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= Trogloraptor =
Trogloraptor is a genus of large spiders found in the caves of southwestern Oregon . It is the sole genus in the family Trogloraptoridae , and includes only one species , Trogloraptor marchingtoni . These spiders are predominantly yellow @-@ brown in color with a maximum leg span of 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) . They are remarkable for having hook @-@ like claws on the raptorial last segments of their legs .
Trogloraptor belongs to one of only three new spider families described since 1990 . The specific name is in honor of the amateur cave biologist and deputy sheriff Neil Marchington .
= = Discovery = =
The spiders were first collected in 2010 by Geo Graening , Neil Marchington , Ron Davis and Daniel Snyder , cave conservationists from the Western Cave Conservancy . They were described in 2012 by a research team consisting of arachnologists Charles Griswold , Tracy Audisio and Joel Ledford of the California Academy of Sciences . The male holotype was recovered from the M2 cave near Grants Pass , Oregon on July 29 , 2010 . The female holotype was recovered from a cave in Josephine County , Oregon on September 16 , 2010 .
Lead researcher Griswold claimed that Trogloraptor might explain the legends of giant cave spiders in the area . The discovery is also notable because only two other new spider families have been described since 1990 . The American arachnologist Norman Platnick commented that it was " ... as fascinating to arachnologists as the discovery of a new dinosaur is to paleontologists . "
= = Taxonomy = =
Trogloraptor includes only one species , Trogloraptor marchingtoni , and is the only genus in the monotypic family Trogloraptoridae . It was initially suggested that Trogloraptor was a primitive member of the six @-@ eyed spider superfamily Dysderoidea . However , Trogloraptor exhibits several unique features , including primitive respiratory systems , that justify its assignment to a separate family . The family probably diverged from other spiders about 130 million years ago , which would make it another notable relict taxon from North America . A 2014 study based on ribosomal DNA found that Trogloraptor fell outside the Dysderoidea and concluded that it should not be included in this clade .
The specific name is in honor of Neil Marchington . The generic name Trogloraptor means " cave robber " , in reference to the spider 's habitat and hooked raptorial tarsi .
= = Distribution = =
Additional live specimens recovered in 2010 and 2011 from Oregon were all found deep inside caves . Except for a single juvenile specimen recovered from the understory debris of old growth redwood forests of northwest California , none have been found outside the caves . This specimen has different markings than T. marchingtoni and may represent a new undescribed species .
The family Trogloraptoridae may have had a wider distribution given that redwood forests encompassed a far greater area in North America during the Pliocene ( about 5 mya ) . Other species may still be present in other caves .
= = Description = =
Adult Trogloraptor have six eyes and a body length of about 7 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) in males and 8 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) in females . With its legs outstretched , the spider can reach up to 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) in length .
The entire body is yellow @-@ brown , except for a dark brown V @-@ shaped mark on the cephalothorax , the orange @-@ brown chelicerae , and the purple @-@ brown abdomen ( opisthosoma ) with a series of faint light @-@ colored chevron markings . The cephalothorax carapace is pear @-@ shaped with a heart @-@ shaped sternum . The abdomen is oval and sparsely covered with small bristles ( setae ) . The males possess enlarged piriform pedipalps .
The spiders are unique in the flexible and teethed hook @-@ like claws on the last segments ( tarsus ) of their legs . These elongated claws resemble those of spiders in the family Gradungulidae of Australia and New Zealand , but the two families are only distantly related . Hooked tarsal claws are also present to a lesser extent in the unrelated genera Doryonychus of Tetragnathidae , Hetrogriffus of Thomisidae and Celaenia of Araneidae .
= = Ecology = =
Trogloraptor spin simple webs with only a few strands , hung from the roofs of caves . Griswold et al. stated that the claws may have a significant function in capturing prey . Similar to the Nelson cave spider of New Zealand ( Spelungula cavernicola , a gradungulid ) , Trogloraptor probably dangle upside down from their webs , snatching at passing flying insects with their claws . However their exact prey remains unknown . Captured live specimens were raised in climate @-@ controlled laboratory conditions in an effort to find out . These specimens were offered moths , crickets and other spiders as food ; but these were declined and the specimens starved after two weeks . This may indicate a preference for very specific prey .
Like most spiders , Trogloraptor possess venom glands . However , the venom is not known to be harmful to humans . The spiders themselves are very shy and unaggressive . They immediately flee illumination .
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= The Martian ( film ) =
The Martian is a 2015 American science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Matt Damon , based on Andy Weir 's 2011 novel The Martian . Damon stars as an astronaut who is mistakenly presumed dead and left behind on Mars . The film depicts his struggle to survive and others ' efforts to rescue him . The film 's ensemble cast also features Jessica Chastain , Kristen Wiig , Jeff Daniels , Michael Peña , Kate Mara , Sean Bean , Sebastian Stan , Aksel Hennie , Donald Glover , and Chiwetel Ejiofor .
Producer Simon Kinberg began developing the film after 20th Century Fox optioned the novel in March 2013 , which Drew Goddard adapted into a screenplay and was initially attached to direct , but the film did not move forward . Scott replaced Goddard , and with Damon in place as the main character , production was approved . Filming began in November 2014 and lasted approximately 70 days . Some 20 sets were built on a sound stage in Budapest , Hungary , one of the largest in the world . Wadi Rum in Jordan was also used as a practical backdrop for filming .
The film premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 2015 , followed by the United States ' theatrical release on October 2 , 2015 by 20th Century Fox . The film was released in 2D , 3D , IMAX 3D and 4DX . The film received positive reviews and has grossed over $ 630 million worldwide , becoming Scott 's highest @-@ grossing film to date , as well as the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2015 . It received several accolades , including the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , and seven Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture and Best Adapted Screenplay for Goddard . Damon won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and was nominated for several awards including the Academy Award for Best Actor , the BAFTA for Best Actor , and the Critic 's Choice Award for Best Actor .
= = Plot = =
In 2035 , the crew of the Ares III manned mission to Mars is exploring the Acidalia Planitia on Martian solar day ( sol ) 18 of their 31 @-@ sol expedition . An unexpectedly strong dust storm threatens to topple their Mars Ascent Vehicle ( MAV ) , forcing them to hastily leave the planet . During the evacuation , astronaut Mark Watney is struck by debris and lost in the storm ; the last telemetry from his suit indicates no signs of life . With Watney believed dead , mission commander Melissa Lewis orders the remaining crew to return to their orbiting vessel Hermes without him .
Watney awakens after the storm to a low oxygen warning , in pain , and makes his way to the " Hab , " or " habitat , " the crew 's base of operations . He removes a piece of antenna from his suit 's biomonitor — which caused the erroneous life @-@ sign readings — and his own torso , stapling himself up . He begins a video diary and realizes that his only chance of rescue is the arrival of the Ares IV crew at the Schiaparelli crater , 3 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 000 mi ) away , in four years . Calculating that he has enough food to last only 300 sols ( roughly 309 days ) , Watney , a botanist , improvises a farm with Martian soil fertilized with human waste , water produced by extracting hydrogen from leftover rocket fuel , and potatoes saved for a Thanksgiving meal . He begins to modify the only functional rover to make long journeys across Mars to reach the rescue spot .
Reviewing satellite photos of Mars , mission director Vincent Kapoor and satellite planner Mindy Park see evidence of Watney 's activities and realize that he has survived . Despite the objections of Hermes flight director Mitch Henderson , NASA administrator Teddy Sanders decides not to inform the Ares III crew , believing it would distract them from their mission .
Watney takes the rover to retrieve the Pathfinder probe , which fell silent in 1997 . Using the lander 's camera , he establishes rudimentary communication with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) team using the hexadecimal system . NASA instructs Watney to modify the rover to link with Pathfinder so they can communicate via text . Watney becomes angry when he learns that the crew has not been told of his survival , and Sanders authorizes Henderson to inform them .
Henderson and JPL director Bruce Ng formulate a plan to send a space probe to Mars and resupply Watney with enough food to survive until Ares IV 's arrival . When the Hab 's airlock malfunctions and explosively decompresses , destroying Watney 's crop , Sanders orders the team to speed up the supply mission by skipping the safety inspections . As a result , the supply probe explodes shortly after liftoff .
The China National Space Administration offers NASA the " Tai yang Shen , " a classified booster that can carry a payload to Mars . Meanwhile , JPL astrodynamicist Rich Purnell devises a trajectory to send Hermes back to Mars more quickly , using the Chinese booster to instead resupply it for an additional eighteen months . Sanders rejects the plan , refusing to risk the crew , but Henderson surreptitiously sends the details to Hermes . Lewis and her crew vote unanimously to execute the plan , and NASA — powerless to stop them — proceeds with the resupply as Hermes flies by Earth , using its gravity to slingshot them back to Mars .
After 461 sols , Watney begins the 90 sol journey to Schiaparelli , where the MAV for the Ares IV mission has been prepositioned . To rendezvous with Hermes , Watney makes drastic modifications to reduce the MAV 's mass , removing equipment including the windows , nose cone , and exterior panels . With Watney on board the gutted MAV , the Hermes crew launches it remotely , but it does not reach the planned speed and altitude . Lewis has Hermes use its maneuvering thrusters to change course and explosive decompression of its own internal atmosphere to adjust its speed . When even that is not enough , Lewis uses a Manned Maneuvering Unit to approach Watney 's vessel , but still cannot reach him . Watney pierces the glove of his pressure suit and uses the escaping air as a miniature thruster to reach Lewis . The crew is reunited as crowds around the world cheer the news .
After returning to Earth , Watney becomes a survival instructor for new astronaut candidates . Five years later , on the occasion of the Ares V mission launch , those involved in Watney 's rescue have begun new lives .
= = Cast = =
Damon prepared for the role by a different method than Chastain . He explained , " For me the rehearsal process was sitting with Ridley and going kind of line @-@ by @-@ line and moment @-@ by @-@ moment through the script and playing out a plan of attack for what we wanted each scene to accomplish . " Chastain prepared for her role by meeting with astronauts and scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . She was inspired by astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson , saying " She 's very matter of fact , very straightforward . My character is dealing with the guilt of leaving a crew member behind , but she 's still responsible for the lives of five other crew mates . I tried to play her as Tracy would have been in those moments . "
The Media Action Network for Asian @-@ Americans ( MANAA ) criticized the casting of white actor Mackenzie Davis as Mindy Park , who , it claimed , was described by author Andy Weir to be Korean @-@ American . The group also criticized the casting of Chiwetel Ejiofor as Vincent Kapoor , who , the MANAA claimed , Weir described as an Asian @-@ Indian character . In the novel , the character 's name was Venkat Kapoor , and he identifies religiously as a Hindu . The group called the casting whitewashing and said that Asian actors , being under @-@ represented in Hollywood , were deprived of acting opportunities . Weir said in October 2015 he perceived Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean . He also dismissed criticism of Ejiofor 's casting as Kapoor , " He 's an American . Americans come from lots of different sources . You can be Venkat Kapoor and black . " In the original novel Weir intentionally avoided including the physical descriptions of his characters .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Martian was directed by Scott and based on a screenplay by Drew Goddard that was adapted from Weir 's 2011 novel of same name . 20th Century Fox optioned the novel in March 2013 , and producer Simon Kinberg was attached to develop the novel into a film . The following May , Goddard entered negotiations with the studio to write and direct The Martian . Goddard wrote a screenplay for the film , and Matt Damon expressed interest in starring under Goddard 's direction . Goddard then pursued an opportunity to direct Sinister Six , a comic book film about a team of supervillains . Kinberg then brought the book to Scott 's attention . In May 2014 , Scott entered negotiations with the studio to direct the film with Damon cast as the film 's stranded astronaut . Scott said he was attracted by the emphasis on science and thought a balance could be struck between entertainment and learning . Damon said he was attracted by the novel , the screenplay and the opportunity to work with Scott . Following Scott 's commitment , the project picked up the pace and was quickly approved . Goddard has since expressed that he felt Scott made a much better film than he could have directed , telling Creative Screenwriting , " When it 's Scott , collaboration is easy because I just revere him . Every day I would just look around and think , ' Is that really Ridley Scott sitting there at the table ? This is exciting ! ' "
= = = Filming = = =
Korda Studios ( in Hungarian : Korda Filmstúdió ) 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Budapest , Hungary in the wine @-@ making village of Etyek was chosen for filming interior scenes of The Martian . It was favored for having one of the largest sound stages in the world . Filming began in Hungary on November 24 , 2014 . Scott chose to film The Martian with 3D cameras . Around 20 sets were constructed for the film ( where 70 were built for Scott 's Exodus : Gods and Kings ( 2014 ) and over 100 for American Gangster ( 2007 ) ) . Actual potatoes were grown in a sound stage next to the one used for filming . They were planted at different times so that different stages of growth could be shown in film scenes . A team of six people built 15 suits for the film . A practical backdrop for Mars was filmed in Wadi Rum , which is a UNESCO world heritage site located in Jordan . Wadi Rum had been used as a location for other films set on Mars , including Mission to Mars ( 2000 ) , Red Planet ( 2000 ) , and The Last Days on Mars ( 2013 ) . Filming lasted approximately 70 days . A special Mars rover model was built for the filming ; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received . The rover is now exhibited in Jordan 's Royal Automobile Museum .
Weir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel . While Watney 's humor is preserved in the film , Scott also depicted the character 's isolation in the vast , dusty Martian landscape . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic , densely populated counterweight to the Martian aridity , which is magnificently represented by exteriors shot in the vicinity of Wadi Rum in Jordan . " Damon said he and Scott were inspired by the 2003 documentary film Touching the Void , which featured trapped mountain climbers . Scott also expected to film Watney as a Robinson Crusoe , a character in full isolation , but learned to film Watney differently since the character would be self @-@ monitoring his behavior under the watch of various mission cameras .
According to Scott , first cut of the movie was 2 hours and 45 minutes long . An extended cut of the movie was released on home video .
= = = NASA involvement = = =
When the novel was first published , NASA invited Weir to tour the Johnson Space Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory . When Scott began preparing the film , Weir contacted NASA to collaborate on the film . When Scott and producer Mark Huffam had their first production meeting , they called NASA and spoke with its film and television liaison Bert Ulrich . NASA decided to assist the filmmakers with depicting the science and technology in The Martian since it saw potential in promoting space exploration . Key NASA staff members that joined the partnership were James L. Green , the Director of the Planetary Science Division , and Dave Lavery , the Program Executive for Solar System Exploration . Scott conversed with Green twice before filming started . Over a period of a month , NASA answered hundreds of questions — on a weekly basis — on everything from radioisotope systems to the look of potential " habs " — the residences for future Mars astronauts . The questions were answered by Green or passed on to the right expert , and then came back to Scott 's team to make their way into the production . The space agency also sent hundreds of files of real images of Mars and images of control centers , down to what the computer screens look like , to the production team . Green arranged a tour of the Johnson Space Center in Houston for production designer Arthur Max , who met with individual specialists , taking hundreds of photos as he went for eight hours . The production designers created a futuristic , heavily modernized Mission Control as a studio set ; Ars Technica described its depiction as " the space agency that we all dream of " and the opposite of the real Johnson Center 's appearance as " a run down college campus " .
Newsweek said NASA collaborated more with The Martian than most other films : " Staff from many NASA departments consulted on the film , from script development through principal photography , and are now helping with marketing timed to the theatrical release . " As part of the collaboration , the production 's NASA liaison included the front page of the script for the film in the payload of the spacecraft Orion during its Exploration Flight Test 1 on December 5 , 2014 .
The Los Angeles Times said NASA and the wider scientific community anticipated the film as a way to publicize a human mission to Mars . The New York Times reports that the film " serves as a nice plug for NASA , which has returned the favor by pushing the movie on its website . ( On Monday [ September 28 , 2015 ] , scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross @-@ promotion thing down . ) " . Jim Erickson , NASA project manager , said the film would show moviegoers " the risks and rewards " of humans traveling to Mars .
In October 2015 , NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney 's trek across Mars , and details of NASA 's next steps , as well as a health hazards report , for a real @-@ world human journey to Mars .
= = Music = =
Harry Gregson @-@ Williams composed the score for The Martian . It is the fourth collaboration between Gregson @-@ Williams and Scott . Gregson @-@ Williams previously worked on music for Scott 's films Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , Prometheus ( 2012 ) and Exodus : Gods and Kings , composing the main film score for the first and last films , and doing additional music for the other two .
A running gag in the film is mission commander Melissa Lewis 's love for 1970s songs ( especially of the disco genre ) , which are the only music available to Watney on Mars and often appear as diegetic music . Non @-@ original songs featured in the film include :
" Turn the Beat Around " by Vicki Sue Robinson
" Hot Stuff " by Donna Summer
" Rock the Boat " by The Hues Corporation
" Don 't Leave Me This Way " by Thelma Houston
" Starman " by David Bowie
" Waterloo " by ABBA
" Love Train " by The O 'Jays
" Heart " by DubVision
" I Will Survive " by Gloria Gaynor ( end credits )
= = Marketing = =
20th Century Fox launched a viral marketing campaign for The Martian . On June 7 , 2015 , NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino shared an in @-@ universe video diary depicting Damon 's character and the other crew members . Ars Technica compared the video diary to similar viral videos marketed for Scott 's 2012 film Prometheus in having a similar " style of slickly produced fictional promotional material " . The studio then released an official trailer on June 8 . Forbes said , " 20th Century Fox has cut together a pretty perfect trailer in that it absolutely makes the sale . It establishes the stakes , offers a sympathetic lead character , shows off an all @-@ star cast , tosses out a potential catchphrase , and ends on a grimly humorous tagline . " In response to the trailer , Jimmy Kimmel , host of the late @-@ night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , released a spoof trailer , The Mastronaut : Emission to Mars , that edited the original to parody the film .
At the start of August , Fox released another video , depicting interviews with each of the main crew members . Mid @-@ month , the studio released another film trailer , and NASA hosted a " Martian Day " at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to both promote The Martian and highlight the space program 's ongoing efforts to carry out a human mission to Mars . At the end of August , Fox released another video , presenting it as a special episode of the TV show StarTalk in which astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson discusses the hazards of traveling to Mars . In September , Scott 's RSA Films released a teaser for The Martian that depicted Damon wearing Under Armour sports clothing and being active in his off @-@ world tasks . The teaser originated from a collaboration between RSA Films and the marketing shop 3AM ( under theatrical advertising agency Wild Card ) , initiated in 2014 , to produce advertising content for The Martian . RSA contacted the advertising agency Droga5 , under whom Under Armour is a client . Droga5 ultimately collaborated with WME and 3AM to produce the teaser .
Forbes 's Peter Himler said American astronauts had traditionally been used by public relations to promote commercial products , starting with the drink Tang . Himler said it " came as no surprise " that NASA astronauts in the International Space Station were reported by The Guardian and CBS News as having read Weir 's novel and hoping to see the film on board the ISS . NASA participated in the marketing of the film despite its lack of involvement with previous films . Though it turned down a request for Interstellar to be screened on the ISS , The Martian was screened on board 402 km ( 250 miles ) above the Earth 's surface on September 19 , 2015 , and also at the Johnson Space Center in Houston , and at the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral on October 1 , 2015 .
In November 2015 , 20th Century Fox announced The Martian VR Experience , a " virtual reality adventure " where viewers play as Mark Watney and reenact scenes from the film . The project was executively produced by Scott and directed by Robert Stromberg . It is scheduled to be released by the end of 2016 on HTC Vive , Oculus Rift , and Samsung Gear VR .
= = Release = =
The Martian premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 2015 . The film screened in a sneak preview at the New York Film Festival on September 27 , 2015 . It also screened at Fantastic Fest in Austin , Texas , on September 29 , 2015 . The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in North America .
= = = Box office forecast = = =
Two months before The Martian 's release , BoxOffice forecast that the film would gross $ 46 million on its opening weekend in the United States and ultimately $ 172 million in its theatrical run . The magazine said positive factors for its performance included the continued sales of Weir 's novel , Scott 's success with past science fiction films , and the positive reception of prior space @-@ based films Gravity ( 2013 ) and Interstellar ( 2014 ) . The magazine said negative factors included Damon not being a consistent draw at the box office , Gravity and Interstellar setting high expectations , and Scott 's " stumble " with his previous film Exodus : Gods and Kings ( 2014 ) . A week before the film 's release , pre @-@ release trackings in North America ( United States and Canada ) showed that the film was on pace to earn between $ 40 – 50 million the its opening weekend from 3 @,@ 826 theaters .
In comparison to other contemporary space films , Gravity , facing far less competition , opened to a better @-@ than @-@ expected $ 55 @.@ 8 million in 2013 . In November 2014 , Interstellar debuted to $ 47 @.@ 5 million . Unlike Gravity and Interstellar , which had the benefit of IMAX locations , boosting profits , The Martian was not initially playing in IMAX , since IMAX was committed to an exclusive run of Robert Zemeckis ' The Walk . The Martian played in more than 350 premium large @-@ format theaters including 2 @,@ 550 3D locations . Also , the film was released several days after the announcement of NASA 's discovery of water on Mars ' planetary surface , which might have aided in boosting its opening . Ticket selling website Fandango reported that the film was outselling Gravity . Unlike Gravity , The Martian did not contain abundant 3D spectacle , and was longer than Gravity .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The Martian was a financial success . It grossed $ 228 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 400 @.@ 9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 630 @.@ 2 million , against a budget of $ 108 million . Worldwide , it was the highest @-@ grossing Fox film of 2015 and the tenth highest @-@ grossing film of that year overall . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $ 150 @.@ 32 million , when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film .
The film was released in theaters in 2D and 3D . In the United Kingdom , it was released on September 30 , 2015 , a Wednesday , and in the United States on the following Friday , October 2 , 2015 . It was also released in 49 markets including Mexico , Hong Kong , India and Taiwan from the weekend October 2 – 4 , 2015 and expanded to Germany , Russia , and South Korea the following weekend . It opened in Spain on October 16 , then France on October 21 . China opened on November 25 and Japan bowed in the first quarter of 2016 on February 5 . Various sites estimated the film to gross between $ 45 million and $ 50 million over its opening weekend in the US .
In NA , it opened on Friday , October 2 , 2015 and earned $ 18 @.@ 06 million on its opening day of which $ 2 million came from premium large formats from 3 @,@ 831 theaters . The film 's Friday gross included $ 2 @.@ 5 million from late @-@ night Thursday screenings that took place in 2 @,@ 800 theaters . During its opening weekend , it earned $ 54 @.@ 3 million from 3 @,@ 831 theaters ranking first at the box office which is the second biggest October opening , behind Gravity ( $ 55 @.@ 7 million ) and the second biggest for Scott , behind Hannibal ( $ 58 million ) and Damon , behind The Bourne Ultimatum ( $ 69 @.@ 2 million ) . The film made $ 6 million at 375 premium large format screens . 3D accounted for 45 % of the ticket sales while RealD 3D accounted for 42 % or $ 23 million of that sales which is one of highest for the 3D company in 2015 . The film fell short of breaking Gravity 's record which might have been hurt by Hurricane Joaquin , the NFL season and the last day of the Major League Baseball regular season . In its second weekend of release , it dropped gradually by 31 @.@ 9 % and earned $ 37 million from 3 @,@ 854 theaters ( + 23 theaters ) maintaining the top position . The Martian 's demographics in its sophomore weekend remained in sync with its opening frame drawing 52 % males and 72 % over 25 . It topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before being dethroned by Goosebumps in its third weekend after a close race between the two ( $ 23 @.@ 6 million for Goosebumps and $ 21 @.@ 3 million for The Martian ) . It returned to the top of the box office for the third time in its fourth weekend , and went on the top the box office for four non @-@ consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Spectre in its fifth weekend . On November 5 , the film surpassed Gladiator ( $ 187 @.@ 7 million ) to become Scott 's highest @-@ grossing film at the domestic box office .
Internationally , The Martian was released in a total of 81 countries . Outside North America , it opened on the same weekend in 54 markets and grossed $ 44 @.@ 6 million from 9 @,@ 299 screens topping the international box office as well as opening at No. 1 in over 15 markets . The following weekend , it added 23 more markets and grossed an estimated $ 57 @.@ 5 million from 77 markets from 12 @,@ 859 screens . Its opening weekends in South Korea ( $ 12 @.@ 5 million ) , the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 7 @.@ 4 million ) , France ( $ 6 @.@ 9 million ) , Australia ( $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) and Germany ( $ 4 @.@ 3 million ; behind Inside Out ) represented its largest takings . In terms of total earnings , the United Kingdom ( $ 35 @.@ 3 million ) , South Korea ( $ 33 @.@ 6 million ) , Australia ( $ 16 @.@ 57 million ) and Germany ( $ 16 million ) are the top markets . In South Korea , it became Fox 's third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film ever behind Avatar ( 2009 ) and Kingsman : The Secret Service ( 2015 ) . It topped the box office outside of North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Ant @-@ Man in its third weekend but returned to the top in its fourth weekend . In its fifth weekend , it was surpassed by Spectre thereby topping the international box office for three weekends in total . The Martian opened in China on Wednesday , November 25 and earned $ 50 million in its five @-@ day opening weekend from 4 @,@ 848 screens of which $ 6 @.@ 6 million came from 249 IMAX theaters . In its second weekend , it fell by 60 % to $ 13 @.@ 7 million , while in total , it grossed $ 95 million there . It opened in its last major market , i.e. Japan on February 5 , 2016 under the name Odyssey , where it earned $ 5 @.@ 2 million from 8 @,@ 333 screens in its three @-@ day opening weekend , debuting at No. 1 at the box office and helped the film push past the $ 600 million mark . Its Saturday and Sunday take was $ 4 @.@ 25 million . It dropped just 19 % in its second after adding $ 3 @.@ 4 million . It has topped the box office there for four consecutive weekends and as of February 28 has grossed a total of $ 23 @.@ 2 million .
For its United States release , the film was originally scheduled to be released on November 25 , 2015 , but 20th Century Fox switched The Martian with Victor Frankenstein , so the former would be its first film for all audiences in the country 's Autumn season ( September – November ) . On the film 's 3D screenings , RealD 's chief Anthony Marcoly said 3D technology was proliferating from action @-@ packed blockbuster films commonly released in the United States ' summer season . Marcoly said the technology was being used in more immersive storytelling , citing The Martian and The Walk ( released the same year ) as two examples .
= = = Home media = = =
The Martian was released on Blu @-@ ray ( 2D and 3D ) and DVD on January 12 , 2016 . It was released on the 4K Ultra HD on February 14 , 2016 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Martian received critical acclaim upon release . Critics commended the visual effects , the scientific accuracy , and the film 's likability , largely due to Matt Damon 's performance . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , which categorizes reviews as positive or negative , surveyed 290 critics and determined that 92 % of the reviews were positive with a rating average of 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 , and the consensus " Smart , thrilling , and surprisingly funny , The Martian offers a faithful adaptation of the bestselling book that brings out the best in leading man Matt Damon and director Ridley Scott . " The site further stated that critics observed that Scott " examin [ ed ] more hopeful territory " than in his past films , and " the result is an awe @-@ inspiring adventure that explores vast ideas while staying grounded in very human emotional territory . " Metacritic also surveyed 46 critics and assessed 40 reviews as positive and six as mixed , assigning an aggregate score of 80 out of 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore polled sample audiences , who gave the film an average grade of " A " on an A + to F scale . Audience demographics were 54 % men and 59 % over 35 .
Variety reported , " Critics are calling the film a funny , thrilling ride , and a return to form for [ Ridley ] Scott after The Counselor and Exodus : Gods and Kings fell flat . " According to Robert Zubrin , commenting in The Guardian , " [ the film ] is the first genuine Mars movie . It is the first movie that attempts to be realistic and that is actually about human beings grappling with the problems of exploring Mars , as opposed to various movies set on Mars that are essentially either shoot ’ em ups or horror films . It does not engage in fantasy : no monsters , no magic , no Nazis . However , there are a number of technical mistakes . "
Writing for the New York Post , Lou Lumenick considered the film to be Scott 's and Damon 's best and thought that it is a " straightforward and thrilling survival @-@ and @-@ rescue adventure , without the metaphysical and emotional trappings of Interstellar . " Manohla Dargis , of The New York Times , stated that the film , " involves a dual journey into outer and inner space , a trip that takes you into that immensity called the universe and deep into the equally vast landscape of a single consciousness . For this accidental castaway , space is the place where he ’ s physically marooned , but also where his mind is set free " , from a film director , whose " great , persistent theme is what it means to be human " . Another positive review came from Steve Pulaski of Influx Magazine , who gave the film a B and stated , " Above all , this is a film destined to please a crowd ; in addition , it also keeps its pathos down considerably , doesn 't do a whole lot of pandering to a crowd anxious to see action , and never loses sight of its deeply human and remarkable story . "
= = = Top ten lists = = =
The Martian was listed on many critics ' top ten lists .
1st – TV Guide
2nd – Christopher Orr , The Atlantic
2nd – James Berardinelli , Reelviews
3rd – Seongyong Cho , RogerEbert.com
4th – Anne Thompson , IndieWire
5th – Digital Spy
5th – Liz Shannon Miller , IndieWire
6th – Manohla Dargis , The New York Times
6th – Olly Richards , AskMen
6th – Rob Hunter , Film School Rejects
7th – Charles Mudede , The Stranger
7th – Ty Burr , The Boston Globe
8th – Lou Lumenick , New York Post
8th – Mike D 'Angelo , The A.V. Club
8th – Peter Travers , Rolling Stone
9th – Haleigh Foutch , Collider
10th – Borys Kit , The Hollywood Reporter
10th – Matthew Jacobs , The Huffington Post
Best of 2015 ( listed alphabetically , not ranked ) – Joe Morgenstern , The Wall Street Journal
Best of 2015 ( listed alphabetically , not ranked ) – Kenneth Turan , Los Angeles Times
Best of 2015 ( listed alphabetically , not ranked ) – Steven Rea , The Philadelphia Inquirer
Top 10 ( ranked alphabetically ) – Nell Minow , RogerEbert.com
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was included in many critics ' Top Ten Films of 2015 lists . The film received various industry awards and nominations including 26 Best Picture , 20 Best Director ( for Scott ) , and 19 Best Actor ( for Damon ) nominations at different organizations and associations . The American Film Institute selected The Martian as one of the Top Ten Films of the year . The film garnered two Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for Damon . Scott was also nominated for Best Director . It received nine nominations from the Broadcast Film Critics Association , including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor , Best Adapted Screenplay , and Best Visual Effects . The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards , including Best Picture , Best Actor , and Best Adapted Screenplay .
The Martian was named Film of the Year by National Board of Review also winning Best Director , Best Actor , and Best Adapted Screenplay . Ranked at position eight , it won the Top Ten Films of the year award at African @-@ American Film Critics Association . It received eight nominations from Satellite Awards including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor – Motion Picture , Best Screenplay – Adapted , and Best Visual Effects .
The Martian was named one of the best films of 2015 by over 50 critics and publications and was ranked seventh on Rotten Tomatoes and thirteenth on Metacritic 's best scored film of 2015 .
Solanum watneyi , a species of bush tomato from Australia , has been named after the character of Mark Watney , to honor the fictional heroic botanist portrayal . It is a member of the same genus as the potato , Solanum .
= = Scientific accuracy = =
When Weir wrote the novel The Martian , he strove to present the science correctly and used reader feedback to get it right . When Scott began directing the film , he also sought to make it realistic and received help from James L. Green , the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA 's Science Mission Directorate . Green put together teams to answer scientific questions that Scott asked . Green said , " The Martian is reasonably realistic " , though he said the film 's hazardous dust storm , despite reaching speeds of 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) would in reality have weak force . Green also found the NASA buildings in the film to be more stylish than the functional ones NASA actually uses . Film critics picked up the point that the Martian winds could amount to " barely a light breeze " in their reviews , and screenwriter Goddard agreed the winds had to be considerably exaggerated in order to set up the situation that sets the story in motion .
The process used by the character Watney to produce water was accurate and is being used by NASA for a planned Martian rover . The radioisotope thermoelectric generator was also appropriately used for heat . When his rations begin to run low , Watney builds an improvised garden using Martian soil and the crew 's feces as a fertilizer . " We could probably grow something on Mars " , said Michael Shara , curator , Department of Astrophysics , Division of Physical Sciences at the American Museum of Natural History . It is also thought possible that microbial organisms could potentially live on Mars . In one scene , the glass face shield on Watney 's helmet cracks ; as oxygen momentarily drops below the critical level , he quickly patches the helmet with tape and avoids suffocation . According to Shara , " As long as the pressure on the inside is around 30 percent , you could hold it together before your eyes blow out or you had an embolism . "
While Martian gravity is less than 40 % of Earth 's , director Scott chose not to depict the gravitational difference , finding the effort less worthwhile to put on screen than zero gravity . Scott said the heavy spacesuits would weigh the main character enough to make up for not showing the partial gravity . The climate of Mars is also cold enough that it would make Watney 's initial plan to disable the rover 's heater immediately impractical . The average temperature is − 80 ° F ( − 62 ° C ) ; it is cold enough on Mars for carbon dioxide snow to fall at the poles in winter .
Ed Finn , director of the Center for Science and the Imagination at Arizona State University , said , " What this story does really well is imagine a near @-@ future scenario that doesn 't push too far of where we are today technically . " British physicist Brian Cox said , " The Martian is the best advert for a career in engineering I 've ever seen . "
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= Battle of Neerwinden ( 1793 ) =
The Battle of Neerwinden ( 18 March 1793 ) saw a Republican French army led by Charles François Dumouriez attack a Coalition army commanded by Prince Josias of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . The Coalition army 's Habsburg Austrians together with a small contingent of allied Dutch Republic troops repulsed all French assaults after bitter fighting and Dumouriez conceded defeat , withdrawing from the field . The French position in the Austrian Netherlands swiftly collapsed , ending the threat to the Dutch Republic and allowing Austria to regain control of her lost province . The War of the First Coalition engagement was fought at Neerwinden , located 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) east of Brussels in present @-@ day Belgium .
After Dumouriez 's victory at Jemappes in November 1792 , the French armies rapidly overran most of the Austrian Netherlands . Rather than driving the Austrians to the west bank of the Rhine River , Dumouriez and the French government became preoccupied with a war with the Dutch Republic . During the breathing space offered by her enemy , Austria assembled an army under the Prince of Coburg and struck back . After a French covering force was routed by Coburg at Aldenhoven , Dumouriez began gathering his army for a counterstroke .
Coburg took up a defensive position at Neerwinden and awaited the confident Dumouriez 's attack . The Coalition army was outnumbered in infantry but possessed a two @-@ to @-@ one superiority in cavalry . After intense fighting , Coburg 's troops repulsed the attacks of the French center and right wing . When Dumouriez found that his left wing was driven off the battlefield , he began retreating . The defeat led to mass desertions from the discouraged French volunteers . In the face of the military collapse , Dumouriez negotiated a free withdrawal of French troops in return for the surrender of Belgium and Dutch territory . Soon , Dumouriez was plotting against his own government and when his plans failed , he defected to the Austrians , leaving the French army in chaos .
= = Background = =
= = = French conquer Belgium = = =
On 6 November 1792 , a French army under Charles François Dumouriez defeated the Austrian army of Duke Albert of Saxe @-@ Teschen at the Battle of Jemappes . The French enjoyed an enormous numerical superiority with 40 @,@ 000 infantry , 3 @,@ 000 cavalry and 100 guns against an Austrian army counting 11 @,@ 628 foot soldiers , 2 @,@ 168 horsemen and 56 guns . Within one month the French armies overran most of the Austrian Netherlands , a territory known today as the nation of Belgium . On the right flank , the Army of the Ardennes led by Jean @-@ Baptiste Cyrus de Valence advanced down the Meuse River toward Huy . On the way , Valence dropped off a force under Louis @-@ Auguste Juvénal des Ursins d 'Harville to besiege Namur . Dumouriez himself with the Army of Belgium captured Liège . The Army of the North commanded by Francisco de Miranda laid siege to Antwerp . It was joined by a column under Benôit Guérin de Berneron that marched first from Ath northeast to Leuven ( Louvain ) .
Mechelen ( Malines ) capitulated to Henri Christian Michel de Stengel and 6 @,@ 000 Frenchmen on 16 November 1792 and its garrison of one battalion of the Austrian Württemberg Infantry Regiment Nr. 38 was allowed to go free . On the 27th Stengel with 8 @,@ 000 soldiers from the Army of Belgium won a minor action at Voroux @-@ lez @-@ Liers near Liège over Anton Sztáray and four battalions of Austrians . Antwerp fell on 29 November to Miranda 's 17 @,@ 600 infantry and 1 @,@ 245 cavalry . The Austrian garrison of the 1st Battalion of the Hohenlohe Nr. 17 , two companies of the Vierset Nr. 59 and four companies of the Würzburg Infantry Regiments , plus 140 gunners surrendered after losing two dead and four wounded . The French captured 57 cannons , 50 additional 3 @-@ pound regimental cannons , 3 @,@ 150 muskets and 1 @,@ 523 hundredweight of gunpowder . The 2 @,@ 599 @-@ man garrison of Namur under Johann Dominik von Moitelle surrendered on 2 December to Valence and Harville after a four @-@ week siege . The Austrian defenders included two battalions of the Kinsky Infantry Regiment Nr. 36 , one battalion of the Vierset , two companies of the Le Loup Jäger Battalion , a half @-@ squadron of the Esterhazy Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 and 90 gunners . Harville 's division counted 13 @,@ 256 infantry , 1 @,@ 425 cavalry and 266 artillerists .
= = = Invasion of Dutch Republic and Austrian counterattack = = =
Dumouriez had an opportunity to drive the Austrians from the west bank of the Rhine in conjunction with the Army of the Center . Instead he pursued a pet project of his , the invasion of the Dutch Republic . He hoped to go to war with the Dutch while keeping the Kingdom of Great Britain neutral . But the French government forced his hand , declaring war on Great Britain on 1 February 1793 and ordering him to overrun the Dutch Republic . Dumouriez undertook the invasion with 15 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry , soon reinforced . Leaving Miranda to besiege Maastricht , covered by Valence 's army and Harville 's corps , Dumouriez pushed north . At this time the Army of the North counted 18 @,@ 322 men , the Army of Belgium numbered 30 @,@ 197 , the Army of the Ardennes consisted of 23 @,@ 479 soldiers , Harville 's corps was 12 @,@ 051 strong , the Army of Holland had 23 @,@ 244 troops and there were 15 @,@ 000 men in Belgian garrisons . All told , the strength of the French army in the Low Countries was 122 @,@ 293 men . The French army became overconfident , believing itself invincible . Meanwhile , the National Convention was riven by bitter political struggles between the moderate Girondists and the extreme Jacobins . During this period the army supply system fell apart through neglect .
Dumouriez crossed the Dutch frontier on 16 February 1793 . The fortress of Breda fell after a quick siege from 21 to 24 February 1793 . The 3 @,@ 000 Dutch defenders , which included 2 @,@ 500 infantry and a dragoon regiment , surrendered the city with its 250 cannon and were allowed to go free . Also on the 21st , Maastricht was invested by 10 @,@ 000 troops of Miranda 's army . There were 8 @,@ 000 Austrian and Dutch defenders under Prince Karl Wilhelm Georg of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt , an Austrian General @-@ major . The siege work at Maastricht in winter weather was too much for the French volunteers and many deserted their units and went home . The fortress of Geertruidenberg with 150 guns capitulated after a siege from 1 to 4 March . The Dutch garrison of two battalions and two squadrons were allowed to go free . Both Breda and Geertruidenberg had been bluffed into giving up by the military engineer Jean Claude le Michaud d 'Arcon , who had designed the floating batteries at the Great Siege of Gibraltar . A small fort at Klundert was captured on 4 March by 4 @,@ 000 men under Berneron . The tiny garrison put up a stiff fight and lost 60 killed before the 73 survivors gave up .
Poised at the edge of Hollands Diep , Dumouriez planned to cross and march through Rotterdam , Delft , The Hague and Leiden to seize Amsterdam . After capturing Maastricht , Miranda would join him by advancing through Nijmegen and Utrecht . Preoccupied with the Dutch Republic , the French commander had given the Austrians too much time to recover . Prince Josias of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld massed an Austrian army on the west bank of the Rhine . He was assisted by a promising staff officer named Karl Mack von Leiberich . On 1 March , Coburg swept aside René Joseph de Lanoue 's covering army at the Battle of Aldenhoven . The French abandoned the siege of Maastricht on 3 March . Coburg pursued slowly and the French forces regrouped at Leuven on the 9th . Dumouriez was slow to give up his Dutch project but the French government insisted that he take charge in Belgium . Leaving Louis @-@ Charles de Flers in command of the Army of Holland , Dumouriez arrived at Leuven on 11 March .
Dumouriez thought his soldiers ' morale was too shaky for a retreat so he advanced on Coburg 's army , seeking battle . In his haste , the French commander failed to call up Harville 's corps or the Army of Holland as reinforcements . Earlier , François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche had been driven out of Tienen ( Tirlemont ) , but on 16 March the French recaptured it after a vigorous combat . The French attacked Tienen with 10 @,@ 000 troops while Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen defended the town with 6 @,@ 000 soldiers , six guns and two mortars . French casualties numbered 500 while their opponents sustained losses of 800 killed , wounded and missing . Coburg pulled his army back behind the Little Gete River . Believing that he outnumbered his enemies , Dumouriez was very confident of success . A century before , the French had won the Battle of Landen on the same ground .
= = Battle = =
= = = Forces = = =
The strengths given for the two armies vary somewhat . Historian Digby Smith credited the French with between 40 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 men while stating Austro @-@ Dutch numbers as 43 @,@ 000 . Ramsay Weston Phipps asserted that the French had 40 @,@ 000 foot and 4 @,@ 500 horse while the Coalition counted 30 @,@ 000 infantry and 9 @,@ 000 cavalry . Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote that Dumouriez put 42 @,@ 000 infantry and 5 @,@ 000 cavalry into battle against Coburg 's 30 @,@ 000 foot and 10 @,@ 000 horse . According to Gunther E. Rothenberg Dumouriez was outnumbered 43 @,@ 000 to 41 @,@ 000 .
Lamarche 's Advance Guard counted 4 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry . Auguste Marie Henri Picot de Dampierre led the Flankers of the Right , 2 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry . Valence 's Right Wing numbered 7 @,@ 000 in 18 battalions and was divided into the divisions of Joachim Joseph Neuilly , Alexis Paul Michel Le Veneur and Valence . Duke Louis of Chartres led the Center which included 7 @,@ 000 foot soldiers in 18 battalions and 1 @,@ 000 horsemen . The subordinate generals of the Center were Jacques Thouvenot and Dominique Dietmann . Miranda 's Left Wing was made up of Jean Alexandre Ihler 's 7 @,@ 000 men and Felix Marie Pierre Chesnon de Champmorin 's 5 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry . Joseph Miaczinski led the Flankers of the Left , 2 @,@ 000 foot and 1 @,@ 000 horse . Jean Nestor de Chancel commanded the eight battalion Reserve in the strength of 4 @,@ 000 men . These figures total 38 @,@ 000 infantry and 5 @,@ 000 cavalry .
The Advance Guard of Archduke Charles with 11 battalions and 11 squadrons was divided into a number of brigades under the command of colonels . Joseph von Gruber commanded two battalions of the Sztáray Infantry Regiment Nr. 33 . Stephan von Mihaljevich led three battalions of the Mahony Jägers , one battalion of the O 'Donnell Freikorps , 1 / 3 battalion of the Branovaczky Freikorps and one squadron of the Esterhazy Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 . Anton Ulrich Joseph von Mylius directed one battalion of the Grün @-@ Laudon Freikorps , 1 / 3 battalion of Tyrolean Sharpshooters and one squadron of the Esterhazy Hussars . Karl Philipp , Prince of Schwarzenberg directed one and 1 / 3 battalion of Tyrolean Sharpshooters , one battalion of the O 'Donnell Freikorps , 1 / 3 battalion of the Branovaczky Freikorps and three squadrons of the Uhlan Regiment . Paul Devay ( Vay de Vaya ) led the Barthodeisky , Briey and Pückler Grenadier battalions and six squadrons of the Esterhazy Hussars .
Joseph de Ferraris led the eight battalions and 16 squadrons of the 1st Rank with Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg as his division commander . There were two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Kheul Nr. 10 , Wartensleben Nr. 28 and Brentano Nr. 35 , one battalion each of the Archduke Charles Nr. 3 and Jordis Nr. 59 , six squadrons each of the Kavanagh Nr. 12 and Nassau Nr. 14 Cuirassier Regiments and two squadrons each of the Kaiser Nr. 1 and Duke Albert Nr. 5 Carabinier Regiments . Wenzel Graf Colloredo @-@ Waldsee directed the six battalions and 10 squadrons of the 2nd Rank , seconded by division commander Johann Andreas Benjowski and brigadier Franz Vincenz Ferrer von Hoditz und Wolfranitz . The units included two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Brechainville Nr. 25 and Callenberg Nr. 54 , one battalion each of the Alton Nr. 15 and Joseph Colloredo Nr. 57 , six squadrons of the Zeschwitz Nr. 10 Cuirassiers and two squadrons each of the Karaczay Nr. 18 Chevau @-@ léger and Coburg Nr. 37 Dragoon Regiments .
François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix , Count of Clerfayt led 11 battalions and 14 squadrons of the Reserve , with József Alvinczi as his division commander and Johann Nepomuk Gottfried von Lützow as his brigadier . The units were two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Ligne Nr. 30 , Esterhazy Nr. 34 and Württemberg Nr. 38 , one battalion each of the Murray Nr. 55 and Vierset Nr. 58 , the Leuven , Morzin and Rousseau Grenadier battalions , eight squadrons of the Latour Chevau @-@ légers Nr. 31 and six squadrons of the Blankenstein Hussars Nr. 16 . The Dutch Republic contributed six battalions , consisting of two battalions each of the Stokkar and Waldeck and one battalion each of the May and Welderen Infantry Regiments .
= = = Combat = = =
Coburg 's Advance Guard under Archduke Charles was drawn up on the right flank , Graf Colloredo and the Duke of Württemberg stood in the center and the Count of Clerfayt with the Reserve defended the left flank . The village of Halle was at the far right of the line while Neerwinden village was in the left @-@ center . A screen of Coalition light troops was posted in all the hamlets along the Little Gete . Dumouriez organized eight columns of attack . Valence on the right led three attack columns against Racour and Oberwinden , the Duke of Chartres directed two columns in the center via Laer and Miranda commanded three columns on the left along the main road to Halle . The French reserve formed a final column on the far left where it was to first capture Zoutleeuw ( Leau ) and then swing south against Halle . Lamarche 's Advance Guard operated with the Right Wing .
Dumouriez believed that Coburg would put his main strength on the right wing to protect the Austrian line of communications . Therefore , he planned to throw his heaviest blow against Coburg 's left wing . Clerfayt 's line stretched from Neerwinden , across Mittelwinden hill to Oberwinden village on the left . Dumouriez directed Valence to outflank Oberwinden with one column , attack Oberwinden frontally with the second and seize the Mittelwinden hill with the third . On Valence 's left , Chartres was ordered to attack Neerwinden with his columns . At 7 : 00 AM , the French swarmed across the Little Gete but Valence was unable to capture the Mittelwinden hill until noon . The French seized Racour , Oberwinden and finally Neerwinden .
The Coalition forces launched attack after attack on the villages which were stubbornly defended by the French . Meanwhile , Austrian cavalry charges were highly effective in the open ground between the settlements . After bitter fighting in which Oberwinden and Racour changed hands repeatedly , the two villages and Neerwinden were recaptured by Clerfayt 's troops . An Austrian cavalry charge pressed back the French even farther . Dumouriez attempted one more all @-@ out attack with his right but it failed . The French cavalry covered the retreat of the infantry , with Chartres and Valence maintaining a position along the Little Gete .
When Miranda attacked that morning , Coburg 's first reaction was to draw substantial troops from his center to reinforce his right flank . Initially , Archduke Charles ' men were driven back to Dorsmael but then they held on to the village . The French Reserve captured Leau and threatened Halle but was soon thrown back . The main fighting occurred between 3 : 00 and 6 : 00 PM when Miaczinski 's column seized Dorsmael but counterattacks drove his soldiers out . Other attacks withered in the face of the strong Coalition defenses . Charles saw an opportunity and hurled his cavalry on the tired French soldiers . The Left Wing became so demoralized that its troops were driven back to Tienen before Miranda could rally them . When Dumouriez heard of the defeat of Miranda 's wing on the morning of the 19th he was forced to order a retreat .
= = Results = =
On the Coalition side , Mack was given much of the credit for Coburg 's triumph . Blamed for the defeat , Miranda traveled to Paris to intrigue against Dumouriez . The Austro @-@ Dutch reported losses of 97 officers , 2 @,@ 762 rank and file and 779 horses . The French lost 4 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , plus 1 @,@ 000 men and 30 artillery pieces captured . General of Brigade Georges Guiscard de Bar was killed and four generals were wounded . Another source estimated Austrian losses as 2 @,@ 600 killed and wounded and 400 missing while French casualties were 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded plus 1 @,@ 000 missing or prisoners . Immediately after the battle , about 6 @,@ 000 French volunteers deserted the colors and went home . Three days later , Dumouriez 's army only numbered about 20 @,@ 000 troops as the men deserted in hundreds . On 23 March there was a clash at Pellenberg where Coburg with 38 @,@ 000 soldiers defeated Dumouriez with 22 @,@ 000 . The Austrians sustained 900 casualties while inflicting 2 @,@ 000 on the French .
On 24 March the French army retreated through Brussels . Dumouriez began calling in his detachments such as Harville 's corps . At this point Dumouriez opened negotiations with the Austrians . He offered to evacuate Belgium if his armies were allowed an unmolested retreat . The terms were accepted and the French armies withdrew to camps behind the border . The Army of Holland was allowed to march through enemy lines and took position near Lille . The Army of the Ardennes was posted at Maulde , the Army of the North at Bruille @-@ Saint @-@ Amand , and the Army of Belgium at Condé @-@ sur @-@ l 'Escaut and Valenciennes . Geertruidenberg was evacuated on 2 April and Breda on 3 April .
Dumouriez was a monarchist at heart and he despaired when King Louis XVI went to the guillotine on 21 January 1793 . He found the political situation in Paris to be chaotic . He was appalled at the tendency of radicals to interfere with army commanders . Having already negotiated with the enemy , Dumouriez offered to treat and the Austrians sent Mack on 25 March . The French commander proposed to take the army and march on Paris . He would overthrow the National Convention , crush the Jacobins and restore the Constitution of 1791 . For their part , the Austrians pledged to halt their advance while he carried out his coup . But Dumouriez moved too slowly . On 1 April , four commissioners and the War Minister Pierre de Ruel , marquis de Beurnonville arrived at his headquarters to demand that the commander explain himself in Paris . They were seized and handed over to the Austrians .
Dumouriez tried to put the frontier fortresses in the hands of his adherents but failed . Miaczinski botched the attempted seizure of Lille and was later executed . Dumouriez believed that he could control the regular infantry and cavalry regiments . On the other hand , the volunteers and the artillery remained devoted to the National Convention . In one incident , Dumouriez was fired on and nearly arrested by Louis @-@ Nicolas Davout 's volunteer battalion . He then made the mistake of being seen with an Austrian escort and the gunners took the lead in refusing to obey him . Seeing that his plot had fallen apart , Dumouriez defected to the Austrians on 5 April 1793 . He was accompanied by the Duke of Chartres , Valence , several more generals and some cavalry . No longer bound by the previous agreement , Coburg prepared to invade France .
Hitherto the armies had been ruled and directed by officers . Now begins the Revolutionary nightmare .
Ironically , the treason and defection of Dumouriez gave the Jacobins full scope to take control of the armies . Before Neerwinden , the army obeyed its commanders . Afterward , the representatives on mission were given extraordinary powers over army commanders . The generals might pay with their lives for defeat , but the real authority lay with the political operatives . Meanwhile , the new War Minister sent his agents to spy on the generals . These men were quick to report any complaint against officers , which could result in disgrace or execution . Elements of this system stayed in force even after Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown and guillotined .
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= 1893 New York hurricane =
The 1893 New York hurricane , also known as the Midnight Storm , was a powerful and destructive tropical cyclone that struck the New York City area in August 1893 . First identified as a tropical storm on August 15 , over the central Atlantic Ocean , the hurricane moved northwestward for most of its course , ultimately peaking with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure reading of 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) . It turned due northward as it approached the U.S. East Coast and struck western Long Island on August 24 . It moved inland and quickly deteriorated , degenerating the next day .
The storm inflicted severe damage with storm tides as high as 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . Trees were brought down , houses were demolished , and Hog Island was largely washed away by the cyclone . Several areas suffered extensive effects from the hurricane , and at least 34 sailors lost their lives . The storm is regarded as one of the most severe hurricanes to strike the city .
= = Meteorological history = =
The system was first classified as a tropical storm while situated in the central Atlantic Ocean on August 15 , 1893 . It steadily intensified as it tracked generally toward the west and attained hurricane force . Gradually curving northwestward , the storm continued to gain power and , on August 18 , it achieved wind speeds corresponding to Category 2 intensity on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . This scale was devised in 1971 to categorize tropical cyclones based on their maximum sustained winds . The storm is estimated to have maintained winds of approximately 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) for several days as it passed well to the north of the Lesser Antilles . As the hurricane turned more northerly still , approaching the United States , it strengthened to major hurricane intensity , Category 3 , on August 22 . At this point , it peaked in intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The lowest known barometric pressure in relation to the storm was 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) .
Less than a day later , the storm deteriorated to Category 2 strength . Cape Hatteras , North Carolina experienced the hurricane on the morning of August 23 while its center passed less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) offshore . Heading nearly due northward , the cyclone skimmed the New Jersey coastline , passing just east of Atlantic City , and weakened further to Category 1 status . On August 23 the storm was one of four hurricanes occurring simultaneously within the Atlantic Ocean . On August 24 the storm moved ashore on western Long Island , in the New York City area . At 1200 UTC that day , while centered just inland , its maximum winds were estimated to have been 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . It progressed northward through New England , quickly weakening . It was briefly downgraded to a tropical storm before becoming extratropical . It dissipated fully on August 25 , near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River .
= = Impact = =
Winds from the storm exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Atlantic City and New York , initially blowing from the northeast before shifting southwesterly . The hurricane wrought severe destruction , described by The New York Times on August 25 as " a mighty war of winds and a great tumbling of chimneys " . A 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) storm surge impacted the shore , demolishing structures . The storm has been cited as an example of a noteworthy New York City tropical cyclone . The cyclone is known for largely destroying Hog Island , a developed island that existed south of the modern @-@ day Long Island coast . The island peaked in size during the 1870s at about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long .
The worst of the damage was reportedly confined to a 50 mi ( 80 km ) area surrounding New York City . In a 24 @-@ hour period , 3 @.@ 82 in ( 97 mm ) of precipitation fell , breaking the daily rainfall record . Hundreds of thousands of dollars in losses accompanied the severe impact . Low @-@ lying areas of the city , particularly those near the coast , were flooded . Roofs and chimneys were ripped off buildings and windows were broken in many homes and businesses . In Central Park , " More than a hundred noble trees were torn up by the roots , and branches were twisted off everywhere . " The park was devastated and thousands of dead birds fell to the ground after being washed out of , or drowned in , their nests . Groups of children gathered the birds and picked them up , with the apparent intention of selling them to restaurants . The storm took the lives of 34 sailors as vessels were blown ashore and men swept overboard . The tugboat Panther , towing two coal barges , was wrecked ; 17 crew members perished and three lived .
High winds brought down telegraph wires and left the city almost entirely cut off from communication with outside locations . At Coney Island , the storm completely destroyed many buildings , walkways , piers , and beach resorts . Brighton Beach was hit particularly hard . The raging seas swept inland , washing out tracks of the Marine Railway . Bathing houses were moved a great distance by the cyclone . Near the Sheepshead Bay , Emmons Avenue was heavily damaged . Further to the east , at Greenport , numerous yachts were wrecked and scattered . Corn crops on land were ruined and fruit trees lost their fruits .
At Brooklyn , still an independent city from New York , houses were dismantled and uprooted trees blocked streets . Damage was widespread throughout the area and flood waters reached waist @-@ high levels . The storm was the most severe in years at Jersey City , New Jersey , despite the fact that its damage was moderate . Trees were blown down and cellars filled with water there and in nearby areas , such as Hoboken .
Many of the same areas along the Eastern seaboard , including New Jersey and New York , already reeling from this storm , would be ravaged again less than a week later by the separate and even more destructive Sea Islands Hurricane that made landfall in Georgia on August 27 and then moved up the coast , causing extensive damage and casualties as far north as New England , before finally dissipating over eastern Canada on September 2 .
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= History of Fremantle Prison =
The history of Fremantle Prison , a former Australian prison in Fremantle , Western Australia , extends from its construction as a prison for convicts , using convict labour , in the 1850s , through to its modern @-@ day usage as a tourist attraction . The design for Fremantle Prison was based on the Pentonville Prison in Britain , and it would be the longest , tallest prison cell block in the southern hemisphere . Construction began in 1851 , and was completed by the end of 1859 . The prison was transferred to the colonial government in 1886 for use for locally sentenced prisoners . Following a Royal Commission held in 1898 − 99 , some changes were made to Fremantle Prison , including knocking down the inner wall between two cells , introducing a prisoner classification system , and constructing internal walls in the main block to create four separate divisions . A new cell block , New Division , was completed in 1907 and occupied in 1908 .
Following another Royal Commission investigation 1911 , there were some rapid changes in prison policy . A new superintendent with outside experience , Hugh Hann , was appointed , and supported by the newly elected Labor government interested in penal reform . Fremantle Prison was partially used as a military gaol during both world wars . The World War II takeover necessitated the commissioning of Barton 's Mill Prison in 1942 , which remained opened after the war . Pardelup Prison Farm was another prison outstation established in 1927 to reduce overcrowding at Fremantle . Both facilities were part of reforms made to the prison system , but significant changes to the operation of Fremantle Prison did not begin until the 1960s . Comptroller General Colin Campbell introduced expedient prisoner assessments , officer training , work release programs , and social workers and welfare officers .
The government department in charge of the prison underwent several reorganisations in the 1970s and 1980s , but the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change . Growing prisoner discontent culminated in a 1988 riot with guards taken hostage , and a fire that caused $ 1 @.@ 8 million worth of damage . The prison closed in 1991 , replaced by the new maximum @-@ security Casuarina Prison . Since 1991 , the prison has been conserved as a recognised heritage site on state , national , and World Heritage lists , and various restoration works have been undertaken since the 1990s . New uses have been found for various sections of the prison , including a New Business Enterprise Centre in the New Division cell block , and wedding ceremonies in the prison chapels . It has also become a significant tourist attraction , with guided tours since 1991 .
= = 19th century = =
= = = Background = = =
Within a few months of the founding of the Swan River Colony in June 1829 by free @-@ settlers , there was a need for a prison to incarcerate criminals . There was little infrastructure for the settlers , let alone criminals , so the shipwrecked Marquis of Angelsea , just off the coast from South Beach , was used as a makeshift prison . This arrangement was quite arduous for the sheriff , who spent much of his time rowing a small boat , either to transfer prisoners or bring over their meals . It was not until September 1830 that work started on a new prison at the west end of High Street : the twelve @-@ sided Round House on Arthur Head .
While the Swan River Colony was established as a " free settlement " , by the 1840s the early reluctance to accept Britain 's convicts was overcome . Cheap convict labour could overcome the significant shortage of manpower in the colony . However , the arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected . While a sailing ship had been sent ahead to inform of the pending arrival of seventy @-@ five convicts , it had been blown off course . The Round House was full to capacity , almost overflowing , so the convicts had to be left on the ship . There was also no prepared accommodation for the warders , pensioner guards , Captain Edward Walcott Henderson , Comptroller General of Convicts , or his clerk , James Manning . Rents for accommodation in Fremantle quickly rose due to the sudden increase in demand , leaving Henderson paying more for his basic lodgings in Fremantle than for his house in London .
Eventually Henderson leased two properties in Essex Street for £ 250 per year , at the site of the modern @-@ day Esplanade Hotel . He used his convicts to convert the buildings into a temporary prison . Meanwhile , Henderson was looking for a site to build a permanent convict establishment . Whilst he favoured Mount Eliza due to its height , which gave it pleasing vistas and supposedly healthier air , Governor Charles Fitzgerald rejected that proposal . Henderson ultimately settled on the current site on a hill overlooking Fremantle .
= = = Construction = = =
Henderson 's initial design for Fremantle Prison was based on the Pentonville Prison in Britain . Pentonville , designed by Joshua Jebb , used the " separate system " that kept prisoners in nearly complete isolation , to encourage reflection on their crimes . Jebb reviewed Henderson 's plans in 1851 , and to reduce the cost , he changed the two diagonal cell blocks that mimicked Pentonville into a four @-@ storey linear structure , which would be the longest , tallest prison cell block in the southern hemisphere . Construction began soon afterwards , supervised by Henderson , Manning , and Royal Engineer lieutenant Henry Wray , who had arrived with another convict ship . Within eighteen months of the Scindian ' s arrival , the convict population had grown to almost 1000 . In 1855 convicts began to be moved into The Establishment , as the prison was then known as , but the project would not be completed until 1859 .
Works rapidly progressed following the arrival of Wray in 1851 with the Royal Engineers , known as the sappers . They trained convicts to work with limestone , which was quarried on @-@ site . Soft stone was used to fill in swamps around Fremantle , and when the better quality stone ran out , quarries were opened at nearby sites such as Arthur Head . The first part to be constructed was a ramp connecting the town to the prison site . The graded and limestone @-@ capped slope would later become Fairbairn Street . Once this was completed , the priority was the construction of accommodation for Henderson and the prison warders to relieve the expense of paying for private lodging . Cottages were built along Henderson Street in 1851 , and Henderson 's residence , a sizable building known as The Knowle , was completed in 1851 some distance away from the other buildings , in the modern @-@ day grounds of Fremantle Hospital . Houses for the senior staff were also constructed in the 1850s . They were situated at the front of the prison site , along the road then known as The Esplanade ( modern day The Terrace ) .
Workshops , later to be known as the East Workshops , were built to rehabilitate prisoners , and aid in site construction . A blacksmith 's shop was constructed in 1852 , and a carpenters ’ shop was added in 1858 . The prison was designed to have other services onsite , including a kitchen , with four boilers , scullery , pantry , cool room and stores ; a bakehouse and ovens , with separate stores for flour and bread ; as well as a washhouse , laundry and drying room . The building holding these services was completed in 1855 . A separate building , a hospital providing medical services , was also planned , but was one of the last to be constructed . The foundations were laid in 1857 , but the plans were changed the next year to provide additional space to isolate contagious or dangerous patients . The hospital was finished in 1859 .
The prison walls were constructed beginning in 1853 , and the site for the Main Cell Block was excavated and levelled . Once the walls were completed in 1855 , the only opening was in the western side . This gap was where the gatehouse and associated entry complex was built in 1854 and 1855 . The main gate was in place in 1855 , while the London @-@ made clock for the top of the structure was installed a year later . In 1856 , a mini tornado toppled most of the northern boundary wall , and extensive work was undertaken to rebuild and widen the walls .
The Main Cell Block was built in two stages . Construction of the southern half of the block began in 1853 and most of the masonry works were finished within a year . The section was finished in 1855 , including the association wards , a circular jarrah stairwell , and 18 solitary confinement cells in the Refractory Block . However , iron fittings for the guardrails , which had been ordered from England three years previously , still had not arrived . Anxious for the new cell block to start being used , Henderson ordered that doors and rails be made locally , with iron salvaged from convict transport ships . The obvious transition between the local and imported railing now marks the boundary between the southern and northern wings . Prisoners were transferred from the temporary South Beach prison on 1 June 1855 .
Construction of the northern wing followed , and by the start of 1857 the foundations were laid , and 40 % of the masonry works were done . However , the Crimean War saw the Royal Engineers recalled , leaving only Wray – as Acting Comptroller General , while Henderson was on leave in England – to oversee the prisoners ' construction of the building . Much of the work was completed that year , including the remaining masonry , basement , slating the roof , and paving the corridor . While Henderson had wanted single cells , Wray conceded to the Governor 's lobbying for additional capacity . He adjusted the design to include some double @-@ width cells housing three prisoners , and triple @-@ width cells holding five prisoners , allowing an additional 40 prisoners to be accommodated . Another measure that increased capacity was the lengthening of the northern wing by six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The justification was to mirror the southern wing , which had also been constructed six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) longer than planned , due to inaccurate surveying . However , this also caused the project to run over budget . Stairs , guard railings , and doors were installed in 1858 , and the prison was completed by the end of 1859 , with Henderson back from leave and back in charge .
= = = Transition to local control = = =
During Western Australia 's convict era , the prison was known as the Convict Establishment , and was used for convicts transported from Britain . Longer term local prisoners were also held there from 1858 , at a cost to the colonial government , as the then @-@ newly constructed Perth Gaol had been handed over to the British imperial government for use as a convict station for short term prisoners . Local prisoners were also been kept in the Round House , or on Rottnest Island . In 1876 Perth Gaol was transferred back to local control .
In 1868 , penal transportation ceased in Western Australia , and numbers of convicts in the colony gradually declined , down to 83 in the mid @-@ 1880s . Due to the great expense of sending these convicts back to Britain , the authorities there negotiated with the colonial government to transfer control of the convicts , as well as the prison complex – demolition was considered too expensive . Early negotiations had broken down , but were restarted in August 1883 . Governor Broome set four conditions in February 1884 :
The last two conditions were the most controversial , though after one and a half years , a compromise was reached : only buildings actually in use would be repaired , and pensions would be paid , but only when the officers actually retired . The British authorities authorised minimal repairs , to be made as cheaply as possible . The transfer was intended to be completed by the end of 1885 , but was not finalised until 31 March 1886 .
Once the prison came under the control of the colonial government , it was renamed Fremantle Prison . All prisoners in Perth Gaol were transferred to Fremantle , and from 1887 female prisoners were also imprisoned there . The women were initially held in the hospital building , and then in their own walled @-@ off section of the prison , with cells in the kitchen and wash house buildings . The women were tasked with washing and mending prisoners ' clothing , which was considered hard work .
= = = First Royal Commission = = =
The Western Australian gold rushes of the 1890s resulted in strong economic growth , and a massive increase in population : doubling from almost 50 @,@ 000 in 1891 to more than 100 @,@ 000 by 1895 , and expanding to 184 @,@ 000 by 1901 . The influx included desperate , dishonest people , from elsewhere in Australia and overseas , and Fremantle Prison was soon overcrowded .
The 1890s also saw a growing public unease with the treatment of prisoners . Newspaper articles on mistreatment on prisoners persisted through the late 1890s , and reform campaigners – most notably former Queensland prisoner Frederick Vosper – called for a Royal Commission . In September 1898 such an enquiry was established by the governor of Western Australia to investigate the colony 's penal system . The commission heard evidence from almost 240 witnesses , including a range of prisoners . Three reports were made between December 1898 and June 1899 . The first of these dealt with the most recognisable and prominent issues regarding classification , sentencing , prison punishments and offences , diet , and " the special problems of remand , youthful and lunatic prisoners " . The second report examined cases where " the exercise of the Royal Prerogative of mercy " might be appropriate , while the final , detailed report covered the remaining evidence presented to the commission . In particular , they considered the philosophy of the prison system – the causes of crime , as well as the types of punishments and their justifications – and in light of this , the practicality of various reform proposals .
The royal commission 's third report also dealt with prison administration . It found that the prison was operating under outdated legislation , with little regulation or written guidance , and that there was incertitude in administration – the positions of sheriff and inspector of prisons were held by one man , James Roe , who lived in Perth , with the prison 's superintendent , William George , taking on much of the management responsibility .
= = 20th century = =
= = = Implementation of Royal Commission recommendations = = =
Within a year of the enquiry , almost 100 cells had been enlarged by knocking down the inner wall between two cells , and a classification system was introduced . Internal walls were constructed in the main block , creating four separate divisions :
One Division , for " debtors , trials and remands , and juveniles " ( up to 25 years old )
Two Division , for " short sentenced first offenders , petty thieves , drunkards , and vagrants "
Three Division , for " long sentenced and habitual prisoners "
Four Division , for reformatory prisoners – " cooks , bakers , cleaners , and orderlies "
Following the urgings of Superintendent George and various official enquiries , new workshops were built to provide increased useful employment for prisoners . The western workshops , located between the entry complex and the Female Division , were built from 1900 – 1901 of squared limestone rubble with openings dressed in brick . An open saw @-@ tooth roof with southern skylights covered the five spaces designed for the five traditional workshops : tailors , bookbinders , shoemakers , mat makers and painters . The two northern shops were later amalgamated by removing the dividing wall .
Further action was not taken until 1902 , when new regulations for prison officers were published in the Government Gazette . A new Prison Act was passed in 1903 , replacing sixteen previous acts . It provided for classification of prisoners , provision of adequate work for prisoners , and the creation of the position of comptroller general of prisons , to assume the functions the sheriff had undertaken as inspector of prisons . While in theory the passing of the act should have been a landmark moment in prison reform , this did not eventuate . The legislation left much of the changes to executive regulation , at the discretion of the governor , and was described by the media as a feeble document . Other problems included Fremantle Prison 's inscrutability for classification , due to its design , and that the sheriff was allowed to hold the office of comptroller general of prisons , effectively making it no more than a change in name .
New Division , completed in 1907 and occupied in 1908 , resulted from the 1899 Commissioners ' report recommending a modified version of the separate system . The new division , built by contractors with stone from quarries at Rottnest Island , was similar in design to Henderson 's 1850s structure , but was constructed in an L @-@ shape , was only three stories tall , and had electric lighting , with cables laid underground for safety as well as aesthetics . It also differed in its use from the main cell block . Unlike the earlier building , prisoners remained continuously in their somewhat enlarged cells , except when exercised in separate yards watched by a warder in a central tower . The 30 unit radial , panopticon @-@ style exercise yard became known as the " cage " . The concept of the separate system was already over sixty years old when introduced to Fremantle .
= = = Second Royal Commission = = =
By 1908 there were calls for another Royal Commission into Western Australia 's penal system . Truth newspaper repeatedly criticised Fremantle Prison between 1903 and 1910 , with much of the blame placed on the comptroller general and superintendent . Allegations included that new offenders still were not separated from older ones , that regulations were systemically broken , and that prisoners were not paid for the work they did .
In 1911 another Royal Commission investigation into Fremantle Prison recommended closing the facility . Its report was ignored by the state government , which was more concerned with building infrastructure such as roads and schools , rather than the plight of its prisoners . However , there was a rapid change in prison policy , with the appointment of a superintendent , Hugh Hann , who had recent English and colonial experience , and the election of a Labor government with members interested in penal reform . One immediate result was the dismantling of the separate system at Fremantle Prison and the demolition of the separate exercise yards in 1912 . It shares with Katingal Special Security Unit in New South Wales the record for brevity of use of a permanent Australian penal structure .
= = = Military gaol = = =
Fremantle Prison was partially used as a military gaol during both world wars . During World War II , the Australian Army took over the prison and used it as a military prison from 1940 until 1946 . It was used for the detention of military personnel , as well as an internment centre – one of more than 50 across Australia holding a combined total of more than 12 @,@ 000 enemy aliens and prisoners of war . Fremantle accommodated up to 400 military prisoners and up to 160 civilian prisoners by October 1945 . The takeover necessitated the commissioning of Barton 's Mill Prison in 1942 . After the war Fremantle Prison returned to civilian use and a variety of ad hoc structures were erected on and below the knoll terraces .
= = = Reform = = =
Prison outstations were established as part of the reforms in the 20th century , and to reduce the overcrowding at Fremantle . Pardelup Prison Farm opened in 1927 , near Mount Barker , while Barton 's Mill , though planned to be a temporary measure , remained open as a prison after World War II . Pardelup operated as a working farm , with a large @-@ scale dairy , cattle and pig raising , and crops , and Barton ' Mill prisoners cut timber to supply hospitals , houses , and the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme 's pumping station at Mundaring . In both cases , the only aspects resembling a prison were the presence of guards , and the compulsion to remain there – enforced by the remoteness of the facilities and the integrity of prisoners chosen to be transferred there . Escapees were generally punished with extended sentences at the harsher Fremantle Prison , which had little change over the four decades from 1920 to 1960 .
Significant reform to Western Australia 's prison system – new prisons , legislation , and administration – did not begin until the 1960s , lagging behind those that occurred in Europe , North America , and elsewhere in Australia after World War II . Seven new prisons were opened between 1960 and 1971 , including a maximum @-@ security facility at Albany , following an abrupt increase in the prisoner population in the mid- to late @-@ 1950s . In 1970 , female prisoners and staff were moved from Fremantle to the new Bandyup Women 's Prison , built at Bandyup on the outskirts of Perth . The female division , which had been the only women 's prison in Western Australia , was subsequently used for male prisoners . New legislation regarding probation , parole , and convicted drunkards was also introduced , which provided alternatives to imprisonment . With these new arrangements , and more variety in prisons and prison types , a classification board was set up in 1963 to assess prisoners .
The appointment of Colin Campbell as comptroller general in 1966 fostered substantial changes within Fremantle Prison itself . A university graduate with a major in psychology , he was the first senior appointment from outside the Western Australian prison system in almost half a century . He viewed prison as " a place for rehabilitation and re @-@ education ... where people can retain their identity and , if necessary , create a new identity " . One of his first changes was to make himself chairman of the classification committee , and clear its backlog of prisoners awaiting assessment through more frequent committee meetings . Campbell also established an officer training school , as well as an assessment centre , where new prisoners worked , supervised by specially trained officers who gave reports to the classification committee . Following international trends , Campbell introduced work release and community service programs , training programs for both prisoners and officers , and social workers and welfare officers to assist prisoners and their families during and after their imprisonment .
= = = Reorganisations = = =
The 1970s and 1980s saw numerous changes at a departmental level , and adjustments in the roles and responsibilities of the state 's prison system . In 1971 , within the midst of Campbell 's reforms , the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections , and restructured into three divisions : Treatment and Training Branch , Correctional Psychiatric Branch , and Establishments Branch . The position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department . William Kidston succeeded Campbell following his death in 1977 . Amidst growing prisoner numbers , Kidston oversaw a shift in policy from " paternalistic rehabilitation " of prisoners to merely providing opportunities for rehabilitation . The department was reorganised , with the Treatment and Training Branch becoming the Support Services Branch , with other branches for administration , institutions , and prison industries .
A new Prisons Act was passed in 1981 , which updated the 1903 act and its eleven amendments with modern philosophies and practices – codifying departmental orders , instructions , and policy documents . The act was , however , slanted towards prisoner management and safety , as the government and opposition were mindful of public opinion , and the perception of lax security at Fremantle . The result was legislation criticised by the Criminal Lawyers Association , academics , and newspapers , including for minimal welfare provisions that did little to ensure prisoner welfare . The department was at the same time renamed the Prisons Department once more , to emphasise imprisonment as its primary responsibility .
Ian Hill became director of the Prisons Department in 1983 , and reorganised the department several times , striving for greater " economy , efficiency , and effectiveness " . This included a merge with the Office of Probation and Parole in 1986 , resulting in the Department of Corrective Services . By 1987 , the department 's welfare division was disbanded , with prison officers made responsible for prisoner welfare . Whilst the changes of the 1980s were effective throughout most of Western Australia 's prison system , the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change . Growing prisoner discontent eventually culminated in the 1988 prison riot .
= = = Later enquiries = = =
In 1972 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate mistreatment of and discrimination against Aboriginal prisoners . Its 1973 report found that there was not " any appreciable discrimination against aboriginies or part aboriginies " ; however , racial stereotypes are present throughout the report , testimony of Aboriginal prisoners was considered unreliable , and the conclusion was predictable as a " validation of the actions or policies of ... government officials " . The report made recommendations regarding various aspects of prison life , including additional , independent , trained welfare officers .
In 1988 , an enquiry investigated the Fremantle Prison riot that occurred at the start of the year . The report suggested that little evidence supported the escape plan theory reported by the media , but that the riot was largely the result of an incident of that morning involving the mistreatment of a prisoner and his subsequent release into Three Division yard .
= = Closure = =
The state government made the decision to decommission Fremantle Prison in 1983 , but it remained in operation until 30 November 1991 . Prisoners were moved to a new metropolitan maximum security prison at Casuarina and the prison was transferred to the Building Management Authority . There were divergent views in the community over the site 's future : some wanted it demolished and redeveloped , or turned into gardens with a small monument ; others wanted the historic site to be preserved , but were opposed to turning the misery of prisoners into entertainment for tourists . The ultimate decision was for conservation of the prison , but allowing for the buildings to be adapted for reuse by the community .
The Fremantle Prison Trust was established in 1992 to advise the Minister for Works on the management of the site . Various new uses were found for different parts of the prison , including wedding services in the chapels , a Coastal Business Centre in New Division , and the Fremantle Children 's Literature Centre in the hospital ; the prison also became a tourist attraction . A private company organised the tourist operation for ten years under contract , until the end of 2001 ; subsequently , the state government took control . A hostel providing short @-@ stay accommodation in the women 's prison opened in May 2015 .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Heritage listing = = =
Fremantle Prison was listed in the Western Australian Register of Historic Places as an interim entry on 10 January 1992 , and as a permanent entry on 30 June 1995 . Described as the best preserved convict @-@ built prison in the country , it became the first building in Western Australia to be listed on the Australian National Heritage List , in 2005 . The Australian Federal Heritage Minister , Senator Ian Campbell , stated that it would be included in a nomination of eleven convict areas to become World Heritage Sites . Five years later , the prison was one of eleven former convict sites in Australia inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2010 as the Australian Convict Sites .
The process of obtaining World Heritage listing focused historical interpretation and conservation efforts on the prison 's convict era , at the expense of its more recent history . These included its use as an internment centre during World War II , and the imprisonment of Aboriginal prisoners . The prioritisation of convict heritage was evident from the first conservation plans from before the prison closed . This aspect became more and more important through later plans by James Semple Kerr , authored in 1992 and reviewed in 1998 , and subsequently in the state government 's masterplan , released in December 2000 . The convict @-@ era focus is reflected in the branding of the tourist experience as " Fremantle Prison – the Convict Establishment " , and through restorations which , while necessary to prevent damage and deterioration , strip away the site 's recent history .
= = = Restoration = = =
Various parts of Fremantle Prison have had restoration works undertaken since the 1990s , to halt the deterioration of the buildings and preserve them for the future . A total of $ 800 @,@ 000 was spent between 1996 / 97 and 1998 / 99 on works that included restoring the facade of the Anglican chapel . In 2005 , work was undertaken on the restoration of the prison gatehouse area . Non @-@ original rendering was removed and the original stonework was revealed . Work was also completed on the tunnels during 2005 / 06 , and the main cell block was restored with an eighteen @-@ month , $ 1 @.@ 9 million project in 2006 and 2007 . The gallows room was restored in 2013 to conditions at the time of the last execution , in 1964 .
= = = Attribution = = =
This article incorporates text from the source Australian Heritage Database – Fremantle Prison ( former ) , 1 The Terrace , Fremantle , WA , Australia , which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3 @.@ 0 Australia licence ( CC @-@ BY 3 @.@ 0 AU ) . Required attribution : © Commonwealth of Australia 2013 .
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= Joachim Müncheberg =
Joachim Müncheberg ( 31 December 1918 – 23 March 1943 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 135 enemy aircraft shot down in over 500 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed over the Western Front , with 33 claims over the Eastern Front . Of his 102 aerial victories achieved over the Western Allies , 46 were against Supermarine Spitfire fighters .
Born in Friedrichsdorf , Müncheberg , who had strong ambitions as a track and field athlete , volunteered for military service in the Wehrmacht of the Third Reich in 1936 . Initially serving in the Heer ( Army ) , he transferred to the Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) in 1938 . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 234 ( JG 234 — 234th Fighter Wing ) in October 1938 . He was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( JG 26 — 26th Fighter Wing ) a year later and was appointed adjutant of the III . Gruppe ( 3rd Group ) . He fought in the Battle of France and received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross following his 20th aerial victory and during the Battle of Britain . Serving as a Staffelkapitän ( Squadron Leader ) he fought in the aerial battles during the siege of Malta and Balkans Campaign . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Italian Gold Medal of Military Valor ( Italian : Medaglia d 'oro al Valore Militare ) after 43 aerial victories .
Müncheberg then briefly served in North Africa in support of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps before transferring to France . He was given command of JG 26 's II . Gruppe ( 2nd Group ) in September 1941 and was then posted to Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) , operating on the Eastern Front , in July 1942 . Serving as a Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) in training under JG 51 wing commander Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann , he claimed his 100th aerial victory on 5 September 1942 for which he was awarded the Swords ( Schwerter ) to his Knight 's Cross on 9 September , his score then at 103 aerial victories . On 1 October 1942 Müncheberg was given command of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) , operating in the Mediterranean Theatre . He died of wounds following a mid @-@ air collision during combat near Meknassy , Tunisia on 23 March 1943 .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Joachim " Jochen " Müncheberg was born on 31 December 1918 in Friedrichsdorf near Dramburg in the Province of Pomerania , at the time a province of the Free State of Prussia . Today it is Darskowo in the administrative district of Gmina Złocieniec , within Drawsko County , Poland . He was the second child of Paul Müncheberg , a farmer , and his wife Erika , née Ulrich . His sister Eva @-@ Brigitte was one and a half years older . His father had served as a cavalry officer of the reserves during World War I. The hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic forced his father to sell their farm Friedrichshof in 1923 ; they resettled in Königsberg , where Müncheberg started his elementary schooling ( Grundschule ) . His father was able to repurchase their old farm in 1927 and the family moved back to Friedrichshof . Müncheberg completed his elementary school in Falkenburg , Pomerania . He walked or rode on a horse @-@ drawn wagon 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) each way to school . In 1928 he transferred to the Realgymnasium ( a type of secondary school ) in Dramburg and graduated with his Abitur ( diploma ) in 1936 .
Müncheberg , who was talented in sports and athletics , played football for the T.V. Falkenburg youth team in the early 1930s . He attended the Sturmabteilung @-@ sports school in Hammerstein for a few weeks in 1934 and in 1935 spent his summer vacation in Bulgaria where he , among other places , stayed at the Rila Monastery . In early 1936 he attended a National Socialism course in Lauenburg , Pomerania . He completed his compulsory labour service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst ) in October 1936 with Abteilung ( department ) 5 / 50 in Lüttmannshagen , district of Cammin . As an athlete , he especially excelled in the decathlon ; almost daily he practised the ten different disciplines . Aged 17 , he attended a summer camp held in conjunction with the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin .
In his youth he was keenly interested in flying and other technical things . His interest in flying was kindled by his cousin Hermann Hackbusch , a pilot during World War I , who often took Müncheberg to the Berlin @-@ Staaken airfield for sightseeing flights . He volunteered for service in the then newly emerging Luftwaffe and started his recruit training on 4 December 1936 in the Heer of the Wehrmacht . Müncheberg spent his 1936 / 37 winter vacation in Altenberg in the Erzgebirge . He then attended the III . Lehrgang ( 3rd training course ) in the 4 . Schülerkompanie ( 4th student company ) at the Luftkriegsschule 1 ( 1st Air War School ) in Dresden as a Fahnenjunker ( Officer Applicant ) from 1 April to 30 June 1937 . A year later he completed his flight training there and was promoted to Fähnrich ( Officer Cadet ) on 16 December 1937 . He transferred to the Luftwaffe in 1938 and attended the Jagdfliegerschule ( Fighter Pilot School ) in Werneuchen , under the command of Oberst ( Colonel ) Theodor Osterkamp . He was then posted to I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Jagdgeschwader 234 ( JG 234 — 234th Fighter Wing ) stationed at Cologne on 23 September 1938 . He was promoted to Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) on 8 November 1938 .
While stationed in Cologne , Müncheberg trained for the decathlon at the ASV Köln ( sports club in Cologne ) during his spare time and competed in various national and international track and field events . He even had a training field built on the family estate at Friedrichshof in Pomerania and at the time had strong ambitions to compete in the 1940 Summer Olympics . His commanding officers supported him in this athletic vision and gave him additional time off to practice for the Olympics . Müncheberg owned a dachshund ( Dackel ) , which his mother had bred , named Seppl . The dog accompanied him from the start of World War II until his death on 23 March 1943 .
I. / JG 234 was equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109 E @-@ 3 in December 1938 and re @-@ designated as I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( JG 26 — 26th Fighter Wing ) , named after Albert Leo Schlageter , on 1 May 1939 . Müncheberg was transferred to 11 . Staffel of Lehrgeschwader 2 ( 11 . / LG 2 — 11th squadron of the 2nd Demonstration Wing ) in mid @-@ 1939 . 11 . ( Nacht ) / LG 2 was formed on 1 August 1939 and experimented with night fighting techniques . Only pilots with excellent flying abilities , especially blind flying , were chosen .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland . 11 . ( Nacht ) / LG 2 was re @-@ designated to 10 . ( Nachtjagd ) Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 26 which was led by Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) Johannes Steinhoff . III . Gruppe was formed on 23 September 1939 in Werl and Müncheberg was appointed its adjutant . III . Gruppe relocated to Essen @-@ Mülheim in early November 1939 during the Phoney War period ( October 1939 – April 1940 ) . From this airfield , he claimed his first victory on 7 November 1939 , a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Bristol Blenheim Mk . I bomber L1325 of No. 57 Squadron RAF , piloted by Pilot Officer H.R. Bewlay . This achievement earned him the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 9 November 1939 .
= = = Battle of France = = =
The Battle of France , the German invasion of France and the Low Countries , began on 10 May 1940 . II. and III . Gruppe flew close air support missions in support of German airborne landings by the Fallschirmjäger ( paratroopers ) in the Netherlands . Müncheberg filed claim for his second victory on 11 May 1940 when he shot down a Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk northwest of Antwerp . On 13 May 1940 , III . Gruppe was moved to München Gladbach , present @-@ day Mönchengladbach , closer to the border with the Netherlands and Belgium . After the surrender of the Netherlands on 17 May 1940 , III . Gruppe moved to Peer in Belgium and again moved on 19 May , this time to Beauvechain near Brussels .
Operating from Chièvres Air Base from 27 May 1940 , Müncheberg claimed his fifth aerial victory over a Supermarine Spitfire on 29 May 1940 . This achievement earned him the Iron Cross 1st Class . At the time , III . Gruppe was providing fighter escort for Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers and Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters operating against the beachhead held by British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) in the Battle of Dunkirk . On 4 June 1940 , III . Gruppe relocated to La Capelle near Boulogne . The second and decisive phase , Fall Rot ( Case Red ) , of the Battle of France began on 5 June . Major ( Major ) Adolf Galland was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the III . Gruppe on 6 June and Müncheberg became his first adjutant . The Gruppe was again relocated on 13 June , this time to Les Thilliers @-@ en @-@ Vexin and on 17 June to Villacoublay near Paris . Müncheberg flew ground support missions against the retreating French forces at the time . France surrendered on 22 June 1940 and III . Gruppe of JG 26 " Schlageter " moved back to München Gladbach in Germany . In total , Müncheberg claimed eight Allied aircraft shot down during the invasion of France , including four on 31 May 1940 , bringing his total to nine . The Gruppe then moved to Döberitz on 1 July to provide fighter protection for Berlin . The time was also used to repair and upgrade the Bf 109 E @-@ 3s to Bf 109 E @-@ 4s .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
On 21 July 1940 , JG 26 " Schlageter " received orders to relocate to Caffiers in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais in preparation for actions against Britain in what would become the Battle of Britain . Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) on 1 August 1940 ; the strategic objective was to engage and defeat the RAF to achieve air supremacy , or at least air superiority , in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain . III . Gruppe flew fighter protection for bomber formations attacking allied shipping in the English Channel on 24 July . These missions were referred to as Kanalkampf ( channel combat ) by the Germans . The unit flew its next mission one day later , providing fighter protection for Stuka 's again targeting shipping . Müncheberg , who had been promoted to Oberleutnant on 19 July 1940 , claimed his 10th aerial victory on 28 July when he shot down a No. 257 Squadron Hawker Hurricane 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) northeast of Dover . The claim was made at 15 : 15 . No other German pilot from JG 26 claimed a Hurricane at that time . The only loss suffered by 257 Squadron was Sergeant R.V Forward who bailed out wounded . However , RAF records show he was shot down at 18 : 40 over three hours after Müncheberg 's claim . Müncheberg was credited with his 11th victory on 8 August , claiming a No. 65 Squadron Spitfire piloted by Flight Sergeant Norman T. Phillips shot down . The claim would seem unlikely . The war diary for JG 26 " Schlageter " shows that Müncheberg made his claim at 12 : 55 in the afternoon as did three other pilots . No. 65 Squadron lost only two Spitfires that day , one flown by Phillips . British records show Phillips was killed in action at 10 : 45 in No. 65 Squadron 's first mission of the morning , some three hours earlier . On this day , both the Germans lost 22 aircraft shot down and 23 damaged ; the British lost 16 aircraft shot down and four damaged . Only one III . Gruppe Bf 109 was lost . The only RAF losses occurring at the time of Müncheberg 's claim were two Hurricanes belonging to No. 238 Squadron — Flight Lieutenant D.E Turner and Flying Officer D.C. McCaw were killed in action at roughly 12 : 30 .
III . Gruppe continued to fly combat air patrols over the English Channel on 11 and 12 August , however Müncheberg did not claim any aircraft shot down on these days . The fighting reached a climax on 13 August when Eagle Day was launched ( code name Adlertag ) . Müncheberg claimed a Hurricane shot down from either No. 32 Squadron or No. 615 . Squadron on 14 August . The following day he filed claim for a Spitfire from No. 64 Squadron on 15 August on a fighter escort mission for Kampfgeschwader 1 " Hindenburg " ( 1st Bomber Wing ) and Kampfgeschwader 2 " Holzhammer " ( 2nd Bomber Wing ) . Galland was appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of JG 26 " Schlageter " on 22 August 1940 . In consequence , Hauptmann Gerhard Schöpfel , who had led 9 . Staffel , was appointed Gruppenkomandeur of the III . Gruppe and Müncheberg was given command of the 7 . Staffel as Staffelkapitän ( Squadron Leader ) , replacing Oberleutnant Georg Beyer who had been prisoner of war after being shot down .
