky hit killed Vitgeft and threw the squadron into confusion . The squadron second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky , eventually gained control of the squadron and led most of them back to Port Arthur . Poltava had been hit by 12 – 14 shells , eight or 12 inches in caliber , and suffered 12 killed and 43 wounded ; Sevastopol was only hit by several shells that killed one crewman and wounded 62 men .
On 23 August , Sevastopol sortied to bombard Japanese troops and struck a mine near her forward magazines while returning to port . She was badly damaged and took on a lot of water . The ship was towed back into Port Arthur and her repairs lasted until 6 November . In the meantime , the new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Robert N. Viren , decided to use the men and guns of the Pacific Squadron to reinforce the defenses of Port Arthur and even more guns were stripped from the squadron 's ships ; by September Poltava had dismounted three 6 @-@ inch , four 47- and twenty @-@ six 37 @-@ millimeter guns . Sevastopol lost one 47- and twenty @-@ six 37 @-@ millimeter guns as well . Both ships were lightly damaged by 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) shells in October when the Imperial Japanese Army 's siege guns began firing blindly into the harbor . The capture of Hill 203 , which overlooked the harbor , on 5 December allowed them to fire directly at the Russian ships and Poltava was sunk in shallow water that same day by a shell that started a fire in a magazine that eventually exploded . By 7 December all of the Russian battleships except Sevastopol had been sunk and the ship 's captain , Nikolai Essen , anchored her under the guns of the remaining coast defense guns outside the harbor . He rigged torpedo nets and laid a minefield around his ship that thwarted repeated attacks until 16 December when one torpedo struck the ship in the stern during a blinding snowstorm . Badly damaged , Sevastopol was towed to deep water about two weeks later , when Port Arthur surrendered on 2 January 1905 , and scuttled .
Poltava was subsequently raised , repaired and reclassified as a first @-@ class coastal defense ship in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Renamed Tango ( 丹後 ) , she served as a gunnery training ship and the ship participated in the Siege of Tsingtao at the beginning of World War I. She was sold to Russia in March 1916 and arrived in Vladivostok on 2 April 1916 . Renamed Chesma ( Чесма ) , the ship arrived in Port Said , Egypt on 19 September and later supported efforts to intimidate the Greek Government into support Allied operations in Macedonia . She arrived at Alexandrovsk on 16 January 1917 after a brief refit in Birkenhead and became flagship of the Arctic Flotilla . Her crew joined the Bolsheviks in October 1917 and Chesma was captured by the British in Murmansk in March 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . The ship was already in bad shape and the British immobilized her when they departed Russia in October 1919 . She was stricken on 3 July 1924 and subsequently scrapped .
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= 1977 European Cup Final =
The 1977 European Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool of England and Borussia Mönchengladbach of Germany on 25 May 1977 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome , Italy ( the venue was decided in Bern by the UEFA Executive Committee on 17 September 1976 ) . The showpiece event was the final match of the 1976 – 77 season of Europe 's premier cup competition , the European Cup . Both teams were appearing in their first European Cup final , although the two sides had previously met in the 1973 UEFA Cup Final , which Liverpool won 3 – 2 on aggregate over two legs .
Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . Liverpool 's victories varied from close affairs to comfortable victories . They beat the previous season 's runners @-@ up Saint @-@ Étienne by a single goal over two legs , while they defeated FC Zürich 6 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final . Borussia Mönchengladbach matches were mainly all close affairs . All but one of their ties were won by the one goal .
Watched by a crowd of 57 @,@ 000 , Liverpool took an early lead through Terry McDermott , but Allan Simonsen equalised for Mönchengladbach early in the second half . Liverpool regained the lead midway through the second half with a goal from Tommy Smith , and Phil Neal ensured Liverpool won the match 3 – 1 to secure their first European Cup . The victory was a year after they had won the UEFA Cup , which meant that Bob Paisley became the first manager to win the UEFA Cup and European Cup in successive seasons .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool were the reigning UEFA Cup champions , they had beaten Belgian team Club Brugge 4 – 3 on aggregate to win the 1975 – 76 UEFA Cup . Liverpool entered the competition as English champions having won the 1975 – 76 Football League First Division . They were drawn against the Northern Irish champions Crusaders in the first round . The first leg was a home tie at Anfield , which Liverpool won 2 – 0 courtesy of a Phil Neal penalty and a John Toshack goal . The second leg away at Seaview , was won 5 – 0 by Liverpool . Four of the goals were scored within nine minutes of the end of the match , to make the scoreline seem more one @-@ sided than the match actually was . Liverpool won the tie 7 – 0 and were drawn against Turkish champions Trabzonspor in the second round . The first leg was played in Turkey at Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium . Liverpool 's plan was to try to avoid defeat , however that plan failed when Trabzonsor were awarded a penalty midway through the second half . Trabzonspor converted the subsequent penalty and won the match 1 – 0 . Liverpool recovered in the second leg at Anfield . Three goals early in the first half meant they won the match 3 – 0 to win the tie 3 – 1 on aggregate and progress to the quarter @-@ finals .