Flying another fighter escort mission on 24 August in an attack south of London , Müncheberg claimed a victory over a Hurricane from No. 151 Squadron and another Hurricane on 31 August . This brought his total to 15 aerial victories , which increased to 16 the next day . On 14 September 1940 , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross the same day he achieved his 20th aerial victory . This achievement earned Müncheberg a reference in the Wehrmachtbericht ( his first of five in total ) , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht . Following the award presentation Müncheberg was sent on three weeks home leave . He returned in early October , after the third phase of the Battle of Britain where the Luftwaffe had targeted the British airfields , had come to an end . He claimed his first victory following his vacation on 17 October over a Free French Air Force Bloch MB.150 and a Spitfire on 25 October . The Gruppe then relocated to Abbeville @-@ Drucat on 10 November . He claimed his last victory in the Battle of Britain , and the and his last of 1940 , on 14 November , when Galland and Müncheberg each claimed a Spitfire in combat with No. 66 . Squadron and No. 74 . Squadron . This was Müncheberg 's 23rd victory , and was claimed southeast of Dover . The weather then deteriorated , and fog and heavy rain prevented further flight operations . Hitler visited JG 26 " Schlageter " at Christmas 1940 . Hitler dined with a selected group of pilots , among them Oberleutnant Gustav Sprick , Hauptmann Walter Adolph , Hauptmann Rolf Pingel , Galland , Schöpfel and Müncheberg . The war of attrition against the RAF had cost JG 26 " Schlageter " dearly , 7 . Staffel alone lost 13 pilots , and the entire Geschwader had to be moved back to Germany to reform and re @-@ equip in early 1941 . III . Gruppe was stationed at Bonn @-@ Hangelar , in Sankt Augustin . Before the Gruppe received new aircraft , the men were sent on a skiing vacation at Sankt Anton am Arlberg .
= = = Malta , Balkans and North Africa in 1941 = = =
On 4 February 1941 , Müncheberg was informed by Gruppenkommandeur Schöpfel that the 7 . Staffel had to relocate to Sicily in support of X. Fliegerkorps , under the command of General der Flieger ( General of the Flyers ) Hans Geisler , for actions against the strategically important island of Malta . With the opening of a new front in North Africa in mid @-@ 1940 , British air and sea forces based on the island could attack Axis ships transporting vital supplies and reinforcements from Europe to North Africa . To counter this threat the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica ( Italian Royal Air Force ) were tasked with bombing raids in an effort to neutralise the RAF defences and the ports .
Following a brief stopover in Rome , 7 . Staffel arrived in Gela on Sicily on 9 February 1941 . Here Müncheberg received a factory new Bf 109 E @-@ 7 / N with the Werknummer ( factory number ) 3826 and marked as " White 12 " . He claimed his first victory in the Siege of Malta on 12 February over a No. 261 Squadron Hurricane south of Siġġiewi , Malta . On 16 February Müncheberg claimed his 26th victory over No. 261 Squadron Hurricane of ace Flight Lieutenant James MacLachlan , who baled out severely wounded . MacLachlan lost his arm , but returned to combat in late 1941 . Müncheberg claimed a slow flying Hurricane — he assumed that the Hurricane had engine trouble — on 25 February . Flying fighter protection for the Stukas , which were targeting the airfield at Luqa , he claimed another Hurricane at 14 : 06 and a second one the very next day . Müncheberg claimed his 33rd victory on 28 March 1941 . This was also his 200th combat mission which was celebrated by the entire Staffel .
The 7 . Staffel , and elements of the support ground personnel , were relocated to Grottaglie airfield near Taranto in Apulia on 5 April 1941 . Here the pilots learned that the Wehrmacht would invade Yugoslavia and Greece on 6 April . In support of this invasion , the pilots attacked the airfield at Podgorica . Müncheberg claimed a Yugoslav Hawker Fury biplane of Independent Fighter Eskadrila , 81 ( Bomber ) Grupa , Jugoslovensko Kraljevsko Ratno Vazduhoplovstvo ( JKRV — Yugoslav Royal Air Force ) on 6 April 1941 . Its pilot Porucnik ( First Lieutenant ) Milenko Milivojevic was killed . He claimed another Fury and a Breguet 19 destroyed on the ground , but he was only given credit for the first aircraft destroyed in aerial combat . The two Furys were in fact Avia BH @-@ 33 biplanes .
The Balkan intermezzo was short and the detachment relocated back to Gela beginning on 8 April . Müncheberg claimed two Hurricanes of No. 261 Squadron on 11 April and another one on 23 April . A reconnaissance Bf 109 detected a four @-@ engine Short Sunderland at RAF Kalafrana on 27 April . Müncheberg led his 7 . Staffel in the attack , destroying the Sunderland . The victory was not credited to any individual pilot but was considered teamwork of the 7 . Staffel . On 29 April , 7 . Staffel provided fighter protection for Junkers Ju 88 bombers attacking Malta . 7 . Staffel claimed two Hurricanes shot down , one by Münchberg , for the loss of one Ju 88 . The German actress and Ufa star , Carola Höhn , wife of bomber pilot Arved Crüger , on a mission to provide entertainment to the troops , visited the pilots at Gela . According to Röll , Müncheberg was especially attracted to the actress and personally accompanied her during her visit .
Müncheberg surpassed 40 aerial victories on 1 May 1941 after downing two aircraft on an early morning mission . This feat earned him his second honourable mention the Wehrmachtbericht . In the afternoon , 7 . Staffel flew fighter cover for Italian Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bombers . In aerial combat with six Hurricanes over the airfields at Hal Far and Luqa he shot down his third opponent of the day . In total , 7 . Staffel was credited with six victories on this day , three by Müncheberg . The entire 7 . Staffel at the time was anxiously awaiting the announcement that Müncheberg had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . Following two more Hurricanes shot down on 6 May , his total now at 43 victories , Müncheberg received the news of his award on the early morning of 7 May . Müncheberg became the 12th member of the Wehrmacht to be honoured with the Oak Leaves and two hours later received news that Duce Benito Mussolini had awarded him the Gold Medal of Military Valor ( Medaglia d 'Oro ) , the first German to receive this award . Hitler sent him a teleprinter message on 7 May 1941 congratulating him on his 40th aerial victory .
7 . Staffel then began a series of relocations which eventually took them to the North African theatre of operations . The Staffel first relocated to Greece at the end of May . The ground personnel were shipped from Catania to Piraeus and then to the airfield at Molaoi on the southern tip of the Peloponnese region . The original intent was to participate in the Battle of Crete . The relatively quick but costly victory made these plans obsolete . The Staffel was then given two weeks of rest at Catania before moving on to Molaoi . Here the pilots were initially tasked with long range combat air patrols before Operation Battleaxe , a British Army operation with the goal of clearing eastern Cyrenaica of German and Italian forces , was initiated on 15 June . 7 Staffel was immediately ordered to relocate to North Africa where they were subordinated to I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 27 ( I. / JG 27 — 1st group of the 27th Fighter Wing ) , then under the command of Hauptmann Eduard Neumann .
In North Africa , Müncheberg just barely escaped being killed when one of his headphone speakers was shot off by small arms fire during a low level strafing attack . In total , Müncheberg claimed five victories in this theatre . His first three victories were over Hurricanes . The one on 20 June was claimed against pilots from either No. 1 Squadron or No. 2 Squadron of the South African Air Force ( SAAF ) . His victory on 24 June was over Pilot Officer James Alan Frederick Sowrey of No. 6 Squadron who was killed in the engagement . His opponent on 15 July was either a No. 73 Squadron or No. 229 Squadron RAF pilot . The final two victories in North Africa of 1941 were over Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawks , both on 29 July 1941 , from No. 2 Squadron SAAF . This took his total to 48 aerial victories .
= = = Channel operations = = =
Fliegerführer Afrika received orders on 4 August 1941 to downsize the 7 . Staffel in Africa to four aircraft . The remaining aircraft and aircrews were to relocate to France back to Jagdgeschwader 26 . Before Müncheberg arrived in France , he stopped in Rome where he received the Gold Medal of Military Valour from Mussolini . He then travelled to the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland , for the Oak Leaves presentation . Following the presentation Müncheberg went on two weeks of vacation . Following their return from North Africa to France the pilots of 7 . Staffel were given newer Bf 109 F @-@ 4 aircraft in replacement for the older Bf 109 E @-@ 7 type . Müncheberg claimed his first victory here on 28 August over a Spitfire and another one , his 50th overall , on 29 August . He claimed two Spitfires on 4 September and one more from No. 71 Squadron three days later .
On 19 September 1941 , Müncheberg was promoted to the rank of Hauptmann and became Gruppenkommandeur of II . / JG 26 " Schlageter " following the death of Hauptmann Walter Adolph the day before , in aerial combat with RAF Spitfire fighters . Müncheberg 's position of Staffelkapitän of the 7 . Staffel was passed on to Oberleutnant Klaus Mietusch . II . Gruppe had already been equipped with the new Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 1 . It was the first Gruppe in the Luftwaffe completely equipped with the Fw 190 . Müncheberg 's number of victories continued to increase ; all but his 55th on 18 September , which was over a No. 607 Squadron Hurricane , were claimed against Spitfires . Galland was replaced by Schöpfel on 5 December as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter " . Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring had appointed Galland as General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) following the death of Oberst Werner Mölders . On 8 December Müncheberg achieved his 60th aerial victory which was announced in the Wehrmachtbericht , his third such mention . He claimed his 62nd overall victory and the last of the year 1941 on 16 December 1941 . Müncheberg went on a lengthy vacation in early 1942 , not returning before March 1942 . He therefore did not participate in Operation Donnerkeil ( 11 – 12 February 1942 ) , the air superiority operation to support the Kriegsmarine 's ( German Navy ) Operation Cerberus .
Müncheberg claimed the first victory following his vacation on 13 March 1942 , a Spitfire of No. 124 Squadron . During his absence the Fw 190 A @-@ 1 and A @-@ 2 had been replaced with the newer A @-@ 3 variant . Two Spitfires of No. 412 Squadron fell to his guns on 24 March which brought his score to 65 . Müncheberg claimed his 70th and 71st victory on 26 April within two minutes of combat . II . Gruppe at the time was referred to as the " Abbeville Boys " by the RAF pilots based on the Abbeville airfield where they were stationed . On 29 April 1942 he probably shot down and killed No. 131 Wing RAF leader and Polish ace Wing Commander Marian Pisarek . On 2 June , II . Gruppe intercepted No. 403 Squadron on a fighter @-@ bomber mission . Müncheberg was credited with the destruction of two Spitfires taking his total to 81 aerial victories . This achievement was announced on 4 June 1942 in the Wehrmachtbericht and was followed by the presentation of the German Cross in Gold on 5 June . He claimed his final two victories ( 82 – 83 ) with II . Gruppe on 20 June 1942 in combat with Spitfires of No. 118 and No. 501 Squadron . II . Gruppe was credited with the destruction of five enemy aircraft destroyed without suffering any losses .
= = = Eastern Front = = =
Following his 83rd aerial victory , Müncheberg was summoned to his commanding officer , Geschwaderkommodore Schöpfel , who informed him of his transfer to Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) on the Eastern Front . Müncheberg was destined to become a Geschwaderkommodore but prior to receiving his own command he would have to serve as a Kommodore in training . He went on a three weeks home leave , staying at his parents home , before he received his orders to head east on 21 July 1942 .
On his way to the Eastern Front , Müncheberg travelled to Berlin where he briefly served on the staff of the General der Jagdflieger Galland discussing air combat tactics and how to lead a fighter wing . On 26 July 1942 he participated in the German track and field championships , starting for the ASV Köln in the decathlon . Müncheberg finally arrived on the Eastern Front in early August 1942 where he was welcomed by the Geschwaderkommodore of JG 51 , Major Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . Initially Müncheberg believed that combat on the Eastern Front was child 's play in comparison to the Western Front . In the first four weeks his aircraft was twice severely damaged in combat . His first major task was re @-@ equipping JG 51 with the Fw 190 . Under his leadership JG 51 became the first fighter wing on the Eastern Front to equip with this type . He claimed his first victories in the east on 3 August 1942 , shooting down two Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 dive bomber near Rzhev .
He quickly achieved further victories , reaching 90 victories on 22 August and surpassing the 100 victories on 5 September . He was the 19th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . On 9 September , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords following his 103rd victory . Müncheberg was the 19th member of the Wehrmacht and the 13th fighter pilot who had received this award . Müncheberg claimed his last victory in this theatre on 22 September 1942 , claiming 33 victories in total over Russian aircraft , this took his overall score to 116 aerial victories . He was then ordered to the Wolf 's Lair where Hitler presented him the Swords to his Knight 's Cross with Oak Leaves . Following the award ceremony he was granted home leave before being appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) , replacing Gordon Gollob in this role .
= = = North Africa and death = = =
Müncheberg took over command of Jagdgeschwader 77 on 1 October 1942 . Jagdgeschwader 77 at the time was deployed on the southern sector of the Eastern Front and was scheduled to relocate to North Africa where I. Gruppe under the command of Heinz Bär arrived in Ain el Gazala on 27 October . Under the leadership of Müncheberg , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) which was equipped with new Bf 109 G @-@ 2s , arrived on 29 October . He scored over a No. 92 Squadron Spitfire piloted by Flight Sergeant Blades on 9 November , his 117th overall . Promoted to Major on 30 November 1942 , he claimed his 119th victory on 10 December and made a forced landing in his Bf 109 G @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 10 725 — factory number ; 35 % damage ) following combat with a P @-@ 40 of the 66th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , 57th Fighter Group , United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) . On 13 March 1943 Müncheberg became the second German fighter pilot after Hans @-@ Joachim Marseille to achieve 100 aerial victories over Anglo @-@ American adversaries .
Müncheberg was killed in action in his Bf 109 G @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 16 381 ) on 23 March 1943 over Tunisia when his 135th victim , a USAAF 52nd Fighter Group Spitfire exploded in front of him after a close burst of cannon fire . The Spitfire was piloted by Captain Theodore Sweetman . Müncheberg managed to bail out and landed severely wounded . Although the search team quickly recovered him , Müncheberg died on the way to a field hospital . Captain Hugh L. Williamson , who was also shot down in the engagement , later stated that Sweetmann had deliberately rammed Müncheberg with his burning Spitfire . Müncheberg was buried originally at El Aouina ; his remains were moved to the Heroes Cemetery at Tunis and later reinterred in the 1950s at the German Military Cemetery at Bordj @-@ Cedria . The Wehrmachtbericht announced his death on 25 March 1943 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Müncheberg was credited with 135 aerial victories , claimed in more than 500 combat missions , 102 on the Western Front — including 19 over Malta , one in Yugoslavia and 24 in North Africa — and 33 on the Eastern Front . His tally includes at least 46 Supermarine Spitfire fighter aircraft shot down .
This and the – ( dash ) indicates unwitnessed aerial victory claims for which Müncheberg did not receive credit .
= = Awards and honours = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 17 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 10 May 1940 )
German Cross in Gold on 5 June 1942 as Hauptmann in the II . / Jagdgeschwader 26
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 14 September 1940 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter "
12th Oak Leaves on 7 May 1941 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter "
19th Swords on 9 September 1942 as Hauptmann and deputy Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51 " Mölders "
Mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht
Medaglia d 'oro al Valore Militare ( 7 May 1941 )
= = = Dates of rank = = =
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= Zooropa ( song ) =
" Zooropa " / zuːˈroʊpɑː / is a song by the rock band U2 . It is the opening track from their 1993 album Zooropa . The song was the result of combining two pieces of music , the first of which was conceived in the studio , and the second of which was discovered by guitarist The Edge while listening to soundchecks the band had done while on tour . The lyrics were written by vocalist Bono , describing two characters in a brightly lit city in a futuristic version of European society . Lyrics in the song were based on advertising slogans , and also featured the phrase " dream out loud " , which has appeared in other U2 media . The song touched on several themes , including moral confusion and the future of European society .
Promotional recordings of the song were released in the United States and Mexico , and the song appeared on two record charts shortly after its release in 1993 . The song was briefly performed at three shows on U2 's Zoo TV Tour in 1993 . The band had difficulties performing it in 1993 , and it was not played again until the U2 360 ° Tour in 2011 .
The recording of the song received mostly positive reception from critics , who praised it as the album 's opening track .
= = Background and recording = =
During the Zoo TV Tour in 1992 , U2 were trying to create a vision of an attractive future for Europe , as opposed to a negative , dystopian image that would be found in science fiction . With recent and ongoing events in Europe , such as the Revolutions of 1989 , the enlargement of the European Union , and the Bosnian War , lead vocalist Bono created a surreal vision of a European location called " Zooropa " . Bono has referred to Zooropa as being a concept album , with a main theme of the exploration of interpellation within the European Union .
Bono and guitarist The Edge had been reading works by cyberpunk author William Gibson , who wrote about a futuristic urban environment known as " The Sprawl " . Gibson was an influence in the texture of the song , which Bono described as " fucked up sci @-@ fi " . Bono wanted to use noise to create a visual setting for the song , similar to Gibson 's futuristic world , filled with advertisements on LED displays and neon signs , as in the 1982 film Blade Runner . With " Zooropa " as the album 's opening song , Bono stated that he wanted the album 's music to be like " legal drugs " that would create a trip where " you come out of the other end and you feel like you 've been on some kind of a journey " . The closing song on the album , " The Wanderer " , features Johnny Cash on vocals , and was intended on being the " antidote " to the futuristic @-@ sounding opener .
The song was written and recorded during the album 's sessions at Windmill Lane Studios and The Factory Studios in Dublin , between legs of the Zoo TV Tour from March to May 1993 . " Zooropa " was first developed after The Edge listened to cassette recordings of the band 's soundchecks from the tour . Along with the album 's sound engineer Joe O 'Herlihy , The Edge edited the best parts of the soundchecks to create a song arrangement , which served as a backing track . The song 's introduction was recorded separately from the remainder of the song . The band based the introduction on a jam session in the studio , and producer Flood took parts of the jam and created an ambient mix . The bass guitar during the intro was written and performed by drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . , who came up with the piece during the recording sessions while The Edge was working on the album 's guitar riffs . The song pieces were then edited into a stereo mix , with the intro mixed in by Flood using a crossfade . Synthesizer sounds were added by producer Brian Eno on a Yamaha DX7 keyboard , including a " squishy , mad @-@ synth sound " that connected the different segments of the soundcheck . The Edge later added guitar tracks , as well as additional sounds to the song using an EMS Synthi A synthesiser . Once the song was almost finished , the band had doubts about the first segment of the soundcheck backing track . Having established an arrangement for the song , they performed it in the studio from start to finish and used the replaying for the first part of the soundcheck backing track , while using portions of the new performance for the second segment .
The band had originally intended on recording an EP during the sessions , but Zooropa eventually evolved into full @-@ length album . " Zooropa " was one of five songs that were part of what would have become the band 's EP , which also included " Babyface " , " Numb " , " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , and " The Wanderer " . Prior to the song 's final title , it had the working title " Babble – Zooropa " , as mentioned in a May 1993 issue of Hot Press , and was later titled " Zooropa I & II " in a June 1993 issue of Billboard .
= = Composition and themes = =
" Zooropa " begins with a two @-@ minute @-@ long introduction . As the song fades in , sustained chords are played , and a noisy collage of mainly indecipherable human voices from radio signals fades in at 0 : 19 . The background voices include a clip of George H. W. Bush saying " Peace talks " , and are referenced in the album notes as " courtesy of the advertising world " . A quiet piano and bass guitar are heard above the voices , which get louder with each beat . At 1 : 30 , the volume of the voices rises suddenly and the bass part changes . The introduction then begins to fade out fifteen seconds later , while a guitar riff played with a delay and wah @-@ wah effect joins the mix . The riff is briefly played on its own before the bass guitar and drums join in at 2 : 03 . This is followed by background voices saying , " What do you want ? " in both English and French ( " Qu 'est @-@ ce que tu veux ? " ) , and " De quoi as @-@ tu peur ? " ( " What are you afraid of ? " ) . In response to the questions , the lyrics in the first three verses of the song consist of various advertising slogans . At 3 : 45 , following the first three verses , a break in the song 's instrumentation occurs , except for guitar , and the song returns to a state similar to the introduction 's end . A rapid rhythmic synthesiser fades in and at 4 : 03 , the drums and bass re @-@ enter and the song assumes an increased tempo . The theme of moral confusion and uncertainty becomes present in the remaining lyrics .
The song describes two characters in a setting with a dull and grey appeal , who emerge from blinking neon signs into a brightly lit modern city . The radio sound effects in the introduction were intended to create a mood and setting for the song . DJ Carter Alan noted that the sounds seemed to draw a connection from Achtung Baby , but Bono stated that it was not intentional and that he didn 't want it to have " anything to do with the past " . The lyrics in " Zooropa " begin with the Audi advertising slogan " Vorsprung durch Technik " ( " Advancement through technology " ) and the first three verses feature references to slogans for other brands , including Colgate , Daz , Fairy , and Zanussi .
Following the first three verses of advertising slogans , the song continues with the lyrics " I have no compass , and I have no map " and " No reason to get back " , referring to the uncertainty of the new direction of U2 's music at the time . The following verse begins with , " And I have no religion " , which was included in the lyrics because Bono stated that he believes " religion is the enemy of God . " A review of the album in Melody Maker compared the lyric " Uncertainty can be a guiding light " towards the end of the song to the line " If you walk away , [ ... ] I will follow " from U2 's 1980 single " I Will Follow " . The reviewer stated " The man ( Bono ) that once had so many answers now sounds simply confused . " The theme of moral confusion was first used in U2 's song " Acrobat " from Achtung Baby . The coda in " Zooropa " features the lyric " dream out loud " , which Bono included as a reference to " Acrobat " . The phrase " dream out loud " was first used by Bono during the Lovetown Tour in 1989 , and has appeared several times in U2 's work since then . The phrase was also used in the song " Always " – a B @-@ side to the " Beautiful Day " single released in 2000 — and was spoken by Bono in the PopMart : Live from Mexico City video .
= = Release and chart performance = =
" Zooropa " was the opening track from the eponymous album , and promotional recordings ( promos ) of the song were distributed by Island Records in the United States and Mexico . The U.S. promo features an edited version of the song that fades in at the first guitar riff ( removing the intro ) , and the Mexico promo features the album version of the song , along with " Numb " as a second track . The cover art of the Mexico promo features the same logo from the Zooropa album cover — a sketch of the circle of stars from the Flag of Europe with an " astrobaby " figure in the middle , based on the " graffiti babyface " from the Achtung Baby album artwork . The logo represents an urban legend about a Soviet cosmonaut left floating in orbit for weeks after the collapse of the Soviet Union .
" Zooropa " was one of four songs from the album to be featured on the Billboard charts , and was the only song to chart that was not released as a single . On 24 July 1993 , it appeared on the Album Rock Tracks chart at number 26 , and remained on the chart for ten weeks , eventually peaking at number eight . " Zooropa " also appeared on the Modern Rock Tracks chart on 7 August 1993 at number 28 , and peaked at number 13 during its eight weeks on the chart .
= = Live appearances = =
During the Zoo TV Tour , clips of " Zooropa " were played during the beginning of the show . The clips included the lyric " What do you want ? " repeated twice , which was displayed on video screens in various languages , and interspersed with a voice saying " It 's very simple " . This part of the opening segment was intended to create confusion among the audience regarding the show 's message , and eventually lead to information overload . U2 performed " Zooropa " live at three consecutive concerts during the fourth leg of the Zoo TV Tour in 1993 . Bono originally discussed how the song would be played live during the album 's recording sessions , saying that The Edge 's guitar riffs may be extended in concert . The song debuted live at a concert in Glasgow in August 1993 , and was performed in the middle of the set list following " Numb " . The live version was much shorter than the album version , skipping the piano intro , as well as the first three verses , starting with the line " I have no compass , and I have no map " . U2 had difficulty performing the song live , which Bono acknowledged to the audience following its debut . According to the book U2 Live : A Concert Documentary , the song 's first performance sounded " shaky " and needed more rehearsal , although its subsequent Zoo TV performances " sound [ ed ] better " . Adam Clayton suggested performing the song as the show opener during the rehearsals for the tour 's fifth and final Zoomerang leg , but it was not performed again on the tour .
After Zoo TV , " Zooropa " was not performed live for 18 years until it was played towards the end of the U2 360 ° Tour in 2011 . Clayton said that adding the song to the tour 's set list was " very experimental " and that it was a " bit cheeky " to introduce to the tour as the band had little experience performing it . The song debuted on the tour on 10 April 2011 in São Paulo , and was rehearsed at soundchecks several days prior . The return of the song was so popular that the word " Zooropa " became a trending topic on Twitter during the evening of its tour debut . " Zooropa " was performed at the remaining 26 concerts on the tour , in addition to a private show in Denver . As of 2011 , " Zooropa " has been performed live at 31 shows . During performances , the stage 's 360 ° retractable video screen would expand its full length , and U2 would perform behind the screen as it took over the stage . The Edmonton Journal commented that by hiding themselves from the fans during the performance , the combination of advertising slogans and flickering lights " help portray this Blade Runner @-@ type world that U2 wants us to escape . " A live recording of " Zooropa " from the U2 360 ° Tour was featured on the U2.com member @-@ exclusive album , U22 , taken from the performance in Baltimore on 22 June 2011 .
The song was not performed during the first leg of the Innocence + Experience Tour , but at the first show of the European leg in September 2015 , a stripped @-@ down version was performed during the second half of the concert . This interpretation of the song lacks the piano intro and first verses , serving as a segue from " Bullet the Blue Sky " into " Where the Streets Have No Name " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
David Sinclair of The Times and Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone both felt that " Zooropa " set the album 's tone from the start . DeCurtis described Bono 's singing and lyrics as a " Mephistophelean seducer " . Allmusic compared " Zooropa " to the anthems of U2 's The Joshua Tree album , and Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne described the song as " ' Where the Streets Have No Name ' transported into the land of cyberpunk " , comparing parts of the song to the techno and metallic music genres . The Independent felt " Zooropa " was " a sprawling multi @-@ sectioned piece that drifts from two minutes of gentle radio babble into a more familiar reverb @-@ rock structure " . Jon Pareles from The New York Times said that the track was reminiscent of old U2 songs , but added new elements such as distorted vocals and repeating guitar squealing . Daily Variety praised the title track over the rest of the songs on the album , stating how it was the only song that " explores the sort of melodic range usually associated with U2 " .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Robert Vagacs , author of the book Religious Nuts , Political Fanatics : U2 in the Theological Perspective , describes the song as the antimatter of " Where the Streets Have No Name " , in both musical and thematic aspects . Vagacs discusses the concept of Zooropa in detail throughout the book , and refers to Zooropa as a " wasteland " and a " dystopia " , due to its lack of fulfilment and certainty . He also states how the Babylonian @-@ like location uses its demigods to control its people through scientism , technicism , and economism . The final track from Achtung Baby , " Love Is Blindness " , is described as " an interpretive bridge into the land of Zooropa " , which Vagacs explains is the setting for the album , as well as the setting for songs on U2 's following album , Pop . " Beautiful Day " , the opening song from U2 's 2000 album , All That You Can 't Leave Behind , describes " a fresh start in Zooropa " .
The use of consumer slogans as song lyrics was also commented on by various sources . Critic Perry Gettelman interpreted them as meaning to " signify the emptiness of modern , godless life " . Kieran Keohane of York University stated that the slogans in " Zooropa " were to express an alienating form of interpellation , while J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun referred to the slogans as a parody of the economic hype used to pass the Maastricht Treaty , through the promising of impossibilities , such as " Be a winner " and " Eat to get slimmer " . English professor Kurt Koenigsberger of Case Western Reserve University stated that the consumer advertisements constitute Zooropa as a " sardonically dystopic " location . In the book Reading Rock and Roll , Robyn Brothers said that the song conveys a " sense of confusion in the wake of a technology speeding beyond our control " , while referencing the lyrics " I hear voices , ridiculous voices / I 'm in the slipstream " . Brothers also compared the song to " Acrobat " , stating both songs reference a response to uncertainty and an unavoidable feeling of alienation .
= = = Legacy = = =
Zooropa producer Flood said that " Zooropa " was one of his favourite songs on the album , along with " Daddy 's Gonna Pay for Your Crashed Car " , " The First Time " , and " Numb " . Mullen felt that the song was " absolutely mesmerizing " . Following the release of " Zooropa " , references to the song have appeared in professional writings and in other media . On the day of the U2 concert in Sarajevo during the PopMart Tour in 1997 , tour set designer Willie Williams wrote about waking up that day with " Zooropa " playing in his head and stated that Sarajevo " is the city of Zooropa , if there ever was one . " José Manuel Barroso , president of the European Commission , quoted the song 's lyrics at a 2005 press conference after enlisting Bono in an effort to get governments in the European Union to give more money to developing countries , and stated that the lyrics inspired an article he wrote about the future of Europe . Thomas Diez of the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute made references to " Zooropa " ' s lyrics in a 1999 book review about the history of the European Union ; lyrics also appeared in a 2005 German – English dictionary , under its listing for " Vorsprung durch Technik " .
Kurt Koenigsberger 's book The Novel and the Menagerie mentioned " Zooropa " in a section discussing Salman Rushdie and his appearance on the Zoo TV Tour . In 2008 , the word " Zooropa " was used in an international finance textbook as the name of a fictional , generic city . The book Religious Nuts , Political Fanatics lists " Zooropa " as one of 22 U2 songs for " recommended listening " . A 2009 review of U2 's album No Line on the Horizon , MusicRadar described the song " Magnificent " as " ' New Year 's Day ' meets ' Zooropa ' " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
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= Bristol =
Bristol ( / ˈbrɪstəl / ) is a city , unitary authority area and county in South West England with an estimated population of 442 @,@ 500 in 2015 . It is England 's sixth and the United Kingdom 's eighth most populous city , and the most populous city in Southern England after London . People from Bristol are known as Bristolians . The city borders the Unitary Authority areas of North Somerset and South Gloucestershire , with the historic cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south @-@ east and north @-@ east , respectively .
Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon , and around the beginning of the 11th century the settlement was known as Brycgstow ( Old English " the place at the bridge " ) . Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was in Gloucestershire until 1373 , when it became a county . From the 13th to the 18th century , Bristol was among the top three English cities after London ( with York and Norwich ) in tax receipts . Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester , Liverpool and Birmingham during the Industrial Revolution .
Bristol was a starting place for early voyages of exploration to the New World . On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot , a Venetian , became the first European since the Vikings to land on mainland North America . In 1499 William Weston , a Bristol merchant , was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America . The Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock .
Bristol 's modern economy is built on the creative media , electronics and aerospace industries , and the city @-@ centre docks have been redeveloped as centres of heritage and culture . The city has two universities , the University of the West of England and the University of Bristol and a variety of artistic and sporting organisations and venues including the Royal West of England Academy , the Arnolfini , Spike Island , Ashton Gate and the Memorial Stadium . It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road , rail , sea and air by the M5 and M4 ( which connects to the city centre by the M32 ) , Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations , and Bristol Airport . One of the UK 's most popular tourist destinations , Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world 's top ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults . In 2014 The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live , and Bristol also won the EU 's European Green Capital Award in 2015 .
= = History = =
Archaeological finds , including flint tools believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 126 @,@ 000 years old made with the Levallois technique , indicate the presence of Neanderthals in the Shirehampton and St Annes areas of Bristol during the Middle Palaeolithic . Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down , on the side of the Avon Gorge , and on Kings Weston Hill near Henbury . A Roman settlement , Abona , existed at what is now Sea Mills ( connected to Bath by a Roman road ) ; another was at the present @-@ day Inns Court . Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were also scattered throughout the area .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Brycgstow ( Old English " the place at the bridge " ) was founded by 1000 ; by about 1020 , it was a trading centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name . By 1067 Brycgstow was a well @-@ fortified burh , and that year the townsmen beat off a raiding party from Ireland led by three of Harold Godwinson 's sons . Under Norman rule , the town had one of the strongest castles in southern England . Bristol was the place of exile for Diarmait Mac Murchada , the Irish king of Leinster , after being overthrown . The Bristol merchants subsequently played a prominent role in funding Richard Strongbow de Clare and the Norman invasion of Ireland .
The port developed in the 11th century around the confluence of the Rivers Frome and Avon , adjacent to Bristol Bridge just outside the town walls . By the 12th century Bristol was an important port , handling much of England 's trade with Ireland , including slaves . The stone bridge built in 1247 was replaced by the current bridge during the 1760s . The town incorporated neighbouring suburbs and became a county in 1373 , the first town in England to be given this status . During this period , Bristol became a shipbuilding and manufacturing centre . By the 14th century Bristol , York and Norwich were England 's largest medieval towns after London . One @-@ third to one @-@ half the population died in the Black Death of 1348 – 49 , which checked population growth , and its population remained between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 for most of the 15th and 16th centuries .
= = = 15th and 16th centuries = = =
During the 15th century Bristol was the second most important port in the country , trading with Ireland , Iceland and Gascony . It was the starting point for many voyages , including Robert Sturmy 's ( 1457 – 58 ) unsuccessful attempt to break the Italian monopoly of Eastern Mediterranean trade . Bristol merchants then turned west , launching voyages of exploration in the Atlantic by 1480 in search of the phantom island of Hy @-@ Brazil . These Atlantic voyages , also aimed at China , culminated in Venetian John Cabot 's 1497 exploration of North America and subsequent expeditions to the New World , underwritten by Bristol merchants and King Henry VII until 1508 . A 1499 voyage , led by merchant William Weston of Bristol , was the first expedition commanded by an Englishman to North America .
During the 16th century , Bristol merchants concentrated on developing trade with Spain and its American colonies . This included the smuggling of prohibited goods , such as food and guns , to Iberia during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War ( 1585 – 1604 ) . Bristol 's illicit trade grew enormously after 1558 , becoming integral to its economy .
The original Diocese of Bristol was founded in 1542 , when the former Abbey of St. Augustine ( founded by Robert Fitzharding four hundred years earlier ) became Bristol Cathedral . Bristol also gained city status that year . During the English Civil War in the 1640s the city was occupied by Royalists , who built the Royal Fort House on the site of an earlier Parliamentarian stronghold .
= = = 17th and 18th centuries = = =
Growth of the city and trade came with the rise of England 's American colonies in the 17th century . Bristol 's location on the west side of Great Britain gave its ships an advantage in sailing to and from the New World , and the city 's merchants made the most of it . The 18th century saw an expansion of England 's role in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery to the Americas . Bristol and Liverpool became centres of the triangular trade . In the first side of the slavery triangle , manufactured goods were shipped to West Africa and exchanged for Africans ; the enslaved captives were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas in the Middle Passage under brutal conditions . In the third side of the triangle , plantation goods such as sugar , tobacco , rum , rice , cotton and a few slaves ( sold to the aristocracy as house servants ) returned across the Atlantic . Some household slaves were baptised in the hope this would mean their freedom in England . The Somersett Case of 1772 clarified that slavery was illegal in England . At the height of the Bristol slave trade from 1700 to 1807 , more than 2 @,@ 000 slave ships carried a conservatively estimated 500 @,@ 000 people from Africa to slavery in the Americas . The Seven Stars public house , where abolitionist Thomas Clarkson collected information on the slave trade , is still operating .
Fishermen from Bristol ( who had fished the Grand Banks of Newfoundland since the 15th century ) began settling Newfoundland permanently in larger numbers during the 17th century , establishing colonies at Bristol 's Hope and Cuper 's Cove . Because of Bristol 's nautical environment , maritime safety was an important issue in the city . During the 19th century , Samuel Plimsoll ( known as " the sailor 's friend " ) campaigned to make the seas safer ; shocked by overloaded vessels , he successfully fought for a compulsory load line on ships .
In 1739 John Wesley founded the first Methodist chapel , the New Room , in Bristol . Wesley , along with his brother Charles Wesley and George Whitefield , preached to large congregations in Bristol and the neighbouring village of Kingswood , often in the open air .
= = = 19th century = = =
The city was associated with Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London Paddington , two pioneering Bristol @-@ built oceangoing steamships ( SS Great Britain and SS Great Western ) , and the Clifton Suspension Bridge . The new railway replaced the Kennet and Avon Canal , which had fully opened in 1810 as the main route for the transport of goods between Bristol and London . Competition from Liverpool ( beginning around 1760 ) , disruptions of maritime commerce due to war with France ( 1793 ) and the abolition of the slave trade ( 1807 ) contributed to Bristol 's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of Northern England and the West Midlands . The tidal Avon Gorge , which had secured the port during the Middle Ages , had become a liability . An 1804 – 09 plan to improve the city 's port with a floating harbour designed by William Jessop was a costly error , requiring high harbour fees .
By 1867 , ships were getting larger and the meanders in the river Avon prevented boats over 300 feet ( 90 m ) from reaching the harbour , resulting in falling trade . The port facilities were migrating downstream to Avonmouth and new industrial complexes were founded there . Some of the traditional industries including copper and brass manufacture went into decline , but the import and processing of tobacco flourished with the expansion of the W.D. & H.O. Wills business .
Supported by new industry and growing commerce , Bristol 's population ( 66 @,@ 000 in 1801 ) , quintupled during the 19th century , resulting in the creation of new suburbs such as Clifton and Cotham . These provide architectural examples from the Georgian to the Regency style , with many fine terraces and villas facing the road , and at right angles to it . In the early 19th century , the romantic medieval gothic style appeared , partially as a reaction against the symmetry of Palladianism , and can be seen in buildings such as the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery , the Royal West of England Academy , and The Victoria Rooms . Riots broke out in 1793 and 1831 ; the first over the renewal of tolls on Bristol Bridge , and the second against the rejection of the second Reform Bill by the House of Lords . The Diocese of Bristol had undergone several boundary changes by 1897 when it was " reconstituted " into the configuration which has lasted into the 21st century .
= = = 20th century = = =
From a population of about 330 @,@ 000 in 1901 , Bristol grew steadily during the 20th century , peaking at 428 @,@ 089 in 1971 . Its docklands were enlarged during the early 1900s by the Royal Edward Dock . Another new dock , the Royal Portbury Dock , opened during the 1970s . As air travel grew in the first half of the century , aircraft manufacturers built factories .
Bristol was heavily damaged by Luftwaffe raids during World War II ; about 1 @,@ 300 people living or working in the city were killed and nearly 100 @,@ 000 buildings were damaged , at least 3 @,@ 000 beyond repair . The original central market area , near the bridge and castle , is now a park containing two bombed churches and fragments of the castle . A third bomb @-@ damaged church nearby , St Nicholas , has been restored and is a museum housing a 1756 William Hogarth triptych painted for the high altar of St Mary Redcliffe . The museum also has statues of King Edward I ( moved from Arno 's Court Triumphal Arch ) and King Edward III ( taken from Lawfords ' Gate in the city walls when they were demolished about 1760 ) , and 13th @-@ century statues of Robert , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( builder of Bristol Castle ) and Geoffrey de Montbray ( who built the city 's walls ) from Bristol 's Newgate .
The rebuilding of Bristol city centre was characterised by 1960s and 1970s skyscrapers , mid @-@ century modern architecture and road improvements . Beginning in the 1980s some main roads were closed , the Georgian @-@ era Queen Square and Portland Square were restored , the Broadmead shopping area regenerated , and one of the city centre 's tallest mid @-@ century towers was demolished . Bristol 's road infrastructure changed dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s with the development of the M4 and M5 motorways , which meet at the Almondsbury Interchange just north of the city and link Bristol with London ( M4 eastbound ) , Swansea ( M4 westbound across the Severn Estuary ) , Exeter ( M5 southbound ) and Birmingham ( M5 northbound ) .
The 20th century relocation of the docks to Avonmouth Docks and Royal Portbury Dock , 7 miles ( 11 km ) downstream from the city centre , has allowed the redevelopment of the old dock area ( the Floating Harbour ) . Although the docks ' existence was once in jeopardy ( since the area was seen as a derelict industrial site ) , the inaugural 1996 International Festival of the Sea held in and around the docks affirmed the area as a leisure asset of the city .
= = Government = =
Bristol City council consists of 70 councillors representing 35 wards , with two per ward serving four @-@ year terms . Councillors are elected in thirds , with elections held in three years out of every four @-@ year period . Thus , since wards do not have both councillors up for election at the same time , two @-@ thirds of the wards participate in each election . Although the council was long dominated by the Labour Party , the Liberal Democrats have grown strong in the city and ( as the largest party ) took minority control of the council after the 2005 election . In 2007 , Labour and the Conservatives united to defeat the Liberal Democrat administration ; Labour ruled the council as a minority administration , with Helen Holland as council leader .
In February 2009 , the Labour group resigned and the Liberal Democrats took office with a minority administration . In the 4 June 2009 council elections the Liberal Democrats gained four seats and , for the first time , overall control of the city council . In 2010 they increased their representation to 38 seats , giving them a majority of 6 . In 2011 they lost their majority , leading to a hung council . In the 2013 local elections , in which a third of the city 's wards were up for election , Labour gained 7 seats and the Green party doubled their seats from 2 to 4 . The Liberal Democrats lost 10 seats .
These trends were continued into the next election in May 2014 , in which Labour gained three seats to take their total to 31 , the Green Party won two more seats , the Conservative party gained one seat , and UKIP won their first @-@ ever seat on the council . The Liberal Democrats lost a further seven seats .
On 3 May 2012 , Bristol held a referendum on the question of a directly elected mayor replacing one elected by the council . There were 41 @,@ 032 votes in favour of a directly elected mayor and 35 @,@ 880 votes against , with a 24 % turnout . An election for the new post was held on 15 November 2012 , and Independent candidate George Ferguson became Mayor of Bristol .
The Lord Mayor of Bristol , not to be confused with the Mayor of Bristol , is a figurehead elected each May by the city council . Councillor Faruk Choudhury was selected by his fellow councillors for the position in 2013 . At 38 , he was the youngest person to serve as Lord Mayor of Bristol and the first Muslim elected to the office .
Bristol constituencies in the House of Commons also included parts of other local authority areas until the 2010 general election , when their boundaries were aligned with the county boundary . The city is divided into Bristol West , East , South and North West . Since the 2015 election , the city has had three Labour members of parliament ( MPs ) and one Conservative .
The city has a tradition of political activism . Edmund Burke , MP for the Bristol constituency for six years beginning in 1774 , insisted that he was a member of parliament first and a representative of his constituents ' interests second . Women 's @-@ rights advocate Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence ( 1867 – 1954 ) was born in Bristol , and left @-@ wing politician Tony Benn was MP for Bristol South East in 1950 – 1960 and 1963 – 83 . In 1963 the Bristol Bus Boycott , following the Bristol Omnibus Company 's refusal to hire black drivers and conductors , drove the passage of the UK 's 1965 Race Relations Act . The 1980 St. Pauls riot protested against racism and police harassment and showed mounting dissatisfaction with the social and economic circumstances of the city 's Afro @-@ Caribbean residents . Local support of fair trade was recognised in 2005 , when Bristol became a Fairtrade zone .
Bristol is both a city and a county , since Edward III granted it a county charter in 1373 . The county was expanded in 1835 to include suburbs such as Clifton , and it was named a county borough in 1889 when that designation was introduced . On 1 April 1974 , Bristol became a local government district of the county of Avon . The city regained its independence and county status on 1 April 1996 , when Avon was abolished and Bristol became a unitary authority .
= = Geography and environment = =
= = = Boundaries = = =
Bristol 's boundaries are defined in several ways , depending on whether they are those of the city , the developed area , or Greater Bristol . The narrowest definition of the city is the city council boundary , which includes a large section of the western Severn Estuary up to ( but not including ) the islands of Steep Holm and Flat Holm .
A slightly broader definition used by the Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) includes developed areas adjoining Bristol but outside the city @-@ council boundary , such as Whitchurch village , Filton , Patchway and Bradley Stoke , but excludes undeveloped areas within that boundary . The ONS has defined a Bristol Urban Area , which includes Kingswood , Mangotsfield , Stoke Gifford , Winterbourne , Frampton Cotterell , Almondsbury and Easton in Gordano . The North Fringe of Bristol , a developed area in South Gloucestershire between the Bristol city boundary and the M4 and M5 motorways , was so named as part of a 1987 plan prepared by the Northavon District Council .
= = = Greater Bristol = = =
The term Greater Bristol , used by the Government Office of the South West ( now abolished ) , the Office for National Statistics and others , refers to the city and portions of the three neighbouring local authorities — Bath and North East Somerset , North Somerset and South Gloucestershire — an area sometimes called the " former Avon area " or the West of England Partnership ( WEP ) area . Greater Bristol does not include Bath or Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , which are included in the WEP area . The Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways ( FOSBR ) conflates the terms Greater Bristol and Suburban Bristol .
= = = Geography = = =
Bristol is part of a limestone area running from the Mendip Hills in the south to the Cotswolds in the northeast . The rivers Avon and Frome cut through the limestone to the underlying clay , creating Bristol 's characteristically hilly landscape . The Avon flows from Bath in the east , through flood plains and areas which were marshes before the city 's growth . To the west the Avon cuts through the limestone to form the Avon Gorge , aided by glacial meltwater after the last ice age .
The gorge , which helped protect Bristol Harbour , has been quarried for stone to build the city , and its surrounding land has been protected from development as The Downs and Leigh Woods . The Avon estuary and the gorge are the county boundary with North Somerset , and the river flows into the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth . Another gorge , cut by the Hazel Brook ( which flows into the River Trym ) , crosses the Blaise Castle estate in northern Bristol .
= = = Climate = = =
Located in southern England , Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK with a mean annual temperature of approximately 10 @.@ 5 ° C ( 50 @.@ 9 ° F ) . It is among the sunniest , with 1 @,@ 541 – 1 @,@ 885 hours of sunshine per year . Although the city is partially sheltered by the Mendip Hills , it is exposed to the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel . Annual rainfall increases from north to south , with totals north of the Avon in the 600 – 900 mm ( 24 – 35 in ) range and 900 – 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 35 – 47 in ) south of the river . Rain is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year , with autumn and winter the wetter seasons . The Atlantic Ocean influences Bristol 's weather , keeping its average temperature above freezing throughout the year , but winter frosts are frequent and snow occasionally falls from early November to late April . Summers are warm and drier , with variable sunshine , rain and clouds , and spring weather is unsettled .
The weather stations nearest Bristol for which long @-@ term climate data are available are Long Ashton ( about 5 miles ( 8 km ) south west of the city centre ) and Bristol Weather Station , in the city centre . Data collection at these locations ended in 2002 and 2001 , respectively , and Filton Airfield is currently the nearest weather station to the city . Temperatures at Long Ashton from 1959 to 2002 ranged from 33 @.@ 5 ° C ( 92 @.@ 3 ° F ) in July 1976 to − 14 @.@ 4 ° C ( 6 @.@ 1 ° F ) in January 1982 . Monthly high temperatures since 2002 at Filton exceeding those recorded at Long Ashton include 25 @.@ 7 ° C ( 78 @.@ 3 ° F ) in April 2003 , 34 @.@ 5 ° C ( 94 @.@ 1 ° F ) in July 2006 and 26 @.@ 8 ° C ( 80 @.@ 2 ° F ) in October 2011 . The lowest recent temperature at Filton was − 10 @.@ 1 ° C ( 13 @.@ 8 ° F ) in December 2010 . Although large cities in general experience an urban heat island effect , with warmer temperatures than their surrounding rural areas , this phenomenon is minimal in Bristol .
= = = Environment = = =
Bristol was ranked as Britain 's most @-@ sustainable city ( based on its environmental performance , quality of life , future @-@ proofing and approaches to climate change , recycling and biodiversity ) , topping environmental charity Forum for the Future 's 2008 Sustainable Cities Index . Local initiatives include Sustrans ( creators of the National Cycle Network , founded as Cyclebag in 1977 ) and Resourcesaver , a non @-@ profit business established in 1988 by Avon Friends of the Earth . In 2014 The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live , The city received the 2015 European Green Capital Award , becoming the first UK city to receive this award .
= = Demography = =
In 2014 , the Office for National Statistics estimated the Bristol unitary authority 's population at 442 @,@ 474 , making it the 43rd @-@ largest ceremonial county in England . The ONS , using Census 2001 data , estimated the city 's population at 441 @,@ 556 and that of the contiguous urban area at 551 @,@ 066 . In 2006 the ONS estimated Bristol 's urban @-@ area population at 587 @,@ 400 , making it England 's sixth @-@ most @-@ populous city and ninth @-@ most @-@ populous urban area . At 3 @,@ 599 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 9 @,@ 321 / sq mi ) it has the seventh @-@ highest population density of any English district .
According to the 2011 census , 84 % of the population was White ( 77 @.@ 9 % White British , 0 @.@ 9 % White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 % Gypsy or Irish Travellers and 5 @.@ 1 % Other White ) ; 3 @.@ 6 % mixed @-@ race ( 1 @.@ 7 % white @-@ and @-@ black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 4 % white @-@ and @-@ black African , 0 @.@ 8 % white and Asian and 0 @.@ 7 % other mixed ) ; 5 @.@ 5 % Asian ( 1 @.@ 5 % Indian , 1 @.@ 6 % Pakistani , 0 @.@ 5 % Bangladeshi , 0 @.@ 9 % Chinese and one percent other Asian ) ; 6 % Black ( 2 @.@ 8 % African , 1 @.@ 6 % Caribbean , 1 @.@ 6 % Other Black ) , 0 @.@ 3 % Arab and 0 @.@ 6 % with other heritage . Bristol is unusual among major British towns and cities in its larger black than Asian population . These statistics apply to the Bristol Unitary Authority area , excluding areas of the urban area ( 2006 estimated population 587 @,@ 400 ) in South Gloucestershire , Bath and North East Somerset ( BANES ) and North Somerset — such as Kingswood , Mangotsfield , Filton and Warmley .
= = Economy and industry = =
Bristol has a long history of trade , originally exporting wool cloth and importing fish , wine , grain and dairy products ; later imports were tobacco , tropical fruits and plantation goods . Major imports are motor vehicles , grain , timber , produce and petroleum products . Since the 13th century , the rivers have been modified for docks ; during the 1240s , the Frome was diverted into a deep , man @-@ made channel ( known as Saint Augustine 's Reach ) which flowed into the River Avon .
Ships occasionally departed Bristol for Iceland as early as 1420 , and speculation exists that sailors from Bristol made landfall in the Americas before Christopher Columbus or John Cabot . Beginning in the early 1480s , the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers sponsored exploration of the North Atlantic in search of trading opportunities . In 1552 , Edward VI granted a royal charter to the Merchant Venturers to manage the port .
By 1670 the city had 6 @,@ 000 tons of shipping ( of which half was imported tobacco ) , and by the late 17th and early 18th centuries shipping played a significant role in the slave trade . During the 18th century , Bristol was Britain 's second @-@ busiest port ; business was conducted in the trading area around The Exchange in Corn Street over bronze tables known as Nails . Although the Nails are cited as originating the phrase " cash on the nail " ( immediate payment ) , the phrase was probably in use before their installation .
The city 's economy also relies on the aerospace , defence , media , information technology , financial services and tourism industries . The Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) ' s Procurement Executive , later known as the Defence Procurement Agency and Defence Equipment and Support , moved to its headquarters at Abbey Wood , Filton , in 1995 . This organisation , with a staff of 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 , procures and supports MoD equipment . One of the UK 's most popular tourist destinations , Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world 's top @-@ ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults .
Bristol is one of the eight largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group , and is ranked as a gamma world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , the fourth highest ranked English city . In 2014 Bristol 's gross domestic product was £ 30 @.@ 502 billion . Its per capita GDP was £ 46 @,@ 000 ( $ 65 @,@ 106 , € 57 @,@ 794 ) , which was some 65 % above the national average , the third highest of any English city ( after London and Nottingham ) and the sixth highest of any city in the United Kingdom ( behind London , Edinburgh , Glasgow , Belfast and Nottingham ) . Bristol 's March 2007 unemployment rate was 4 @.@ 8 % , compared with four percent for South West England and the national average of 5 @.@ 5 % .
Although Bristol 's economy no longer relies upon its port , which was moved to docks at Avonmouth during the 1870s and to the Royal Portbury Dock in 1977 as ship size increased , it is the largest importer of cars to the UK . Until 1991 , the port was publicly owned ; it is leased , with £ 330 million invested and its annual tonnage increasing from 3 @.@ 9 million long tons ( 4 million tonnes ) to 11 @.@ 8 million ( 12 million ) . Tobacco importing and cigarette manufacturing have ceased , but the importation of wine and spirits continues .
The financial services sector employs 59 @,@ 000 in the city , and 50 micro @-@ electronics and silicon design companies employ about 5 @,@ 000 . In 1983 Hewlett @-@ Packard opened its national research laboratory in Bristol . In 2014 the city was ranked seventh in the " top 10 UK destinations " by TripAdvisor .
During the 20th century , Bristol 's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at Filton by the Bristol Aeroplane Company and aircraft @-@ engine manufacturing by Bristol Aero Engines ( later Rolls @-@ Royce ) at Patchway . Bristol Aeroplane was known for their World War I Bristol Fighter and World War II Blenheim and Beaufighter planes . During the 1950s they were a major English manufacturer of civilian aircraft , known for the Freighter , Britannia and Brabazon . The company diversified into automobile manufacturing during the 1940s , producing hand @-@ built , luxury Bristol Cars at their factory in Filton , and the Bristol Cars company was spun off in 1960 . The city also gave its name to Bristol buses , which were manufactured in the city from 1908 to 1983 : by Bristol Tramways until 1955 , and from 1955 to 1983 by Bristol Commercial Vehicles .
Filton played a key role in the Anglo @-@ French Concorde supersonic airliner project during the 1960s . The British Concorde prototype made its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969 , five weeks after the French test flight . In 2003 British Airways and Air France decided to discontinue Concorde flights , retiring the aircraft to locations ( primarily museums ) worldwide . On 26 November 2003 Concorde 216 made the final Concorde flight , returning to Bristol Filton Airport as the centrepiece of a proposed air museum which is planned to include the existing Bristol Aero collection ( including a Bristol Britannia ) .
The aerospace industry remains a major sector of the local economy . Major aerospace companies in Bristol include BAE Systems , a merger of Marconi Electronic Systems and BAe ( the latter a merger of BAC , Hawker Siddeley and Scottish Aviation ) . Airbus and Rolls @-@ Royce are also based at Filton , and aerospace engineering is an area of research at the University of the West of England . Another aviation company in the city is Cameron Balloons , who manufacture hot air balloons ; each August the city hosts the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta , one of Europe 's largest hot @-@ air balloon festivals .
In 2005 Bristol was named by the UK government one of England 's six science cities . A £ 500 million shopping centre , Cabot Circus , opened in 2008 amidst predictions by developers and politicians that the city would become one of England 's top ten retail destinations . The Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone , focused on creative , high @-@ tech and low @-@ carbon industries around Bristol Temple Meads railway station , was announced in 2011 and launched the following year . The 70 @-@ hectare ( 170 @-@ acre ) Urban Enterprise Zone has streamlined planning procedures and reduced business rates . Rates generated by the zone are channelled to five other designated enterprise areas in the region : Avonmouth , Bath , Bristol and Bath Science Park in Emersons Green , Filton , and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Bristol is the only big city whose wealth per capita is higher than that of Britain as a whole . With a highly skilled workforce drawn from its universities , Bristol claims to have the largest cluster of computer chip designers and manufacturers outside Silicon Valley . The wider region has one of the biggest aerospace hubs in the UK , centred on Airbus , Rolls @-@ Royce and GKN at Filton airfield .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts = = =
Bristol has a thriving current and historical arts scene . Some of the modern venues and modern digital production companies have merged with legacy production companies based in old buildings around the city . In 2008 the city was a finalist for the 2008 European Capital of Culture , although the title was awarded to Liverpool .
The Bristol Old Vic , founded in 1946 as an offshoot of The Old Vic in London , occupies the 1766 Theatre Royal ( 607 seats ) on King Street ; the 150 @-@ seat New Vic ( a studio @-@ type theatre ) , and a foyer and bar in the adjacent Coopers ' Hall ( built in 1743 ) . The Theatre Royal , a grade I listed building , is the oldest continuously operating theatre in England . The Bristol Old Vic Theatre School ( which originated in King Street ) is a separate company , and the Bristol Hippodrome is a 1 @,@ 951 @-@ seat theatre for national touring productions . Other smaller theatres include the Tobacco Factory , QEH , the Redgrave Theatre at Clifton College and the Alma Tavern . Bristol 's theatre scene features several companies as well as the Old Vic , including Show of Strength , Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory and Travelling Light . Theatre Bristol is a partnership between the city council , Arts Council England and local residents to develop the city 's theatre industry . Several organisations support Bristol theatre ; the Residence ( an artist @-@ led community ) provides office , social and rehearsal space for theatre and performance companies , and Equity has a branch in the city .
The city has many venues for live music , its largest the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Colston Hall named after Edward Colston . Others include the Bristol Academy , The Fleece , The Croft , the Exchange , Fiddlers , the Victoria Rooms , Trinity Centre , St George 's Bristol and several pubs , from the jazz @-@ oriented The Old Duke to rock at the Fleece and Firkin and indie bands at the Louisiana . In 2010 PRS for Music called Bristol the UK 's most musical city , based on the number of its members born there relative to the city 's population . Since the late 1970s Bristol has been home to bands combining punk , funk , dub and political consciousness , and trip hop and Bristol Sound artists such as Tricky , Portishead and Massive Attack ; the list of bands from Bristol is extensive . The city is a stronghold of drum and bass , with artists such as Roni Size 's Mercury Prize @-@ winning Reprazent , as DJ Krust and More Rockers . This music is part of the Bristol urban @-@ culture scene which received international media attention during the 1990s .
The Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection encompassing natural history , archaeology , local glassware , Chinese ceramics and art . The M Shed museum opened in 2011 on the site of the former Bristol Industrial Museum . Both are operated by Bristol Museums , Galleries and Archives , which also runs three historic houses — the Tudor Red Lodge , the Georgian House and Blaise Castle House — and Bristol Record Office . The 18th- and 19th @-@ century portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , 19th @-@ century architect Francis Greenway ( designer of many of Sydney 's first buildings ) were born in the city . The graffiti artist Banksy is believed to be from Bristol , and many of his works are on display in the city .
The Watershed Media Centre and Arnolfini gallery ( both in dockside warehouses ) exhibit contemporary art , photography and cinema , and the city 's oldest gallery is at the Royal West of England Academy in Clifton . The nomadic Antlers Gallery opened in 2010 , moving into empty spaces on Park Street , on Whiteladies Road and in the Purifier House on Bristol 's Harbourside . Stop motion animation films and commercials ( produced by Aardman Animations ) are made in Bristol . Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit . Locations in and around Bristol have featured in the BBC 's natural @-@ history programmes , including Animal Magic ( filmed at Bristol Zoo ) .
Bristol is the birthplace of 18th @-@ century poets Robert Southey and Thomas Chatterton . Southey ( born on Wine Street in 1774 ) and his friend , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , married the Fricker sisters from the city . William Wordsworth spent time in Bristol , where Joseph Cottle published Lyrical Ballads in 1798 . Comedians from the city include Justin Lee Collins , Lee Evans Russell Howard and writer @-@ comedian Stephen Merchant .
= = = Architecture = = =
Bristol has 51 Grade I , 500 Grade II * and over 3 @,@ 800 Grade II listed buildings in a variety of architectural styles , from medieval to modern . During the mid @-@ 19th century Bristol Byzantine , a style unique to the city , was developed , and several examples have survived . Buildings from most architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen in the city . Surviving elements of the fortifications and castle date to the medieval period , and the Church of St James dates back to the 12th century .
The oldest Grade I listed buildings in Bristol are religious . St James ' Priory was founded in 1129 as a Benedictine priory by Earl Robert of Gloucester , the illegitimate son of Henry I. The second oldest is Bristol Cathedral and its associated Great Gatehouse . Founded in 1140 , the church became the seat of the bishop and cathedral of the new Diocese of Bristol in 1542 . Most of the medieval stonework , particularly the Elder Lady Chapel , is made from limestone taken from quarries around Dundry and Felton with Bath stone being used in other areas . Amongst the other churches included in the list is the 12th century St Mary Redcliffe which is the tallest building in Bristol . The church was described by Queen Elizabeth I as " the fairest , goodliest , and most famous parish church in England . "
Secular buildings include The Red Lodge , built in 1580 for John Yonge as a lodge for a larger house that once stood on the site of the present Colston Hall . It was subsequently added to in Georgian times and restored in the early 20th century . St Bartholomew 's Hospital is a 12th @-@ century town house which was incorporated into a monastery hospital founded in 1240 by Sir John la Warr , 2nd Baron De La Warr ( c . 1277 – 1347 ) , and became Bristol Grammar School from 1532 to 1767 , and then Queen Elizabeth 's Hospital 1767 – 1847 . The round piers predate the hospital , and may come from an aisled hall , the earliest remains of domestic architecture in the city , which was then adapted to form the hospital chapel . Three 17th @-@ century town houses which were attached to the hospital were incorporated into model workers ' flats in 1865 , and converted to offices in 1978 . St Nicholas 's Almshouses were built in 1652 to provide care for the poor . Several public houses were also built in this period , including the Llandoger Trow on King Street and the Hatchet Inn .
Manor houses include Goldney Hall , where the highly decorated Grotto dates from 1739 . Commercial buildings such as the Exchange and Old Post Office from the 1740s are also included in the list . Residential buildings include the Georgian Portland Square and the complex of small cottages around a green at Blaise Hamlet , which was built around 1811 for retired employees of Quaker banker and philanthropist John Scandrett Harford , who owned Blaise Castle House . The 18th @-@ century Kings Weston House , in northern Bristol , was designed by John Vanbrugh and is the only Vanbrugh building in any UK city outside London . Almshouses and pubs from the same period intermingle with modern development . Several Georgian squares were designed for the middle class as prosperity increased during the 18th century . During World War II , the city centre was heavily bombed during the Bristol Blitz . The central shopping area near Wine Street and Castle Street was particularly hard @-@ hit , and the Dutch House and St Peter 's Hospital were destroyed . Nevertheless , in 1961 John Betjeman called Bristol " the most beautiful , interesting and distinguished city in England " .
= = = Sport = = =
Bristol has teams representing all the major national sports . Bristol City and Bristol Rovers are the city 's main football clubs . Bristol Rugby ( Rugby Union ) and Gloucestershire County Cricket Club are also based in the city .
The two Football League clubs are Bristol City and Bristol Rovers — the former being the only club from the city to play in the precursor to the Premier League . Non @-@ league clubs include Mangotsfield United , Bristol Manor Farm and Brislington . Bristol City , formed in 1897 , were Division One runners @-@ up in 1907 and lost the FA Cup final in 1909 . In the First Division in 1976 , they then sank to the bottom professional tier before reforming after a 1982 bankruptcy . Bristol City were promoted to the second tier of English football in 2007 , losing to Hull City in the playoff for promotion to the Premier League that season .
Bristol Rovers , the oldest professional football team in the city , were formed in 1883 and promoted back into the football league in 2015 . They were third @-@ tier champions twice ( Division Three South in 1952 – 53 and Division Three in 1989 – 90 ) , Watney Cup Winners ( 1972 ) and runners @-@ up for the Johnstone 's Paint Trophy ( 2006 – 07 ) although have never played in England 's top Division . The club has planning permission for a new 21 @,@ 700 @-@ capacity all @-@ seater stadium at the University of the West of England 's Frenchay campus . Construction was due to begin in mid @-@ 2014 , but in March 2015 the sale of the Memorial Stadium site ( needed to finance the new stadium ) was in jeopardy . Bristol Academy Women 's Football Club is based at South Gloucestershire and Stroud College .
The city is also home to Bristol Rugby , formed in 1888 as Bristol Football Club by the merger of the Carlton club with rival Redland Park . Westbury Park declined the merger and folded , with many of its players joining Bristol . Bristol Rugby has often competed at the highest level of the sport since its formation in 1888 . The club played at the Memorial Ground , which it shared with Bristol Rovers from 1996 . Although Bristol Rugby owned the stadium when the football club arrived , a decline in the rugby club 's fortunes led to a transfer of ownership to Bristol Rovers . In 2014 Bristol Rugby moved to their new home , Ashton Gate Stadium ( home to Bristol Rovers ' rivals Bristol City ) , for the 2014 – 15 season . Dating from 1901 , the Bristol Combination and its 53 clubs promote rugby union in the city and help support Bristol Rugby . The most prominent of Bristol 's smaller rugby clubs include Clifton Rugby , Dings Crusaders , and Cleve . Rugby league is represented in Bristol by the Bristol Sonics .
The first @-@ class cricket club Gloucestershire County Cricket Club has its headquarters and plays the majority of its home games at the Bristol County Ground , the only major international sports venue in the south west of England . It was formed by the family of W. G. Grace . The club is arguably Bristol 's most successful , achieving a period of success between 1999 and 2006 when it won nine trophies and became the most formidable one @-@ day outfit in England , including winning a " double double " in 1999 and 2000 ( both the Benson and Hedges Cup and the C & G Trophy ) , and the Sunday League in 2000 . Gloucestershire CCC also won the Royal London One @-@ Day Cup in 2015 .
The Bristol Flyers basketball team have competed in the British Basketball League , the UK 's premier professional basketball league , since 2014 . Bristol Aztecs play in Britain 's premier American football competition , the BAFA National Leagues . In 2009 ice hockey returned to Bristol after a 17 @-@ year absence , with the Bristol Pitbulls playing at Bristol Ice Rink ; after its closure , it shared a venue with Oxford City Stars . Bristol sponsors an annual half marathon and hosted the 2001 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships . Athletic clubs in Bristol include Bristol and West AC , Bitton Road Runners and Westbury Harriers . Bristol has staged finishes and starts of the Tour of Britain cycle race and facilities in the city were used as training camps for the 2012 London Olympics . The Bristol International Balloon Fiesta , a major UK hot @-@ air ballooning event , is held each summer at Ashton Court .
= = = Media = = =
Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit based at Broadcasting House , which produces television , radio and online content with a natural history or wildlife theme . These include nature documentaries , including The Blue Planet and Planet Earth . The city has a long association with David Attenborough 's authored documentaries , including Life on Earth .
Bristol has two daily newspapers , the Western Daily Press and the Bristol Post ; a weekly free newspaper , the Bristol Observer ; and a Bristol edition of the free Metro newspaper . All are owned by the Trinity Mirror Group .
The city has several radio stations , including BBC Radio Bristol . Bristol 's television productions include Points West for BBC West , Endemol productions such as Deal or No Deal , and ITV News West Country for ITV West & Wales ( formerly HTV West ) and ITV Westcountry . The hospital drama Casualty , formerly filmed in Bristol , moved to Cardiff in 2012 . Bristol has been a location for the Channel 4 comedy @-@ drama Teachers , the BBC drama Mistresses , the E4 teen drama Skins and the BBC3 comedy @-@ drama Being Human ; the latter moved to Barry after series two .
Publishers in the city have included 18th @-@ century Bristolian Joseph Cottle , who helped introduce Romanticism by publishing the works of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . During the 19th century , J.W. Arrowsmith published the Victorian comedies Three Men in a Boat ( by Jerome K. Jerome ) and The Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith . The contemporary Redcliffe Press has published over 200 books covering all aspects of the city . Bristol is home to YouTube video producers The Yogscast , with founders Simon Lane and Lewis Brindley moving their operations from Reading to Bristol in 2012 .
= = = Dialect = = =
A dialect of English , known as Bristolian , Bristolese , Brizzle or Bristle ( after the publication of Derek Robson 's " Krek Waiters peak Bristle " ) is spoken by longtime residents , who are known as Bristolians . Bristol natives have a rhotic accent , in which the post @-@ vocalic r in " car " and " card " is pronounced ( unlike in Received Pronunciation ) . The unique feature of this accent is the " Bristol ( or terminal ) l " , in which l is appended to words ending in a or o . Whether this is a broad l or a w is a subject of debate , with " area " pronounced " areal " or " areaw " . The ending of " Bristol " is another example of the Bristol l . Bristolians pronounce -a and -o at the end of a word as -aw ( cinemaw ) . To non @-@ natives , the pronunciation suggests an l after the vowel .
Until recently Bristolese was characterised by retention of the second @-@ person singular , as in the doggerel " Cassn 't see what bist looking at ? Cassn 't see as well as couldst , casst ? And if couldst , ' ouldn 't , ' ouldst ? " The West Saxon bist is used for the English " art " , and children were admonished with " Thee and thou , the Welshman 's cow " . In Bristolese , as in French and German , the second @-@ person singular was not used when speaking to a superior ( except by the egalitarian Quakers ) . The pronoun " thee " is also used in the subject position ( " What bist thee doing ? " ) , and " I " or " he " in the object position ( " Give he to I. " ) . Linguist Stanley Ellis , who found that many dialect words in the Filton area were linked to aerospace work , described Bristolese as " a cranky , crazy , crab @-@ apple tree of language and with the sharpest , juiciest flavour that I 've heard for a long time " .
= = = Religion = = =
In the 2011 United Kingdom census , 46 @.@ 8 % of Bristol 's population identified as Christian and 37 @.@ 4 % said they were not religious ; the English averages were 59 @.@ 4 % and 24 @.@ 7 % , respectively . Islam is observed by 5 @.@ 1 % of the population , Buddhism by 0 @.@ 6 % , Hinduism by 0 @.@ 6 % , Sikhism by 0 @.@ 5 % , Judaism by 0 @.@ 2 % and other religions 0 @.@ 7 % ; 8 @.@ 1 % did not identify with a religion .
Bristol has several Christian churches ; the most notable are the Anglican Bristol Cathedral and St Mary Redcliffe and the Roman Catholic Clifton Cathedral . Nonconformist chapels include Buckingham Baptist Chapel and John Wesley 's New Room in Broadmead . After St James ' Presbyterian Church was bombed on 24 November 1940 , it was never again used as a church ; although its bell tower remains , its nave was converted into offices . The city has eleven mosques , several Buddhist meditation centres , a Hindu temple , Reform and Orthodox @-@ Jewish synagogues and four Sikh temples .
= = Education , science and technology = =
Bristol has two major institutions of higher education : the University of Bristol , a " redbrick " chartered in 1909 , and its main building opened in 1925 . A polytechnic university opened in 1969 , giving the city a second institute of higher education which became the University of the West of England in 1992 . The University of Law also has a campus in the city . Bristol has two further education institutions ( City of Bristol College and South Gloucestershire and Stroud College ) and three theological colleges : Trinity College , Wesley College and Bristol Baptist College . The city has 129 infant , junior and primary schools , 17 secondary schools , and three learning centres . After a section of north London , Bristol has England 's second @-@ highest number of independent @-@ school places . Independent schools in the city include Clifton College , Clifton High School , Badminton School , Bristol Grammar School , Redland High School , Queen Elizabeth 's Hospital ( the only all @-@ boys school ) and the Red Maids ' School ( founded in 1634 by John Whitson , which claims to be England 's oldest girls ' school ) .
In 2005 Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown named Bristol one of six English " science cities " , and a £ 300 million science park was planned at Emersons Green . Research is conducted at the two universities , the Bristol Royal Infirmary and Southmead Hospital , and science is demonstrated at At @-@ Bristol , the Bristol Zoo , the Bristol Festival of Nature and the Create Centre .
The city has produced a number of scientists , including 19th @-@ century chemist Humphry Davy ( who worked in Hotwells ) . Physicist Paul Dirac ( from Bishopston ) received the 1933 Nobel Prize for his contributions to quantum mechanics . Cecil Frank Powell was the Melvill Wills Professor of Physics at the University of Bristol when he received the 1950 Nobel Prize for , among other discoveries , his photographic method of studying nuclear processes . Colin Pillinger was the planetary scientist behind the Beagle 2 project , and neuropsychologist Richard Gregory founded the Exploratory ( a hands @-@ on science centre which was the predecessor of At @-@ Bristol ) .
Initiatives such as the Flying Start Challenge encourage an interest in science and engineering in Bristol secondary @-@ school pupils ; links with aerospace companies impart technical information and advance student understanding of design . The Bloodhound SSC project to break the land speed record is based at the Bloodhound Technology Centre on the city 's harbourside .
= = Transport = =
Bristol has two principal railway stations . Bristol Temple Meads ( near the city centre ) has First Great Western service which includes high @-@ speed trains to London Paddington station and local , regional and CrossCountry trains . Bristol Parkway , north of the city centre , has high @-@ speed First Great Western service to Swansea , Cardiff Central and London Paddington and CrossCountry service to Birmingham and the North East . Limited service to London Waterloo via Clapham Junction from Bristol Temple Meads is operated by South West Trains , and there are scheduled coach links to most major UK cities .
The M4 motorway connects the city on an east @-@ west axis from London to West Wales , and the M5 is a north – south west axis from Birmingham to Exeter . The M49 motorway is a shortcut between the M5 in the south and the M4 Severn Crossing in the west , and the M32 is a spur from the M4 to the city centre .
The runway , terminal and other facilities at Bristol Airport ( BRS ) , Lulsgate , have been upgraded since 2001 . Public transport in the city consists primarily of a FirstGroup ( formerly the Bristol Omnibus Company ) bus network . Other providers are Abus , Wessex and Wessex Star , operated by Wessex for the two universities . Bristol 's bus service has been criticised as unreliable and expensive , and in 2005 FirstGroup was fined for delays and safety violations .
Private car use is high in the city , leading to traffic congestion costing an estimated £ 350 million per year . Bristol allows motorcycles to use most of the city 's bus lanes and provides secure , free parking for them . Although the city council has included a light rail system in its local transport plan since 2000 , it has not yet funded the project ; Bristol was offered European Union funding for the system , but the Department for Transport did not provide the required additional funding .
A new bus rapid transit system ( BRT ) called MetroBus , is currently under construction across Bristol , as of 2015 , to provide a faster and reliable service than buses , improve transport infrastructure and reduce congestion . The MetroBus rapid transit scheme will run on both bus lanes and segregated guided busways on three routes ; Ashton Vale to Temple Meads ( AVTM ) , North Fringe to Hengrove and South Bristol Link ( SBL ) . MetroBus services are expected to start in 2017 .
Several road @-@ construction plans , including re @-@ routing and improving the South Bristol Ring Road , are supported by the city council . Three park and ride sites serve Bristol . The city centre has water transport operated by Bristol Ferry Boats , Bristol Packet Boat Trips and Number Seven Boat Trips , providing leisure and commuter service in the harbour .
Bristol 's principal surviving suburban railway is the Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and Severn Beach . Although Portishead Railway 's passenger service was a casualty of the Beeching cuts , freight service to the Royal Portbury Dock was restored from 2000 to 2002 with a Strategic Rail Authority rail @-@ freight grant . The MetroWest scheme , formerly known as The Greater Bristol Metro , proposes to increase the city 's rail capacity as well as the restoration of a further 3 miles ( 5 km ) of track to Portishead ( a dormitory town with one connecting road ) , despite concerns about insufficient funds to rebuild stations , is scheduled for completion by 2019 .
Bristol was designated as England 's first " cycling city " in 2008 and is home to Sustrans , the sustainable transport charity . The city has urban cycle routes and links with National Cycle Network routes to Bath , London , Gloucester , Wales and South West England . Cycling trips have increased by 21 % from 2001 to 2005 .
= = Twin cities = =
Bristol was among the first cities to adopt town twinning after World War II . Twin towns include :
Bordeaux , France ( since 1947 )
Hanover , Germany ( since 1947 ; one of the first post @-@ war twinnings of British and German cities )
Porto , Portugal ( since 1984 )
Tbilisi , Georgia ( since 1988 )
Puerto Morazán , Nicaragua ( since 1989 )
Beira , Mozambique ( since 1990 )
Guangzhou , China ( since 2001 )
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= Production – possibility frontier =
A production – possibility frontier ( AKA Production Possibility Curve ( PPC ) ) is a graphical representation of possible combination of two goods with constant resources and technology .
It is a graph representing production tradeoffs of an economy given fixed resources . It is a graphical representation of the maximal mix of outputs that an economy can achieve by fully using its existing resources and in the most efficient way .
In its microeconomic applications , the graph shows the various combinations of amounts of two commodities that an economy can produce per unit of time ( such as number of guns vs. kilograms of butter ) using a fixed amount of each of the factors of production , given the production technologies available .
At the macroeconomic level , it can be used to depict other rivalrous trade @-@ offs like production of fixed capital versus production of consumer goods . Graphically bounding the production set for fixed input quantities , the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level of one commodity for any given production level of the other , given the existing state of technology .
By doing so , it defines productive efficiency in the context of that production set : a point on the frontier indicates efficient use of the available inputs , and a point beneath the curve indicates inefficiency . The commodities compared can be goods or services . The combination represented by the point on the PPF where an efficient economy operates shows the priorities or choices of the economy , such as the choice of producing more capital goods and fewer consumer goods , or vice versa .
PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards or outwards from the origin ( " concave " ) , but they can be represented as bulging downward ( inwards ) or linear ( straight ) , depending on a number of factors . A PPF illustrates a number of economic concepts , such as scarcity of resources ( the fundamental economic problem that all societies face ) , opportunity cost ( or marginal rate of transformation ) , productive efficiency , allocative efficiency , and economies of scale .
An outward shift of the PPF results from growth of the availability of inputs , such as physical capital or labour or technological progress in knowledge of how to transform inputs into outputs . Such a shift reflects economic growth of an economy already operating at its full productivity ( on the PPF ) , which means that more of both outputs can be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the output of either good . Conversely , the PPF will shift inward if the labor force shrinks , the supply of raw materials is depleted , or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical capital .
However , most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced but that the economy has started operating below the frontier , as typically , both labor and physical capital are underemployed .
= = Indicators = =
= = = Efficiency = = =
A PPF ( production possibility frontier ) typically takes the form of the curve illustrated on the right . An economy that is operating on the PPF is said to be efficient , meaning that it would be impossible to produce more of one good without decreasing production of the other good . In contrast , if the economy is operating below the curve , it is said to be operating inefficiently because it could reallocate resources in order to produce more of both goods or some resources such as labor or capital are sitting idle and could be fully employed to produce more of both goods .
For example , if one assumes that the economy 's available quantities of factors of production do not change over time and that technological progress does not occur , if the economy is operating on the PPF , production of guns would need to be sacrificed to produce more butter . If production is efficient , the economy can choose between combinations ( points ) on the PPF : B if guns are of interest , C if more butter is needed , D if an equal mix of butter and guns is required .
In the PPF , all points on the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency ( no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good ) ; all points inside the frontier ( such as A ) can be produced but are productively inefficient ; all points outside the curve ( such as X ) cannot be produced with the given , existing resources . Not all points on the curve are Pareto efficient , however ; only in the case where the marginal rate of transformation is equal to all consumers ' marginal rate of substitution and hence equal to the ratio of prices will it be impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off .
Any point that lies either on the production possibilities curve or to the left of it is said to be an attainable point : it can be produced with currently available resources . Points that lie to the right of the production possibilities curve are said to be unattainable because they cannot be produced using currently available resources . Points that lie strictly to the left of the curve are said to be inefficient , because existing resources would allow for production of more of at least one good without sacrificing the production of any other good . An efficient point is one that lies on the production possibilities curve . At any such point , more of one good can be produced only by producing less of the other .
Such a two @-@ good world is a theoretical simplification because of the difficulty of graphical analysis of multiple goods . If we are interested in one good , a composite score of the other goods can be generated using different techniques . Furthermore , the production model can be generalised using higher @-@ dimensional techniques such as Principal Component Analysis ( PCA ) and others .
= = = Opportunity cost = = =
From a starting point on the frontier , if there is no increase in productive resources , increasing production of a first good entails decreasing production of a second , because resources must be transferred to the first and away from the second . Points along the curve describe the tradeoff between the goods . The sacrifice in the production of the second good is called the opportunity cost ( because increasing production of the first good entails losing the opportunity to produce some amount of the second ) . Opportunity cost is measured in the number of units of the second good forgone for one or more units of the first good .
In the context of a PPF , opportunity cost is directly related to the shape of the curve ( see below ) . If the shape of the PPF curve is a straight @-@ line , the opportunity cost is constant as production of different goods is changing . But , opportunity cost usually will vary depending on the start and end points . In the diagram on the right , producing 10 more packets of butter , at a low level of butter production , costs the loss of 5 guns ( shown as a movement from A to B ) . At point C , the economy is already close to its maximum potential butter output . To produce 10 more packets of butter , 50 guns must be sacrificed ( as with a movement from C to D ) . The ratio of gains to losses is determined by the marginal rate of transformation .
= = = Marginal rate of transformation = = =
The slope of the production – possibility frontier ( PPF ) at any given point is called the marginal rate of transformation ( MRT ) . The slope defines the rate at which production of one good can be redirected ( by reallocation of productive resources ) into production of the other . It is also called the ( marginal ) " opportunity cost " of a commodity , that is , it is the opportunity cost of X in terms of Y at the margin . It measures how much of good Y is given up for one more unit of good X or vice versa . The shape of a PPF is commonly drawn as concave to the origin to represent increasing opportunity cost with increased output of a good . Thus , MRT increases in absolute size as one moves from the top left of the PPF to the bottom right of the PPF .
The marginal rate of transformation can be expressed in terms of either commodity . The marginal opportunity costs of guns in terms of butter is simply the reciprocal of the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns . If , for example , the ( absolute ) slope at point BB in the diagram is equal to 2 , to produce one more packet of butter , the production of 2 guns must be sacrificed . If at AA , the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns is equal to 0 @.@ 25 , the sacrifice of one gun could produce four packets of butter , and the opportunity cost of guns in terms of butter is 4 .
= = Shape = =
The production @-@ possibility frontier can be constructed from the contract curve in an Edgeworth production box diagram of factor intensity . The example used above ( which demonstrates increasing opportunity costs , with a curve concave to the origin ) is the most common form of PPF . It represents a disparity , in the factor intensities and technologies of the two production sectors . That is , as an economy specializes more and more into one product ( such as moving from point B to point D ) , the opportunity cost of producing that product increases , because we are using more and more resources that are less efficient in producing it . With increasing production of butter , workers from the gun industry will move to it . At first , the least qualified ( or most general ) gun workers will be transferred into making more butter , and moving these workers has little impact on the opportunity cost of increasing butter production : the loss in gun production will be small . However , the cost of producing successive units of butter will increase as resources that are more and more specialized in gun production are moved into the butter industry .
If opportunity costs are constant , a straight @-@ line ( linear ) PPF is produced . This case reflects a situation where resources are not specialised and can be substituted for each other with no added cost . Products requiring similar resources ( bread and pastry , for instance ) will have an almost straight PPF and so almost constant opportunity costs . More specifically , with constant returns to scale , there are two opportunities for a linear PPF : if there was only one factor of production to consider or if the factor intensity ratios in the two sectors were constant at all points on the production @-@ possibilities curve . With varying returns to scale , however , it may not be entirely linear in either case .
With economies of scale , the PPF would curve inward , with the opportunity cost of one good falling as more of it is produced . Specialization in producing successive units of a good determines its opportunity cost ( say from mass production methods or specialization of labor ) .
= = Position = =
The two main determinants of the position of the PPF at any given time are the state of technology and management expertise ( which are reflected in the available production functions ) and the available quantities of factors of production ( materials , direct labor , and factory overhead ) .
Only points on or within a PPF are actually possible to achieve in the short run . In the long run , if technology improves or if the supply of factors of production increases , the economy 's capacity to produce both goods increases ; if this potential is realized , economic growth occurs . That increase is shown by a shift of the production @-@ possibility frontier to the right . Conversely , a natural , military or ecological disaster might move the PPF to the left in response to a reduction in an economy 's productive capability . Thus all points on or within the curve are part of the production set : combinations of goods that the economy could potentially produce .
If the two production goods depicted are capital investment ( to increase future production possibilities ) and current consumption goods , the higher is investment this year , the more the PPF would shift out in following years . Shifts of the curve can represent how technological progress that favors production possibilities of one good , say guns , more than the other shifts the PPF outwards more along the favored good 's axis , " biasing " production possibilities in that direction . Similarly , if one good makes more use of say capital and if capital grows faster than other factors , growth possibilities might be biased in favor of the capital @-@ intensive good .
= = Other applications = =
In microeconomics , the PPF shows the options open to an individual , household , or firm in a two @-@ good world . By definition , each point on the curve is productively efficient , but , given the nature of market demand , some points will be more profitable than others . Equilibrium for a firm will be the combination of outputs on the PPF that is most profitable .
From a macroeconomic perspective , the PPF illustrates the production possibilities available to a nation or economy during a given period of time for broad categories of output . It is traditionally used to show the movement between committing all funds to consumption on the y @-@ axis versus investment on the x @-@ axis . However , an economy may achieve productive efficiency without necessarily being allocatively efficient . Market failure ( such as imperfect competition or externalities ) and some institutions of social decision @-@ making ( such as government and tradition ) may lead to the wrong combination of goods being produced ( hence the wrong mix of resources being allocated between producing the two goods ) compared to what consumers would prefer , given what is feasible on the PPF .
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= SMS Hannover =
SMS Hannover ( " His Majesty 's Ship Hannover " ) was the second of five Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . Hannover and the three subsequently constructed ships differed slightly in both design and construction from the lead ship Deutschland in their propulsion systems and slightly thicker armor . Hannover was laid down in November 1904 and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in October 1907 ; this was ten months after the revolutionary " all @-@ big @-@ gun " HMS Dreadnought was commissioned into the Royal Navy . As a result , Hannover was obsolete as a capital ship before she was even completed ; Dreadnought 's more powerful main battery and higher speed would have made it unwise for a ship like Hannover to engage her in the line of battle . The ship was named after the Prussian province of Hannover , now in Lower Saxony .
Hannover and her sisters saw extensive service with the fleet . The ship took part in all major training maneuvers until World War I broke out in July 1914 . Hannover and her sisters were immediately pressed into guard duties in the mouth of the Elbe River while the rest of the fleet mobilized . The ship took part in a number of fleet advances , which culminated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . During the battle , Hannover served as the flagship for the IV Division of the II Battle Squadron . After Jutland , Hannover and her three surviving sisters were removed from active duty with the fleet to serve as guard ships . In 1917 , Hannover was briefly used as a target ship before being returned to guard duties in the Baltic Sea . The ship was decommissioned in December 1918 , shortly after the end of the war .
Hannover was brought back to active service in the Reichsmarine , the post @-@ war Germany navy . She served with the fleet for ten years , from 1921 to 1931 , before she was again decommissioned . The navy planned to convert the ship into a radio @-@ controlled target ship for aircraft , but this was never carried out . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap between 1944 and 1946 in Bremerhaven . Her bell is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
= = Construction = =
Hannover was intended to fight in the German battle line with the other battleships of the High Seas Fleet . The ship was laid down on 7 November 1904 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 29 May 1905 and commissioned for trials on 1 October 1907 , but the fleet exercises in the Skagerrak in November interrupted the trials . Trials resumed after the maneuvers were completed , and by 13 February 1908 Hannover was ready to join the active fleet . She was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , joining her sisters Deutschland and Pommern . However , the new British battleship HMS Dreadnought — armed with ten 12 @-@ inch ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) guns — was commissioned in December 1906 , well before Hannover entered service . Dreadnought 's revolutionary design rendered obsolete every ship of the German navy , including the brand @-@ new Hannover .
Hannover was 127 @.@ 60 m ( 418 ft 8 in ) long , had a beam of 22 @.@ 20 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 21 m ( 26 ft 11 in ) . She had a full @-@ load displacement of 14 @,@ 218 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 993 long tons ) . The ship was equipped with triple expansion engines that produced a rated 17 @,@ 524 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 068 kW ) and a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , she could steam for 4 @,@ 520 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 370 km ; 5 @,@ 200 mi ) .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in two twin turrets . She was also equipped with fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) guns in pivot mounts . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 72 in ) torpedo tubes , all of which were submerged in the hull .
= = Service = =
Upon her commissioning , Hannover joined the II Battle Squadron . From May to June 1908 , Hannover took part in maneuvers in the North Sea . From the following month until August , the fleet conducted a training cruise into the Atlantic . During the cruise , Hannover stopped in Punta Delgado in the Azores from 23 July to 1 August . The annual autumn exercises began in September ; after these were completed Hannover was transferred to the I Squadron , where she served as the flagship for two years . In November , fleet and unit exercises were conducted in the Baltic Sea .
The training regimen in which Hannover participated followed a similar pattern over the next five years . This included another cruise into the Atlantic , from 7 July to 1 August 1909 . February 1910 saw the I Squadron conduct individual training in the Baltic . The unit was subsequently transferred from Kiel to the base in Wilhelmshaven on 1 April . Fleet maneuvers were conducted shortly thereafter , followed by a summer cruise to Norway , and additional fleet training in the fall . On 3 October 1911 , the ship was transferred back to the II Squadron . Due to the Agadir Crisis in July , the summer cruise only went into the Baltic . On 14 July 1914 , the annual summer cruise to Norway began , but the threat of war in Europe caused the excursion to be cut short ; within two weeks Hannover and the rest of the II Squadron had returned to Wilhelmshaven .
= = = World War I = = =
Following the outbreak of World War I , Hannover was tasked with guard duty in the Altenbruch roadstead in the mouth of the Elbe River during the period of mobilization for the rest of the fleet . In late October , the ships were sent to Kiel to have modifications made to their underwater protection systems to make them more resilient . Hannover then joined the battleship support for the battlecruisers that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some 12 dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced the German commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home .
Hannover put to sea during the Battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 to support the beleaguered German battlecruisers , but quickly returned to port . On 17 – 18 April , Hannover supported a minelaying operation off the Swarte Bank by the light cruisers of the II Reconnaissance Group . A fleet advance to the Dogger Bank followed on 21 – 22 April . On 16 May , Hannover was sent to Kiel to have one of her 28 cm guns replaced . The ship returned to Kiel on 28 June to have supplemental oil firing installed for her boilers ; work lasted until 12 July . On 11 – 12 September , II Reconnaissance Group conducted another minelaying operation off the Swarte Bank with Hannover and the rest of II Squadron in support . This was followed by another resultless sweep by the fleet on 23 – 24 October . During the fleet advance of 5 – 7 March 1916 , Hannover and the rest of II Squadron remained in the German Bight , ready to sail in support . They then rejoined the fleet during the operation to bombard Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April . During this operation , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a British mine and had to return to port prematurely . Visibility was poor , so the operation was quickly called off before the British fleet could intervene .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of the German fleet , immediately planned another advance into the North Sea , but the damage to Seydlitz delayed the operation until the end of May . Hannover was the flagship in the IV Division of the II Battle Squadron , which was positioned at the rear of the German line . The II Battle Squadron was commanded by Rear Admiral Franz Mauve . During the " Run to the North " , Scheer ordered the fleet to pursue the retreating battleships of the British V Battle Squadron at top speed . Hannover and her sisters were significantly slower than the faster dreadnoughts and quickly fell behind . During this period , Scheer directed Hannover to place herself at the rear of the German line , so he would have a flagship on either end of the formation . By 19 : 30 , the Grand Fleet had arrived on the scene and confronted Scheer with significant numerical superiority . The German fleet was severely hampered by the presence of the slower Deutschland @-@ class ships ; if Scheer ordered an immediate turn towards Germany , he would have to sacrifice the slower ships to make good his escape .
Scheer decided to reverse the course of the fleet with the Gefechtskehrtwendung , a maneuver that required every unit in the German line to turn 180 ° simultaneously . As a result of their having fallen behind , the ships of the II Battle Squadron could not conform to the new course following the turn . Hannover and the other five ships of the squadron therefore were located on the disengaged side of the German line . Mauve considered moving his ships to the rear of the line , astern of the III Battle Squadron dreadnoughts , but decided against it when he realized the movement would interfere with the maneuvering of Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers . Instead , he attempted to place his ships at the head of the line .
Later on the first day of the battle , the hard @-@ pressed battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group were being pursued by their British opponents . Hannover and the other so @-@ called " five @-@ minute ships " came to their aid by steaming in between the opposing battlecruiser squadrons . The ships were very briefly engaged , owing in large part to the poor visibility . Hannover fired eight rounds from her 28 cm guns during this period . The British battlecruiser HMS Princess Royal fired on Hannover several times until the latter was obscured by smoke . Hannover was struck once by fragments from one of the 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 34 cm ) shells fired by Princess Royal . Mauve decided it would be inadvisable to continue the fight against the much more powerful battlecruisers , and so ordered an 8 @-@ point turn to starboard .
Late on the 31st , the fleet organized for the night march back to Germany ; Deutschland , Pommern , and Hannover fell in behind König and the other dreadnoughts of the III Battle Squadron towards the rear of the line . Hannover was then joined by the Hessen , Schlesien , and Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Hessen situated herself between Hannover and Pommern , while the other two ships fell in at the rear of the line . Shortly after 01 : 00 , the leading ships of the German line came into contact with the armored cruiser HMS Black Prince ; Black Prince was quickly destroyed in a hail of gunfire from the German dreadnoughts . Nassau was forced to heel out of line to avoid the sinking British ship , and an hour later rejoined the formation directly ahead of Hannover . At around 03 : 00 , British destroyers conducted a series of attacks against the fleet , some of which targeted Hannover . Shortly thereafter , Pommern was struck by at least one torpedo from the destroyer Onslaught ; the hit detonated an ammunition magazine which destroyed the ship in a tremendous explosion . Hannover was astern of Pommern and was forced to turn hard to starboard in order to avoid the wreck . Simultaneously , a third torpedo from Onslaught passed closely astern of Hannover , which forced the ship to turn away . Shortly after 04 : 00 , Hannover and several other ships fired repeatedly at what were thought to be submarines ; in one instance , the firing from Hannover and Hessen nearly damaged the light cruisers Stettin and München , which prompted Scheer to order them to cease firing . Hannover and several other ships again fired at imaginary submarines shortly before 06 : 00 .
Despite the ferocity of the night fighting , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later , where the undamaged dreadnoughts of the Nassau and Helgoland classes took up defensive positions . Over the course of the battle , Hannover had fired eight 28 cm shells , twenty @-@ one 17 cm rounds , and forty @-@ four shells from her 8 @.@ 8 cm guns . She emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
= = = = Later actions = = = =
After Jutland , Hannover went into dock for periodic maintenance on 4 November . Hannover and the rest of II Battle Squadron were then detached from the High Seas Fleet on 30 November and reassigned to picket duty in the mouth of the Elbe . In early 1917 , Hannover was used as a target ship in the Baltic . On 21 March , Hannover had some of her guns removed ; the ship was then converted into a guard ship from 25 June to 16 September . During this period , on 15 August , the II Battle Squadron was officially disbanded . On 27 September , Hessen was assigned to guard duties in the Baltic , where she replaced the older battleship Lothringen .
= = = Postwar service = = =
On 11 November 1918 , Germany entered into the Armistice with the Western Allies . According to the terms of the Armistice , the most modern components of Germany 's surface fleet were interned in the British naval base at Scapa Flow , while the rest of the fleet was demilitarized . On the day the armistice took effect , Hannover was sent briefly to Swinemünde , before returning to Kiel on 14 – 15 November along with Schlesien . Hannover was decommissioned a month later on 17 December in accordance with the terms of the Armistice .
The terms of the Treaty of Versailles , signed on 21 June 1919 , permitted Germany to retain a surface fleet of eight obsolete battleships . This amounted to three of the Deutschland @-@ class battleships , Hannover , Schleswig @-@ Holstein and Schlesien , as well as the five Braunschweig @-@ class battleships .
Hannover was the first of all the old battleships to come in service with the Reichsmarine in February 1921 as fleet flagship in the Baltic . Her first homeport was Swinemünde but she was transferred to Kiel in 1922 . In 1923 the German Navy adopted a new command structure and Braunschweig became flagship of the Fleet . In October 1925 , Hannover was moved to the North Sea station . She was decommissioned in March 1927 when Schlesien returned to active service . With newly built masts but still three funnels she entered service again replacing Elsass in February 1930 until September 1931 .
The ship was struck from the naval register in 1936 , after which the navy intended to rebuild Hannover for use as a target ship . The conversion , however , never occurred . Ultimately , the ship was broken up between May 1944 and October 1946 in Bremerhaven . Her bell now resides in the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
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= Action Button Entertainment =
Action Button Entertainment , LLC ( commonly referred to as Action Button ) is a video game development studio consisting of Tim Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski that has produced four games since 2012 : Ziggurat , TNNS , Ten by Eight , and the in @-@ development Videoball . The group convened as Rogers worked on Ziggurat based on an idea he had while playing Angry Birds that he could not complete on his own . Porter joined Action Button after responding to a call for artists Rogers made via Twitter , and Kerwin joined based on a connection he had with Rogers from producing a mockup of a game concept Rogers outlined in his Kotaku column . Action Button released Ziggurat in February 2012 , TNNS in November , 10 × 8 in July 2013 , and Videoball is expected for release in 2016 .
= = History = =
Action Button Entertainment was founded by Tim Rogers . The studio consists of Tim Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently " simple " in their aesthetics and controls . The team formed during the development of Ziggurat , which began with an idea Rogers had while playing Angry Birds about pushing back a swarm of bats by shooting projectiles at them . He decided that he could not make the game alone . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document — this game would become Ziggurat . Rogers contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through with a rough draft within a week . Andrew Toups converted a soundtrack created by Rogers 's rock band into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack . After six months of hiatus and working at a social games company , Rogers rekindled development and the team finished the Ziggurat , which was released in February 2012 .
Rogers has said that he aspires for Action Button Entertainment to make games that share his preferred gaming styles and his hobbies . Realizing that the common link between his top 25 video games ( including Panzer Dragoon , Cave Story , Canabalt , and his favorite , Out of This World ) was minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through game mechanics , Rogers wanted Ziggurat and future games to live up to those expectations and used his gut to fine @-@ tune design decisions . The games also reflect aspects of Rogers 's personality , such as in the " scream sound effect " on Ziggurat made and distorted from his guitar based on sounds made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned . He also called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube .
= = Games = =
= = = Ziggurat = = =
Ziggurat , stylized as ZiGGURAT , is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game developed by Action Button Entertainment for iOS platforms . As the world 's last human fighting off incoming aliens from atop a ziggurat , the player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack . Action Button designer Tim Rogers developed the game idea based on his experience with Angry Birds , which later led to the formation of Action Button as a company with Ziggurat as its first release on February 17 , 2012 .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised Ziggurat 's controls and minimalism . It won a Destructoid Editors ' Choice Award , and Time magazine picked the game as one of the best for the then new high @-@ resolution third generation iPad .
= = = TNNS = = =
TNNS , pronounced " tennis " , is a brick @-@ breaking action game released in November 2012 for iOS . As a universal app , it is playable on iPhones , iPads , and iPods . It was developed by Action Button Entertainment and produced by Rabbx . Players use a paddle along the screen 's left side to bounce a ball towards breakable objects on the right side of the screen , and to avoid getting the ball in their goal . A star box ends the level . The game 's over 500 stages are built as puzzles and played at random . Level features include wormholes that move the ball from one part of the screen to another and arrows that change the ball 's trajectory . Power @-@ ups include " multi @-@ ball " , which puts multiple balls into play . TNNS also includes objectives , a same @-@ device two @-@ player mode , objectives , in @-@ app purchases , and Facebook and Twitter integration . Action Button later released an Android version .
The game Action Button described as " about keeping your eyes on balls " was inspired by tennis . It was released with little advanced notice in early November 2012 . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com compared it with Sidhe Interactive 's Shatter and VG247 called it a rendition of Breakout . Pocket Gamer 's Mark Brown likened it to both and further compared it with Alleyway , Arkanoid , and Super Hexagon with a " telekinetic power " to alter the ball 's direction apart from the panel ( as in Shatter ) . He found the game frustrating at times when unable to control the ball . Though Brown found TNNS fun , different , and addictive , it had " not quite won [ him ] over " .
= = = Ten by Eight = = =
Ten by Eight , stylized as 10 × 8 , is a puzzle video game by Action Button Entertainment where players match tiles . It was released on July 31 , 2013 in North America for PlayStation Mobile — the PlayStation Vita and compatible devices . International editions followed . Players align similarly colored blocks and trace the path they create when aligned . The goal is to make the longest path possible , and bonus points are awarded for paths that connect the screen 's edges . Star blocks act as power @-@ ups that extend combos , such that a chain of green tiles can link to a chain of red tiles using a star block . Points can be spent on new character unlocks , including some from Ziggurat , that have no gameplay function . Ten by Eight has three modes of play . In endless mode , rocks around the grid block possible paths and can only be cleared by making paths that envelop the rocks . The game ends if a rock fully crosses the grid . The zen mode has no rocks or time limit . The timed mode sets a several @-@ minute restriction on gameplay and has no rocks . Rogers produced an " infomercial @-@ style trailer " for the game , which VG247 called one of his signature moves and that IndieGames.com called " glorious " .
Paste 's Garrett Martin rated the game 8 @.@ 0 of 10 . Though he acknowledged untimed " endless " modes as usually the best puzzle game mode , he found Ten by Eight 's endless and zen modes " problematic " , citing the difficulty and frustration in removing the endless mode 's rocks and the dearth of urgency in the zen mode . Martin found the timed mode 's length to be " perfect " , but suggested that the Vita 's screen was less so , recommending a tablet release . He compared the minimalist soundtrack to Kraftwerk , and noted that players uninterested in high scores would not stay interested for long .
= = = Videoball = = =
Videoball is a minimalist sports video game by Action Button Entertainment . Using solely one analog stick and one button , players control triangles that shoot projectiles to knock a circular ball into the opposing team 's endzone . Holding the button creates a projectile ( a " unit " ) that fires upon release . The projectile can propel the ball , nullify other projectiles , or incapacitate opponents . The projectile charges the longer the button is held , such that a charged " slam " shot can sail across the full screen . Games last an average of four minutes .
Videoball designer Tim Rogers describes the game as " an abstract minimalist electronic sport " . Its development began as a dare from QWOP developer Bennett Foddy , Rogers 's friend , to make a " one @-@ button StarCraft " . Rogers compared the game 's design process to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay convinces failing restaurants to provide fewer menu options and to make those dishes well . Polygon 's Tracey Lien discussed their process as " chasing a certain purity " and mentioned the strong role of strategy in playing the game . Rogers noted basketball @-@ like strategy in prototype games , with players positioned as center or forward positions or playing zone defense . He livestreams prerelease sessions of Videoball via Twitch . The game is expected for release in 2014 with cross @-@ platform multiplayer and support for more than six simultaneous players .
Reviewers all cited Videoball 's minimalism both in aesthetics and gameplay , and compared the game with the skill and strategy of football and basketball . Before its release , PC Gamer 's Wes Fenlon wrote that he thought about Videoball daily after last playing two weeks prior due to its " addictive sort of fun " and his excitement for local multiplayer on PC following Hokra and TowerFall . He felt that the game 's tagline of being appropriate for both a child 's birthday party and prison was correct albeit silly . Fenlon praised the game 's minimalist visuals , " peppy music , and chirpy sound effects " . He compared the player 's controls to that of Asteroids and contrasted its simplicity with the 100 @-@ hour onboarding process for League of Legends , having learned Videoball after " a couple minutes " . Polygon 's Tracey Lien compared the game 's feel to basketball , football , and hockey . Citing the strong role of strategy in playing the game , she compared the array of projectiles fired to military strategy or a football play .
= = = Tuffy the Corgi = = =
Tuffy the Corgi and the Tower of Bones is a 2D platform adventure game for PlayStation Mobile where the player attempts to collect all 108 bones about a single , long level . As the player @-@ character Tuffy is constantly running , the player can only jump and change direction by pressing any button on either side of the screen . When the player touches a spike or enemy , they must restart the game from the beginning . It features a counter that shows how many times the player has died . Rogers produced a video trailer for the game . The game was designed by Rogers , programmed by Kerwin , and illustrated by Porter . Ken " Coda " Snyder made the music . It was released in June 2014 . Game Informer 's Jeff Marchiafava wrote that the platformer was " hopelessly difficult " , as it required a " level of perfectionism only speedrunners possess " . He added that Tuffy was both what he " loved and hated " about the video games of his youth , between its 16 @-@ bit era art , tight platforming controls , " unforgiving " gameplay , and " reliance on rote memorization " of path through the level . Marchiafava added that gameplay trends had forgotten these types of games for a reason , and concluded that he " never warmed to Tuffy " despite his interest in " punishing retro platformers like Spelunky and Super Meat Boy " .
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= Macrolepiota clelandii =
Macrolepiota clelandii , commonly known as the slender parasol or graceful parasol , is a species of mushroom @-@ forming fungus in the family Lepiotaceae . The species is found in Australia and New Zealand , where it fruits singly or in small groups on the ground in eucalypt woodlands , parks , and roadsides . It is a tall mushroom up to roughly 20 cm ( 8 in ) , with a broad cap covered with distinctive rings of dark brown scales . The whitish gills on the cap underside are closely spaced and free from attachment to the slender stipe , which has a loose ring on its upper half , and a bulbous base . The edibility of the mushroom is not known with certainty , but closely related parasol mushrooms are edible and some are very sought after .
The fungus , first documented by naturalist John Burton Cleland in the early 20th century , was initially assumed to be the close relative Macrolepiota procera , a European species now known to be absent from Australia . Australian mycologist Cheryl Grgurinovic recognized Cleland 's collections as a distinct species , officially describing it in 1997 . The fungus has been referred to by several names : M. konradii , M. gracilenta , and M. mastoidea . Else Vellinga showed using molecular phylogenetic analysis that these names refer to European species and were misapplied by Australian authors .
= = Taxonomy = =
Macrolepiota clelandii was officially described by mycologist Cheryl Grgurinovic in her 1997 work Larger Fungi of South Australia . Before this , Australian naturalist John Burton Cleland had referred the fungus to Macrolepiota procera , a widespread , common species that is now known to not occur in Australia . Grgurinovic identified Cleland 's taxon , characterised by having two @-@ spored basidia , as a distinct species . The type collection was made by Cleland in 1912 , near Hawkesbury River in New South Wales . The specific epithet clelandii honours Cleland 's early work in documenting the species several times in the early 20th century . The mushroom is commonly called the slender or graceful parasol fungus . " Bush parasol " is a proposed common name for use in New Zealand .
Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from Australian collections labeled Macrolepiota konradii , M. gracilenta , M. mastoidea , and M. procera has shown that they are the same species as Macrolepiota clelandii . Similarly , several New Zealand collections were historically misidentified as Macrolepiota dolichaula . These names , given originally to European species , were erroneously applied to Australian collections . Else Vellinga subsequently emended the species concept of Macrolepiota clelandii to include specimens with four @-@ spored basidia and pale fruitbody colouring . Phylogenetically , M. clelandii is in a clade with closely related species such as M. procera , M. dolichaula , and M. mastoidea . This clade is sister to a group containing Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprinus species . The presence of clamp connections in the hyphae place M. clelandii in the section Macrolepiota of genus Macrolepiota .
= = Description = =
The fruitbody of Macrolepiota clelandii has a cap that is initially egg @-@ shaped , later becoming convex and then flattened in maturity , reaching diameters of 7 @.@ 6 – 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 9 in ) . It has a dark brown umbo and small dark brown scales that show the whitish flesh underneath . These scales are arranged in concentric rings that become increasingly crowded until the umbo , which is completely covered in scales . Small fragments of the partial veil may be left hanging on the cap margin .
The white gills are free from attachment to the stipe and closely spaced . The slender , hollow stipe measures up to 18 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) long , and has a somewhat bulbous base . It has a pale brown colour , and features a ring on its upper half that often detaches to become freely movable up and down the stipe . The mushrooms have no distinctive odour . Its tall stature means the gills are usually clean , having avoided rain splash from the forest floor .
According to Peter Roberts and Shelley Evans , all " parasol " species ( i.e. , M. procera and its close relatives , including M. clelandii ) are edible . Anthony M. Young notes the similarity of M. clelandii to the edible European species M. konradii , but warns " the toxicity of the Australian species is unknown . "
Macrolepiota clelandii produces a white spore print . Individual spores are ellipsoid with a small germ pore , smooth , thick @-@ walled , and measure 13 @.@ 4 – 24 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 6 – 16 @.@ 0 µm . They have a dextrinoid staining reaction ( reddish @-@ brown ) with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , measuring 38 @.@ 0 – 50 by 10 @.@ 2 – 13 @.@ 6 µm . They are two- , three- , or four @-@ spored , with sterigmata up to 8 @.@ 0 µm long . Collections with predominantly four @-@ spored basidia will generally have smaller spores than those with two @-@ spored basidia . Two @-@ spored basidia produce spores with four nuclei . Cheilocystidia are plentiful on the edge of the gill . They have dimensions of 24 @.@ 8 – 42 @.@ 4 by 7 @.@ 2 – 10 @.@ 4 µm , with a cylindrical to club shape . There are no cystidia on the gill face ( pleurocystidia ) . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
The European species Macrolepiota konradii , similar in appearance to M. clelandii , has a smaller range of spore dimensions , typically 13 – 17 by 8 – 10 µm . M. subcitrophylla , described from China in 2012 , is genetically close to M. clelandii . Unlike the latter species , it has yellow gills . M. procera is a larger with broad caps up to 12 in ( 30 cm ) in diameter , and the stipe surface is covered with brownish zigzag bands or scaly girdles on a whitish background . Its spores are smaller than those of M. konradii , measuring on average 13 @.@ 8 – 15 @.@ 7 µm . It is now known to occur only in Europe .
The " false parasol " , Chlorophyllum molybdites , a toxic species that can be mistaken for M. konradii , also occurs in Australia ( but not New Zealand ) . It can be distinguished by its green spore print and gills that turn light green in age . Some deadly poisonous Lepiota species have a similar pattern of scales on the cap , but their fruitbodies are smaller .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Macrolepiota clelandii fruits singly or in small groups on the ground in grass or among leaf litter . It is typically found in eucalypt forest and subtropical rainforests . It has been recorded from Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria , South Australia , and Western Australia . In southwest Australia it is found in jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) and karri ( Eucalyptus diversicolor ) forests , where fruiting usually occurs in late autumn and early winter . The fungus appears to prefer disturbed ground , as it is often found at roadsides by forests , on lawns , grassy areas of parks , and among the slash of thinned karri regrowth forests . It is common in river red gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) woodlands . M. clelandii also occurs in New Zealand , where it is found in mixed mānuka ( Leptospermum scoparium ) , kānuka ( Kunzea ericoides ) , and kauri ( Agathis ) forest , and in conifer plantations . It is the smallest and most slender of the Macrolepiota species that occur there .
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= World Heavyweight Championship ( WWE ) =
The World Heavyweight Championship was a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship owned by WWE . It was one of two top championships in WWE , complementing the WWE World Championship . It was established under the Raw brand in 2002 , after Raw and SmackDown ! became distinct brands under WWE , and moved between both brands on different occasions ( mainly as a result of the WWE draft ) until August 29 , 2011 when all programming became full roster " supershows " . The World Heavyweight Championship was retired at the WWE PPV TLC : Tables , Ladders , and Chairs on December 15 , 2013 when it was unified with the WWE Championship .
The title was one of six to be represented by the historic Big Gold Belt , first introduced in 1986 . Its heritage can be traced back to the first world heavyweight championship , thereby giving the belt a legacy over 100 years old , the oldest in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
WWE introduced its World Heavyweight Championship in 2002 , by Eric Bischoff with Triple H becoming the inaugural champion on September 2 . However , its origin is attributed the first world heavyweight championship , and then to events that began in the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) , which had many different territorial promotions as members . In the late 1980s , World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) was a member of the NWA , having been formed by the purchase of Jim Crockett Promotions ( JCP ) , which had absorbed many other NWA members , by Turner Broadcasting , which aired WCW 's programming . During this time , WCW used the NWA World Heavyweight Championship as its world title . The WCW World Heavyweight Championship was soon established when the recognition was awarded to then @-@ NWA World Heavyweight Champion Ric Flair in 1991 . In 1993 , WCW seceded from the NWA and grew to become a rival promotion to the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , itself a former member of the NWA . Both organizations grew into mainstream prominence and were eventually involved in a television ratings war dubbed the Monday Night Wars . Near the end of the ratings war , WCW began a financial decline which culminated in March 2001 with the WWF 's purchase of selected assets of WCW . As a result of the purchase , the WWF acquired the video library of WCW , select talent contracts , and championships among other assets . The slew of former WCW talent joining the WWF roster began " The Invasion " which effectively phased out the WCW name . Following this , the WCW World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWF Championship , the WWF 's world title , at Vengeance in December . At the event , the WCW World Heavyweight Championship was decommissioned with Chris Jericho becoming the final WCW World Heavyweight Champion and the subsequent Undisputed WWF Champion after defeating The Rock and Steve Austin respectively . The WWF title became the undisputed Championship in professional wrestling until September 2002 with the creation of this World Heavyweight Championship , spun off from the Undisputed WWE Championship as the successor to the WCW World Heavyweight Championship .
= = = Creation = = =
By 2002 , the WWE roster had doubled in size due to the overabundance of contracted workers . As a result of the increase , the WWE divided the roster through its two main television programs , Raw and SmackDown , assigning championships and appointing figureheads to each brand . This expansion became known as the " Brand Extension " . In May 2002 , the WWF was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Following these changes , the Undisputed WWE Championship remained unaffiliated with either brand as competitors from both brands could challenge the Undisputed Champion . Following the appointment of Eric Bischoff and Stephanie McMahon as General Managers of the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively , Stephanie McMahon contracted then @-@ champion Brock Lesnar to the SmackDown brand , leaving the Raw brand without a World Title . On September 2 , after disputing the brand designation of the Undisputed title , Eric Bischoff announced the creation of the World Heavyweight Championship . Bischoff awarded the title to Triple H due to previously being Lesnar 's scheduled opponent . Immediately afterwards , the Undisputed Championship returned to being the WWE Championship .
= = = Historical lineage = = =
While introduced in 2002 as a new title , the WWE often made allusions often being made to other titles including those of WCW and the NWA , amalgamating the history of this championship with the history of the belt that represents it . As affirmed by WWE , the World Heavyweight Championship is not a continuation of the WCW Championship , but rather its successor by way of the WWE Undisputed Championship , just as the WCW Championship spun off from the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Due to its relation to both titles , its lineage is connected with the earliest recognized world heavyweight championship . In 2009 , WWE released a DVD set called History of the World Heavyweight Championship that definitively linked the title to the WCW and NWA titles .
= = = Brand designation history = = =
The following is a list of dates indicating the transitions of the World Heavyweight Championship between the Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champion was Triple H , and there were 25 different champions overall . The longest reigning champion was Batista who held the title from April 3 , 2005 to January 10 , 2006 for a total of 282 days . Triple H holds the record for longest combined reigns at 616 days . The shortest reigning champion was Big Show who officially held the title for 45 seconds . The youngest champion was Randy Orton , who won the title of the age of 24 . The oldest champion was The Undertaker who won at the age of 44 . Edge held the title the most times with seven championship reigns . There were five vacancies throughout the title 's history .
Randy Orton was the final champion in his fourth reign . He defeated John Cena in a TLC match at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs on December 15 , 2013 in Houston , Texas to unify the WWE and World Heavyweight Championships .
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= Fortress of Klis =
The Klis Fortress ( Croatian : Tvrđava Klis ) is a medieval fortress situated above a village bearing the same name , near the city of Split , in central Dalmatia , Croatia . From its origin as a small stronghold built by the ancient Illyrian tribe Dalmatae , becoming a royal castle that was the seat of many Croatian kings , to its final development as a large fortress during the Ottoman wars in Europe , Klis Fortress has guarded the frontier , being lost and re @-@ conquered several times throughout its more @-@ than @-@ two @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ long history . Due to its location on a pass that separates the mountains Mosor and Kozjak , the fortress served as a major source of defense in Dalmatia , especially against the Ottoman advance , and has been a key crossroad between the Mediterranean belt and the Balkan rear .
= = Importance = =
Since Duke Mislav of the Duchy of Croatia made Klis Fortress the seat of his throne in the middle of the 9th century , the fortress served as the seat of many Croatia 's rulers . The reign of his successor , Duke Trpimir I , the founder of the Croatian royal House of Trpimirović , is significant for spreading Christianity in the Duchy of Croatia . He largely expanded the Klis Fortress , and in Rižinice , in the valley under the fortress , he built a church and the first Benedictine monastery in Croatia . During the reign of the first Croatian king , Tomislav , Klis and Biograd na Moru were his chief residences .
In March 1242 at Klis Fortress , Tatars who were a constituent segment of the Mongol army under the leadership of Kadan suffered a major defeat while in pursuit of the Hungarian army led by King Béla IV . After their defeat by Croatian forces , the Mongols retreated , and Béla IV rewarded many Croatian towns and nobles with " substantial riches " . During the Late Middle Ages , the fortress was governed by Croatian nobility , amongst whom Paul I Šubić of Bribir was the most significant . During his reign , the House of Šubić controlled most of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia . Excluding the brief possession by the forces of Bosnian King , Tvrtko I , the fortress remained in Hungaro @-@ Croatian hands for the next several hundred years , until the 16th century .
Klis Fortress is probably best known for its defense against the Ottoman invasion of Europe in the early 16th century . Croatian captain Petar Kružić led the defense of the fortress against a Turkish invasion and siege that lasted for more than two and a half decades . During this defense , as Kružić and his soldiers fought without allies against the Turks , the military faction of Uskoks was formed , which later became famous as an elite Croatian militant sect . Ultimately , the defenders were defeated and the fortress was occupied by the Ottomans in 1537 . After more than a century under Ottoman rule , in 1669 , Klis Fortress was besieged and seized by the Republic of Venice , thus moving the border between Christian and Muslim Europe further east and helping to contribute to the decline of the Ottoman Empire . The Venetians restored and enlarged the fortress , but it was taken by the Austrians after Napoleon extinguished the republic itself in 1797 . Today , Klis Fortress contains a museum where visitors to this historic military structure can see an array of arms , armor , and traditional uniforms .
= = Location = =
The fortress is located above a village bearing the same name , 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) from the Adriatic Sea , on a pass that separates the mountains Mosor and Kozjak , at the altitude of 360 metres ( 1 @,@ 180 ft ) , northeast of Split in Croatia . Owing to its strategic position , the fortress is regarded as one of the region ’ s most important fortifications .
Perched on an isolated rocky eminence , inaccessible on three sides , the fortress overlooks Split , the ancient Roman settlement of Salona , Solin , Kaštela and Trogir , and most of the central Dalmatian islands . Historically , the fortress has controlled access to and from Bosnia , Dalmatia and inland Croatia . The importance of such a position was felt by every army that invaded , or held possession of this part of Croatia . Klis Fortress was a point against which their attacks were always directed , and it has been remarkable for the many sieges it withstood . It has been of major strategic value in Croatia throughout history .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient stronghold of Illyrians and Romans = = =
The ancient Illyrian tribe of Dalmatae , which held a stronghold on this spot , were the first known inhabitants who lived on the site of what is today Klis Fortress . They were defeated several times , and in the year 9 AD , finally annexed by Romans . Today 's Klis Fortress was known to the Romans by the name of " Andetrium " or " Anderium " , and in later times " Clausura " , which is the origin of later " Clissa " and modern " Klis " . To the Romans , Klis became famous for its celebrated siege by Augustus , at the time of the Illyrian revolt in Dalmatia . The road that lead from Klis to Salona was called " Via Gabiniana " or " Via Gabinia " , which according to an inscription found at Salona , appears to have been made by Tiberius . Southeast of the fortress , the traces of a Roman camp are still visible , as well as an inscription carved on a rock ; both which are supposed to be contemporary with the siege under Tiberius . The description of this siege during the Illyrian Wars demonstrates that this place was strong and unreachable in those times .
= = = Migration period and the arrival of the Croats = = =
After the fall of the Roman Empire , Barbarians plundered the region around Klis . First it was ruled by Odoacer , and then by the Theodoric the Great , after he eliminated Odoacer , and set up an Ostrogothic Kingdom . After Justinian I fought an almost continual war for forty years to recover the old Roman Empire , he seized Dalmatia , and Klis was from 537 , a part of Byzantine Empire . The name of Klis ( Kleisa or Kleisoura ) was first described in chapter 29 of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus ' De Administrando Imperio . While describing the Roman settlement of Salona , Constantine VII speaks of the stronghold , which may have been designed or improved , to prevent attacks on the coastal cities and roads by Slavs .
Salona , the capital of the province of Dalmatia was sacked and destroyed in 614 by Avars and Slavs . The population fled to Diocletian 's walled palace of Split , which was able to hold up . Thereafter , Split rose quickly in importance , as one of Dalmatia 's major cities . After a few decades , the Avars were driven out by the Croats . This probably happened after 620 , when in second wave Croats migrated on the invitation by the Emperor Heraclius to counter the Avar threat on the Byzantine Empire .
= = = Royal Castle = = =
From the early 7th century on , Klis was an important Croat stronghold , and later , one of the seats of many Croatia 's rulers . In the 9th century , Croatian duke Mislav of the Duchy of Croatia , from 835 to 845 , made the castle of Klis seat of his throne . Despite Frankish overlordship , the Franks had almost no role in Croatia in the period from the 820s through 840s . After Mislav 's death , starting with Duke Trpimir I , Klis was ruled by royal members of the House of Trpimirović , who were at first Dukes of the Croatian Duchy ( dux Croatorum ) , and afterwards Kings of the Croatian Kingdom ( rex Croatorum ) . They developed the early Roman stronghold into their capital . Relations with the Byzantines greatly improved under the Croatian duke Trpimir I , who moved the dux 's main residence from Nin to Klis .
The reign of Mislav 's successor Trpimir I , is significant for spreading Christianity in the medieval Croatian state , and for the first mention of the name " Croats " in domestic documents . On 4 March , in 852 , Trpimir I issued a " Charter in Biaći " ( Latin : in loco Byaci dicitur ) in Latin , confirming Mislav 's donations to the Archbishopric in Split . In this document Trpimir I named himself ; " By the mercy of God , Duke of Croats " ( Latin : Dux Chroatorum iuvatus munere divino ) , and his realm as the " Realm of the Croats " ( Latin : Regnum Chroatorum ) . In the same document Trpimir I mentioned Klis as his property — seat . Under Klis , in Rižinice , the duke Trpimir built a church and the first Benedictine monastery in Croatia , which is known from the discovery of a stone fragment on a gable arch from an altar screen , inscribed with the duke 's name and title .
A controversial Saxon theologian of the mid @-@ 9th century , Gottschalk of Orbais , spent some time at Trpimir 's court between 846 and 848 . His work " De Trina deitate " is an important source of information for Trpimir 's reign . Gottschalk was a witness to the battle between Trpimir and Byzantine strategos , when Trpimir was victorious . During the reign of Croatian king Tomislav , who had no permanent capital , the castle of Klis along with Biograd , were his chief residences .
= = = Knights Templar = = =
From the early 12th century , and after the decay of the native Croatian royal family of Trpimirović , the castle of Klis was mainly governed by Croatian nobility , under the supremacy of Hungarian kings . The Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Hungary were , from 1102 , in a personal union of two kingdoms , united under the Hungarian king .
Andrew II of Hungary was extremely favorably disposed towards the Templars . During his participation in the Fifth Crusade , he appointed Pontius de Cruce , Master of the Order in the Hungarian Kingdom , as a regent in Croatia and Dalmatia . After his return in 1219 , in recognition of the great logistical and financial support which the Order had given him during the campaign , he granted the Order the estate of Gacka . Even before his departure from the city of Split in 1217 , he had made over to the Templars the castle of Klis ( Clissa ) , a strategic point in the hinterland of Split ( Spalato ) , which controlled the approaches to the town . The king Andrew was reluctant to entrust the castle of Klis to any of the local magnates , knowing what great harm could come from that castle . It was the king 's will that Split receive the castle of Klis for the defense of their city . The city of Split showed little interest in the royal favors , so the king entrusted Klis into Templars hands . Shortly after this , the Templars lost Klis , and , in exchange , the king gave them the coastal town of Šibenik ( Sebenico ) .
= = = Mongol siege = = =
Tatars under the leadership of Kadan experienced a major failure in March 1242 at Klis Fortress , when they were hunting for Béla IV of Hungary . The Tatars believed that the king was in the Klis Fortress , and so they began to attack from all sides , launching arrows and hurling spears . However , the natural defenses of the fortress gave protection , and the Tatars could cause only limited harm . They dismounted from their horses and began to creep up hand over hand to higher ground . But the fortress defenders hurled huge stones at them , and managed to kill a great number . This setback only made the Tatars more ferocious , and they came right up to the great walls and fought hand to hand . They looted the houses and took away much plunder . Upon learning that the king was not there , they abandoned their attack , and ascending their mounts rode off in the direction of Trogir , a number of them turning off toward Split .
The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew without major success , as the mountainous terrain and distance were not suitable for their style of warfare . They pursued Béla IV from town to town in Dalmatia . The Croatian nobility and Dalmatian towns such as Trogir and Rab helped Béla IV to escape . After this failure , the Mongols retreated and Béla IV rewarded the Croatian towns and nobility . Only the city of Split did not help Béla IV in his escape .
Some historians claim that the mountainous terrain of Croatian Dalmatia was fatal for the Mongols , because they suffered great losses when attacked by the Croats from ambushes in mountain passes . Other historians claim that the death of Ögedei Khan ( Croatian : Ogotaj ) was the only reason for retreat . Much of Croatia was plundered by the Mongols , but without any major military success . Saint Margaret ( January 27 , 1242 – January 18 , 1271 ) , a daughter of Béla IV and Maria Laskarina , was born in Klis Fortress during the Mongol invasion of Hungary @-@ Croatia .
= = = Šubić 's rule = = =
The weakening of royal authority under Stephen V of Hungary allowed the House of Šubić to regain their former role in Dalmatia . In 1274 , Stjepko Šubić of Bribir died , and Paul I Šubić of Bribir succeeded him as the family elder . Soon , Ladislaus IV of Hungary , recognizing the balance of power in Dalmatia , named Paul I as Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia . Ladislaus IV died in 1290 leaving no sons , and a civil war between rival candidates , pro @-@ Hungarian Andrew III of Hungary , and pro @-@ Croatian Charles Martel of Anjou , started . Charles Martel 's father Charles II of Naples , awarded all Croatia from Gvozd Mountain ( Croatian : Petrova Gora ) to the river Neretva mouth hereditary to Paul I Šubić of Bribir . Thus , Charles converted Paul 's personal position as Ban into a hereditary one for the Šubić family . All the other nobles in this region , were to be vassals of Paul Šubić . In response , Andrew III in 1293 issued a similar charter for Paul Šubić . During this struggle over the throne , George I Šubić of Bribir , Ban Paul 's brother went to Italy , visiting the pope and the Naples court . In August 1300 , George I returned to Split , bringing Charles Robert with him . Paul Šubić accompanied Charles Robert ( later known as Charles I of Hungary ) to Zagreb , where he was recognized as king ; then they proceeded to Esztergom , where , in 1301 , the Archbishop of Esztergom crowned him as King of Hungary and Croatia .
Paul I Šubić , Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia , became Lord of all of Bosnia in 1299 . Although supporting the king , Paul I continued to act independently , and ruled over a large portion of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia . He appointed his brothers as commissars of Dalmatian cities , and gave Split to his brother Mladen I Šubić , and Šibenik , Nin , Trogir and Omiš to his brother George I Šubić . After George I Šubić died in 1302 , his brother Mladen I Šubić ruled as a Bosnian Ban over Bosnia from Klis Fortress , until he was killed in a battle during 1304 . Then , Šubić gave the Klis Fortress to his son Mladen II Šubić , who ruled over Bosnia like his uncle Mladen I. George II Šubić and his son , Mladen III Šubić , ruled over Klis Fortress until the late 14th century . During summer @-@ long festivities in Klis Fortress , open to the whole population , Mladen III Šubić gave his sister 's Jelena Šubić hand in marriage to Vladislaus of Bosnia , from the House of Kotromanić . Jelena Šubić gave birth to the first Bosnian King , Tvrtko I , who later inherited the fortress .
= = = Petar Kružić and the Uskoci = = =
Owing to its location , Klis Fortress was an important defensive position during the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans . The fortress stands along the route by which the Ottomans could penetrate the mountain barrier separating the coastal lowlands from around Split , from Turkish @-@ held Bosnia . The Croat feudal lord Petar Kružić gathered together a garrison composed of Croat refugees , who used the base at Klis both to hold the Turks at bay , and to engage in marauding and piracy against coastal shipping . Although nominally accepting the sovereignty of the Habsburg king Ferdinand who had obtained the Croatian crown in 1527 , Kružić and his freebooting Uskoks were a law unto themselves .
When a large Turkish force threatened the fortress , Kružić appealed to Ferdinand I for help , but the Emperor 's attention was diverted by a Turkish invasion into Slavonia . For more than two and half decades , Captain Kružić , also called ( Prince of Klis ) , defended the fortress against the Turkish invasion . Kružić led the defense of Klis , and with his soldiers fought almost alone against the Ottomans , as they hurled army after army against the fortress . No troops would come from the Hungarian king , as they were defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , and the Venetians baulked at sending any help . Only the popes were willing to provide some men and money .
= = = Final Ottoman siege = = =
Pope Paul III claimed some rights in Klis , and in September , 1536 , there was talk in the Curia of strengthening the defenses of the fortress . The Pope notified Ferdinand that he was willing to share the costs of maintaining a proper garrison in Klis . Ferdinand I did send aid to Klis and was apparently hopeful of holding the fortress , when the Turks again laid siege to it . Ferdinand I recruited men from Trieste and elsewhere in the Habsburg lands , and Pope Paul III sent soldiers from Ancona . There were about 3 @,@ 000 infantry in the reinforcements , which made a sizeable relief force , that were commanded by Petar Kružić , Niccolo dalla Torre , and a papal commissioner Jacomo Dalmoro d 'Arbe . On March 9 , 1537 , they disembarked near Klis , at a place called S. Girolamo , with fourteen pieces of artillery . After Ibrahim 's death , Suleiman the Magnificent sent 8 @,@ 000 men under the command of Murat @-@ beg Tardić ( Amurat Vaivoda ) , a Croatian renegade who had been born in Šibenik , to go and lay siege to Klis fortress ( Clissa ) , and fight against Petar Kružić . An initial encounter of the Christian relief force with the Turks was indecisive , but , on March 12 , they were overwhelmed by the arrival of a great number of Turks .
The attempts to relieve the citadel ended in farce . Badly @-@ drilled reinforcements sent by the Habsburgs fled in the fear of Turks , and their attempts to re @-@ board their boats at Solin bay caused many vessels to sink . Niccolo dalla Torre and the papal commissioner managed to escape . Kružić himself – who had left the fortress to make contact with the reinforcements was captured and executed : the sight of his head on a stick was too much for the remaining defenders of Klis , who were now willing to give up the fortress in return for safe passage north . After Petar Kružić 's death , and with a lack of water supplies , the Klis defenders finally surrendered to the Ottomans in exchange for their freedom , on March 12 , 1537 . Many of the citizens fled the town , while the Uskoci retreated to the city of Senj , where they continued fighting the Turkish invaders .
= = = Sanjak centre of Ottoman Bosnia = = =
During the Ottoman wars in Europe , Klis Fortress was , for a century , an administrative centre or sanjak ( Kilis Sancağı ) of the Bosnia Eyalet . On April 7 , 1596 , Split noblemen Ivan Alberti and Nikola Cindro , along with Uskoci , Poljičani , and Kaštelani irregulars , organized an occupation of Klis . Assisted by dissident elements of the Turkish garrison , they succeeded . Bey Mustafa responded by bringing more than 10 @,@ 000 soldiers under the fortress . General Ivan Lenković , leading 1 @,@ 000 Uskoci , came in relief of the 1 @,@ 500 Klis defenders . During the battle , Ivan Lenković and his men retreated after he was wounded in battle , and the fortress was lost to the Turks , on May 31 . Nevertheless , this temporary relief resounded in Europe and among the local population .
From the well @-@ fortified position in the Klis Fortress , the Turks were a constant threat to the Venetians and to the local Croatian population in the surrounding area . In 1647 , after the Turkish success at Novigrad , the Turks were said to have 30 @,@ 000 troops ready to attack Split . The Signoria send off two thousand soldiers with munitions and provisions to the threatened area . Although Split and Zadar were strong fortresses , they were clearly in danger .
= = = Venetian domination = = =
In 1420 , the Anjou contender Ladislaus of Naples was defeated and forced to sail away for Naples . Upon his departure he sold his " rights " to Dalmatia to the Venetian Republic for the relatively meager sum of 100 @,@ 000 ducats . However , Klis and Klis Fortress remained parts of the Kingdom of Croatia . From that time , the Venetians were eager to take control over Klis , as the fortress was one of the region ’ s most important strategic points .
The Venetians fought for decades before they finally managed to re @-@ take Klis . During the Candian War ( 1645 – 1669 ) , the Venetians in Dalmatia enjoyed the support of the local population , particularly the Morlachs ( Morlacchi ) . Venetian commander Leonardo Foscolo seized several forts , retook Novigrad , temporarily captured the Knin Fortress , and managed to compel the garrison of Klis Fortress to surrender . At the same time , a month @-@ long siege of the Šibenik Fortress by the Ottomans in August and September failed .
From 1669 , Klis Fortress was in the possession of the Venetians , and it remained so until the fall of the Venetian state . The Venetians restored and enlarged the fortress during their rule . After another , the seventh war with the Turks from 1714 to 1718 , the Venetians were able to advance up to the present Bosnian / Croatian border , taking in the whole Sinjsko field and Imotski . Thereafter the Turkish menace was laid to rest and Venice had no serious challenge to its authority in Dalmatia , until Napoleon extinguished the republic itself in 1797 . The border between Christian and Muslim Europe had been moved further east , and the fortress lost its main strategic importance . Subsequently , Klis was taken by the Austrians . The last military occupation of Klis Fortress was by Axis powers during World War II .
= = Architecture = =
Klis Fortress is one of the most valuable surviving examples of defensive architecture in Dalmatia . The fortress is a remarkably comprehensive structure with three long rectangular defensive lines , consisting of three defensive stone walls , which are surrounding a central strongpoint , the " Položaj maggiore " at its eastern , highest end . " Položaj maggiore " or " Grand position " is a mixed Croatian @-@ Italian term , dating from the time when Leonardo Foscolo captured the fortress for the Venetians in 1648 . At that time , a village started to spread below the ramparts . The structures of the fortress are mostly irregular , as they were constructed to suit the natural topography . On the hills around Klis , there are several small towers , built by the Turks to keep the fortress under surveillance .
= = = Fortress outskirts = = =
The Klis Fortress rises on a bare cliff divided into two parts . The first , lower part is on the west , out topped by Mount Greben from the north . The second , higher part is on the east , and includes the Tower " Oprah " , whose name most likely refers to a specific part in the defense . In this section which was not topped by any side , was located the flat of the Commander . The only entrance into the fortress is from the western side . On the southwest side of the fortress , and below it was a resort ( part of the modern village of Klis ) called " borgo " or " suburbium " , surrounded by double walls with 100 – 200 towers . A similar but smaller resort ( also part of modern village of Klis ) existed below Mount Greben on a plateau called Megdan . This included lazarettoes and quarantines which were in Turkish times called " nazanama " . There were also many inns for travellers , which were used for isolation during epidemics . Thus , the coastal towns , primarily the city of Split was protected from epidemics that came from Bosnia . Near the fortress , there were several sources of drinking water , and the closest was the " Holy Biblical Magi " whose importance was invaluable during long sieges .
= = = Present appearance = = =
The fortress was built into the south face of a rocky mass , and is barely discernible from the distance as a man @-@ made structure . The defensive capabilities of the fortress have been tested through history in many military operations . During the centuries of its use , the structure served various armies and has undergone a number of renovations , to keep up with the development of arms . The original appearance of the fortress is no longer known , due to the structural changes undertaken by Croatian nobility , Turks , Venetians and Austrians . The present day aspect of a mostly stone fortress dates back to the restructuring work carried out by the Venetians in the 17th century .
= = = = First defensive line = = = =
Many buildings of the Klis Fortress which are from 17th through 19th centuries are partially or entirely preserved . The Fortress actually consists of three parts , enclosed by walls with separate entrances . The first main entrance was built by the Austrians in the early 19th century , on the place of an earlier Venetian entrance . Left of the entrance there is a fortification erected by the Venetians in the early 18th century . Also , near the main entrance there is a " position Avanzato " built in 1648 , which was repeatedly renewed afterwards . On the ground floor of the fortification there is a narrow over @-@ vaulted corridor , which is called a Casemate .
= = = = Second defensive line = = = =
The second entrance which was significantly damaged in the siege of 1648 , leads to the former medieval part of the fortress previously ruled by a Croatian nobility . After 1648 , Venetians fully restored the second entrance , but its present appearance was made by the Austrians during the early 19th century . Along the northern wall near the second entrance , there is fortress @-@ tower called " Oprah " , the most important medieval fortification of the western part of the fortress . It was mentioned for the first time in 1355 , but later the Venetians made the lower crown on it . Nearby of the entrance are artillery barracks , built by the Austrians in the first half of the 19th century . In 1931 its upper floor was ruined , so now only the ground floor remains .
= = = = Third defensive line = = = =
The third entrance leads to the former medieval part built in the early Middle Ages . The Venetians renewed it several times after conquest in 1648 , and the last upgrade was in 1763 . Within this part of the fortress there is the side tower , built during the 18th century , and completed in 1763 . Following is a repository of weapons built in the mid @-@ 17th century and old powder magazine from the 18th century . " House of Dux " later called governor ’ s residence was rebuilt in the mid @-@ 17th century on the foundations of the oldest buildings from the period of Croatian kings . Austrians repaired this building , and there were placed commandments unity of the fortress and Engineering . On the top point of the fortress there was a " New gunpowder storage " , built in the early 19th century .
The oldest remaining building with the dome and minaret , was a former square @-@ shaped Turkish mosque , built after the conquest of Klis in 1537 on the foundations of an earlier Old Croatian Catholic chapel. after occupation in 1648 , the Venetians pulled down the minaret and converted it into a Roman Catholic church , dedicated to St. Vitus ( Croatian : Crkva St. Vida ) . It is a simple constructed square with the octagonal stone roof . There used to be three Altars , dedicated to St. Vid , Virgin Mary and St. Barbara , but today the church has no inventory . In the church there is a Baroque stone sink from the 17th century , which served as a baptistery , where there is engraved the year of 1658 . West of the church is the bastion of Bembo , the largest artillery position in the third defense line and in the whole fortress . It has wide holes for guns , and was built in the mid @-@ 17th century on the site of former Kružić 's tower , and the defensive positions of Speranza .
= = Present day = =
The Klis Fortress has been developed as a visitor attraction by the " Kliški uskoci " re @-@ enactment association in Klis with the aid of the conservation department of the Ministry of Culture in Split . Visitors to the historic military structure can see an array of arms , armor , and traditional uniforms in a building which was formerly an Austrian armory . Klis is remembered in a Croatian byword based on the resistance of Klis and the strength of its people : It is difficult for Klis because it is on the rock and it is difficult for the rock because Klis is on it .
= = In popular culture = =
The fortress was used in a 1972 historical film Eagle in a Cage , portraying Saint Helena . Klis is also being used as a location for filming the HBO series Game of Thrones .
= = Gallery = =
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= I Will Be =
" I Will Be " is a song co @-@ written and originally performed by Canadian singer Avril Lavigne , which was included on the North American , Taiwanese , and Japanese limited editions of her third studio album The Best Damn Thing and as an iTunes Store pre @-@ order bonus track in 2007 ; British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis covered the song for her debut studio album , Spirit , also released in 2007 . Max Martin and Lukasz Gottwald also co @-@ wrote the song , whilst production was helmed by Gottwald under his production name Dr. Luke . It was co @-@ produced by Steven Wolf and Max Beckley and Smit . It is a piano and guitar led song . It garnered a mixed response from music critics , with some critics praising Lewis 's vocal performance and delivery , whilst others described it as emotionless .
Upon the release of Spirit in November 2007 , the song peaked at number 160 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital download sales . It was released for US Contemporary hit radio airplay on 6 January 2009 . Throughout January to March 2009 , it also made an impact on the Canadian and United States charts ; in the former it peaked at number 83 , while it peaked at number 66 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the latter . However , it was more successful on the US Adult Pop Songs and Pop Songs charts , peaking at numbers 23 and 24 , respectively . As part of promotion , a music video was shot in New York City and featured Chace Crawford as Lewis 's love interest . In January 2009 , she performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman .
= = Production and recording = =
" I Will Be " was written by Avril Lavigne , Max Martin , Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald ; it was produced by Dr. Luke , and was co @-@ produced by Steven Wolf and Max Beckley and Smit . Lavigne originally performed the song , which was included on her third studio album The Best Damn Thing ( 2007 ) , included on the bonus track edition . In the same year Leona Lewis covered the song . Lewis 's version was recorded at multiple recording studios around the world , including Conway Recording Studios and Westlake Recording Studios , in Los Angeles , California ; Henson Recording Studios , Opra Music , and Ocean Way Recording , all located in Hollywood , California ; Dr. Luke 's personal recording studio in New York City ; Atlantic Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; Sarm West , London , England . The production coordinators were Gary " The Shredder " Silver and Emily Wright .
A multitude of engineers were involved with the process of recording the song , including Doug McKean , Rob Smith , Seth Waldmann , Keith Gretlin , Josh Wilbur , Tom Syrowski , Tatiana Gottwald , Chris Soper , Sam Holland , Chris Holmes , Rouble Kapoor , Wesley Seidman , Janne Hansson , Emily Wright , Marcus Dextegen and Sam Cross . " I Will Be " was mixed by Chris Lord @-@ Alge at Resonale Recording Studios , Burbank , CA , and was assisted by Keith Armstrong and Nik Karpen . For the instrumental , Leon Pendarvis was the conductor and arranger ; Martin provided piano , Dr. Luke provided the electric guitar and Yamaha Acoustic guitar , Jack Daley provided the bass and Wolf provided the drums and percussion .
= = Composition = =
" I Will Be " is a piano and guitar led song , which lasts for a duration of 3 minutes , 58 seconds . The song was composed in the key of G major using common time and a slow groove at 72 beats per minute . Lewis 's vocal range spans two octaves , from the low note of B3 to the high note of B5 , on the song . The song opens with the lyrics " There 's nothing I could say to you , nothing I could ever do to make you see what you mean to me . " Chad Grischow for IGN described the song 's piano led instrumental to be " overblown " , but noted that Lewis has enough " vocal strength to prevent her from being overshadowed by the drowningly lush sound . " Eric R. Danton wrote on his review of Spirit for the Hartford Courant daily that " I Will Be " begins with a " spare piano introduction " that " blossoms into an arrangement buoyed by strings and then drums and guitar " . Danton described Lewis 's vocals as " delicate " and that " take flight on the chorus " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
It garnered a mixed response from music critics . Nate Chinen for The New York Times was complimentary of Lewis 's cover , and praised her " powerhouse vocals " . Matt O 'Leary for Virgin Media wrote that Lewis 's rendition of the song was " epic " , and that when the production is kept minimal , " her uniqueness is allowed to shine . " Although Sarah Rodman for The Boston Globe described the song as " predictable " , she praised Lewis 's ability to sing with " believable pathos " and hit clean notes . Sarah @-@ Louise James for the Daily Star was critical of Lewis 's rendition , and described it as insincerely emotional . Sal Cinquemani for Slant Magazine was also critical of the song , writing that it is " dangerously middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road . " Danton from the Hartford Courant considered the song as " ready @-@ made for awards shows or emotional on @-@ screen montages . " He concluded that " I Will Be " is a " powerful stuff , and it would make for a gem of a pop record if it kept up . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon the release of Spirit in the United Kingdom , " I Will Be " debuted and peaked at number 160 on the UK Singles Chart from digital download sales . Upon its release as a single in January 2009 in the United States , " I Will Be " debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number 34 on 31 January 2009 . In its second week it rose to number 31 , and again to number 28 in its third week . It peaked at number 24 and remained on the chart for eight weeks . In its seventh and eighth weeks , it charted at numbers 25 and 31 , respectively . It debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 94 on 14 February 2009 . It peaked at number 66 , and exited the chart at number 80 . The song debuted on the US Adult Pop Songs chart at number 39 on 7 March 2009 , and rose to number 34 the following week . In its third and fourth weeks , the song charted at numbers 33 and 25 , respectively . " I Will Be " peaked at number 23 in its fifth week on the chart , and fell to number 24 the following week . It also debuted at number 65 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart on 21 February 2009 , which was also its peak . In Canada , the song entered the chart at number 86 , and peaked at number 83 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " I Will Be " was shot in New York City on 18 December 2008 , and features Gossip Girl actor Chace Crawford as one of the characters . A reporter for People explained how the inclusion of Crawford in the video came to fruition , writing that " Chace went to London a couple months ago for meetings and to promote Gossip Girl . He went to a party and ended up meeting Leona . [ They ] hit it off and talk every once in a while and have become fast friends . A couple weeks ago Leona called Chace and asked if he would be in her next video . He obviously said yes . " In the video , it is presumed that Lewis and Crawford have stolen a large amount of money , as it opens with dialogue between the pair and how they are going to try and arrange to meet each other at a later date , due to the police closing in on them . As the song begins to play , Lewis sings the first verse on the car bonnet in which they were shown sitting in previously . As she sings the first chorus , she stands up and faces Crawford in the car , and begins to walk away in a car park as she sings the second verse . For the second chorus , Lewis is shown to evade the police by trying to escape by car park stairways , but is confronted by policemen in most directions she goes . For the final chorus , Lewis makes it out onto the road and runs from the police in their cars , but is ultimately blocked from escape in all directions as they close in on her , arrest her , and place her in the back of a police car . People ranked the video as one of the most anticipated videos to be released in January 2009 .
= = Live performances = =
On 20 January 2009 , Lewis ' performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote its release as a single . Complimentary of her performance , Letterman said " Beautiful ! Oh my God that was lovely " after Lewis finished the song . Lizzie Smith for The Guardian wrote that her performance was the " latest step towards her domination of the American music scene . " She also commented on the interaction between Lewis and Letterman after her performance , writing " It 's rare for American chatshow host David Letterman to do more than shake the hands of performers on his U.S. show , but when X Factor winner Leona Lewis made an appearance he could hardly keep his hands off her . Hugging Leona , a smitten Letterman caught her by surprise by asking : ' Anything you want to talk about ? ' As Leona looked bemused Letterman cheekily added : ' Let 's go up to the house and we 'll talk about it . ' " Smith concluded her review of the performance with " But rather than looking pleased with his attentions a blushing Leona looked distinctly uncomfortable . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Conway Recording Studios , Los Angeles , CA ; Henson Recording Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Dr. Luke 's , NYC ; Opra Music , Hollywood CA ; Ocean Way Recording , Hollywood , CA ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , CA ; Atlantic Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; Sarm West , London , England .
Mixed at Resonale Studios , Burbank , CA .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Spirit , Syco Music , J Records , Sony Music .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Iconic ( song ) =
" Iconic " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna for her thirteenth studio album Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . It was written by Madonna , Toby Gad , Maureen McDonald , Larry Griffin Jr . , Chancelor Bennett , Dacoury Natche and Michael Tucker . " Iconic " was produced by Madonna , Gad , AFSHeeN and Josh Cumbee , while DJ Dahi and Tucher served as additional producers . It features American rapper Chance the Rapper and a spoken intro by American professional boxer Mike Tyson . The song 's demo was leaked onto the internet on December 17 , 2014 , alongside twelve other tracks from the album , with " Iconic " also being rumored as the album 's title . Its final version was released on February 9 , 2015 , with " Hold Tight " and " Joan of Arc " , on the iTunes store .
A trap @-@ influenced EDM song , " Iconic " features in its instrumentation " ice @-@ cold " synths , marching drums and " booming " bass , as well as machinic stabs and electronic gears . Lyrically , the song encourages people to take control of their life , to pursue their dreams and to find their own greatness . The song received generally favorable reviews from critics , who praised the song 's " weird " beat and odd collaboration , recognizing its catchiness . Although , some criticized Tyson 's addition and were confused with the song 's message . It charted in some European territories , peaking inside the top @-@ forty in Finland , Hungary and Spain . Madonna performed the track on her Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . During the performance , she is inside a medieval @-@ looking cage in a kimono @-@ like robe , with her dancers being dressed as gladiators .
= = Background and release = =
During the recording process of Rebel Heart , Madonna enlisted several collaborators , including MoZella , Symbolyc One and Toby Gad . Madonna posted a photograph of the trio working with her in a recording studio on her Instagram account . She said on the photograph , " Having an Iconic Moment in the studio with Toby @-@ Mozilla and S1 . My throat hurts from singing , laughing and crying . " Gad worked with Madonna on fourteen songs , twelve appeared on the album 's multiple tracklists , with one being " Iconic " . According to Gad , " The first week she was quite intimidating . It was like a test phase . You have to criticize , but you can 't really offend . But she also likes honest , harsh critics to say things as they are . It worked out really well and she got sweeter and sweeter . " For the track , she initially asked American rapper Jay Z to be featured on with verses about icons , however he called American rapper Chance the Rapper and said that it would be better if somebody that was a new person and that he thought that could be a new icon got on the record . Chance and Madonna had met before through American recording artist Frank Ocean in a concert and became friends , prompting the singer to accept Jay Z 's suggestion .
Madonna also enlisted American professional boxer Mike Tyson to give a speech that would be used on the track . According to the singer , " I was thinking : who is in my eyes super iconic , who do I look up to , who is alive today that 's been through what I feel like I 've been through , that 's been through a lot , survived , has stories to tell , has evolved as human being [ ... ] is a survivor , his name came to mind right away . " She also revealed that she was moved and impressed after seen his HBO @-@ documentary " Mike Tyson : Undisputed Truth " , directed by Spike Lee and contacted him . Tyson revealed that he ad @-@ libbed his part of the song in one take and was inspired by Benito Mussolini , who Tyson admitted that was seen as arrogant , but he tried to come from a positive perspective and be uplifting . In an interview for Rolling Stone he explained : " I didn 't know what the hell I was going there for . I 'm just there having a good time and hanging out with Madonna . She has her producer there and I go into the studio and I didn 't know if she wanted me to talk or rap . I just go in there and start talking . I 'm talking about my life and things that I have endured . I 'm saying some really crazy stuff . It was really intense . "
In December 2014 , thirteen unfinished demos of tracks for the album , including " Iconic " , were leaked to the Internet . The leaked material included artwork suggesting the album was to be titled Iconic as well . The leaked version didn 't feature either Chance the Rapper or Mike Tyson . In the same day , Madonna expressed her dissatisfaction with the leaked material , claiming it was an artistic rape and a form of terrorism . To avoid further leaks , Madonna released six completed tracks with the pre @-@ order for the album on the iTunes Store on December 20 , 2014 , as an " early Christmas gift " . On January 22 , 2015 , an updated version of the previously @-@ leaked demo version surfaced online , with Chance and Tyson . On February 9 , 2015 , the singer released three other finished tracks , including the final version of " Iconic " , as well as the album 's track list .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Iconic " was written by Madonna , Toby Gad , Maureen McDonald , Larry Griffin Jr . , Chancelor Bennett , Dacoury Natche and Michael Tucker . It was produced by Madonna , Gad , AFSHeeN and Josh Cumbee , while DJ Dahi and Tucker served as additional producers . It features Chance the Rapper and Mike Tyson . Gad , AFSHeen and Cumbee were also responsible for programming and the song 's instruments , with Gad also providing background vocals . The track was engineered and mixed by Demacio " Demo " Castellon with Gad and Angie Teo . It is an EDM song with trap influences , that starts with a " crowd cheering " and " rapturous applause " as Tyson opens the song with " a boastful spoken word segment " . Later , the verses build up , with the hook having " a stomping rhythm to be sung ' en masse ' , with a high euphoric melody like a precocious , pre @-@ recession club classic , " as The Quietus ' Amy Pettifer described . As she added , " the sonically sparse verse breaks down " with the song featuring " machinic stabs " and " grinding electronic gears . " Its pre @-@ chorus " drops into stabs of ice @-@ cold synths , " with other instrumentation consisting in " marching drums and booming bass . " Its " weird " beat was described by Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine as " Kanye and Jay @-@ Z 's ' H • A • M ' arm @-@ wrestling Skrillex . "
Lyrically , " Iconic " talks about taking control of your life and letting your inner fire burn and encourages listeners to pursue their dreams . During the song , she urges the listeners to " making [ their ] voices heard before someone does it for [ them ] " with her voice " echoing like the announcer in the ring . " In another part , during the motivational encouragement , she informs that " there ’ s only two letters difference between ' I Can 't ' and ' Icon ' , " while also inspiring the listeners to find their own greatness , singing : " Just shine your light like a beautiful star / Show the world who you are . " Tyson opening speech talks about how he ’ s ‘ the best the world ’ s ever seen ' and that he " worked hard and sweated [ his ] tears . " He later proclames : " I 'm never falling again and if I did , I 'll come back . " Chance , on the other hand , raps about idolatry .
= = Critical reception = =
" Iconic " received favorable reviews from most music critics . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times noted that the song is driving by " focus " , which puts it " into that sweet spot between club frenzy and revelatory lyricism , the kind that can lift spirits to emotional heights . " Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph described it as a song that " reflect [ s ] a contemporary trend for fast , furious and funny mash ups of conflicting ideas , constantly teetering on the edge of collapse but pulling out another beat or hook to keep things moving . " In a similar mode , Kyler Anderson of Entertainment Weekly confessed that he thought the song would be his " most @-@ skipped track , " but admitted that he " kind of admire its barely @-@ conscious chaos . " James Grebey of Spin dismissed Tyson 's inclusion , however he praised the song for having a statement that is the album 's lynchpin and that " [ w ] ith its robotic , authoritarian droning , ' Iconic ' conveys the point that — love her or hate her — Madonna is an icon , and you ’ re not getting rid of her anytime soon . " John Marrs of Gay Times gave the track four out of five stars , claiming that " the finished product is wholly different from the demo and much more gutsy , getting better with every play . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy defined it as " a club @-@ ready dash of trap @-@ pop " and selected the song as one of the " tracks to download " . Nick Levine of Time Out agreed , writing that " the sassy stuff is excellent , especially the catchy , trap @-@ tinged ' Iconic ' . "
Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine noted that the song has the album ’ s " toughest , weirdest beat , not to mention a show @-@ stopping Chance the Rapper verse and a pretty disarming message from the singer herself . " He was unsure if Madonna meant to " embrace her iconic status or fight her way out from under its oppressive expectations " during the track , but praised the discontent and uncommon message for making the album her " most committed work since 2003 's underrated ' American Life ' . " Bradley Stern of MuuMuse was positive , saying that the result is " a confidence @-@ boosting compliment to a grueling gym workout . " He continued : " The ominous beat drops are certainly more ‘ on @-@ trend ’ than , say , ' Hold Tight , ' but the song still feels ( mostly ) fresh and strange , as opposed to the late @-@ to @-@ the @-@ party dubstep / EDM excursion on ' MDNA ' . [ ... ] It ’ s a thrilling , weird and semi @-@ embarrassing @-@ yet @-@ ultimately @-@ empowering centerpiece of Rebel Heart that feels as bold as a song called ' Iconic ' by Madonna should . " Joe Lynch of Billboard called the collaboration " just about as odd as you 'd expect , " but labeled it " a fairly overwrought affair . Chance 's verse is fire , but the intense , busy production ultimately adds up to very little . " Michelle Geslani of Consequence of Sound pointed out that " as odd as the circumstances might be , the track surprisingly gels together far more smoothly than one would expect . " Ben Kelly of Attitude named it " her own ‘ bow down bitches ’ moment . " while Ludovic Hunter @-@ Tilney of Financial Times said that the song is " wonderfully unhinged . "
In a mixed analysis , Amy Pettifer of The Quietus called it " a Ted @-@ talk of well @-@ worn , motivational encouragement cloaked in a club anthem . " Saaed Saaed of The National called the album 's " mini slump , " while Jonh Murphy of musicOMH noted that the song " falls rather flat . " Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club was confused with the song 's message , saying that it " can ’ t decide if it wants to skewer fame or encourage people to embrace it . " Lydia Jenkins wrote for New Zealand Herald that the song " could definitely be accused of trying to emulate the success of Katy Perry 's ' Dark Horse . " Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times dismissed Tyson 's appearance , declaring that his spoken word turn on ' Iconic ' is tokenistic . " Sasha Geffen of Consequence of Sound criticized the song 's " lazy rhymes " , which according to herself , lumps into " an awkward hybrid of EDM and hip @-@ hop featuring one of hip @-@ hop ’ s finest [ that ] sounds out of place here amid the bass drops and robot vocals . "
= = Live performance = =
" Iconic " was chosen to be the opening song from the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . It begins with a video featuring Madonna in a glamorous dress cavorting with bare @-@ bodied males juxtaposed with Mike Tyson talking inside of a cage . Tyson commented about the shooting , saying : " Riveting is not [ the word ] . It 's just intense ... I 'm in a cage . I 'm a hostage . I 'm chained . I 'm naked . I look like a savage . When I [ shot ] it , it didn 't seem that intense . But then you watch it and go , ' Whoa ' . It was like [ something out of ] National Geographic . I need to be tamed , man . " Madonna performed wearing an " ornate kimono @-@ like robe with wide sequin @-@ lined sleeves " inside a medieval @-@ looking cage surrounded by religious iconography that she later breaks out of as she sings the first lines , while guards dressed similar to Wicked Witch of the West 's castle marched onstage . During the performance , she also hung upside down on a cross .
The performance was received with a positive response from critics . Jordan Zivitz of Montreal Gazette called the performance " insanely theatrical , Broadway @-@ worthy . " Melissa Maerz wrote for Entertainment Weekly that " As visually spectacular as it was narratively [ sic ] heavy @-@ handed , it felt like a callback to her last tour , ' MDNA ' , which featured a dark charade that found Madonna wielding a gun on stage . But when the song ended with video footage of the gladiators knocking over a saintly @-@ looking Madonna statue , the tone changed . Madonna has built a career by playing with what we hold sacred , whether it ’ s crucifixes or underground dance crazes . Now the only sacred thing she 's tearing down is Madonna herself . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / Atlas Music Publishing and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP ) / EMI April Music , Inc. and Mo Zella Mo Music ( ASCAP ) / WB Music Corp. , Roc Nation Music and Vohndee ’ s Soul Music Publishing WB Music Corp. ( ASCAP ) / / Chancelor Bennett ( BMI ) c / o Davis , Shapiro , Lewitt , Grabel , Leven , Granderson & Blake / Sony / ATV Sonata and Dahi Productions ( SESAC ) / Michael Tucker Music ( ASCAP ) c / o Kobalt Songs Music Publishing , These Are Songs of Pulse ( ASCAP ) and OWSLA Trax ( ASCAP ) c / o Kobalt Songs Music Publishing .
Personnel
Management and personnel adapted from Madonna 's official website .
= = Charts = =
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= West Indian cricket team in England in 1988 =
The West Indian cricket team played 16 first @-@ class cricket matches in England in 1988 , under the captaincy of Viv Richards . The West Indies enjoyed tremendous success during the tour , while England endured a " disastrous summer " of continuous change .
England easily won the initial three @-@ match One Day International ( ODI ) series , retaining the Texaco Trophy and raising expectations for a successful summer in the five @-@ match Test series to follow . However , the West Indies comfortably retained the Wisden Trophy by winning the Test series 4 – 0 . This tour has become known in cricketing circles as the " summer of four captains " as England used four different captains in the five Test matches .
= = West Indian cricket team = =
By the summer of 1988 , the West Indies had experienced nearly ten years as the best Test team in world cricket , including a streak of winning 10 of 11 Test series they played from 1980 to 1985 – 86 ( the other was drawn ) . However , the West Indies side that had enjoyed this considerable recent success was beginning to show signs of ageing . The experienced batsmen Viv Richards ( the captain ) , Gordon Greenidge , Jeff Dujon , and Desmond Haynes were all coming to the end of their careers , and bowlers Michael Holding and Joel Garner and batsman Larry Gomes had recently retired . As a result , the squad arrived with an unusually inexperienced group of pace bowlers . Supporting Malcolm Marshall , a veteran of 53 Tests , were relative newcomers Courtney Walsh ( 20 Tests ) , Patrick Patterson ( 11 ) , Winston Benjamin ( 4 ) , Curtly Ambrose ( 3 ) and Ian Bishop ( 0 ) .
The West Indies ' most recent series had been a hard @-@ fought 1 – 1 draw at home against Pakistan , but their previous two Test series against England had both resulted in 5 – 0 victories . The first of these , in England in 1984 , was the first whitewash England had suffered since the 1920 – 21 season when England toured Australia , while the second occurred in the Caribbean in 1985 – 86 . These two one @-@ sided victories by the West Indies became known as " blackwashes " .
= = English cricket team = =
By contrast , the English team had suffered a run of bad performances spanning several years , winning only seven of their previous 52 Tests . The England side had most recently toured Australia , drawing the Bicentennial Test and losing the only One Day International played , and New Zealand , drawing all three Test matches and sharing the ODIs 2 – 2 . Before this , they had endured a " hostile " and highly controversial tour of Pakistan , during which an argument between captain Mike Gatting and umpire Shakoor Rana had led to a diplomatic incident . The three match series was lost 1 – 0 , but the " teasing , taunting ... bemusing " performance of leg @-@ spinner Abdul Qadir , who took 30 wickets in three Tests , was unlikely to be repeated , given that the West Indies ' only specialist spinner was Roger Harper , an off @-@ break bowler .
Despite having lost 5 – 0 to the West Indies in each of the two most recent series , England had grounds for optimism leading up to the Test series : the West Indian team was ageing and lacked a leg @-@ spinner ; and the England team had home advantage . England 's morale was also surging following good performances in the shorter form of the game : the team had reached the World Cup Final the previous year , losing to Australia , and were expected to do well in One Day International cricket , even against the West Indies .
= = England 's " summer of four captains " = =
As the series unfolded , England were dominated by the West Indians in " the crazy summer of 1988 " . Wisden was moved to comment " The morale and reputation of English cricket has seldom been as severely bruised as it was during the 1988 Cornhill Insurance Test series against West Indies " .
The notability of there being four captains in just five Test matches can better be understood with context . The captain of a cricket team performs a vital role . Unlike many other team sports , the captain makes crucial decisions regarding on @-@ field tactics , and may also have an important say in team selection . Traditionally , captains of international teams are not changed frequently – for example , between 1977 and 1988 ( comprising 104 Test matches ) , only seven different men captained England , yet there were four captains in just a few weeks in the summer of 1988 .
The many changes of captain over the summer reflected uncertainty in the English cricketing establishment as to how to respond to the drubbing the team was receiving from the West Indies ; the selectors " did not seem to know where to turn , either for a new captain or for a settled team " .
The England team had not suffered such uncertainty since the West Indies tour of England in 1966 , where the selectors chose 23 different players and three different captains ( Colin Cowdrey , M. J. K. Smith and Brian Close ) and England lost the five @-@ Test series 3 – 1 . Notably , Peter May was on the Board of Selectors for the 1966 series , while he was chairman of the board of Selectors for the 1988 series .
= = Statistical summary = =
Before the Test series began , the West Indian cricket team played three One Day Internationals against England in May 1988 . All of the ODIs were won by England , largely thanks to disciplined , economical bowling by Gladstone Small , Phil DeFreitas and Derek Pringle throughout and good batting performances from Mike Gatting in the First ( 82 * ) and Third ( 40 * ) ODIs . England retained the Texaco Trophy .
The ODIs were followed by five Test matches . The First Test was drawn , and the remaining four Tests were all won convincingly by the West Indies .
The West Indies played 11 first @-@ class matches , in addition to the five Tests , defeating Somerset in May and Kent in June . The other nine first @-@ class matches , and the First Test , were all drawn : Sussex , Gloucestershire , Worcestershire , Lancashire , Northamptonshire , Leicestershire , Glamorgan , Nottinghamshire , and Essex . During the match against Gloucestershire at Bristol , immediately after the ODI series , Phil Simmons suffered a horrific injury , receiving a ball to the head from bowler David Lawrence . Not wearing a helmet , the blow caused his heart to stop and he had to be taken to hospital where he underwent emergency brain surgery . He missed the rest of the tour , but made a full recovery in time for the 1991 West Indies tour of England .
In addition to the One Day Internationals , there were four other non @-@ first @-@ class fixtures . West Indies beat Lavinia , Duchess of Norfolk 's XI in a 40 @-@ over match , Hampshire in a 50 @-@ over match and a combined Oxford and Cambridge Universities team over three days ; they also drew with Minor Counties in a two @-@ day match .
= = Test matches in detail = =
= = = First Test = = =
Mike Gatting was the incumbent England captain for the First Test at Trent Bridge . The result was a draw , with Graham Gooch and David Gower helping England to save the game from a position of weakness , after conceding a sizeable first @-@ innings lead to the West Indies .
England won the toss and declined from 125 / 0 to 245 all out , the last five wickets tumbling for just 22 runs . Malcolm Marshall and Curtly Ambrose took all ten wickets between them . The West Indies racked up 448 / 9 despite no batsman reaching a century . England had a chance to get back into the match , but from 334 / 7 , the unheralded batting of Marshall ( 72 ) and Ambrose ( 43 * ) took the tourists into a position of dominance .
The West Indian surge for victory was frustrated by the weather , which periodically interrupted the match throughout , and by an obdurate partnership of 161 between Gooch ( 146 ) and Gower ( 88 * ) .
Before the Second Test , Gatting was sacked for an alleged off @-@ field indiscretion with a barmaid . The tabloid media made allegations of " shenanigans " in his room ; he " admitted taking ... [ her ] into his room but denied anything untoward had happened " . During the previous winter , Gatting had been involved in a notorious on @-@ field altercation with umpire Shakoor Rana in Pakistan that snowballed into a diplomatic disaster with the third day of the second Test in Faisalabad being abandoned and accusations of cheating . His recently published autobiography Leading From The Front " ... was banned in all shops on county grounds . Gatting was good enough to lead Middlesex and England , but spectators couldn 't buy his book at Lord 's " . The new allegations may simply have been the last straw .
This proved to be Gatting 's last match as captain . He had captained England in 23 Test matches since taking charge against India in 1986 , but won only two .
= = = Second Test = = =
Gatting was replaced as England captain by his Middlesex colleague John Emburey . Gatting was also dropped from the team , replaced by Yorkshire 's Martyn Moxon . Phil DeFreitas was also replaced , by Gladstone Small , but the tourists were unchanged .
England began the Second Test with an inspired fiery burst of fast bowling by Graham Dilley , who took four of the first five wickets to fall to reduce the West Indies to 54 / 5 . At lunch on the first day , Dilley had figures of 4 / 35 , and " he would have taken five had Pringle at first slip caught Logie when he was 10 " .
The missed chance was to prove costly . The pattern established in the first Test recurred , as England let the West Indies recover , with Gus Logie and Jeff Dujon scoring 81 and 53 as the team passed 200 .
In England 's first innings , the West Indian pace attack found little resistance after they had dismissed Gooch and Gower . Marshall was again to the fore , with six wickets , and West Indies secured a precious first @-@ innings lead of 44 runs .
The touring batsmen then enjoyed the Lord 's conditions , reaching 397 in their second innings , with sizeable contributions from Greenidge ( 103 ) , Richards ( 72 ) , Dujon ( 52 ) and Logie again , this time with an unbeaten 95 , a match performance that secured him the award of Man of the match .
England never seriously threatened to reach the victory target of 442 runs , which would have comfortably broken the world record for a fourth @-@ innings run chase . Allan Lamb added to his reputation for mastering fast bowling with a defiant 113 , but it was sizeable contributions from the tail and extras that took England to a respectable total of 307 – but a bad defeat by 134 runs .
= = = Third Test = = =
The third Test changed the pattern of the summer . England were " unable to cope for any length of time with the West Indian fast bowlers " and never gave even a sign of competing in a one @-@ sided affair .
The England team had a different look , with four changes to the team . 36 @-@ year @-@ old Essex off @-@ spinner John Childs made his debut , the oldest England debutant for 40 years . Childs joined the recalled Gatting and DeFreitas , and newcomer David Capel . Small and Paul Jarvis were both left out due to injury , and Derek Pringle was dropped , but the most media attention focused on Chris Broad , who was also dropped , " ostensibly for his consistent failure to make runs in home Tests , but there was always a suspicion that he was being disciplined for the incident at Lord 's when he was spotted by a television camera mouthing his disappointment at an lbw decision " .
For West Indies , Desmond Haynes was unfit , ending a run of 72 consecutive caps . He was replaced by the spinner Roger Harper , and Patrick Patterson was replaced by Winston Benjamin .
No batsman scored more than 33 in England 's first innings , as the four quick bowlers shared cheap wickets . In reply , West Indies piled up 384 / 7 , again without a century , in a team effort down to and including man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match Marshall , who scored 43 * batting at number eight .
Needing 249 to make West Indies bat again , England were dismissed for just 93 , Marshall finishing with magnificent figures of 15 @.@ 4 – 5 – 22 – 7 , the best of his Test career . Extras were the third highest scorer , with 12 .
With such a huge margin of victory and such a poor performance , England ( and Emburey ) were strongly criticised . After being bowled out for just 93 runs , and a personally very unsuccessful match ( no wickets as a bowler , and scoring just 1 and 8 runs as a batsman ) , Emburey was sacked as England captain and dropped from the team .
= = = Fourth Test = = =
The England selectors surprised the cricket public with their new appointment as captain , selecting a player who many believed owed his appointment more to his father than his own ability . Chris Cowdrey was the son of Colin Cowdrey , an England captain in the 1960s and later given a knighthood and then life peerage for his services to the sport ; Chris Cowdrey was also godson of the chairman of selectors , Peter May . Cowdrey was a successful captain of Kent in county cricket , but had played just five Tests previously , during the 1984 – 85 tour to India , captained by David Gower . He became only the second son to follow his father as captain of the England cricket team , after George Mann in the 1940s followed Frank Mann in the 1920s .
The England side was thoroughly shaken @-@ up following the debacle in the Third Test at Old Trafford . The selectors tried to turn things around with seven new faces in the team , the most extensive change of an England XI during a Test series since seven players were changed for the 1921 Ashes Tests against Australia at Lord 's and Headingley ( when only JWHT Douglas , Ciss Parkin , Lionel Tennyson and Frank Woolley were retained , and Tennyson replaced Douglas as captain ) . As well as Cowdrey replacing Emburey , the selectors also dropped Paul Downton , Martyn Moxon , Mike Gatting , David Capel , Phil Defreitas and John Childs in favour of Derek Pringle , Neil Foster , Bill Athey , and Jack Richards , with Tim Curtis and Robin Smith making their Test debuts . For the West Indies , both Greenidge and Richardson sat the match out , injured : Haynes returned , and a debut was handed to Keith Arthurton . Jeff Dujon was promoted up the batting order as a makeshift opener .
Apart from Pringle , who played in the First and Second Tests , none of the six new selections had played in the series so far , but the match followed the old pattern , as the England batting again failed twice against the hostile West Indies pace attack , only Lamb and Smith in the first innings and Gooch in the second offering much resistance . The side fell to a relatively facile defeat against a West Indies team whose own batsmen failed to dominate ; they had no need . Curtly Ambrose secured his first man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award for taking seven wickets at a cost of 98 runs - despite being hampered early on in the match , when a blocked drain resulted in the bowler 's run @-@ up area being waterlogged and in some places flooded with overflow rainwater , Ambrose being hapless bowler who was forced to bring the situation to the attention of the umpires so that play could be suspended and the playing area dried out .
An all @-@ rounder with a moderate first class record ( averaging 32 with the bat and 40 with the ball ) , Cowdrey 's debut as captain in the Fourth Test at Headingley was a disaster . He scored 0 and 5 and took no wickets , as England were crushed by 10 wickets , West Indies again winning at a canter . Worse for Cowdrey , he suffered a minor injury in a county match and was persuaded to step aside for the Fifth Test . He never played for England again .
= = = Fifth Test = = =
In desperation , the England selectors turned to 35 @-@ year @-@ old Graham Gooch , stalwart opening batsman , as their fourth captain of the series , for the Fifth Test at The Oval . England also replaced Cowdrey with DeFreitas , dropped Gower for Matthew Maynard , and replaced the injured Allan Lamb with Rob Bailey , a recall and two Test debuts respectively . The tourists replaced the youngster Keith Arthurton with Greenidge , who had recovered from an injury .
England won the toss and the new captain received the first ball , but Gooch was soon out with the score on only 12 . Some solid top @-@ order play followed , with Curtis ( 30 ) , Bailey ( 43 ) and Smith ( 57 ) all making starts but getting out when well set . From 120 / 3 , England lost their remaining wickets for 85 , but that is perhaps less surprising than the fact that off @-@ spinner Roger Harper took three of them . A lion @-@ hearted response by the England bowlers , led by Neil Foster ( 5 / 64 ) , gave England a chance of a rare win , as the West Indies were dismissed for 183 , giving the England team their first first @-@ innings lead of the series , 22 runs ahead .
In England 's second innings , Gooch played a lone hand . With the exception of Foster ( 34 ) , promoted as nightwatchman at the end of day two , no @-@ one else passed 15 . When Gooch was last man out for 84 on the third day , England had compiled 202 . The England bowlers managed to restrain the West Indian batsmen , Childs notably bowling 40 overs for just 79 runs , but , with more than two days left to play , there was little pressure on the West Indies , and they strolled to victory in 91 overs , losing just two wickets , with more than a day to spare .
= = Aftermath = =
Gooch had enjoyed a successful series against West Indies as a batsman , and remained in charge for England 's next match , against Sri Lanka at Lord 's later in 1988 , in which he achieved his first victory as captain . England did not tour that winter - in large part due to India 's objection to Gooch as England captain thanks to his participation in the 1981 rebel tour of South Africa ( for which he had served a three @-@ year ban ) , and due to other English players having played club cricket in South Africa . Exceptions might have been made for the rank and file players ( as indeed they had been for Gooch , when India raised no objection to his representing England in the 1987 World Cup ) , but for the Indian government , Gooch 's appointment as captain of a representative tour party was a step too far . As a result , England 's planned tour to India was cancelled , Gooch was dropped from the captaincy , and David Gower returned to the captaincy for the six @-@ match Ashes series at home against Australia in the summer of 1989 . England lost 4 – 0 , bringing Gower 's long captaincy career to a close . A second " rebel " tour of South Africa , under Gatting - whom some had previously supported for a return to the captaincy , rather than Gower - removed a number of players from the England reckoning halfway through the summer , some of them regulars and most with at least occasional England experience , as no less than 30 players were tried in the six @-@ match series - beating the record of 28 , set only the previous summer : the players involved ( including John Emburey , the only player to go on both 1981 and 1989 rebel tours ) received the same three @-@ year international ban as the 1981 party .
Gooch thus took over again as England captain for the tour to West Indies in the winter of 1989 – 90 ( he had not played well in the 1989 Ashes , but there was really no other credible candidate as captain , and the West Indies made no objection , having officially ended the " life " bans of their own rebel South Africa tourists after six years ) with only a couple of veterans in an otherwise almost new @-@ look team : surprising everybody by winning one Test ( their first victory over the Windies since 1974 ) and drawing another before injury forced him out of the team , his hand being broken by fast bowler Ezra Moseley - ironically , Moseley was the only one of West Indies ' rebel tourists to play international cricket after their ban was lifted . Gooch was replaced as captain for the remainder of the series by Allan Lamb ( himself South African @-@ born ) , who lost both of his matches in charge . Gooch went on to captain England the following summer against New Zealand and India at home , remaining in that position almost exclusively until 1993 and bringing England a degree of success that they had not experienced for almost a decade , at least at home : the 1991 home series against the West Indies , in fact , was a hard @-@ fought 2 @-@ 2 draw , and England reached the World Cup final for the second successive time the following winter ( which was much less of a surprise - even when their Test record was at its worst , England were one of the leading one @-@ day sides of the time , often winning the one @-@ day series even when a Test series was lost , including both the otherwise disastrous 1988 and 1989 summers . ) For much of this period , he was also rated as one of the world 's leading batsmen . Away from home , though , England were not so strong , losing heavily to Australia in 1990 @-@ 1 and to India and Sri Lanka in 1992 @-@ 3 , though these were either side of a series victory in New Zealand .
The West Indies team 's next opposition was Australia where the team enjoyed a 3 – 1 Test series win on foreign soil , their only defeat in that series coming on a pitch friendly to spin bowling in which 11 wickets were taken by the occasional left @-@ arm spin of Allan Border . " The West Indians made a slow start to their tour , losing twice to Western Australia before running into form ... So effectively , at times irresistibly , did Vivian Richards 's West Indian side play in the first three Test matches in Australia that by the New Year they had already retained the Frank Worrell Trophy . "
The West Indies went on to record further Test series victories in the next two years , defeating India 3 – 0 in a four @-@ Test series in the Caribbean in 1988 – 89 , and narrowly beating England once again in the Caribbean in 1989 – 90 . However , the team 's long period of pre @-@ eminence was coming to an end . For several of their senior players , the 1991 tour of England was a swansong : Richards , Marshall and Dujon all retired from Tests after the final match , while Greenidge had announced his intention to do likewise but was forced out of the tour by injury before the Tests began , and Logie also played his last Test on the tour . Nevertheless , the West Indies were to remain unbeaten in a Test series for a few more years yet , but never as dominant as they had been : and their 2 – 1 home defeat by Australia in 1994 – 95 saw the West Indies relinquish the mantle as the World 's best Test cricket side to their visitors , and by the time that the International Cricket Council launched the official Test rankings in 2001 , the West Indies were rated as the sixth best team in the world .
= = Squads = =
The following players represented England in at least one Test or One @-@ day International during the 1988 tour :
The following players represented West Indies on the 1988 tour of England :
Key : * = Captain , † = Wicket @-@ keeper
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= The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan =
The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan is the second studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan , released on May 27 , 1963 by Columbia Records . Whereas his debut album Bob Dylan had contained only two original songs , Freewheelin ' represented the beginning of Dylan 's writing contemporary words to traditional melodies . Eleven of the thirteen songs on the album are Dylan 's original compositions . The album opens with " Blowin ' in the Wind " , which became an anthem of the 1960s , and an international hit for folk trio Peter , Paul & Mary soon after the release of Freewheelin ' . The album featured several other songs which came to be regarded as amongst Dylan 's best compositions and classics of the 1960s folk scene : " Girl from the North Country " , " Masters of War " , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " and " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " .
Dylan 's lyrics embraced stories taken from the headlines about civil rights and he articulated anxieties about the fear of nuclear warfare . Balancing this political material were love songs , sometimes bitter and accusatory , and material that features surreal humor . Freewheelin ' showcased Dylan 's songwriting talent for the first time , propelling him to national and international fame . The success of the album and Dylan 's subsequent recognition led to his being named as " Spokesman of a Generation " , a label Dylan repudiated .
The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan reached number 22 in the United States ( eventually going platinum ) , and became a number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom in 1964 . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 97 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2002 , Freewheelin ' was one of the first 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry .
= = Recording sessions = =
Neither critics nor the public took much notice of Dylan 's debut album , Bob Dylan , which sold only 5 @,@ 000 copies in its first year , just enough to break even . In a pointed rebuke to John Hammond , who had signed Dylan to Columbia Records , some within the company referred to the singer as " Hammond 's Folly " and suggested dropping his contract . Hammond defended Dylan vigorously and was determined that Dylan 's second album should be a success . The recording of Freewheelin ' took place from April 1962 to April 1963 , and the album was assembled from eight recording sessions in the Columbia Records Studio A , 799 Seventh Avenue , in New York City .