Liverpool 's opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were the previous year 's beaten finalists Saint @-@ Étienne of France . The first leg was at the Stade Geoffroy @-@ Guichard . As in the previous round Liverpool lost the away leg 1 – 0 . The return leg at Anfield is considered one of Liverpool 's most memorable European matches . Liverpool scored in the second minute of the match through Kevin Keegan to level the tie . Early in the second half Saint @-@ Étienne equalised through Dominique Bathenay . The goal meant that the tie was 2 – 1 in the French team 's favour and due to the away goals rule , Liverpool needed to score two goals to progress to the semi @-@ finals . Liverpool scored again midway through the second half to make the 2 – 2 on aggregate . With 18 minutes remaining David Fairclough replaced John Toshack . After 12 minutes on the pitch , the " supersub " had struck ... again . Liverpool went on to win the match 3 – 1 and the tie 3 – 2 to progress to semi @-@ finals . Liverpool 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals were Swiss champions FC Zürich . The first leg at the Letzigrund was won 3 – 1 by Liverpool , after they had initially gone a goal behind . Liverpool won the second leg at Anfield 3 – 0 to win the tie 6 – 1 on aggregate and ensure their participation in the final .
= = = Borussia Mönchengladbach = = =
Borussia gained entry to the competition as a result of winning the 1975 – 76 Fußball @-@ Bundesliga . Their opposition in the first round were Austrian champions Austria Vienna . The away leg at the Franz Horr Stadium ended in a 1 – 0 defeat for Borussia . The return leg at the Bökelbergstadion saw Borussia win 3 – 0 courtesy of goals from Uli Stielike , Rainer Bonhof and Jupp Heynckes . A 3 – 1 aggregate victory meant that Borussia would face Italian champions Torino in the second round . Borussia won the first leg away from home at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino 2 – 1 . The second leg finished 0 – 0 , which was enough for Borussia to progress to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
Borussia 's oppostition in the quarter @-@ finals was Belgian champions Club Brugge . The first leg at the Bökelbergstadion saw Borussia concede two goals in the first half . However , they scored two goals in the second half courtesy of Christian Kulik and Allan Simonsen to secure a 2 – 2 draw . Despite this , Club Brugge had the advantage due to them having two away goals . Borussia knew that they had to score in the second leg at the Jan Breydel Stadium to have any chance of progressing to the semi @-@ finals . The first half was goalless , and with six minutes of the second half remaining Wilfried Hannes scored the goal Borussia needed . The match finished 1 – 0 and a 3 – 2 aggregate victory meant they progressed to the semi @-@ finals . Their opposition were Soviet champions Dynamo Kyiv . The first leg at the Central Stadium was won 1 – 0 by Dynamo . Borussia again needed to score to stay in the competition . Midway through the second half , Rainer Bonhof scored to make the tie 1 – 1 on aggregate . With eight minutes remaining and tie heading for extra time , Hans @-@ Jürgen Wittkamp scored to give Borussia a two @-@ goal lead . The score remained the same and Borussia progressed to their first European Cup final with a 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
The 1977 final was the first time Liverpool and Borussia Mönchengladbach had reached the showpiece match . The clubs had faced each other before in the final of a European competition ; the 1973 UEFA Cup Final . A match which Liverpool won 3 – 2 on aggregate . Despite this being both clubs first European Cup final they had both won European competitions . In addition to their UEFA Cup victory over Borussia , Liverpool had won the previous season 's UEFA Cup , beating Club Brugge 4 – 3 on aggregate . Borussia were successful in the 1974 – 75 UEFA Cup ; they beat FC Twente of the Netherlands 5 – 1 on aggregate .
Liverpool entered the match as English champions ; they had won the 1976 – 77 Football League for a record tenth time by a single point from Manchester City and Ipswich Town . Liverpool had also progressed to the final of the 1976 – 77 FA Cup against Manchester United . Liverpool had the opportunity to win an unprecedented Treble of League , FA Cup and European Cup . However , it was not to be as Liverpool lost the FA Cup final 2 – 1 . Borussia entered the match as German champions ; they had won the 1976 – 77 Fußball @-@ Bundesliga by a single point from Schalke and Eintracht Braunschweig . Borussia were aiming to become the second German to win the European Cup after Bayern Munich had won the three previous finals .
The first chance of the match was for Borussia ; Rainer Bonhof saw his shot come back off the post . In the 24th minute , Borussia player Herbert Wimmer suffered an injury and had to be replaced by Christian Kulik . Three minutes later Ian Callaghan won the ball in midfield and passed to Steve Heighway on the right wing . Heighway cut inside from a wing and passed into space for Terry McDermott who scored the opening goal of the match . Borussia began to exert more of an influence on the game after Liverpool 's goal , however they were unable to equalise before the end of the first half .
Seven minutes after the restart Borussia had equalised . A stray Jimmy Case pass was picked up by Allan Simonsen , who advanced towards goal and scored to level the match at 1 – 1 . Moments later , Liverpool thought they had won a penalty when Kevin Keegan seemed to have been brought down by Berti Vogts , however the referee waved play on . Five minutes after their goal , Simonsen crossed the ball from the wing , it was met by Uli Stielike whose shot was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence . Two minutes later Liverpool regained the lead . They won a corner on the left side of the pitch , Heighway delivered the ball into the penalty area , which was met at the near post by Tommy Smith to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead in what was his 600th appearance for the club . Soon afterwards Bonhof appeared to have brought Heighway down in the penalty area , but the referee again waved play on . However , in the 82nd minute Liverpool were awarded a penalty when Vogts brought Kevin Keegan down . Phil Neal scored the subsequent penalty to give Liverpool a 3 – 1 lead . No further goals were scored and Liverpool won the match to win their first European Cup .
= = = Details = = =
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