= = = Political and personal background = = =
Many critics have noted the extraordinary development of Dylan 's songwriting immediately after completing his first album . One of Dylan 's biographers Clinton Heylin connects the sudden increase in lyrics written along topical and political lines to the fact that Dylan had moved into an apartment on West 4th Street with his girlfriend Suze Rotolo in January 1962 . Rotolo 's family had strong left @-@ wing political commitments ; both of her parents were members of the American Communist Party . Dylan acknowledged her influence when he told an interviewer : " Suze was into this equality @-@ freedom thing long before I was . I checked out the songs with her . "
Dylan 's relationship with Rotolo also provided an important emotional dynamic in the composition of the Freewheelin ' album . After six months of living with Dylan , Rotolo agreed to her mother 's proposal that she travel to Italy to study art . Dylan missed her and wrote long letters to her conveying his hope that she would return soon to New York . She postponed her return several times , finally coming back in January 1963 . Critics have connected the intense love songs expressing longing and loss on Freewheelin ' to Dylan ’ s fraught relationship with Rotolo . In her autobiography , Rotolo explains that musicians ' girlfriends were routinely described as " chicks " , and she resented being regarded as " a possession of Bob , who was the center of attention " .
The speed and facility with which Dylan wrote topical songs attracted the attention of other musicians in the New York folk scene . In a radio interview on WBAI in June 1962 , Pete Seeger described Dylan as " the most prolific songwriter on the scene " and then asked Dylan how many songs he had written recently . Dylan replied , " I might go for two weeks without writing these songs . I write a lot of stuff . In fact , I wrote five songs last night but I gave all the papers away in some place called the Bitter End . " Dylan also expressed the impersonal idea that the songs were not his own creation . In an interview with Sing Out ! magazine , Dylan said , " The songs are there . They exist all by themselves just waiting for someone to write them down . I just put them down on paper . If I didn 't do it , somebody else would . "
= = = Recording in New York = = =
Dylan began work on his second album at Columbia 's Studio A in New York on April 24 , 1962 . The album was provisionally entitled Bob Dylan 's Blues , and as late as July 1962 , this would remain the working title . At this session , Dylan recorded four of his own compositions : " Sally Gal " , " The Death of Emmett Till " , " Rambling , Gambling Willie " , and " Talkin ' John Birch Paranoid Blues " . He also recorded two traditional folk songs , " Going To New Orleans " and " Corrina , Corrina " , and Hank Williams ' " ( I Heard That ) Lonesome Whistle " .
Returning to Studio A the following day , Dylan recorded his new song about fallout shelters , " Let Me Die In My Footsteps " . Other original compositions followed : " Rocks and Gravel " , " Talking Hava Negiliah Blues " , " Talking Bear Mountain Picnic Massacre Blues " , and two more takes of " Sally Gal " . Dylan recorded cover versions of " Wichita " , Big Joe Williams ' " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , and Robert Johnson 's " Milk Cow 's Calf 's Blues " . Because Dylan 's songwriting talent was developing so rapidly , nothing from the April sessions appeared on Freewheelin ' .
The recording sessions at Studio A resumed on July 9 , when Dylan recorded " Blowin ' in the Wind " , a song that he had first performed live at Gerde 's Folk City on April 16 . Dylan also recorded " Bob Dylan 's Blues " , " Down the Highway " , and " Honey , Just Allow Me One More Chance " , all of which ended up on Freewheelin ' , plus one other original composition , " Baby , I 'm in the Mood for You " , which did not .
At this point , music manager Albert Grossman began to take an interest in Dylan 's business affairs . Grossman persuaded Dylan to transfer the publishing rights of his songs from Duchess Music , whom he had signed a contract with in January 1962 , to Witmark Music , a division of Warner 's music publishing operation . Dylan signed a contract with Witmark on July 13 , 1962 . Unknown to Dylan , Grossman had also negotiated a deal with Witmark . This gave Grossman fifty percent of Witmark 's share of the publishing income generated by any songwriter Grossman had brought to the company . This " secret deal " resulted in a bitter legal battle between Dylan and Grossman in the 1980s .
Albert Grossman became Dylan 's manager on August 20 , 1962 . Since Dylan was under twenty @-@ one when he had signed his contract with CBS , Grossman argued that the contract was invalid and had to be re @-@ negotiated . Instead , Hammond responded by inviting Dylan to his office and persuading him to sign a " reaffirment " — agreeing to abide by the original contract . This effectively neutralized Grossman 's strategy , and led to some animosity between Grossman and Hammond . Grossman enjoyed a reputation in the folk scene of being commercially aggressive , generating more income and defending his clients ' interests more fiercely than " the nicer , more amateurish managers in the Village " . Dylan critic Andy Gill has suggested that Grossman encouraged Dylan to become more reclusive and aloof , even paranoid .
On September 22 , Dylan appeared for the first time at Carnegie Hall , part of an all @-@ star hootenanny . On this occasion , he premiered his new composition " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " , a complex and powerful song built upon the question and answer refrain pattern of the traditional British ballad " Lord Randall " . " Hard Rain " would gain added resonance one month later , when President Kennedy appeared on national television on October 22 , and announced the discovery of Soviet missiles on the island of Cuba , initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis . In the sleeve notes on the Freewheelin ' album , Nat Hentoff quotes Dylan as saying that he wrote " Hard Rain " in response to the Cuban Missile Crisis : " Every line in it is actually the start of a whole new song . But when I wrote it , I thought I wouldn 't have enough time alive to write all those songs so I put all I could into this one " . In fact , Dylan had written the song more than a month before the crisis broke .
Dylan resumed work on Freewheelin ' at Columbia 's Studio A on October 26 , when a major innovation took place — Dylan made his first studio recordings with a backing band . Accompanied by Dick Wellstood on piano , Howie Collins and Bruce Langhorne on guitar , Leonard Gaskin on bass , and Herb Lovelle on drums , Dylan recorded three songs . Several takes of Dylan 's " Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " and Arthur Crudup 's " That 's All Right Mama " were deemed unusable , but a master take of " Corrina , Corrina " was selected for the final album . An ' alternate take ' of " Corrina , Corrina " from the same session would also be selected for a single issued later in the year . At the next recording session on November 1 , the band included Art Davis on bass , while jazz guitarist George Barnes replaced Howie Collins . " Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " and " That 's All Right Mama " were re @-@ recorded , and again the results were deemed unsatisfactory . A take of the third song , " Rocks and Gravel " , was selected for the album , but the track was subsequently dropped .
On November 14 , Dylan resumed work with his backup band , this time with Gene Ramey on bass , devoting most of the session to recording " Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " . Although this track did not appear on Freewheelin ' , it was released as a single on December 14 , 1962 , and then swiftly withdrawn . Unlike the other material which Dylan recorded between 1961 and 1964 , " Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " attempted a rockabilly sound . Cameron Crowe described it as " a fascinating look at a folk artist with his mind wandering towards Elvis Presley and Sun Records " .
Also recorded on November 14 was the new composition " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " . ( Clinton Heylin writes that , although the sleeve notes of Freewheelin ' describe this song as being accompanied by a backing band , no band is audible on the released version . ) Langhorne then accompanied Dylan on three more original compositions : " Ballad of Hollis Brown " , " Kingsport Town " , and " Whatcha Gonna Do " , but these performances were not included on Freewheelin ' .
Dylan held another session at Studio A on December 6 . Five songs , all original compositions , were recorded , three of which were eventually included on The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan : " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " , " Oxford Town " , and " I Shall Be Free " . Dylan also made another attempt at " Whatcha Gonna Do " and recorded a new song , " Hero Blues " , but both songs were ultimately rejected and left unreleased .
= = = Traveling to England = = =
Twelve days later , Dylan made his first trip abroad . British TV director Philip Saville had heard Dylan perform in Greenwich Village , and invited him to take part in a BBC television drama : Madhouse on Castle Street . Dylan arrived in London on December 17 . In the play , Dylan performed " Blowin ' in the Wind " and two other songs . Dylan also immersed himself in the London folk scene , making contact with the Troubadour folk club organizer Anthea Joseph and folksingers Martin Carthy and Bob Davenport . " I ran into some people in England who really knew those [ traditional English ] songs , " Dylan recalled in 1984 . " Martin Carthy , another guy named [ Bob ] Davenport . Martin Carthy 's incredible . I learned a lot of stuff from Martin . "
Carthy taught Dylan two English songs that would prove important for the Freewheelin ' album . Carthy 's arrangement of " Scarborough Fair " would be used by Dylan as the basis of his own composition , " Girl from the North Country " . A 19th century ballad commemorating the death of Sir John Franklin in 1847 , " Lady Franklin 's Lament " , gave Dylan the melody for his composition " Bob Dylan 's Dream " . Both songs displayed Dylan 's fast @-@ growing ability to take traditional melodies and use them as a basis for highly personal songwriting .
From England , Dylan traveled to Italy , and joined Albert Grossman , who was touring with his client Odetta . Dylan was also hoping to make contact with his girlfriend , Suze Rotolo , unaware that she had already left Italy and was on her way back to New York . Dylan worked on his new material , and when he returned to London , Martin Carthy received a surprise : " When he came back from Italy , he 'd written ' Girl From the North Country ' ; he came down to the Troubadour and said , ' Hey , here 's " Scarborough Fair " ' and he started playing this thing . "
= = = Returning to New York = = =
Dylan flew back to New York on January 16 , 1963 . In January and February , he recorded some of his new compositions in sessions for the folk magazine Broadside , including a new anti @-@ war song , " Masters of War " , which he had composed in London . Dylan was happy to be reunited with Suze Rotolo , and he persuaded her to move back into the apartment they had shared on West 4th Street .
Dylan 's keenness to record his new material for Freewheelin ' paralleled a dramatic power struggle in the studio : Albert Grossman 's determination to have John Hammond replaced as Dylan 's producer at CBS . According to Dylan biographer Howard Sounes , " The two men could not have been more different . Hammond was a WASP , so relaxed during recording sessions that he sat with feet up , reading The New Yorker . Grossman was a Jewish businessman with a shady past , hustling to become a millionaire . "
Because of Grossman 's hostility to Hammond , Columbia paired Dylan with a young , African @-@ American jazz producer , Tom Wilson . Wilson recalled : " I didn 't even particularly like folk music . I 'd been recording Sun Ra and Coltrane ... I thought folk music was for the dumb guys . [ Dylan ] played like the dumb guys , but then these words came out . I was flabbergasted . " At a recording session on April 24 , produced by Wilson , Dylan recorded five new compositions : " Girl from the North Country " , " Masters of War " , " Talkin ' World War III Blues " , " Bob Dylan 's Dream " , and " Walls of Red Wing " . " Walls of Red Wing " was ultimately rejected , but the other four were included in a revised album sequence .
The final drama of recording Freewheelin ' occurred when Dylan was scheduled to appear on The Ed Sullivan Show on May 12 , 1963 . Dylan had told Sullivan he would perform " Talkin ' John Birch Paranoid Blues " , but the " head of program practices " at CBS Television informed Dylan that this song was potentially libelous to the John Birch Society , and asked him to perform another number . Rather than comply with TV censorship , Dylan refused to appear on the show . There is disagreement between Dylan 's biographers about the consequences of this censorship row . Anthony Scaduto writes that after The Ed Sullivan Show debacle , CBS lawyers were alarmed to discover that the controversial song was to be included on Dylan 's new album , only a few weeks from its release date . They insisted that the song be dropped , and four songs ( " John Birch " , " Let Me Die In My Footsteps " , " Rambling Gambling Willie " , " Rocks and Gravel " ) on the album were replaced with Dylan 's newer compositions recorded in April ( " Girl from the North Country " , " Masters of War " , " Talkin ' World War III Blues " , " Bob Dylan 's Dream " ) . Scaduto writes that Dylan felt " crushed " by being compelled to submit to censorship , but he was in no position to argue .
According to biographer Clinton Heylin , " There remains a common belief that [ Dylan ] was forced by Columbia to pull ' Talkin ' John Birch Paranoid Blues ' from the album after he walked out on The Ed Sullivan Show . " However , the " revised " version of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan was released on May 27 , 1963 ; this would have given Columbia Records only two weeks to recut the album , reprint the record sleeves , and press and package enough copies of the new version to fill orders . Heylin suggests that CBS had probably forced Dylan to withdraw " John Birch " from the album some weeks earlier , and that Dylan had responded by recording his new material on April 24 . Whether the songs were substituted before or after The Ed Sullivan Show , critics agree that the new material gave the album a more personal feel , distanced from the traditional folk @-@ blues material which had dominated his first album , Bob Dylan .
A few copies of the original pressing of the LP with the four deleted tracks have turned up over the years , despite Columbia 's supposed destruction of all copies during the pre @-@ release phase ( all copies found were in the standard album sleeve with the revised track selection ) . Other permutations of the Freewheelin ' album include versions with a different running order of the tracks on the album , and a Canadian version of the album that listed the tracks in the wrong order . The original pressing of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan is considered the most valuable and rarest record in America , with one copy having sold for $ 35 @,@ 000 .
= = Songs and themes = =
" Blowin ' in the Wind "
" Blowin ' in the Wind " is among Dylan 's most celebrated compositions . In his sleeve notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 , John Bauldie writes that it was Pete Seeger who first identified the melody of " Blowin ' in the Wind " as Dylan 's adaptation of the old Negro spiritual " No More Auction Block " . According to Alan Lomax 's The Folk Songs of North America , the song originated in Canada and was sung by former slaves who fled there after Britain abolished slavery in 1833 . In 1978 , Dylan acknowledged the source when he told journalist Marc Rowland : " ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' has always been a spiritual . I took it off a song called ' No More Auction Block ' — that 's a spiritual and ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' follows the same feeling . " Dylan 's performance of " No More Auction Block " was recorded at the Gaslight Cafe in October 1962 , and appeared on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 .
Critic Andy Gill wrote : " ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' marked a huge jump in Dylan 's songwriting : for the first time , Dylan discovered the effectiveness of moving from the particular to the general . Whereas ' The Ballad of Donald White ' would become completely redundant as soon as the eponymous criminal was executed , a song as vague as ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' could be applied to just about any freedom issue . It remains the song with which Dylan 's name is most inextricably linked , and safeguarded his reputation as a civil libertarian through any number of changes in style and attitude . "
" Blowin ' in the Wind " became world @-@ famous when Peter , Paul and Mary issued the song as a single three weeks after the release of Freewheelin ' . They and Dylan both shared the same manager : Albert Grossman . The single sold a phenomenal three hundred thousand copies in the first week of release . On July 13 , 1963 , it reached number two on the Billboard chart with sales exceeding one million copies . Dylan later recalled that he was astonished when Peter Yarrow told him he was going to make $ 5 @,@ 000 from the publishing rights .
" Girl from the North Country "
There has been much speculation in print about the identity of the girl in the song . Clinton Heylin states that the most frequently mooted candidates are Echo Helstrom , an early girlfriend of Dylan from his hometown of Hibbing , and Suze Rotolo , whom Dylan was pining for as he finished the song in Italy . Howard Sounes suggests the girl Dylan probably had in mind was Bonnie Beecher , a girlfriend of Dylan 's when he was at the University of Minnesota . Musicologist Todd Harvey notes that Dylan not only took the tune of " Scarborough Fair " , which he learned from Martin Carthy in London , but also adapted the theme of that song . " Scarborough Fair " derives from " The Elfin Knight " ( Child Ballad Number 2 ) , which was first transcribed in 1670 . In the song , a supernatural character poses a series of questions to an innocent , requesting her to perform impossible tasks . Harvey points out that Dylan " retains the idea of the listener being sent upon a task , a northern place setting , and an antique lyric quality " . Dylan returned to this song on Nashville Skyline ( 1969 ) , recording it as a duet with Johnny Cash and he returned to it again in the studio with an unreleased organ and sax version in 1978 .
" Masters of War "
A scathing song directed against the war industry , " Masters of War " is based on Jean Ritchie 's arrangement of " Nottamun Town " , an English riddle song . Written in late 1962 while Dylan was in London , eyewitnesses ( including Martin Carthy and Anthea Joseph ) recall Dylan performing the song in folk clubs at the time . Ritchie would later assert her claim on the song 's arrangement ; according to one Dylan biography , the suit was settled when Ritchie received $ 5 @,@ 000 from Dylan 's lawyers .
" Down the Highway "
Dylan composed this song in the form of a 12 @-@ bar blues . In the sleeve notes of Freewheelin ’ , Dylan explained to Nat Hentoff : " What made the real blues singers so great is that they were able to state all the problems they had ; but at the same time , they were standing outside of them and could look at them . And in that way , they had them beat . " Into this song , Dylan injected one explicit mention of an absence that was troubling him : the sojourn of Suze Rotolo in Perugia : " My baby took my heart from me / She packed it all up in a suitcase / Lord , she took it away to Italy , Italy . "
" Bob Dylan 's Blues "
Dylan begins this track with a spoken intro where he describes the origins of folk songs in a satirical vein : " most of the songs that are written uptown in Tin Pan Alley , that ’ s where most of the folk songs come from nowadays " . What follows has been characterized as an absurd , improvised blues which Dylan , in the sleeve notes , describes as " a really off @-@ the @-@ cuff @-@ song . I start with an idea and then I feel what follows . Best way I can describe this one is that it ’ s sort of like walking by a side street . You gaze in and walk on . " Harvey points out that Dylan subsequently elaborated this style of self @-@ deprecatory , absurdist humor into more complex songs , such as " I Shall Be Free No.10 " ( 1964 ) .
" A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall "
Dylan was only 21 years old when he wrote one of his most complex songs , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " , often referred to as " Hard Rain " . Dylan is said to have premiered " Hard Rain " at the Gaslight Cafe , where Village performer Peter Blankfield recalled : " He put out these pieces of loose @-@ leaf paper ripped out of a spiral notebook . And he starts singing [ ' Hard Rain ' ] ... He finished singing it , and no one could say anything . The length of it , the episodic sense of it . Every line kept building and bursting " . Dylan performed " Hard Rain " days later at Carnegie Hall on September 22 , 1962 , as part of a concert organized by Pete Seeger . The song gained added resonance during the Cuban Missile Crisis , just one month after Dylan 's first performance of " Hard Rain " , when U.S. President John F. Kennedy gave his warning to the Soviet Union over their deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba , . Critics have interpreted the lyric ' hard rain ' as a reference to nuclear fallout , but Dylan resisted the specificity of this interpretation . In a radio interview with Studs Terkel in 1963 , Dylan said ,
" No , it 's not atomic rain , it 's just a hard rain . It isn 't the fallout rain . I mean some sort of end that 's just gotta happen … In the last verse , when I say , ' the pellets of poison are flooding the waters ' , that means all the lies that people get told on their radios and in their newspapers . "
Many people were astonished by the power and complexity of this work . For Robert Shelton , who had given Dylan an important boost in his 1961 review in the New York Times , this song was " a landmark in topical , folk @-@ based songwriting . Here blooms the promised fruit of the 1950s poetry @-@ jazz fusion of Ginsberg , Ferlinghetti , and Rexroth . " Folk singer Dave Van Ronk later commented : " I was acutely aware that it represented the beginning of an artistic revolution . " Pete Seeger expressed the opinion that this song would last longer than any other written by Dylan .
" Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right "
Dylan wrote this song on hearing from Suze Rotolo that she was considering staying in Italy indefinitely , and he used a melody he adapted from Paul Clayton 's song " Who 's Gonna Buy You Ribbons ( When I 'm Gone ) " . In the Freewheelin ' sleeve notes , Dylan comments : " It isn 't a love song . It 's a statement that maybe you can say to make yourself feel better . It 's as if you were talking to yourself . "
Dylan 's contemporaries hailed the song as a masterpiece : Bob Spitz quotes Paul Stookey saying " I thought it was a masterful statement " , while Dave Van Ronk called it " self @-@ pitying but brilliant " . Dylan biographer Howard Sounes commented : " The greatness of the song was in the cleverness of the language . The phrase " don 't think twice , it 's all right " could be snarled , sung with resignation , or delivered with an ambiguous mixture of bitterness and regret . Seldom have the contradictory emotions of a thwarted lover been so well expressed , and the song transcended the autobiographical origins of Dylan 's pain . "
" Bob Dylan 's Dream "
" Bob Dylan 's Dream " was based on the melody of the traditional " Lady Franklin 's Lament " , in which the title character dreams of finding her husband , Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin , alive and well . ( Sir John Franklin had vanished on an expedition searching for the North West Passage in 1845 ; a stone cairn on King William Island detailing his demise was found by a later expedition in 1859 . ) Todd Harvey points out that Dylan transforms the song into a personal journey , yet he retains both the theme and the mood of the original ballad . The world outside is depicted as stormy and harsh , and Dylan 's most fervent wish , like Lady Franklin 's , is to be reunited with departed companions and to relive the fond memories they represent .
" Oxford Town "
" Oxford Town " is Dylan 's sardonic account of events at the University of Mississippi in September 1962 . U.S. Air Force veteran James Meredith was the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi , located a mile from Oxford , Mississippi . When Meredith first tried to attend classes at the school , some Mississippians pledged to keep the university segregated , including the state governor Ross Barnett . Ultimately , the University of Mississippi had to be integrated with the help of U.S. federal troops . Dylan responded rapidly : his song was published in the November 1962 issue of Broadside .
" Talkin ' World War III Blues "
The " talkin ' blues " was a style of improvised songwriting that Woody Guthrie had developed to a high plane . ( A Minneapolis domestic recording that Dylan made in September 1960 includes his performances of Guthrie 's " Talking Columbia " and " Talking Merchant Marine " . ) " Talkin ' World War III Blues " was a spontaneous composition Dylan created in the studio during the final session for The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan . He recorded five takes of the song and the fifth was selected for the album . The format of the " talkin ' blues " permitted Dylan to address the serious subject of nuclear annihilation with humor , and " without resorting to his finger @-@ pointing or apocalyptical @-@ prophetic persona " .
" Corrina , Corrina "
" Corrina , Corrina " was recorded by the Mississippi Sheiks , and by their leader Bo Carter in 1928 . The song was covered by artists as diverse as Bob Wills , Big Joe Turner , and Doc Watson . Dylan 's version borrows phrases from a few Robert Johnson songs : " Stones In My Passway " , " 32 @-@ 20 Blues " , and " Hellhound On My Trail " . An alternate take of the song was used as a B @-@ side for his " Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " single .
" Honey , Just Allow Me One More Chance "
" Honey , Just Allow Me One More Chance " is based on " Honey , Won 't You Allow Me One More Chance ? " , a song dating back to the 1890s that was popularized by Henry Thomas in his 1928 recording . " However , Thomas 's original provided no more than a song title and a notion " , writes Heylin , " which Dylan turned into a personal plea to an absent lover to allow him ' one more chance to get along with you . ' It is a vocal tour de force and ... showed a Dylan prepared to make light of his own blues by using the form itself . "
" I Shall Be Free "
" I Shall Be Free " is a rewrite of Lead Belly 's " We Shall Be Free " , which was performed by Lead Belly , Sonny Terry , Cisco Houston , and Woody Guthrie . According to Todd Harvey , Dylan 's version draws its melody from the Guthrie recording but omits its signature chorus ( " We 'll soon be free / When the Lord will call us home " ) . Critics have been divided about the worth of this final song . Robert Shelton dismissed the song as " a decided anticlimax . Although the album has at least a half dozen blockbusters , two of the weakest songs are tucked in at the end , like shirttails . " Todd Harvey has argued that by placing the song at the close of the Freewheelin ' LP , Dylan ends on a note of levity which is a relief after the weighty sentiments expressed in several songs on the album .
= = Outtakes = =
The known outtakes from the Freewheelin ' album are as follows . All songs released in 1991 on The Bootleg Series 1 – 3 are discussed in that album 's liner notes , while songs that have never been released have been documented by biographer Clinton Heylin , except where noted . All songs written by Bob Dylan , except where noted .
= = Release = =
Dylan promoted his upcoming album with radio appearances and concert performances . In May 1963 , Dylan performed with Joan Baez at the Monterey Folk Festival , where she joined him on stage for a duet of a new Dylan song , " With God on Our Side " . Baez was at the pinnacle of her fame , having appeared on the cover of Time magazine the previous November . The performance not only gave Dylan and his songs a new prominence , it also marked the beginning of a romantic relationship between Baez and Dylan , the start of what Dylan biographer Sounes termed " one of the most celebrated love affairs of the decade " .
The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan was released at the end of May . According to Scaduto , it was an immediate success , selling 10 @,@ 000 copies a month and bringing Dylan an income of about $ 2 @,@ 500 a month . An article by Nat Hentoff on folk music appeared in the June issue of Playboy magazine and devoted considerable space to Dylan 's achievements , calling him " the most vital of the younger citybillies " .
In July , Dylan appeared at the second Newport Folk Festival . That weekend , Peter , Paul and Mary 's rendition of " Blowin ' in the Wind " reached number two on Billboard 's pop chart . Baez was also at Newport , appearing twice on stage with Dylan . The combination of the chart success of " Blowin ' in the Wind " , and the glamor of Baez and Dylan singing together generated excitement about Dylan and his new album . Tom Paxton recalled : " That was a big breakout festival for Bob . The buzz kept growing exponentially and it was like a coronation of Bob and Joan . They were King and Queen of the festival " . His friend Bob Fass recalled that after Newport , Dylan told him that " suddenly I just can 't walk around without a disguise . I used to walk around and go wherever I wanted . But now it 's gotten very weird . People follow me into the men 's room just so they can say that they saw me pee . "
In September , the album entered Billboard 's album charts ; the highest position Freewheelin ' reached was number 22 , but it eventually came to sell one million copies in the US . Dylan himself came to acknowledge Freewheelin ' as the album that marked the start of his success . During his dispute with Albert Grossman , Dylan stated in a deposition : " Although I didn 't know it at the time , the second album was destined to become a great success because it was to include ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' . " Besides " Blowin ' in the Wind " , " Masters of War " , " Girl from the North Country " , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " and " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " have all been acclaimed as masterpieces , and they have been mainstays of Dylan 's performing repertory to the present day . The album 's balance between serious subject matter and levity , earnest finger @-@ pointing songs and surreal jokes captured a wide audience , including The Beatles , who were on the cusp of global success . John Lennon recalled : " In Paris in 1964 was the first time I ever heard Dylan at all . Paul got the record ( The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan ) from a French DJ . For three weeks in Paris we didn 't stop playing it . We all went potty about Dylan . "
The album was re @-@ issued in 2010 as part of The Original Mono Recordings , a Columbia Legacy box set that included the monaural versions of Dylan 's first eight albums .
= = = Cover art = = =
The album cover features a photograph of Dylan with Suze Rotolo . It was taken in February 1963 — a few weeks after Rotolo had returned from Italy — by CBS staff photographer Don Hunstein at the corner of Jones Street and West 4th Street in the West Village , New York City , close to the apartment where the couple lived at the time . In 2008 , Rotolo described the circumstances surrounding the famous photo to The New York Times : " He wore a very thin jacket , because image was all . Our apartment was always cold , so I had a sweater on , plus I borrowed one of his big , bulky sweaters . On top of that I put on a coat . So I felt like an Italian sausage . Every time I look at that picture , I think I look fat . " In her memoir , A Freewheelin ' Time , Rotolo analyzed the significance of the cover art :
It is one of those cultural markers that influenced the look of album covers precisely because of its casual down @-@ home spontaneity and sensibility . Most album covers were carefully staged and controlled , to terrific effect on the Blue Note jazz album covers ... and to not @-@ so great @-@ effect on the perfectly posed and clean @-@ cut pop and folk albums . Whoever was responsible for choosing that particular photograph for The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan really had an eye for a new look .
Critic Janet Maslin summed up the iconic impact of the cover as " a photograph that inspired countless young men to hunch their shoulders , look distant , and let the girl do the clinging " .
= = Legacy = =
The success of Freewheelin ' transformed the public perception of Dylan . Before the album 's release , he was one amongst many folk @-@ singers . Afterwards , at the age of 22 , Dylan was regarded as a major artist , perhaps even a spokesman for disaffected youth . As one critic described the transformation , " In barely over a year , a young plagiarist had been reborn as a songwriter of substance , and his first album of fully realized original material got the 1960s off their musical starting block . " Janet Maslin wrote of the album : " These were the songs that established him as the voice of his generation — someone who implicitly understood how concerned young Americans felt about nuclear disarmament and the growing movement for civil rights : his mixture of moral authority and nonconformity was perhaps the most timely of his attributes . "
This title of " Spokesman of a Generation " was viewed by Dylan with disgust in later years . He came to feel it was a label that the media had pinned on him , and in his autobiography , Chronicles , Dylan wrote : " The press never let up . Once in a while I would have to rise up and offer myself for an interview so they wouldn 't beat the door down . Later an article would hit the streets with the headline " Spokesman Denies That He 's A Spokesman " . I felt like a piece of meat that someone had thrown to the dogs . "
The album secured for Dylan an " unstoppable cult following " of fans who preferred the harshness of his performances to the softer cover versions released by other singers . Richard Williams has suggested that the richness of the imagery in Freewheelin ' transformed Dylan into a key performer for a burgeoning college audience hungry for a new cultural complexity : " For students whose exam courses included Eliot and Yeats , here was something that flattered their expanding intellect while appealing to the teenage rebel in their early @-@ sixties souls . James Dean had walked around reading James Joyce ; here were both in a single package , the words and the attitude set to music . " Andy Gill adds that in the few months between the release of Freewheelin ' in May 1963 , and Dylan 's next album The Times They Are A @-@ Changin ' in January 1964 , Dylan became the hottest property in American music , stretching the boundaries of what had been previously viewed as a collegiate folk music audience .
Critical opinion about Freewheelin ' has been consistently favorable in the years since its release . Dylan biographer Howard Sounes called it " Bob Dylan 's first great album " . In a survey of Dylan ’ s work published by Q magazine in 2000 , the Freewheelin ’ album was described as " easily the best of [ Dylan ’ s ] acoustic albums and a quantum leap from his debut — which shows the frantic pace at which Dylan ’ s mind was moving . " The magazine went on to comment , " You can see why this album got the Beatles listening . The songs at its core must have sounded like communiques from another plane . "
For Patrick Humphries , " rarely has one album so effectively reflected the times which produced it . Freewheelin ' spoke directly to the concerns of its audience. and addressed them in a mature and reflective manner : it mirrored the state of the nation . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine ’ s verdict on the album in the Allmusic guide was : " It 's hard to overestimate the importance of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan , the record that firmly established Dylan as an unparalleled songwriter ... This is rich , imaginative music , capturing the sound and spirit of America as much as that of Louis Armstrong , Hank Williams , or Elvis Presley . Dylan , in many ways , recorded music that equaled this , but he never topped it . "
In March 2000 , Van Morrison told the Irish rock magazine Hot Press about the impact that Freewheelin ' made on him : " I think I heard it in a record shop in Smith Street . And I just thought it was incredible that this guy 's not singing about ' moon in June ' and he 's getting away with it . That 's what I thought at the time . The subject matter wasn 't pop songs , ya know , and I thought this kind of opens the whole thing up ... Dylan put it into the mainstream that this could be done . "
Freewheelin ' was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry in 2002 . The citation read : " This album is considered by some to be the most important collection of original songs issued in the 1960s . It includes " Blowin ' in the Wind , " the era 's popular and powerful protest anthem . " The following year , Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 97 on their list of the 500 greatest albums of all time ( this ranking would later be changed to number 98 in the published book version of the list ) .
The album was included in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Bob Dylan , except where noted :
Some very early first pressing copies contained four songs that were ultimately replaced by Columbia on all subsequent pressings . These songs were " Rocks and Gravel " , " Let Me Die in My Footsteps , " " Gamblin ' Willie 's Dead Man 's Hand " and " Talkin ' John Birch Blues " . Copies of the " original " version of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan ( in both mono and stereo ) are extremely rare . The original track listing was as follows :
= = Personnel = =
Bob Dylan – guitar , harmonica , keyboards , vocals
Additional musicians
Howie Collins – guitar
Leonard Gaskin – bass guitar
Bruce Langhorne – guitar
Herb Lovelle – drums
Dick Wellstood – piano
Technical personnel
John H. Hammond – production
Nat Hentoff – liner notes
Don Hunstein – album cover photographer
Tom Wilson – production
= = Chart positions = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Operation Deadstick =
Operation Deadstick was the codename for an operation by airborne forces of the British Army that took place on 6 June 1944 as part of the Normandy landings of World War II . The objective was to capture intact two road bridges in Normandy across the River Orne and the Caen Canal providing the only exit eastwards , for British forces from their landing on Sword Beach . Intelligence reports said both bridges were heavily defended by the Germans and wired for demolition . Once captured , the bridges had to be held against any counter @-@ attack until the assault force was relieved by commandos and infantry advancing from the British landing zone .
The mission was vital to the success of the Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy . Failure to capture the bridges intact or to prevent their demolition by the Germans , would leave the British 6th Airborne Division cut off from the rest of the Allied armies with their backs to the two waterways . If the Germans retained control over the bridges , they could be used by their armoured divisions to attack the landing beaches of Normandy .
Responsibility for the operation fell to the men of ' D ' Company , 2nd ( Airborne ) Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry , part of the 6th Airlanding Brigade of the 6th Airborne Division . The assault group comprised a reinforced company of six infantry platoons and an attached platoon of Royal Engineers . They flew from the south of England to Normandy in six Airspeed Horsa gliders . Through what was later described as the " most outstanding flying achievements of the war " , the gliders delivered the company to their objective . After a brief exchange of fire , both bridges were captured and then defended against tank , gunboat and infantry counter @-@ attacks , until the company relief arrived .
= = Background = =
= = = British Forces = = =
During the planning stage of the Normandy invasion , the decision was made to land the 6th Airborne Division ( Major @-@ General Richard Gale ) on the left flank of the invasion beaches between the River Orne and the River Dives . Their primary objective was to capture the two road bridges over the River Orne and the Caen Canal and prevent a German flanking attack on the landing area . Failure to capture the bridges would leave the 6th Airborne Division cut off in enemy territory , so the 5th Parachute Brigade were earmarked to defend the bridges against counter @-@ attacks . Gale decided that the only way to capture the bridges intact was by a glider coup de main assault . He then asked Brigadier Hugh Kindersley of the 6th Airlanding Brigade to nominate his best company for the operation .
'D ' Company , 2nd ( Airborne ) Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry ( Major John Howard ) and second in command Captain Brian Priday , was selected for the mission . The company had trained hard and became the fittest in the battalion , often utilizing bomb @-@ damaged inner @-@ city areas to practice street fighting with live ammunition . Howard expected the invasion to involve night @-@ fighting and changed the daily routine to ensure that his men were up to the task . For weeks at a time , they rose at 20 : 00 and completed exercises , drills and normal paperwork throughout the night before retiring at 13 : 00 . General Gale tested the company through two exercises where the objective was to capture bridges , when it became apparent that the company would not be able to carry out the mission on its own . Asked to select two more platoons from the battalion to join them , Howard chose two from ' B ' Company commanded by Lieutenants Fox and Smith . Any explosive charges found attached to the bridges were the responsibility of 30 Royal Engineers from the 249th ( Airborne ) Field Company , commanded by Captain Jock Neilson . Changes were then made to the operational plan to accommodate six platoons . Three were assigned to attack each bridge simultaneously with infantry overcoming the troops on guard duty while the engineers located and dismantled any demolition charges . For six days and nights the company carried out exercises just outside Exeter , in the south @-@ west of England , where two bridges similar to their objectives were found over the Exeter Ship Canal .
Transport to Normandy was arranged in six Airspeed Horsa gliders , piloted by 12 NCOs from ' C ' Squadron , Glider Pilot Regiment . The Horsa had a wingspan of 88 feet ( 27 m ) and a length of 67 feet ( 20 m ) , with a maximum load of 15 @,@ 750 pounds ( 7 @,@ 140 kg ) or space for two pilots , twenty @-@ eight troops or a mixture of two jeeps , artillery guns and trailers . Pilot training involved practice landings on a small strip of land , instrument flying using stopwatches for accurate course changes and fitting flight crew goggles with dark glass to get them used to night flying . By May 1944 they had carried out 54 training sorties , flying in all weathers both day and night .
Howard was not told the exact details of the operation until 2 May , 1944 . His orders were to seize the bridges over the River Orne and Caen Canal at Bénouville and Ranville intact and hold them until relieved . The relief force would initially be a company from the 7th Parachute Battalion under Howard 's command . When the remainder of the parachute battalion arrived , he would hand over to their commander Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Richard Pine @-@ Coffin . The 3rd Infantry Division and the commandos of the 1st Commando Brigade were scheduled to land at Sword Beach at 06 : 00 on the day then advance to the bridges where they were expected to arrive at 11 : 00 .
At the end of May 1944 , ' D ' Company left the battalion camp at Bulford in Wiltshire for RAF Tarrant Rushton in Dorset . The base was then secured and Howard briefed everyone on the mission , distributing photographs of the bridges and unveiling a model of the area . Glider pilot commander Staff Sergeant Jim Wallwork told Howard that with a full load of men , ammunition , assault boats and engineers ' stores his gliders would be dangerously overloaded . Howard decided to only take one assault boat per glider and leave behind two men from each platoon . At the last minute Doctor John Vaughan replaced an injured man in one of the platoons .
On 5 June 1944 , the company made final preparations for the mission . Each man was issued their personal weapons and ammunition as well as up to nine hand grenades and four Bren gun magazines . Each platoon also had a 2 @-@ inch mortar and a radio . Just before the men boarded the gliders , codewords were issued . ' Ham ' indicated the canal bridge was captured and ' Jam ' the river bridge . Capture and destruction of the canal bridge would be signalled using the codeword ' Jack ' ; ' Lard ' would be used if a similar fate befell the river bridge .
= = = Bridges = = =
The Ranville bridge spans the River Orne and the Bénouville bridge crosses the Caen Canal to the west . They are 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the coast and provided the only access to the city of Caen . The main road between the two communes crosses the bridges and then continues east to the River Dives . At 190 feet ( 58 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , the Caen Canal bridge opens to allow canal traffic to pass underneath . The controls were housed in a nearby cabin . The canal is 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) deep by 150 feet ( 46 m ) wide , with earth and stone banks 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high . Small tarmac tracks run on both banks along the canal 's entire length . Between the two bridges there is a strip of mostly marshy ground about 550 yards ( 500 m ) wide , broken up by ditches and small streams . The Ranville bridge over the River Orne is 350 feet ( 110 m ) long , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide and can be opened to allow river traffic to pass . The river is 160 – 240 feet ( 49 – 73 m ) wide and with an average depth of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . It has mud banks averaging about 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) high and a tidal rise and fall of 16 – 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 0 m ) . A number of small houses lie to the west of the river , connected by a track 8 – 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide , that runs along both banks .
= = = German forces = = =
The bridge was guarded by 50 men belonging to the German 736th Grenadier Regiment , 716th Infantry Division . The unit was commanded by Major Hans Schmidt and based at Ranville , 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) east of the River Orne . The 716th was a static formation and had been assigned to Normandy since June 1942 . The division 's eight infantry battalions were deployed to defend 21 miles ( 34 km ) of the Atlantic wall . The unit was poorly equipped with a mixture of foreign weapons and manned by conscripts from Poland , Russia and France under a German officer and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) . Schmidt 's soldiers had orders to blow up the two bridges if they were in danger of capture .
A second division , the 21st Panzer , moved into the area in May 1944 . One of its regiments , the 125th Panzergrenadier , commanded by Colonel Hans von Luck , was billeted at Vimont just east of Caen . There was also a battalion of the 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment based at Cairon to the west of the bridges . Colonel von Luck trained his regiment in anti @-@ invasion operations . He also identified likely incursion points and marked out forward routes , rest and refuelling areas and anti @-@ aircraft gun positions . The 21st Panzer Division was a new formation based on the former Afrika Korps unit , which had been destroyed in North Africa . Although equipped with an assortment of older tanks and other armoured vehicles , the division 's officers were veterans and 2 @,@ 000 men from the old division filled its ranks . Further afield were the 12th SS Panzer Division at Lisieux and the Panzer Lehr Division at Chartres , both less than a day 's march from the area .
Defences were in place at both bridges . On the west bank of the Caen Canal bridge there were three machine @-@ gun emplacements and on the east bank a machine @-@ gun and an anti @-@ tank gun . To their north were another three machine @-@ guns and a concrete pillbox . An anti @-@ aircraft tower equipped with machine @-@ guns stood to the south . At the River Orne bridge , the eastern bank south of the bridge had a pillbox with anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft guns . To the north of the bridge were two machine @-@ guns . Both bridges had sandbagged trench systems along the banks .
= = Deadstick = =
At 22 : 56 on 5 June , 1944 , the six gliders towed by Halifax bombers took off from RAF Tarrant Rushton . Horsa number one , the first of the three headed for the Caen Canal , carried Howard with Lieutenant Den Brotheridge 's platoon , number two bore Lieutenant David Wood 's platoon , and number three carried Lieutenant Smith 's platoon . Priday with Lieutenant Hooper 's platoon made for the river bridge aboard number four . Horsa number five carrying Lieutenant Fox 's platoon was followed by number six bearing Tod Sweeney 's platoon . Each glider also carried five Royal Engineers . Flying over the English Channel at 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the bombers crossed the Normandy coast at 00 : 07 on 6 June , 1944 and released their towed gliders . With Wallwork at the controls , the number one glider crashed into the barbed wire surrounding the canal bridge defences at 00 : 16 . The other two gliders followed at one @-@ minute intervals . The number two glider broke in half and came to halt at the edge of a large pond . One of the men fell into the water and drowned , becoming the first casualty of the operation . Brotheridge and Smith 's platoons headed for the bridge , while Wood 's platoon moved towards the trenches on its north east side .
= = = Bridges captured = = =
The Germans knew the invasion was imminent if not the exact location ; Major Schmidt , in command of the bridges , had been told that they were one of the most critical points in Normandy . The defenders however were not on full alert and only two sentries were on duty when the gliders landed . The sound of a gunshot alerted the two sentries on the bridge . As Brotheridge 's platoon attacked , one ran off shouting " paratroops " while the second fired a flare gun to alert nearby defenders . Brotheridge shot him while other members of his platoon cleared the trenches and pillbox with grenades . Alerted by the flare , the German machine gunners opened fire at the men on the bridge , wounding Brotheridge as he threw a grenade . The grenade silenced one of the machine gun positions and another was taken out by Bren gun fire . Number One Platoon crossed the bridge to take up a defensive position on the west bank . The Royal Engineers from number one glider searched for explosive charges and cut the fuse wires when they found any . Smith 's platoon crossed the bridge next , exchanging fire with the German defenders , whereupon Smith was wounded by a grenade . Using grenades and sub @-@ machine gun fire , the platoons cleared the trenches and bunkers . By 00 : 21 German resistance on the west bank of the canal bridge was over . Checking the area , the men of Brotheridge 's platoon now realised that their leader was wounded . He failed to recover and soon died of his wounds , becoming the first Allied soldier killed by enemy action during the invasion . On the east bank Wood 's platoon cleared the trenches and bunkers with little opposition . Woods was hit in the leg by machine @-@ gun fire as he ordered the platoon to storm the German defences . All three platoon commanders at the canal bridge were now either dead or wounded .
At 00 : 19 pathfinders from the 22nd Independent Parachute Company landed in the area between the River Orne and the River Dives . Brigadier Nigel Poett commanding 5th Parachute Brigade and a small team accompanied them . Disoriented after landing , Poett heard Brotheridge 's Sten gun and set off for the bridges with the only man he could locate . Only one of the Germans at the bridge , Unteroffizier Weber escaped ' D ' Company 's attack , he reached Bénouville and reported the bridge had been captured .
Fox 's glider number five was the first to land 330 yards ( 300 m ) from the river bridge at 00 : 20 while glider number four was reported missing . When the Germans opened fire with an MG 34 , the platoon responded with a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) mortar and destroyed the gun with a direct hit . They then crossed the bridge without further opposition . At 00 : 21 glider number six landed , 770 yards ( 700 m ) short of the bridge . Sweeney left one of his sections on the west bank then moved the rest of the platoon across the bridge to take up defensive positions on the east bank .
From his newly established command post in the trenches on the eastern bank of the canal near the bridge , Howard learned that the river bridge had also been taken . Captain Neilson of the engineers reported that although the bridges had been prepared for demolition , the explosives had not been attached . Howard ordered his signalman to transmit the code words ' Ham ' and ' Jam ' then brought Fox 's platoon across the canal bridge , positioning them at the Bénouville to Le Port crossroads as the company 's forward platoon .
= = = 7th Parachute Battalion = = =
At 00 : 50 aircraft carrying the rest of the 6th Airborne Division appeared overhead and the paratroopers descended into drop zones marked out by the pathfinders . Howard began blowing the morse code letter ' V ' on his whistle , to help guide the 7th Parachute Battalion to the bridges . The first paratroops to arrive at 00 : 52 were Brigadier Poett and the soldier he had picked up en route . Briefed by Howard on the situation , they heard tanks and lorries moving around in Bénouville and Le Port . On the drop zone , only about 100 men of the 7th Parachute Battalion had made it to the rallying point but all their signal equipment , machine guns and mortars were missing . Pine @-@ Coffin , aware that his battalion was the only unit allocated defensive positions west of the bridges , decided they could not wait any longer and at 01 : 10 left for the bridges .
At about the same time Major Schmidt , the German commander of the bridge guard force , decided he needed to see for himself what was happening . He headed for the bridge in his SdKfz 250 with a motorcycle escort . Travelling at high speed they unknowingly passed the forward line of ' D ' Company 's defence and drove onto the bridge whereupon the company opened fire . The soldier aboard the motorcycle was killed and the SdKfz 250 was forced off the road . Schmidt and his driver were taken prisoner .
The commander of the 716th Infantry Division Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter was informed at 01 : 20 of the parachute landings and that the bridges had been captured intact . One of his first actions was to contact Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger of 21st Panzer Division . Richter ordered the division to attack the landing areas . While Feuchtinger 's tanks were delegated to support the 716th , it was also part of the German armoured reserve , which could not move without orders from the German High Command . All German panzer formations could only be moved on the direct orders of Adolf Hitler , who was sleeping at the time and his staff refused to wake him . When Colonel Von Luck of the 125th Panzergrenadier Regiment received the news of the airborne landings at 01 : 30 he ordered the regiment to their assembly areas north and east of Caen and waited for further orders .
The closest large German unit to the canal bridge were the 2nd Battalion , 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment based at Cairon . General Feuchtinger ordered them to recapture the bridges and then attack the parachute landing zones further west . At 02 : 00 the 2nd Battalion headed for the bridges from the west , supported by the 1st Panzerjager Company and part of the 989th Heavy Artillery Battalion coming from the north . As the first Panzer IVs from the north reached the junction leading to the bridge , the leading vehicle was hit by a round from ' D ' Company 's only serviceable PIAT anti @-@ tank weapon . The vehicle exploded , setting off its stowed ammunition , and the other tanks withdrew .
The first company of the 7th Parachute Battalion , commanded by Major Nigel Taylor , arrived at the bridges . Howard directed them to defensive positions west of the canal in Bénouville and Le Port . When Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Pine @-@ Coffin arrived at the bridges , he was briefed by Howard , and crossed into Bénouville and set up his headquarters beside the church . Pine @-@ Coffin had about 200 men in his three companies . He positioned ' A ' and ' C ' Companies in Bénouville facing south towards Caen and ' B ' Company in Le Port facing Ouistreham . ' D ' Company was now pulled back into the area between the two bridges and held in reserve . A further check of the trenches and bunkers captured a number of Germans .
At 03 : 00 the 8th Heavy Company , 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment with 75 mm SP guns , 20 mm AA guns and mortars attacked ' A ' and ' C ' Companies , 7th Parachute Battalion , from the south . The paratroops were forced back and the Germans established their own positions in Bénouville , but were unable to break the British line . They dug in and waited for tank support before moving forward again . The Germans fired mortar rounds and machine guns at the paratroopers and attempted small assaults on their positions throughout the night .
Just before dawn Howard summoned his platoon commanders to a meeting . With their senior officers dead or wounded , numbers One , Two and Three Platoons were now commanded by corporals . Howard 's second in command , Captain Priday and number Four Platoon were missing . Only Lieutenants Fox and Sweeney in Five and Six Platoons had a full complement of officers and NCOs . The landings at Sword Beach began at 07 : 00 , preceded by a heavy naval bombardment . At the bridges , daylight allowed German snipers to identify targets and anyone moving in the open was in danger of being shot . The men of number One Platoon who had taken over the 75 mm anti @-@ tank gun on the east bank of the canal used it to engage possible sniper positions in Bénouville , the Château de Bénouville and the surrounding area . At 09 : 00 , two German gunboats approached the canal bridge from Ouistreham . The lead boat fired its 20 mm gun and number Two Platoon returned fire with a PIAT , hitting the wheelhouse of the leading boat , which crashed into the canal bank . The second boat retreated to Ouistreham . A lone German aircraft bombed the canal bridge at 10 : 00 , dropping one bomb . The bomb struck the bridge but failed to detonate .
= = = 1st Commando Brigade = = =
The German 2nd Battalion , 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment continued to attack Bénouville and Le Port , assisted by their tanks , mortars and infantry . The attack caused serious problems for the understrength 7th Parachute Battalion , until the leading tank was blown up with a Gammon bomb , blocking the road . During the attack 13 of the 17 tanks trying to get through to the bridge were destroyed . The paratroopers were then reinforced by number One Platoon from ' D ' Company . The platoon moved forward into Bénouville and cleared the Germans in house to house fighting . Numbers Five and Six Platoons also moved into positions opposite the Gondrée Cafe on the west bank of the canal . By midday most of the missing men from the 7th Parachute Battalion had arrived at the bridges and the three platoons were moved back to their original positions .
Just after midday , the 21st Panzer Division received permission to attack the landings . Colonel von Luck east of the River Orne , moved the 125th Panzergrenadier Regiment towards the bridges . The column was quickly spotted and engaged for the next two hours by Allied artillery and aircraft causing heavy losses . The 1st Battalion , 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment and the 100th Panzer Regiment , attacking from west of the canal , had more success reaching the beaches between the British Sword Beach and the Canadian Juno Beach . At 13 : 30 the men at the bridges heard the sound of bagpipes , played by Bill Millin of the 1st Commando Brigade . As the commandos arrived they crossed the bridges and joined the rest of 6th Airborne Division defending the eastern side of the bridges . Some of the tanks accompanying the commandos moved into Bénouville to reinforce its defences while others crossed the bridges with the commandos . At 15 : 00 a boat loaded with German infantry approached from Caen . It was engaged with the anti @-@ tank gun manned by number One Platoon . It was hit in the stern by the second round fired and retreated back toward Caen .
At 21 : 15 the 2nd Battalion , Royal Warwickshire Regiment of the 185th Infantry Brigade arrived from Sword Beach and began taking over the bridges ' defences . At around midnight Howard handed over command of the bridges to the Warwickshire Regiment and his company left to join the rest of their battalion at Ranville . At 03 : 30 they finally located the battalion 's positions . They found Captain Priday and number Four Platoon had already joined the battalion . The platoon had landed beside the River Dives at Varaville about 8 miles ( 13 km ) away and had spent the previous day fighting their way towards the bridges , trying to rejoin the company .
= = Aftermath = =
Bénouville was the farthest forward point of the British advance on 6 June 1944 . Of the 181 men ( 139 infantry , 30 engineers and 12 pilots ) of ' D ' Company involved in the capture of the bridges , two had been killed and fourteen wounded . On 9 June , the German Air Force attacked the bridges with 13 aircraft . The British had positioned light and medium @-@ sized anti @-@ aircraft guns around the bridges and in the face of intense anti @-@ aircraft fire the attack failed , although they did claim one of the bridges was destroyed by a direct hit .
The 6th Airborne retained control of the area between the Rivers Orne and Dives until 14 June , when the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division took over the southern part of the Orne bridgehead . In the days that followed the division was reinforced by the Dutch Princess Irene Brigade and the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade . A period of static warfare ended on 22 August when the division crossed the River Dives . Within nine days it had advanced 45 miles ( 72 km ) to the mouth of the River Seine . Between the 6 June and 26 August when they were pulled out of the front line the division 's casualties were ; 821 killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded , and 927 missing . After Operation Deadstick the engineers , glider pilots and ' B ' Company men were returned to their parent formations . ' D ' Company played their part in the division 's defence of the Orne bridgehead and advance to the River Seine . On 5 September when the division was withdrawn to England , all that remained of the company were 40 men under the only remaining officer , Howard , the other officers , sergeants and most of the junior NCOs having been among the casualties .
The glider pilots were the first group to leave ' D ' Company , their expertise being required for other planned operations . In particular Operation Comet , which included another coup @-@ de @-@ main operation where eighteen gliders would be used to capture three bridges in the Netherlands . The mission would be carried out by the 1st Airborne Division with a brigade allocated to defend each bridge . Comet was scheduled for the 8 September 1944 , but was delayed and then cancelled . The plans were adapted and became Operation Market Garden , involving three airborne divisions , however the coup @-@ de @-@ main assault plans were not carried out .
Prior to being withdrawn on 16 July , Howard was awarded the Distinguished Service Order , presented in the field by General Bernard Montgomery . Other awards were the Military Cross to Smith and Sweeney , the Military Medal to Sergeant Thornton and Lance @-@ Corporal Stacey , Lieutenant Brotheridge was posthumously mentioned in dispatches . Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory of the Royal Air Force praised the pilots involved , saying the operation included the " most outstanding flying achievements of the war " . The feat was recognised by the award of the Distinguished Flying Medal to eight of the glider pilots involved .
= = Legacy = =
The Caen Canal bridge was renamed Pegasus Bridge after the emblem of the British airborne forces , while the River Orne bridge became Horsa Bridge . The road across them is now the " Esplanade Major John Howard " . Since the end of the war , Pegasus Bridge and the adjacent Café Gondrée have become a place where British veterans of the conflict visiting Normandy congregate . In 1994 , Pegasus Bridge was replaced by a new structure and the old bridge was added to the displays at the Pegasus Museum in Benouville .
The original model of the area around the bridge , that was used to brief troops taking part in the assault , is preserved in Airborne Assault : The Museum of The Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces , located at the Imperial War Museum Duxford .
A number of books have been written about or have mentioned the assault . In 1962 , Operation Deadstick featured in Darryl Zanuck 's film The Longest Day which was based on the book of the same title by Cornelius Ryan . Major John Howard was played by Richard Todd , who had been an officer in the 7th Parachute Battalion during the battle .
In 2003 , the attack on the Bénouville ( Pegasus ) Bridge was recreated in the highly successful and lauded video game , Call of Duty , in which the player joins the assault of the 6th Airborne Division in both capturing and holding the bridge .
The film Pegasus Bridge , which begins filming in 2016 , covers the events of Operation Deadstick , the fighting at the bridge and the fighting in Benouville and Le Port and is written and directed by Lance Nielsen .
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= Acne vulgaris =
Acne vulgaris ( or simply acne ) is a long @-@ term skin disease that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin . Acne is characterized by areas of blackheads , whiteheads , pimples , and greasy skin , and may result in scarring . The resulting appearance can lead to anxiety , reduced self @-@ esteem and , in extreme cases , depression or thoughts of suicide .
Genetics is thought to be the cause in 80 % of cases . The role of diet and cigarette smoking is unclear and neither cleanliness nor sunlight appear to be involved . Acne primarily affects skin with a greater number of oil glands , including the face , upper part of the chest , and back . During puberty , in both sexes , acne is often brought on by an increase in androgens such as testosterone . Excessive growth of the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes , which is normally present on the skin , is often involved .
Many treatment options are available to improve the appearance of acne , including lifestyle changes , procedures , and medications . Eating fewer simple carbohydrates like sugar may help . Topical azelaic acid , benzoyl peroxide , and salicylic acid are commonly used treatments . Antibiotics and retinoids are available in both topical and oral formulations to treat acne . However , resistance to antibiotics may develop . A number of birth control pills may be useful for preventing acne in women . Oral isotretinoin is usually reserved for severe acne due to greater potential side effects . Early and aggressive treatment is advocated by some to lessen the overall long @-@ term impact to individuals .
In 2013 , acne was estimated to affect 660 million people globally , making it the 8th most common disease worldwide . Acne occurs most commonly during adolescence , affecting an estimated 80 – 90 % of teenagers in the Western world . Lower rates are reported in some rural societies . People may also be affected before and after puberty . Though it becomes less common in adulthood than in adolescence , nearly half of people in their twenties and thirties continue to have acne . About 4 % continue to have difficulties into their forties .
= = Classification = =
Acne is commonly classified by severity as mild , moderate , or severe . This type of categorization can be an important factor in determining the appropriate treatment regimen . Mild acne is classically defined as open ( blackheads ) and closed ( whiteheads ) comedones limited to the face with occasional inflammatory lesions . Acne may be considered to be of moderate severity when a higher number of inflammatory papules and pustules occur on the face compared to mild cases of acne , and acne lesions also occur on the trunk of the body . Lastly , severe acne is said to occur when nodules ( the painful ' bumps ' lying under the skin ) are the characteristic facial lesions , and involvement of the trunk is extensive .
Large nodules have been referred to as cysts in the past , and the term nodulocystic has been used in the medical literature to describe severe cases of inflammatory acne . However , since true cysts are rare in those with acne , the term severe nodular acne is now the preferred terminology .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Typical features of acne include seborrhea ( increased oil secretion ) , microcomedones , comedones , papules , pustules , nodules ( large papules ) , and in many cases scarring . The appearance of acne varies with skin color . It may result in psychological and social problems .
= = = Scars = = =
Acne scars are the result of inflammation within the dermal layer of skin , brought on by acne , and are estimated to affect 95 % of people with acne vulgaris . The scar is created by an abnormal form of healing following this dermal inflammation . Scarring is most likely to occur with severe nodular acne , but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris . Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or collagen loss at the site of the acne lesion .
Atrophic acne scars are the most common type of acne scar and have lost collagen from this healing response . Atrophic scars may be further classified as ice @-@ pick scars , boxcar scars , and rolling scars . Ice @-@ pick scars are typically described as narrow ( less than 2 mm across ) , deep scars that extend into the dermis . Boxcar scars are round or ovoid indented scars with sharp borders and vary in size from 1 @.@ 5 – 4 mm across . Rolling scars are wider than icepick and boxcar scars ( 4 – 5 mm across ) and have a wave @-@ like pattern of depth in the skin .
Hypertrophic scars are less common , and are characterized by increased collagen content after the abnormal healing response . They are described as firm and raised from the skin . Hypertrophic scars remain within the original margins of the wound , whereas keloid scars can form scar tissue outside of these borders . Keloid scars from acne usually occur in men , and usually occur on the trunk of the body rather than the face .
= = = Pigmentation = = =
Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation ( PIH ) is usually the result of nodular acne lesions . They often leave behind an inflamed red mark after the original acne lesion has resolved . PIH occurs more often in people with darker skin color . Pigmented scar is a common but misleading term , as it suggests the color change is permanent . Often , PIH can be prevented by avoiding aggravation of the nodule . These scars can fade with time . However , untreated scars can last for months , years , or even be permanent if deeper layers of skin are affected . Daily use of SPF 15 or higher sunscreen can minimize pigmentation associated with acne .
= = Cause = =
= = = Genetic = = =
The predisposition to acne for specific individuals is likely explained in part by a genetic component , a theory which has been supported by twin studies as well as studies that have looked at rates of acne among first @-@ degree relatives . The genetics of acne susceptibility is likely polygenic , as the disease does not follow a classic Mendelian inheritance pattern . There are multiple candidates for genes which are possibly related to acne , including polymorphisms in TNF @-@ alpha , IL @-@ 1 alpha , and CYP1A1 , among others . The 308 G / A single nucleotide polymorphism in the gene for tumor necrosis factor ( TNF ) is associated with acne risk .
= = = Hormonal = = =
Hormonal activity , such as occurs during menstrual cycles and puberty , may contribute to the formation of acne . During puberty , an increase in sex hormones called androgens causes the follicular glands to grow larger and make more sebum . Acne that first develops between the ages of 21 and 25 is uncommon . Several hormones have been linked to acne , including the androgens testosterone , dihydrotestosterone ( DHT ) , and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate ( DHEA @-@ S ) , as well as insulin @-@ like growth factor 1 ( IGF @-@ 1 ) and growth hormone ( GH ) . Both androgens and IGF @-@ 1 seem to be essential for acne to occur , as acne does not develop in individuals with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome ( CAIS ) or Laron syndrome ( insensitivity to GH , resulting in extremely low IGF @-@ 1 levels ) .
Medical conditions that commonly cause a high @-@ androgen state , such as polycystic ovary syndrome , congenital adrenal hyperplasia , and androgen @-@ secreting tumors , can cause acne in affected individuals . Conversely , people who lack androgenic hormones or are insensitive to the effects of androgens rarely have acne . An increase in androgen ( and sebum ) synthesis may also be seen during pregnancy . Acne can be a side effect of testosterone replacement therapy or of anabolic steroid use . Anabolic steroids are commonly found in over @-@ the @-@ counter bodybuilding supplements .
= = = Infectious = = =
Propionibacterium acnes ( P. acnes ) is the anaerobic bacterium species that is widely suspected to contribute to the development of acne , but its exact role in this process is not entirely clear . There are specific sub @-@ strains of P. acnes associated with normal skin and others with moderate or severe inflammatory acne . It is unclear whether these undesirable strains evolve on @-@ site or are acquired , or possibly both depending on the person . These strains have the capability of either changing , perpetuating , or adapting to the abnormal cycle of inflammation , oil production , and inadequate sloughing of dead skin cells from acne pores . One particularly virulent strain has been circulating in Europe for at least 87 years . Infection with the parasitic mite Demodex is associated with the development of acne . However , it is unclear whether eradication of these mites improves acne .
= = = Diet = = =
The relationship between diet and acne is unclear , as there is no high @-@ quality evidence which establishes any definitive link . High @-@ glycemic @-@ load diets have been found to have different degrees of effect on acne severity by different studies . Multiple randomized controlled trials and nonrandomized studies have found a lower @-@ glycemic @-@ load diet to be effective in reducing acne . Additionally , there is weak observational evidence suggesting that dairy milk consumption is positively associated with a higher incidence and severity of acne . Effects from other potentially contributing dietary factors , such as consumption of chocolate or salt , are not supported by the evidence . Chocolate does contain varying amounts of sugar , which can lead to a high glycemic load , and it can be made with or without milk . There may be a relationship between acne and insulin metabolism , and one trial found a relationship between acne and obesity . Vitamin B12 may trigger skin outbreaks similar to acne ( acneiform eruptions ) , or exacerbate existing acne , when taken in doses exceeding the recommended daily intake .
= = = Smoking = = =
The relationship between cigarette smoking and acne severity is unclear and remains a point of debate . Due to the observational nature of the evidence obtained from epidemiological studies , there are concerns that bias and confounding may have influenced the results . Certain medical literature reviews have stated cigarette smoking clearly worsens acne whereas others have stated it is unclear whether smoking is unrelated to , worsens , or improves acne severity . Due to the various known negative health effects of cigarette smoking , it is not recommended as an approach to improving the appearance of acne .
= = = Psychological = = =
Overall , few high @-@ quality studies have been performed which demonstrate that stress causes or worsens acne . While the connection between acne and stress has been debated , some research indicates that increased acne severity is associated with high stress levels in certain settings ( e.g. , in association with the hormonal changes seen in premenstrual syndrome ) .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin disease of the pilosebaceous unit and develops due to blockages in the skin 's hair follicles . These blockages are thought to occur as a result of the following four abnormal processes : a higher than normal amount of sebum production ( influenced by androgens ) , excessive deposition of the protein keratin leading to comedone formation , colonization of the follicle by Propionibacterium acnes ( P. acnes ) bacteria , and the local release of pro @-@ inflammatory chemicals in the skin .
The earliest pathologic change is the formation of a plug ( a microcomedone ) , which is driven primarily by excessive proliferation of keratinocytes in the hair follicle . In normal skin , the skin cells that have died come up to the surface and exit the pore of the hair follicle . However , increased production of oily sebum in those with acne causes the dead skin cells to stick together . The accumulation of dead skin cell debris and oily sebum blocks the pore of the hair follicle , thus forming the microcomedone . This is further exacerbated by the biofilm created by P. acnes within the hair follicle . If the microcomedone is superficial within the hair follicle , the skin pigment melanin is exposed to air , resulting in its oxidation and dark appearance ( known as a blackhead or open comedone ) . In contrast , if the microcomedone occurs deep within the hair follicle , this causes the formation of a whitehead ( known as a closed comedone ) .
Dihydrotestosterone ( DHT ) is the main driver of androgen @-@ induced sebum production in the skin . Another androgenic hormone responsible for increased sebaceous gland activity is DHEA @-@ S. Higher amounts of DHEA @-@ S are secreted during adrenarche ( a stage of puberty ) , and this leads to an increase in sebum synthesis . In a sebum @-@ rich skin environment , the naturally occurring and largely commensal skin bacterium P. acnes readily grows and can cause inflammation within and around the follicle due to activation of the innate immune system . P. acnes triggers skin inflammation in acne by increasing the production of several pro @-@ inflammatory chemical signals ( such as IL @-@ 1α , IL @-@ 8 , TNF @-@ α , and LTB4 ) ; IL @-@ 1α is known to be essential to comedone formation .
A major mechanism of acne @-@ related skin inflammation is mediated by P. acnes 's ability to bind and activate a class of immune system receptors known as toll @-@ like receptors , especially toll @-@ like receptor 2 ( TLR2 ) and toll @-@ like receptor 4 ( TLR4 ) . Activation of TLR2 and TLR4 by P. acnes leads to increased secretion of IL @-@ 8 , TNF @-@ α , and IL @-@ 1α . Release of these inflammatory signals attracts various immune cells to the hair follicle including neutrophils , macrophages , and Th1 cells . IL @-@ 1α stimulates higher keratinocyte activity and reproduction , which in turn fuels comedone development . Sebaceous gland cells also produce more antimicrobial peptides , such as HBD1 and HBD2 , in response to binding of TLR2 and TLR4 .
P. acnes is also capable of provoking additional skin inflammation by altering sebum 's fatty composition . Squalene oxidation by P. acnes is of particular importance . Oxidation of squalene activates NF @-@ κB and consequently increases IL @-@ 1α levels . Additionally , squalene oxidation leads to increased activity of the 5 @-@ lipoxygenase enzyme responsible for conversion of arachidonic acid to leukotriene B4 ( LTB4 ) . LTB4 promotes skin inflammation by acting on peroxisome proliferator @-@ activated receptor alpha ( PPARα ) . PPARα increases activity of activator protein 1 ( AP @-@ 1 ) and NF @-@ κB , thereby leading to the recruitment of inflammatory T cells . The inflammatory properties of P. acnes can be further explained by the bacterium 's ability to convert sebum triglycerides to pro @-@ inflammatory free fatty acids via secretion of the enzyme lipase . These free fatty acids spur production of cathelicidin , HBD1 , and HBD2 , thus leading to further inflammation .
This inflammatory cascade typically leads to the formation of inflammatory acne lesions , including papules , infected pustules , or nodules . If the inflammatory reaction is severe , the follicle can break into the deeper layers of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue and cause the formation of deep nodules . Involvement of AP @-@ 1 in the aforementioned inflammatory cascade also leads to activation of matrix metalloproteinases , which contribute to local tissue destruction and scar formation .
= = Diagnosis = =
There are several features that may indicate that a person 's acne vulgaris is sensitive to hormonal influences . Historical and physical clues that may suggest hormone @-@ sensitive acne include onset between ages 20 and 30 ; worsening the week before a woman 's menstrual cycle ; acne lesions predominantly over the jawline and chin ; and inflammatory / nodular acne lesions .
Several scales exist to grade the severity of acne vulgaris , but no single technique has been universally accepted as the diagnostic standard . Cook 's acne grading scale uses photographs to grade severity from 0 to 8 ( 0 being the least severe and 8 being the most severe ) . This scale was the first to use a standardized photographic protocol to assess acne severity ; since its creation in 1979 , Cook 's grading scale has undergone several revisions . Leeds acne grading technique counts acne lesions on the face , back , and chest and categorizes them as inflammatory or non @-@ inflammatory . Leeds scores range from 0 ( least severe ) to 10 ( most severe ) though modified scales have a maximum score of 12 . The Pillsbury acne grading scale simply classifies the severity of the acne from 1 ( least severe ) to 4 ( most severe ) .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Skin conditions which may mimic acne vulgaris include angiofibromas , folliculitis , keratosis pilaris , perioral dermatitis , and rosacea , among others . Age is one factor which may help a physician distinguish between these disorders . Skin disorders such as perioral dermatitis and keratosis pilaris can appear similar to acne but tend to occur more frequently in childhood , whereas rosacea tends to occur more frequently in older adults . Facial redness triggered by heat or the consumption of alcohol or spicy food is suggestive of rosacea . The presence of comedones can also help health professionals differentiate acne from skin disorders that are similar in appearance .
= = Management = =
Many different treatments exist for acne , including alpha hydroxy acid , anti @-@ androgen medications , antibiotics , antiseborrheic medications , azelaic acid , benzoyl peroxide , hormonal treatments , keratolytic soaps , nicotinamide , retinoids , and salicylic acid . They are believed to work in at least four different ways , including the following : anti @-@ inflammatory effects , hormonal manipulation , killing P. acnes , and normalizing skin cell shedding and sebum production in the pore to prevent blockage .
Commonly used medical treatments include topical therapies such as antibiotics , benzoyl peroxide , and retinoids , and systemic therapies including antibiotics , hormonal agents , and oral retinoids . Procedures such as light therapy and laser therapy are not considered to be first @-@ line treatments and typically have an adjunctive role due to their high cost and the limited evidence of their efficacy .
= = = Diet = = =
A low @-@ glycemic @-@ index / low @-@ glycemic @-@ load diet is recommended as a dietary method of improving acne . As of 2014 , evidence is insufficient to recommend milk restriction for this purpose .
= = = Medications = = =
= = = = Benzoyl peroxide = = = =
Benzoyl peroxide is a first @-@ line treatment for mild and moderate acne due to its effectiveness and mild side @-@ effects ( mainly irritant dermatitis ) . It works against P. acnes , helps prevent formation of comedones , and has anti @-@ inflammatory properties . Benzoyl peroxide normally causes dryness of the skin , slight redness , and occasional peeling when side effects occur . This topical treatment does increase sensitivity to the sun , as indicated on the packaging , so sunscreen use is often advised during treatment , to prevent sunburn . Benzoyl peroxide has been found to be nearly as effective as antibiotics , with all concentrations tested being equally effective . Unlike antibiotics , benzoyl peroxide does not appear to generate bacterial resistance . Benzoyl peroxide may be paired with a topical antibiotic or retinoid such as benzoyl peroxide / clindamycin and benzoyl peroxide / adapalene , respectively .
= = = = Retinoids = = = =
Retinoids are medications which possess anti @-@ inflammatory properties , normalize the follicle cell life cycle , and reduce sebum production . The retinoids appear to influence the cell life cycle in the follicle lining . This helps prevent the hyperkeratinization of these cells which can create a blockage . They are a first @-@ line acne treatment , especially for people with dark @-@ colored skin , and are known to lead to faster improvement of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation .
This class includes adapalene , isotretinoin , retinol , tazarotene , and tretinoin . Like isotretinoin , these retinoids are related to vitamin A , but are administered topically and generally have much milder side effects . They can , however , cause significant irritation of the skin . Tretinoin is the least expensive of the topical retinoids and is the most irritating to the skin , whereas adapalene is the least irritating to the skin but costs significantly more than other retinoids . Tazarotene is the most effective of the topical retinoids . However , tazarotene is also the most expensive and is not as well @-@ tolerated as other topical retinoids . Retinol is a form of vitamin A that has similar but milder effects , and is used in many over @-@ the @-@ counter moisturizers and other topical products . Topical retinoids often cause an initial flare @-@ up of acne and facial flushing . Generally speaking , retinoids increase skin 's sensitivity to sunlight and are therefore recommended for use at night .
Isotretinoin is an oral retinoid and is very effective for severe nodular acne as well as moderate acne refractory to other treatments . Improvement is typically seen after one to two months of use . Acne often resolves completely or is much milder after a 4- to 6 @-@ month course of oral isotretinoin . After a single course , about 80 % of people report an improvement , with more than 50 % reporting complete remission . About 20 % of people require a second course . A number of adverse effects may occur , including dry skin and lips , nose bleeds , muscle pains , increased liver enzymes , and increased lipid levels in the blood . There is no clear evidence that use of oral retinoids increases the risk of psychiatric side effects such as depression and suicidality .
= = = = Antibiotics = = = =
Topical antibiotics are frequently used for mild to moderately severe acne . Oral antibiotics are indicated for moderate to severe cases of inflammatory acne , and decrease acne due to their anti @-@ inflammatory properties and antimicrobial activity against P. acnes . Oral antibiotics are highly effective against inflammatory acne and produce faster resolution of inflammatory acne lesions than application of topical antibiotics . They are believed to work both by decreasing the number of bacteria and as an anti @-@ inflammatory . With increasing resistance of P. acnes worldwide , they are becoming less effective . Commonly used antibiotics , either applied topically or taken orally , include clindamycin , erythromycin , metronidazole , sulfacetamide , and tetracyclines such as doxycycline and minocycline . It is recommended that oral antibiotics be stopped and topical retinoids be used once the disease has improved . Furthermore , the use of topical antibiotics alone is discouraged due to concerns surrounding antibiotic resistance , but their use is recommended in combination with topical benzoyl peroxide . Topical dapsone is not typically used as a first @-@ line antibiotic due to its higher cost and lack of clear superiority over other antibiotics . Dapsone is not recommended for use with benzoyl peroxide due to reports of yellow @-@ orange skin discoloration with this combination of medications .
= = = = Hormonal = = = =
In women , acne can be improved with the use of any combined oral contraceptive . Oral contraceptives decrease the ovaries ' production of androgen hormones , resulting in lower skin production of sebum , and consequently improve acne severity . The combinations which contain third- or fourth @-@ generation progestins such as desogestrel , drospirenone , or norgestimate may theoretically be more beneficial . A 2014 systematic review and meta @-@ analysis found that oral antibiotics appear to be somewhat more effective than oral contraceptives at decreasing the number of inflammatory acne lesions at three months . However , the two therapies are approximately equal in efficacy at six months for decreasing the number of inflammatory , non @-@ inflammatory , and total acne lesions . The authors of the analysis suggested that oral contraceptives may be a preferred first @-@ line acne treatment over oral antibiotics in certain women due to similar efficacy at six months and a lack of associated antibiotic resistance .
Antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate and spironolactone have also been used successfully to treat acne , especially in women with signs of excessive androgen production such as increased hairiness , baldness , or increased skin production of oily sebum . The aldosterone antagonist spironolactone is an effective treatment for acne in adult women , but unlike combination oral contraceptives , it is not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for this purpose . Spironolactone is thought to be a useful acne treatment due to its ability to block the androgen receptor at higher doses . It may be used with or without an oral contraceptive . Hormonal therapies should not be used to treat acne during pregnancy or lactation as they have been associated with certain birth defects such as hypospadias and feminization of the male fetus or infant . Finasteride is also likely to be an effective treatment for acne .
= = = = Azelaic acid = = = =
Azelaic acid has been shown to be effective for mild @-@ to @-@ moderate acne when applied topically at a 20 % concentration . Application twice daily for six months is necessary , and treatment is as effective as topical benzoyl peroxide 5 % , isotretinoin 0 @.@ 05 % , and erythromycin 2 % . Treatment of acne with azelaic acid is less effective and more expensive than treatment with retinoids . Azelaic acid is thought to be an effective acne treatment due to its antibacterial , anti @-@ inflammatory , and antikeratinizing properties . Additionally , azelaic acid has a slight skin @-@ lightening effect due to its ability to inhibit melanin synthesis , and is therefore useful in treatment of individuals with acne who are also affected by postinflammatory hyperpigmentation . Azelaic acid may cause skin irritation but is otherwise very safe .
= = = = Salicylic acid = = = =
Salicylic acid is a topically applied beta @-@ hydroxy acid that possesses bacteriostatic and keratolytic properties . Additionally , salicylic acid opens obstructed skin pores and promotes shedding of epithelial skin cells . Salicylic acid is known to be less effective than retinoid therapy . Dry skin is the most commonly seen side effect with topical application , though darkening of the skin has been observed in individuals with darker skin types who use salicylic acid .
= = = = Other medications = = = =
Topical and oral preparations of nicotinamide ( the amide form of vitamin B3 ) have been suggested as alternative medical treatments for acne . Nicotinamide is thought to improve acne due to its anti @-@ inflammatory properties , its ability to suppress sebum production , and its ability to promote wound healing . Similarly , topical and oral preparations of zinc have also been proposed as effective treatments for acne ; however , the evidence to support their use for this purpose is limited . Zinc 's benefits in acne are attributed to its beneficial effects against inflammation , sebum production , and P. acnes . Tentative evidence has found that antihistamines may improve symptoms among those already taking isotretinoin . Antihistamines are thought to improve acne due to their anti @-@ inflammatory properties and their ability to suppress sebum production .
= = = = Combination therapy = = = =
Combination therapy — using medications of different classes together , each with a different mechanism of action — has been demonstrated to be a more efficacious approach to acne treatment than monotherapy . The use of topical benzoyl peroxide and antibiotics together has been shown to be more effective than antibiotics alone . Similarly , using a topical retinoid with an antibiotic clears acne lesions faster than the use of antibiotics alone . Frequently used combinations include the following : antibiotic + benzoyl peroxide , antibiotic + topical retinoid , or topical retinoid + benzoyl peroxide . The pairing of benzoyl peroxide with a retinoid is preferred over the combination of a topical antibiotic with a retinoid since both regimens are effective but benzoyl peroxide does not lead to antibiotic resistance .
= = = Procedures = = =
Comedo extraction may temporarily help those with comedones that do not improve with standard treatment . A procedure for immediate relief is the injection of corticosteroids into the inflamed acne comedone .
Light therapy ( also known as photodynamic therapy ) is a method that involves delivering intense pulses of light to the area with acne following the application of a sensitizing substance such as aminolevulinic acid or methyl aminolevulinate . This process is thought to kill bacteria and decrease the size and activity of the glands that produce sebum . As of 2012 , evidence for light therapy was insufficient to recommend it for routine use . Disadvantages of light therapy include its cost , the need for multiple visits , and the time required to complete the procedure . Light therapy appears to provide a short @-@ term benefit , but data for long @-@ term outcomes , and for outcomes in those with severe acne , are sparse . However , light therapy may have a role for individuals whose acne has been resistant to topical medications . Typical side effects of light therapy include skin peeling , temporary reddening of the skin , swelling , and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation .
Dermabrasion is an effective therapeutic procedure for reducing the appearance of superficial atrophic scars of the boxcar and rolling varieties . Ice @-@ pick scars do not respond well to treatment with dermabrasion due to their depth . However , the procedure is painful and has many potential side effects such as skin sensitivity to sunlight , redness , and decreased pigmentation of the skin . Dermabrasion has fallen out of favor with the introduction of laser resurfacing . Unlike dermabrasion , there is no evidence that microdermabrasion is an effective treatment for acne .
Laser resurfacing can be used to reduce the scars left behind by acne . Ablative fractional photothermolysis laser resurfacing was found to be more effective for reducing acne scar appearance than non @-@ ablative fractional photothermolysis , but was associated with higher rates of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation ( usually about one @-@ month duration ) , facial redness ( usually for 3 – 14 days ) , and pain during the procedure . As of 2012 , the evidence to support the routine use of laser resurfacing as a treatment modality for acne was insufficient . Many studies that evaluated this form of treatment did not have a control group , did not compare laser resurfacing to effective medical treatments , or were of a short duration , thus limiting the quality of the evidence .
Chemical peels can also be used to reduce the appearance of acne scars . Mild chemical peels include those using glycolic acid , lactic acid , salicylic acid , Jessner 's solution , or a lower concentration ( 20 % ) of trichloroacetic acid . These peels only affect the epidermal layer of the skin and can be useful in the treatment of superficial acne scars as well as skin pigmentation changes from inflammatory acne . Higher concentrations of trichloroacetic acid ( 30 – 40 % ) are considered to be medium @-@ strength peels and affect skin as deep as the papillary dermis . Formulations of trichloroacetic acid concentrated to 50 % or more are considered to be deep chemical peels . Medium- and deep @-@ strength chemical peels are more effective for deeper atrophic scars , but are more likely to cause side effects such as skin pigmentation changes , infection , or milia .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
In general , topically applied medications are considered the first @-@ line approach to acne treatment during pregnancy , as topical therapies have little systemic absorption and are therefore unlikely to harm a developing fetus . Highly recommended therapies include topically applied benzoyl peroxide ( category C ) and azelaic acid ( category B ) . Salicylic acid carries a category C safety rating due to higher systemic absorption ( 9 – 25 % ) and an association between the use of anti @-@ inflammatory medications in the third trimester of pregnancy and adverse effects to the developing fetus including oligohydramnios and early closure of the ductus arteriosus . Prolonged use of salicylic acid over significant areas of the skin or under occlusive dressings is not recommended as these methods increase systemic absorption and the potential for fetal harm . Tretinoin ( category C ) and adapalene ( category C ) are very poorly absorbed , but certain studies have suggested teratogenic effects in the first trimester . In studies examining the effects of topical retinoids during pregnancy , fetal harm has not been seen in the second and third trimesters . Retinoids contraindicated for use during pregnancy include the topical retinoid tazarotene ( category X ) and oral retinoids isotretinoin ( category X ) and acitretin ( category X ) . Spironolactone is relatively contraindicated for use during pregnancy due to its antiandrogen effects . Finasteride is also not recommended for use during pregnancy as it is highly teratogenic .
Topical antibiotics deemed safe during pregnancy include clindamycin ( category B ) , erythromycin ( category B ) and metronidazole ( category B ) , due to negligible systemic absorption . Nadifloxacin and dapsone ( category C ) are other topical antibiotics that may be used to treat acne in pregnant women , but have received less extensive study . No adverse fetal events have been reported in association with topical use of dapsone during pregnancy . If retinoids are used during pregnancy , there is a high risk of abnormalities occurring in the developing fetus ; therefore , women of childbearing age are required to use effective birth control if retinoids are used to treat acne . Oral antibiotics deemed safe for pregnancy ( all category B ) include azithromycin , cephalosporins , and penicillins . Tetracyclines ( category D ) are contraindicated during pregnancy as they are known to deposit in developing fetal teeth , resulting in yellow discoloration and thinned tooth enamel . Use of tetracyclines in pregnancy has also been associated with development of acute fatty liver of pregnancy and is avoided for this reason as well .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Numerous natural products have been investigated for treating people with acne . Low @-@ quality evidence suggests topical application of tea tree oil or bee venom may reduce the total number of skin lesions in those with acne . Tea tree oil is thought to be approximately as effective as benzoyl peroxide or salicylic acid , but has been associated with cases of allergic contact dermatitis . Proposed mechanisms for tea tree oil 's anti @-@ acne effects include antibacterial action against P. acnes and anti @-@ inflammatory properties . Numerous other plant @-@ derived therapies have been observed to have positive effects against acne ( e.g. , basil oil and oligosaccharides from seaweed ) ; however , few studies have been performed , and most have been of lower methodological quality . There is a lack of high @-@ quality evidence for the use of acupuncture , herbal medicine , or cupping therapy for acne .
= = Prognosis = =
Acne usually improves around the age of 20 , but may persist into adulthood . Permanent physical scarring may occur . There is good evidence to support the idea that acne has a negative psychological impact , and that it worsens mood , lowers self @-@ esteem , and is associated with a higher risk of anxiety , depression , and suicidal thoughts . Another psychological complication of acne vulgaris is acne excoriée , which occurs when a person persistently picks and scratches pimples , irrespective of the severity of their acne . This can lead to significant scarring , changes in the affected person 's skin pigmentation , and a cyclic worsening of the affected person 's anxiety about their appearance .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally , acne affects approximately 650 million people , or about 9 @.@ 4 % of the population , as of 2010 . It affects nearly 90 % of people in Western societies during their teenage years , and may persist into adulthood . Acne after the age of 25 affects 54 % of women and 40 % of men . Acne vulgaris has a lifetime prevalence of 85 % . About 20 % of those affected have moderate or severe cases . It is slightly more common in females than males ( 9 @.@ 8 % versus 9 @.@ 0 % ) . In those over 40 years old , 1 % of males and 5 % of females still have problems .
Rates appear to be lower in rural societies . While some research has found it affects people of all ethnic groups , acne may not occur in the non @-@ Westernized peoples of Papua New Guinea and Paraguay .
Acne affects 40 to 50 million people in the United States ( 16 % ) and approximately 3 to 5 million in Australia ( 23 % ) . In the United States , acne tends to be more severe in Caucasians than in people of African descent .
= = History = =
Since at least as long ago as the reign of Cleopatra , the application of sulfur to the skin has been recognized as a useful form of treatment for acne . The sixth @-@ century Greek physician Aëtius of Amida is credited with coining the term " ionthos " ( ίονθωξ , ) or " acnae " , which is believed to have been a reference to facial skin lesions that occur during " the ' acme ' of life " ( referring to puberty ) .
In the 16th century , the French physician and botanist François Boissier de Sauvages de Lacroix provided one of the earlier descriptions of acne and used the term " psydracia achne " to describe small , red and hard tubercles that altered a person 's facial appearance during adolescence and were neither itchy nor painful . The recognition and characterization of acne progressed in 1776 when Josef Plenck ( an Austrian physician ) published a book that proposed the novel concept of classifying skin diseases by their elementary ( initial ) lesions . Plenck 's work was later refined when the English dermatologist Robert Willan authored his seminal 1808 treatise , which provided the first detailed descriptions of several skin disorders with morphologic terminology that continues to be used today . Thomas Bateman continued and expanded on Robert Willan 's work as his student and provided the medical literature 's first descriptions and illustrations of acne accepted as accurate by modern dermatologists .
Dermatologists originally hypothesized that acne represented a disease of the skin 's hair follicle and occurred due to blockage of the pore by sebum . During the 1880s , bacteria were observed by microscopy in skin samples affected by acne and were regarded as the causal agents of comedones , sebum production , and ultimately acne . During the mid @-@ twentieth century , dermatologists realized that no single hypothesized factor ( sebum , bacteria , or excess keratin ) could completely explain the disease . This led dermatologists to propose the modernly accepted idea that acne could be explained by a sequence of related events , beginning with blockage of the skin follicle by excessive dead skin cells , followed by bacterial invasion of the hair follicle pore , changes in sebum production , and inflammation .
The approach to acne treatment also underwent significant changes during the twentieth century . Benzoyl peroxide was introduced as a medication to treat acne in the 1920s . Acne treatment was again modified in the 1950s with the introduction of oral tetracycline antibiotics ( such as minocycline ) , which reinforced the idea amongst dermatologists that bacterial growth on the skin plays an important role in causing acne . Subsequently , in the 1970s tretinoin ( original trade name Retin A ) was found to be an effective treatment for acne . This preceded the development of oral isotretinoin ( sold as Accutane and Roaccutane ) in 1980 . Following the introduction of isotretinoin in the United States , it was recognized as a medication highly likely to cause birth defects if taken during pregnancy . In the United States , more than 2 @,@ 000 women became pregnant while taking the drug between 1982 and 2003 , with most pregnancies ending in abortion or miscarriage . About 160 babies with birth defects were born .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cost = = =
The social and economic costs of treating acne vulgaris are substantial . In the United States , acne vulgaris is responsible for more than 5 million doctor visits and costs over $ 2 @.@ 5 billion each year in direct costs . Similarly , acne vulgaris is responsible for 3 @.@ 5 million doctor visits each year in the United Kingdom .
= = = Stigma = = =
Misperceptions about acne 's causative and aggravating factors are common and those affected by acne are often blamed for their condition . Such blame can worsen the affected person 's sense of self @-@ esteem . Acne vulgaris and its resultant scars have been associated with significant social difficulties that can last into adulthood .
= = Research = =
Efforts are underway to better understand the mechanisms involved in sebum production . The aim of this research is to develop medications targeting hormones known to increase sebum production ( e.g. , IGF @-@ 1 and alpha @-@ melanocyte @-@ stimulating hormone ) . Additional sebum @-@ lowering medications being researched include topical antiandrogens and PPAR modulators . Another avenue of early @-@ stage research has focused on how to best use laser and light therapy to selectively destroy sebaceous glands in the skin 's hair follicles to reduce sebum production and improve acne appearance .
The use of antimicrobial peptides against P. acnes is also under investigation as a novel method of treating acne and overcoming antibiotic resistance . In 2007 , the first genome sequencing of a P. acnes bacteriophage ( PA6 ) was reported . The authors proposed applying this research toward development of bacteriophage therapy as an acne treatment in order to overcome the problems associated with long @-@ term antibiotic therapy , such as bacterial resistance . Oral and topical probiotics are also being evaluated as treatments for acne . Probiotics have been hypothesized to have therapeutic effects for those affected by acne due to their ability to decrease skin inflammation and improve skin moisture by increasing the skin 's ceramide content . As of 2014 , studies examining the effects of probiotics on acne in humans were limited .
Decreased levels of retinoic acid in the skin may contribute to comedone formation . To address this deficiency , and potentially replace the use of irritating topical retinoids , methods to increase the skin 's production of retinoid acid are being explored . A vaccine against inflammatory acne has been tested successfully in mice , but has not yet been proven to be effective in humans . Other workers have voiced concerns related to creating a vaccine designed to neutralize a stable community of normal skin bacteria that is known to protect the skin from colonization by more harmful microorganisms .
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= Kajaani =
Kajaani ( Swedish : Kajana ) is a town and municipality in Finland . It is the center and capital of the Kainuu region . It is located southeast of Oulujärvi ( Lake Oulu ) , which drains to the Gulf of Bothnia along the Oulujoki ( river Oulu ) . As of 31 March 2016 , it had a population of 37 @,@ 646 inhabitants .
The town began in the 17th century , fuelled by the growth of the tar industry . It succumbed to Russian forces during the Greater Wrath of the 18th century , who ruined the Kajaani Castle in 1716 . Today , the local economy is driven by mainly the sawmill , lumber and paper industries , although UPM Kymmene 's Kajaani paper mill , the main employer from 1907 until 2008 , has now closed . Kajaani Church was built in 1896 in the Neo @-@ Gothic style by architect Jac Ahrenberg , replacing an earlier church . Kajaani Town Theatre was established in 1969 .
Kajaani is home to two football clubs , AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka , and ice hockey team Hokki . Kajaani University of Applied Sciences , a small university of applied sciences , was established in 1992 .
= = History = =
Kajaani was one of the cities founded in 1651 by the Swedish Governor General of Finland , Per Brahe . At that time , the Kainuu region — as wood country — was an important producer of tar derived from pine , and the tar trade was its major industry . In 1653 @-@ 4 the district court sessions of Kajaani and Sotkamo were responsible for authorizing a road to be built between Säräisniemi and Raahe , improving communications in the region .
During the Greater Wrath in the 18th century , Kajaani Castle was forced to surrender to Russian forces . The Russians blew the castle up in March 1716 , and it has been in ruins ever since . On 17 October 1808 , General Johan August Sandels won a key victory to the south of Kajaani near Iisalmi during the Battle of Koljonvirta of the Finnish War , when his army of just 1 @,@ 800 defeated over 6 @,@ 000 Russians . There is a monument on the east side of the river marking where the spot where Lieutenant Jakob Henrik Zidén and Major @-@ General Mikhail Petrovich Dolgorukov fell .
In early 1833 , medical doctor Elias Lönnrot , best known for compiling Kalevala , the national epic of Finland , was appointed district physician in Kajaani and was assigned to assist in dealing with the typhoid and cholera epidemic which was raging during the 1830s . Disease was difficult to treat and he soon fell ill himself with typhus at the end of February 1833 but recovered . Kajaani was severely affected by famine in 1867 @-@ 1868 which devastated much of Finland , but the town gradually recovered and by the end of the century had grown to more than 1200 inhabitants . Kajaani Town Hall was built in 1831 , the former City Library in 1852 , Kainuu 's first elementary school in 1883 , and Kajaani Church in 1896 as it grew into a notable settlement .
The paper industry took off in Kajaani in the early 20th century in particular . Kajaani Paper Mill was built in 1907 and was run by the firm Kajaani Oy , which had a capital of FMK 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( £ 137 @,@ 615 ) in 1948 . Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983 , and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed . Ämmäkoski power plant was built on the river in 1917 by the Kajaani Lumber Company , and underwent alterations under architect Eino Pitkänen in the 1940s .
The city 's population grew in the 1960s to 14 @,@ 600 inhabitants . Industrial development in the 1970s , and the merger of the separate rural municipality of Kajaani , Kajaanin maalaiskunta , and the city in 1977 saw the population jump to 34 @,@ 574 by 1980 . Vuolijoki was consolidated with Kajaani at the beginning of 2007 .
In 2012 , an oil spill occurred in Kajaani . 110 @,@ 000 liters of oily water leaked into a river that eventually flowed into the Oulujärvi lake .
= = Geography = =
Kajaani is situated in the heart of central Finland . By road is it 558 kilometres ( 347 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Helsinki , 170 kilometres ( 110 mi ) north of Kuopio , and 182 kilometres ( 113 mi ) southeast of Oulu . Villages in the vicinity include Jormua , Koutaniemi , Kuluntalahti , Lahnasjärvi , Lehtovaara , Linnantaus , Mainua , Murtomäki and Paltaniemi . Districts of Kajaani include : Heinisuo , Hetteenmäki , Hoikankangas , Huuhkajanvaara , Katiska , Kettu , Komiaho , Kuurna , Kylmä , Kättö , Kätönlahti , Laajankangas , Lehtikangas , Lohtaja , Nakertaja , Onnela , Palokangas , Petäisenniska , Puistola , Purola , Soidinsuo , Suvantola , Teppana , Tihisenniemi , Tikkapuro , Variskangas and Yläkaupunki .
Kajaani lies on the Kajaani River , between the lakes of Oulujärvi , which drains to the Gulf of Bothnia along the Oulu River , and Nuasjärvi . Between Kajaani and Oulujärvi are the smaller lakes of Sokajärvi and Paltajärvi , which are frozen during winter . Paltajärvi stands between the Kajaani River and Oulujärvi . The Kajaani and Vuolijoki rivers are noted for their fishing . Cuckoo Island ( Käkisaari ) lies on Oulu lake to the northwest of the town and features residential houses and about 150 summer cottages and holiday apartments , and Caterpillar Island ( Toukka ) lies in the eastern part of the lake . Also within the municipality is the 34 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 13 @.@ 4 sq mi ) Laakajärvi , a lake with a maximum depth of 25 metres ( 82 ft ) , which is a notable nesting area for Great black @-@ backed gull and ospreys .
The surrounding area is dominated by mainly conifer forest , with broad @-@ leafed birch and alder woods on some of the steeper banks and streams . An early 20th century analysis of vegetation cover in Kajaani county recorded 385 different species of vascular plants . Talaskangas Nature Reserve , with nearly pristine natural forest and about 50 different wildlife species , is in the Vieremä and Sonkajärvi local area . Logging was planned in the 1980s , but environmental activists prevented exploitation through lobbying . The reserve was formally established in 1994 .
= = = Climate = = =
Kajaani lies within the subarctic climate zone , but the proximity of the Baltic Sea and warm airflows from the Atlantic result in a much milder climate than many locations in this latitude . Summers are cool , with the hottest month usually in July with an average temperature of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , although sometimes during a heatwave highs of 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) can be reached in summer months between June and September . The summers also have the most rainfall , reaching a peak in August with 48 @.@ 8 mm ( 2 in ) , but rainfall is fairly constant out the year with no dry season . Winters can be harsh , and temperatures can drop below − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) . The peak of the cold season on average lasts from December 11 to March 8 , with an average daily high temperature below − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) , with the greatest snowfall in January .
= = Demographics = =
As of 31 March 2016 , the municipality has a population of 37 @,@ 646 ( around 34 @,@ 000 in the town itself ) and covers an area of 2 @,@ 264 @.@ 01 square kilometres ( 874 @.@ 14 sq mi ) of which 428 @.@ 94 km2 ( 165 @.@ 61 sq mi ) is water . The population density is 20 @.@ 51 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 53 @.@ 1 / sq mi ) .
The municipality is unilingually Finnish ( only 0 @.@ 09 % of people from Kajaani speak Swedish as their first language ) .
= = Government = =
The Kajaani City Council consists of 51 members and following the 2012 municipal election the seats are divided for the Centre Party ( 13 ) , the Finns Party ( 9 ) , the National Coalition Party ( 8 ) , the Left Alliance ( 8 ) , the Social Democratic Party ( 7 ) , independent ( 3 ) , the Green League ( 2 ) and the Christian Democrats ( 1 ) . The chairperson of the City Council is Jaana Sankilampi from the Finns Party . The City Government , which includes all parties with the exception of the Christian Democrats and independents , is headed by Marjatta Immonen . The Mayor , whose duty is that of a civil servant independent of the city council , is Jari Tolonen .
= = Economy = =
The budgeted income of Kajaani was FIM 930 million in 1996 . In its earlier history , Kajaani was a thriving center of the tar industry . A channel built in 1846 especially for the transportation of tar out of the town still exists today .
Today the local economy is driven by mainly the sawmill , lumber and paper industries . Kajaani paper mill , established in 1907 by Kajaani Oy ( ex Kajaanin Puutavara Osakeyhtio ) , was the largest private employer in Kajaani . The factories are on the river bank , at Tihisenniemi . They built a new paper machine in the town in 1980 which was projected to have an annual output of 170 @,@ 000 tons . Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983 , and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed . Kajaani Electronics was cited as " one of the leading makers of special sensors and analyzers for the pulp and paper industry " in 1990 . When the paper mill was acquired by UPM Kymmene in 1989 it became the third @-@ largest paper company in Finland . It closed in 2008 due to lack of profitability and high energy costs , but has since continued its operations , and was sold to Pölkky Oy in 2012 .
In the early 1970s an electronics manufacturing plant was built in Kajaani , and the firm Kajaani Automation was established in 1980 . As of 1999 the peat industry in Kajaani earned FIM 0 @.@ 5 million annually . Some 222 hectares is allocated to peat production , with private firm Vapo Oy contracted to exploit it and deliver peat to the power plant .
According to 1999 figures , Kajaani earns FIM 3 million a year by selling forestry products , and also receives a sizable income from tourist @-@ related activities from its forests . Fishing also contributes to the income of people in the town . Kajaani has three main hotels , the 191 @-@ room Scandic Kajanus Kajaani , Hotel Kajaani and Original Sokos Hotel Valjus , although the Karolineburg Manor House now also functions as a hotel with 20 rooms . The Sirius restaurant , cited as the best restaurant in the town , serves Finnish cuisine , and is housed in a former government building which hosted conferences between Leonid Brezhnev and Urho Kekkonen . Also of note is the Chinese restaurant Golden Dragon , the Torero which serves Spanish cuisine , Hospoda Kourna and Pikantti . The Central Hospital of Kainuu , which serves the wider region , is situated in Kajaani . Opened in 1968 , it has a number of specialist medical departments andworks in cooperation with the Oulu University Hospital . The town also has an eye clinic .
Kainuu Brigade , a unit of the Finnish Army established in 1966 , is the third biggest employer in the city . The brigade trains around 4 @,@ 000 conscripts each year and employs 500 military personnel and 100 civilians .
= = Landmarks = =
Kajaani Castle , located on an island on the Kajaani river in the centre of the city , was originally built in 1604 and was commissioned by Charles IX of Sweden . The castle served as an administrative centre , prison , military base and a refuge for the citizens . The Town Hall of Kajaani , on the main square , Raatihuoneentori , was built to the design of Carl Engel in 1831 with a central rooftop clocktower and turret . It underwent restoration in 1990 when it was painted in a " fetching yellow ochre " color .
Kajaani Church was built in 1896 in the Neo @-@ Gothic style by architect Jac Ahrenberg . It replaced an earlier church on the spot which was originally built in 1656 and destroyed by the Russians in 1716 at the time when Kajaani castle was destroyed . The second church was built 1734 @-@ 35 which served the parish for 160 years until replaced with Ahrenberg 's new church . The church , built from wood , has three naves and features a delicate , slender bell tower . It is decorated with English Gothic style carvings . Kajaani Orthodox Church ( Kajaanin ortodoksinen seurakunta ) , which has a regional membership of about 1880 members is centred at Christ Church of the Transfiguration in Kajaani . The church was completed in 1959 to designs by Ilmari Ahonen . It contains murals painted by Petros Sasaki and Alkiviadis Kepolas . In the suburb of Paltaniemi is a church , originally built in 1599 , and considered to be the regional centre for the Lutheran Church .
There is a mosque in the town , which is the center of the regional Kainuu Islamic community , which in 2013 had 174 members . Eino Leno House , containing a cafe , was built in 1978 to commemorate famous poet Eino Leino , a native of the town . Keisarintalli , a wooden stable , was used as a boarding house for Tsar Alexander I of Russia during his tour of Finland in 1819 . Also of note is the Urho Kekkonen Memorial , dedicated to the first Finnish president , Urho Kekkonen . The 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high monument was carved by sculptor Pekka Kauhanen and was unveiled on 3 September 1990 , exactly 90 years after Kekkonen 's birth .
= = Culture = =
The Kajaani Town Theatre , established in 1969 , puts on plays and concerts , typically seen by around 200 people . The Art Museum of Kajaani ( Kajaanin taidemuseo ) , located in a building that was a police station , which is connected to Kajaani 's former city hall. was founded in 1993 and centers on Finnish modern art . Kainuu Museum ( Kainuun museo ) displays information related to the tar industry , the Kalevala ( the national epic of Finland ) and author Elias Lönnrot and others on the ground floor , and regularly hosts temporary exhibitions upstairs .
The most notable annual cultural events in Kajaani are Kajaanin Runoviikko ( The Kajaani Poetry Week ) , originally known as Sana ja Sävel , and Kainuun JazzKevät ( The Kainuu Jazz Spring ) . Kajaani Orchestra began in the 1950s , and was expanded when the Kuopio garrison band moved to Kajaani in 1963 .
Radio Kajaus , one of Finland 's oldest local radios , began operations in Kajaani in 1989 , and remains one of the few completely independent radio stations in Finland . Kainuu Radio , which belongs to the Yle , broadcasts Monday to Friday from 6 @.@ 30 to 17 @.@ 00 .
= = Education = =
The town is served by the Kajaani University of Applied Sciences , a small university of applied sciences which was established in 1992 . It provides courses in Activity Tourism , Information Systems , Nursing and Healthcare , Mechanical and Mining Engineering and Business and Innovations , and offers 8 Bachelor 's degree programmes and 5 Master programmes delivered in Finnish . The Research Center for Developmental Teaching and Learning at Kajaani University Consortium is associated with the University of Oulu . There is also a polytechnical institute in Kajaani , which had an enrollment of 653 students in the mid 1990s .
The government @-@ run Kainuu Music Institute was founded in 1957 , and is part of the Kaukametsä Congress and Culture Centre . It is one of the largest musical institutes in Finland , with an enrollment of about 900 from the wider Kainuu region . Kainuu Music dance department Ballet Kaukametsä teaches dance to dancers of different ages . The public library of Kajaani is situated on Kauppakatu street and has free Internet access , and there is also a mobile library service . The Kajaani Journal has been publishing since at least 1919 .
= = Sports = =
Kajaani has two football clubs , AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka . AC Kajaani was formed in 2006 after the merger of FC Tarmo and Kajaanin Palloilijat ( KaPa ) , and plays their home games at the Kajaanin Liikuntapuisto . The men 's football first team currently plays in the Kakkonen ( Division 2 ) . Kajaanin Haka was formed in 1953 and plays at the Kajaanin liikuntapuisto stadium . The men 's football first team currently plays in the Kolmonen ( Division 3 ) . The local ice hockey team , Hokki , plays in the Mestis league . Kajaani ice rink ( Kajaanin jäähalli ) was inaugurated in 1989 and accommodates for 2372 spectators , 781 in seating and 1591 in standing . There is a race course ( Kajaanin ravirata ) about 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the north of the centre of Kajaani in Kuluntalahden , which hosts competitions only during the summer season . The track was completed in 2008 with a new café @-@ restaurant .
Kajaani has hiking paths , skiing tracks , gyms , and sports grounds within the municipality . Pöllyvaara and the Vimpeli Hills are notable local ski areas , frequented by tourists during the winter months . Fishing is popular along the banks of the river . Kajaani also has a golf course , and there are also several dancing pavilions in the town .
= = Transport = =
There is a daily bus service operating between Kajaani , Oulu , Kemijärvi and Rukatunturi , and Bus No.4 runs hourly during weekdays from Pohjolankatu in Kajaani to Paltaniemi . During the summer months there is a cruise service operating between Joensuu and Nurmes . Kajaani railway station opened in 1905 when the railway from Iisalmi to Kajaani was completed as an extension to the Savonia railroad . The station building was designed by Gustaf Nyström . The Kajaani station trackyard underwent significant upgrading and repair work in 2005 , when the railway from Iisalmi to Kontiomäki was electrified . Four trains arrive daily from Helsinki via Kouvola and Kuopio , with the journey taking 7 – 10 hours to Helsinki depending on the train . There are also daily trains from Joensuu , and connecting trains between Nurmes and Kajaani .
Kajaani Airport , approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) northwest of Kajaani in the Paltaniemi area , is the main local airport . It is operated by Finavia , and also serves needs of non @-@ commercial general aviation . Construction of the airport began in 1939 with the runway being completed in the autumn , but due to World War it was not fully opened until 22 June 1956 . Aegean Airlines and Flybe Nordic provides flights to Chania and Helsinki . The Finnair connection to Helsinki operates during the summer twice daily and three times a day during the winter schedule period . In 2013 the airport served 74 @,@ 558 passengers .
= = Notable people = =
Antti Halonen , ice hockey player
Eino Leino , poet and journalist
Henrik Flöjt , biathlon athlete
Jorma Korhonen , judoka
Jouko Karjalainen , skier
Marko Kemppainen , skeet shooter
Matti Heikkinen , skier
Olli Malmivaara , ice hockey player
Pekka Suorsa , ski jumper
Riku Nieminen , actor and dancer
Sakari Kukko , musician
Tommi Leinonen , ice hockey player
Urho Kekkonen , 8th President of Finland
Kasperi Heikkinen , Guitar player
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns — Sister cities = = =
Kajaani is twinned with :
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= Kang and Kodos =
Kang and Kodos Johnson are a duo of recurring characters in the animated television series The Simpsons . Kang is voiced by Harry Shearer and Kodos by Dan Castellaneta . They are aliens from the fictional planet Rigel VII and appear almost exclusively in the " Treehouse of Horror " episodes . The duo has appeared in at least one segment of all twenty @-@ six Treehouse of Horror episodes . Sometimes their appearance is the focus of a plot , other times a brief cameo . Kang and Kodos are often bent on the conquest of Earth and are usually seen working on sinister plans to invade and subjugate humanity .
The duo first appeared in season two 's " Treehouse of Horror " . The first drawing of Kang and Kodos came from writers Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . The finished design was based on an EC Comics issue cover . Kang and Kodos had brief cameo appearances in several non- " Treehouse of Horror " episodes and have appeared as villains in several of The Simpsons video games .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Speaking " Rigellian " , which coincidentally sounds exactly like English , Kang and Kodos are Rigellians from the planet Rigel VII . Virtually identical in appearance , wearing breathing helmets , one of the few distinguishing characteristics is the duo 's voices as Kang 's is deeper . In most appearances they are antagonistic towards humanity . One exception is Kang and Kodos 's first appearance in " Treehouse of Horror " , where they capture the Simpson family and feed them exquisite cuisine . Lisa becomes suspicious of their intentions and accuses Kang and Kodos of wanting to eat the Simpson family . Kang and Kodos deny this accusation and are outraged . Afterwards both take the Simpsons back to Earth . Kang and Kodos have invaded the Earth on several occasions , with varying results . In 1996 , Kang and Kodos impersonated Bill Clinton and Bob Dole and ran against each other in the 1996 election . At first , Americans declared they would vote for a third party candidate , but Kang convinced them that the option would be a waste of a vote . As a result , Kang was elected president . In their second appearance , they decided to take over the Earth after citizens had declared world peace , but ultimately failed . Kang and Kodos 's religion is " Quantum Presbyterians " , although Kodos later claims to be Jewish . Other Rigellians that have appeared include Serak the Preparer , who was voiced by James Earl Jones and only appeared in " Treehouse of Horror " .
Kang and Kodos have appeared in every " Treehouse of Horror " episode to date , and have played major roles in " Treehouse of Horror I " , " Treehouse of Horror II " , " Treehouse of Horror VII " , " Treehouse of Horror IX " , " Treehouse of Horror XVII " , " Treehouse of Horror XVIII " . and " Treehouse of Horror XXII . The rest of their appearances were cameos , although both appeared in the opening segment of " Treehouse of Horror X " , " Treehouse of Horror XIV " , " Treehouse of Horror XV " and " Treehouse of Horror XVI " . Kang and Kodos 's cameo appearances normally occur in the midst of segments , which will suddenly cut away to the duo . For example , Kang and Kodos observe zombies attacking Earth from space . The duo laugh maniacally at the Earthlings ' suffering , before the scene is switched back from space to Earth . Kang and Kodos have made rare appearances in non- " Treehouse of Horror " episodes , such as " Behind the Laughter " and " Gump Roast " , and had a non @-@ speaking cameo in " The Springfield Files " on a line @-@ up with other aliens . Also , the duo can be seen in the crowd flyby during the updated HD opener .
In the episode " The Man Who Came to Be Dinner " , Kang and Kodos have one of their few canon appearances . The Simpsons end up on Rigel VII where Kang and Kodos give them a tour and a brief look at their lifecycle before placing them in a zoo with one of them , Homer , to be eaten in a yearly ritual . But after it is revealed that human consumption is fatal to their kind due to their unhealthy diet , their queen killed as a result , the Rigellans send the Simpsons back to Earth .
In one Treehouse of Horror episode , Kang claims to be Maggie 's father , the result of an experiment to breed two different species.Though this episode was non @-@ canon , hints of Maggie 's Rigellian heretige have been hidden throughout " The Simpsons " .
= = Characters = =
= = = Creation = = =
Kang and Kodos first appeared in the second season in " Treehouse of Horror " . The idea of Kang and Kodos came from Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , writers of " Hungry are the Damned " . In the script , Kang and Kodos were shown as " an octopus in a space helmet with a trail of goo " . The finished design was based on EC Comics cover issue . Although originally designed to constantly drool , Matt Groening suggested that they not drool all the time to make the animation process easier . However , the animators did not mind the work , leading to the drooling staying in the script . Kang and Kodos 's names are derived from two Star Trek characters . Kang was a Klingon captain portrayed by actor Michael Ansara in " Day of the Dove " , whereas Kodos the Executioner was a human villain from " The Conscience of the King " . Harry Shearer voices Kang , and Dan Castellaneta voices Kodos . An unofficial rule for the writers is that Kang and Kodos must appear in every Halloween episode . Despite this rule , the writers say the duo will often be forgotten and are added at the last second , leading to brief appearances .
= = = Development = = =
Traditionally , Kang and Kodos appeared in every single Treehouse of Horror episode as a part of a story 's plotline or as cameos . They almost did not make the cut in " Treehouse of Horror VIII " , but David X. Cohen managed to persuade the producers to keep the scene . Kang however didn 't appear in Treehouse of Horror XXI . Kang and Kodos were originally going to make regular appearances in the show . One idea was only Homer would be able to see them and everyone else thinking Homer is crazy when he talked about the aliens . However the concept was " too far out " , leading to characters only featured in the " Treehouse of Horror " specials . In some appearances , Kang and Kodos will laugh hysterically for several seconds . This was suggested by Sam Simon . During production , the episodes would often be too short ; so to make more time , their laughter was lengthened .
Kodos ' gender has come into debate from fans . In " Treehouse of Horror VII " , Kang introduces Kodos with " This is my sister Kodos " . The line was pitched by George Meyer and was even somewhat followed in later episodes as the writers tried to make Kang the more dominant of the two . In previous and subsequent episodes , Kodos has been referred to as a male . In The Simpsons : Tapped Out video game , Kodos , but not Kang , is sent on a mission that only female characters are allowed to complete . In the Futurama crossover episode " Simpsorama " , Kang and Kodos , referred to as " the Johnsons " , visit recurring Futurama characters Lrrr and Ndnd for dinner in the 31st century , and both identify themselves as female .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Kang and Kodos have appeared in several different The Simpsons video games . The duo appear in the The Simpsons : Road Rage ending , and Kang appears as the final boss character in The Simpsons Wrestling game . Kang and Kodos appear in cut scenes as the main villains 2003 's The Simpsons : Hit & Run . In an attempt to collect new material for their failing reality TV show , Foolish Earthlings , Kang and Kodos plan to drug Springfield with a mind @-@ control serum distributed through their " New and Improved Buzz Cola " product . After drinking the cola , the brainwashed people performed stupid stunts under the watchful view of wasp @-@ like surveillance cameras , all for the sake of better ratings . They also appeared as villains in The Simpsons Game along with an army of other Rigellians , but like Simpsons Hit & Run Kang and Kodos only appear in cutscenes . In The Simpsons Tapped Out , Kang was a premium Character for 2012 Halloween , and Kodos followed in the 2013 Halloween .
In 2001 , Kang and Kodos were made into separate action figures in the World of Springfield toy line . Along with their spaceship , Kang and Kodos were included with the " Treehouse of Horror II " set exclusive to Toys @-@ R @-@ Us . The two also have a brief cameo in The Simpsons Ride . In 2013 , a separate ride called Kang & Kodos ' Twirl ' n ' Hurl was added in the vicinity of The Simpsons Ride in Universal Studios Florida park .
In 2009 , Kang and Kodos were also made into 6 " collectible vinyl art toys by Kidrobot x The Simpsons . Kang was sculpted salivating and included an accessory book " How to Cook for Forty Humans " . Kodos was the chase figure in the release , and the accessory included was a space gun . Both will be released again by Kidrobot x The Simpsons for The Treehouse of Horrors 3 " Blind Box release along with 10 other characters from the Treehouse series on September 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Several of the " Treehouse of Horror " episodes featuring the duo have been well received . In 2006 , James Earl Jones , voice of Serak the Preparer in " Treehouse of Horror " , was named seventh on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list . Jones also appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . " Treehouse of Horror VII " is Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's seventh favorite episode . Groening 's favorite line from the episode is from Kodos ; " We have reached the limits of what rectal probing can teach us . " In 2006 , IGN.com published a list of the top ten Treehouse of Horror segments , and several segments that feature Kang and Kodos were placed , including " Hungry Are The Damned " , " Citizen Kang " and " Starship Poopers " .
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= Transandinomys bolivaris =
Transandinomys bolivaris , also known as the long @-@ whiskered rice rat , is a rodent in the genus Transandinomys . It is found in humid forest from northeastern Honduras to western Ecuador , up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level . Since it was first described in 1901 from Ecuador , six scientific names have been introduced for it , but their common identity was not documented until 1998 and the species has long been known under the name Oryzomys bombycinus , described from Panama in 1912 . The name Oryzomys bolivaris was used before it was moved to the new genus Transandinomys with Transandinomys talamancae ( formerly Oryzomys talamancae ) in 2006 .
It is a medium @-@ sized rice rat distinguished by its very long vibrissae ( whiskers ) — those above the eyes are up to 50 mm ( 2 in ) long . The fur , which is soft and dense , is usually dark brown above and light gray below ; it is darker in juveniles . The feet are long and the tail is about as long as the head and body . The skull is narrow and has a broad interorbital region ( between the eyes ) . The species generally lives on the ground . Although it is rare , its conservation status is thought to be secure .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1901 , Joel Asaph Allen described four new species of rice rat in the genus Oryzomys : three from Ecuador and the Peruvian Oryzomys perenensis . The three Ecuadorian species – Oryzomys bolivaris from Porvenir , Bolívar Province ; Oryzomys castaneus from San Javier , Esmeraldas Province ; and Oryzomys rivularis from Río Verde , Pichincha Province — were each based on a single specimen collected in 1899 or 1900 . He distinguished the three on the basis of coloration , size , and relative tail length . Philip Hershkovitz listed all three among the many synonyms of " Oryzomys laticeps " ( currently more narrowly defined as Hylaeamys laticeps ) in a 1960 paper .
Edward Alphonso Goldman described Oryzomys bombycinus in 1912 from four specimens from Panama . He compared it to Oryzomys talamancae and placed it with the " Oryzomys laticeps group " . Three years later , he described Oryzomys nitidus alleni from Costa Rica as a subspecies of Oryzomys nitidus , without mentioning bombycinus . He revised Oryzomys of North America in 1918 and recognized Oryzomys bombycinus as the only member of its own group , with alleni as a subspecies distinguished by the proportions of the skull . He also mentioned that the group occurred in Ecuador and indicated that O. bombycinus probably reached Colombia . Goldman considered the group to be similar to O. talamancae , but suggested that bombycinus and alleni might only be subspecies of O. nitidus . In 1939 , Oliver Pearson added a third subspecies , O. b. orinus , from eastern Panama , and in 1966 the species was first recorded from Colombia . Ronald Pine reviewed Oryzomys bombycinus in 1971 , when 59 specimens of it were known , and first recorded the species from Nicaragua and Ecuador . He kept the three described subspecies — alleni from Nicaragua to western Panama , bombycinus from central Panama , and orinus from eastern Panama to Ecuador .
Alfred Gardner and James Patton suggested in 1976 that Allen 's O. rivularis may be the same species as O. bombycinus . They considered O. bolivaris as probably the same as O. nitidus and listed castaneus as a synonym of O. capito ( equivalent to modern Hylaeamys megacephalus and closely related species plus Transandinomys talamancae ) . In 1984 , Benshoof and colleagues reported the first record of Oryzomys bombycinus from Honduras . Guy Musser and Marina Williams reviewed O. talamancae in 1985 and included O. castaneus as one of its synonyms , though without having examined the holotype . In the 1993 second edition of Mammal Species of the World , Musser and Michael Carleton used the name Oryzomys bolivaris for the species previously known as O. bombycinus , and in 1998 , Musser and colleagues fully documented the allocation of the names bolivaris , castaneus , rivularis , bombycinus , alleni , and orinus to the same species , Oryzomys bolivaris . They noted its similarity to O. talamancae , but did not attempt to determine phylogenetic relationships among the species they discussed . In their limited material , they found geographic variation within the species inconsequential and they recognized no subspecies .
In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler published a phylogenetic analysis of Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , the tribe to which Oryzomys is allocated , using morphological and DNA sequence data . His results showed species of Oryzomys dispersed across Oryzomyini and suggested that most species in the genus should be allocated to new genera . Later in the same year , he , together with Alexandre Percequillo and Robert Voss , named ten new genera for these species , including Transandinomys , which has Oryzomys talamancae ( now Transandinomys talamancae ) as its type species . They also included Oryzomys bolivaris in Transandinomys , so that it is now named Transandinomys bolivaris , although it had not been included in Weksler 's phylogenetic study . The two species are morphologically similar , but they could identify only one synapomorphy ( shared @-@ derived trait ) for them : very long superciliary vibrissae ( whiskers above the eyes ) . Transandinomys is one of about 30 genera in Oryzomyini , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
Various authors have used the common name " long @-@ whiskered rice rat " for this species , but several other names have been proposed . In 1918 , Goldman named O. bombycinus bombycinus the " Long @-@ Haired Rice Rat " and O. b. alleni the " Allen Rice Rat " . Musser and Carleton , writing in the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , used " Long @-@ whiskered Oryzomys " , the 2009 IUCN Red List gave " Bolivar Rice Rat " , and Thomas Lee and colleagues used " Long @-@ whiskered Trans @-@ Andean Rice Rat " in 2010 .
= = Description = =
Transandinomys bolivaris is a medium @-@ sized rice rat with very long superciliary vibrissae ( more than 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and extending well beyond the ears when laid back against the head ) . According to Fiona Reid 's Mammals of Southeastern Mexico & Central America , it is distinguishable from any similarly sized rice rats by the length of these whiskers ; T. talamancae also has long superciliary vibrissae , but not as long as in T. bolivaris . In both species , the mystacial vibrissae ( above the mouth ) are also long and extend beyond the ears when laid back , but they are again much longer in T. bolivaris . The vibrissae are mostly dark , but translucent at the tips . Handleyomys alfaroi , a rice rat with which young T. bolivaris are often confused , is much smaller . In T. bolivaris , the cheeks may be light gray , buff , or reddish . The ears are dark brown to black and are sparsely haired .
The fur , which is soft , dense , and thick , is dark brown to gray on the upperparts , grading to black on the midback and yellowish brown on the sides . The underparts are sharply different in color . There , the hairs are dark gray at their bases and white at the tips , so that the fur appears grayish white . The fur is shorter and darker than in T. talamancae and softer and thicker than in H. alfaroi . Young animals have darker , finer , and softer fur . Pine separated the subspecies alleni and orinus on the basis of their darker fur , but Musser and colleagues could not confirm this pattern and found paler and darker specimens within the same geographical regions .
The tail appears naked and is shorter than or about as long as the head and body ; it is longer in T. talamancae . Its coloration is variable ; it is dark brown above and at the sides and light brown and often white to a greater or smaller extent below , and in some specimens the tail has the same color above and below . The scales on the tail are smaller than in T. talamancae .
The forearms are dark gray . The forefeet are unpigmented and ungual tufts of white hairs surround the equally unpigmented claws . The animal has long , narrow hindfeet , longer than in T. talamancae , with usually smooth soles ( lacking squamae , which are present in T. talamancae ) . The three middle digits are much longer than the outer two . Six pads are present on the sole . The upper surface and the sides of the hindfeet are white and appear naked , although short , white hairs are present ; these hairs are longer in T. talamancae . Ungual tufts of long , white or gray hairs are present around the claws , which are short and lack pigment .
Head and body length is 100 to 140 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) , tail length 90 to 130 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) , hindfoot length 27 to 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , ear length 16 to 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 83 in ) , and body mass 39 to 75 g ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 6 oz ) . Females have four pairs of mammae , as usual in oryzomyines . Like most rice rats , T. bolivaris has twelve thoracic ( chest ) and seven lumbar vertebrae . A study in Costa Rica found that there are 58 chromosomes , including many that are large and have two arms , and the fundamental number of arms is 80 ( 2n |
= 58 , FN =
80 ) , a highly differentiated karyotype . The karyotype of T. talamancae is variable , but has fewer chromosomes ( 34 to 54 ) and major arms ( 60 to 67 ) . H. alfaroi has more chromosomes ( 60 to 62 ) and major arms ( 100 to 104 ) .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
The skull is relatively long and has a long , narrow rostrum ( front region ) , broad interorbital region ( between the eyes ) and narrow braincase with almost vertically oriented walls at the sides and behind . It differs from that of T. talamancae in various proportions . Although the subspecies previously recognized in " Oryzomys bombycinus " have been separated by small differences in skull features , Pine rejected these on the basis of his much larger samples . Musser and colleagues agreed , but noted that Colombian animals appeared to have larger skulls . The zygomatic plates are broad and the zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) behind them are nearly parallel to each other . The margins of the interorbital region contain prominent beads , which extend to the braincase as temporal ridges ; these are usually less well @-@ developed in T. talamancae . Unlike in T. talamancae and H. alfaroi , the parietal bone is usually limited to the roof of the braincase and does not extend to the sides .
The incisive foramina , which perforate the front part of the palate , do not extend between the molars . The palate ends beyond the third molars and is perforated by posterolateral palatal pits there . Behind it , the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa is perforated by poorly developed sphenopalatine vacuities . The auditory bullae , which house the inner ear , are large . Usually , the mastoid bone lacks openings ( fenestrae ) , which are present in T. talamancae . The pattern of the arteries in the head is primitive , as indicated by the condition of various foramina ( openings ) and grooves in the skull .
The mandible ( lower jaw ) looks chunky and has a long condyloid process at its back ; that of T. talamancae is more slender . The capsular process , a projection at the back of the jaw which houses the root of the lower incisor , is poorly developed .
The incisors are large and ungrooved . Their enamel is orange , but paler on the lowers . The orientation of the upper incisors is opisthodont , with the cutting edge oriented backwards . The molars are brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) and have two rows of main cusps separated by deep valleys and complemented by a network of crests and smaller cusps . The first upper molar is broader than in T. talamancae . As in this species , but unlike in many other rice rats , including H. alfaroi , the mesoflexus on the second upper molar , which separates the paracone ( one of the main cusps ) from the mesoloph ( an accessory crest ) , is not divided in two by an enamel bridge . The hypoflexid on the second lower molar , the main valley between the cusps , is very long , extending more than halfway across the tooth ; in this trait , it is similar to T. talamancae but unlike H. alfaroi . Each of the upper molars has three roots ( two on the outer and one on the inner side ) and each of the lowers has two ( one at the front and another at the back ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =
Transandinomys bolivaris is an uncommon species . Its known distribution extends from northeastern Honduras , on the Caribbean seaboard , through eastern Nicaragua , Costa Rica , and Panama , into coastal western Colombia and northwestern and west @-@ central Ecuador . It has been found near sea level and the upper altitudinal records are at nearly 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) in Panama and 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in Ecuador . This distribution coincides with that of the humid Transandean forest . It generally occurs in areas with mean temperatures above 16 ° C ( 60 @.@ 8 ° F ) and annual rainfall of 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 mm ( 157 to 236 in ) , prefers mid @-@ elevation forests ( 600 to 900 m or 1 @,@ 970 to 2 @,@ 950 ft ) , and often occurs near water . The actual range of this species may be expected to extend further north and west , perhaps into Veracruz , southern Mexico , and western Venezuela , where it has not yet been recorded . Omar Linares mentioned a possible record from the Lake Maracaibo region of northwestern Venezuela in 1998 . Its range is similar to that of various other rainforest animals , including the semiplumbeous hawk ( Leucopternis semiplumbeus ) , the rice rats Sigmodontomys alfari and S. aphrastus , the spiny rats Proechimys semispinosus and Hoplomys gymnurus , and the opossum Marmosa zeledoni . T. talamancae and H. alfaroi are often found in the same localities as T. bolivaris , but also occur in other areas .
Little is known of its biology . The species mainly lives on the ground , but some young animals have been taken in vegetation , up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) above the ground . It is usually captured " under logs , around the roots of large trees , or among rocks along streams . " Two females with four embryos each have been caught in Panama in June , one with two in Nicaragua in September , and one with four in Costa Rica in December . A very young specimen was trapped in Costa Rica in March . One pregnant female was herself still in juvenile fur . Four species of mites have been found on T. bolivaris in Panama ( Gigantolaelaps gilmorei , G. oudemansi , Laelaps pilifer , and Haemolaelaps glasgowi ) , two chiggers ( Leptotrombidium panamensis and Pseudoschoengastia bulbifera ) , and two fleas ( Polygenis roberti and Polygenis klagesi ) .
= = Conservation status = =
The 2009 IUCN Red List lists T. bolivaris as " Least Concern " , as it is a widely distributed species with a presumably large population that is found in numerous protected areas . However , habitat destruction by deforestation may pose a threat .
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= Ring a Ring o ' Roses =
" Ring a Ring o ' Roses " or " Ring Around the Rosie " is a nursery rhyme or folksong and playground singing game . It first appeared in print in 1881 , but it is reported that a version was already being sung to the current tune in the 1790s and similar rhymes are known from across Europe . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 7925 . Urban legend says the song originally described the plague , specifically the Great Plague of London , or the Black Death , but folklorists reject this idea .
= = Lyrics = =
It is unknown what the earliest version of the rhyme was or when it began . Many incarnations of the game have a group of children form a ring and dance in a circle around a person and stoop or curtsy with the final line . The slowest child to do so would be faced with some penalty or become the " rosie " ( literally : rose tree ) from the French rosier ) and take their place in the center of the ring . Numerous variations , corruptions and even several vulgarized versions were noted to be in use long prior to the earliest printed publications . One such variation was dated to be in use in Connecticut in the 1840s .
Common British versions include :
Common American versions include :
The last two lines are sometimes varied to :
= = = Early attestation = = =
The first printing of the rhyme was in Kate Greenaway 's 1881 edition of Mother Goose ; or , the Old Nursery Rhymes :
A novel of 1855 , The Old Homestead by Ann S. Stephens , describes children playing " Ring , ring a rosy " in New York . William Wells Newell reports two versions in America a short time later ( 1883 ) and says that another was known in New Bedford , Massachusetts around 1790 :
There are also versions from Shropshire , collected in 1883 , and a manuscript of rhymes collected in Lancashire at the same period gives three closely related versions , with the now familiar sneezing , for instance :
In 1892 , folklorist Alice Gomme could give twelve versions .
= = = Other languages = = =
A German rhyme first printed in 1796 closely resembles " Ring a ring o 'roses " in its first stanza and accompanies the same actions ( with sitting rather than falling as the concluding action ) :
Loosely translated this says : " Ringed , ringed row . We are three children , sitting under an elder bush . All of us going hush , hush , hush ! " The rhyme is well known in Germany with the first line " Ringel , Ringel , Reihe " ( as the popular collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn gave it ) ; it has many local variants , often with " Husch , husch , husch " ( which in German could mean " quick , quick " ) in the fourth line , comparable to the " Hush ! hush ! hush ! hush ! " of the first printed English version . Notable also this popular variant :
The translation is : " A ring , a ring of roses . Beautiful apricots . Blue violets , forget @-@ me @-@ nots . All children sit down . " Swiss versions have the children dancing round a rosebush . Other European singing games with a strong resemblance include " Roze , roze , meie " ( " Rose , rose , May " ) from The Netherlands with a similar tune to " Ring a ring o ' roses " and " Gira , gira rosa " ( " Circle , circle , rose " ) , recorded in Venice in 1874 , in which girls danced around the girl in the middle who skipped and curtsied as demanded by the verses and at the end kissed the one she liked best , so choosing her for the middle .
= = Meaning = =
The origins and meanings of the game have long been unknown and subject to speculation . In 1898 , A Dictionary of British Folklore contained the belief that an explanation of the game was of pagan origin , based on the Sheffield Glossary comparison of Grimm 's Teut . Myth . The theory states that it is in reference to Pagan myths and cited a passage which states , " Gifted children of fortune have the power to laugh roses , as Treyja wept gold . " Believing the first instance to be indicative of Pagan beings of light . Another suggestion is more literal , that it was making a " ring " around the roses and bowing with the all " fall down " as a curtsy . In 1892 , the American writer , Eugene Field wrote a poem titled Teeny @-@ Weeny that specifically referred to fey folk playing ring @-@ a @-@ rosie . According to Games and Songs of American Children , published in 1883 , the " rosie " was a reference to the French word for rose tree and the children would dance and stoop to the person in the center . Variations , especially more literal ones , were identified and noted with the literal falling down that would sever the connections to the game @-@ rhyme . Addy 's interpretation failed to account for the sneezing , which had not carried over to the United States and was losing ground in Britain , as another instance of the Pagan influence . Again in 1898 , sneezing was then noted to be indicative of many superstitious and supernatural beliefs across differing cultures .
Since the 20th century , the rhyme has often been associated with the Great Plague which happened in England in 1665 , or with earlier outbreaks of the Black Death in England . Interpreters of the rhyme before the Second World War make no mention of this ; by 1951 , however , it seems to have become well established as an explanation for the form of the rhyme that had become standard in the United Kingdom . Peter and Iona Opie , the leading authorities on nursery rhymes , remarked :
The invariable sneezing and falling down in modern English versions have given would @-@ be origin finders the opportunity to say that the rhyme dates back to the Great Plague . A rosy rash , they allege , was a symptom of the plague , and posies of herbs were carried as protection and to ward off the smell of the disease . Sneezing or coughing was a final fatal symptom , and " all fall down " was exactly what happened .
The line Ashes , Ashes in colonial versions of the rhyme is claimed to refer variously to cremation of the bodies , the burning of victims ' houses , or blackening of their skin , and the theory has been adapted to be applied to other versions of the rhyme . In its various forms , the interpretation has entered into popular culture and has been used elsewhere to make oblique reference to the plague .
Folklore scholars regard the theory as baseless for several reasons :
The plague explanation did not appear until the mid @-@ twentieth century .
The symptoms described do not fit especially well with the Great Plague .
The great variety of forms makes it unlikely that the modern form is the most ancient one , and the words on which the interpretation are based are not found in many of the earliest records of the rhyme ( see above ) .
European and 19th @-@ century versions of the rhyme suggest that this " fall " was not a literal falling down , but a curtsy or other form of bending movement that was common in other dramatic singing games .
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= Port of Albany – Rensselaer =
The Port of Albany – Rensselaer , widely known as the Port of Albany , is a port of entry in the United States with facilities on both sides of the Hudson River in Albany and Rensselaer , New York . Private and public port facilities have existed in both cities since the 17th century , with an increase in shipping after the Albany Basin and Erie Canal were built with public funds in 1825 .
The port 's modern name did not come into widespread use until 1925 ; the current port was constructed in 1932 under the governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression . It included the largest grain elevator in the world at the time . Today the grain elevator is the largest in the United States east of the Mississippi River ; the port has the tallest harbor crane in the state of New York .
The port has rail connections with the Albany Port Railroad , which allows for connections with CSXT and CP Rail . It is near several interstates and the New York State Canal System . The port features several tourist attractions as well , such as the USS Slater ( DE @-@ 766 ) , the only destroyer escort still afloat in the United States .
= = Geography = =
The Port of Albany consists of roughly 236 acres ( 96 ha ) , including about 202 acres ( 82 ha ) in Albany and 34 acres ( 14 ha ) in Rensselaer . It is 124 nautical miles ( 230 km ) north of New York Harbor . From New York Harbor to the Federal Dam three miles ( 5 km ) north of Albany , the Hudson River is an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . The Hudson has a deep water shipping channel 400 feet ( 120 m ) across , and at Albany the river is 700 feet ( 210 m ) across with a maximum 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) saltwater draft and a mean range of tides of 4 @.@ 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . The port is at sea level .
= = History = =
Since the founding of Albany in 1624 as a trading post , shipping has been important to its growth and prosperity . Furs ( especially beaver ) , timber , and farm produce were important exports while European people and goods were shipped in . The Dongan Charter , which established Albany as a city , made Albany the exclusive market town in the upper Hudson River Valley . From its beginning , the port consisted of hastily built docks built every spring and destroyed every winter by erosion , flooding , ice , and tidal action . Three city @-@ owned docks were established in 1766 , the northern and southern ones later being expanded into wharves .
Many historically significant ships used Albany as their home port . The Experiment left Albany in 1785 to become the second American ship to sail to China . In 1809 Robert Fulton 's Clermont became the first commercially viable steamboat when it left Albany and sailed down the Hudson to the city of New York . In 1825 a 4 @,@ 300 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) long and 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) wide pier was constructed 250 feet ( 76 m ) from , and perpendicular to , Albany 's shoreline . Along with two bridges the pier enclosed roughly 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of the Hudson River as the Albany Basin . The construction of the pier and bridges cost $ 119 @,@ 980 . The basin was located where the Erie Canal , constructed between 1818 and 1825 , met the Hudson River . The basin could accommodate 1 @,@ 000 canal boats and 50 steamboat moorings . Along the Erie Canal within the city 's North Albany neighborhood private wharves and slips were constructed for use in the lumber trade , this soon became the large and prosperous Albany Lumber District of national importance . In 1860 Albany , along with nearby Watervliet and Troy , was the largest lumber market in the state . The Maiden Lane Bridge was constructed in 1871 over the basin to connect Albany with the east side of the river , it was open to railroad traffic only .
The Albany Port District was established in 1925 under New York law Chapter 192 . This was only four years after the interstate compact that created the Port of New York Authority ( later renamed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ) . In 1932 Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt unveiled a modern port to replace the aging infrastructure of the Albany Basin and the lumber district along the Erie Canal in the North Albany neighborhood . The port was constructed on around 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) on Westerlo Island in the southern end of Albany along with approximately 34 acres ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) across the river in the city of Rensselaer . The grain elevator at the port , built during the original construction in 1932 , was the largest in the world and as of 2008 is still considered to be the largest in the United States east of the Mississippi River . The area of Albany 's original port ( the Albany Basin ) has been covered by Interstate 787 and the Corning Preserve ( Riverfront Park ) since the very early 1970s . In 1979 remnants of the basin wall were excavated from the preserve 's lagoon by Phillip Lord working for the New York State Museum .
A Master Plan adopted in 2000 called for the port to be transformed into a container port , which led to the purchase of the largest harbor crane in the state . In 2002 , the Port District Commission took the lead in the development of Albany 's Riverfront Park in the Corning Preserve as part of a development to enhance Albany 's access to the river . The port helped in financing the project and in the construction of two bulkheads which have seasonal floating docks attached . In a 2005 audit , the Office of the State Comptroller questioned the port 's involvement in the construction and financing . Two issues raised were the port district 's lack of authority to build docks for non @-@ commercial use and that the port would receive no income for facilities it was financing . The port received $ 3 @.@ 3 million in 2002 to upgrade and become a member of the Inland Distribution Network , a select group of ports that are used as satellite locations for the distribution of container cargo from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , resulting in less congestion at downstate ports and highways .
On December 9 , 2003 , the Stellamare , a Dutch @-@ owned ship , capsized at the port , killing three Russian crewmembers . The ship was hauling General Electric generators when it overturned . The United States Coast Guard determined that poor communication resulting from the supervisors speaking Dutch while the crew spoke Russian , with English being used as a relay , was a contributing factor to mismanagement of ballast tanks . In the early spring of 2008 a port employee was arrested for stealing copper . This in turn led to investigations of employee theft which resulted in the arrest of an operations manager and a maintenance foreman for larceny . In 2008 the port received two awards from the Railway Industrial Clearance Association . One award was for customer satisfaction and the other for being the most improved port in the United States for handling heavy lift cargo .
= = = Future = = =
The Port of Albany is replacing 500 feet ( 150 m ) of wharvage at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 6 million in 2008 and 2009 . In late March 2008 a proposal for a $ 350 million ethanol plant was approved by the Albany Port District Commission , but the project has been held up due to financing issues .
= = Governance = =
The Albany Port District Commission is a public benefit corporation created by the state of New York to develop and manage port facilities anywhere in the cities of Albany and Rensselaer . The commission has five members , four of which are nominated by the mayor of Albany and one is nominated by the mayor of Rensselaer . The governor of New York then appoints them to three @-@ year terms . The commissioners serve without pay , but are compensated for business related expenses . The commission is considered to be a unit of the city of Albany and is included in the city 's financial statements . Any deficit in the finances of the commission are assessed against both Albany and Rensselaer . In 1932 the state decided that any deficit assessment would be based on Albany owing 88 % of the total and Rensselaer 12 % . In 2005 the commission had a staff of 35 employees : eight in administrative duties , five in maintenance , and 22 as part @-@ time security .
= = Economy = =
The Port of Albany and the private companies located there bring to the Capital District 's economy $ 428 million in direct spending and 1 @,@ 382 jobs . The port has a U.S. Customs office as it is a port of entry . The Albany Port Customs District includes all of the following counties : Albany , Columbia , Delaware , Fulton , Greene , Montgomery , Otsego , Rensselaer , Saratoga , Schenectady , Schoharie , Warren , and Washington ; along with the parts of Dutchess , Sullivan , and Ulster counties north of 41 ° 42 ' N. latitude . The 35 acres ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) on the Rensselaer side of the port is site C of Foreign Trade Zone number 121 . A significant amount of the port is part of New York 's Empire Zone program , which gives port tenants breaks on state income tax along with various benefits and tax breaks from the city of Albany .
= = Connections = =
The Port of Albany is roughly 260 miles ( 420 km ) east of Buffalo , 225 miles ( 362 km ) south of Montreal , 175 miles ( 282 km ) west of Boston , and 135 miles ( 217 km ) north of the city of New York which makes it a location for regional distribution in the Northeastern United States and parts of Canada . As part of the Inland Distribution Network , the Port of Albany has a twice @-@ weekly barge service to and from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey terminals . Shipments into the port can leave through many modes of transportation , including by truck and rail . Albany International Airport is 15 minutes away with cargo facilities . Canals allow for further water transportation on barges further into the interior of North America . The port also handles commodities that are not carried on ships . Grain , molasses , animal feed , wood pulp , and steel often go from inbound trains to outbound trucks .
= = = Rail = = =
The Albany Port Railroad ( APRR ) , owned jointly by CSX and Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP Rail ) , has 18 miles ( 29 km ) of track inside the port . The APRR ties into CP Rail 's Colonie Mainline and CSX 's Port Subdivision for rail traffic out of the port . Norfolk Southern has an intermodal yard at the port . CP Rail 's Kenwood Yard is adjacent to the port . The North Albany – Erie Street Yard , also owned by CP Rail , is a few miles north of the port and still in the city of Albany . CSX owns two nearby yards : the Selkirk Yard is eight miles ( 13 km ) south of the port , and the West Albany Yard is four miles ( 6 km ) north .
= = = Truck = = =
Major Interstates in proximity are :
New York State Thruway , a toll @-@ road ( west from Albany it is Interstate 90 to Buffalo and beyond ; south the Thruway is Interstate 87 to the New York Metro Area ) ;
I @-@ 787 connects Albany to Troy , New York ;
I @-@ 87 ( south of Albany it is the Thruway , to the north the Adirondack Northway then at the Canadian border becomes Autoroute 15 to Montreal ) ;
I @-@ 90 ( west of Albany it is the Thruway , to the east toll @-@ free until rejoining the Thruway on its Berkshire Spur and continuing to Boston as the Mass Turnpike ) ;
I @-@ 88 connects Albany to Binghamton , New York .
= = = Water @-@ to @-@ water = = =
The Port of Albany is just south of where the New York State Canal System begins at the Federal Dam in Troy . The Erie Canal allows for water navigation to the Great Lakes , and the Champlain Canal connects the Hudson River to Lake Champlain . The Richelieu River / Chambly Canal then connects Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence Seaway and Montreal .
= = Facilities = =
The Port of Albany includes :
Deep water facilities located on both banks of the river ;
two wharves : wharf length on the Albany side of the river is 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) with four berths , and on the Rensselaer side the length is 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) with one berth ;
10 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) open storage yard ;
Customs and U.S. Department of Agriculture offices ;
Five transit sheds and two backup warehouses totaling 350 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 000 m2 ) of storage ;
13 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 US bushels ( 480 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ; 108 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US dry gal ; 105 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) capacity grain elevator ;
18 @-@ million @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 68 @,@ 000 m3 ) capacity bulk liquid storage between two terminals ;
Heavy lift on @-@ dock rail capability ;
Super @-@ sacking and debagging operation ;
12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) road salt depot ;
12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) scrap yard ;
a 225 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 201 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 204 @-@ metric @-@ ton ) capacity crane and a mobile harbor crane , which is the largest harbor crane in the state of New York .
= = = Maritime services = = =
Stevedoring operations at the Port of Albany are managed by Federal Marine Terminals , Inc. and Port Albany Ventures , LLC . The Hudson River Pilots Association handles pilotage on the Hudson River .
= = = Tenants = = =
The rent from the 32 businesses at the port contributes $ 2 @.@ 76 million in revenue for the port . Tenants include Global Partners LP which has a petroleum distillates terminal with a capacity of 738 @,@ 000 barrels ( 117 @,@ 300 m3 ) .
= = Cargo = =
Some commodities come through the port on a regular basis , others are special cargo for a limited time . Such limited time cargo includes subway cars shipped to Albany from Brazil in 2006 for six months , and 30 @-@ inch ( 760 mm ) diameter pipes with associated materials from Italy first shipped in May 2007 . The pipes were for a 186 @-@ mile ( 299 km ) long natural gas pipeline and included 60 @,@ 000 short tons ( 53 @,@ 571 long tons ; 54 @,@ 431 t ) of material in about a dozen ships . Commodities shipped to or from Albany on a regular basis include :
Animal feed ;
Cement ;
Cocoa beans ;
Grain ( including corn and wheat ) ;
Gypsum ;
Ethanol ;
Heavy lift items ( including turbines , generators , heat exchangers , and rotors ) ;
Liquid fertilizer ;
Millscale and scrap metal ;
Molasses ;
Petroleum distillates ( including diesel , gasoline , heating oil , and kerosene ) ;
Salt ;
Steel ;
Sugar ;
Wood pulp and logs .
= = Tourism = =
Along with commercial activities the Port of Albany has non @-@ industrial uses along the river . A ship museum and a tourism cruise ship are docked at the Steamboat Square . Steamboat Square was , until 2010 , named the Snow Dock for being where city trucks dumped into the Hudson River snow plowed from the streets . A PortFest was held in 2007 to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Port of Albany @-@ Rennselaer and the 10th anniversary of the USS Slater as a museum docked at Albany . National Maritime Day is celebrated with free trolley rides of the port and free rides aboard the Dutch Apple Cruise .
The USS Slater ( DE @-@ 766 ) , which is the only destroyer escort still afloat in the United States , sits at Steamboat Square near the foot of Madison Avenue . The ship is open from April to November to the public . The destroyer closes to the public from December to March and moves from the Steamboat Square to the port 's Rensselaer side . In August 2008 part of the Japanese film Orion in Midsummer ( scheduled for release in spring 2009 ) was filmed on board .
Dutch Apple Cruises , a private company which gives day cruises on the Hudson River and Erie Canal , also operates at the Steamboat Square . The city of Albany has a public boat launch and boat house along the Hudson in the Corning Preserve . The boat house and launch are used by the Albany Rowing Center , a non @-@ profit rowing organization . On the Rensselaer side of the Hudson is the Albany Yacht Club . The club was founded in the city of Albany in 1873 and is one of the oldest yacht clubs in the nation . In 1954 the club moved to the Rensselaer side and since 1971 has been at its current location just south of the Dunn Memorial Bridge . Facilities are open to the public at large and not just to members .
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= Guthy @-@ Renker =
Guthy @-@ Renker ( pronounced : Guh @-@ thee Ren @-@ ker ) is a Santa Monica , California , based direct @-@ response marketing company that sells products directly to consumers through infomercials , television ads , direct mail , telemarketing , e @-@ mail marketing , and the Internet . As of 2014 , it has 8 different product groups , with an emphasis on celebrity @-@ endorsed beauty products .
Guthy @-@ Renker was founded in 1988 by Bill Guthy and Greg Renker . In 1995 , it began distributing the acne treatment Proactiv , which became responsible for more than half its revenues by 2005 . The company also created seven subsidiaries in the late 1990s for different products and advertising channels . It founded an infomercial channel , GRTV , which was sold to TVN Entertainment Corporation in 1999 . Guthy @-@ Renker 's revenues grew from $ 400 million in 2001 to $ 1 @.@ 5 billion by 2009 .
= = History = =
Guthy @-@ Renker was founded in November 1988 by Bill Guthy and Greg Renker , who met at the Indian Wells Racquet Club and Resort in Indian Wells , California . They considered starting an infomercial company after an order was placed at Guthy 's cassette duplication company , Cassette Productions Unlimited , for 50 @,@ 000 copies of a real estate lecture to be sold through infomercials .
At the time many infomercials mimicked talk shows and investigative news specials , raising concerns among consumers and policy makers that the programs were misleading . To avoid the controversial practice , Guthy @-@ Renker disclosed that their infomercials were paid advertisements at the beginning of each program . It made professional @-@ quality productions . Renker was invited to testify to a Congressional subcommittee in 1990 regarding ethics in advertising , which led Guthy @-@ Renker and others to form the National Infomercial Marketing Association to create industry standards .
The following year , the firm had to cut back operations , because news coverage of the Persian Gulf War drew viewers away from infomercials . Ron Perelman of Forbes Holdings Inc. bought a 37 @.@ 5 percent share of Guthy @-@ Renker in 1993 in exchange for $ 25 million and priority access to air @-@ time on Perelman 's television stations . At the time , Guthy @-@ Renker had grown to $ 60 million in revenue . In 1996 , Perelman 's stake in the company was resold to News Corp and Guthy @-@ Renker bought it back . Two years later , Goldman Sachs bought a stake in the company that valued Guthy @-@ Renker at $ 3 billion , and a Japanese trading company , Nissho Iwai Group , bought a 17 percent portion of Guthy @-@ Renker 's Asia subsidiary for $ 9 million . Guthy @-@ Renker created a television station for infomercials called GRTV in 1996 , which was sold to TVN Entertainment Corporation in 1999 .
From 1995 @-@ 1997 , the firm created seven new subsidiaries . These included Guthy @-@ Renker Radio , Internet , Select Network , International and Fitness , as well as subsidiaries like an online dating service and a psychic business that did not perform well . Guthy @-@ Renker partnered with National Media Corp. to help market some of its fitness products , which led to a legal dispute that was settled with undisclosed terms in 1997 . Guthy @-@ Renker claimed National Media Corp. excessively aired infomercials for an exercise machine , the Fitness Flyer , and started selling an unauthorized imitation of the original . National claimed Guthy @-@ Renker had not provided enough Fitness Flyers to meet demand .
Guthy @-@ Renker grew to $ 400 million in revenue by 2001 and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion by 2009 . In 2011 , Guthy @-@ Renker acquired a portion of Paramount Equity Mortgage , a solar energy , insurance and mortgage loans company .
= = Products = =
Guthy @-@ Renker 's first products were self @-@ help and motivational courses . The founders bought the rights to a self @-@ help book they were both fans of , Think and Grow Rich , for $ 100 @,@ 000 and aired their first infomercial selling the book in 1988 . The infomercials were hosted by former football quarterback Fran Tarkenton and grossed $ 10 million in sales . Another early product marketed by Guthy @-@ Renker was Tony Robbins 's " Personal Power " series of motivational lectures .
The company started to sell cosmetics and skin @-@ care products in 1991 , starting with the " Principal Secret " cosmetics line endorsed by Victoria Principal , after market research showed that 70 percent of Guthy @-@ Renker 's audience were women . In the 1990s , the company started marketing housewares , the " Perfect Smile " teeth whitening product and fitness products like the " Fitness Flyer " , " Perfect Abs " and " Perfect Buns and Thighs " . By 1996 , 40 percent of the company 's revenues were from fitness products .
Guthy @-@ Renker uses infomercials , television ads , direct mail , telemarketing and the internet to sell products directly to the consumer . The firm 's infomercials have production costs exceeding $ 1 million and usually feature celebrity endorsers . In 2010 , Guthy @-@ Renker sold 15 different products . Approximately half of Guthy @-@ Renker 's revenues in 2005 came from the Proactiv acne treatment , and 30 percent of its revenues were from international sources .
Guthy @-@ Renker also markets the " Meaningful Beauty " anti @-@ aging skin care system endorsed by Cindy Crawford and developed by Jean @-@ Louis Sebagh . The " Sheer Cover " brand of mineral makeup is endorsed by Leeza Gibbons . The company also manages the " In an Instant " line of skin care products endorsed by Heidi Klum and the " Malibu Pilates " exercise equipment endorsed by Susan Lucci . Guthy @-@ Renker ’ s Proactiv line is endorsed by celebrities , including Jessica Simpson and Kelly Clarkson . The brand has average annual revenue of $ 1 billion .
In January 2015 , it was announced that Brooke Shields would be the new celebrity endorser for Wen Hair Care developed by Chaz Dean . She was reportedly a fan of the brand 's Cleansing Conditioner .
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= Hard Candy ( Madonna album ) =
Hard Candy is the eleventh studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on April 19 , 2008 , by Warner Bros. Records . The album was her final studio album with the record company , marking the end of a 25 @-@ year recording history . Madonna started working on the album in early 2007 , and collaborated with Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , The Neptunes and Nate " Danja " Hills . The album has an overall R & B vibe , while remaining a dance @-@ pop record at its core . The Pet Shop Boys were also asked to collaborate with Madonna on the album by Warner Bros. , but the record company later changed their mind and withdrew their invitation .
Madonna became interested in collaborating with Timberlake after hearing his 2006 album FutureSex / LoveSounds . Together they developed a number of songs for the album , but the basis of the development was Pharrell Williams ' demos . Madonna had a number of songs written down for the album , which amazed Timberlake . They had intensive discussions among themselves before recording a song . Later , Madonna recalled that most of the songs on Hard Candy were autobiographical in many respects . However , according to her this was not intentional and happened while she was in the process of developing the album .
Madonna had initially decided to portray herself as the Black Madonna for the cover art , and call it the same , but later felt the idea may have been seen as controversial . She instead named the album " Hard Candy " , which refers to the juxtaposition of toughness and sweetness . Critical reaction to the album were generally favorable , though some reviewers condemned it for its attempt to harness the urban market . On release Hard Candy debuted at number one in 37 countries worldwide , including the United States , Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Japan , Spain and the United Kingdom and became the eleventh best @-@ selling album worldwide of 2008 . The album has sold more than 4 million copies worldwide .
Three singles were released from the album . The first , " 4 Minutes " , was a worldwide success , topping the charts in 21 countries and becoming Madonna 's 37th Billboard Hot 100 top @-@ ten hit . Other singles released were " Give It 2 Me " and " Miles Away " . To promote the album , Madonna went on a small promotional tour , where she played in three cities in small venues . The album received the majority of its promotion from the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , which went on to become the highest grossing tour ever by a solo female artist .
= = Background and development = =
In February 2007 , Timbaland said that he was working with Madonna for her upcoming eleventh studio album . It was Madonna 's last studio album for Warner Bros. Records , and following the release of a greatest hits collection ( Celebration ) , she would join Live Nation Artists , a new initiative launched by concert promoter Live Nation . The 10 @-@ year deal with Live Nation encompassed all of Madonna 's future music and music @-@ related businesses , including the exploitation of the Madonna brand , new studio albums , touring , merchandising , fan clubs / Web sites , DVDs , music @-@ related television and film projects and associated sponsorship agreements . In August 2007 , Timbaland spoke about the development of the album to MTV News . Together he and Justin Timberlake were confirmed to have worked on the album with Madonna and said that they wrote ten songs for her . Songs confirmed to have been developed were " La , La " and " Candy Shop " , which was written by Pharrell Williams . Timbaland added ,
" Me and Justin did the records . [ Madonna 's ] got a hot album . Her album is up there with Justin 's album . [ ... ] Ah , man , there 's this one song , we taking it back to ' You must be my luck @-@ eee starrrr ! ' ... Remember ' Ugly ' by Bubba Sparxxx ? I got a beat similar to that . The hook is no words . It 's saying stuff named after coffee ... The name of the song is ' La , La ' . Pharrell did a hot one for her too called ' Candy Shop ' . "
Timbaland finished off by saying that the title of the album was not decided then , but he had to reconvene with Madonna to complete the record by September 2007 . MTV described the new album as moving in an urban direction . It had initially been defined as having " a lot of producers from a lot of genres in there . " Pet Shop Boys were originally asked by Warner to write and produce some songs for the album . Timbaland referred to the album as being " like ' Holiday ' with an R & B groove " .
= = Recording = =
The album features vocal appearances by Timberlake , Timbaland , Pharrell Williams and Kanye West . It features production by Madonna , Timbaland , Timberlake , The Neptunes and Nate " Danja " Hills . Previously , Madonna had worked with relatively unknown producers like William Orbit , Mirwais Ahmadzaï and Stuart Price . However , for Hard Candy Madonna decided to collaborate with producers and artists who were already well @-@ known . Talking to MTV , Madonna explained her decision to collaborate with well @-@ known producers : " Because they 're good , and I like their shit . [ ... ] I mean , I don 't like to repeat myself , and I was sitting around thinking , ' What music do I love right now ? ' And it was actually [ Timberlake 's ] record FutureSex / LoveSounds . [ ... ] I was listening to it obsessively . "
Madonna had already started work on the album with Williams , and during one of her breaks from recording , her manager Guy Oseary spoke to Timberlake , suggesting that it " would be cool " if he recorded some songs with her . Timberlake commented " ' That would be awesome , ' but I thought , ' That 'll never happen ' , [ ... ] But it 's a testament to Pharrell . He had already laid the groundwork where she was going with it . She played ' Candy Shop ' for me , and a couple of other songs , and I thought , ' What a cool direction . ' I thought she could essentially do the whole record with Pharrell if she wanted to , and I asked Tim , ' How do we fit in ? ' And it basically came down to how we did my record , co @-@ producing , and just throwing Madonna in the mix . " The first track recorded by Madonna and Timberlake was " Devil Wouldn 't Recognize You " . Timberlake felt that the song , which Madonna had been working on for years before the Hard Candy project , was comparable to " Frozen " ( 1998 ) . He wanted to turn the line " ' The devil wouldn 't recognize you , but I do " into a catchy hook and make it sound like a concept .
Timberlake was impressed by the amount of recording material Madonna would already have ready . He said that he does not normally write down his lyrics , since the ideas come faster to him , but Madonna had " all these thoughts , riddles , poems , feelings , all written in huge notebooks ... she kept handing them over . It was amazing , taking these little bits here and there and putting them together like a puzzle . " For recording " Miles Away " , Timberlake played a guitar riff for Madonna and asked " How do we want to do this ? What do we want it to be about ? What do we want to say ? " Madonna decided to have discussions between herself and Timberlake to develop other ideas for the songs . One of the ideas they connected on was the universality of long @-@ distance relationships , which they felt was too personal for them , but nevertheless used the concept in " Miles Away " . Madonna commented on the recorded version : " We put our stuff out there . [ ... ] And after we did the song , everybody in the studio was like , ' Oh , I can relate to that . ' "
= = Music structure and composition = =
With Interview magazine , Madonna explained her inspirations behind the songs and the music of Hard Candy . She said that " probably in many respects most of the songs [ on Hard Candy ] are [ autobiographical ] . But in more of an unconscious way . I don 't really think about telling personal stories when I 'm writing music . It just comes . And then a lot of times , six months later , eight months later , I go , ' Oh , that 's what I wrote that song about . ' But that 's when I play the song for lots of people and they all go , ' Oh , I can totally relate to that . ' " " Candy Shop " is the opening track of the album . Produced by Williams , the song uses the word candy as a metaphor for sex . Williams said , " We were just in a studio , [ ... ] and [ Madonna ] was like , ' Look , give me some hot shit . ' I was looking at her like , ' She 's saying hot shit ? ' She was like , ' What ? ' And I 'm like , ' OK . ' So we just worked and made it . " The first single from the album , " 4 Minutes " , was initially known as " 4 Minutes to Save the World " . The song 's development was motivated by a sense of urgency to save the planet from destruction , and how people can enjoy themselves in the process . According to Madonna , the song inspired her to produce the documentary I Am Because We Are . The song features vocals by Timberlake and Timbaland . An uptempo dance song with an urban , hip hop style , it also incorporates Timbaland 's bhangra beats . The instrumentation used in the song includes brass , foghorns and cow bells . The song 's lyrics carry a message of social awareness , inspired by Madonna 's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed .
In " Give It 2 Me " , the album 's second single , Madonna merged bounce @-@ beats and a funky bassline . " If it 's against the law , arrest me " , she sings " If you can handle it , undress me . " The song has a short interlude where Madonna continuously repeates the words " Get stupid " , as Williams chants , " To the left , to the right " . " Give It 2 Me " was written by Madonna as an anthemic , self @-@ manifesto song which , although it appears to be about dance and sex , is a reference to Madonna 's career spanning three decades in the music industry . Musically it is an upbeat dance song , featuring instrumentation from West African percussion and cowbells . Backing vocals are provided by Williams . The fourth track " Heartbeat " has Madonna singing breathlessly and also features an interlude where the music changes from its normal rhythm , just the sound of drums .
MTV said that " Miles Away " , the third single from the album , was the most deceptively simple track because although it appeared straightforward on the surface , it had a lot of technical tricks underneath it . The song departs from the dance theme of the album and deals with the difficulties of long @-@ distance relationships . " Miles Away " is a melancholy electronic ballad , which , according to Madonna is autobiographical , and is inspired by her then husband Guy Ritchie . The relationship themed lyrics continue in the next track " She 's Not Me " , which talks about Madonna being emulated by another woman , hence she utters the line " She started dressing like me and talking like me , It freaked me out , She started calling you up in the middle of the night , What 's that about ? "
The next track " Incredible " starts off like a love song but reveals itself to be a plea to someone to start over , while changing its composition from the interlude . According to MTV , the shift in the structure reflected Madonna 's own confusion about how she felt about her lover in the song . " Can 't get my head around it " , she sang . " I , I need to think about it . " " Beat Goes On " featuring West , has a 70s R & B meeting 80s dance vibe and a rap interlude by West . Williams has commented that Madonna 's work ethic was different from other artists that he had worked with before . That is reflected in songs like " Spanish Lesson " where she sings the line " If you do your homework / Baby I will give you more " . It also has influences of Spanish music . Groove inspired music is present in " Dance 2Night " , which featured Timberlake .
" Devil Wouldn 't Recognize You " was written by Madonna before the Hard Candy project started . The song has a sense of mystery and starts off softly and slowly with a piano introduction . It then becomes fast and melancholy , with Madonna singing : " Your eyes are full of surprises / They cannot predict my fate " . The trip hop inspired " Voices " is the last track of the album , consisting of unresolved chords and sweeping strings , as the lyrics question who is really in control : " Are you walking the dog ? / Is the dog walking you ? "
= = Release and artwork = =
Hard Candy was released on April 25 , 2008 , in the European countries of Germany , Ireland , Austria and Netherlands . On April 28 , the album was released in the United Kingdom , Brazil and throughout the rest of Europe , and on April 29 , in the United States , Mexico and Canada . Billboard reported that the title of the album was Licorice , as announced on the Sirius Satellite Radio programme OutQ . In an interview with MTV Australia , Madonna explained that a prominent theme of the Hard Candy album was about incorporating the image of a boxer , an idea which has been repeated within the song " Give It 2 Me " . According to her , " [ ' Give It 2 Me ' ] is basically [ opposite in meaning ] . I 'm not [ ... ] , ' give me all you got ' [ kind of person ] , so it 's quite a sort of tough stance . " Hence , initially Madonna decided that the title of the song was to be used for the then @-@ unnamed album . This was changed following the release of a similarly named song by Timbaland . After that , Madonna decided to call the album Black Madonna , and even shot a photograph for the cover art , wearing blackface make @-@ up with white eyes . In a 2009 interview with Rolling Stone Madonna commented :
" I did a photoshoot with Steven Klein for my last album cover , and I painted my face black , except for red lips and white eyes . It was a play on words . Have you ever heard of the Black Madonna ? It has layers of meaning and for a minute , I thought it would be a fun title for my record . Then I thought , ' Twenty @-@ five per cent of the world might get this , probably less , it 's not worth it . ' It happens all the time , because my references are usually off the Richter scale . "
The title of the album was finally confirmed by MTV as Hard Candy . Madonna 's representative Liz Rosenberg told Entertainment Weekly : " She loves candy , [ ... ] [ The title is ] about the juxtaposition of tough and sweetness , or as Madonna so eloquently expressed : ' I 'm gonna kick your ass , but it 's going to make you feel good . " The album cover art was also released at the same time and featured Madonna with short cropped hair in a black leotard with a professional wrestling championship belt across her waist . The belt includes the inscription " Give It to Me " , the original title of the album . The backdrop displayed pink peppermint swirls . The photo was taken during a photoshoot with Klein for Interview magazine 's April 2008 issue .
= = Promotion = =
Seven songs from the album were made available for download by mobile phone during the week prior to the album 's official release . Beginning on April 21 and ending on April 27 , 2008 , the songs " Candy Shop " , " Miles Away " , " Give It 2 Me " , " Heartbeat " , " Beat Goes On " , " Devil Wouldn 't Recognize You " and " She 's Not Me " were distributed . Additionally , Hard Candy and the " 4 Minutes " music video were pre @-@ loaded onto the Samsung F400 in France . In other markets , Vodafone and Warner Music International made an arrangement which saw the music and other forms of mobile content from " Hard Candy " available exclusively to Vodafone mobile customers prior to the album 's general release . A similar deal was made with Sony Ericsson , who offered the album pre @-@ loaded onto their phones in 27 different countries worldwide . Hard Candy was also streamed on MySpace four days before its United States release . Furthermore , the season finale of Ugly Betty 's second season , " Jump " , solely featured Madonna 's music . " Candy Shop " , " Spanish Lesson " , " She 's Not Me " and " Miles Away " were played , as well as the 2006 single " Jump " . " Miles Away " was also used in the Japanese TV drama Change .
= = = Hard Candy Promo Tour = = =
Following the album 's release , Madonna went on a promotional tour for the album , which was the first venture as part of her new contract with concert promoters Live Nation with media content provided by " Frank the Plumber LLC " . The show consisted of a 40 @-@ minute set featuring six songs , with dates in New York City , Paris and Maidstone . In an interview with the BBC , Madonna stated :
" Obviously , I want to do new stuff because I 'm very excited about it . I feel that 's what people come to hear but I also want to do a few of my oldies but goodies . I chose " Hung Up " because that was the biggest hit from my last record and I chose " Music " because it 's a crowd pleaser , it 's anthemic and it brings people together . "
The show had an expandable , five @-@ platform stage which displayed the album 's cover art . Madonna , wearing a skintight black suit and a lace top , appeared on the stage while sitting on a throne with a golden walking stick , as the music of " Candy Shop " started . Images of confectionery flashed on the television screens flanking the back of the stage . Madonna , along with her six dancers , gyrated in choreographed dance moves . Next , Madonna strapped on an acoustic guitar , took a swig from a champagne bottle and started singing " Miles Away " , as images of planes taking off and landing , airports and various locations around the globe were projected across the screens behind her . After that " 4 Minutes " was performed , which mimicked its video with a flashing countdown clock . Then Madonna paused for a moment to thank her collaborators , including Timberlake , West , Timbaland and others . " I feel like the luckiest girl in the world " , she said , before dedicating the next song , " Hung Up " from 2005 's Confessions on a Dance Floor , to her fans . The song was mixed with The Rolling Stones track " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " . It was followed by " Give It 2 Me " , during which pink and green disco beams pulsated across the crowd . The show ended with a performance of " Music " ( 2000 ) , during which her dancers emerged from a false , silver subway car door . Madonna danced across the stage , touching the hands of the audience and ended the show by racing up the stage to the subway doors , behind which she disappeared .
Chris Harris from MTV reviewed the show at Roseland Ballroom , New York , and commented that " It was an event better @-@ suited for Madison Square Garden and one that these fans — many of whom probably had to call a sitter for the evening — won 't soon forget . " Ben Sisario from The New York Times commented " for Madonna 's fans , [ the New York show ] proved that seeing her for free in a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ capacity hall — minuscule by her usual touring standards — was something worth waiting for . And waiting for a very long time . " Silvio Pietrolungo from Billboard felt that " The crowd of 2 @,@ 200 was certainly dedicated . " The April 30 , 2008 , New York set was shown live via MSN in association with Control Room and Live Nation . It was broadcast internationally on May 15 , 2008 . The Maidstone show faced problems with the organisers due to Madonna 's use of swearing , causing complaints to be made to the BBC when the show was aired on Radio 1 .
= = = Sticky & Sweet Tour = = =
To further promote the album , Madonna embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour , her eighth worldwide concert tour . It began in August 2008 and was Madonna 's first tour from her new recording and business deal with Live Nation . The tour was announced in February 2008 , with dates for American and British venues revealed . Though initially planned , the tour failed to visit Australia due to financial problems and the financial recession . Costume designer Arianne Phillips designed the costumes , supported by a number of famous designers and brands , namely Givenchy , Stella McCartney , Yves Saint Laurent , Roberto Cavalli , and Jeremy Scott . The stage for the main show was planned similarly to that of her 2006 Confessions Tour . After the Sticky & Sweet Tour concluded in 2008 , Madonna announced plans to begin a second European leg in 2009 to perform in cities she had either never been to , or had not played for a long time .
The tour was described as a " rock driven dancetastic journey " . It was divided into four acts : Pimp , where S & M was the main theme , Old School where Madonna 's classic songs were performed alongside displays of the work of deceased artist Keith Haring , Gypsy , a fusion of Romani folk music and dance , with performances ranging from melancholy to joyous , and Rave , where she performed track 's featuring Eastern influences . The show ended with a sing @-@ along of the final song with the audience . Some changes were made to the set list during the second European leg of the tour in 2009 , including a dance tribute to deceased singer Michael Jackson . The tour generated positive reviews from critics .
The Sticky & Sweet Tour broke many records in terms of ticket sales , commercial gross and audience attendance . After the first leg , it became the highest grossing tour by a solo artist , earning $ 282 million , breaking the previous record Madonna herself held with her Confessions Tour . Overall , Madonna performed to over 3 @.@ 5 million fans in 32 countries , grossing a total of US $ 408 million , making it also the second highest grossing tour of all time and the highest grossing tour by a solo artist . At the 2009 Billboard Touring Awards , the Sticky & Sweet Tour won the Top Tour and Top Draw prizes , which acknowledge the highest @-@ grossing and highest @-@ attended tours of the year , respectively . Madonna 's manager Guy Oseary won the Top Manager award .
= = = Singles = = =
" 4 Minutes " was released as the lead single from the album on March 17 , 2008 by Warner Bros. Records . " 4 Minutes " has been praised by many contemporary critics . Some have noted , however , that it was Madonna rather than Timberlake who appeared to be the featured artist on the track . " 4 Minutes " achieved international success by topping the charts in 21 countries worldwide . It became Madonna 's 13th number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom , the highest total for any female artist in the British charts . In the United States , " 4 Minutes " peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 , giving Madonna her 37th Top Ten hit , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley . In the song 's accompanying music video , Madonna and Timberlake sing and run away from a giant black screen that devours everything in its path . At the end of the video , Madonna and Timberlake are consumed by the screen . The song received a Grammy nomination in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category .
" Give It 2 Me " was released on June 4 , 2008 by Warner Bros. Records as the second single from the album . The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics . It became Madonna 's 39th number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart . It charted on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week , and reached a peak of 57 only . The song topped the music charts in the Netherlands and Spain and attained top @-@ ten positions on the charts of many other European nations . " Give It 2 Me " received a Grammy nomination in 2009 in the Best Dance Recording category . " Miles Away " was released as the third and final single from the album , on October 17 , 2008 . It received positive appreciation from contemporary critics , though some of them noted its similarity to Timberlake 's 2006 single , " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " . " Miles Away " reached the top forty in the official charts of United Kingdom , Canada , Belgium , and the Netherlands . The song did not appear on the official chart of the United States , but it was a success on the US dance charts , where it became Madonna 's seventh consecutive number @-@ one song on the Hot Dance Airplay chart , the most for any artist .
= = Critical reception = =
Hard Candy received a score of 65 / 100 on Metacritic , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Mark Savage from the BBC commented on the composition of the tracks , saying " if a handful of the tracks had been delivered to more producers with a touch more subtlety , Hard Candy could have ranked alongside Madonna 's best . [ ... ] Over and over again , she subsumes her pop sensibilities to their arsenal of clattering beats , hollered raps and over @-@ fussy production . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that " There 's a palpable sense of disinterest [ in Hard Candy ] , as if she just handed the reins over to Pharrell and TimbaLake , trusting them to polish up this piece of stale candy . Maybe she 's not into the music , maybe she 's just running out this last album for Warner before she moves onto the greener pastures of Live Nation — either way , Hard Candy is as a rare thing : a lifeless Madonna album . "
Tom Young from Blender gave a positive review saying " On Hard Candy , she 's like an aging master thief sneaking into the temple of pop goodies for one last big score . Album 11 is good @-@ naturedly smutty , not confrontationally nasty , but it 's a veritable filth bath compared to the C @-@ SPAN sermons and confessional strumming of 2003 's dreadful American Life or the woozily self @-@ actualized club trance of 2005 's Confessions on a Dance Floor . " Kerri Mason from Billboard complimented the new sound and the musical direction taken by Madonna but felt that she had become a producer 's puppet , leading her to comment that " Madonna makes producers , producers don 't make Madonna . " Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B + and said " [ Madonna ] makes it work with this surprisingly rejuvenated set . " Mike Collett @-@ White from Reuters reported : " As parting gifts go , Madonna 's 11th studio album — and her last before she exits long @-@ term record label Warner Bros. — is unusually generous , if early reviews are to be believed . [ ... ] Hard Candy scored solidly among rock critics . "
Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone said that Hard Candy is the work of " a songwriting team of American chart royalty " that helps Madonna " revisit her roots as an urban @-@ disco queen . [ ... ] For Hard Candy , she lets top @-@ shelf producers make her their plaything . " Ben Thompson from The Guardian commented on the music by saying that " Hard Candy is a tough , nuggety confection offering plenty for listeners to get their teeth into . [ ... ] Whenever [ it ] threatens to get boring , something always happens to recapture your interest . " Sarah Hajibegari from The Times felt that while " Hard Candy is no disaster " , the album 's producers have " already done the same thing with Nelly Furtado , Britney Spears and Gwen Stefani . " Andy Gill from The Independent said that the album portrayed Madonna as " how a once diverse talent has ossified into simply satisfying the sweet tooth of functional dance @-@ pop . " Thomas Hausner from PopMatters wrote that the album " is overpopulated with recycled pop that is indistinguishable and artificial , something Madonna 's soothing arpeggiating vocals cannot alleviate " .
Tom Ewing from Pitchfork Media wondered " after listening [ to the album ] , the question 's still open — nobody involved in Hard Candy is anywhere near their creative peak ! " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was disappointed with the album and said , " Madonna hasn 't delivered this many vapid floor fillers on one disc since her debut , and maybe not even then . [ ... ] There are few confessions here — nothing political , nothing too spiritual , no talk of fame , war , or the media . It 's just what America ordered . " Wilfred Young from NME felt that Hard Candy was " a solid enough album by the standards of most pop tarts , but from the mistress of innovation ? Pretty mediocre . "
= = Commercial performance = =
After its release , Hard Candy debuted at number @-@ one in 37 countries and was the eleventh best @-@ selling album worldwide in 2008 , according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . The album has sold more than four million copies worldwide . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Hard Candy sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States upon its first day of release . It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with over 280 @,@ 000 copies sold . Hard Candy became Madonna 's seventh number @-@ one album , making her the female artist with the second most Billboard number one albums , behind only Barbra Streisand . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on June 4 , 2008 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . As of October 2012 , Hard Candy has sold 744 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Music Canada ( MC ) for shipments of 80 @,@ 000 copies .
In Australia , Hard Candy became Madonna 's seventh album to reach number one on the ARIA Albums Chart . The album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies there . In New Zealand , Hard Candy debuted and peaked at number five on May 5 , 2008 , staying on the chart for nine weeks . The album debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly album chart in Japan , selling around 55 @,@ 462 copies , retaining that position for a second week due to an increase of sales to almost 80 @,@ 000 copies . Hard Candy was her first album to top the chart in 18 years since I 'm Breathless ( 1990 ) . Madonna also became the first international artist in Japanese chart history to have number @-@ one albums in three consecutive decades . In Latin America the album reached number three in Mexico and was certified double Gold . In Argentina , the album reached three on the Monthly Album chart of CAPIF , and was certified platinum .
Hard Candy also debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart , making Madonna one of the few artists to achieve ten number one albums , behind Elvis Presley , with eleven , and The Beatles , with fifteen . The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , Hard Candy has sold 335 @,@ 523 copies in the UK , as of September 2009 . It also reached the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart . In Germany , the album debuted at the top of the Media Control Charts and was present for forty weeks . In Ireland , the album debuted at the top of the Irish charts , replacing 25 Years – 25 Songs by Mary Black . The album was particularly successful in Brazil , where the songs " 4 Minutes " , " Give It 2 Me " , " Heartbeat " , " Beat Goes On " and " Candy Shop " were all certified platinum , for sales of 100 @,@ 000 copies of the songs as digital downloads .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
^ c signifies a remixer and additional producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= House ( TV series ) =
House ( also called House , M.D. ) is an American television medical drama that originally ran on the Fox network for eight seasons , from November 16 , 2004 to May 21 , 2012 . The series ' main character is Dr. Gregory House ( Hugh Laurie ) , a pain medication @-@ dependent , unconventional , misanthropic medical genius who leads a team of diagnosticians at the fictional Princeton – Plainsboro Teaching Hospital ( PPTH ) in New Jersey . The series ' premise originated with Paul Attanasio , while David Shore , who is credited as creator , was primarily responsible for the conception of the title character . The series ' executive producers included Shore , Attanasio , Attanasio 's business partner Katie Jacobs , and film director Bryan Singer . It was filmed largely in Century City .
House often clashes with his fellow physicians , including his own diagnostic team , because many of his hypotheses about patients ' illnesses are based on subtle or controversial insights . His flouting of hospital rules and procedures frequently leads him into conflict with his boss , hospital administrator and Dean of Medicine Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) . House 's only true friend is Dr. James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) , head of the Department of Oncology . During the first three seasons , House 's diagnostic team consists of Dr. Robert Chase ( Jesse Spencer ) , Dr. Allison Cameron ( Jennifer Morrison ) , and Dr. Eric Foreman ( Omar Epps ) . At the end of the third season , this team disbands . Rejoined by Foreman , House gradually selects three new team members : Dr. Remy " Thirteen " Hadley ( Olivia Wilde ) , Dr. Chris Taub ( Peter Jacobson ) , and Dr. Lawrence Kutner ( Kal Penn ) . Kutner makes an appearance late in season five and then reappears in season 8 episode 22 . Chase and Cameron continue to appear in different roles at the hospital until early in season six . Cameron then departs the hospital , and Chase returns to the diagnostic team . Thirteen takes a leave of absence for most of season seven , and her position is filled by medical student Martha M. Masters ( Amber Tamblyn ) . Cuddy and Masters depart before season eight ; Foreman becomes the new Dean of Medicine , while Dr. Jessica Adams ( Odette Annable ) and Dr. Chi Park ( Charlyne Yi ) join House 's team .
House was among the top 10 series in the United States from its second through fourth seasons . Distributed to 66 countries , House was the most @-@ watched television program in the world in 2008 . The show received numerous awards , including five Primetime Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , a Peabody Award , and nine People 's Choice Awards . On February 8 , 2012 , Fox announced that the eighth season , then in progress , would be its last . The series finale aired on May 21 , 2012 , following an hour @-@ long retrospective .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
In 2004 , David Shore and Paul Attanasio , along with Attanasio 's business partner Katie Jacobs , pitched the series ( untitled at the time ) to Fox as a CSI @-@ style medical detective program , a hospital whodunit in which the doctors investigated symptoms and their causes . Attanasio was inspired to develop a medical procedural drama by The New York Times Magazine column , " Diagnosis " , written by physician Lisa Sanders , who is an attending physician at Yale @-@ New Haven Hospital ( YNHH ) , and Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital ( PPTH ) is modeled after this teaching institution . Fox bought the series , though the network 's then @-@ president , Gail Berman , told the creative team , " I want a medical show , but I don 't want to see white coats going down the hallway " . Jacobs has said that this stipulation was one of the many influences that led to the show 's ultimate form .
After Fox picked up the show , it acquired the working title Chasing Zebras , Circling the Drain ( " zebra " is medical slang for an unusual or obscure diagnosis , while " circling the drain " refers to terminal cases , patients in an irreversible decline ) . The original premise of the show was of a team of doctors working together trying to " diagnose the undiagnosable " . Shore felt it was important to have an interesting central character , one who could examine patients ' personal characteristics and diagnose their ailments by figuring out their secrets and lies . As Shore and the rest of the creative team explored the character 's possibilities , the program concept became less of procedure and more focused upon the lead role . The character was named " House " , which was adopted as the show 's title , as well . Shore developed the characters further and wrote the script for the pilot episode . Bryan Singer , who directed the pilot episode and had a major role in casting the primary roles , has said that the " title of the pilot was ' Everybody Lies ' , and that 's the premise of the show " . Shore has said that the central storylines of several early episodes were based on the work of Berton Roueché , a staff writer for The New Yorker between 1944 and 1994 , who specialized in features about unusual medical cases .
Shore traced the concept for the title character to his experience as a patient at a teaching hospital . Shore recalled : " I knew , as soon as I left the room , they would be mocking me relentlessly [ for my cluelessness ] and I thought that it would be interesting to see a character who actually did that before they left the room . " A central part of the show 's premise was that the main character would be disabled in some way . The original idea was for House to use a wheelchair , but Fox rejected this . Jacobs later expressed her gratitude for the network 's insistence that the character be reimagined — putting him on his feet added a crucial physical dimension . The writers ultimately chose to give House a damaged leg arising from an incorrect diagnosis , which requires him to use a cane and causes him pain that leads to a narcotic dependency .
= = = Production team = = =
House was a co @-@ production of Heel and Toe Films , Shore Z Productions , and Bad Hat Harry Productions in association with Universal Media Studios for Fox . Paul Attanasio and Katie Jacobs , the heads of Heel and Toe Films ; David Shore , the head of Shore Z Productions ; and Bryan Singer , the head of Bad Hat Harry Productions , were executive producers of the program for its entirety . Lawrence Kaplow , Peter Blake , and Thomas L. Moran joined the staff as writers at the beginning of the first season after the making of the pilot episode . Writers Doris Egan , Sara Hess , Russel Friend , and Garrett Lerner joined the team at the start of season two . Friend and Lerner , who are business partners , had been offered positions when the series launched , but turned the opportunity down . After observing the show 's success , they accepted when Jacobs offered them jobs again the following year . Writers Eli Attie and Sean Whitesell joined the show at the start of season four . Since the beginning of season four , Moran , Friend , and Lerner have been credited as executive producers on the series , joining Attanasio , Jacobs , Shore , and Singer . Hugh Laurie was credited as an executive producer for the second and third episodes of season five .
Shore is House 's showrunner . Through the end of the sixth season , more than two dozen writers have contributed to the program . The most prolific have been Kaplow ( 18 episodes ) , Blake ( 17 ) , Shore ( 16 ) , Friend ( 16 ) , Lerner ( 16 ) , Moran ( 14 ) , and Egan ( 13 ) . The show 's most prolific directors through its first six seasons were Deran Sarafian ( 22 episodes ) , who was not involved in season six , and Greg Yaitanes ( 17 ) . Of the more than three dozen other directors who have worked on the series , only David Straiton directed as many as 10 episodes through the sixth season . Hugh Laurie directed the 17th episode of season six , " Lockdown " . Elan Soltes has been the visual effects supervisor since the show began . Lisa Sanders , an assistant clinical professor of medicine at the Yale School of Medicine , is a technical advisor to the series . She writes the " Diagnosis " column that inspired House 's premise . According to Shore , " three different doctors ... check everything we do " . Bobbin Bergstrom , a registered nurse , is the program 's on @-@ set medical adviser .
= = = Casting = = =
At first , the producers were looking for a " quintessentially American person " to play the role of House . Bryan Singer in particular felt there was no way he was going to hire a non @-@ American actor for the role . At the time of the casting session , actor Hugh Laurie was in Namibia filming the movie Flight of the Phoenix . He assembled an audition tape in a hotel bathroom , the only place with enough light , and apologized for its appearance ( which Singer compared to a " bin Laden video " ) . Laurie improvised , using an umbrella for a cane . Singer was very impressed by his performance and commented on how well the " American actor " was able to grasp the character . Singer was not aware that Laurie was English , due to his convincing American accent . Laurie credits the accent to " a misspent youth [ watching ] too much TV and too many movies " . Although locally better @-@ known actors such as Denis Leary , David Cross , Rob Morrow , and Patrick Dempsey were considered for the part , Shore , Jacobs , and Attanasio were as impressed as Singer and cast Laurie as House .
Laurie later revealed that he initially thought the show 's central character was Dr. James Wilson . He assumed that House was a supporting part , due to the nature of the character , until he received the full script of the pilot episode . Laurie , the son of a doctor , Ran Laurie , said he felt guilty for " being paid more to become a fake version of [ his ] own father " . From the start of season three , he was being paid $ 275 @,@ 000 to $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode , as much as three times what he had previously been making on the series . By the show 's fifth season , Laurie was earning around $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode , making him one of the highest @-@ paid actors on network television .
Robert Sean Leonard had received the script for the CBS show Numb3rs , as well as that for House . Leonard thought the Numb3rs script was " kind of cool " and planned to audition for the show . However , he decided that the character he was up for , Charlie Eppes , was in too many scenes ; he later observed , " The less I work , the happier I am " . He believed that his House audition was not particularly good , but that his lengthy friendship with Singer helped win him the part of Dr. Wilson . Singer had enjoyed Lisa Edelstein 's portrayal of a prostitute on The West Wing , and sent her a copy of the pilot script . Edelstein was attracted to the quality of the writing and her character 's " snappy dialogue " with House , and was cast as Dr. Lisa Cuddy .
Australian actor Jesse Spencer 's agent suggested that he audition for the role of Dr. Robert Chase . Spencer believed the program would be similar in style to General Hospital , but changed his mind after reading the scripts . After he was cast , he persuaded the producers to turn the character into an Australian . Patrick Dempsey also auditioned for the part of Chase ; he later became known for his portrayal of Dr. Derek Shepherd on Grey 's Anatomy . Omar Epps , who plays Dr. Eric Foreman , was inspired by his earlier portrayal of a troubled intern on the NBC medical drama ER . Jennifer Morrison felt that her audition for the part of Dr. Allison Cameron was a complete disaster . However , before her audition , Singer had watched some of her performances , including on Dawson 's Creek , and already wanted to cast her in the role . Morrison left the show when her character was written out in the middle of season six .
At the end of season three , House dismisses Chase , while Foreman and Cameron resign . After an episode in which he " borrows " a janitor whom he calls " Dr. Buffer " to assist in a diagnosis , House must then recruit a new diagnostic team , for which he identifies seven finalists . The producers originally planned to recruit two new full @-@ time actors , with Foreman , who returns in season four 's fifth episode , bringing the team back up to three members ; ultimately , the decision was made to add three new regular cast members . ( Along with Epps , actors Morrison and Spencer remained in the cast , as their characters moved on to new assignments . ) During production , the show 's writers dismissed a single candidate per episode ; as a result , said Jacobs , neither the producers nor the cast knew who was going to be hired until the last minute . In the season 's ninth episode , House 's new team is revealed : Foreman is joined by doctors Lawrence Kutner ( Kal Penn ) , Chris Taub ( Peter Jacobson ) , and Remy " Thirteen " Hadley ( Olivia Wilde ) . The candidates rejected by House did not return to the show , with the exception of the last one cut : Amber Volakis ( Anne Dudek ) , who appeared for the rest of season four as Wilson 's girlfriend , and in seasons five and eight as a hallucination of House 's . While Penn and Wilde had higher profiles than the actors who played the other finalists , Jacobs said they went through an identical audition process and stayed with the show based on the writers ' interest in their characters . Kutner was written out of the series in episode 20 of season 5 after Penn took a position in the Obama White House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs .
The contracts of Edelstein , Epps , and Leonard expired at the end of season seven . As a cost @-@ cutting measure , the three actors were asked to accept reduced salaries . Epps and Leonard came to terms with the producers , but Edelstein did not , and in May 2011 it was announced that she would not be returning for the show 's eighth season .
= = = Filming style and locations = = =
House is often filmed using the " walk and talk " filming technique , popularized on television by series such as St. Elsewhere , ER , Sports Night , and The West Wing . The technique involves the use of tracking shots , showing two or more characters walking between locations while talking . Executive producer Katie Jacobs said that the show frequently uses the technique because " when you put a scene on the move , it 's a ... way of creating an urgency and an intensity " . She noted the significance of " the fact that Hugh Laurie spans 6 ' 2 " and is taller than everybody else because it certainly makes those walk @-@ and @-@ talks pop " . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker described the show 's " cool , Fantastic Voyage – like special effects of patients ' innards . I 'll bet you didn 't know that when your kidneys shut down they sound like bubble wrap popping . " " Cameras and special effects travel not only down the throat " of one patient , another critic observed , " but up her nose and inside her brain and leg " . Instead of relying primarily on computer @-@ generated imagery , the interior body shots tend to involve miniature effects and motion control photography . Many of the sets are dressed with a variety of unscripted props that allow Laurie to physically improvise , revealing aspects of his character and the story .
The pilot episode was filmed in Vancouver , Canada ; primary photography for all subsequent episodes has been shot on the Fox lot in Century City . Bryan Singer chose the hospital near his hometown , West Windsor , New Jersey , as the show 's fictional setting . Princeton University 's Frist Campus Center is the source of the aerial views of Princeton ‑ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital seen in the series . Some filming took place at the University of Southern California for the season @-@ three episode " Half @-@ Wit " , which guest @-@ starred Dave Matthews and Kurtwood Smith . Part of House 's sixth season was filmed at the abandoned Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital , in Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills , New Jersey , as the fictional Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital .
= = = Opening sequence = = =
The opening sequence begins with an MRI of a head with an image of the boxed " H " from the logo ( the international symbol for hospital ) in the foreground . This is then overlaid with an image of Dr. House 's face taken from the pilot episode with the show 's full title appearing across his face . House 's head then fades and the show 's title is underlined and has the " M.D. " appear next to it , producing the entire logo of the show . This was the full extent of the title sequence in the pilot episode . All subsequent episodes contain a longer sequence including the names of the six featured cast members and creator David Shore . Laurie 's name appears first , followed by the names of the five other featured cast members in alphabetical order ( Edelstein , Epps , Leonard , Morrison , and Spencer , then Shore ) .
After the show 's title fades , an aerial view of PPTH ( actually various Princeton University buildings , primarily Frist Campus Center ) is followed by a series of images accompanying each member 's name ; most are shown next to , or superimposed upon , illustrations of the human anatomy . Laurie 's name appears next to a model of a human head with the brain exposed ; Edelstein 's name appears next to a visual effects – produced graphic of an angiogram of the heart . Epps 's name is superimposed upon a rib cage X @-@ ray ; Leonard 's name appears on a drawing of the two hemispheres of the brain . The producers originally wanted to include an image of a cane and an image of a Vicodin bottle , but Fox objected . Morrison 's title card was thus lacking an image ; an aerial shot of rowers on Princeton University 's Lake Carnegie was finally agreed upon to accompany her name . Spencer 's name appears next to an old @-@ fashioned anatomical drawing of a spine . Between the presentations of Spencer and Shore 's names is a scene of House and his three original team members walking down one of the hospital 's hallways . Jacobs said that most of the backgrounds have no specific meaning ; however , the final image — the text " created by David Shore " superimposed upon a human neck — connotes that Shore is " the brain of the show " . The sequence was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Design in 2005 . The title sequence continued to credit Spencer and Morrison , even when their characters were reduced to background roles during seasons four and five , and Morrison even after hers was written out . A new opening sequence was introduced in season seven to accommodate the changes in the cast , removing Morrison 's name and including Jacobson and Wilde 's . It was updated in season eight removing Edelstein 's name and added Annable and Yi
The series ' original opening theme , as heard in the United States , comprises instrumental portions of " Teardrop " by Massive Attack . The piece was used in part because of the distinct tempo which roughly mimics the sound of a beating human heart . An acoustic version of " Teardrop " , with guitar and vocals by José González , is heard as background music during the season @-@ four finale .
= = Series overview = =
Gregory House , M.D. , often construed as a misanthropic medical genius , heads a team of diagnosticians at the Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey . Most episodes revolve around the diagnosis of a primary patient and start with a precredits scene set outside the hospital , showing events ending with the onset of the patient 's symptoms . The typical episode follows the team in their attempts to diagnose and treat the patient 's illness , which often fail until the patient 's condition is critical . They usually treat only patients whom other doctors have not accurately diagnosed , and House routinely rejects cases that he does not find interesting . The story lines tend to focus on his unconventional medical theories and practices , and on the other characters ' reactions to them , rather than on the details of the treatments .
The team employs the differential diagnosis method , listing possible etiologies on a whiteboard , then eliminating most of them , usually because one of the team ( most often House ) provides logical reasons for ruling them out . Typically , the patient is misdiagnosed at least once and accordingly receives some treatments that are at best useless ; this usually causes further complications , but — as the nature of the complications often provides valuable new evidence — eventually these help them diagnose the patient correctly . House often tends to arrive at the correct diagnosis seemingly out of the blue , often inspired by a passing remark made by another character . Diagnoses range from relatively common to very rare diseases .
The team faces many diagnostic difficulties from patients ' concealment of symptoms , circumstances , or personal histories , so House frequently proclaims during the team 's deliberations , " The patient is lying " , or mutters " Everybody lies " ; such an assumption guides House 's decisions and diagnoses , and makes the countermeasure of housebreaking a routine procedure . Because many of his hypotheses are based on epiphanies or controversial insights , he often has trouble obtaining permission for medical procedures he considers necessary from his superior , who in all but the final season is hospital administrator Dr. Lisa Cuddy . This is especially the case when the proposed procedures involve a high degree of risk or are ethically questionable . Frequent disagreements occur between House and his team , especially Dr. Allison Cameron , whose standards of medical ethics are more conservative than those of the other characters .
Like all of the hospital 's doctors , House is required to treat patients in the facility 's walk @-@ in clinic . His grudging fulfillment of this duty , or his creative methods of avoiding it , constitute a recurring subplot , which often serves as the series ' comic relief . During clinic duty , House confounds patients with unwelcome observations into their personal lives , eccentric prescriptions , and unorthodox treatments . However , after seeming to be inattentive to their complaints , he regularly impresses them with rapid and accurate diagnoses . Analogies with some of the simple cases in the clinic occasionally inspire insights that help solve the team 's case .
A significant plot element is House 's use of Vicodin to manage pain , caused by an infarction in his quadriceps muscle five years before the show 's first season , which also forces him to use a cane . In the first season , 11th episode " Detox " , House admits he is addicted to Vicodin , but says he does not have a problem because the pills " let me do my job , and they take away my pain " . His addiction has led his colleagues , Cuddy and Dr. James Wilson , to encourage him to go to drug rehabilitation several times . When he has no access to Vicodin or experiences unusually intense pain , he occasionally self @-@ medicates with other narcotic analgesics such as morphine , oxycodone , and methadone . House also frequently drinks liquor when he is not on medical duty , and classifies himself as a " big drinker " . Toward the end of season five , House begins to hallucinate ; after eliminating other possible diagnoses , Wilson and he determine that his Vicodin addiction is the most likely cause . House goes into denial about this for a brief time , but at the close of the season finale , he commits himself to Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital . In the following season 's debut episode , House leaves Mayfield with his addiction under control . However , about a year and a half later , in season seven 's 15th episode , " Bombshells " , House reacts to the news that Cuddy possibly has kidney cancer by taking Vicodin , and his addiction recurs .
= = Characters and story arcs = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Throughout House 's run , six of the main actors have received star billing . All of them play doctors who work at the fictional Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey . Dr. Gregory House ( Hugh Laurie ) , the title character , heads the Department of Diagnostic Medicine . House describes himself as " a board @-@ certified diagnostician with a double specialty of infectious disease and nephrology " . Dr. James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) , House 's one true friend , is the head of the Department of Oncology . Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) , an endocrinologist , is House 's boss , as she is the hospital 's dean of medicine and chief administrator . House has a complex relationship with Cuddy , and their interactions often involve a high degree of innuendo and sexual tension . In the sixth episode of season five , " Joy " , they kiss for the first time . Their physical relationship does not progress any further during the fifth season ; in the finale , House believes he and Cuddy had sex , but this is a hallucination brought on by House 's Vicodin addiction . In the finale of season six , Cuddy tells House she loves him . They kiss and agree to try being a couple . Throughout season seven , House and Cuddy try to make their relationship work .
House 's original team of diagnosticians consists of Dr. Eric Foreman ( Omar Epps ) , a neurologist ; Dr. Robert Chase ( Jesse Spencer ) , an intensivist ; and Dr. Allison Cameron ( Jennifer Morrison ) , an immunologist . In the season @-@ three episode " Family " , Foreman announces his resignation , telling House , " I don 't want to turn into you " . During the season finale , House tells Chase that he has either learned everything he can , or nothing at all , and dismisses him from the team . Cameron , who has developed an affection for Chase , soon resigns . This leaves House without a team for the season @-@ four premiere .
Under orders from Cuddy to recruit a new team , House considers 40 doctors . Season four 's early episodes focus on his selection process , structured as a reality TV – style elimination contest ( Jacobs referred to it as a " version of Survivor " ) . House assigns each applicant a number between one and 40 , and pares them down to seven finalists . He assesses their performance in diagnostic cases , assisted by Foreman , who returns to the department after his dismissal from another hospital for House @-@ like behavior . While Foreman 's return means only two slots are open , House tricks Cuddy into allowing him to hire three new assistants . He ultimately selects Dr. Chris Taub ( Peter Jacobson ) , a former plastic surgeon ; Dr. Lawrence Kutner ( Kal Penn ) , a sports medicine specialist ; and Dr. Remy " Thirteen " Hadley ( Olivia Wilde ) , an internist ( nicknamed for her number in the elimination contest ) . In the season finale , Thirteen discovers she has , as she had long dreaded , Huntington 's disease , which is incurable .
In the 11th episode of season five , " Joy to the World " , Foreman and Thirteen engage in a passionate kiss . Thirteen is at first reluctant to start a relationship with Foreman , but the two eventually begin dating and are still together at the end of the season . They break up early in season six . In the 20th episode of season five , " Simple Explanation " , Kutner is found dead in his apartment with a gunshot wound to the head . Because Kutner left no note , House suspects foul play , though the death is accepted by the other characters as a suicide .
In the seventh episode of season two , " Hunting " , Cameron and Chase have a one @-@ night stand . In the middle of season three , they initiate a sexual relationship that Cameron insists be casual ; when Chase declares that he " wants more " , Cameron ends the affair . By the end of the season , however , Cameron recognizes that she has romantic feelings for Chase and they begin a serious relationship . After leaving the diagnostic team , they assume different roles at the PPTH , Cameron as a senior attending physician in the emergency room and Chase as a surgeon . They become engaged in the season @-@ five episode " Saviors " ( the episode immediately following Kutner 's suicide ) and are married in the season finale . When Chase rejoins House 's team in season six , Cameron leaves her husband and the hospital in " Teamwork " , the season 's eighth episode . She returns as a guest character in " Lockdown " , nine episodes later .
Early in season seven , Thirteen takes an unexplained leave of absence . Cuddy orders House to fill her position with another woman , but eventually makes the choice for him : medical student Dr. Martha M. Masters ( Amber Tamblyn ) , who makes her first appearance in the season 's sixth episode . Thirteen returns in the " The Dig " — the season 's 18th episode and the show 's 150th — in which the reason for her absence is revealed : she was in prison for six months for having helped euthanize her brother , who was suffering from advanced Huntington 's . While Jacobson and Wilde play central characters ( as did Penn ) , they did not receive star billing until season seven . They were credited as " Also Starring " , with their names appearing after the opening sequence . In season seven , Jacobson and Wilde received star billing ; new regular cast member Tamblyn did not .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
The first six seasons of House each included one or more recurring featured characters , who appear in multiple @-@ episode story arcs . In season one , Edward Vogler ( Chi McBride ) , the billionaire owner of a pharmaceutical company , appears in five episodes . He donates US $ 100 million to the PPTH in return for chairing its board . Vogler represented an attempt to introduce a villain , a move urged by Fox . By the time the Vogler episodes began to air , the show had become a hit and the character was soon dropped . Shore said the concept of a villainous boss was not really viable for the series : " It 's called House . The audience knows he 'll never get fired . "
Stacy Warner ( Sela Ward ) , House 's ex @-@ girlfriend , appears in the final two episodes of the first season , and seven episodes of season two . She wants House to treat her husband , Mark Warner ( Currie Graham ) , whom House diagnoses with acute intermittent porphyria in the season @-@ one finale . Stacy and House grow close again , but House eventually tells Stacy to go back to Mark , which devastates her .
Michael Tritter ( David Morse ) , a police detective , appears in several season @-@ three episodes . He tries to extract an apology from House , who left Tritter in an examination room with a thermometer in his rectum . After House refuses to apologize , Tritter brings him up on charges of unprescribed narcotics possession and forces him to attend rehabilitation . When the case reaches court , Cuddy perjures herself for House and the case is dismissed . The judge reprimands Tritter for pursuing House to excess , and tells House that she thinks he " has better friends than he deserves " , referring to Cuddy 's 11th @-@ hour testimony on his behalf . House is sentenced to one night in jail for contempt of court and finishes his rehabilitation under the influence of Vicodin .
The candidates for House 's new diagnostics team are season four 's primary recurring characters . In addition to the three who are chosen , the other four finalists are Jeffrey Cole ( Edi Gathegi ) ; Travis Brennan ( Andy Comeau ) , an epidemiologist ; Henry Dobson ( Carmen Argenziano ) , a former medical school admissions officer ; and Amber " Cut @-@ throat Bitch " Volakis ( Anne Dudek ) , an interventional radiologist . Each of the four departs the show after elimination , except for Volakis , who appears throughout the season , having started a relationship with Wilson . In the two @-@ part season finale , Volakis attempts to shepherd a drunken House home when Wilson is unavailable . They are involved in a bus crash , which leads to her death . She reappears late in season five among the hallucinations House suffers .
Private investigator Lucas Douglas ( Michael Weston ) , a character inspired in part by Shore 's love of The Rockford Files , appears in three episodes of season five . House initially hires Douglas to spy on Wilson , who has ended their friendship after Volakis 's death ( the friendship is subsequently rekindled ) . House later pays Douglas to look into the private lives of his team members and Cuddy . If the character had been accepted by the audience , plans existed to feature him as the lead in a spin @-@ off show . In September 2008 , Shore spoke to Entertainment Weekly about his vision for the character : " I don 't want to do just another medical show . What does excite me in terms of writing is the choices people make and the nature of right and wrong ... and a private investigator can approach that question much more readily than a doctor can . " There was no show featuring Douglas on the fall 2009 network television schedule . He returns to House in season six as Cuddy 's boyfriend . They are briefly engaged until Cuddy breaks it off , realizing that she is in love with House .
= = Episodes = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
House received largely positive reviews on its debut ; the series was considered a bright spot amid Fox 's schedule , which at the time was largely filled with reality shows . Season one holds a Metacritic score of 75 out of 100 , based on 30 reviews , indicating " generally favorable " reviews . Matt Roush of TV Guide said that the program was an " uncommon cure for the common medical drama " . New York Daily News critic David Bianculli applauded the " high caliber of acting and script " . The Onion 's " A.V. Club " approvingly described it as the " nastiest " black comedy from FOX since 1996 's short @-@ lived Profit . New York 's John Leonard called the series " medical TV at its most satisfying and basic " , while The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert appreciated that the show did not sugarcoat the flaws of the characters to assuage viewers ' fears about " HMO factories " . Variety 's Brian Lowry , less impressed , wrote that the show relied on " by @-@ the @-@ numbers storytelling , albeit in a glossy package " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle described it as " mediocre " and unoriginal .
General critical reaction to the character of Gregory House was particularly positive . Tom Shales of The Washington Post called him " the most electrifying new main character to hit television in years " . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen found him " fascinatingly unsympathetic " . Critics have compared House to fictional detectives Nero Wolfe , Hercule Poirot , and Adrian Monk , and to Perry Cox , a cantankerous doctor on the television show Scrubs . One book @-@ length study of the series finds a powerful kinship between House and another famous TV doctor , Hawkeye Pierce of M * A * S * H. Laurie 's performance in the role has been widely praised . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Goodman called him " a wonder to behold " and " about the only reason to watch House " . Gabrielle Donnelly of the Daily Mail said that because of Laurie 's complex personality , he was " perfectly cast " in the title role .
Critics have also reacted positively to the show 's original supporting cast , which the Post 's Shales called a " first @-@ rate ensemble " . Leonard 's portrayal of Dr. Wilson has been considered Emmy Award worthy by critics with TV Guide , Entertainment Weekly , and USA Today . Bianculli of the Daily News was happy to see Edelstein " finally given a deservedly meaty co @-@ starring role " . Freelance critic Daniel Fienberg was disappointed that Leonard and Edelstein have not received more recognition for their performances .
Reaction to the major shifts of season four was mixed . " With the new crew in place House takes on a slightly more energized feel " , wrote Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD Talk . " And the set up for the fifth season is quite brilliant . " The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall wrote , " The extended , enormous job audition gave the writers a chance to reinvigorate the show and fully embrace Laurie 's comic genius " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , on the other hand , took issue with the developments : " the cast just kept getting bigger , the stories more scattered and uneven until you had a bunch of great actors forced to stand around watching Hugh Laurie hold the show together by the sheer force of his will " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco cheered the season finale : " Talk about saving the best for last . With two fabulous , heartbreaking hours ... the writers rescued a season that had seemed diffuse , overcrowded and perhaps too ambitious for its own good . "
Season five of House was met with a more positive response in comparison to the previous season . It holds a Metacritic score of 77 out of 100 , based on ten reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . It also holds a 100 % approval rating on aggregate review website Rotten Tomatoes , with an average score of 8 @.@ 1 based on nine collected reviews . USA Today praised Laurie 's performance and the repercussions of the season @-@ four finale , stating " a carry @-@ over from last season 's brilliant finale , House is firmly in the forefront . And when you have an actor of Hugh Laurie 's range , depth and charisma , putting him center @-@ stage makes perfect sense , particularly when you 've written a story that explores the character and his primary relationships in a way that seems " . The New York Daily News noted that " The show pays more attention to relationships we care about , hints at a sensible number of new ones that show some promise , and thus doesn 't rely on obscure medical mysteries to carry the whole dramatic burden " , and noted that " the prognosis for this season could be better than last season seemed to foreshadow " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times highlighted the performances of the cast , especially Michael Weston as detective Lucas Douglas , calling him a " delightful addition " . She concluded , " So different is the premiere that the savvy House ( and Fox ) viewer may expect the revelation that it was all a fever dream . That does not seem to be the case , and one assumes that Laurie and the writers will be bringing a different version of their now @-@ iconic character back to Princeton . Not too different , of course , but different enough . " Conversely , The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan disliked Weston 's character , calling him " An unwelcome distraction ... an irritating pipsqueak " . She continued saying " House used to be one of the best shows on TV , but it 's gone seriously off the rails " . The Sunday Times felt that the show had " lost its sense of humour " . The focus on Thirteen and her eventual involvement with Foreman also came under particular criticism .
At the end of the show 's run , Steven Tong of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " House had , in its final seasons , become a rather sentimental show " . In New York Magazine 's blog ' Vulture ' , Margaret Lyons wrote , " More than a hospital drama or a character piece or anything else , House is a complex meditation on misery . " But , continued Lyons , there is a line between " enlightened cynicism " and " misery @-@ entropy " , and " as the show wore on , its dramatic flare dimmed while its agony flare burned ever brighter . " Alan Sepinwall wrote , " The repetition and muck of [ the ] middle seasons ultimately severed whatever emotional connection I had to House 's personal struggles . "
The show placed # 62 on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list . The show was declared the second highest rated show for the first ten years of IMDb.com Pro ( 2002 – 2012 ) .
= = = = Critics ' top ten lists = = = =
After its first five seasons , House was included in various critics ' top @-@ ten lists ; these are listed below in order of rank .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
In its first season , House ranked twenty @-@ fourth among all television series and was the ninth most popular primetime program among women . Aided by a lead @-@ in from the widely popular American Idol , the following three seasons of the program each ranked in the top ten among all viewers . House reached its peak Nielsen ratings in its third season , attracting an average of 19 @.@ 4 million viewers per episode . According to Jacobs , the production team was surprised that the show garnered such a large audience . In its fifth season , the show attracted 12 @.@ 0 million viewers per episode and slipped to nineteenth place overall . It remained Fox 's most popular show other than American Idol .
The most @-@ watched episode of House is the season four episode " Frozen " , which aired after Super Bowl XLII . It attracted slightly more than 29 million viewers . House ranked third for the week , equalling the rating of American Idol and surpassed only by the Super Bowl itself and the post @-@ game show . Below is a table of House 's seasonal rankings in the U.S. television market , based on average total viewers per episode . Each U.S. network television season starts in September and ends in late May , which coincides with the completion of May sweeps .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
House has received many awards and award nominations . In 2005 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2011 Laurie was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . The Emmy board also nominated House for Outstanding Drama Series in 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 , but the show never won the award . For the season one episode " Three Stories " , David Shore won a writing Emmy in 2005 and the Humanitas Prize in 2006 . Director Greg Yaitanes received the 2008 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing - Drama Series , for directing " House 's Head " , the first part of season four 's two @-@ episode finale .
The show has been nominated for six Golden Globe Awards and received two . Hugh Laurie has been nominated six times for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series - Drama ; he won in 2006 and again in 2007 . In 2008 the series received its first nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series - Drama . House was nominated for best dramatic series again the following year , but did not win in the category .
The show received a 2005 Peabody Award for what the Peabody board called an " unorthodox lead character — a misanthropic diagnostician " and for " cases fit for a medical Sherlock Holmes " , which helped make House " the most distinctive new doctor drama in a decade " . The American Film Institute ( AFI ) , included House in its 2005 list of 10 Television Programs of the Year .
In 2011 , House won four People 's Choice Awards : favorite TV drama ; favorite dramatic actor and actress for Laurie and Edelstein ; and favorite TV doctor .
Laurie won the Screen Actors Guild 's award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series in both 2007 and 2009 . Writer Lawrence Kaplow won a Writers Guild of America Award in 2006 for the season two episode " Autopsy " . In 2007 , the show won a Creative Arts Emmy Award for prosthetic makeup .
In 2005 , Laurie appeared on the cover of TV Guide as " TV 's Sexiest Man " . In 2008 , Gregory House was voted second sexiest television doctor ever , behind ER 's Doug Ross ( George Clooney ) .
= = Distribution = =
In 2008 , House was distributed in a total of 66 countries . With an audience of over 81 @.@ 8 million worldwide , it was the most watched television show on the globe and far surpassed the viewership figures of the leading TV dramas the previous two years ( CSI and CSI : Miami ) . The following year , it placed second in the world after CSI .
House episodes premiere on Fox in the United States and Global in Canada , which have identical schedules . The show was the third most popular on Canadian television in 2008 . That same year , House was the top @-@ rated television program in Germany , the number 2 show in Italy , and number 3 in the Czech Republic . The series is also very popular in France , Spain , Sweden , and the Netherlands . In the United Kingdom , the first four seasons were broadcast on Five . Sky1 acquired first @-@ run rights beginning with season five . The original , English @-@ language version of the show also airs in Australia on Network Ten , in New Zealand on TV3 , and in Ireland on 3e , TV3 's cable channel .
Episodes of the show are also available online for download : Amazon Video on Demand , iTunes Store and the Zune Marketplace offer episodes from all of seasons 1 through 8 . In 2007 , NBCUniversal ( the show 's distributor ) and Apple Inc . ( iTunes ' owner ) had a disagreement that temporarily kept the fourth season off iTunes . In a statement to the press , Apple claimed that NBCUniversal wanted to drive up the per @-@ episode price to $ 4 @.@ 99 . In September 2008 , it was reported that the issue between Apple and NBC had been resolved . Episodes can now also be purchased in HD on iTunes for $ 2 @.@ 99 . Recent episodes are available in streaming video on Fox 's official House webpage and all 8 seasons are now streaming on Netflix .
The first seven seasons of the show were released on DVD encoded for regions 1 , 2 and 4 . A boxed set comprising seasons one through seven has been issued , as well . Universal Studios Home Entertainment announced plans to rerelease the first season in region 1 in anamorphic widescreen ( the original release is letterboxed ) . It is unclear if the DVDs will be re @-@ released with anamorphic widescreen in regions 2 and 4 , where they have been presented in 4 : 3 fullscreen .
= = Merchandise = =
For a charity auction , T @-@ shirts bearing the phrase " Everybody Lies " were sold for a limited time starting on April 23 , 2007 , on Housecharitytees.com. Proceeds from sales of those shirts and others with the phrase " Normal 's Overrated " went to the National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI ) . House cast and crew members also regularly attend fundraisers for NAMI and have featured in ads for the organization that have appeared in Seventeen and Rolling Stone . The show 's efforts have raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for the charity . Jacobs said that through their association with NAMI , they hope to take " some of the stigma off that illness " .
Nettwerk released the House M.D. Original Television Soundtrack album on September 18 , 2007 . The soundtrack includes full length versions of songs featured in House and previously unreleased songs especially recorded for the series . In 2008 , the Spanish game company Exelweiss designed a cellphone game for the show , which was released in both Spanish and English versions .
In June 2009 , Legacy Interactive announced a licensing agreement with Universal Pictures Digital Platforms Group ( UPDPG ) to develop a video game based on the series , in which players step into the roles of House 's diagnostic team to deal with five unusual medical cases . The game , released in May 2010 , included a minigame calling upon the player to " navigat [ e ] a restaurant @-@ placemat @-@ style maze , in which a giant sandwich must avoid hungry physicians on its way to Dr. House 's office . " It received an F from The A.V. Club , however Legacy updated the game by August 2010 .
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= Russian battleship Rostislav =
Rostislav was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Nikolaev Admiralty Shipyard in the 1890s for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy . She was conceived as a small , inexpensive coastal defence ship , but the Navy abandoned the concept in favor of a compact , seagoing battleship with a displacement of 8 @,@ 880 long tons ( 9 @,@ 020 t ) . Poor design and construction practices increased her actual displacement by more than 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) . Rostislav became the world 's first capital ship to burn fuel oil , rather than coal . Her combat ability was compromised by the use of 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) main guns instead of the de facto Russian standard of 12 inches ( 305 mm ) .
Her hull was launched in September 1896 , but non @-@ delivery of the ship 's main guns delayed her maiden voyage until 1899 and her completion until 1900 . In May 1899 Rostislav became the first ship of the Imperial Navy to be commanded by a member of the House of Romanov , Captain Alexander Mikhailovich . From 1903 to 1912 the ship was the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Black Sea Fleet . During the 1905 Russian Revolution her crew was on the verge of mutiny , but ultimately remained loyal to the regime , and actively suppressed the mutiny of the cruiser Ochakov .
Rostislav was actively engaged in World War I until the collapse of the Black Sea Fleet in the beginning of 1918 . She was the first Russian ship to fire on enemy targets on land during World War I , the first to be hit by a German airstrike , and the first to destroy a submarine , albeit a Russian one . In April 1918 the fleeing Bolsheviks abandoned Rostislav in Sevastopol . A year later the British occupation forces permanently disabled her engines . The White forces used the ship as a towed floating battery , then scuttled her in the Strait of Kerch in November 1920 .
= = Design and description = =
Similar in size to earlier coastal defence ships but seaworthy for operations in the Black Sea , Rostislav was conceived in 1892 as a cheap and compact platform for 12 @-@ inch guns . Admiral Nikolay Chikhachov , Chief of the Ministry of the Navy , envisioned a squadron of such ships , each displacing 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 to 5 @,@ 100 t ) , that would fit into his total desired displacement target of 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 400 t ) . Chief designer of the Nikolaev Shipyard , Sergey Ratnik , evaluated Chikhachov 's request for proposals , and advised against the idea in general . The Naval Technical Committee ( NTC ) concurred : any meaningful combination of firepower , armor , speed and stability required at least 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) . The NTC discarded Ratnik 's advice to build an improved copy of the battleship Sissoi Veliky of 8 @,@ 880 long tons ( 9 @,@ 020 t ) , but did not present a definite alternative . The NTC declined to discuss tactical matters , leaving the choice of armament to Chikhachov .
Chikhachov instructed Andrey Toropov of the Nikolaev Shipyard to draft two proposals , one armed with 10 @-@ inch and the other with 12 @-@ inch guns . Toropov estimated that the ship should have displaced at least 8 @,@ 880 tons . Chikhachov admitted the fact and presented the two options to the NTC . The admiral himself and the active fleet commanders voted for the 12 @-@ inch caliber , which had already become a worldwide battleship standard , but the NTC strongly advised against it . The Navy brass spent April and May 1893 in lengthy debates . They agreed to increase displacement to 8 @,@ 880 tons and were leaning toward accepting 12 @-@ inch guns when General Admiral Grand Duke Alexey resolved the discussion in favor of the smaller caliber .
Rostislav had the same hull as Sissoi Veliky , protected with the newly developed Harvey armor . She was also the first Russian battleship to use electric power instead of older hydraulic systems to train her guns .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Rostislav was 345 feet 6 inches ( 105 @.@ 3 m ) long at the waterline and 351 feet 10 inches ( 107 @.@ 2 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet ( 20 @.@ 7 m ) and a draft of 25 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 7 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 520 long tons ( 10 @,@ 690 t ) , over 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) more than her designed displacement of 8 @,@ 880 long tons ( 9 @,@ 020 t ) . This weight gain increased her draft by about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) , submerging most , if not all , of her waterline armored belt .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Rostislav had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , identical to those of Sissoi Veliky , that had a total designed output of 8 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 300 kW ) . Eight cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines , each of which drove one propeller . Half of the fire @-@ tube boilers were coal @-@ fired and the other half were oil @-@ fired , making Rostislav the first capital ship in the world to use fuel oil . This was done in order to substitute cheap oil from Baku for expensive imported coal . On sea trials , the power plant produced a total of 8 @,@ 816 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 574 kW ) and a top speed of 15 @.@ 8 knots ( 29 @.@ 3 km / h ; 18 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 820 long tons ( 830 t ) of fuel oil and coal at full load that provided a range of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber Model 1891 guns mounted in French @-@ style , center @-@ pivot twin gun turrets fore and aft . Each turret had an arc of fire of 240 ° . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and could depress to − 5 ° . They fired a 496 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 225 @.@ 2 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 273 ft / s ( 693 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 6 ° the guns had a range 7 @,@ 320 metres ( 8 @,@ 010 yd ) . All eight of the 45 @-@ caliber , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Pattern 1891 guns were mounted in twin @-@ gun turrets on the main deck . Each turret was positioned at a corner of the superstructure and had an arc of fire of 110 ° . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 4 lb ( 41 @.@ 46 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° .
The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament consisted of twelve 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . Eight of these were mounted in the superstructure and the locations of the remaining four are unclear . They fired a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 00 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) . The ship also mounted sixteen 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns , eight of which were carried in the fighting top . The locations of the other eight are unknown . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) .
Rostislav carried six 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes . The bow and stern tubes and the aft pair of broadside tubes were above water . The forward broadside tubes were underwater . The ship carried 50 mines to be used to protect her anchorage .
= = = Protection = = =
The maximum thickness of the Rostislav 's waterline belt was 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 368 mm ) , tapering to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered 227 feet ( 69 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship 's length and was 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high . While the exact height of the belt above the designed waterline is unknown , much of it , if not all , would have been below the waterline as the ship 's draft was over 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) deeper than designed . The belt terminated forward in a 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) transverse bulkhead and aft in a 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) bulkhead . The upper belt was 5 inches thick , 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high and covered 160 feet ( 48 @.@ 8 m ) of the ship 's side . The sides of the main gun turrets were 10 inches thick and they had 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) roofs . The sides of the 6 @-@ inch turrets were 6 inches thick as were the sides of the conning tower . The armor deck was flat and located at the upper edge of the main belt . It was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick . Below the waterline , forward and aft of the armored citadel , were 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) decks .
= = Construction = =
Work on Rostislav commenced on January 30 , 1894 . The ship was officially christened May 20 , 1894 ; in line with Russian tradition , the formal laying down ceremony was delayed until May 19 , 1895 . The contract for oil @-@ firing boilers and engines was awarded to Baltic Works . The armor was rolled in the United States by Bethlehem Steel within the framework of an earlier contract for Petropavlovsk @-@ class battleships . Bethlehem Steel faced the scrutiny of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs for charging the Russians an unusually low " introductory " price of $ 250 to $ 300 per ton , compared to $ 600 to $ 660 paid by the United States Navy . Senator Benjamin Tillman publicly accused Bethlehem and Carnegie of price fixing and robbing the American taxpayer .
Rostislav 's hull was launched on September 2 , 1896 . Lack of proper cranes in Nikolaev made the installation of its engines exceedingly difficult , to the point that the navy even considered towing the hull to Sevastopol for completion . The Nikolaev engineers eventually resolved the problem and the ship was ready to sail in July 1897 . Rostislav conducted her speed trials on October 21 , 1898 , still missing her main guns . Her power plant performed flawlessly , but its weight exceeded the design target by more than 295 long tons ( 300 t ) .
Non @-@ delivery of the new 10 @-@ inch Model 1897 guns , made by the Obukhov Factory in Saint Petersburg for Rostislav , Admiral Ushakov @-@ class coastal defense ships and Peresvet @-@ class battleships , delayed the completion of the ship by two years . One of these guns , earmarked for Admiral Ushakov , exploded at the proving ground and the whole batch was subjected to exhaustive tests and , when possible , repairs . Guns Number 16 through Number 19 passed the tests and were delivered to Sevastopol in July and August 1899 . Rostislav was able to sail to her first gunnery trial on April 12 , 1900 . On the second day of shooting practice the recoil mechanisms of her forward turret failed and more defects were discovered back at the base . Rostislav spent the rest of the spring having her gun mounts repaired , but the problem persisted and the Navy " solved " it by prohibiting them from being used . The gun mounts were rebuilt along the pattern of those used by the armored cruiser Admiral Nakhimov in 1901 and 1902 , and Rostislav successfully passed the gunnery tests in June 1902 . The ship 's electrical turret controls , with their 332 contact pairs , required tedious maintenance and proved too complex for most of the enlisted men .
= = Service = =
On May 1 , 1899 , Captain Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich assumed command of Rostislav , becoming the first Romanov since Peter I to command a combat ship . Another Romanov , Grand Duke Kirill , spent a few uneventful months on board Rostislav in 1900 . Alexander 's guests , parties and diplomatic visits to Istanbul regularly interfered with the crew 's duties , but he personally managed the repairs and alterations of the ship 's equipment . Shipyards and contractors treated Rostislav as a priority customer . Alexander , based on his experience with Sissoi Veliky , persuaded the NTC to reinforce Rostislav 's rudder frame and supervised installation of a backup control post deep under the conning tower . In 1903 Alexander was promoted to rear admiral and returned to his ship as a squadron commander . Rostislav served as the junior flagship of the Black Sea Fleet until September 1912 .
The 1900 season revealed grave problems with Rostislav 's boilers . Black smoke from burning oil was more conspicuous than coal smoke . Uneven distribution of heat inside the boilers caused severe local overheating , buckling of fireboxes and sudden backdrafts . For three and a half months the boilers failed one by one , starting with small auxiliary power units and ending with the main boilers . Oil delivered by the Rothschild @-@ controlled Russian Standard Oil was not at fault ; similar problems were experienced by oil @-@ fired ships of the Baltic Fleet . Repairs and alterations of the power plant continued until 1904 , when the continuing boiler failures compelled the Navy to dispense with oil fuel and convert Rostislav to coal in 1904 and 1905 . Each round of repairs and alterations added more weight to the already overweight ship , and by 1907 the ship 's belt armor was completely below the waterline .
The Tsentralka , the group plotting a mutiny of the Black Sea Fleet , decided on June 25 , 1905 , that the mutiny should start on Potemkin rather than Rostislav . On June 27 , 1905 , the day of the battleship Potemkin mutiny , Rostislav was sailing under the ensign of Vice Admiral Alexander Krieger . Nicholas II ordered Krieger and his superior , fleet commander Grigory Chukhnin , to destroy the rebels by force , but the admirals refrained from shooting . They let the rebels flee to Odessa and later to Romania . Krieger 's own crew was on the verge of open mutiny . On July 2 , 1905 , a military council held on board Rostislav decided to moor the ships in Odessa , disconnect the engines from the propellers and let the enlisted men walk ashore at will . By the time of the Ochakov mutiny in November 1905 , fleet morale had improved and Krieger did not hesitate to fire two 10 @-@ inch and fourteen 6 @-@ inch shells against the rebels .
= = = Exercises and casualties = = =
After the Battle of Tsushima the Imperial Navy concentrated on improving their gunnery skills and fire @-@ control practices . In 1908 Alexei Krylov and Yevgeny Berkalov led Rostislav on an unprecedented long @-@ range gunnery shoot : Rostislav fired 330 ten @-@ inch shells at a distance of 8 to 10 miles ( 13 to 16 km ) in a few days . The experiment proved that the older ballistic tables used by the Navy were inaccurate . Berkalov compiled the data from the 1908 exercise into the new tables adopted by the Navy . Another of Krylov 's initiatives , rapid counter @-@ flooding , was standardized in 1909 .
Two plans for modernizing the ship were put forward before World War I. In 1907 the Naval General Staff proposed a major reconstruction aimed at reducing her draft and raising her armor belt higher out of the water . Her above @-@ water torpedo tubes , torpedo nets , auxiliary boilers and 47 @-@ millimeter guns would have been removed , her superstructure cut down and her rigging reduced to a single pole mast . These changes would have reduced her displacement by 250 long tons ( 250 t ) , but the plan was rejected due to a shortage of money . Her above @-@ water torpedo tubes , however , were removed about this time . In 1912 the staff of the Black Sea Fleet proposed to replace all of her 47 mm guns with four 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) guns and to remove the auxiliary boilers and the submerged torpedo tubes to offset the additional weight . The Naval General Staff did not think that this was worth the cost and rejected the plan . Even though these plans did not come to fruition , other alterations were made to Rostislav before the war . A dozen of her 37 mm guns were removed in 1906 , and she was fitted with 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders , probably made by Barr and Stroud , in 1907 and 1908 .
In 1909 and 1910 , Rostislav and the rest of the Black Sea Fleet prepared for joint operations with submarines . She was scheduled for an installation of the first Russian underwater acoustic communication system , but the installation was interrupted and her hardware was installed on the battleship Panteleimon ( the former Potemkin ) instead . During an anti @-@ submarine exercise on the night of June 11 , 1909 , Rostislav accidentally rammed and sank the submarine Kambala . Twenty men of Kambala and two rescue divers died . The accident was blamed on reckless maneuvering by the submarine , and Rostislav 's captain was cleared of any negligence or wrongdoing .
= = = Diplomatic incidents = = =
Before the outbreak of World War I Rostislav was involved in two minor international incidents . On August 11 , 1911 , Evstafi and Panteleimon , two of the Black Sea Fleet battleships paying a state visit to Romania , ran aground on a shoal just off the port of Constanța . Rostislav 's officers had detected the hazard and steered her to safety , but did not alert the other ships . The international embarrassment that followed led to the resignation of fleet commander Admiral Ivan Bostrem . During the First Balkan War Rostislav sailed into the Sea of Marmara to protect the Russian Embassy in Istanbul from a mob . Rostislav accidentally fired a live shell into the Turkish defenses . No one was injured during the incident , and the captain defused the situation with a personal apology to the Ottoman government .
= = = World War I = = =
Rostislav spent the winter of 1913 – 14 refitting , and in April 1914 she returned to the active fleet with newly overhauled machinery , new rangefinders and new gun sights . The ship made 15 @.@ 37 knots ( 28 @.@ 47 km / h ; 17 @.@ 69 mph ) on her post @-@ refit trials .
On November 4 , 1914 , the Black Sea Fleet sailed out on its first combat operation of the war : the bombardment of Zonguldak . The operation was conceived as a retaliation against the Turkish @-@ German attack on Sevastopol . Rostislav , captained by Kazimierz Porębski , was the " designated gunboat " while other Russian battleships formed a defensive screen around her . On November 6 she fired 251 shells at the port of Zonguldak , reducing it to rubble . On November 18 the ship faced Goeben during the Battle of Cape Sarych , but the German ship broke contact before Rostislav , trailing behind the Russian formation , even spotted her . Rostislav had other encounters with Goeben in 1915 and 1916 , but did not engage her directly . In 1915 the ship received four 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns .
After the commissioning of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts , the old battleships were split into independent combat groups . Rostislav became the flagship of the Batumi Group tasked with supporting the ground operations of the Caucasus Army . Their first joint action began February 5 , 1916 , near Arhavi . On the first day alone the ship fired 400 shells against the Turks . On March 4 Rostislav and the gunboats Kubanetz and Donetz supported the amphibious landing at Atina . Three days later she supported the landing of marines that ended in the capture of Rize . At the end of March Rostislav and Panteleimon forced the Turks to evacuate Trabzon .
In the summer of 1916 the Navy seriously considered an all @-@ out amphibious assault on the Bosphorus . Fleet commander Andrei Eberhardt anticipated a high risk of naval mine and torpedo hits in the coastal waters and suggested equipping all pre @-@ dreadnought battleships with anti @-@ torpedo bulges . Sinop had her bulges fitted in Nikolaev in July 1916 , and Rostislav was next in line , but the work was cancelled in August , and she was transferred to the Romanian coast as flagship of the Constanța Group . Constanța temporarily became an important logistical hub for the Russian troops heading to the Romanian Front , and the base for minelayers , submarines and destroyers harassing the enemy in the Bosphorus area . The Germans responded with air raids ; their first aerial success against a Russian naval target was scored against Rostislav . The bomb hit the edge of the aft 10 @-@ inch turret and injured sixteen sailors . The turret itself remained fully operational . The collapse of the Romanian Front in October 1916 forced the Navy to evacuate Constanța . Rostislav returned to Sevastopol for a much @-@ needed overhaul .
= = = Revolution = = =
The February Revolution of 1917 did not demoralize the Black Sea Fleet as quickly as the Baltic Fleet . Captain Fyodor Stark , a former destroyer commander , maintained Rostislav in combat @-@ ready condition until the end of the year . The battleship sailed out for her last voyage to Batumi in September and October . Stark managed to contain the radical politics , anti @-@ German sentiment and Ukrainization of the crew , but nevertheless raised the flag of Ukraine on his return to Sevastopol on October 25 . From this moment desertion and " volunteering " into the Red Guards intensified , and by December 21 the crew was reduced to 460 enlisted men and 28 officers . In January 1918 the fleet disintegrated completely : the officers fled from the enraged enlisted men , then the enlisted men abandoned the ships and fled from the advancing German Army . On April 29 , 1918 , the Bolsheviks managed to extricate two battleships and sixteen destroyers from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk , but Rostislav and the rest of the fleet remained in Sevastopol .
The German occupation of Crimea from May to November 1918 did not affect the abandoned ship . The Anglo @-@ French forces that replaced the Germans stayed in Sevastopol until April 1919 . Before leaving , the British destroyed Rostislav 's engines on April 25 . The White forces of Baron Wrangel used the disabled ship as a floating battery in the Sea of Azov . The ship , manned by a ragtag volunteer crew , was stationed in the shallow waters of the Strait of Kerch to harass the Reds in Taman and prevent a landing in the Crimea . After the defeat of Wrangel 's land forces , the crew scuttled Rostislav in the Strait of Kerch to prevent the Red forces from breaking through to the Black Sea .
When Rostislav sank in the shallows her superstructure remained above water . In 1930 , the EPRON ( a Soviet salvage unit ) retrieved the ship 's guns and partially dismantled the hull . According to diver Alexander Yolkin , the remains of the hull are still lying in the strait , around 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) from the Ukrainian coast , and gradually sinking into the silt .
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= Common thresher =
The Common thresher ( Alopias vulpinus ) , also known by many names such as Atlantic thresher , Big @-@ eye thresher , Fox shark , Green thresher , Swingletail , Slasher , Swiveltail , Thintail thresher , Whip @-@ tailed shark and Zorro thresher shark , is the largest species of thresher shark , family Alopiidae , reaching some 6 m ( 20 ft ) in length . About half of its length consists of the elongated upper lobe of its caudal fin . With a streamlined body , short pointed snout , and modestly sized eyes , the common thresher resembles ( and has often been confused with ) the pelagic thresher ( A. pelagicus ) . It can be distinguished from the latter species by the white of its belly extending in a band over the bases of its pectoral fins . The common thresher is distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate waters , though it prefers cooler temperatures . It can be found both close to shore and in the open ocean , from the surface to a depth of 550 m ( 1 @,@ 800 ft ) . It is seasonally migratory and spends summers at lower latitudes .
The long tail of the common thresher , the source of many fanciful tales through history , is used in a whip @-@ like fashion to deliver incapacitating blows to its prey . This species feeds mainly on small schooling forage fishes such as herrings and anchovies . It is a fast , strong swimmer that has been known to leap clear of the water , and possesses physiological adaptations that allow it to maintain an internal body temperature warmer than that of the surrounding sea water . The common thresher has an aplacental viviparous mode of reproduction , with oophagous embryos that feed on undeveloped eggs ovulated by their mother . Females typically give birth to four pups at a time , following a gestation period of nine months .
Despite its size , the common thresher is minimally dangerous to humans due to its relatively small teeth and timid disposition . It is highly valued by commercial fishers for its meat , fins , hide , and liver oil ; large numbers are taken by longline and gillnet fisheries throughout its range . This shark is also esteemed by recreational anglers for the exceptional fight it offers on hook @-@ and @-@ line . The common thresher has a low rate of reproduction and cannot withstand heavy fishing pressure for long , a case in point being the rapid collapse of the thresher shark fishery off California in the 1980s . With commercial exploitation increasing in many parts of the world , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific description of the common thresher , as Squalus vulpinus , was written by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature . In 1810 , Constantine Samuel Rafinesque described Alopias macrourus from a thresher shark caught off Sicily . Later authors recognized the genus Alopias as valid while synonymizing A. macrourus with S. vulpinus , and thus the common thresher 's scientific name became Alopias vulpinus .
The specific epithet vulpinus is derived from the Latin vulpes meaning " fox " , and in some older literature the species name was given incorrectly as Alopias vulpes . " Fox shark " is the earliest known English name for this species and is rooted in classical antiquity , from a belief that it was especially cunning . In the mid @-@ 19th century , the name " fox " was mostly superseded by " thresher " , referencing the shark 's flail @-@ like use of its tail . This species is often known simply as thresher shark or thresher ; Henry Bigelow and William Schroeder introduced the name " common thresher " in 1945 to differentiate it from the bigeye thresher ( A. superciliosus ) . It is also known by many other common names , including Atlantic thresher , grayfish , green thresher , long @-@ tailed shark , sea ape , sea fox , slasher , swiveltail , thintail thresher , thrasher shark , and whiptail shark .
Morphological and allozyme analyses have agreed that the common thresher is basal to the clade formed by the bigeye thresher and the pelagic thresher ( A. pelagicus ) . The closest relative of this species within the family may be a fourth , unrecognized thresher shark species off Baja California , reported from allozyme evidence by Blaise Eitner in 1995 . However , the existence of this fourth species has yet to be confirmed by other sources .
= = Description = =
The common thresher is a fairly robust shark with a torpedo @-@ shaped trunk and a short , broad head . The dorsal profile of the head curves evenly down to the pointed , conical snout . The eyes are moderately large and lack nictitating membranes . The small mouth is arched and , unlike in other thresher sharks , has furrows at the corners . There are 32 @-@ 53 upper and 25 @-@ 50 lower tooth rows ; the teeth are small , triangular , and smooth @-@ edged , lacking lateral cusplets . The five pairs of gill slits are short , with the fourth and fifth pairs located over the pectoral fin bases .
The long , falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) pectoral fins taper to narrowly pointed tips . The first dorsal fin is tall and positioned slightly closer to the pectoral fins than the pelvic fins . The pelvic fins are almost as large as the first dorsal fin and bear long , thin claspers in males . The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny , with the former positioned ahead of the latter . There are crescent @-@ shaped notches on the caudal peduncle at the upper and lower origins of the caudal fin . The upper caudal fin lobe is enormously elongated as is characteristic of threshers , measuring about as long as the rest of the shark ; the thin , gently curving lobe is held at a steep upward angle and has a notch in the trailing margin near the tip .
The skin is covered by small , overlapping dermal denticles , each with three horizontal ridges and three to five marginal teeth . This species is metallic purplish brown to gray above , becoming more bluish on the flanks . The underside is white , which extends over the pectoral and pelvic fin bases ; this pattern is in contrast to the pelagic thresher , which is solidly colored over these fins . The meeting line between the dorsal and ventral coloration is often irregular . There may be a white spot at the tips of the pectoral fins . The common thresher is the largest thresher shark species , commonly reaching 5 m ( 16 ft ) long and 230 kg ( 510 lb ) in weight . The confirmed length record for this shark is 5 @.@ 7 m ( 19 ft ) , while the maximum possible length may be 6 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 5 m ( 20 – 21 ft ) . The heaviest individual on record is a 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) female that weighed 510 kg ( 1 @,@ 120 lb ) .
= = Distribution = =
The range of the common thresher encompasses tropical and cold @-@ temperate waters worldwide . In the western Atlantic , it is found from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico , though it is rare south of New England , and from Venezuela to Argentina . In the eastern Atlantic , it has been reported from the North Sea and the British Isles to Ghana ( including Madeira , the Azores , and the Mediterranean and Black Seas ) , as well as from Angola to South Africa . In the Indo @-@ Pacific , this species is known from Tanzania to India and the Maldives , Japan and Korea to southeastern China , Sumatra , eastern Australia , and New Zealand ; it also occurs around a number of Pacific islands including New Caledonia , the Society Islands , Tabuaeran , and Hawaiian Islands . In the eastern Pacific , it has been recorded from British Columbia to Chile , including the Gulf of California .
The common thresher is migratory , moving to higher latitudes following warm water masses . In the eastern Pacific , males travel further than females , reaching as far as Vancouver Island in the late summer and early fall . Juveniles tend to remain in warm nursery areas . There appear to be separate populations with different life history characteristics in the eastern Pacific and western Indian Ocean and possibly elsewhere ; this species is not known to make transoceanic movements . In the northwestern Indian Ocean , males and females segregate by location and depth during the pupping season from January to May . Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has revealed substantial regional genetic variation within common threshers in all three oceans . This could support the idea that , despite being high mobile , sharks from different areas rarely interbreed .
= = Habitat = =
Common threshers are inhabitants of both continental waters and the open ocean . They tend to be most abundant in proximity to land , particularly the juveniles which frequent near @-@ coastal habitats such as bays . Most individuals are encountered near the surface , but this species has been recorded to at least a depth of 550 m ( 1 @,@ 800 ft ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Common threshers are active , strong swimmers ; there are infrequent reports of them leaping completely out of the water . Like the fast @-@ swimming sharks of the family Lamnidae , the common thresher has a strip of aerobic red muscle along its flank that is able to contract powerfully and efficiently for long periods of time . In addition , they have slow @-@ oxidative muscles centrally located within their bodies and a blood vessel countercurrent exchange system called the rete mirabile ( " wonderful net " ) , allowing them to generate and retain body heat . The temperature inside the red muscles of a common thresher averages 2 ° C ( 3 @.@ 6 ° F ) above that of the ambient seawater , though there is significant individual variation . Unlike the pelagic and bigeye threshers , the common thresher lacks an orbital rete mirabile to protect its eyes and brain from temperature changes .
Immature common threshers fall prey to larger sharks . Aside from observations of killer whales feeding on common threshers off New Zealand , adults have no known natural predators . Parasites documented from the common thresher include the protozoan Giardia intestinalis , the trematodes Campula oblonga ( not usual host ) and Paronatrema vaginicola , the tapeworms Acanthobothrium coronatum , Anthobothrium laciniatum , Crossobothrium angustum , Hepatoxylon trichiuri , Molicola uncinatus , Paraorygmatobothrium exiguum , P. filiforme , and Sphyriocephalus tergetinus , and the copepods Dinemoura discrepans , Echthrogaleus denticulatus , Gangliopus pyriformis , Kroeyerina benzorum , Nemesis aggregatus , N. robusta , N. tiburo , Nesippus orientalis , and Pandarus smithii .
= = = Feeding = = =
The long upper tail fin lobe of the common thresher is used to strike and incapacitate prey . Some 97 % of the common thresher 's diet is composed of bony fishes , mostly small schooling forage fish such as mackerel , bluefish , herring , needlefish , and lanternfish . Before striking , the sharks compact schools of prey by swimming around them and splashing the water with its tail , often in pairs or small groups . Threshers are also known to take large , solitary fishes such as lancetfish , as well as squid and other pelagic invertebrates . Off California , common threshers feed mostly on the northern anchovy ( Engraulis mordax ) , with Pacific hake ( Merluccius productus ) , Pacific sardine ( Sardinops sagax ) , Pacific mackerel ( Scomber japonicus ) , market squid ( Loligo opalescens ) , and pelagic red crab ( Pleuroncodes planipes ) also being important food items . The sharks concentrate on a few prey species during cold water years , but become less discriminating during less productive , warmer El Niño periods .
There are numerous accounts of common threshers using the long upper lobes of their tail fins to stun prey , and they are often snagged on longlines by their tails after presumably striking at the bait . In July 1914 , shark @-@ watcher Russell J. Coles reported seeing a thresher shark use its tail to flip prey fish into its mouth , and that one fish that missed was thrown a " considerable distance " . On April 14 , 1923 , noted oceanographer W.E. Allen observed a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thresher shark pursuing a California smelt ( Atherinopsis californiensis ) off a pier at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . The shark overtook the small fish and swung its tail above the water like a " coachwhip " with " confusing speed " , severely injuring its target . In the winter of 1865 , Irish ichthyologist Harry Blake @-@ Knox claimed to have seen a thresher shark in Dublin Bay use its tail to strike a wounded loon ( probably a great northern diver , Gavia immer ) , which it then swallowed . Blake @-@ Knox 's account was subsequently disputed by other authorities , who asserted that the thresher 's tail is not rigid or muscular enough to effect such a blow .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other mackerel sharks , common threshers are aplacental viviparous . They give birth to litters of two to four ( rarely six ) pups in the eastern Pacific , and three to seven pups in the eastern Atlantic . They are believed to reproduce throughout their range ; one known nursery area is the Southern California Bight . Breeding occurs in the summer , usually July or August , and parturition occurs from March to June following a gestation period of nine months . The developing embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs ovulated by the mother . The teeth of small embryos are peg @-@ like and non @-@ functional , being covered by a sheath of soft tissues . As the embryos mature , their series of teeth become progressively more like those of adults in shape , though they remain depressed and hidden until shortly before birth .
Newborn pups usually measure 114 – 160 cm ( 3 @.@ 74 – 5 @.@ 25 ft ) long and weigh 5 – 6 kg ( 11 – 13 lb ) , depending on the size of the mother . The juveniles grow about 50 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) a year while adults grow about 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 33 ft ) a year . The size at maturation appears to vary between populations . In the eastern North Pacific males mature at 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) and five years old , and females at around 2 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 8 ft ) and seven years old . They are known to live to at least 15 years of age and their maximum lifespan has been estimated to be 45 – 50 years .
= = Human interactions = =
While any large shark is capable of inflicting injury and thus merits respect , the common thresher poses little danger to humans . Most divers report that they are shy and difficult to approach underwater . The International Shark Attack File lists a single provoked attack by the thresher shark and four attacks on boats , which were probably incidental from individuals fighting capture . There is an unsubstantiated report of a common thresher acting aggressively towards a spearfisherman off New Zealand .
Famed big @-@ game angler Frank Mundus , in his book Sportsfishing for Sharks , recounted a tale in which a longline fisherman off the Carolinas leaned over the side of his boat to examine something large that he had hooked , and was decapitated by the caudal fin of a thresher shark estimated to be 5 m ( 16 ft ) long . The head supposedly fell into the water and was never recovered . This account is considered highly improbable by most authors .
= = = Commercial fishing = = =
The common thresher is widely caught by offshore longline and pelagic gillnet fisheries , especially in the northwestern Indian Ocean , the western , central , and eastern Pacific , and the North Atlantic . Participating countries include the former USSR , Japan , Taiwan , Spain , the United States , Brazil , Uruguay , and Mexico . The meat is highly prized for human consumption cooked , dried and salted , or smoked . In addition , their skin is made into leather , their liver oil is processed for vitamins , and their fins are used for shark fin soup . The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization ( FAO ) reported a worldwide common thresher take of 411 metric tons in 2006 .
In the United States , a drift gillnet fishery for the common thresher developed in southern California in 1977 , beginning with 10 vessels experimenting with a larger @-@ sized mesh . Within two years the fleet had increased to 40 vessels , and the fishery peaked in 1982 when 228 vessels landed 1 @,@ 091 metric tons . The common thresher population rapidly collapsed from overfishing , with landings decreasing to less than 300 metric tons a year by the late 1980s and larger size classes disappearing from the population . Common threshers are still taken commercially in the United States , with about 85 % coming from the Pacific and 15 % from the Atlantic . The largest catches remain from the California @-@ Oregon gillnet fishery , which had shifted its focus to the more valuable swordfish ( Xiphius gladius ) but still take threshers as bycatch . Small numbers of Pacific threshers are also taken by harpoons , small @-@ mesh driftnets , and longlines . In the Atlantic , threshers are primarily taken on longlines meant for swordfish and tuna .
= = = Recreational fishing = = =
Common threshers are well regarded by sports fishers as one of the strongest fighting sharks alongside the shortfin mako shark ( Isurus oxyrhinchus ) , and are ranked as game fish by the International Game Fish Association ( IGFA ) . They are pursued by anglers using rod and reel off California , South Africa , and elsewhere . Frank Mundus has called thresher sharks " exceedingly stubborn " and " pound for pound , a harder fish to whip " than the mako . Fishing for the common thresher is similar to that for the mako ; the recommended equipment is a 24 kg ( 53 lb ) rod and a big @-@ game reel holding at least 365 m ( 400 yd ) of 24 kg ( 53 lb ) line . The ideal method is trolling with baitfish , either deep or allowing it to drift .
= = = Conservation = = =
All three thresher shark species were reassessed from Data Deficient to Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 2007 . The rapid collapse of the Californian subpopulation ( over 50 % within three generations ) prompted concerns regarding the species ' susceptibility to overfishing in other areas , where fishery data is seldom reported and aspects of life history and population structure are little @-@ known . In addition to continued fishing pressure , common threshers are also taken as bycatch in other gear such as bottom trawls and fish traps , and are considered a nuisance by mackerel fishers as they become entangled in the nets .
The United States manages common thresher fisheries via regulations such as commercial quotas and trip limits , and recreational minimum sizes and retention limits . Shark finning is illegal under U.S. federal law . The Atlantic common thresher fishery is regulated by the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) Highly Migratory Species Management Division through the 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species ( HMS ) Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) , and the Pacific common thresher fishery is regulated by the Pacific Fishery Management Council through the Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) for U.S. West Coast Fisheries for Highly Migratory Species ( HMS ) . In the 1990s , after the depletion of common thresher stocks by the California gillnet fishery , the fleet was limited to 70 boats and restrictions were placed on season , operation range , and landings . There is evidence that the California subpopulation is recovering , and the potential population growth rate has been estimated to be 4 – 7 % per year .
= = Historical perceptions = =
The Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BCE ) wrote some of the earliest observations about the common thresher . In his Historia Animalia , he claimed that hooked threshers had a propensity for freeing themselves by biting through fishing lines , and that they protected their young by swallowing them . These " clever " behaviors , which have not been borne out by science , led the ancient Greeks to call it alopex ( meaning " fox " ) , on which its modern scientific name is based .
An oft @-@ repeated myth about the common thresher is that they cooperate with swordfish to attack whales . In one version of events , the thresher shark circles the whale and distracts it by beating the sea to a froth with its tail , thereby allowing the swordfish to impale it in a vulnerable spot with its rostrum . In an alternate account , the swordfish positions itself beneath the whale , while the thresher leaps out of the water and lands on top of the whale , hammering it onto the swordfish 's rostrum . Yet other authors describe the thresher " cutting huge gashes " in the side of the whale with its tail . Neither threshers nor swordfish however are known to feed on whales or indeed possess the dentition to do so . The story may have arisen from mariners mistaking the tall dorsal fins of killer whales , which do attack large cetaceans , for thresher shark tails . Swordfish bills have also been found embedded in blue and fin whales ( likely accidents due to the fast @-@ moving fish 's inertia ) , and thresher sharks do exhibit some of the aforementioned behaviors independent of whales .
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= New York State Route 18 =
New York State Route 18 ( NY 18 ) is an east – west state highway in western New York in the United States . It runs parallel to the south shore of Lake Ontario for most of its length between Niagara County and Monroe County . NY 18 , which also passes through Orleans County , acts as a northerly alternate to NY 104 , another east – west route that parallels NY 18 to the south on Ridge Road . The western terminus of NY 18 is at a complex grade @-@ separated interchange with NY 104 outside the village of Lewiston . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 104 in an area of Rochester known as Kodak Park .
NY 18 was assigned in 1924 and originally extended from the Pennsylvania state line near Salamanca to downtown Buffalo via Dayton and Hamburg . It was extended northeast to Rochester via Niagara Falls as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and east to NY 250 in the town of Webster by the following year . NY 18 was truncated on its west end to the town of Lewiston in the early 1960s and on its east end to Rochester in the early 1970s .
Although NY 18 is signed as east – west , it runs primarily north – south through the western portion of Niagara County . After leaving Niagara County , NY 18 shifts farther south , gradually moving away from the shore of Lake Ontario . In central Orleans County , NY 18 meets the Lake Ontario State Parkway at the Lakeside Beach State Park . The parkway then becomes the lakeside road , and NY 18 veers south to follow a more inland routing .
= = Route description = =
= = = Niagara County = = =
NY 18 begins at a junction with NY 104 south of a complex grade @-@ separated interchange that includes NY 18F , NY 104 , and the Niagara Scenic Parkway on the eastern edge of the village of Lewiston . From NY 104 east , a right @-@ turn ramp allows access to Creek Road Extension , the first street that modern @-@ day NY 18 occupies . NY 104 continues north from the ramp , passing over NY 18 westbound ( which terminates at the merge ramp with NY 104 west ) on its way to the village while NY 18 proceeds to the northeast on Creek Road Extension , bypassing Lewiston to the southeast . After 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the highway curves to the north and meets NY 104 at an unconventional grade @-@ separated interchange that has a pair of two @-@ way ramps connecting the two state routes . NY 18 continues on , passing under NY 104 and paralleling the Robert Moses State Parkway as it proceeds north .
At a wye in the Porter hamlet of Blairville , NY 18 breaks from its north – south alignment and turns to the northeast before curving northward once more , returning to a perfect north – south alignment at an intersection with NY 93 in the hamlet of Towers Corners . Southwest of the Four Mile Creek State Park , NY 18 turns a full 90 degrees to the east and begins to parallel the southern shore of Lake Ontario . Here , NY 18 meets the northern terminus of NY 18F , changes names from Creek Road to Lake Road , and becomes part of the Seaway Trail , a National Scenic Byway . The route proceeds northeast to Four Mile Creek State Park , where it intersects the northern end of the Robert Moses State Parkway . East of the park , NY 18 gradually moves to the north , decreasing the area between the route and the lakeshore as it proceeds east .
Now in Wilson and less than 100 yards ( 91 m ) from the lakeshore , NY 18 meets the northern terminus of NY 425 . Farther east , in Olcott , NY 18 intersects the northern extent of NY 78 . On the eastern edge of town , the route intersects Transit Road , which runs along the transit line first surveyed by the Holland Land Company . This portion of Transit Road does not meet the NY 78 @-@ occupied portion in Lockport , however . After meeting the northern end of NY 148 in Somerset , NY 18 intersects the northern terminus of NY 269 at the Niagara – Orleans County line .
= = = Orleans County = = =
Across the county line , NY 18 becomes the Roosevelt Highway . It continues across the northern edge of the county and the southern fringe of Lake Ontario , meeting the northern terminus of NY 63 in Yates Center , north of Lyndonville . While NY 63 ends here , Lyndonville Road continues north to the lake as County Route 63 @-@ 1 ( CR 63 @-@ 1 ) . This portion of Lyndonville Road was once part of NY 63 . In Carlton , NY 18 intersects the northern terminus of NY 279 , the last in a series of north – south routes that terminate at NY 18 . Not far to the east , the route serves Lakeside Beach State Park and indirectly connects to the western terminus of the Lake Ontario State Parkway . At this point , the Seaway Trail leaves NY 18 to follow the parkway along the lakeshore .
East of the park , NY 18 breaks from the Lake Ontario shore and begins to make its way southward , curving to the southeast as it meets NY 98 north of the hamlet of Baldwin Corner . The routes converge to form a concurrency south to the hamlet , where NY 18 continues east . At the Carlton – Kendall town line , NY 18 curves southeastward once again before reverting to an easterly alignment in Kendall . After passing NY 237 south of the hamlet of Kendall , NY 18 intersects NY 272 at the Orleans – Monroe County line . NY 18 merges onto the county line road , overlapping NY 272 along the county line for just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the continuation of Roosevelt Highway , where NY 18 continues east into Monroe County .
= = = Monroe County = = =
NY 18 remains Roosevelt Highway until Hamlin – Parma Town Line Road , where is becomes West Avenue . In the hamlet of Hamlin , it meets NY 19 . NY 18 passes NY 260 before swerving northward onto West Avenue at the Hamlin – Parma town line and proceeding eastward toward the village of Hilton . In Hilton , NY 18 meets NY 259 ( Lake Avenue ) in the center of the village . The two routes overlap for a short distance east along Main Street before turning south to exit the village on South Avenue .
NY 18 and NY 259 , now named Hilton – Parma Corners Road , remain concurrent until Parma Center , where NY 18 turns east to follow Parma Center Road for roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) through a rural portion of Parma . Parma Center Road ends upon intersecting NY 261 ( Manitou Road ) at the Parma – Greece town line ; as a result , NY 18 joins NY 261 for one block southward before returning east on Latta Road and entering the Rochester suburb of Greece . NY 18 passes through the rural northwestern part of the town and the more developed , densely populated northeastern section , meeting NY 390 at exit 26 in the latter . The junction is the northernmost exit on NY 390 prior to its merging with the Lake Ontario State Parkway to the north .
A small distance east of NY 390 , NY 18 passes Greece Arcadia High School and intersects Mount Read Boulevard in the hamlet of Mount Read before intersecting Dewey Avenue a half @-@ mile to the east . NY 18 turns south onto Dewey Avenue ; however , state maintenance continues to follow Latta Road east to where it crosses into the Rochester city limits at Charlotte . This section of Latta Road is designated as NY 941A , an unsigned reference route . NY 18 , meanwhile , becomes maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 132 , an unsigned designation that follows Dewey Avenue north to its end at the Lake Ontario shoreline . The route continues south on Dewey Avenue to the Rochester city line , where CR 132 ends and maintenance of the route shifts to the city of Rochester . NY 18 ends about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later at a junction with NY 104 in an industrialized area known as Kodak Park .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and early changes = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 18 , an unsigned legislative route that ran from the Pennsylvania state line at Ripley to the mouth of the Niagara River north of Youngstown with a gap through the city of Buffalo . North of Buffalo , Route 18 followed Niagara Falls Boulevard ( modern NY 950K and U.S. Route 62 or US 62 ) to Niagara Falls and current NY 104 and NY 18F between Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of legislative Route 18 north of Buffalo became the basis for NY 34 , which began at Main Street ( NY 5 ) in Buffalo and followed the path of legislative Route 18 through Niagara Falls and along the Niagara River to Lake Ontario . NY 18 was assigned at the same time ; however , it initially went from the Pennsylvania state line at Limestone north to Buffalo along what is now US 219 , NY 417 , NY 353 and US 62 . In Cattaraugus County , NY 18 initially followed Leon and New Albion Roads between Cattaraugus and Little Valley .
NY 18 was extended northeastward to Rochester as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , effectively doubling the route 's length . Instead of ending at the junction of Ohio and Main Streets ( the latter then part of NY 5 ) in downtown Buffalo , NY 18 now overlapped with NY 5 along Main Street north to Niagara Falls Boulevard , where it turned north and proceeded to Lake Ontario over NY 34 . At Youngstown , the route turned east , following a previously unnumbered alignment along the lakeshore to Rochester , where it ended at NY 31 ( now NY 104 ) in Kodak Park . The route was extended further eastward to NY 250 in Webster by the following year by way of East Ridge Road , Culver Road , and Lake Road . NY 18 was never extended eastward past its junction with NY 250 .
While the general routing of NY 18 between Youngstown and Rochester was the same in 1930 as it is now , it initially followed a slightly different alignment through eastern Orleans County and western Monroe County . NY 18 broke from its current alignment at Carr Road and followed Carr , Kenmore and Kendall Roads through the town of Kendall to the hamlet of Morton , from where it continued to Hamlin via the now @-@ decommissioned NY 360 and NY 19 . Additionally , NY 18 utilized Hamlin Center Road and what is now NY 260 between Hamlin and Roosevelt Highway .
The majority of NY 18 's routing south of the village of Lewiston was incorporated into the U.S. Highway System in the early 1930s after US 62 and US 219 were extended into New York and US 104 was assigned . NY 18 now began concurrent to US 219 at the state line and overlapped the route northward to the city of Salamanca . US 219 left NY 18 here , and the latter continued independently to the town of Dayton , where it intersected US 62 . From there , US 62 followed NY 18 north to a junction with US 104 ( Main Street ) in Niagara Falls . US 62 ended here , and NY 18 became concurrent to US 104 upon turning onto Main Street . The overlap ended in the village of Lewiston , where US 104 turned east to follow Ridge Road instead .
= = = Realignments and truncation = = =
By 1931 , NY 18 was realigned to follow its current alignment between Hamlin and the Parma town line while the modern routing of NY 18 between the Orleans County line and Hamlin was designated as NY 360 . The alignments of NY 360 and NY 18 between NY 272 and Hamlin were flipped c . 1933 , placing both routes on their modern routings through Hamlin . NY 18 was moved onto its present routing through Kendall c . 1938 , bypassing the hamlets of Kendall and Morton to the south . In the Buffalo area , NY 18 was realigned twice in the 1930s : first by 1935 to bypass downtown to the east on Bailey Avenue between Abbott Road and Main Street and again in the late 1930s to use Bailey Avenue and Eggert Road between Main Street and Niagara Falls Boulevard . The Cattaraugus – Little Valley segment of the route was realigned c . 1934 to travel directly between the two locations . Its former routing via New Albion became NY 18F ; however , that designation was eliminated c . 1938 .
NY 18 was rerouted between Lewiston and Youngstown on January 1 , 1949 , to follow a more inland highway through western Niagara County . The former routing of NY 18 alongside the Niagara River was redesignated as NY 18F . To the east in Rochester , NY 18 was realigned in the early 1950s to follow East Ridge Road east to the then @-@ southern terminus of the Sea Breeze Expressway . The route turned north , following the highway to its end at Culver Road , where it rejoined its pre @-@ expressway alignment . The western terminus of NY 18 was moved north to its present location in Lewiston c . 1962 , eliminating the three lengthy overlaps that existed between Pennsylvania and Lewiston . The lone independent portion of NY 18 south of Lewiston became an extension of NY 353 .
On January 1 , 1970 , NY 47 was extended northward to encompass the entirety of the now @-@ complete Sea Breeze Expressway , creating an overlap with NY 18 between Ridge and Culver Roads . Prior to the extension , NY 47 had ended at Empire Boulevard ( US 104 , now NY 404 ) . The overlap proved to be temporary as NY 18 was truncated westward c . 1973 to its current eastern terminus in Kodak Park . The former routing of NY 18 between NY 590 and NY 250 was redesignated as NY 941L , an unsigned reference route . East Ridge Road , meanwhile , was now devoid of any designations as US 104 had been shifted onto the Keeler Street Expressway several years before . As a result , ownership and maintenance of the Irondequoit section of East Ridge Road was transferred to Monroe County , which designated it as the unsigned CR 241 . Culver Road , meanwhile , is now CR 120 .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 18 has had seven suffixed routes using six designations ; only one , NY 18F , still exists . Most of the routes were renumbered when NY 18 was truncated to Lewiston c . 1962 .
NY 18A was an alternate route of NY 18 between Collins and Hamburg . It was assigned c . 1931 and mostly replaced with an extended NY 75 c . 1962 .
NY 18B was an alternate route of NY 18 through the eastern suburbs of Buffalo . It was assigned c . 1935 and mostly replaced with an extended NY 277 c . 1962 .
NY 18C was a short @-@ lived alternate route of NY 18 through the eastern Buffalo suburbs . It was assigned c . 1932 and began at NY 18 ( now US 62 ) at Big Tree in Hamburg and followed Big Tree Road and modern US 20 to NY 35 ( now US 20 and NY 130 ) in Depew . The Transit Road portion of the route overlapped with NY 78 . NY 18C was truncated to consist only of the Transit Road portion c . 1935 and removed entirely c . 1938 as part of US 20 's realignment through western New York .
NY 18D was a spur route linking NY 18 to the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge north of downtown Niagara Falls . It was assigned c . 1932 and renumbered to NY 182 c . 1962 .
NY 18E was a short spur assigned in the early 1930s to a connector between then @-@ NY 18 ( now NY 18F ) and the original Queenston – Lewiston Bridge in Lewiston . It was removed in the early 1960s when the original bridge to Queenston was replaced with the modern Lewiston – Queenston Bridge a short distance upstream .
The NY 18F designation has been used for two distinct highways :
The first NY 18F was assigned c . 1934 to NY 18 's original routing between Cattaraugus and Little Valley . The designation was removed c . 1938 .
The current NY 18F ( 9 @.@ 80 miles or 15 @.@ 77 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 18 in western Niagara County that serves the riverside villages of Lewiston and Youngstown . It was assigned in 1949 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Liverpool F.C. in European football =
Liverpool Football Club , an English professional association football club , is Britain 's most successful team in Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) competitions . Since 1964 , they have won eleven European trophies : the UEFA Champions League ( formerly known as the European Cup ) five times , the UEFA Europa League ( formerly known as the UEFA Cup ) three times , and the UEFA Super Cup three times .
Qualification for European competitions is determined by a team 's success in its domestic league and cup competitions from the previous season . Liverpool competed in European competitions for 21 consecutive seasons until the 1985 European Cup Final , the occasion of the Heysel Stadium disaster , following which the club was banned from European competitions for six seasons . Since being readmitted in 1991 , they have qualified for the Champions League ( the successor to the European Cup ) eight times and the UEFA Cup ( the predecessor to the Europa League ) seven times .
As a result of their victory in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final , Liverpool won the European Champion Clubs ' Cup trophy outright , and were awarded a multiple winner badge . Only Real Madrid ( ten ) and Milan ( seven ) have won the competition on more occasions . Liverpool 's total of three UEFA Cup wins has been bettered only by Sevilla , who have won the competition five times . They have also won the UEFA Super Cup on three occasions , a total only Milan and Barcelona ( five titles each ) have bettered .
Bob Paisley is the club 's most successful manager in Europe , with five trophies . Liverpool 's biggest @-@ margin win in Europe is an 11 – 0 victory over Strømsgodset in the 1974 – 75 European Cup Winners ' Cup . In European competitions , Jamie Carragher holds the club record for the most appearances , with 150 , and Steven Gerrard is the club 's record goalscorer , with 41 goals .
= = Background = =
Club competitions between teams from different European countries can trace their origins as far back as 1897 , when the Challenge Cup was created for clubs in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , who did not meet under normal circumstances . The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy , named after entrepreneur and sportsman Thomas Lipton , was established in 1909 and was contested between clubs from Italy , Great Britain , Germany and Switzerland ; the competition lasted for two years . The earliest attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe was made by Swiss club FC Servette . Founded in 1930 , the Coupe des Nations featured clubs of ten major European football leagues and was deemed a success . Due to financial reasons , the competition was abandoned .
The first continental competition organised by UEFA was the European Cup in 1955 . Conceived by Gabriel Hanot , the editor of L 'Équipe , as a competition for winners of the European national football leagues , it is considered the most prestigious European football competition . When the European Cup was first played , Liverpool were in the Second Division , following relegation from the First Division after the 1953 – 54 season , and thus were ineligible for the competition . During their time in the Second Division , two further competitions were created : the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . Established in 1955 , the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup was later re @-@ branded as the UEFA Cup when it came under the auspices of UEFA in 1971 . Since the 2009 – 10 season , the competition has been known as the UEFA Europa League . The UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup was inaugurated in 1960 for the winners of domestic cup competitions .
In 1962 Liverpool were promoted to the First Division . Two years later , they won the Football League championship , thus making their European debut in the 1964 – 65 European Cup . In the following years , further European competitions were inaugurated . The first , the UEFA Super Cup , was originally a match played between the winners of the European Cup and the Cup Winners ' Cup . First established in 1973 , it changed formats in 2000 ; since then , it has been contested between the winners of the Champions League ( formerly the European Cup ) and the Europa League ( formerly the UEFA Cup ) , following the Cup Winners ' Cup amalgamation into the latter . The Intercontinental Cup was a competition for the winners of the European Cup ( later , the UEFA Champions League ) and the South American equivalent , the Copa Libertadores . Established in 1960 , the Intercontinental Cup was jointly organised by UEFA and the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol ( CONMEBOL ) . It ran until 2004 , when the FIFA Club World Cup , which includes the winners of all six confederations ' regional championships replaced it .
= = History = =
= = = First steps in Europe – the Shankly years ( 1965 – 74 ) = = =
Bill Shankly began managing Liverpool in 1959 , and it was under him that the team first competed in European competition in 1964 – 65 , qualifying for the European Cup by winning the First Division championship the previous season . The club 's first opponents were Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur of Iceland , who they played in the preliminary round . Liverpool won 11 – 1 on aggregate . The next round , against Belgian club Anderlecht , was the first time in Liverpool 's history that they wore their now common all @-@ red strip . The decision was made to change from red shirts , white shorts and socks by Shankly , who wanted his players to make more of a psychological impact on opponents . They beat Anderlecht and progressed to the semi @-@ finals , where they met Italian team Internazionale . Before the first leg at Anfield , Shankly asked two injured players to parade the FA Cup , which Liverpool had won the previous week , to intimidate the Italians . The team won the match 3 – 1 , but Inter won the second leg 3 – 0 , securing a 4 – 3 aggregate victory . The second leg was controversial ; Shankly described it as " a war " . He felt that the referee , Jose Maria Ortiz de Mendibel , had shown bias towards Internazionale , and the Liverpool players felt cheated by his decisions . The club 's 1964 – 65 FA Cup victory ensured qualification for the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup the following season , and in that competition , they reached their first European final . Borussia Dortmund , Liverpool 's opponents , employed counter @-@ attacking tactics that had paid dividends in previous rounds and did so again , with the West Germans beating Liverpool 2 – 1 after extra time .
In the next four seasons , they competed in the European Cup and Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , but failed to progress past the third round in either competition . A tie against Dutch team Ajax during the 1966 – 67 European Cup was to prove pivotal in the history of Liverpool in European competition . Ajax beat Liverpool 7 – 3 on aggregate . However , the style of football that Ajax played – a patient passing game , inspired by Johann Cruyff – convinced Shankly that Liverpool had to replicate this style to be successful in Europe . Liverpool reached the semi @-@ finals of the 1970 – 71 Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , losing 1 – 0 on aggregate to Leeds United . They competed in the 1971 – 72 European Cup Winners ' Cup , despite losing the 1971 FA Cup Final , as the FA Cup winners , Arsenal , had also qualified for the European Cup by winning the league championship . Liverpool were eliminated in the second round by Bayern Munich of Germany , losing 3 – 1 on aggregate .
The changes made to Liverpool 's tactics came to fruition during the 1972 – 73 UEFA Cup . The club reached their second European final , where they faced Borussia Mönchengladbach of Germany . Liverpool won the first leg 3 – 0 as a result of two goals from Kevin Keegan and one from Larry Lloyd . Victory in this first leg meant Liverpool only needed to avoid losing by three or more goals in order to win the final . This influenced their tactics – The Times reported that Liverpool employed a " holding action " against the " attacking Germans " . The tactics worked , allowing Mönchengladbach only two goals , granting Liverpool a 3 – 2 aggregate victory . Liverpool also won the First Division championship that season , and as a result qualified for the 1973 – 74 European Cup , where they were eliminated in the second round by Red Star Belgrade of Yugoslavia . At the end of that season , Shankly retired .
= = = European domination – the Paisley years ( 1974 – 83 ) = = =
Shankly was succeeded by his assistant , Bob Paisley , in 1974 . Liverpool competed in the Cup Winners ' Cup during Paisley 's first season and defeated Strømsgodset of Norway 11 – 0 at Anfield . This remains the club 's largest margin of victory in all matches . They lost in the next round to Hungarian side Ferencváros on the away goals rule . In 1975 – 76 the club entered the UEFA Cup after a second @-@ place finish in the First Division . Victories over Hibernian ( Scotland ) , Real Sociedad ( Spain ) , Śląsk Wrocław ( Poland ) , Dynamo Dresden ( East Germany ) and FC Barcelona ( Spain ) took Liverpool to their third European final . Crucial to their progress was goalkeeper Ray Clemence , who made two important penalty saves against Hibernian and Dresden , saving Liverpool from elimination on the away goals rule on both occasions . Their opponents in the final were Club Brugge of Belgium . Liverpool recovered from a two @-@ goal deficit to win the first leg at Anfield 3 – 2 , with Ray Kennedy , Jimmy Case , and Keegan scoring a goal each in a span of six minutes . A 1 – 1 draw at the Jan Breydel Stadion in Bruges meant Liverpool won 4 – 3 on aggregate , earning their second UEFA Cup .
As the 1975 – 76 league champions , the club entered the 1976 – 77 European Cup . They defeated Crusaders of Northern Ireland and Trabzonspor of Turkey to reach the quarter @-@ finals , where they faced the runners @-@ up from the previous season , Saint @-@ Étienne . The French team won the first leg 1 – 0 . The second leg at Anfield began well for Liverpool when Keegan scored in the first two minutes . Saint @-@ Étienne equalised to make the score 2 – 1 on aggregate in their favour . Kennedy scored for Liverpool , but the away goals rule meant they still needed another goal to win the tie . With six minutes remaining , David Fairclough was brought on to replace John Toshack ; he immediately scored in front of the Kop , ensuring a 3 – 2 aggregate victory for Liverpool . In the semi @-@ finals , they defeated FC Zürich of Switzerland 6 – 1 on aggregate to reach the final , where they met their opponents from the 1973 UEFA Cup Final , Borussia Mönchengladbach . The final was held in Rome , four days after the club had lost the 1977 FA Cup Final to Manchester United . Before the match , Paisley announced that striker Toshack would be fit to start . However , he was not named in the matchday squad . This change upset the Germans ' game plan and allowed Keegan to torment his marker , Berti Vogts . Liverpool won 3 – 1 to become European champions for the first time .
By winning the European Cup , they qualified for the European Super Cup and played the winners of the Cup Winners ' Cup , German team Hamburg , who had just signed Keegan . Liverpool won the tie 7 – 1 on aggregate . Liverpool entered the 1977 – 78 European Cup as champions and received a bye in the first round . They defeated Dynamo Dresden and Portuguese team Benfica in the second round and quarter @-@ finals , respectively . In the semi @-@ final , the club again met Borussia Mönchengladbach , who won the first leg 2 – 1 . Liverpool won the second leg 3 – 0 , progressing to a second successive European Cup final , this time against Club Brugge at Wembley Stadium in London . In the final Kenny Dalglish , who had been signed to replace Keegan , scored the winning goal after receiving the ball from a Graeme Souness pass . The 1 – 0 victory meant Liverpool became the first British team to retain the European Cup . They faced Anderlecht in the 1978 European Super Cup , but failed to retain the trophy , losing 4 – 3 on aggregate against the Belgian side . Liverpool were eliminated in the first round of the 1978 – 79 European Cup by English champions Nottingham Forest . Nottingham Forest won the tie 2 – 0 on aggregate , and went on to win the competition . Liverpool entered the 1979 – 80 European Cup as English champions but were again eliminated in the first round , this time beaten 4 – 2 on aggregate by Dinamo Tbilisi of the Soviet Union .
Liverpool participated in the 1980 – 81 European Cup as English league champions , defeating Finnish champions Oulun Palloseura , Scottish club Aberdeen and CSKA Sofia of Bulgaria to qualify for the semi @-@ finals , where they faced three @-@ time champions Bayern Munich . The first leg at Anfield finished goalless . In the second leg at the Olympiastadion in Munich , Ray Kennedy scored in the 83rd minute and , although the German side equalised , Liverpool went through to the final on the away goals rule . They faced Spanish side Real Madrid in the final , held at the Parc des Princes in Paris . Alan Kennedy scored the only goal to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 victory , which secured the club 's — and Paisley 's — third European Cup . As champions of Europe , Liverpool competed in the Intercontinental Cup against South American champions Flamengo of Brazil . Liverpool lost the match 3 – 0 . The club 's defence of the European Cup in 1981 – 82 was ended by CSKA Sofia in the quarter @-@ finals . Another quarter @-@ final exit occurred in the 1982 – 83 European Cup when Polish club Widzew Łódź eliminated Liverpool 4 – 3 on aggregate . Paisley retired as manager at the end of the season and was succeeded by his assistant , Joe Fagan .
= = = Triumph and tragedy – the Fagan years ( 1983 – 85 ) = = =
Liverpool entered the 1983 – 84 European Cup as league champions for the fourth time in five seasons . Victories over Odense of Denmark and Spanish champions Athletic Bilbao brought Liverpool to face Portuguese champions Benfica in the quarter @-@ finals . Liverpool won the first leg at Anfield 1 – 0 . In the second leg , their tactic of withdrawing Dalglish into midfield put Benfica 's game plan into disarray , leading to a 4 – 1 match victory and a 5 – 1 aggregate victory . Their opponents in the semi @-@ finals were Dinamo Bucharest of Romania . The tie proved a brutal encounter , characterised by Souness breaking the jaw of the Bucharest captain Lică Movilă , and was won 3 – 1 on aggregate by Liverpool .
Fagan 's first season in charge of Liverpool had been a successful one . When they reached their fourth European Cup final , they had already won the Football League Cup and the league championship ; victory in the European final against Italian side Roma would complete an unprecedented treble . The final was played at Rome 's Stadio Olimpico , and Liverpool went ahead in the 13th minute when Phil Neal scored , though Roma equalised towards the end of the first half . The score remained the same throughout full and extra time ; Liverpool won the subsequent penalty shoot @-@ out , with Alan Kennedy scoring the winning penalty after goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar had put off Francesco Graziani , causing him to place his penalty over the crossbar . After the game , gangs of Roma fans assaulted Liverpool supporters travelling back to their hotels . Success in the European Cup entitled Liverpool to compete in the 1984 Intercontinental Cup . However , they were unable to beat the winners of the Copa Libertadores , Independiente of Argentina , who claimed a 1 – 0 victory .
Liverpool entered the 1984 – 85 European Cup as champions , and once again progressed to the final , where their opponents were Juventus of Italy . They aimed to win their fifth European Cup and keep the trophy . The 1985 European Cup Final was held at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels . The choice of venue had been criticised due to the dilapidated state of the stadium , and the club tried to persuade UEFA to change the venue . Before the kick @-@ off , Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans . The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse , killing 39 people and injuring hundreds more . Despite calls for an abandonment , the match was played , as it was felt that further trouble would be caused otherwise .
Juventus won the match 1 – 0 ; Michel Platini scored from the penalty spot to give Juventus their first European Cup . UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool fans : the official UEFA observer stated , " Only the English fans were responsible . Of that there is no doubt " . Three days after the final , UEFA banned all English clubs from European competition for an indefinite period . Liverpool were initially given an additional three @-@ year ban . Fagan retired after the 1984 – 85 season and was succeeded by Dalglish , who took over as player @-@ manager .
The ban on English clubs in European competitions ultimately lasted for five years , and even when the ban was lifted in 1990 , Liverpool were not re @-@ admitted ; they had to serve an extra year . The ban prevented them qualifying for the European Cup in 1986 ( as league champions and FA Cup winners ) , the UEFA Cup in 1987 ( as league runners @-@ up ) , the European Cup in 1988 ( as league champions ) , the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1989 ( as FA Cup winners ) and the European Cup in 1990 ( as league champions ) .
= = = Return to Europe ( 1991 – 2004 ) = = =
Liverpool were allowed to return to European competition in the 1991 – 92 season , a year later than other English clubs . They qualified for the UEFA Cup as runners @-@ up in the English league . Their manager by this stage was Graeme Souness , who had taken over towards the end of the previous season following Dalglish 's resignation .
Their first match , in the UEFA Cup , was against Finnish side Kuusyi Lahti , which they won 6 – 1 . A 6 – 2 aggregate victory set up a tie against Auxerre of France in the second round who they beat 3 – 2 on aggregate . The club defeated Swarovski Tirol of Austria in the third round 6 – 0 on aggregate before losing to Genoa ( Italy ) 4 – 1 over two legs in the quarter finals .
Liverpool 's victory over Sunderland in the 1992 FA Cup Final qualified them for the 1992 – 93 European Cup Winners ' Cup , but this campaign was short @-@ lived , as they were eliminated in the second round by Russian side Spartak Moscow . Liverpool finished no higher than sixth in the Premier League during the next two seasons , thus failing to qualify for European competition . In the 1995 – 96 season , they entered the UEFA Cup , but again progressed no further than the second round , this time losing to Brøndby of Denmark .
As runners @-@ up to League champions Manchester United in the 1996 FA Cup Final , Liverpool were able to compete in the 1996 – 97 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . This proved the club 's most successful campaign since their return to European competition , as they reached the semi @-@ finals , where they were eliminated 3 – 2 on aggregate by French team Paris Saint – Germain . In the next two seasons , Liverpool played in the UEFA Cup but were eliminated at an early stage of the competition , by Strasbourg of France and Spanish side Celta de Vigo , respectively . A seventh @-@ place finish in the 1998 – 99 FA Premier League meant the club did not qualify for Europe in 1999 – 2000 .
Having finished fourth in the 1999 – 2000 FA Premier League , Liverpool qualified for the 2000 – 01 UEFA Cup . Their victory in this competition marked a third win for a club . The entire season was the club 's most successful since the 1983 – 84 season , as they won a cup treble consisting of the UEFA Cup , the FA Cup and the League Cup . Their opponents in the final in Dortmund were Deportivo Alavés of Spain . The match was tied at 4 – 4 in extra time when Alavés defender Delfí Geli scored an own goal to give Liverpool victory on the golden goal rule . The performance of Gary McAllister , whose free @-@ kick resulted in the winning goal , was praised as " outstanding " by Trevor Brooking . This was the club 's first European trophy since their European Cup victory in 1984 . As UEFA Cup winners , Liverpool played in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup against Champions League winners Bayern Munich and won 3 – 2 .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Liverpool returned to the European Cup , now called the UEFA Champions League , for the first time since the Heysel disaster . A 2 – 0 victory over Roma in the second group stage meant they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals . They faced German club Bayer Leverkusen and won the first leg 1 – 0 . The outlook for the second leg appeared to be to Liverpool 's advantage , as their counter @-@ attacking style of play had served them well during away matches throughout the season ; however , they lost the second leg 4 – 2 and were eliminated 4 – 3 on aggregate .
A second @-@ place finish in the 2001 – 02 FA Premier League entitled Liverpool to participate in the Champions League for a second successive season , but they only finished third in their group and were eliminated from the competition . The third @-@ place finish meant they entered the 2002 – 03 UEFA Cup . Liverpool beat Dutch team Vitesse Arnhem and Auxerre to set up an all @-@ British tie with Scottish team Celtic . A 1 – 1 draw in the first leg meant Liverpool would progress to the semi @-@ finals if they did not concede a goal in the second leg at Anfield . However , Celtic scored before half @-@ time and again in the second half to win 3 – 1 on aggregate .
Liverpool entered the UEFA Cup for the 2003 – 04 season , after Chelsea beat them on the final day of the previous league season to claim the fourth place needed to qualify for the Champions League . Liverpool were eliminated in the fourth round by eventual runners @-@ up Marseille of France . At the end of the season , manager Gérard Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez .
= = = Renewed European success – the Benítez years ( 2004 – 10 ) = = =
Liverpool had finished fourth in the 2003 – 04 season , which qualified them to compete in the Champions League in the 2004 – 05 season . A poor start in the group stages , with two losses in their first five games , had the club facing elimination . However , a 3 – 1 victory over Greek side Olympiacos eventually ensured their passage to the knock @-@ out rounds . Liverpool beat Bayer Leverkusen and Juventus to reach the semi @-@ finals , and progressed to the final after they beat Chelsea 1 – 0 on aggregate ; the goal scored by Luis García was referred to as a " ghost goal " by Chelsea manager José Mourinho , as it was unclear whether the ball crossed the goal line . Liverpool 's performances in Europe contrasted strongly with their league form , where they struggled to finish in the top @-@ four and thus ensure qualification for the next Champions League season .
Liverpool faced six @-@ time European champions Milan in the final at the Atatürk Stadium in Istanbul on 25 May 2005 . Trailing 3 – 0 at half @-@ time , they scored three goals in a six @-@ minute spell in the second half to level the score at 3 – 3 . There were no goals during extra time , so the match was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . With the shoot @-@ out score at 3 – 2 , Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek saved Andriy Shevchenko 's penalty to give Liverpool victory . The nature of Liverpool 's comeback victory has led to the match being referred to as the " miracle of Istanbul . " As this was the club 's fifth European Cup victory , Liverpool were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs ' Cup permanently , and a new trophy was commissioned for the following year 's competition . The victory also entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2005 UEFA Super Cup at Stade Louis II , Monaco in August . They defeated UEFA Cup winners CSKA Moscow of Russia 3 – 1 to win their third Super Cup . Their success in the Champions League meant Liverpool also qualified for the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship , where they lost 1 – 0 in the final to Brazilian team São Paulo .
A fifth @-@ place finish in the Premier League in 2004 – 05 meant Liverpool were not guaranteed entry into the Champions League , and faced the prospect of not being able to defend their European title . UEFA eventually ruled that they would be allowed to do so , but would be required to start in the first qualifying round , with no country protection , meaning they could face a team from England in the group stages . This turned out to be the case — Liverpool advanced through three qualifying rounds and were drawn with Chelsea in the group stages . They progressed from their group as winners but were beaten by Benfica in the first knock @-@ out round .
In the 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League , Liverpool progressed from the group stages and beat holders Barcelona , Dutch team PSV Eindhoven and Chelsea to face Milan in a rematch of the 2005 final . The Liverpool team , which contained only five players from the 2005 final , enjoyed more possession than in 2005 , but two goals from Filippo Inzaghi gave Milan their seventh European Cup in a 2 – 1 win .
Liverpool were eliminated from the 2007 – 08 UEFA Champions League in the semi @-@ finals by Chelsea , who they had beaten in the semi @-@ finals in 2005 and 2007 . A fourth @-@ place finish in the 2007 – 08 Premier League secured their entry into the 2008 – 09 UEFA Champions League . Liverpool reached the quarter @-@ finals and again faced Chelsea , but lost 7 – 5 on aggregate .
A second @-@ place finish in the 2008 – 09 Premier League entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2009 – 10 UEFA Champions League , but their campaign was short @-@ lived ; they finished third in their group , and were eliminated from the competition . They entered the 2009 – 10 UEFA Europa League , progressing to the semi @-@ finals , where they were eliminated by eventual winners Atlético Madrid of Spain on the away goals rule after the tie finished 2 – 2 on aggregate .
= = = Decline ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Benítez left the club at the end of the 2009 – 10 season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson . A seventh @-@ place finish in the 2009 – 10 Premier League meant Liverpool would be competing in the 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League . They beat Rabotnički ( Macedonia ) and Trabzonspor ( Turkey ) to progress to the 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League group stage , where Liverpool were drawn alongside Italian club Napoli , Dutch team Utrecht and Romanian team Steaua Bucureşti . They won two games and drew four to finish top of their group with 10 points and progress to the round of 32 . They were drawn against Czech club Sparta Prague in the next round . Before the tie was played , Hodgson was replaced by former manager Kenny Dalglish , who initially served as a caretaker manager . A 1 – 0 aggregate victory ensured progression to the round of 16 , in which Liverpool lost 1 – 0 on aggregate to eventual runners @-@ up Braga of Portugal . A sixth @-@ place finish in the 2010 – 11 Premier League meant the club failed to qualify for European competition for the first time since 1999 , but victory in the 2012 Football League Cup Final ensured Liverpool a place in the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League .
Liverpool qualified for the Knockout phase of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League after winning their group at the group stage , but were eliminated from the competition at the round of 32 by Zenit Saint Petersburg on the away goals rule after a 0 – 2 loss away and a 3 – 1 win at home . A seventh @-@ place finish in the 2012 – 13 Premier League and a failure to secure qualification via domestic cups meant Liverpool failed to qualify for any European competition in the 2013 – 14 season . A second @-@ placed finish in the 2013 – 14 Premier League , ensured Liverpool qualified for the group stage of the 2014 – 15 UEFA Champions League . One win out of six in the group stage meant they were eliminated and entered into the Knockout phase of the 2014 – 15 UEFA Europa League . The campaign was short @-@ lived , as Liverpool eliminated by Turkish club Beşiktaş in the Round of 32 .
Finishing 6th in the 2014 – 15 Premier League qualified Liverpool directly to the group stage of the 2015 – 16 UEFA Europa League where they faced Sion , Bordeaux and for the first time Russian side Rubin Kazan . During the group stage , manager Brendan Rodgers was replaced by Jurgen Klopp . After winning the group , Liverpool qualified for the knockout phase , beating German side FC Augsburg in the Round of 32 , before facing bitter rivals Manchester United in the Round of 16 , the two clubs ' first meeting in Europe . Liverpool defeated them 3 @-@ 1 on aggregate , and victory led to a quarter final tie with manager Jurgen Klopp 's former team Borussia Dortmund . After a 1 @-@ 1 draw in the first leg at Signal Iduna Park , Dortmund went 3 @-@ 1 up in the return leg at Anfield with 60 minutes remaining , requiring Liverpool to score 3 goals due to the Away goals rule . Goals from Philippe Coutinho , Mamadou Sakho and a last minute winner from Dejan Lovren saw Liverpool complete the comeback and qualify for their first European semi @-@ final since 2010 . They faced Spanish side Villarreal completing a second comeback after overturning a 1 @-@ 0 defeat in the first leg at El Madrigal to qualify for the final with a 3 @-@ 1 win on aggregate . Liverpool played Sevilla FC in final at St. Jakob @-@ Park in Basel on 18 May , and lost 3 @-@ 1 .
= = Records = =
Most appearances in European competition : Jamie Carragher , 150
Most goals in European competition : Steven Gerrard , 41
First European match : Liverpool 6 – 0 Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur , European Cup , first round , 17 August 1964
First goal scored in Europe : Gordon Wallace , against KR Reykjavik
Biggest win : Liverpool 11 – 0 Strømsgodset , in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , 17 September 1974
Biggest defeat : Liverpool 1 – 5 Ajax , in the European Cup , 7 December 1966
Highest European home attendance : 55 @,@ 104 , against Barcelona in the 1975 – 76 UEFA Cup
Lowest European home attendance : 12 @,@ 021 against Dundalk in the 1982 – 83 European Cup
= = = By season = = =
Key
= = = By competition = = =
= = = By country = = =
= = Honours = =
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= Operation Crossroads =
Operation Crossroads was a pair of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 . They were the first nuclear weapon tests since Trinity in July 1945 , and the first detonations of nuclear devices since the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9 , 1945 . The purpose of the tests was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships .
The Crossroads tests were the first of many nuclear tests held in the Marshall Islands , and the first to be publicly announced beforehand and observed by an invited audience , including a large press corps . They were conducted by Joint Army / Navy Task Force One , headed by Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy , rather than by the Manhattan Project , which had developed nuclear weapons during World War II . A fleet of 95 target ships was assembled in Bikini Lagoon and hit with two detonations of Fat Man plutonium implosion @-@ type nuclear weapons of the kind dropped on Nagasaki , each with a yield of 23 kilotons of TNT ( 96 TJ ) .
The first test was Able . The bomb , named Gilda after Rita Hayworth 's character in the 1946 eponymous film , was dropped from the B @-@ 29 Superfortress Dave 's Dream of the 509th Bombardment Group on July 1 , 1946 , and detonated 520 feet ( 158 m ) above the target fleet . It caused less than the expected amount of ship damage because it missed its aim point by 2 @,@ 130 feet ( 649 m ) . The second test was Baker . The bomb , known as Helen of Bikini , was detonated 90 feet ( 27 m ) underwater on July 25 , 1946 . Radioactive sea spray caused extensive contamination . A third deep water test , Charlie , planned for 1947 , was canceled primarily because of the United States Navy 's inability to decontaminate the target ships after the Baker test . Ultimately , only nine target ships were able to be scrapped rather than scuttled . Charlie was rescheduled as Operation Wigwam , a deep water shot conducted in 1955 off the California coast .
Bikini 's native residents agreed to evacuate the island , with most moving to the Rongerik Atoll . Later , in the 1950s , a series of large thermonuclear tests rendered Bikini unfit for subsistence farming and fishing . Because of radioactive contamination , Bikini remains uninhabited as of 2015 , though it is occasionally visited by sport divers . Although planners attempted to protect participants in the Operation Crossroads tests against radiation sickness , one study showed that the life expectancy of participants was reduced by an average of three months . The Baker test 's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate , concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion . Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg , the longest @-@ serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission , called Baker " the world 's first nuclear disaster . "
= = Background = =
The first proposal to test nuclear weapons against naval warships was made on August 16 , 1945 , by Lewis Strauss , future chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission . In an internal memo to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal , Strauss argued , " If such a test is not made , there will be loose talk to the effect that the fleet is obsolete in the face of this new weapon and this will militate against appropriations to preserve a postwar Navy of the size now planned . " With very few bombs available , he suggested a large number of targets widely dispersed over a large area . A quarter century earlier , in 1921 , the Navy had suffered a public relations disaster when General Billy Mitchell 's bombers sank every target ship the Navy provided for the Project B ship @-@ versus @-@ bomb tests . The Strauss test would be designed to demonstrate ship survivability .
Nine days later , Senator Brien McMahon , who within a year would write the Atomic Energy Act and organize and chair the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy , made the first public proposal for such a test , but one designed to demonstrate the vulnerability , rather than survivability , of ships . He proposed dropping an atomic bomb on captured Japanese ships and suggested , " The resulting explosion should prove to us just how effective the atomic bomb is when used against the giant naval ships . " On September 19 , the Chief of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , General of the Army Henry H. Arnold , asked the Navy to set aside ten of the thirty @-@ eight captured Japanese ships for use in the test proposed by McMahon .
Meanwhile , the Navy proceeded with its own plan , which was revealed at a press conference on October 27 by the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Fleet Admiral Ernest King . It involved between 80 and 100 target ships , most of them surplus U.S. ships . As the Army and the Navy maneuvered for control of the tests , Assistant Secretary of War Howard C. Peterson observed , " To the public , the test looms as one in which the future of the Navy is at stake ... if the Navy withstands [ the tests ] better than the public imagines it will , in the public mind the Navy will have ' won . ' "
The Army 's candidate to direct the tests , Major General Leslie Groves , head of the Manhattan Project which built the bombs , did not get the job . The Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that because the Navy was contributing the most men and materiel , the test should be headed by a naval officer . Commodore William S. " Deak " Parsons was a naval officer who had worked on the Manhattan Project and participated in the bombing of Hiroshima . He was now the assistant to the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Special Weapons , Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy , whom he proposed for the role . This recommendation was accepted , and on January 11 , 1946 , President Harry S. Truman appointed Blandy as head of Army / Navy Joint Task Force One ( JTF @-@ 1 ) , which was created to conduct the tests . Parsons became Deputy Task Force Commander for Technical Direction . USAAF Major General William E. Kepner was Deputy Task Force Commander for Aviation . Blandy codenamed the tests Operation Crossroads .
Under pressure from the Army , Blandy agreed to crowd more ships into the immediate target area than the Navy wanted , but he refused USAAF Major General Curtis LeMay 's demand that " every ship must have a full loading of oil , ammunition , and fuel . " Blandy 's argument was that fires and internal explosions might sink ships that would otherwise remain afloat and be available for damage evaluation . When Blandy proposed an all @-@ Navy board to evaluate the results , Senator McMahon complained to Truman that the Navy should not be " solely responsible for conducting operations which might well indeed determine its very existence . " Truman acknowledged that " reports were getting around that these tests were not going to be entirely on the level . " He imposed a civilian review panel on Operation Crossroads to " convince the public it was objective . "
= = Opposition = =
Pressure to cancel Operation Crossroads altogether came from scientists and diplomats . Manhattan Project scientists argued that further testing was unnecessary and environmentally dangerous . A Los Alamos study warned " the water near a recent surface explosion will be a witch 's brew " of radioactivity . When the scientists pointed out that the tests might demonstrate ship survivability while ignoring the effect of radiation on sailors , Blandy responded by adding test animals to some of the ships , thereby generating protests from animal rights advocates .
Secretary of State James F. Byrnes , who a year earlier had told physicist Leo Szilard that a public demonstration of the bomb might make the Soviet Union " more manageable " in Europe , now argued the opposite : that further display of U.S. nuclear power could harden the Soviet Union 's position against acceptance of the Acheson – Lilienthal Plan , which discussed possible methods for the international control of nuclear weapons and the avoidance of future nuclear warfare . At a March 22 cabinet meeting he said , " from the standpoint of international relations it would be very helpful if the test could be postponed or never held at all . " He prevailed on Truman to postpone the first test for six weeks , from May 15 to July 1 . For public consumption , the postponement was explained as an opportunity for more Congressional observers to attend during their summer recess .
When Congressmen complained about the destruction of $ 450 million worth of target ships , Blandy replied that their true cost was their scrap value at $ 10 per ton , only $ 3 @.@ 7 million . Veterans and legislators from New York and Pennsylvania requested to keep their namesake battleships as museum ships , as Texas had done with USS Texas , but the JTF @-@ 1 replied that " it is regretted that such ships as the USS New York cannot be spared . "
= = Preparation = =
A series of three tests was recommended to study the effects of nuclear weapons on ships , equipment , and materiel . The test site had to be in territory controlled by the United States . The inhabitants would have to be evacuated , so it was best if it was uninhabited , or nearly so , and at least 300 miles ( 500 km ) from the nearest city . So that a B @-@ 29 could drop a bomb , there had to be an airbase within 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . To contain the target ships , it needed to have a protected anchorage at least 6 miles ( 10 km ) wide . Ideally , it would have predictable weather patterns , and be free of severe cold and violent storms . Predictable winds would avoid having radioactive material blown back on the task force personnel , and predictable ocean currents would allow material to be kept away from shipping lanes , fishing areas , and inhabited shores . Timing was critical because Navy manpower required to move the ships was being released from active duty as part of the post – World War II demobilization , and civilian scientists knowledgeable about atomic weapons were leaving federal employment for college teaching positions .
On January 24 , Blandy named the Bikini Lagoon as the site for the two 1946 detonations , Able and Baker . The deep underwater test , Charlie , scheduled for early 1947 , would take place in the ocean west of Bikini . Of the possible places given serious consideration , including Ecuador 's Galápagos Islands , Bikini offered the most remote location with a large protected anchorage , suitable but not ideal weather , and a small , easily moved population . It had come under exclusive United States control on January 15 , when Truman declared the United States to be the sole trustee of all the Pacific islands captured from Japan during the war . The Navy had been studying test sites since October 1945 and was ready to announce its choice of Bikini soon after Truman 's declaration . On February 6 , the survey ship Sumner began blasting channels through the Bikini reef into the lagoon . The local residents were not told why .
The 167 Bikini islanders first learned their fate four days later , on Sunday , February 10 , when Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt , United States military governor of the Marshall Islands , arrived by seaplane from Kwajalein . Referring to Biblical stories which they had learned from Protestant missionaries , he compared them to " the children of Israel whom the Lord saved from their enemy and led into the Promised Land . " He also claimed it was " for the good of mankind and to end all world wars . " There was no signed agreement , but he reported by cable " their local chieftain , referred to as King Juda , arose and said that the natives of Bikini were very proud to be part of this wonderful undertaking . " On March 6 , Wyatt attempted to stage a filmed reenactment of the February 10 meeting in which the Bikinians had given away their atoll . Despite repeated promptings and at least seven retakes , Juda confined his on @-@ camera remarks to , " We are willing to go . Everything is in God 's hands . " The next day , LST 861 moved them and their belongings 128 miles ( 206 km ) east to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll , to begin a permanent exile . Three Bikini families returned in 1974 but were evacuated again in 1978 because of radioactivity in their bodies from four years of eating contaminated food . As of 2015 , the atoll remains unpopulated .
= = = Ships = = =
To make room for the target ships , 100 short tons ( 90 t ) of dynamite were used to remove coral heads from Bikini Lagoon . On the grounds of the David Taylor Model Basin outside Washington , DC , dress rehearsals for Baker were conducted with dynamite and model ships in a pond named " Little Bikini . " A fleet of 95 target vessels was assembled in Bikini Lagoon . At the center of the target cluster , the density was 20 ships per square mile ( 7 @.@ 7 per km ² ) , three to five times greater than military doctrine would allow . The stated goal was not to duplicate a realistic anchorage , but to measure damage as a function of distance from the blast center , at as many different distances as possible . The arrangement also reflected the outcome of the Army / Navy disagreement about how many ships should be allowed to sink .
The target fleet included four obsolete U.S. battleships , two aircraft carriers , two cruisers , eleven destroyers , eight submarines , numerous auxiliary and amphibious vessels , and three surrendered German and Japanese ships . The ships carried sample amounts of fuel and ammunition , plus scientific instruments to measure air pressure , ship movement , and radiation . The live animals on some of the target ships were supplied by the support ship USS Burleson , which brought 200 pigs , 60 guinea pigs , 204 goats , 5 @,@ 000 rats , 200 mice , and grains containing insects to be studied for genetic effects by the National Cancer Institute . Amphibious target ships were beached on Bikini Island .
A support fleet of more than 150 ships provided quarters , experimental stations , and workshops for most of the 42 @,@ 000 men ( more than 37 @,@ 000 of whom were Navy personnel ) and the 37 female nurses . Additional personnel were located on nearby atolls such as Eniwetok and Kwajalein . Navy personnel were allowed to extend their service obligation for one year if they wanted to participate in the tests and see an atomic bomb explode . The islands of the Bikini Atoll were used as instrumentation sites and , until Baker contaminated them , as recreation sites .
= = = Cameras = = =
Radio @-@ controlled autopilots were installed in eight B @-@ 17 bombers , converting them into remote @-@ controlled drones which were then loaded with automatic cameras , radiation detectors , and air sample collectors . Their pilots operated them from mother planes at a safe distance from the detonations . The drones could fly into radiation environments , such as Able 's mushroom cloud , which would have been lethal to crew members . All the land @-@ based detonation @-@ sequence photographs were taken by remote control from tall towers erected on several islands of the atoll . In all , Bikini cameras took 50 @,@ 000 still pictures and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 feet ( 460 @,@ 000 m ) of motion picture film . One of the cameras could shoot 1 @,@ 000 frames per second .
Before the first test , all personnel were evacuated from the target fleet and Bikini Atoll . They boarded ships of the support fleet , which took safe positions at least 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) east of the atoll . Test personnel were issued special dark glasses to protect their eyes , but a decision was made shortly before Able that the glasses might not be adequate . Personnel were instructed to turn away from the blast , shut their eyes , and cradle their arm across their face for additional protection . A few observers who disregarded the recommended precautions advised the others when the bomb detonated . Most shipboard observers reported feeling a slight concussion and hearing a disappointing little " poom " .
On 26 July 2016 , the National Security Archive declassified and released the entire stock of footage shot by surveillance aircraft that flew over the nuclear test site just minutes after the bomb detonated . The footage can be seen at https : / / www.youtube.com / watch ? v = 9KgKrHFuhgE .
= = = Nicknames = = =
Able and Baker are the first two letters of the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet , used from 1941 until 1956 . Alpha and Bravo are their counterparts in the current NATO phonetic alphabet . Charlie is the third letter in both systems . According to eyewitness accounts , the time of detonation for each test was announced as H or How hour ; in the official JTF @-@ 1 history , the term M or Mike hour is used instead .
There were only seven nuclear bombs in existence in July 1946 . The two bombs were Fat Man plutonium implosion @-@ type nuclear weapons of the kind dropped on Nagasaki . The Able bomb was stenciled with the name Gilda and decorated with an Esquire magazine photograph of Rita Hayworth , star of the 1946 movie , Gilda . The Baker bomb was Helen of Bikini . This femme @-@ fatale theme for nuclear weapons , combining seduction and destruction , is epitomized by the use in all languages , starting in 1946 , of " bikini " as the name for a woman 's two @-@ piece bathing suit .
The United States ' test series summary table is here : United States ' nuclear testing series .
= = Test Able = =
At 9 : 00 on July 1 , Gilda was dropped from the B @-@ 29 Superfortress Dave 's Dream of the 509th Bombardment Group . The plane , formerly known as Big Stink , had been the photographic equipment aircraft on the Nagasaki mission in 1945 . It had been renamed in honor of Dave Semple , a bombardier who was killed during a practice mission on March 7 , 1946 . Gilda detonated 520 feet ( 158 m ) above the target fleet , with a yield of 23 kilotons . Five ships were sunk . Two attack transports sank immediately , two destroyers within hours , and one Japanese cruiser the following day .
Some of the 114 press observers expressed disappointment at the effect on ships . The New York Times reported , prematurely , that " only two were sunk , one capsized , and eighteen damaged . " The next day , the Times carried an explanation by Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal that " heavily built and heavily armored ships are difficult to sink unless they sustain underwater damage . "
The main cause of less @-@ than @-@ expected ship damage was that the bomb missed its aim point by 710 yards ( 649 m ) . The ship the bomb was aimed at failed to sink . The miss resulted in a government investigation of the flight crew of the B @-@ 29 bomber . Various explanations were offered , including the bomb 's known poor ballistic characteristics , but none was convincing . Images of the drop were inconclusive . The bomb sight was checked and found error free . Pumpkin bomb drops were conducted , but were accurate . Colonel Paul W. Tibbets believed that the miss was caused by a miscalculation by the crew . The mystery was never solved . There were other factors that made Able less spectacular than expected . Observers were much farther away than at the Trinity test , and the high humidity absorbed much of the light and heat .
The battleship USS Nevada had been designated as the aim point for Able and was painted red , with white gun barrels and gunwales , to make her stand out in the central cluster of target ships . There were eight ships within 400 yards ( 366 m ) of it . Had the bomb exploded over the Nevada as planned , at least nine ships , including two battleships and an aircraft carrier , would likely have sunk . The actual detonation point , west @-@ northwest of the target , was closer to the attack transport USS Gilliam , in much less crowded water .
= = = Able target array = = =
In addition to the five ships that sank , fourteen were judged to have serious damage or worse , mostly due to the bomb 's air @-@ pressure shock wave . All but three were located within 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) of the detonation . Inside that radius , orientation to the bomb was a factor in shock wave impact . For example , ship # 6 , the destroyer USS Lamson , which sank , was farther away than seven ships that stayed afloat . Lamson was broadside to the blast , taking the full impact on her port side , while the seven closer ships were anchored with their sterns toward the blast , somewhat protecting the most vulnerable part of the hull .
The only large ship inside the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 914 m ) radius which sustained moderate , rather than serious , damage was the sturdily built Japanese battleship Nagato , ship # 7 , whose stern @-@ on orientation to the bomb gave her some protection . Also , unrepaired damage from World War II may have complicated damage analysis . As the ship from which the Pearl Harbor attack had been commanded , Nagato was positioned near the aim point to guarantee her being sunk . The Able bomb missed its target , and the symbolic sinking came three weeks later , in the Baker shot .
Serious damage to ship # 10 , the aircraft carrier Saratoga , more than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the blast , was due to fire . For test purposes , all the ships carried sample amounts of fuel and ordnance , plus airplanes . Most warships carried a seaplane on deck , which could be lowered into the water by crane , but Saratoga carried several airplanes with highly volatile aviation fuel , both on deck and in the hangars below . The fire was extinguished and Saratoga was kept afloat for use in the Baker shot .
= = = Radiation = = =
As with Little Boy ( Hiroshima ) and Fat Man ( Nagasaki ) , the Crossroads Able shot was an air burst . These were purposely detonated high enough in the air to prevent surface materials from being drawn into the fireball . The height @-@ of @-@ burst for the first nuclear explosion Trinity , in New Mexico on July 16 , 1945 , was 100 feet ( 30 m ) ; the device was mounted on a tower . It made a crater 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep and 500 feet ( 150 m ) wide , and there was some local fallout . The test was conducted in secret , and the world at large learned nothing about the radioactive fallout at the time . To be a true air burst with no local fallout , the Trinity height @-@ of @-@ burst needed to be 580 feet ( 180 m ) . With an air burst , the radioactive fission products rise into the stratosphere and become part of the global , rather than the local , environment . Air bursts were officially described as " self @-@ cleansing . " There was no significant local fallout from Able .
There was an intense transitory burst of fireball radiation lasting a few seconds . Many of the closer ships received doses of neutron and gamma radiation that could have been lethal to anyone on the ship , but the ships themselves did not become radioactive . Neutron activation of materials in the ships was judged to be a minor problem by the standards of the time . One sailor on the support ship USS Haven was found to be " sleeping in a shower of gamma rays " from an illegal metal souvenir he had taken from a target ship . Fireball neutrons had made it radioactive . Within a day nearly all the surviving target ships had been reboarded . The ship inspections , instrument recoveries , and moving and remooring of ships for the Baker test proceeded on schedule .
Fifty @-@ seven guinea pigs , 109 mice , 146 pigs , 176 goats , and 3 @,@ 030 white rats had been placed on 22 target ships in stations normally occupied by people . 35 % of these animals died or were sacrificed in the three months following the explosion : 10 % were killed by the air blast , 15 % were killed by radiation , and 10 % were killed by the researchers as part of later study . The most famous survivor was Pig # 311 , which was ( reportedly ) found swimming in the lagoon after the blast and was brought back to the National Zoo in Washington , DC . The mysterious survival of Pig # 311 caused some consternation at the time and has continued to be reported in error . However , an investigation pointed to the conclusion that it had neither swam in the ocean nor escaped the blast ; it had likely been safely aboard an observation vessel during the test , thus " absent without leave " from its post on Sakawa and showing up about the same time other surviving pigs were captured .
The high rate of test animal survival was due in part to the nature of single @-@ pulse radiation . As with the two Los Alamos criticality accidents involving the demon core , victims who were close enough to receive a lethal dose died , while those farther away recovered and survived . Also , all the mice were placed outside the expected lethal zone in order to study possible mutations in future generations .
Although the Able bomb missed its target , Nevada , by nearly half a mile , and it failed to sink or to contaminate the battleship , a crew would not have survived . Goat # 119 , tethered inside a gun turret and shielded by armor plate , received enough fireball radiation to die four days later of radiation sickness having survived two days longer than goat # 53 , which was on the deck , unshielded . Had Nevada been fully manned , she would likely have become a floating coffin , dead in the water for lack of a live crew . In theory , every unprotected location on the ship received 10 @,@ 000 rems ( 100 Sv ) of initial nuclear radiation from the fireball . Therefore , people deep enough inside the ship to experience a 90 % radiation reduction would still have received a lethal dose of 1 @,@ 000 rems . In the assessment of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , " a large ship , about a mile away from the explosion , would escape sinking , but the crew would be killed by the deadly burst of radiations from the bomb , and only a ghost ship would remain , floating unattended in the vast waters of the ocean . "
= = Test Baker = =
In Baker on July 25 , the weapon was suspended beneath landing craft LSM @-@ 60 anchored in the midst of the target fleet . Baker was detonated 90 feet ( 27 m ) underwater , halfway to the bottom in water 180 feet ( 55 m ) deep . How / Mike Hour was 08 : 35 . No identifiable part of LSM @-@ 60 was ever found ; it was presumably vaporized by the nuclear fireball . Ten ships were sunk , including the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , which sank in December , five months after the test , because radioactivity prevented repairs to a leak in the hull .
Photographs of Baker are unique among nuclear detonation pictures . The searing , blinding flash that usually obscures the target area took place underwater and was barely seen . The clear image of ships in the foreground and background gives a sense of scale . The large Wilson cloud and the vertical water column are distinctive Baker shot features . One picture shows a mark where the 27 @,@ 000 @-@ ton battleship USS Arkansas was .
As with Able , any ships that remained afloat within 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) of the detonation were seriously damaged , but this time the damage came from below , from water pressure rather than air pressure . The greatest difference between the two shots was the radioactive contamination of all the target ships by Baker . Regardless of the degree of damage , only nine surviving Baker target ships were eventually decontaminated and sold for scrap . The rest were sunk at sea after decontamination efforts failed .
= = = Baker target array = = =
The German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , ship # 36 , survived both the Able and Baker tests but was too radioactive to have leaks repaired . In September 1946 she was towed to Kwajalein Atoll , where she capsized in shallow water on December 22 , 1946 , five months after Baker . She remains there today , with starboard propeller blades in the air .
The submarine USS Skipjack was the only sunken ship successfully raised at Bikini . She was towed to California and sunk again , as a target ship off the coast , two years later .
Three other ships , all in sinking condition , were towed ashore at Bikini and beached : attack transport USS Fallon , ship # 25 ; destroyer USS Hughes , ship # 27 ; and submarine USS Dentuda , ship # 24 . Dentuda , being submerged ( thus avoiding the base surge ) and outside the 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) circle , escaped serious contamination and hull damage and was successfully decontaminated , repaired , and briefly returned to service .
= = = Sequence of blast events = = =
The Baker shot produced so many unusual phenomena that a conference was held two months later to standardize nomenclature and define new terms for use in descriptions and analysis . The underwater fireball took the form of a rapidly expanding hot gas bubble that pushed against the water , generating a supersonic hydraulic shock wave which crushed the hulls of nearby ships as it spread out . Eventually it slowed to the speed of sound in water , which is one mile per second ( 1600 m / s ) , five times faster than that of sound in air . On the surface , the shock wave was visible as the leading edge of a rapidly expanding ring of dark water , called the " slick " for its resemblance to an oil slick . Close behind the slick was a visually more dramatic , but less destructive whitening of the water surface called the " crack " .
When the gas bubble 's diameter equaled the water depth , 180 feet ( 55 m ) , it hit the sea floor and the sea surface simultaneously . At the bottom , it started digging a shallow crater , ultimately 30 feet ( 9 m ) deep and 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) wide . At the top , it pushed the water above it into a " spray dome , " which burst through the surface like a geyser . Elapsed time since detonation was four milliseconds .
During the first full second , the expanding bubble removed all the water within a 500 @-@ foot ( 152 m ) radius and lifted two million tons of spray and seabed sand into the air . As the bubble rose at 2 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 762 m / s ) , it stretched the spray dome into a hollow cylinder or chimney of spray called the " column , " 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 m ) tall and 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) wide , with walls 300 feet ( 91 m ) thick .
As soon as the bubble reached the air , it started a supersonic atmospheric shock wave which , like the crack , was more visually dramatic than destructive . Brief low pressure behind the shock wave caused instant fog which shrouded the developing column in a " Wilson cloud " , also called a " condensation cloud " , obscuring it from view for two seconds . The Wilson cloud started out hemispherical , expanded into a disk which lifted from the water revealing the fully developed spray column , then expanded into a doughnut and vanished . The Able shot also produced a Wilson cloud , but heat from the fireball dried it out more quickly .
By the time the Wilson cloud vanished , the top of the column had become a " cauliflower , " and all the spray in the column and its cauliflower was moving down , back into the lagoon . Although cloudlike in shape , the cauliflower was more like the top of a geyser where water stops moving up and starts to fall . There was no mushroom cloud ; nothing rose into the stratosphere .
Meanwhile , lagoon water rushing back into the space vacated by the rising gas bubble started a tsunami which lifted the ships as it passed under them . At 11 seconds after detonation , the first wave was 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) from surface zero and 94 feet ( 29 m ) high . By the time it reached the Bikini Island beach , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 6 km ) away , it was a nine @-@ wave set with shore breakers up to 15 feet ( 5 m ) high , which tossed landing craft onto the beach and filled them with sand .
Twelve seconds after detonation , falling water from the column started to create a 900 @-@ foot ( 274 m ) tall " base surge " resembling the mist at the bottom of a large waterfall . Unlike the water wave , the base surge rolled over rather than under the ships . Of all the bomb 's effects , the base surge had the greatest consequence for most of the target ships , because it painted them with radioactivity that could not be removed .
= = = Arkansas = = =
Arkansas was the closest ship to the bomb other than the ship from which it was suspended . The underwater shock wave crushed the starboard side of her hull , which faced the bomb , and rolled the battleship over onto her port side . It also ripped off the two starboard propellers and their shafts , along with the rudder and part of the stern , shortening the hull by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) .
At 562 feet ( 171 m ) long , the battleship was three times as long as the water is deep . When the Wilson cloud lifted , Arkansas was apparently bow @-@ pinned to the sea floor with her truncated stern 350 feet ( 110 m ) in the air . Unable to sink straight down in the relatively shallow lagoon , she toppled backward into the water curtain of the spray column .
She was next seen by Navy divers , the same year , lying upside down with her bow on the rim of the underwater bomb crater and stern angled toward the center . There was no sign of the superstructure or the big guns . The first diver to reach Arkansas sank up to his armpits in radioactive mud . When National Park Service divers returned in 1989 and 1990 , the bottom was again firm @-@ packed sand , and the mud was gone . They were able to see the barrels of the forward guns , which had not been visible in 1946 .
All battleships are top heavy and tend to settle upside down when they sink . Arkansas settled upside down , but a 1989 diver 's sketch of the wreck shows hardly any of the starboard side of the hull , making it look like the ship is lying on her side . Most of the starboard side is present , but severely compacted .
The superstructure has not been found . It was either stripped off and swept away or is lying under the hull , crushed and buried under sand which flowed back into the crater , partially refilling it . The only diver access to the inside is a tight squeeze through the port side casemate , called the " aircastle . " The National Park Service divers practiced on the similar casemate of the battleship USS Texas , a museum ship , before entering Arkansas in 1990 .
= = = Aircraft carriers = = =
Saratoga , placed close to Baker , sank 7 @.@ 5 hours after the underwater shock wave opened up leaks in the hull . Immediately after the shock wave passed , the water wave lifted the stern 43 feet ( 13 m ) and the bow 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) , rocked the ship side to side , and crashed over her , sweeping all five moored airplanes off the flight deck and knocking the stack over onto the deck . She remained upright and outside the spray column , but close enough to be drenched by radioactive water from the collapsing cauliflower head as well as by the base surge . Blandy ordered tugs to tow the carrier to Enyu island for beaching , but Saratoga and the surrounding water remained too radioactive for close approach until after she sank . She settled upright on the bottom , with the top of her mast 40 feet ( 12 m ) below the surface .
USS Independence survived Able with spectacular damage to the flight deck . She was moored far enough away from Baker to avoid further physical damage , but was severely contaminated . She was towed to San Francisco , where four years of decontamination experiments at the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard failed to produce satisfactory results . On January 29 , 1951 , she was scuttled near the Farallon Islands .
= = = Fission @-@ product radioactivity = = =
Baker was the first nuclear explosion close enough to the surface to keep the radioactive fission products in the local environment . It was not " self @-@ cleansing . " The result was radioactive contamination of the lagoon and the target ships . While anticipated , it caused far greater problems than were expected .
The Baker explosion produced about 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) of fission products . These fission products were thoroughly mixed with the two million tons of spray and seabed sand that were lifted into the spray column and its cauliflower head and then dumped back into the lagoon . Most of it stayed in the lagoon and settled to the bottom or was carried out to sea by the lagoon 's internal tidal and wind @-@ driven currents .
A small fraction of the contaminated spray was thrown back into the air as the base surge . Unlike the Wilson cloud , a meteorological phenomenon in clean air , the base surge was a heavy fog bank of radioactive mist that rolled across all the target ships , coating their surfaces with fission products . When the mist in the base surge evaporated , the base surge became invisible but continued to move away , contaminating ships several miles from the detonation point .
Unmanned boats were the first vessels to enter the lagoon . Onboard instruments allowed remote @-@ controlled radiation measurements to be made . When support ships entered the lagoon for evaluation , decontamination , and salvage activities , they steered clear of lagoon water hot spots detected by the drone boats . The standard for radiation exposure to personnel was the same as that used by the Manhattan Project : 0 @.@ 1 roentgens per day . Because of this constraint , only the five most distant target ships could be boarded on the first day . The closer @-@ in ships were hosed down by Navy fireboats using saltwater and flame retardants . The first hosing reduced radioactivity by half , but subsequent hosings were ineffective . For most of the ships , reboarding had to wait until the short @-@ lived radioisotopes decayed ; ten days elapsed before the last of the targets could be boarded .
In the first six days after Baker , when radiation levels were highest , 4 @,@ 900 men boarded target ships . Sailors tried to scrub off the radioactivity with brushes , water , soap , and lye . Nothing worked , short of sandblasting to bare metal .
= = = Test animals = = =
Only pigs and rats were used in the Baker test . All the pigs and most of the rats died . Several days elapsed before sailors were able to reboard the target ships where test animals were located ; during that time the accumulated doses from the gamma rays produced by fission products became lethal for the animals . Since much of the public interest in Operation Crossroads had focused on the fate of the test animals , in September Blandy asserted that radiation death is not painful : " The animal merely languishes and recovers or dies a painless death . Suffering among the animals as a whole was negligible . " This was clearly not true . While the well @-@ documented suffering of Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin as they died of radiation injury at Los Alamos was still secret , the widely reported radiation deaths at Hiroshima and Nagasaki had not been painless . In 1908 , Dr. Charles Allen Porter had stated in an academic paper , " the agony of inflamed X @-@ ray lesions is almost unequalled in any other disease . "
= = = Induced radioactivity = = =
The Baker explosion ejected into the environment about twice as many free neutrons as there were fission events . A plutonium fission event produces , on average , 2 @.@ 9 neutrons , most of which are consumed in the production of more fission , until fission stops and the remaining uncaptured neutrons escape . In an air burst , most of these environmental neutrons are absorbed by superheated air which rises into the stratosphere , along with the fission products and unfissioned plutonium . In the underwater Baker detonation , the neutrons were captured by seawater in the lagoon .
Of the four major elements in seawater – hydrogen , oxygen , sodium , and chlorine – only sodium takes on intense , short @-@ term radioactivity with the addition of a single neutron to its nucleus : common sodium @-@ 23 becomes radioactive sodium @-@ 24 , with a 15 @-@ hour half @-@ life . In six days its intensity drops a thousandfold , but the corollary of short half @-@ life is high initial intensity . Other isotopes were produced from seawater : hydrogen @-@ 3 from hydrogen @-@ 2 , oxygen @-@ 17 from oxygen @-@ 16 , and chlorine @-@ 36 from chlorine @-@ 35 , and some trace elements , but due to low abundance or low short @-@ term intensity ( long half @-@ life ) they were considered insignificant compared with sodium @-@ 24 .
Less than one pound of radioactive sodium was produced . If all the neutrons released by the fission of 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) of plutonium @-@ 239 were captured by sodium @-@ 23 , 0 @.@ 4 pounds ( 0 @.@ 18 kg ) of sodium @-@ 24 would result , but sodium did not capture all the neutrons . Unlike fission products , which are heavy and eventually sank to the bottom of the lagoon , the sodium stayed in solution . It contaminated the hulls and onboard salt water systems of support ships that entered the lagoon , and the water used in decontamination .
= = = Unfissioned plutonium = = =
The 10 @.@ 6 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of plutonium which did not undergo fission and the 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) of fission products were scattered . Plutonium is not a biological hazard unless ingested or inhaled , and its alpha radiation cannot penetrate skin . Once inside the body it is significantly toxic both radiologically and chemically , having a heavy metal toxicity on a par with that of arsenic . Estimates based on the Manhattan Project 's " tolerance dose " of one microgram of plutonium per worker put 10 @.@ 6 pounds at the equivalent of about five billion tolerable doses .
Plutonium could not be detected by the film badges and Geiger counters used by people who boarded the target ships . It was assumed to be present in the environment wherever fission product radiation was detected . The decontamination plan was to scrub the target ships free of fission products and assume the plutonium would be washed away in the process . To see if this plan was working , samples of paint , rust , and other target ship surface materials were taken back to a laboratory on the support ship Haven and examined for plutonium . The tests showed that the plan was not working . The results of these plutonium detection tests , and of tests performed on fish caught in the lagoon , caused all decontamination work to be abruptly terminated on August 10 , effectively shutting down Operation Crossroads for safety reasons . Tests conducted on the support ship USS Rockbridge in November indicated the presence of 2 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 031 gr ) of plutonium , which represented 2000 tolerance doses .
= = Failed Baker cleanup and program termination = =
The program termination on August 10 , sixteen days after Baker , was the result of a showdown between Dr. Stafford Warren , the Army colonel in charge of radiation safety for Operation Crossroads , and Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Special Weapons , Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy . A radiation safety monitor under Warren 's command later described him as " the only Army colonel who ever sank a Navy flotilla . "
Warren had been Chief of the Medical Section of the Manhattan Project , and was in charge of radiation safety at the first nuclear test , Trinity , in New Mexico , as well as of the on @-@ ground inspections at Hiroshima and Nagasaki after the bombings . At Operation Crossroads , it was his job to keep the sailors safe during the cleanup , and to avoid giving them grounds to sue the Navy if health problems developed later .
= = = Radiation monitoring = = =
A total of 18 @,@ 875 film badge dosimeters were issued to personnel during the operation . About 6 @,@ 596 dosimeters were given to personnel who were based on the nearby islands or support ships that had no potential for radiation exposure . The rest were issued to all of the individuals thought to be at the greatest risk for radiological contamination along with a percentage of each group who were working in less contaminated areas . Personnel were removed for one or more days from areas and activities of possible exposure if their badges showed more than 0 @.@ 1 roentgen ( R ) per day exposure . This is the about same as the annual occupational dose limit in practice at many modern U.S. nuclear facilities . Experts believed at the time that this radiation dose could be tolerated by individuals for long periods without any harmful effects . The maximum accumulated dose of 3 @.@ 72 R was received by a radiation safety monitor .
= = = Cleanup issues = = =
The cleanup was hampered by two significant factors : the unexpected base surge and the lack of a viable cleanup plan . It was understood that if the water column fell back into the lagoon , which it did , any ships that were drenched by falling water might be contaminated beyond redemption . Nobody expected that to happen to almost the entire target fleet . No decontamination procedures had been tested in advance to see if they would work and to measure the potential risk to personnel . In the absence of a decontamination protocol , the ships were cleaned using traditional deck @-@ scrubbing methods : hoses , mops , and brushes , with water , soap , and lye . The sailors had no protective clothing .
= = = Secondary contamination = = =
By August 3 , Colonel Warren concluded the entire effort was futile and dangerous . The unprotected sailors were stirring up radioactive material and contaminating their skin , clothing , and , presumably , their lungs . When they returned to their support ship living quarters , they contaminated the shower stalls , laundry facilities , and everything they touched . Warren demanded an immediate halt to the entire cleanup operation . He was especially concerned about plutonium , which was undetectable on site .
Warren also observed that the radsafe procedures were not being followed correctly . Fire boats got too close to the target ships they were hosing and drenched their crews with radioactive spray . One fire boat had to be taken out of service . Film badges showed 67 overdoses between August 6 and 9 . More than half of the 320 Geiger counters available shorted out and became unavailable . The crews of two target ships , USS Wainwright and USS Carteret , moored far from the detonation site , had moved back on board and become overexposed . They were immediately evacuated back to the United States .
Captain L. H. Bibby , commanding officer of the apparently undamaged battleship New York , accused Warren 's radsafe monitors of holding their Geiger counters too close to the deck . He wanted to reboard his ship and sail it home . The steadily dropping radiation counts on the target ships gave an illusion that the cleanup was working , but Warren explained that although fission products were losing some of their gamma ray potency through radioactive decay , the ships were still contaminated . The danger of ingesting microscopic particles remained .
= = = Warren persuades Blandy = = =
Blandy ordered Warren to explain his position to 1 @,@ 400 skeptical officers and sailors . Some found him persuasive , but it was August 9 before he convinced Blandy . That was the date when Blandy realized , for the first time , that Geiger counters could not detect plutonium . Blandy was aware of the health problems of radium dial painters who ingested microscopic amounts of radium in the 1920s , and the fact that plutonium was assumed to have a similar biological effect . When plutonium was discovered in the captain 's quarters of Prinz Eugen , unaccompanied by fission products , Blandy realized that plutonium could be anywhere .
The following day , August 10 , Warren showed Blandy an autoradiograph of a fish , an x @-@ ray picture made by radiation coming from the fish . The outline of the fish was made by alpha radiation from the fish scales , evidence that plutonium , mimicking calcium , had been distributed throughout the fish , out to the scales . Blandy announced his decision , " then we call it all to a halt . " He ordered that all further decontamination work be discontinued . Warren wrote home , " A self x ray of a fish ... did the trick . "
The decontamination failure ended plans to outfit some of the target ships for the 1947 Charlie shot and to sail the rest home in triumph . The immediate public relations problem was to avoid any perception that the entire target fleet had been destroyed . On August 6 , in anticipation of this development , Blandy had told his staff that ships sunk or destroyed more than 30 days after the Baker shot " will not be considered as sunk by the bomb . " By then , public interest in Operation Crossroads was waning , and the reporters had gone home . The failure of decontamination did not make news until the final reports came out a year later .
= = Test Charlie = =
Testing program staff originally set test Charlie for early 1947 . They wanted to explode it deep under the surface in the lee of the atoll to test the effect of nuclear weapons as depth charges on unmoored ships . The unanticipated delays in decontaminating the target ships after test Baker prevented the required technical support personnel from assisting with Charlie and also meant that there were no uncontaminated target ships available for use in Charlie . The naval weapons program staff decided the test was less pressing given that the entire U.S. arsenal had only a handful of nuclear weapons and cancelled the test . The official reason given for cancelling Charlie was that the program staff felt it was unnecessary due to the success of the Able and Baker tests . The deep ocean effects testing that Charlie was to have performed were fulfilled nine years later with Operation Wigwam .
= = Operation Crossroads follow @-@ up = =
All ships leak and require the regular operation of bilge pumps to stay afloat . If their bilge pumps could not be operated , the target ships would eventually sink . Only one suffered this fate : Prinz Eugen , which sank in the Kwajalein lagoon on December 22 . The rest were kept afloat long enough to be deliberately sunk or dismantled . After the August 10 decision to stop decontamination work at Bikini , the surviving target fleet was towed to Kwajalein Atoll where the live ammunition and fuel could be offloaded in uncontaminated water . The move was accomplished during the remainder of August and September .
Eight of the major ships and two submarines were towed back to the United States and Hawaii for radiological inspection . Twelve target ships were so lightly contaminated that they were remanned and sailed back to the United States by their crews . Ultimately , only nine target ships were able to be scrapped rather than scuttled . The remaining target ships were scuttled off Bikini or Kwajalein Atolls , or near the Hawaiian Islands or the California coast during 1946 – 1948 .
The support ships were decontaminated as necessary and received a radiological clearance before they could return to the fleet . This required a great deal of experimentation at Navy shipyards in the United States , primarily in San Francisco . The destroyer USS Laffey required " sandblasting and painting of all underwater surfaces , and acid washing and partial replacement of salt @-@ water piping and evaporators . "
Finally , a formal resurvey was conducted in mid @-@ 1947 to study long @-@ term effects of the Operation Crossroads tests . According to the official report , decontamination efforts " revealed conclusively that removal of radioactive contamination of the type encountered in the target vessels in test Baker cannot be accomplished successfully . "
On August 11 , 1947 , Life summarized the report in a 14 @-@ page article with 33 pictures . The article stated , " If all the ships at Bikini had been fully manned , the Baker Day bomb would have killed 35 @,@ 000 crewmen . If such a bomb were dropped below New York 's Battery in a stiff south wind , 2 million people would die . "
The contamination problem was not widely appreciated by the general public until 1948 , when No Place to Hide , a best @-@ selling book by David Bradley , M.D. , was serialized in the Atlantic Monthly , condensed by the Reader 's Digest , and selected by the Book of the Month Club . In his preface , Bradley , a key member of the Radiological Safety Section at Bikini known as the " Geiger men " , asserted that " the accounts of the actual explosions , however well intended , were liberally seasoned with fantasy and superstition , and the results of the tests have remained buried in the vaults of military security . " His description of the Baker test and its aftermath brought to world attention the problem of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons .
= = Personnel exposure = =
All Operation Crossroads operations were designed to keep personnel from being exposed to more than 0 @.@ 1 roentgen ( R ) per day . At the time , this was considered to be an amount of radiation that could be tolerated for long periods without any harmful effects on health . Since there was no special clothing or radiation shielding available , the protection plan relied on managing who went where , when , and for how long .
Radioactively " hot " areas were predicted in advance , and then checked with Geiger counters , sometimes by remote control , to see if they were safe . The level of measured gamma radiation determined how long personnel could operate in them without exceeding the allowable daily dose . Instant gamma readings were taken by radiation safety specialists , but film @-@ badge dosimeters , which could be read at the end of the day , were issued to all personnel believed to be at the greatest radiological risk . Anyone whose badge showed more than 0 @.@ 1 R per day exposure was removed for one or more days from areas and activities of possible exposure . The maximum accumulated exposure recorded was 3 @.@ 72 R , received by a radiation safety specialist .
A percentage of each group working in less contaminated areas was badged . Eventually , 18 @,@ 875 film @-@ badge dosimeters were issued to about 15 % of the total work force . On the basis of this sampling , a theoretical total exposure was calculated for each person who did not have a personal badge . As expected , exposures for target ship crewmen who reboarded their ships after Baker were higher than those for support ship crews . The hulls of support ships that entered the lagoon after Baker became so radioactive that sleeping quarters were moved toward the center of each ship . Of the total mass of radioactive particles scattered by each explosion , 85 % was unfissioned plutonium which produces alpha radiation not detected by film badges or Geiger counters . There was no method of detecting plutonium in a timely fashion , and participants were not monitored for ingestion of it .
A summary of film badge readings ( in roentgens ) for July and August , when the largest number of personnel was involved , is listed below :
Service members who participated in the clean up of contaminated ships were exposed to unknown amounts of radiation . In 1996 , a government @-@ sponsored mortality study of Operation Crossroads veterans showed that , by 1992 , 46 years after the tests , veterans had experienced a 4 @.@ 6 % higher mortality than a control group of non @-@ veterans . There were 200 more deaths among Operation Crossroads veterans than in the similar control group ( 12 @,@ 520 vs. 12 @,@ 320 ) , implying a life @-@ span reduction of about three months for Operation Crossroads veterans . Veterans who were exposed to radiation formed the non @-@ profit National Association of Atomic Veterans association in 1978 to lobby for veterans benefits covering illnesses they believed were due to their exposure .
Legislation was passed in 1988 that removed the need for veterans to prove a causal link between certain forms of cancer and radiation exposure due to nuclear tests . Incidence of the main expected causes of this increased mortality , leukemia and other cancers , was not significantly higher than normal . Death by those diseases was tabulated on the assumption that if radiation exposure had a life @-@ shortening effect it would likely show up there , but it did not . Not enough data were gathered on other causes of death to determine the reason for this increase in all @-@ cause mortality , and it remains a mystery . The mortality increase was higher , 5 @.@ 7 % , for those who boarded target ships after the tests than for those who did not , whose mortality increase was only 4 @.@ 3 % .
= = Bikini after Operation Crossroads = =
The 167 Bikini residents who were moved to the Rongerik Atoll prior to the Crossroads tests were unable to gather sufficient food or catch enough fish and shellfish to feed themselves in their new environment . The Navy left food and water for a few weeks and then failed to return in a timely manner . By January 1947 , visitors to Rongerik reported the islanders were suffering malnutrition , facing potential starvation by July , and were emaciated by January 1948 . In March 1948 they were evacuated to Kwajalein , and then settled onto another uninhabited island , Kili , in November . With only one third of a square mile , Kili has one sixth the land area of Bikini and , more important , has no lagoon and no protected harbor . Unable to practice their native culture of lagoon fishing , they became dependent on food shipments . Their four thousand descendants today are living on several islands and in foreign countries .
Their desire to return to Bikini was thwarted indefinitely by the U.S. decision to resume nuclear testing at Bikini in 1954 . During 1954 , 1956 , and 1958 , twenty @-@ one more nuclear bombs were detonated at Bikini , yielding a total of 75 megatons of TNT ( 310 PJ ) , equivalent to more than three thousand Baker bombs . Only one was an air burst , the 3 @.@ 8 megaton Redwing Cherokee test . Air bursts distribute fallout in a large area , but surface bursts produce intense local fallout . The first after Crossroads was the dirtiest : the 15 megaton Bravo shot of Operation Castle on March 1 , 1954 , which was the largest @-@ ever U.S. test . Fallout from Bravo caused radiation injury to Bikini islanders who were living on Rongelap Atoll .
The brief attempt to resettle Bikini from 1974 until 1978 was aborted when health problems from radioactivity in the food supply caused the atoll to be evacuated again . Sport divers who visit Bikini to dive on the shipwrecks must eat imported food . The local government elected to close the fly @-@ in fly @-@ out sports diving operation in Bikini lagoon in 2008 , and the 2009 diving season was canceled due to fuel costs , unreliable airline service to the island , and a decline in the Bikini Islanders ' trust fund which subsidized the operation . After a successful trial in October 2010 , the local government licensed a sole provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet at Bikini Atoll starting in 2011 . The aircraft carrier Saratoga is the primary attraction of a struggling , high @-@ end sport diving industry .
= = Legacy = =
Following test Baker decontamination problems , the United States Navy equipped newly constructed ships with a CounterMeasure WashDown System ( CMWDS ) of piping and nozzles to cover exterior surfaces of the ship with a spray of salt water from the firefighting system when nuclear attack appeared imminent . The film of flowing water would theoretically prevent contaminants from settling into cracks and crevices .
= = In popular culture = =
The juxtaposition of half @-@ naked islanders with nuclear weapons that had the power to reduce everyone to a primitive state provided some with an inspirational motif . Atomic bombs were featured in popular songs in 1946 and 1947 . During Operation Crossroads , Paris swimwear designer Louis Réard adopted the name " Bikini " for his revolutionary minimalist swimsuit design that for the first time exposed the wearer 's navel . He explained that " like the bomb , the bikini is small and devastating " . Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the " atom bomb of fashion " . Réard 's bikini was one of two , two @-@ piece swimsuit designs that exposed the navel , but his name stuck .
In the 2014 movie Godzilla , the United States Armed Forces attempted to kill Godzilla using a nuclear weapon known as " Lucky Dragon " in 1954 . The scene which showed the explosion of " Lucky Dragon " was actually the detonation of Baker , with the film implying that Operation Crossroads and the other detonation tests in Bikini Atoll were just cover stories for their attempts to kill Godzilla .
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= WASP @-@ 44b =
WASP @-@ 44b is a closely orbiting Jupiter @-@ sized planet found in the orbit of the sunlike star WASP @-@ 44 by the SuperWASP program , which searches for transiting planets that cross in front of their host stars as seen from Earth . After follow @-@ up observations using radial velocity , the planet was confirmed . Use of another telescope at the same observatory detected WASP @-@ 44 transiting its star . The planet completes an orbit around its star every two and a half days , and orbits at roughly 0 @.@ 03 AU from its host star . WASP @-@ 44b 's discovery was reported by the Royal Astronomical Society in May 2011 .
= = Discovery = =
Using the WASP @-@ South station at the South African Astronomical Observatory , the SuperWASP project searched the night sky for potential planets that transited , or crossed in front of , their host stars at a roughly periodic rate . WASP @-@ 44 was among the candidates identified as a possible host to a transit event . WASP @-@ 44 's reclassification as a potential planetary host came about after WASP @-@ South scanned the Cetus constellation between July and November 2009 . In combination with later observations using both WASP @-@ South and the SuperWASP @-@ North in the Canary Islands , over 15 @,@ 755 photometric measurements were collected . A later set of observations between August and November 2010 produced a 6 @,@ 000 point photometric data set , but the light curve was prepared late and was not considered in the discovery paper . The star was observed at the same time as stars WASP @-@ 45 and WASP @-@ 46 .
In 2010 , the European team of astronomers used the CORALIE spectrograph on the 1.2m Leonhard Euler Telescope at Chile 's La Silla Observatory . The same radial velocity measurements detected by SuperWASP were detected . The planet WASP @-@ 44b was confirmed after analysis of the results ruled out spectroscopic binary stars , leaving a transiting planet as the most likely cause of the radial velocity variations .
The Euler telescope was used to observe WASP @-@ 44b as it transited its host star . For 4 @.@ 2 hours on September 14 , 2010 , Euler observed WASP @-@ 44 in search of a slight dimming in brightness until a more precise light curve could be found . Accounting for all data yet collected , analysis yielded the planet 's characteristics .
The discovery of WASP @-@ 44b , along with those of WASP @-@ 45b and WASP @-@ 46b , were reported on May 16 , 2011 by the Royal Astronomical Society . The scientists who worked on the paper discussed the role of orbital eccentricity , or how elliptical an orbit is , and how poorly constrained it tends to be amongst Hot Jupiters , where a circular orbit is assumed . They used the three newly discovered planets as studies into the creation of a non @-@ eccentric , circular model for a planet 's orbit ( the most likely solution ) or an eccentric , elliptical solution for a planet 's orbit ( the solution that , according to the discovery team , required less of an assumption ) .
= = Host star = =
WASP @-@ 44 is a sunlike G @-@ type star in the Cetus constellation . WASP @-@ 44 has a mass of 0 @.@ 951 solar masses and a radius of 0 @.@ 927 solar radii , which means that WASP @-@ 44 is 95 % the mass of and 92 % the size of the Sun . With an effective temperature of 5410 K , WASP @-@ 44 is cooler than the Sun , although it is richer in iron , with a measured metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 06 ( 1 @.@ 15 times the amount of iron found in the Sun ) . The star is an estimated 900 million years old , although this age is uncertain , as error bars are large . Based on its spectrum , WASP @-@ 44 is not active in its chromosphere ( outer layer ) . The star was also not found to demonstrate a high rate of rotation .
With an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 , WASP @-@ 44 cannot be seen with the unaided eye from Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 44b is a Hot Jupiter with a mass of 0 @.@ 889 times Jupiter 's mass and a radius of 1 @.@ 002 times that of Jupiter . Although less massive than Jupiter , the planet is bloated to a greater size because its proximity to its host star heats it , a common effect in such closely orbiting gas giants . WASP @-@ 44b orbits at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 03473 AU , which is about 3 % of the distance between the Earth and Sun . An orbit is completed every 2 @.@ 4238039 days ( 58 @.@ 171 hours ) .
WASP @-@ 44b has an orbital inclination of 86.02º , which is almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth .
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= Typhoon Vera =
Typhoon Vera , also known as the Isewan Typhoon ( 伊勢湾台風 , Ise @-@ wan Taifū ) , was an exceptionally intense tropical cyclone that struck Japan in September 1959 , becoming the strongest and deadliest typhoon on record to make landfall on the country . The storm 's intensity resulted in damage of unparalleled severity and extent , and was a major setback to the Japanese economy , which was still recovering from World War II . In the aftermath of Vera , Japan 's disaster management and relief systems were significantly reformed , and the typhoon 's effects would set a benchmark for future storms striking the country .
Vera developed on September 20 between Guam and Chuuk State , and initially tracked westward before taking a more northerly course , reaching tropical storm strength the following day . By this point Vera had assumed a more westerly direction of movement and had begun to rapidly intensify , and reached its peak intensity on September 23 with maximum sustained winds equivalent to that of a modern @-@ day Category 5 hurricane . With little change in strength , Vera curved and accelerated northward , resulting in a landfall on September 26 near Shionomisaki on Honshu . Atmospheric wind patterns caused the typhoon to briefly emerge into the Sea of Japan before recurving eastward and moving ashore Honshu for a second time . Movement over land greatly weakened Vera , and after reentering the North Pacific Ocean later that day , Vera transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 27 ; these remnants continued to persist for an additional two days .
Though Vera was accurately forecast and its track into Japan was well anticipated , limited coverage of telecommunications , combined with lack of urgency from Japanese media and the storm 's intensity , greatly inhibited potential evacuation and disaster mitigation processes . Rainfall from the storm 's outer rainbands began to cause flooding in river basins well in advance of the storm 's landfall . Upon moving ashore Honshu , the typhoon brought a strong storm surge that destroyed numerous flood defense systems , inundating coastal regions and sinking ships . Damage totals from Vera reached US $ 600 million ( equivalent to US $ 4 @.@ 87 billion in 2015 ) . The number of fatalities caused by Vera remain discrepant , though current estimates indicate that the typhoon caused at least 4 @,@ 000 deaths , making it the deadliest typhoon in Japanese history .
Relief efforts were initiated by Japanese and American governments immediately following Typhoon Vera . Due to the inundation caused by the typhoon , localized epidemics were reported , including those of dysentery and tetanus . The spread of disease and blocking debris slowed the ongoing relief efforts . Due to the unprecedented damage and loss of life following Vera , the National Diet passed legislation in order to more efficiently assist affected regions and mitigate future disasters . This included the passage of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961 , which set standards for Japanese disaster relief , including the establishment of the Central Disaster Prevention Council .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Typhoon Vera can be ascertained back to a diffuse area of low pressure first incorporated into surface weather analysis early on September 20 . At the time , the disturbance was situated between Guam and Chuuk State . Though the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) did not classify the incipient system as a tropical cyclone , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) analyzed the disturbance to be a tropical depression as early as 0000 UTC that day . Initially , the depression tracked westward , but transiently shifted to a more northerly course on September 21 . Late that day , a reconnaissance airplane dispatched by the JTWC to analyze the disturbance failed to reach its center due to engine failure . However , the data collected from the storm 's periphery was sufficient enough for the warning center to classify the depression as a tropical storm at 1800 UTC that day . Despite the flight data , the JMA had already determined the system to have been of at least tropical storm intensity six hours earlier . As a result of the reclassification , the tropical storm was designated the name Vera by the JTWC . At this point the tropical cyclone began to take a more westerly course .
Early on September 22 , an aircraft fix located Vera 175 km ( 110 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Saipan . Throughout the course of the day , periodic reconnaissance flights into the storm indicated that Vera had begun to rapidly intensify . By 1800 UTC later that day , data analysis concluded that the tropical cyclone had reached typhoon intensity . Rapid intensification continued into the following day , as the typhoon 's maximum sustained winds and barometric pressure quickly rose and fell , respectively . Concurrently , Vera 's size grew to a point at which it spanned 250 km ( 155 mi ) across . At 0600 UTC the following day , Vera achieved its minimum estimated barometric pressure at 895 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 43 inHg ) . This indicated a 75 mbar ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 22 inHg ) pressure drop in the preceding 24 hours . Upon reaching its minimum pressure , Vera was estimated to have attained winds equivalent to a Category 5 – the highest classification possible on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The typhoon 's winds continued to increase before peaking at 1200 UTC on September 23 , when reconnaissance aircraft reported maximum sustained winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Upon peaking in wind speed , Vera was located 645 km ( 400 mi ) northeast of Guam . The tropical cyclone 's ability to quickly intensify was attributed to conducive atmospheric divergence and highly sustainable sea surface temperatures .
Vera only maintained peak intensity for roughly twelve hours , but still remained a powerful tropical cyclone . With very little change in strength , the typhoon tracked northwestward throughout September 24 . Due to the influence of a nearby high @-@ pressure area , Vera began to gradually curve and rapidly accelerate northward towards Japan . At 0900 UTC on September 26 , Vera made its first landfall on Honshu , just west of Shionomisaki . At the time , the typhoon had maximum sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) . Vera traversed the Japanese island rather quickly at a speed 61 km / h ( 38 mph ) , and emerged into the Sea of Japan at 1530 UTC that day . Despite its short stint over land , the terrain greatly weakened the tropical cyclone . Tracking into a westerly wind flow , Vera was forced eastward , resulting in a second landfall near Sakata , Honshu , with an intensity equivalent to that of a Category 1 hurricane . Vera re @-@ emerged into the North Pacific Ocean late on September 26 , having weakened due to advection of cold air in addition to continued land interaction . At 0600 UTC on September 27 , the JTWC analyzed the typhoon to have weakened to tropical storm intensity . The warning center discontinued its periodic monitoring of the system , as Vera had begun to transition into an extratropical cyclone . Consequently , the JMA officially reclassified the system as an extratropical storm at 1200 UTC that day . Vera 's extratropical remnants continued to persist and track eastward for the next two days before the JMA last noted the storm at 1200 UTC on December 29 .
= = Impact = =
Despite being well forecast and tracked throughout its duration , Typhoon Vera 's effects were highly disastrous and long @-@ lasting . In addition to the storm 's intensity , the severe damage and large death tolls were partially attributed to a lack of urgency from Japanese media in advance of Vera 's landfall . Though estimates for damage costs indicated totals in excess of US $ 261 million ( equivalent to US $ 2 @.@ 12 billion in 2015 ) , other damage estimates suggested that damage costs were as high as US $ 600 million ( equivalent to US $ 4 @.@ 87 billion in 2015 ) . Death tolls also remain unclear , but reports generally indicated that around 5 @,@ 000 people were killed , with hundreds of other persons missing . In addition to the dead nearly 40 @,@ 000 people were injured , and an additional 1 @.@ 6 million people were rendered homeless . Countrywide approximately 834 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and roughly 210 @,@ 000 ha ( 520 @,@ 000 ac ) of agricultural fields were damaged . The damage wrought by Vera made it the deadliest typhoon in Japanese history , succeeding the 1934 Muroto typhoon . Vera was also the third deadliest natural disaster in Japan during the 20th century , only behind the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995 and the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 .
Well in advance of Vera 's landfall , heavy rainfall ahead of the typhoon occurred across the Tōkai region of Japan starting on September 23 , when the storm reached peak intensity over open waters . In Nagoya , rainfall totals reached 10 cm ( 4 in ) . In other parts of the Tōkai region , nearly 20 cm ( 8 in ) of rain was reported . The precipitation caused flooding along several river basins in the swath of rain . Steady rainfall occurred throughout Vera 's passage of Honshu , though the worst of the rain @-@ induced flooding occurred well after the typhoon 's initial landfall . In Kawakami , Nara , a landslide killed 60 people after crushing 12 homes .
Most of the damage associated with Vera was a result of highly destructive storm surge . At the coast , the typhoon 's intensity resulted in a strong storm surge that inundated low @-@ lying coastal regions . In Ise Bay , storm surge heights were greatly enhanced due to the curvature of the land and the bay 's shallow depth , which allowed water to be easily driven the length of the bay towards the coast . In addition , the storm passed the area at high tide . Water levels began to rise prior to Vera 's landfall and peaked during the typhoon 's first traversal of Honshu . The highest storm surge measurement was observed in the Port of Nagoya , where water levels peaked 3 @.@ 9 m ( 13 ft ) above normal . The intense storm surge easily engulfed or breached earthen levees and other flood prevention mechanisms around Ise Bay . However , these coastal dykes still remained partially unfinished and were seriously impacted by Vera 's storm surge . Only newly installed flood mitigation systems along the southern portion of the bay were able to withstand the wave action . Offshore , the waves sunk 25 fishing boats , with thousands of other ships grounded or missing . In total , damage was reported to 7 @,@ 576 vessels . In addition to the damaged craft , numerous oyster rafts were also lost , with losses totaling US $ 6 million . Also , 75 million individual pearl oysters were lost to the waves , resulting in US $ 10 million in additional losses .
The resulting inundation caused by Vera 's storm surge submerged areas around the periphery of the bay for extended periods of time , with some low @-@ lying areas remaining underwater in excess of four months . Due to the failure of multiple flood mitigation systems in quick succession , coupled with the narrow coverage of telecommunications exacerbated by Vera 's strong winds , many persons in affected regions had very little time to evacuate . Nagoya was one of the worst impacted cities by Vera , and as a result of the storm surge and wind , its harbor was put out of service in under three hours . The effects of the typhoon 's storm surge there were further worsened by the destruction of lumber yards in Nagoya Harbor , which set loose large quantities of logs that caused considerable damage to structures . The release of logs also hampered relief efforts following the typhoon 's passage . City @-@ wide , 50 @,@ 000 homes were severely damaged by flood waters , and 1 @,@ 800 other residences were washed away off of their foundations . Total damage to crops was estimated at US $ 30 million . Rice crops sustained heavy impacts , with 150 @,@ 000 tons ( 135 @,@ 000 tonnes ) of rice lost . In addition to the crop damage , US $ 2 @.@ 5 million worth of fruits and US $ 4 million worth of vegetables were lost . The collapse of a single apartment home in the city buried 84 people under debris ; a similar incident in Naka , Ibaraki buried roughly 300 people . Beach houses were destroyed , and large swaths of nearby cropland were heavily damaged . In addition to the storm surge , Nagoya experienced sustained winds of about 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , with gusts reaching as high as 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , downing power lines and causing power outage . Southeast of Nagoya , in Handa , Aichi , around 300 people were killed after Vera 's waves engulfed more than 250 homes . Casualties throughout Aichi totaled 3 @,@ 168 and roughly 59 @,@ 000 people were injured , based on an enumeration conducted in March 1960 .
On the western side of Ise Bay , in Mie Prefecture , 1 @,@ 233 people were killed , with approximately 5 @,@ 500 others sustaining injuries . Approximately 95 % of Nagashima was submerged underwater . Nearby Kuwuna suffered a similar fate as 80 % of the city proper was flooded . There , 58 people were killed and 800 others were displaced . The towns of Kamezaki and Kamiyoshi were also wiped out by the flood inundation . Further inland , in Nagano Prefecture , strong winds unroofed numerous homes . The United States Air Force 's Tachikawa Airfield near Tokyo sustained significant damage from the typhoon , with damage costs totaling in excess of US $ 1 million .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath following Typhoon Vera , the Japanese government established a disaster headquarters in Tokyo and allocated resources to aid impacted areas . The government also set up the Central Japan Disaster Relief Department in Nagoya . Due to the large estimated damage cost of Vera 's impacts , Japanese parliament was forced to introduce a supplementary national budget to cover the losses . Beginning on September 27 , refuge shelters were opened and local government agencies assisted in rescuing stranded civilians . On September 29 , the Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces began to take part in the relief effort . United States lieutenant general Robert Whitney Burns ordered all available servicemen stationed in Japan to take part in typhoon relief efforts . The USS Kearsarge was dispatched to Nagoya to assist in relief efforts there . In Nagoya , the flood waters contaminated drinking water , greatly reducing clean water supplies . Despite rapid sanitation and disinfection work , disease epidemic broke out in parts of the city . Over 170 cases of dysentery were reported , along with other cases of gangrene and tetanus . In addition to water shortage , food rationing , which had been prompted due to food shortages caused by Vera , resulted in hunger issues for impacted populations .
As a result of breaches in flood defenses around Ise Bay , seawater continued to pour into inundated areas after Vera 's passage , slowing down repair efforts . One breach spanning 150 km ( 93 mi ) across required 5 @,@ 000 personnel , 32 @,@ 000 sandbags , and bulldozers dispatched by the Japanese Ministry of Defense to relieve water flow . In Aichi 's Ama District , reconstruction efforts for levees , roadways , and infrastructure lasted until the end of December 1959 . Due to losses sustained by the pearl industry as a result of the typhoon , Japanese pearl production in 1959 was expected to decrease by 30 % in 1959 , with production losses of 40 % expected in 1960 . Monetary losses to the industry were expected to eclipse US $ 15 million , causing Japanese pearl costs to hike up by 20 % . Furthermore , the effects of Vera on the country 's pearl industry were expected to persist for two to three years .
= = = Disaster relief and mitigation reformation = = =
The unprecedented destruction caused by Vera prompted Japanese parliament to pass legislation in order to more efficiently assist affected regions and mitigate future disasters . In October 1959 , a special parliamentary session enacted several measures coordinated by various government ministries and provided subsidiaries to persons effected by Vera and other natural disasters in Japan from August and September of that year . A long lasting legislation prompted by Vera 's effects was the 1961 passage of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act , widely regarded as the " cornerstone of legislation on disaster risk reduction in Japan . " The act established the Central Disaster Prevention Council , which was set to coordinate disaster risk reduction . The legislation also mandated an annual disaster prevention plan , to be submitted to the Japanese parliament yearly . Finally , the act established September 1 as a National Disaster Prevention Day .
In addition to legislative reform , the breaching of coastal flood defense systems during Vera prompted a redesign of such mechanisms . In Nagoya , regulation was created for coastal construction and their heights . Development of flood defenses in Ise , Osaka , and Tokyo bays was also set into motion . The heights of such defense systems were based on worst @-@ case scenarios and maximum storm surge heights caused by the typhoon .
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= I Do ( Lost ) =
" I Do " is the sixth episode of the third season of Lost , and the 55th episode overall . It aired on November 8 , 2006 , on ABC . The episode was written by Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse and directed by Tucker Gates . The character of Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks , where her brief marriage to a police officer , Kevin Callis ( Nathan Fillion ) , is shown . In the present events , Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) considers whether or not to perform surgery on Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , and is motivated by Kate 's claims that if he does not comply , Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) will be killed .
This was the last episode to air before a 13 @-@ week hiatus , so it was written so that it would fit as a " mini @-@ series finale " , and also had a major theme in the contrast between Kate 's relationships with Kevin and Sawyer . " I Do " gained mostly positive reviews , with much praise to the cliffhanger ending , and had 17 @.@ 15 million American viewers upon release .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
While on the run from the law , Kate goes to Miami , where under the name " Monica " she meets and gets engaged to a police officer , Kevin Callis ( Nathan Fillion ) . Before their wedding , Kevin 's mother , Suzanne , gives Kate a gold locket that had been passed down on the female side of the family at weddings . A while after the ceremony , Kate calls U.S. Marshal Edward Mars ( Fredric Lane ) . She does not want to run any more and pleads for him to stop chasing her . Mars guesses that Kate has gotten involved with a man , and tells her that if Kate can really stay put , settle down , he will stop chasing her , but that they both know it is unlikely that Kate will ever stop running . Later , Kate shows signs of relief after getting a negative pregnancy test , and decides to reveal the truth about her life to her husband . She drugs Kevin , places her mother @-@ in @-@ law 's locket in his hands and leaves .
= = = On the Island = = =
On the main island , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) tells Nikki Fernandez ( Kiele Sanchez ) , Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) and Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) that Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) was killed by an animal , and decides to bury Eko where he died as he thinks the other castaways have seen " too many funerals " recently . As Locke goes to the beach to get shovels , Sayid follows him and asks what really killed Eko . Locke says that the survivors call it " The Monster " , and further speculates that The Monster may be what brought them there and that Eko died for a reason , he just does not know what it is yet . After the burial , Locke sees a message on Eko 's stick : " Lift up your eyes and look north , John 3 : 05 " .
On Hydra island , Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) checks Ben Linus 's ( Michael Emerson ) x @-@ rays and medical file , and tells Ben that the tumor in his spine will become inoperable in a week . Jack however adds he is not going to operate on Ben because he does not trust the Others ' promise of freeing him , Kate and Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) .
After the quarry where Kate and Sawyer are working suffers an invasion by Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) , who demands to know where her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) is , Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) brings Kate to talk to Jack , telling her that it is the only way to prevent Danny Pickett ( Michael Bowen ) from killing Sawyer . When Jack and Kate see each other , Kate asks him to operate on Ben to prevent Sawyer from getting killed , but Jack gets angry and refuses .
After returning to her cage , Kate and Sawyer have an argument , and she climbs out of her cage and breaks open Sawyer 's , saying if he does not want Jack to save his life , he is going to save his own . Sawyer then tells her that they cannot run because they are on another island , something he did not tell her " because I wanted you to believe that we had a damn chance . " Kate and Sawyer then have sex , unknowingly in full view of the cameras . At the Hydra station , Jack finds his door unlocked and unguarded , and outside reaches a surveillance room , where he sees Kate and Sawyer cuddling together on a monitor . Ben appears behind him , and after a brief exchange Jack decides to do the surgery , but wants Ben to keep his promise to let Jack off the island .
As Juliet anesthetizes Ben and Jack begins the operation , Pickett goes with another man to Sawyer 's cage . Kate and Sawyer attempt to fight , but Pickett 's companion overpowers Kate and holds her at gunpoint , leading Sawyer to surrender . Meanwhile , Jack sabotages the operation by cutting Ben 's kidney sack , and demands that Tom ( M.C. Gainey ) let him speak with Kate . Before Pickett can shoot Sawyer , Tom calls over the walkie @-@ talkie . As Pickett gives the walkie to Kate , Jack tells her she has an hour 's head start , and directs her to call him on the radio when she is safe .
= = Production = =
Show runners Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse wrote " I Do " as a " mini @-@ season finale " , as it was the last episode before mid @-@ season hiatus , and would end in a cliffhanger . It also served as a climax and beginning of a closure of Jack , Kate and Sawyer 's captivity on Hydra Island , with the writers saying that afterwards there would be a return to the beach and the six @-@ episode block would be " more palatable " and make more sense , comparing them to the first seven episodes of season 2 where the tail section survivors are introduced . Executive producer Bryan Burk also said the pre @-@ hiatus episodes were " our season 2 @.@ 5 . Like , this is kind of like wrapping up a lot of where we were last year " , considering season three would really begin in the seventh episode .
A main theme of the episode is Kate 's inability to commit to other people , always running from difficult emotional situations , and having barriers between her and her interests – physical , as in Sawyer 's cage or Jack 's aquarium , or metaphorical , as in her inability to settle down as Kevin 's wife . Kate 's marriage , which was first alluded in the season one episode " Outlaws " , is meant to be a contrast with her relationship with Sawyer in the realtime events – Kate and Kevin is a heartfelt and passionate relationship where Kate tries to get involved but her lifestyle ends up on making the marriage fail , whereas with Sawyer both are afraid of intimacy and connection yet still end up together .
Nathan Fillion was cast as Kevin because the producers thought he fit as " someone to believe that Kate had actually married and settled down with " for being " really good and kinda fun and intelligent " , and also because Cuse and Lindelof were fans of Fillion 's work on Firefly . Fillion said that he was a Lost fan and described his experience working at the show as " a dream " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
17 @.@ 15 million American viewers watched this episode live , standing as the ninth most @-@ seen program of the week . It also had 1 @.@ 1 million viewers in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chris Carabott of IGN gave a 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 to " I Do " , describing it as " delivering some key moments in the series ' history and leaving viewers with a spectacular cliffhanger ending . " Carabott complimented Locke 's scenes as " short but nonetheless powerful " and praised Matthew Fox 's acting , saying he " steals the show with one of his best performances to date " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Christine Fenno considered that the flashbacks " weren 't as exciting as the action on the island , but they were full of fun details " and liked Jack 's scenes at the operating room . Jonathan Toomey of AOL 's TV Squad called " I Do " " an episode worthy of being called a mid @-@ season finale " , thinking that the romantic scenes between Kate and Sawyer worked for " the tension that existed " . BuddyTV 's Oscar Dahl considered " I Do " as " a worthy end to Lost 's truncated Fall season " , having a good reaction to the cliffhanger and saying the episode " set up incredible possibilities for the rest of the season " . Not all reviews were positive , with Slant Magazine 's critic Andrew Dignan feeling it was " lacking both the immediacy and urgency that keeps viewers clamoring for months on end " , and being critical of the writing , particularly on most of the essential plot elements occurring in the final minutes .
" I Do " was selected as one of the " 25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD " by Entertainment Weekly . IGN ranked the episode 28th out of the 115 Lost episodes , describing it as a " turning point episode of the third season . " On the other hand , a similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked " I Do " as the 91st , saying it " mostly botched " the plot point of Kate 's wedding despite Nathan Fillion 's presence , and feeling it was an episode that " probably shouldn 't have had to have as much pressure on it as it did ( acting as a mini @-@ cliffhanger in early Season 3 ) " .
Evangeline Lilly submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
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= 1998 – 99 NBA lockout =
The 1998 – 99 NBA lockout was the third lockout of four in the history of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . It lasted from July 1 , 1998 to January 20 , 1999 , and forced the 1998 – 99 regular season to be shortened to 50 games per team and that season 's All @-@ Star Game to be canceled . NBA owners reopened the league 's collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) in March 1998 , seeking changes to the league 's salary cap system and a ceiling on individual player salaries . The National Basketball Players Association ( NBPA ) opposed the owners ' plans and wanted raises for players who earned the league 's minimum salary . After the two sides failed to reach an agreement , the owners began the lockout .
The dispute received a tepid response from sports fans , and provoked criticism from media members . It continued into January 1999 , threatening cancellation of the entire season . After division within the players union , however , NBPA executive director Billy Hunter reached an agreement with NBA commissioner David Stern on January 6 to end the work stoppage . Quickly ratified by the owners and players , the deal was signed later in January , ending the lockout after 204 days . The settlement provided for maximum salaries for players and a pay scale for first @-@ year players . In the months after the lockout , television ratings and ticket sales declined during the 50 @-@ game season , and both remained below pre @-@ lockout levels in subsequent seasons .
= = Background = =
Before 1998 , there had been two lockouts in the previous three years : a labor dispute that lasted more than two months in 1995 and a brief work stoppage in 1996 that ended within three hours . However , on both occasions , the players and owners reached a deal before the start of the season , and before 1998 , the NBA was the only major sports league in the United States that had never lost a game because of a work stoppage . A six @-@ year CBA had been in place since September 1995 , but it included a clause allowing NBA owners to reopen the contract after three years if more than 51 @.@ 8 percent of " basketball @-@ related income " went to player salaries .
By the 1997 – 98 season , 57 percent of basketball @-@ related income was used to pay players , while the previous deal called for a 48 percent split . According to the NBA , 15 of the 29 teams posted losses that season . The NBPA disputed this figure and claimed that only four teams had losses . The league 's owners voted on whether to reopen the CBA on March 23 , 1998 , and the vote passed by a 27 – 2 margin . Negotiations between the NBPA and owners started on April 1 , and nine further bargaining sessions took place in the next three months .
The primary issue was that of player salaries , which owners sought to curb . A salary cap had been a part of the CBA since 1983 , but it included loopholes that allowed teams to exceed the payroll limit . Among them was the " Larry Bird exception " , named after the former player who was an early beneficiary of the rule . The Bird exception enabled teams to spend an unlimited amount of money to re @-@ sign their own players , causing a substantial increase in the value of upper @-@ end contracts . Club owners wanted to remove the exemption and place limits on maximum player salaries . Owners also desired a modified pay scale for rookie players that would prevent them from gaining unrestricted free agency after three seasons , and wanted to ban the use of marijuana and performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The players union , wanting to avoid a decline in salaries , opposed changes to the salary cap system , in particular those involving the Larry Bird exception . Other NBPA positions included opposition to a cap on individual player salaries and support for a raise of the minimum salary , which 22 percent of NBA players earned during 1997 – 98 .
= = Lockout = =
After negotiations between the sides broke off on June 22 , the lockout started nine days later . Teams were barred from making player transactions and holding workouts and meetings for the duration of the work stoppage . The Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal 's Grant M. Hayden described the NBA 's action as an " offensive lockout " , in which an employer attempts to force its workers into a settlement that does not favor them . An early byproduct of the lockout was the exclusion of NBA players from the U.S. national team that played at the 1998 FIBA World Championship . USA Basketball , the governing body for the sport in the U.S. , elected to send a team consisting of lower @-@ level professional players and amateurs . Negotiations resumed at an August 6 bargaining session , the first since the start of the lockout . NBA commissioner David Stern and several owners left the talks after the NBPA presented an offer that included increased revenue sharing between teams .
By September 25 , 24 exhibition games were canceled and training camps were postponed indefinitely as a result of stalled talks . Further negotiating sessions took place in October and November , but no agreement was reached . The season 's first two weeks were officially canceled on October 13 , and 99 games scheduled for November were lost as a result . It was the first time in NBA history that games were canceled due to a labor dispute . On October 20 , arbitrator John Feerick ruled that the owners did not have to pay players with guaranteed contracts during the lockout . Feerick 's decision gave the owners leverage in bargaining talks . Another factor favoring the owners was that their teams received money from the NBA 's television broadcasters , whose contracts with the league called for payments to be made if games were not played .
Further games were canceled as the lockout continued through November and December , including the 1999 All @-@ Star Game , which had been scheduled to be played on February 14 , 1999 at the First Union Center in Philadelphia . As a result of the All @-@ Star Game 's cancellation , the NBA later awarded the 2002 All @-@ Star Game to Philadelphia . Discussions during the lockout were characterized by frequent hostility between the players and owners . One example of the heated nature of the talks came at an early December bargaining session , when Stern and NBPA executive director Billy Hunter became involved in what CBS News called " an extremely heated , expletive @-@ laden screaming match " . Both men temporarily walked away from the bargaining table , and indicated after the session that the entire season might be canceled . Although the 1998 portion of the schedule was not played because of the lockout , 16 NBA players participated in a December 19 exhibition game in Atlantic City , New Jersey . The event 's organizers intended to give NBPA members a share of the money raised , but the idea proved controversial , and charities ultimately received the proceeds .
= = = Settlement = = =
On December 23 , Stern announced that he would recommend canceling the season if there was no deal by January 7 , 1999 . At a December 27 meeting , a " final " deal was proposed by the owners . The sides met again on January 4 , and the NBPA gave its last proposal to the owners , who turned it down . Stern discussed the possibility of having replacement players brought in to begin the following season . As Stern 's deadline approached , the NBPA showed signs of division from within . Highly paid players were seen as the ones most affected by the disputed issues , rather than the union 's membership as a whole . Agent David Falk , who was considered an influential voice for the players , represented NBPA president Patrick Ewing and nine players on the union 's 19 @-@ person negotiating committee .
The NBPA scheduled a meeting in New York City on January 6 , where players would vote on the proposal by the owners , which the committee had recommended opposing . Several players , including Shaquille O 'Neal and Hakeem Olajuwon , wanted the vote to be conducted by secret ballot , while others indicated a desire to return to competition regardless of how the vote went . Kevin Johnson stated that most players " were just ready to throw down [ fight ] Wednesday at our meeting if an agreement hadn 't been reached . " Faced with a splintering union , Hunter moved to resume talks with Stern . On January 6 , the day before Stern 's deadline , he and Hunter reached an agreement , which was ratified by the NBPA later that day and by the NBA Board of Governors on January 7 .
Widely viewed as a victory for Stern and the owners , the agreement was signed by both parties on January 20 , officially ending the lockout after 204 days . It capped players ' salaries at between $ 9 million and $ 14 million , depending on how long they had played in the NBA . The league became the first major sports organization in the U.S. to limit the salaries of its players . A rookie pay scale was introduced , with salary increases tied to how early a player was selected in the NBA Draft . The Larry Bird exception was retained , though maximum annual pay raises were capped . New " average " and " median " salary cap exemptions , which the NBPA had proposed , allowed teams to sign one player per category even if they were over the spending limit . For teams that wished to exceed the salary cap , a luxury tax was instituted requiring offenders to pay on a dollar @-@ for @-@ dollar basis , provided total league salaries were above a specified level . The league 's minimum salary was increased to $ 287 @,@ 500 , a $ 15 @,@ 000 raise from before the lockout . The players were promised that their salaries would equal 55 percent of league revenues over the agreement 's final three seasons . However , any higher percentage would lead to a salary decrease . The NBA 's drug policy was expanded to cover performance @-@ enhancing drugs and marijuana , with once @-@ yearly testing .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
The lockout prompted indifference among most American sports fans , who thought that greed was shown by both sides ; the latter was a similar sentiment to what fans voiced during the 1994 – 95 Major League Baseball strike . A CBS News – New York Times poll conducted in October 1998 showed that , while most fans ' opinion of professional basketball was unaffected by the work stoppage , 29 percent reported that their views had become more negative . The same poll showed that fans backed the NBPA in the dispute by a 36 – 29 margin , while the general public supported the owners 24 percent to 22 percent . One @-@ quarter of basketball fans who responded to the poll stated that they did not know enough about the lockout to give an opinion , along with 45 percent of the general public . Media members were frequently critical of the owners and players . Sportswriter Tony Kornheiser described the labor dispute as one " between tall millionaires and short millionaires . " An article in Newsweek termed the lockout " an incomprehensible and unconscionable dispute between rival gangs of millionaires " . Time 's Bill Saporito believed that each side was damaged by the lockout , in terms of financial losses and negative publicity . Stern said that he had made concessions in the agreement , while Hunter said that the parties " both blinked . "
From a broader labor perspective , Hayden commented that the lockout was " rather pedestrian " and " made no noteworthy contributions to legal doctrine . " He considered the NBPA to be a union that had more power , and a greater ability to enter a labor dispute , than most other labor organizations , which he believed to hold weaker positions comparatively . In addition , Hayden noted that a contrast existed between the work activities of regular workers and NBA players , as perceived by typical employees , and that " the NBA lockout may have strengthened the view of many that unions are out of touch with their lives and thus have little to offer them . "
The 1998 – 99 season , which began on February 5 , 1999 , was shortened to 50 games per team , as opposed to the normal 82 . As a result of the 204 @-@ day lockout , 464 regular @-@ season games were lost . In addition to the lockout , the NBA 's popularity was affected by the second retirement of Michael Jordan , who had been largely responsible for an increase in fan interest during his career . The average attendance during the shortened season was 16 @,@ 738 fans per game , down 2 @.@ 2 percent from the 1997 – 98 average of 17 @,@ 117 spectators per contest . Ticket sales fell nearly two percent further in the opening months of 1999 – 00 , and remained under 17 @,@ 000 per game for the following three seasons . The league also saw television ratings drop for three consecutive seasons after the lockout .
In the years following the lockout , a higher percentage of players signed contracts worth the maximum amount possible under the cap . Some young players , such as LeBron James , began signing shorter contracts that allowed for more flexibility in team choice and salary . The agreement expired in 2005 , and both sides became concerned about the possibility of another work stoppage . A lockout was prevented , however , when a six @-@ year CBA was reached in June 2005 . After the expiration of that CBA , a lockout occurred in 2011 ; it was the fourth in league history and lasted for about five months before the sides came to an agreement . Each team 's schedule in the 2011 – 12 NBA season was cut by 16 games .
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= Hurricane Lane ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Lane was the thirteenth named storm , ninth hurricane , and sixth major hurricane of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . The strongest Pacific hurricane to make landfall in Mexico since Hurricane Kenna of 2002 , Lane developed on September 13 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . It moved northwestward , parallel to the coast of Mexico , and steadily intensified in an area conducive to further strengthening . After turning to the northeast , Lane attained peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , and made landfall in the state of Sinaloa at peak strength . It rapidly weakened and dissipated on September 17 , and later brought precipitation to southern part of the U.S. state of Texas
Throughout its path , Lane resulted in four deaths and moderate damage . Damage was heaviest in Sinaloa , where the hurricane made landfall , including reports of severe crop damage . Across Mexico , an estimated 4 @,@ 320 homes were affected by the hurricane , with about 248 @,@ 000 people affected . Moderate flooding was reported in Acapulco , resulting in mudslides in some areas . Damage across the country totaled $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ( 2006 MXN ) , or $ 206 million ( 2006 USD , or $ 218 million in 2010 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 31 , 2006 . It moved westward without development , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 10 . An area of convection developed along the wave axis , several hundred miles south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . It moved slowly westward and steadily organized . Convection and banding features organized around a developing center , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E on September 13 . The system continued to organize and strengthened into Tropical Storm Lane early on September 14 about 90 miles ( 145 km ) off the coast of Mexico . Based on a potentially developing anticyclone over the storm and a track over warm water temperatures , the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme model issued a 46 percent probability for rapid intensification of the storm .
Lane continued to become better organized , with deep convection developing into a central dense overcast and well @-@ defined outflow in the western half of the storm . Late on September 14 , an eyewall began to develop a short distance off the Mexican coastline . Lane continued to strengthen as it turned more to the north @-@ northwest , a motion caused due to the storm moving around the western periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico . Based on reports from Reconnaissance Aircraft , Lane was upgraded to hurricane status on September 15 about 40 miles ( 65 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cabo Corrientes , Jalisco . Subsequently it quickly strengthened , and by six hours after it became a hurricane it attained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale . Later that day , the 10 mile ( 16 km ) wide eye crossed over the Islas Marías . Early on September 16 , Lane strengthened into a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) hurricane just 50 miles ( 85 km ) off the coast of Mexico , becoming the sixth major hurricane of the season .
Hurricane Lane continued to organize with its 9 mile ( 14 km ) wide eye surrounded by very deep convection , and the storm strengthened further to reach peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) by midday on September 16 . It turned unexpectedly to the northeast , and at 1915 UTC on the 16th , Hurricane Lane made landfall in a sparsely populated region of Sinaloa , 20 miles ( 32 km ) southeast of El Dorado . This made Lane the most intense hurricane to strike Mexico since Hurricane Kenna in the 2002 season . The combination of the mountainous terrain of Mexico and increasing west @-@ southwesterly wind shear caused the storm to rapidly weaken , and the storm dissipated on September 17 . The remnants of Lane later moved into Texas , United States .
= = Preparations = =
Due to Lane 's projected path near the western coast of Mexico , authorities closed ports to small boats in the cities of Acapulco . Just weeks after Hurricane John took a similar path through the area , several tourists voluntarily left their vacations to fly home . Many residents boarded up buildings and bought hurricane supplies in preparation for the storm . Officials also closed schools across the state of Guerrero . In all , 40 @,@ 400 tourists were evacuated from the Mexican coastline . According to the Secretaría de Gobernación , under which the Mexican Civil Protection Service operates , there were 5 @.@ 5 million homes and 21 million people in 21 states threatened by the system in all of Mexico . As a result , authorities evacuated about 2 @,@ 000 people to emergency shelters .
As Lane came closer to the coastline , all the seaports between Michoacán and Sinaloa were closed , and the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( Mexico ) ( National Meteorological Service , in Spanish ) warned the general population about the threat of flooding and landslides . When the hurricane made landfall , the government of the state of Sinaloa issued a state of emergency for the municipalities of Ahome , Guasave , Angostura , Salvador Alvarado , Culiacán , Navolato , Elota , San Ignacio and Mazatlán . The arrival of the hurricane forced the closure of several flights at the General Rafael Buelna International Airport in Mazatlán , Sinaloa .
Prior to entering the area , the U.S. National Weather Service issued a Flood Watch for large portions of Texas due to the remnants of Lane .
= = Impact = =
In Acapulco , the storm produced strong waves and heavy rain , leaving coastal streets with up to 16 inches ( 405 mm ) of water . The heavy rainfall flooded 200 houses and caused a mudslide , resulting in the death of a seven @-@ year @-@ old boy . Flooding also occurred at the airport in Acapulco , though service was not interrupted . Offshore , strong waves capsized a boat , leaving one person missing . Heavy rainfall in the port of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , overflowed a canal , forcing over 500 people to evacuate their homes . 500 acres ( 2 km2 ) of crops were destroyed by Lane in Michoacán . Road and airport damage in Colima totaled to about $ 30 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 2 @.@ 7 million 2006 USD ) . In Cajón de Peña , Jalisco , rainfall totaled to 7 @.@ 36 inches ( 187 mm ) . One man died in Pueblos Unidos after being knocked over by strong winds . Throughout Jalisco , 109 people had to evacuate their homes due to landslides and heavy rainfall .
In El Dorado , Sinaloa , near where the storm made landfall , the hurricane washed out away roads and destroyed many flimsy homes . Strong winds knocked down electricity towers , trees , and traffic signs , leaving many without power . In Mazatlán , to the southeast of where Lane moved ashore , the hurricane produced strong winds and heavy rains , causing street flooding and power outages . The threat of the hurricane forced the cancellation of an Independence Day Parade . Between Mazatlán and the state capital , Culiacán , the hurricane destroyed a bridge , leaving dozens of trucks stranded . In Culiacán , one person died when he drove his car into a river , while several streets were flooded from the storm . Throughout Sinaloa , several damaged roads left many communities cut off from the rest of the country . Lane caused severe agricultural damage in the state , possibly reaching as high as $ 600 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 55 million 2006 USD ) . The hurricane also damaged water treatment facilities and distribution systems in multiple communities , prompting the Secretariat of Health to declare a sanitary alert in Sinaloa . Damage in Sinaloa totaled to around $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( 2006 MXN ) , $ 109 @.@ 3 million ( 2006 USD ) .
Throughout Mexico , Hurricane Lane killed four people . An estimated 4 @,@ 320 homes were affected by the hurricane , with about 248 @,@ 000 people affected . Water systems were damaged in nine municipalities , leaving thousands temporarily without water . A total of 19 @,@ 200 miles ( 30 @,@ 000 km ) of roads and highways were damaged to some degree , including some destroyed bridges . In all , the hurricane caused about $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ( 2006 MXN , $ 203 million 2006 USD ) in damage in the country . In the United States , the remnants of Lane brought precipitation to southern Texas .
= = Aftermath = =
By the day after Hurricane Lane made landfall , most of the evacuated people returned to their homes to begin the cleanup process . Some tourists who remained in the area for the storm continued their vacations , while others tried to leave the area . The federal government declared a state of emergency for nine municipalities in Sinaloa , allowing emergency funds to give relief support to the affected population . Helicopters were used to distribute foods and locate cut @-@ off residents . The government set up three temporary shelters in Mazatlán for 360 people and three shelters in Culiacán for about 1 @,@ 000 affected residents . To prevent the spread of Dengue fever , officials sent epidemiologists to 67 communities , with 18 mobile units and 15 Nebulizer units . By a month after the storm , all roads and highways affected by the hurricane were open for transportation .
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= John Stainer =
Sir John Stainer ( 6 June 1840 – 31 March 1901 ) was an English composer and organist whose music , though not generally much performed today ( except for The Crucifixion , still heard at Passiontide in many churches of the Anglican Communion ) , was very popular during his lifetime . His work as choir trainer and organist set standards for Anglican church music that are still influential . He was also active as an academic , becoming Heather Professor of Music at Oxford .
Stainer was born in Southwark , London in 1840 , the son of a cabinet maker . He became a chorister at St Paul 's Cathedral when aged ten and was appointed to the position of organist at St Michael 's College , Tenbury at the age of sixteen . He later became organist at Magdalen College , Oxford , and subsequently organist at St Paul 's Cathedral . When he retired due to his poor eyesight and deteriorating health , he returned to Oxford to become Professor of Music at the university . He died unexpectedly while on holiday in Italy in 1901 .
= = Early years = =
John Stainer was the eighth of nine children born to William Stainer and his wife Ann ( née Collier ) on 6 June 1840 . At least three of the children died in infancy , and John was much younger than his brother , William , and his three sisters , Ann , Sarah and Mary . The family lived in Southwark , London , where his father was a cabinet maker and later a vestry clerk and registrar of births . He was also an untaught musician and player of the piano , violin and flute . He built a small chamber organ at home on which the precocious John used to accompany him when he played hymn tunes on the violin . His sister Ann also used it – she was the regular organist at Magdalen Hospital , Streatham . It was a happy family , and young John seems to have been spoiled by his elders . He was precocious and could play Bach 's Fugue in E major at the age of seven .
In 1849 , after a year 's probation , Stainer became a chorister at St Paul 's Cathedral . He was already an accomplished player on keyboard instruments and possessed perfect pitch and a fine treble voice and soon became the choir 's principal soloist . In 1854 he was invited to sing in the first English performance of Bach 's St Matthew Passion under William Sterndale Bennett at the Hanover Square Rooms . He travelled each day between his home in Streatham and the cathedral by steamboat . The choristers were required to sing for services at 9 @.@ 30 a.m. and 3 @.@ 15 p.m. In between these times the choristers were instructed in Latin , arithmetic , writing and other subjects , and Stainer probably received a much better education there than he would have done had he been educated at the local elementary school . A house in the cathedral 's present choir school has since been named after him . He received organ lessons at St. Sepulchre 's Church , Holborn from George Cooper , assistant organist at St Paul 's Cathedral under John Goss . He may have met future composer Arthur Sullivan , his junior by two years , there . At any rate they became friends and undertook activities together on half @-@ holidays . In 1855 he was offered a six @-@ month contract as organist at St Benet 's , Paul 's Wharf . He proved successful , and his contract was renewed several times for further six @-@ month terms . As he was still a minor , his salary of £ 30 per year was paid to his father . During this period , he sometimes deputised for the regular organists , Goss and Cooper , at services in St Paul 's Cathedral .
At the age of sixteen , he was appointed by Sir Frederick Ouseley to the post of organist at the newly founded St. Michael 's College , Tenbury . At that time Ouseley was Heather Professor of Music at Oxford University and had recently become vicar of St Michael 's College on the outskirts of Tenbury Wells , a choir school with a church that he had founded and endowed and which was intended to serve as a model for Anglican church music . Although not much older than they were , Stainer was in charge of the choir and choristers , and one of his duties was to give piano lessons to the boys for two hours a day . Ouseley was an antiquarian and had an extensive library . He was much interested in the history of music and acted as Stainer 's mentor . Under his guidance , Stainer became the youngest ever successful candidate for the Bachelor of Music degree at Oxford . For this , Stainer wrote a cantata , " Praise the Lord , O my soul " , with text from Psalm 103 . Its traditional style was designed to appeal to the examining board and sounds stilted when set against his later works . About this time he wrote several anthems , the most successful of which was " I saw the Lord " , a bolder and more original work in a more contemporary style .
= = Magdalen College = =
In 1860 he became organist at Magdalen College , Oxford , initially for a period of six months , at a salary of £ 120 per year . His duties included playing for services , training the choir and leading them on Fridays , a day on which the organ was not used . A new organ had been installed five years earlier that was ideal for developing his talent . He proved satisfactory in the post , and his contract was made permanent . He was permitted to study for a degree as long as it did not interfere with his duties , and he chose to do so in the expectation that it would raise his social status . He gained his BA in 1864 and his MA two years later and was keen to proceed to his Mus Doc , which would raise his standing within the university .
Unfailingly conscientious as a choirmaster , Stainer introduced new anthems and service music , bringing the choir to a higher level of attainment than it had previously seen . It had been the custom for the adult choir members , the lay clerks , not to attend practice at all ; but Stainer had a magnetic personality and persuaded them to come . Their more regular attendance enabled the repertoire to be enlarged . Stainer 's skill on the organ was much respected , and he was regarded as " the finest organist Oxford had seen in many generations " . The vice chancellor , Dr Francis Jeune , was an admirer and in 1861 appointed Stainer to the prestigious post of University Organist at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin . Here he was expected to play for a service every Sunday ( at a later time in the morning than the Magdalen service ) .
At this time he was composing liturgical music and developing his musical style . There were several anthems and two more technically assured multi @-@ sectioned verse anthems , " Drop down , ye heavens from above " and " They were lovely and pleasant in their lives " . His routine included two services daily , rehearsals , lectures , tutorials , attendance at Ouseley 's lectures , and visits home to Southwark in the vacations . He must have performed his duties with diligence as his salary was raised by £ 10 a year and after 1862 he received an allowance towards his rent .
Stainer was also conductor of the Magdalen Madrigal Society , which gave concerts in the College Hall , and the Magdalen Vagabonds , which performed during vacations . The latter gave concerts in various towns and cities and raised money for church restoration . He wrote some madrigals himself , which were published by Novello , a company with which he was to do much future business . He also wrote an oratorio , Gideon , as the exercise for his doctorate and it was performed in November 1865 . It was well received on the day and was sufficient to gain him his doctorate but has not been performed since .
After Stainer had obtained his doctorate , Ouseley enrolled him as an examiner for Oxford musical degrees . In this capacity Stainer met and later became friends with Hubert Parry . Attending at evensong at Magdalen College in 1866 , Parry wrote in his diary " Stainer played the last 3 movements of the Sonata in B flat ( Mendelssohn ) afterwards most gloriously " . He examined William Pole and Frederick Bridge and became involved in organ and music tuition and wider musical activities . He had considerable influence on sacred music in Oxford and his reputation spread beyond the confines of the city . He was employed to play solo organ works at weekly concerts at Crystal Palace and took part regularly in the Three Choirs Festival .
Stainer was interested in the history of music and traditional folk songs . There was a revived interest in carols at the time , and he rediscovered old carols , provided new settings for others and introduced contemporary works . Many of his harmonisations are still in use today . He published a volume Christmas Carols New and Old which was a considerable success , with thousands of copies sold . He followed this up with another edition the following year to which he persuaded Arthur Sullivan to contribute . He also composed several hymn tunes , and some of these are still to be found in Anglican hymnals , with " Love divine , all loves excelling " being popular at wedding services . Other parish music followed with a congregational Te Deum in C which was regularly sung at Magdalen on Sundays and a verse anthem " Sing a song of praise " . Two more substantial anthems , intended for use in cathedrals , were " Lead kindly light " composed in 1868 , followed by " Awake , awake , put on thy strength " in 1871 . He also produced two evening canticles and a comprehensive set of music for morning , communion and evening services . He had also been working for a long time on his first theoretical work , A Theory of Harmony Founded on the Tempered Scale , published by Novello in 1871 .
= = St Paul 's Cathedral = =
In 1871 , Goss resigned as organist of St Paul 's Cathedral and Stainer was appointed to the position early in 1872 at a salary of £ 400 per annum . By this time he had been married for seven years and had five children with another due shortly . The organ was in the process of being rebuilt , by the organ builder Henry Willis to Stainer 's design , with portions on either side of the entrance to the choir stalls . Around this time he was asked to help revise Hymns Ancient and Modern , a task he did with enthusiasm . At St Paul 's , he soon set about reinvigorating the choir . The appointment of vicars choral was for life , and the tenor and bass voices saw no need for rehearsal , meaning that the repertoire was static . Stainer was able to change their attitude , and new anthems and liturgies were introduced , a choir school built , and the number of choristers increased from twelve to thirty @-@ five . When William Sparrow Simpson was appointed Succentor , the raising of standards continued , and St Paul 's Cathedral became the focus of religious ceremony in the capital , including state occasions , ceremonial events , memorial services and the funerals of the great and famous . A peal of twelve bells was installed in 1878 .
Further appointments followed . Stainer became an honorary fellow of the Royal Academy of Music in 1877 and an examiner for the Doctor of Music degree at Cambridge and London Universities . He accepted the post of Musical Director of the Madrigal Society of London . He was particularly honoured to be asked to be a juror at the French Exhibition in Paris in 1878 and in 1880 was an adjudicator at the Welsh Eisteddfod at Caernarvon . He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1879 .
In 1882 , Stainer was offered the post of Inspector of Music in Schools and Colleges , a position he took with great seriousness and which he occupied for six years . He worked towards raising standards in music teaching and toured the country , visiting schools and colleges and examining candidates . He advocated the use of musical notation and tonic sol @-@ fa rather than the learning @-@ by @-@ ear method previously used . He was by now treated with the greatest respect in musical circles , but his many activities diminished the time available for composition . The flow of new anthems and service music slowed down , but in 1883 he completed his oratorio Mary Magdalen . This was followed in 1887 by The Crucifixion , the work for which he is most remembered .
In 1885 , he was awarded an honorary degree by Durham University , and he became Heather Professor at Oxford in 1889 following the death of Ouseley . He conducted pioneering research into early music , notably the output of Netherlandish Renaissance composer Guillaume Dufay , then scarcely known even among experts . He also contributed a small treatise , Harmony , and another , Composition , to the famous series of Novello musical primers . For budding organists he wrote a primer called , simply , The Organ , which continues to have a following . In recognition of his services to British music , he received a knighthood from Queen Victoria in 1888 .
= = Retirement = =
Following a childhood accident , Stainer had lost the use of one eye . There is some confusion about this and he may merely have had a lazy eye , but for a brief period in 1875 he feared he was losing the sight of the other eye . This proved not to be the case , but he suffered from eye strain and impairment to his vision for much of his life . This was a major reason for his decision to retire from St Paul 's Cathedral in 1888 , while still in his forties . As Bumpus was to write , " Such honours as are at the disposal of his fellow musicians have been freely showered upon him , for he is universally beloved and esteemed , but his many onerous duties , his organistship of this , his presidency of that , and his incessant hard work as an examiner , have all involved responsibility and constant application , and the result is that his sight and general health have given way under the severe strain of sheer hard work . "
In later life , he and his wife took to travelling to the Riviera , Florence or Mentone each year for him to relax and recuperate . It was on such a visit to Verona , Italy that on Palm Sunday , 31 March 1901 he felt unwell and retired to his room . Later that afternoon he died of a heart attack . He was sixty . His body was taken back to England , and his funeral service was held on 6 April at St Cross Church , Oxford with a large number of friends and colleagues present , followed by burial in adjacent Holywell Cemetery .
Lady Stainer was devastated by his death and went into mourning for a year , but as she confided to a friend , the pianist Francesco Berger , " I am thankful he has been spared long illness and the weariness of old age , which he always dreaded " . She gave a memorial stained glass window to St Cross Church and arranged for a monument to be erected at Magdalen College . Her husband 's valuable library of antiquarian music books passed to his elder son , J F R Stainer , who allowed its use for study and research purposes . The collection was sold to an American collector in 1932 who , on his death in 1973 , had it bequeathed to the Bodleian Library , where it remains . Lady Stainer died in 1916 leaving six children . She is buried near Holy Cross Church beside her husband .
= = Legacy = =
Stainer 's output of sacred music was extensive , including the Passion cantata or oratorio The Crucifixion ( 1887 ) , the Sevenfold Amen ( this latter piece was especially admired by the lexicographer Sir George Grove ) , and numerous hymn tunes , including " Cross of Jesus " , " All for Jesus " ( both from The Crucifixion ) , and " Love Divine " . His settings for the Gloria and Sanctus were sung at the coronation of Edward VII in 1902 .
His work as a composer was much esteemed during his lifetime but is not well known today . The Crucifixion is one of the few major works of his that is still regularly performed . It is often given in Anglican churches during Holy Week and forms part of the repertoire of numerous choirs . He also made a lasting contribution to the music of Christmas in his Christmas Carols New and Old ( 1871 ) , produced in collaboration with the Revd . H. R. Bramley , which marked an important stage in the revival of the Christmas carol . The book includes Stainer 's arrangements of what were to become the standard versions of " What Child Is This " , " God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen " , " Good King Wenceslas " , " The First Nowell " , and " I Saw Three Ships " , among others . He was a skilled musician and accompanist and Walter Galpin Alcock , who was taught composition by Arthur Sullivan at the National Training School for Music , recalls Sullivan saying " I was at St Paul 's yesterday , listening to Dr Stainer extemporising . My dear young friends , he is a genius , and I hope you will miss no chance of hearing him . " John Stainer was also a close friend of Edmund Hart Turpin , the later Hon. Secr. of the Royal College of Organists for more than fifty years .
= = Incomplete list of works = =
A list of Stainer 's more prominent works is provided below .
= = = Anthems = = =
Awake , awake , put on thy strength , O Zion
Blessed is the man that endureth temptation
Drop down , ye heavens , from above
God so loved the world ( chorus from The Crucifixion )
Grieve not the Holy Spirit of God
Hail , Gladdening Light , of His pure glory poured
Holy Father , God Almighty
How beautiful upon the mountains
I could not do without thee
I desired wisdom
In the cross of christ I glory
I saw the Lord
Jesus , tender shepherd , hear me
Lead kindly light
Leave us not , neither forsake us
Lift up your heads , rejoice
Lord Jesus , think on me
O dayspring
O Zion , that bringest good tidings
We sing the glorious conquest
What are these that are arrayed in white robes
= = = Services = = =
Full services in E flat , D / A , B flat and D
Communion services in A , F and C
= = = Hymn Tunes = = =
Wycliff ( " All for Jesus " ) ( 1887 )
Cross of Jesus ( 1887 )
Love Divine ( 1889 )
= = = Oratorios = = =
Stainer wrote four oratorios :
Gideon ( 1865 )
The Daughter of Jairus ( 1878 )
St. Mary Magdalan ( 1887 )
The Crucifixion ( 1887 )
= = = Books with carols and hymns = = =
Christmas Carols , New and Old with Henry Ramsden Bramley ( London : Novello , Ewer & Co . , 1878 )
A choirbook of the office of holy communion from the Cathedral Prayer Book ( London : Novello & Co . , 1883 )
The Hymnal Companion to the Book of Common Prayer with accompanying tunes with Edward Henry Bickersteth , Charles Vincent , D.J. Word and John Stainer ( 1890 )
Church Hymnary , John Stainer ( ed . ) , 1902
= = = Organ music = = =
The Village Organist , John Stainer ( ed . ) , 1893
= = = Books on musical theory , history and instruments = = =
A Theory of Harmony founded on the tempered scale , with questions and exercises for the use of students ( 1871 )
A theory of harmony founded on the tempered scale with questions and exercises for the use of students John Stainer ( 1872 )
Composition ( 1877 ? )
The Music of the Bible : with an account of the development of modern musical instruments from ancient types ( London , Novello , Ewer & Co . , 1879 )
A Treatise on harmony and the classification of chords with questions and exercises for the use of students ' John Stainer ( 1880 )
The Present State of Music in England : An Inagural Lecture delivered in the Sheldonian Theatre , Oxford , November 13 , 1889 ( Oxford , England : Horace Hart , 1889 )
A Dictionary of Musical Terms ed . John Stainer and W.A. Barrett ( 1889 )
Catalogue of English song books forming a portion of the library of Sir John Stainer , with appendices of foreign song books , collections of carols , books on bells John Stainer ( 1891 )
Music in Relation to the Intellect and Emotions ( 1892 )
The Story of the Cross ( 1893 )
Harmony with an appendix containing one hundred graduated exercises ( London : Novello , Ewer & Co . , 1893 )
The Organ ( 1909 )
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= Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich , BWV 150 =
Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich ( For Thee , O Lord , I long ) , BWV 150 , is an early church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach composed for an unknown occasion . It is unique among Bach 's cantatas in its sparse orchestration and in the independence and prominence of the chorus , which is featured in four out of seven movements . The text alternates verses from Psalm 25 and poetry by an unknown librettist . Bach scored the work for four vocal parts and a small Baroque instrumental ensemble of two violins , bassoon and basso continuo .
Many scholars think that it may be the earliest extant cantata by Bach , possibly composed in Arnstadt in 1707 .
= = History and text = =
Bach 's original score is lost . The music survives in a copy made by C F Penzel , one of Bach 's last pupils , after the composer 's death . Although the date of composition is not known , this is one of Bach 's earliest surviving cantatas . Sources differ as to when and where Bach composed the work , but the balance of opinion has tended to push the date back to the beginning of Bach 's career . Suggestions for the place of composition have been :
Weimar , where Bach worked from 1708 . The conductor and academic Jonathan Green dates the work c . 1708 – 1710 ; the Bach scholar William G. Whittaker dates it c . 1712 .
Mühlhausen , where Bach worked in 1707 / 1708 . The Zwang catalogue ( which attempts to list the cantatas chronologically ) dated it as the sixth of the surviving cantatas by Bach , and placed Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 , as the earliest . Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir is known to have been composed in Mühlhausen in 1707 / 1708 .
Arnstadt , where Bach worked until his move to Mühlhausen in the summer of 1707 . Recent scholarship suggests Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich could have been composed at Arnstadt .
The Bach scholar Andreas Glöckner argued in 1988 that the cantata may have been composed in Arnstadt . The scholar Hans @-@ Joachim Schulze identified in 2010 a remarkable acrostic in the concluding four movements ( which he described in the 2010 Bach @-@ Jahrbuch , the journal of the Neue Bachgesellschaft ) . Adjusting for transposition errors by the copyist , the initial letters should spell DOKTOR CONRAD MECKBACH and plausibly therefore the work was composed to mark this Mühlhausen councillor 's 70th birthday in April 1707 . On this basis the cantata may date from Bach 's time in Arnstadt . Possibly the cantata was heard a few weeks later after the end of Lent , and thus it may have formed a test @-@ piece for the Mühlhausen appointment , composed in Arnstadt with Bach 's supporter Meckbach in mind .
The cantata is , as John Eliot Gardiner notes , " generally accepted to be Bach 's very first church cantata . Gardiner conducted in 2000 the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage and performed the cantata in the church for which it was then probably composed , at Bach 's time called Neue Kirche ( new church ) , now the Johann @-@ Sebastian @-@ Bach @-@ Kirche .
The libretto alternates between biblical verses and free contemporary poetry , which is common in Bach 's later cantatas , but rare among his early cantatas . The text of movements 2 , 4 , and 6 are selected psalm verses , Psalms 25 : 1 – 2 , 5 , 15 . The author of the poetry is unknown . On the basis of the text , it has been suggested that the work was written for a penitential service .
The cantata was first published in 1884 in the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe , the first edition of Bach 's complete works . The composer Johannes Brahms , who served on the editorial board of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe , took an interest in the cantata as it was being published . He used an adapted version of the bass line of the closing chaconne for a work he completed in 1885 , his Symphony No. 4 .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements , an opening instrumental sinfonia and four choral movements interspersed by only two arias . He scored it for four soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a small Baroque instrumental ensemble of two violins ( Vl ) , bassoon ( obbligato ) ( Fg ) and basso continuo . The duration of the cantata is about 17 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The work begins with a sinfonia and then alternates choral movements and arias . There are no recitatives , no da capo repeats , and there is no chorale tune , unusually for Bach 's cantatas . Bach makes extensive use of choral fugues and imitative polyphony , often shifting the tempo and character of the music within movements very quickly to accommodate a new musical idea with each successive phrase of text .
The sinfonia and the opening choral movement are both based on the motive of an octave leap followed by five descending half steps . This chromatic figure , sometimes dubbed the " lamento bass " or passus duriusculus , has been utilized by composers as early as Monteverdi as a musical representation of anguish , pain , and longing . The sinfonia also introduces thematic material developed later in the work , uses asymmetric phrasing , and " a seamless flow of unstoppable melody " .
The first chorus on the beginning of Psalm 25 , " Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich . Mein Gott , ich hoffe auf dich . " ( Lord , I long for you . My God , I hope in you . ) , is " waywardly constructed despite its relative brevity " . It is episodic , emphasizing a descending chromatic scale motif . The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes " the graphically chromatic phrases of the opening sinfonia and the following chorus ; these are evocative of the suffering of the world " .
The following soprano aria , " Doch bin und bleibe ich vergnügt " ( Yet I am and remain content ) , is also brief but includes significant word painting .
The fourth movement , " Leite mich in deiner Wahrheit und lehre mich " ( Lead me in your Truth and teach me ) , is another short and episodic chorus , divided into four sections .
Movement five , " Zedern müssen von den Winden oft viel Ungemach empfinden " ( Cedars must , before the winds , often feel much hardship ) , is one of only a handful of vocal trios to be found in Bach 's oeuvre , as well as the only movement in the cantata in all major . Isoyama wirtes : " the continuo part drives the music forward with its phrase describing the trials of the stormwinds " .
The penultimate movement , " Meine Tage in den Leiden endet Gott dennoch zur Freuden " ( My days in suffering God will nevertheless end in joy ) , features a " celestial haze " of instruments as part of a complex texture . It is in binary form and modulates from D major through B minor to B major .
The final movement , " Gott ist mein König von altersher " ( God is my King from long ago ) , is a chaconne , a form which is typically constructed over a repeated ground bass . Bach uses a ground bass which is possibly a borrowing from Pachelbel . It is the inversion of the chromatic fourth ostinato from the opening movement . Bach 's orchestration includes strumming effects which could be seen as recalling the origin of the chaconne in Spanish guitar music . From a theological point of view , both the inversion of the lamento bass and the series of modulations in this movement express in baroque musical affect how Christ leads from sorrow to joy .
= = Selected recordings = =
Heinrich @-@ Schütz @-@ Chor Heilbronn , Württembergisches Kammerorchester Heilbronn , dir . Fritz Werner . Les Grandes Cantates de J.S. Bach Vol . 28 . Erato , 1973 .
Knabenchor Hannover , Collegium Vocale Gent , Leonhardt @-@ Consort , dir . Gustav Leonhardt . J.S. Bach : Das Kantatenwerk – Complete Cantatas Vol . 36 . Teldec , 1985
Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir , dir . Ton Koopman . J.S. Bach : Complete Cantatas Vol . 1 . Antoine Marchand , 1994 .
Bach Collegium Japan , dir . Masaaki Suzuki . Bach Cantatas Vol . 1 . BIS , 1995 .
Monteverdi Choir , English Baroque Soloists , dir . John Eliot Gardiner . Bach Cantatas . Soli Deo Gloria , 2000 .
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= Donkey Kong ( video game ) =
Donkey Kong ( Japanese : ドンキーコング , Hepburn : Donkī Kongu ) is an arcade game released by Nintendo in 1981 . It is an early example of the platform game genre , as the gameplay focuses on maneuvering the main character across a series of platforms while dodging and jumping over obstacles . In the game , Mario ( originally named Mr. Video and then Jumpman ) must rescue a damsel in distress named Pauline ( originally named Lady ) , from a giant ape named Donkey Kong . The hero and ape later became two of Nintendo 's most popular and recognizable characters . Donkey Kong is one of the most important titles from the Golden Age of Video Arcade Games , and is one of the most popular arcade games of all time .
The game was the latest in a series of efforts by Nintendo to break into the North American market . Hiroshi Yamauchi , Nintendo 's president at the time , assigned the project to a first @-@ time video game designer named Shigeru Miyamoto . Drawing from a wide range of inspirations , including Popeye , Beauty and the Beast and King Kong , Miyamoto developed the scenario and designed the game alongside Nintendo 's chief engineer , Gunpei Yokoi . The two men broke new ground by using graphics as a means of characterization , including cutscenes to advance the game 's plot , and integrating multiple stages into the gameplay .
Regardless of initial doubts by Nintendo 's American staff , Donkey Kong succeeded commercially and critically in North America and Japan . Nintendo licensed the game to Coleco , who developed home console versions for numerous platforms . Other companies cloned Nintendo 's hit and avoided royalties altogether . Miyamoto 's characters appeared on cereal boxes , television cartoons , and dozens of other places . A lawsuit brought on by Universal City Studios , alleging Donkey Kong violated their trademark of King Kong , ultimately failed . The success of Donkey Kong and Nintendo 's victory in the courtroom helped to position the company for video game market dominance from its release in 1981 until the late 1990s ( 1996 – 1999 ) .
= = Gameplay = =
Following 1980 's Space Panic , Donkey Kong is one of the earliest examples of the platform game genre even prior to the term being coined ; the US gaming press used climbing game for titles with platforms and ladders . As the first platform game to feature jumping , Donkey Kong requires the player to jump between gaps and over obstacles or approaching enemies , setting the template for the future of the platform genre . With its four unique stages , Donkey Kong was the most complex arcade game at the time of its release , and one of the first arcade games to feature multiple stages , following 1980 's Phoenix and 1981 's Gorf and Scramble
Competitive video gamers and referees stress the game 's high level of difficulty compared to other classic arcade games . Winning the game requires patience and the ability to accurately time Mario 's ascent . In addition to presenting the goal of saving Pauline , the game also gives the player a score . Points are awarded for the following : finishing each stage ; leaping over obstacles ; destroying objects with a hammer power @-@ up ; collecting items such as hats , parasols , and purses ( apparently belonging to Pauline ) ; and completing other tasks . The player typically receives three lives with a bonus awarded for the first 7 @,@ 000 points , although this can be modified via the game 's built in DIP switches .
The game is divided into four different single @-@ screen stages . Each represents 25 meters of the structure Donkey Kong has climbed , one stage being 25 meters higher than the previous . The final stage occurs at 100 meters . Stage one involves Mario scaling a construction site made of crooked girders and ladders while jumping over or hammering barrels and oil barrels tossed by Donkey Kong . Stage two involves climbing a five @-@ story structure of conveyor belts , each of which transports cement pans . The third stage involves the player riding elevators while avoiding bouncing springs . The final stage involves Mario removing eight rivets which support Donkey Kong . Removing the final rivet causes Donkey Kong to fall and the hero to be reunited with Pauline . These four stages combine to form a level .
Upon completion of the fourth stage , the level then increments , and the game repeats the stages with progressive difficulty . For example , Donkey Kong begins to hurl barrels faster and sometimes diagonally , and fireballs get speedier . The victory music alternates between levels 1 and 2 . The 22nd level is colloquially known as the kill screen , due to an error in the game 's programming that kills Mario after a few seconds , effectively ending the game .
= = Plot = =
Donkey Kong is considered to be the earliest video game with a storyline that visually unfolds on screen . The eponymous Donkey Kong character is the game 's de facto villain . The hero is a carpenter originally named Jumpman , later renamed Mario . The ape kidnaps Mario 's girlfriend , originally known as Lady , but later renamed Pauline . The player must take the role of Mario and rescue her . This is the first occurrence of the damsel in distress scenario that would provide the template for countless video games to come .
The game uses graphics and animation as vehicles of characterization . Donkey Kong smirks upon Mario 's demise . Pauline has a pink dress and long hair , and a speech balloon crying " HELP ! " appears frequently beside her . Mario , depicted in red overalls and cap , is an everyman character , a type common in Japan . Graphical limitations and the low pixel resolution of the small sprites prompted his design : drawing a mouth is infeasible , so the character was given a mustache ; the programmers could not animate hair , so he got a cap ; and to make his arm movements visible , he needed colored overalls . The artwork used for the cabinets and promotional materials make these cartoon @-@ like character designs even more explicit . Pauline , for example , is depicted to be disheveled ( like King Kong 's Fay Wray ) in a torn dress and stiletto heels .
Donkey Kong is the first example of a complete narrative told in video game form , and like 1980 's Pac @-@ Man , it employs cutscenes to advance its plot . The game opens with the gorilla climbing a pair of ladders to the top of a construction site . He sets Pauline down and stomps his feet , causing the steel beams to change shape . He then moves to his final perch and sneers . This brief animation sets the scene and adds background to the gameplay , a first for video games . Upon reaching the end of the stage , another cutscene begins . A heart appears between Mario and Pauline , but Donkey Kong grabs the woman and climbs higher , causing the heart to break . The narrative concludes when Mario reaches the end of the rivet stage . He and Pauline are reunited , and a short intermission plays . The gameplay then loops from the beginning at a higher level of difficulty , without any formal ending .
= = Development = =
As of late 1980 to early 1981 , Nintendo 's efforts to expand to North America had failed , culminating with the attempted export of the otherwise successful Radar Scope . They were left with a large number of unsold Radar Scope machines , so company president Hiroshi Yamauchi thought of simply converting them into something new . He approached a young industrial designer named Shigeru Miyamoto , who had been working for Nintendo since 1977 , to see if he could design such a replacement . Miyamoto said that he could . Yamauchi appointed Nintendo 's head engineer , Gunpei Yokoi , to supervise the project . Nintendo 's budget for the development of the game was $ 100 @,@ 000 . Some sources also claim that Ikegami Tsushinki was involved in some of the development . They played no role in the game 's creation or concept , but were hired by Nintendo to provide " mechanical programming assistance to fix the software created by Nintendo " .
At the time , Nintendo was also pursuing a license to make a game based on the Popeye comic strip . When this license attempt failed , Nintendo took the opportunity to create new characters that could then be marketed and used in later games . Miyamoto came up with many characters and plot concepts , but he eventually settled on a love triangle between gorilla , carpenter , and girlfriend that mirrors the rivalry between Bluto and Popeye for Olive Oyl . Bluto became an ape , which Miyamoto said was " nothing too evil or repulsive " . He would be the pet of the main character , " a funny , hang @-@ loose kind of guy . " Miyamoto has also named " Beauty and the Beast " and the 1933 film King Kong as influences . Although its origin as a comic strip license played a major part , Donkey Kong marked the first time that the storyline for a video game preceded the game 's programming rather than simply being appended as an afterthought . Unrelated Popeye games would eventually be released by Nintendo for the Game & Watch the following month , and for the arcades in 1982 .
Yamauchi wanted primarily to target the North American market , so he mandated that the game be given an English title , though many of their games to this point had English titles anyway . Miyamoto decided to name the game for the ape , whom he felt to be the strongest character . The story of how Miyamoto came up with the name " Donkey Kong " varies . A false urban myth says that the name was originally meant to be " Monkey Kong " , but was misspelled or misinterpreted due to a blurred fax or bad telephone connection . Another , more credible story claims Miyamoto looked in a Japanese @-@ English dictionary for something that would mean " stubborn gorilla " , or that " Donkey " was meant to convey " silly " or " stubborn " ; " Kong " was common Japanese slang for " gorilla " . A rival claim is that he worked with Nintendo 's export manager to come up with the title , and that " Donkey " was meant to represent " stupid and goofy " . In the end , Miyamoto stated that he thought the name would convey the thought of a " stupid ape " .
Miyamoto himself had high hopes for his new project . He lacked the technical skills to program it alone , so instead came up with concepts and consulted technicians to see if they were possible . He wanted to make the characters different sizes , move in different manners and react in various ways . Yokoi thought Miyamoto 's original design was too complex , though he had some difficult suggestions himself , such as using see @-@ saws to catapult the hero across the screen ( eventually found too hard to program , though a similar concept would appear in the aforementioned Popeye arcade game ) . Miyamoto then thought of using sloped platforms , barrels and ladders . When he specified that the game would have multiple stages , the four @-@ man programming team complained that he was essentially asking them to make the game repeatedly . Nevertheless , they followed Miyamoto 's design , creating a total of approximately 20 kilobytes of content . Yukio Kaneoka composed a simplistic soundtrack to serve as background music for the levels and story events .
Hiroshi Yamauchi thought the game was going to sell well and called Minoru Arakawa , head of Nintendo 's operations in the US , to tell him . Nintendo 's American distributors , Ron Judy and Al Stone , brought Arakawa to a lawyer named Howard Lincoln to secure a trademark .
The game was sent to Nintendo of America for testing . The sales manager disliked it for being too different from the maze and shooter games common at the time , and Judy and Lincoln expressed reservations over the strange title . Still , Arakawa adamantly believed that it would be big . American staffers asked Yamauchi to change the name , but he refused . Arakawa and the American staff began translating the storyline for the cabinet art and naming the other characters . They chose " Pauline " for the Lady , after Polly James , wife of Nintendo 's Redmond , Washington , warehouse manager , Don James . The name of " Jumpman " , a name originally chosen for its similarity to the popular brands Walkman and Pac @-@ Man , was eventually changed to " Mario " in likeness of Mario Segale , the landlord of the original office space of Nintendo of America . These character names were printed on the American cabinet art and used in promotional materials . Donkey Kong was ready for release .
Stone and Judy convinced the managers of two bars in Seattle , Washington , to set up Donkey Kong machines . The managers initially showed reluctance , but when they saw sales of $ 30 a day — or 120 plays — for a week straight , they requested more units . In their Redmond headquarters , a skeleton crew composed of Arakawa , his wife Yoko , James , Judy , Phillips and Stone set about gutting 2 @,@ 000 surplus Radar Scope machines and converting them with Donkey Kong motherboards and power supplies from Japan . The game officially went on sale in July 1981 .
= = Reception = =
In his 1982 book Video Invaders , Steve Bloom described Donkey Kong as " another bizarre cartoon game , courtesy of Japan " . Donkey Kong was , however , extremely popular in the United States and Canada . The game 's initial 2 @,@ 000 units sold , and more orders were made . Arakawa began manufacturing the electronic components in Redmond because waiting for shipments from Japan was taking too long . By October , Donkey Kong was selling 4 @,@ 000 units a month , and by late June 1982 , Nintendo had sold 60 @,@ 000 Donkey Kong machines overall and earned $ 180 million . Judy and Stone , who worked on straight commission , became millionaires . Arakawa used Nintendo 's profits to buy 27 acres ( 11 ha ) of land in Redmond in July 1982 . Nintendo earned another $ 100 million on the game in its second year of release , totaling $ 280 million ( equivalent to $ 729 million in 2016 ) . It remained Nintendo 's top seller into summer 1983 . Donkey Kong also sold steadily in Japan . Electronic Games speculated in June 1983 that the game 's home versions contributed to the arcade version 's extended popularity , compared to the four to six months that the average game lasted .
In January 1983 , the 1982 Arcade Awards gave it the Best Solitaire Videogame award and the Certificate of Merit as runner @-@ up for Coin @-@ Op Game of the Year . In September 1982 , Arcade Express reviewed the ColecoVision port and scored it 9 out of 10 . Computer and Video Games reviewed the ColecoVision port in its September 1984 issue and scored it 4 out of 4 in all four categories of Action , Graphics , Addiction and Theme .
= = Licensing and ports = =
By late June 1982 , Donkey Kong 's success had prompted more than 50 parties in the U.S. and Japan to license the game 's characters . Mario and his simian nemesis appeared on cereal boxes , board games , pajamas , and manga . In 1983 , the animation studio Ruby @-@ Spears produced a Donkey Kong cartoon ( as well as Donkey Kong Jr . ) for the Saturday Supercade program on CBS . In the show , mystery crime @-@ solving plots in the mode of Scooby @-@ Doo are framed around the premise of Mario and Pauline chasing Donkey Kong ( voiced by Soupy Sales ) , who has escaped from the circus . The show lasted two seasons .
Makers of video game consoles were also interested . Taito offered a considerable sum to buy all rights to Donkey Kong , but Nintendo turned them down after three days of discussion within the company . Rivals Coleco and Atari approached Nintendo in Japan and the United States respectively . In the end , Yamauchi granted Coleco exclusive console and tabletop rights to Donkey Kong because he felt that " It [ was ] the hungriest company " . In addition , Arakawa felt that as a more established company in the US , Coleco could better handle marketing . In return , Nintendo would receive an undisclosed lump sum plus $ 1 @.@ 40 per game cartridge sold and $ 1 per tabletop unit . On December 24 , 1981 , Howard Lincoln drafted the contract . He included language that Coleco would be held liable for anything on the game cartridge , an unusual clause for a licensing agreement . Arakawa signed the document the next day , and , on February 1 , 1982 , Yamauchi persuaded the Coleco representative in Japan to sign without running the document by the company 's lawyers .
Coleco did not offer the game cartridge stand @-@ alone ; instead , they bundled it with their ColecoVision , which went on sale in August 1982 . Six months later , Coleco offered Atari 2600 and Intellivision versions , too . Notably , they did not port it to the Atari 5200 , a system comparable to their own ( as opposed to the less powerful 2600 and Intellivision ) . Coleco 's sales doubled to $ 500 million and their earnings quadrupled to $ 40 million . Coleco 's console versions of Donkey Kong sold six million cartridges in total , grossing over $ 153 million , and earning Nintendo over $ 5 million in royalties . Coleco also released stand @-@ alone Mini @-@ Arcade tabletop versions of Donkey Kong , which , along with Pac @-@ Man , Galaxian , and Frogger , sold three million units combined . Meanwhile , Atari got the license for computer versions of Donkey Kong and released it for the Atari 400 / 800 . When Coleco unveiled the Adam Computer , running a port of Donkey Kong at the 1983 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago , Illinois , Atari protested that it was in violation of the licensing agreement . Yamauchi demanded that Arnold Greenberg , Coleco 's president , shelve his Adam port . This version of the game was cartridge @-@ based , and thus not a violation of Nintendo 's license with Atari ; still , Greenberg complied . Ray Kassar of Atari was fired the next month , and the home PC version of Donkey Kong fell through .
In 1983 , Atari released several computer versions under the Atarisoft label . All of the computer ports had the cement factory level , while most of the console versions did not . None of the home versions of Donkey Kong had all of the intermissions or animations from the arcade game . Some have Donkey Kong on the left side of the screen in the barrel level ( like he is in the arcade game ) and others have him on the right side .
Miyamoto created a greatly simplified version for the Game & Watch multiscreen . Other ports include the Amiga , Apple II , Atari 7800 , Intellivision , Commodore 64 , Commodore VIC @-@ 20 , Famicom Disk System , IBM PC booter , ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC , MSX , Atari 8 @-@ bit family and Mini @-@ Arcade versions . The game was ported to Nintendo 's Family Computer ( Famicom ) console in 1983 as one of the system 's three launch titles ; the same version was an early title for the Famicom 's North American version , the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . However , the cement factory level is not included , nor are most of the cutscenes since Nintendo did not have large enough cartridge ROMs available in the beginning . This port includes a new song composed by Yukio Kaneoka for the title screen ; an arrangement of the tune appears in Donkey Kong Country for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Both Donkey Kong and its sequel , Donkey Kong Jr . , are included in the 1988 NES compilation Donkey Kong Classics . The NES version was re @-@ released as an unlockable game in Animal Crossing for the GameCube and as an item for purchase on the Virtual Console for the Wii , Wii U and Nintendo 3DS . The Wii U version is also the last game that was released to celebrate the 30 @-@ year anniversary of the Japanese version of the NES , the Famicom . The original arcade version of the game appears in the Nintendo 64 game Donkey Kong 64 . Nintendo released the NES version on the e @-@ Reader and for the Game Boy Advance Classic NES series in 2002 and 2004 , respectively . The Famicom version of the game sold 840 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
Donkey Kong : Original Edition is a port based on the NES version that reinstates the cement factory stage and includes some intermission animations absent from the original NES version , which has only ever been released on the Virtual Console . It was preinstalled on 25th Anniversary PAL region red Wii systems , which were first released in Europe on October 29 , 2010 . In Japan , a download code for the game for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console was sent to users who purchased New Super Mario Bros. 2 or Brain Age : Concentration Training from the Nintendo eShop from July 28 to September 2 , 2012 . In North America , a download code for the game for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console was sent to users who purchased one of five select 3DS titles on the Nintendo eShop and registered it on Club Nintendo from October 1 , 2012 to January 6 , 2013 . In Europe and Australia , it was released for purchase on the Nintendo 3DS eShop , being released on September 18 , 2014 in Europe and on September 19 , 2014 in Australia .
= = Clones = =
Crazy Kong was officially licensed from Nintendo and manufactured by Falcon for some non @-@ US markets . Nevertheless , Crazy Kong machines found their way into some American arcades , often installed in cabinets marked as Congorilla . Nintendo was quick to take legal action against those distributing the game in the US . Bootleg copies of Donkey Kong also appeared in both North America and France under the Crazy Kong , Konkey Kong or Donkey King names . The 1982 Logger arcade game from Century Electronics is a direct clone of Donkey Kong , with a large bird standing in for the ape and rolling logs instead of barrels .
In 1981 , O. R. Rissman , president of Tiger Electronics , obtained a license to use the name King Kong from Universal City Studios . Under this title , Tiger created a handheld game with a scenario and gameplay based directly on Nintendo 's creation .
Many home computer clones directly borrowed the gorilla theme : Killer Gorilla ( BBC Micro , 1983 ) , Crazy Kong 64 ( Commodore 64 , 1983 ) , Kongo Kong ( Commodore 64 , 1983 ) , Donkey King ( TRS @-@ 80 Color Computer , 1983 ) , and Kong ( ZX Spectrum , 1983 ) . Others recast the game with different characters , such as Cannonball Blitz ( Apple II , 1982 ) , with a soldier and cannonballs replacing the ape and barrels , and the American Southwest @-@ themed Canyon Climber ( Atari 8 @-@ bit , 1982 ) . One of the first releases from Electronic Arts was Hard Hat Mack ( Apple II , 1983 ) , a three @-@ stage game that even uses the construction site setting from Donkey Kong .
Epyx 's Jumpman ( Atari 8 @-@ bit , 1983 ) reuses a prototypical name for the Mario character in Donkey Kong . A magazine ad for the game has the tagline " If you liked Donkey Kong , you 'll love JUMPMAN ! " Jumpman , along with Miner 2049er ( Atari 8 @-@ bit 1982 ) and Mr. Robot and His Robot Factory ( Atari 8 @-@ bit , 1984 ) , focused on traversing all of the platforms in the level , or collecting scattered objects , instead of climbing to the top .
There were so many games with multiple ladder and platforms stages by 1983 that Electronic Games described Nintendo 's own Popeye game as " yet another variation of a theme that 's become all too familiar since the success of Donkey Kong " . That year Sega created a Donkey Kong clone called Congo Bongo . Despite using isometric perspective , the structure and gameplay are similar .
= = Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo Co . , Ltd . = =
In April 1982 , Sid Sheinberg , a seasoned lawyer and president of MCA and Universal City Studios , learned of the game 's success and suspected it might be a trademark infringement of Universal 's own King Kong . On April 27 , 1982 , he met with Arnold Greenberg of Coleco and threatened to sue over Coleco 's home version of Donkey Kong . Coleco agreed on May 3 , 1982 to pay royalties to Universal of 3 % of their Donkey Kong 's net sale price , worth about $ 4 @.@ 6 million . Meanwhile , Sheinberg revoked Tiger 's license to make its King Kong game , but O. R. Rissman refused to acknowledge Universal 's claim to the trademark . When Universal threatened Nintendo , Howard Lincoln and Nintendo refused to cave . In preparation for the court battle ahead , Universal agreed to allow Tiger to continue producing its King Kong game as long as they distinguished it from Donkey Kong .
Universal sued Nintendo on June 29 , 1982 and announced its license with Coleco . The company sent cease and desist letters to Nintendo 's licensees , all of which agreed to pay royalties to Universal except Milton Bradley and Ralston Purina . Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo , Co . , Ltd. was heard in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet . Over seven days , Universal 's counsel , the New York firm Townley & Updike , argued that the names King Kong and Donkey Kong were easily confused and that the plot of the game was an infringement on that of the films . Nintendo 's counsel , John Kirby , countered that Universal had themselves argued in a previous case that King Kong 's scenario and characters were in the public domain . Judge Sweet ruled in Nintendo 's favor , awarding the company Universal 's profits from Tiger 's game ( $ 56 @,@ 689 @.@ 41 ) , damages and attorney 's fees .
Universal appealed , trying to prove consumer confusion by presenting the results of a telephone survey and examples from print media where people had allegedly assumed a connection between the two Kongs . On October 4 , 1984 , however , the court upheld the previous verdict .
Nintendo and its licensees filed counterclaims against Universal . On May 20 , 1985 , Judge Sweet awarded Nintendo $ 1 @.@ 8 million for legal fees , lost revenues , and other expenses . However , he denied Nintendo 's claim of damages from those licensees who had paid royalties to both Nintendo and Universal . Both parties appealed this judgment , but the verdict was upheld on July 15 , 1986 .
Nintendo thanked John Kirby with the gift of a $ 30 @,@ 000 sailboat named Donkey Kong and " exclusive worldwide rights to use the name for sailboats " . The court battle also taught Nintendo they could compete with larger entertainment industry companies .
= = Legacy = =
Donkey Kong spawned the sequels Donkey Kong Jr. and Donkey Kong 3 , as well as the spin @-@ off Mario Bros. A complete remake of the original arcade game on the Game Boy , named Donkey Kong or Donkey Kong ' 94 contains levels from both the original Donkey Kong and Donkey Kong Jr. arcades . It starts with the same damsel @-@ in @-@ distress premise and four basic locations as the arcade game and then progresses to 97 additional puzzle @-@ based levels . It is the first game to have built @-@ in enhancement for the Super Game Boy accessory . The arcade version makes an appearance in Donkey Kong 64 in the Frantic Factory level .
Nintendo revived the Donkey Kong franchise in the 1990s for a series of platform games and spin @-@ offs developed by Rare , beginning with Donkey Kong Country in 1994 . In 2004 , Nintendo released Mario vs. Donkey Kong , a sequel to the Game Boy title . In it , Mario must chase Donkey Kong to get back the stolen Mini @-@ Mario toys . In the follow @-@ up Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2 : March of the Minis , Donkey Kong once again falls in love with Pauline and kidnaps her , and Mario uses the Mini @-@ Mario toys to help him rescue her . Donkey Kong Racing for the GameCube was in development by Rare , but was canceled when Microsoft purchased the company . In 2004 , Nintendo released the first of the Donkey Konga games , a rhythm @-@ based game series that uses a special bongo controller . Donkey Kong Jungle Beat ( 2005 ) is a unique platform action game that uses the same bongo controller accessory . In 2007 , Donkey Kong Barrel Blast was released for the Nintendo Wii . It was originally developed as a GameCube game and would have used the bongo controller , but it was delayed and released exclusively as a Wii title with no support for the bongo accessory . Super Smash Bros. Brawl features music from the game arranged by Hirokazu " Hip " Tanaka and a stage called " 75m " , an almost exact replica of its Donkey Kong namesake . While the stage contains her items , Pauline is missing from her perch at the top of the stage .
Donkey Kong was said to be an inspiration for the 1983 platform game for home computers Jumpman , according to the game 's creator .
In 2013 , video game developer Mike Mika hacked the game to create a version where Pauline is the main character and rescues Mario . He created this remixed version for his three @-@ year @-@ old daughter who wanted to play as a heroine . Donkey Kong appears as a game in the Wii U game NES Remix , which features multiple NES games and sometimes " remixes " them by presenting significantly modified versions of the games as challenges . One such challenge features Link from The Legend of Zelda traveling through the first screen to save Pauline . The difficulty is increased compared to the original Donkey Kong because of Link 's inability to jump , as seen in Zelda .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Since its original release , Donkey Kong 's success has entrenched the game in American popular culture . In 1982 , Buckner & Garcia and R. Cade and the Video Victims both recorded songs ( " Do the Donkey Kong " and " Donkey Kong " , respectively ) based on the game . Artists like DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince and Trace Adkins referenced the game in songs . Episodes of television series such as The Simpsons , Futurama , Crank Yankers and The Fairly OddParents have also contained references to the game . Even today , sound effects from the Atari 2600 version often serve as generic video game sounds in films and television series . The Killer List of Videogames ranks Donkey Kong the third most popular arcade game of all time and places it at No. 25 on the " Top 100 Videogames " list. in February 2006 , Nintendo Power rated it the 148th best game made on a Nintendo system . Today , Donkey Kong is the fifth most popular arcade game among collectors . The phrase " It 's on like Donkey Kong " has been used in various works of popular culture . In November 2010 , Nintendo applied for a trademark on the phrase with the United States Patent and Trademark Office .
= = = Atari computer Easter egg = = =
The Atari computer port of Donkey Kong contains one of the longest @-@ undiscovered Easter eggs in a video game . Landon Dyer , the programmer assigned to create the port , added a secret where his initials would appear if the player died under certain conditions and then waited for the game to cycle to the title screen . This secret remained undiscovered for 26 years until Dyer revealed it on his blog , stating " there 's an easter egg , but it 's totally not worth it , and I don 't remember how to bring it up anyway . " After this announcement , the steps required to trigger the Easter egg were discovered by Don Hodges , who used an emulator and a debugger to trace through the 25 @,@ 000 lines of the game 's code .
= = = Competition = = =
The 2007 motion picture documentary The King of Kong : A Fistful of Quarters explores the world of competitive classic arcade gaming and tells the story of Steve Wiebe 's quest to break Billy Mitchell 's record . The current Donkey Kong world record was set by Wes Copeland on May 5 , 2016 , with a score of 1 @,@ 218 @,@ 000 .
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= Great Britain at the 2002 Winter Paralympics =
Great Britain competed at the 2002 Winter Paralympics held in Salt Lake City , Utah , United States , from 7 to 16 March 2002 . The team was able to be made up of athletes from the whole United Kingdom ; athletes from Northern Ireland , who elected to hold Irish citizenship under the pre @-@ 1999 article 2 of the Irish constitution , were eligible to represent either Great Britain or Ireland at the Paralympics . However no Northern Irish athletes took part in the Winter Paralympics until 2010 in Vancouver . In order to be eligible to take part in the Games athletes had to have a disability that fell into one of the six Paralympics disability categories .
Two British athletes competed , both in alpine skiing events , and no medals were won . The size of the team was a decrease from that which had entered previous Games , in the 1998 Winter Paralympics 20 British athletes had participated . One reason for this is that whilst funding for the two athletes was provided by the British Paralympic Association , it totalled only £ 1 @,@ 500 compared to the £ 4 million worth of funding available to British athletes at the 2002 Winter Olympics .
= = Disability classification = =
Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories ; amputation , the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness ; cerebral palsy ; wheelchair athletes , there is often overlap between this and other categories ; visual impairment , including blindness ; Les autres , any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories , for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis . Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications , dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition . Events are given a code , made of numbers and letters , describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing . Events with " B " in the code are for athletes with visual impairment , codes LW1 to LW9 are for athletes who stand to compete and LW10 to LW12 are for athletes who compete sitting down . Each different number refers to a different severity of impairement and defines the equipment that competitors may use ; e.g. LW4 is for athletes with a single leg amputation below the knee who compete using two skis and two poles .
= = Alpine skiing = =
Both of Britain 's athletes at the Games competed in alpine skiing events , funding for the two athletes was provided by the British Paralympic Association . Russell Docker , who was paralysed from the waist down following a skiing accident in 1995 , appeared at the Paralympics for the first time and competed in the LW12 classification . He crashed out in the downhill event and failed to complete his other three races . Stephen Napier , who was disabled after being knocked off a motorbike by an unmarked police car in 1995 , also competed in four events in the LW10 classification . His highest finish was sixth in the Super @-@ G and he also had three seventh place finishes . In each of his events Napier was the lowest ranked athlete to complete the course .
Calculated time
To ensure a fair event when athletes with differing disabilities compete , times achieved are sometimes modified by a factor percentage , to produce a result known as " Calculated Time " . It is this time that decides the result of the races . Actual times recorded is also listed .
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= New York State Route 441 =
New York State Route 441 ( NY 441 ) is an east – west state highway in the eastern suburbs of Rochester , New York , in the United States . It extends for 12 @.@ 55 miles ( 20 @.@ 20 km ) from an intersection with NY 96 in Brighton to a junction with NY 350 in Walworth . The route starts as a four @-@ lane divided highway in Brighton and western Penfield , and gradually narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road as it heads away from the city of Rochester . NY 441 connects to Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) in Brighton and intersects NY 250 in Penfield .
NY 441 was originally routed on Penfield Road between Brighton and Penfield when it was assigned in 1949 . It remained on Penfield Road through Penfield and into Wayne County to Marion , where the highway ended at NY 21 . The entirety of this routing had previously been part of NY 33 , which was truncated westward to downtown Rochester as part of NY 441 's assignment . NY 441 was cut back to NY 350 in Walworth by 1970 . The divided highway that now carries NY 441 through Brighton and western Penfield was constructed during the late 1960s and opened as a realignment of NY 441 by 1971 .
= = Route description = =
= = = West of Penfield = = =
NY 441 begins at an intersection with NY 96 ( East Avenue ) in the Monroe County town of Brighton . This portion of NY 441 is named Linden Avenue ; the road continues west of Route 96 as Elmwood Avenue . Just east of Route 96 , Route 441 meets I @-@ 490 at exit 23 . Past the interchange , NY 441 turns southeastward and becomes a divided highway . The portion of NY 441 from East Avenue to the Wayne County line is designated as the " Korean War Memorial Highway " by the state of New York .
Linden Avenue separates from NY 441 roughly 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) from I @-@ 490 and follows a routing parallel to NY 441 on the opposite side of the nearby Rochester Subdivision , a double @-@ tracked rail line owned by CSX Transportation . Continuing onward , Route 441 curves eastward and crosses over the CSX railroad line ahead of another intersection with Linden Avenue in the town of Pittsford . Linden Avenue crosses NY 441 and heads southeastward toward East Rochester ; however , NY 441 curves northeastward to enter the town of Penfield .
Although this portion of NY 441 is surrounded by woodlands , it is actually located in a largely developed area of Penfield known locally as Panorama . The woods cease as NY 441 approaches an interchange with Panorama Trail ( NY 153 ) , the lone limited @-@ access junction along the divided highway . East of NY 153 , NY 441 crosses over Irondequoit Creek and downgrades to a four @-@ lane undivided highway at a junction with Penfield Road . Here , Route 441 becomes Penfield Road and enters the densely populated hamlet of Penfield .
= = = Penfield and Wayne County = = =
In Penfield , Route 441 passes through the commercial town center and intersects Five Mile Line Road at the Four Corners of Penfield . The junction with Five Mile Line Road was once the northern terminus of NY 253 . As NY 441 heads east through the town of Penfield , the businesses are largely replaced by residences . The one exception to this is in the immediate vicinity of Lloyd 's Corners — the intersection of NY 441 and NY 250 — where three of the four corners of the junction are occupied by large strip malls . The level of development along NY 441 begins to decline 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) east of NY 250 , where the road narrows to two lanes . The surroundings become largely undeveloped by the point where NY 441 enters Wayne County .
Now in the town of Walworth , NY 441 becomes Walworth – Penfield Road . Just east of the county line , NY 441 shifts slightly northward by way of an S @-@ curve that serves as a connector between the segmented West Walworth Road , which NY 441 intersects at both ends of the curve . This is the last curve along NY 441 as it follows a linear east – west routing over several small hills to a junction with NY 350 west of the hamlet of Walworth , where NY 441 terminates . The roadway , however , continues east to Marion as Walworth – Penfield Road , Walworth – Marion Road , and Buffalo Street , a continuous highway maintained by Wayne County as County Route 205 ( CR 205 ) west of Hall Center Road and Maple Avenue and as CR 207 east of those roads .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
The portion of NY 441 from where Penfield Road leaves NY 441 in Penfield to Walworth was originally designated as part of NY 33 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . West of the Four Corners of Penfield , NY 33 remained on Penfield Road through Penfield and Brighton to the modern intersection of Penfield Road and NY 96 ( East Avenue ) . The route turned west to follow East Avenue into Rochester . On its eastern end , NY 33 continued on to Marion , where it ended at NY 21 . NY 33 was truncated to its current eastern terminus at NY 31 in downtown Rochester on January 1 , 1949 . The portion of former NY 33 east of NY 96 was redesignated as NY 441 .
Like NY 33 before it , NY 441 officially ended at NY 21 in Marion when it was first assigned . By 1970 , the east end of the route was moved to NY 350 in Walworth . The change in NY 441 's alignment had no effect on the maintenance of the Walworth – Marion highway , however , as the Wayne County portion of NY 441 was entirely county @-@ maintained . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 441 from the Monroe County line to NY 350 was transferred from Wayne County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the county received a part of NY 21 in Williamson that connected to a state highway at only one end .
= = = Brighton – Penfield divided highway = = =
Construction on a new divided highway through the towns of Brighton and Penfield began in the late 1960s and was completed by 1971 , at which time it became a realignment of NY 441 . At the western end , NY 441 was routed onto the pre @-@ existing Linden Avenue to connect to NY 96 at a junction southeast of its original western terminus . While most of Linden Avenue was transferred to the state , the westernmost section from NY 96 to I @-@ 490 was maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 15 . The 2 @.@ 46 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 96 km ) portion of NY 441 's former routing on Penfield Road from NY 96 to Panorama Trail was transferred to Monroe County and designated CR 269 .
In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of the county @-@ maintained portion of NY 441 near its west end was transferred to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and Monroe County . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 . The entirety of NY 441 is now maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Kitty Kat ( song ) =
" Kitty Kat " is a song recorded by American R & B singer Beyoncé Knowles for her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was composed by Beyoncé Knowles , Pharrell Williams , Makeba Riddick , Shawn Carter , and Chad Hugo . " Kitty Kat " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song whose lyrics detail a situation where a woman feels that her man has underestimated her . The song was generally well received by music critics who noted it to be a seductive track thanks to its " I 'm not feelin [ g ] it " vibe . However , some music critics felt that the production does not live up to those of other songs featured on B 'Day .
" Kitty Kat " was never released as a single but it garnered airplay on R & B stations , thus managing to chart on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it reached a high point of number sixty @-@ six in May 2007 . The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Knowles for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . It is only one @-@ minute long and it serves as the introduction of the music video for " Green Light " ( 2007 ) . The video for " Kitty Kat " features Knowles showing cat @-@ like eyes with leopard print make @-@ up and fashion on . In some parts of the clip , Knowles rides on an oversized black cat .
= = Background = =
" Kitty Kat " was conceived partly at the Sony Music Studios , in New York City and the Record Plant Studios , in Los Angeles . It sees songwriting duties by Knowles , Pharrell Williams , Makeba Riddick as well as Shawn Carter , and utilizes production from The Neptunes , compromising of Williams and Chad Hugo . The latter also produced the song " Green Light " ( 2006 ) . Jason Goldstein mixed " Kitty Kat " with assistance from Steve Tolle . Concerning the song , Knowles told MTV : " [ Kitty Kat ] is [ a ] very sexy [ song ] , talking about a man who is out with friends all night and you 're left at home . And you are like , ' No more of this . It 's time to go . ' " The song appeared online through the website of Rap @-@ Up magazine on August 23 , 2006 , prior to the release of B 'Day .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Kitty Kat " is a smooth R & B song with hip hop influences pacing in common time . The nearly four @-@ minute long track is written in the key of D major . The song features a moderately slow groove of 78 beats per minute , with Knowles ' vocals range spanning from the note of G ♯ 3 to C5 . Spence D of IGN Music noted that the beat is down @-@ tempo and this goes in contrast with the previous works of The Neptunes , who usually favors electro clash amplification . Jim DeRogatis of Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that the song is similar to " Whitney Houston balladry " while Andy Kellman of Allmusic commented that it could have been pulled from one of the first three albums of the American musical artist , Kelis . "
In the song , the female protagonist feels that her love interest has underestimated her . This is demonstrated in the opening lines : " You know I hate sleepin [ g ] alone , but you said that you will soon be home . But baby , that was a long time ago . " As the song progresses , she also wonders : " What about my body , body ? / You don ’ t want my body , body . " According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the female protagonist " literally packs up her pussy " and leaves the man who no longer seems interested in her , shown in the chorus lines : " Let 's go , little kitty kat / I think it 's time to go / He don 't want you anymore . " Similarly , Makkada B. Selah of The Village Voice noted that " Kitty Kat " was a threat for " jetting " and John Boone of E ! Online commented that it was about Knowles ' sex organ . Eb Haynes of AllHipHop commented that " Kitty Kat " warns all restless boys that they too , become restless . Elysa Gardner of USA Today commented that the lyrics of the song include raw feelings for an unfaithful lover which are sung with " sass " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Kitty Kat " received generally favorable reviews from critics . Eb Haynes of AllHipHop described " Kitty Kat " as a seductive track . Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine wrote that B 'Day is packed with standouts such as " the Rich Harrison @-@ produced ' Freakum Dress ' and the Neptunes @-@ helmed ' Kitty Kat ' . " Picking out " Kitty Kat " as one of the four top tracks of the album , Spence D of IGN Music added that the song slows things down , allowing for Knowles ' " crystal clear vocals to take some down time and relinquish up a dreamy , creamy sound that is playfully sensuous . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic described " Kitty Kat " as " a deceptively sweet , rainbow @-@ colored track " where purrs - that are sound made by all species of felids and are a part of cat communication - are more like " claws @-@ out dismissals . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times called the song a " cooing [ and ] sighing " one . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted that " Kitty Kat " was " the only mid @-@ tempo break " until the very end of the album . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , said that the song is just about what you think . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine commented that " Kitty Kat " seems to be an obvious tracks produced by The Neptunes . He went on complimenting " the squishy R & B keyboard which works well with the song ’ s ' I ’ m not feelin [ g ] it ' vibe . " A writer of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer commented , " Beyoncé is better at being sexy than sarcastic , and ' Kitty Kat ' doesn 't make any bones about what her absentee lover is missing . " Michael Roberts of New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach commented that Knowles " purrs at lower speed " in the song .
Phil Harrison of Time Out said that " Kitty Kat " feels " slightly anodyne despite its sweetly vicious climax . " Gail Mitchell of Billboard magazine described it as " slick , [ and ] wicked " . Mike Joseph of PopMatters was much less impressed , giving the song a negative review : " The dreary ' Kitty Kat ' is a waste of four minutes of my time . Pharrell Williams , who produced this song , needs to be told that his glory days are two years behind him if not more . " This was somehow echoed by Dave de Sylvi of Sputnikmusic who wrote : " Pharrell 's other contribution to the album is the regrettably plain ' Kitty Kat , ' a slower track that gives further credence to the view that he cannot cope when thrust outside his comfort zone . "
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Kitty Kat " was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Knowles for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which was released the same month . It was the first video of the eight videos shot in two weeks for the album . The music video for " Kitty Kat " is only one @-@ minute long and it serves as the introduction for the music video of " Green Light " . On the other hand , Matsoukas said that the half @-@ day shoot for " Kitty Kat " , by comparison , " was a breeze . " Elaborating on the conception of the video , Knowles said : " We had the oversized kitty cat [ in the video ] , which was so cute ! I had to pretend it was there , because I was really in front of the green screen — I 'd be on a big giant wooden cow and they superimposed a kitten . And we used leopard @-@ print makeup and the catsuit and the nails to make me more like a cat . I really am a cat person " .
Matsoukas told that getting the cats to cooperate was a difficult step . She told MTV : " They were definitely the most diva out of anybody . Those cats were mad . We had animal trainers , but you really can 't train a cat . " To get the effect of Knowles riding the cat , Matsoukas used a large plastic cow covered in a black fur drape for Knowles to perform on . The video was originally going to be its own music video as seen in the behind the scenes of B 'Day Anthology with Knowles wearing more outfits and shooting more scenes than shown . It begins with Knowles showing cat @-@ like eyes with leopard print make @-@ up and fashion on . In some parts of the clip , Knowles plays with an oversized ball of pink yarn and later plays with an oversized black cat . The clip ends with Knowles pulling the oversized cat on a gold chain off set and just immediately after that , the music video for " Green Light " begins . Rohin Guha of BlackBook magazine described the video as " deplorable " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the video for " Kitty Kat " as " pure camp " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number five on their list of Knowles ' ten best music videos , writing " It 's Beyoncé running aorund with a giant cat ! And then riding it ! What more could you want from a music video ? ! " .
= = Live performance = =
Beyoncé performed " Kitty Kat " for the first time a capella on The Formation World Tour in Houston on May 7 , 2016 , almost ten years after the song was released .
= = Chart performance = =
" Kitty Kat " debuted at number sixty @-@ nine on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart dated May 5 , 2007 . The next week , it ascended to number sixty @-@ six , a position which became its peak . The song stayed on the chart for eight weeks , including one re @-@ entry in July 2007 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .
Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles
Writing : Beyoncé Knowles , Shawn Carter , Pharrell Williams , Riddick
Producing : Pharrell Williams , Chad Hugo , Beyoncé Knowles
Recording : Jim Caruana , Geoff Rice ( Sony Music Studios , New York City ) , assisted by Rob Kinelski and Andrew Coleman ( The Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles )
Mixing : Jason Goldstein ( Sony Music Studios , New York City ) , assisted by Steve Tolle
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= Practice Date =
" Practice Date " is the fourth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the tenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 8 , 2009 . In the episode , Ann takes Leslie to dinner to help prepare for her first date , while the rest of the parks department tries to learn secrets about each other as part of a game .
The episode was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Alex Hardcastle . It featured stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. in his third guest appearance as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer who develops a romantic interest in Leslie . The episode also featured a fictional sex scandal mirroring the real @-@ life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford .
" Practice Date " was the first episode to establish the personality of Jerry as the co @-@ worker everyone else in the office picks on , and marked the first of several appearances by Jay Jackson as news reporter Perd Hapley . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 97 million household viewers , an improvement over the previous week 's episode , " Beauty Pageant " . " Practice Date " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising it for fleshing out the characters of Ron and Tom .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and the rest of the Parks department watching media coverage of Pawnee Councilman Bill Dexhart ( Kevin Symons ) , a married man , admitting to having four @-@ way sex in a Brazilian cave while pretending to be " building houses for the underprivileged " . He tries to justify it by saying that it was his birthday on the day of the foursome , and that he " ... really wanted to do it . " Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) insists nobody could find any scandalous information about him , prompting the parks department employees to start a game to see who can get the most dirt on each other . Meanwhile , Leslie tells Ann ( Rashida Jones ) she is nervous about her first date with Pawnee police officer Dave Sanderson ( Louis C.K. ) . Ann offers to take Leslie on a practice date to help Leslie prepare for the real date . During the practice date , Ann realizes that Leslie has a serious problem : Leslie brought note cards with " topics of conversation " and engages in fake @-@ sounding " practice laughing . "
Ann decides to use exposure therapy on Leslie to help her deal with the worst @-@ case date scenario . She acts very mean to Leslie , who is initially horrified , but she eventually stands up to Ann . When Ann tells her she is now ready for anything , Leslie feels cheered up and very confident . They go to a bar later to celebrate , where Leslie gets very drunk . After leaving Ann , she visits Dave 's house to tell him that she was nervous about their upcoming date , but now realizes he is lucky to have her because of how " awesome " she is . A seemingly annoyed Dave brings Leslie home . The next day , Leslie feels horrible for ruining her chances with Dave . He arrives at her office later and she starts to apologize , but he says she can make it up to them on their second date , thereby reassuring her the first date is already over . Leslie once again feels cheered up .
Meanwhile , during the office game , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) announces Jerry 's ( Jim O 'Heir ) adoptive mother was arrested for marijuana possession . A distraught Jerry said he did not know he was adopted , making Mark feel terribly guilty . Later , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) declares himself the winner when he tells Tom he knows Tom 's marriage to Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) is a green card marriage to prevent her from being deported to Canada . A desperate Tom turns to Mark for help in finding dirt on Ron , and Mark suggests Tom visit an out @-@ of @-@ town bar and speak to Ron 's old friend Duke Silver . Tom visits the bar and learns Duke Silver is actually the alter ego of Ron himself , who secretly plays saxophone in a jazz club . Tom confronts Ron , who immediately calls a truce to the game to prevent his secret from getting out ( in the Pilot episode , Mark " cashes in " a favor Ron owes him , probably that ) . After watching more footage of Dexhart , Mark decides he wants Ann to learn all his own dark secrets from him . He visits her late at night and tells him about an affair he had with a married woman at age 16 , among other secrets . Although initially confused , Ann is ultimately flattered by the gesture . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , disappointed nobody found dirt on her , announces she drove a lawnmower through a Nordstrom department store .
= = Production = =
" Practice Date " was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Alex Hardcastle . The episode featured stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. in his third guest performance as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer romantically involved with Leslie . Kevin Symons also appeared as Pawnee Councilman Bill Dexhart . The sex scandal involving Dexhart mirrored the real @-@ life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford , who publicly admitted to a long @-@ time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman .
Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur conceived the idea for Ron Swanson 's jazz musician alter ego before they learned Nick Offerman actually played the saxophone in real life , and had for his entire life . Offerman praised the decision : " When he came to me and said , ' You 're going to have an alter ego who plays jazz saxophone , ' I go , ' How do you see inside me ? ' " After the episode broadcast , NBC created an official " Duke Silver " website , which included a biography , discography , reviews , gallery , tour schedule and booking information for the fictional band .
" Practice Date " marked a turning point for the character Jerry . Prior to the episode , Jerry had appeared in every episode , but his personality had not yet been developed . Schur said the Parks and Recreation staff liked Jim O 'Heir , so they cast him in the show and " figured we 'd work it out later " . After the scene when Mark inadvertently reveals Jerry was adopted , the writers built upon that joke and established Jerry as the co @-@ worker the rest of the department picks on . Schur said after " Practice Date " , " We realized that 's who he is : He 's the guy who wants to put his head down and get his pension , but is asking for it all the time . In the next three scripts , it was like throwing chum into the water . Every script after that had 15 slams on Jerry . " Practice Date " marked the first of several appearances by Jay Jackson as Pawnee news reporter Perd Hapley . The character was only originally intended for one appearance , but Schur said the staff enjoyed his performance so much that they made him a recurring character .
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , three deleted scenes from " Practice Date " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . The first clip features approximately two minutes of extended scenes , including Leslie talking about her anxiety about the date , Ann offering her advice , a drunk Leslie complaining about the heat in Dave 's apartment , which he secretly tells the camera is " freezing cold right now " . The second 75 @-@ second clip features more of Pawnee City Councilman Bill Dexhart 's press conference about the sex scandal . Dexhart refuses to promise he will not continue his transgressions , which he insists is a sign he is no longer lying to Pawnee residents . Reporters also discuss Dexhart 's credit card bills , which include purchases Dong @-@ O @-@ Rama Sex Toy Company , Smut Doctors and a product called " vibrating raisins " . In the third 75 @-@ second clip , Ron discusses in detail his " scientifically perfect ten @-@ point scale of human beauty " , the criteria for which he admits is " extremely misogynistic " . It also included more footage of Ron 's Duke Silver persona , along with interviews by older women who fantasize about him .
= = Cultural references = =
Leslie worries she will bring up the genocide in the Sudanese country Darfur too much , or not enough , during her first date with Dave . While describing his scale of the attractiveness of women , Ron says tennis star Steffi Graf is a " perfect ten " . Ron believes Tom is wearing the robes of the Taliban , a Sunni Islamist political movement , in a photo he finds for the contest . The photo is actually of Tom wearing a Halloween costume of a Jedi from the Star Wars universe . Tom learns one African American co @-@ worker donated money to David Duke , a white nationalist involved in the Ku Klux Klan , because " he promised to lower taxes " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 8 , 2009 , " Practice Date " was seen by 4 @.@ 97 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . It was an improvement over the previous two episodes , which drew 4 @.@ 22 million household viewers and 4 @.@ 63 million household viewers , respectively .
The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising it for fleshing out more information about the supporting cast , such at Ron 's jazz singer persona and the back story behind Tom 's marriage and chronic flirting . In an article reflecting on the show 's second season , Slate magazine writer Jonah Weiner dubbed " Practice Date " the episode in which Parks and Recreation " truly hit its stride " . In particular , he called the background @-@ check game " a funny , economical way to bring them more vividly to life " , and said the green card marriage subplot " at once punctured ( Tom 's ) slimy façade and deepened our sympathies for him " . Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog called " Practice Date " " the most satisfying comedy of the week " , even compared to the wedding of Jim and Pam on The Office and a Seinfeld reunion on Curb Your Enthusiasm . Fog said the episode " managed to be sweet and sharp and absolutely hilarious " at once , and praised Poehler 's improvising and Ron 's jazz singer persona , but he said Mark 's appearance at Ann 's house to confess his life 's sins was the episode 's " weak spot " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the episode was " completely satisfying - funny when it needed to be , sweet when it wanted to be " . Sepinwall said Jones was particularly funny during the fake date , as well as the " constant one @-@ upsmanship " between Ron and Tom . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode had a " winning formula " . He particularly praised Jones during the practice date , as well as Jerry 's role during the contest , which Fowler said was a good way to allow the supporting cast to work together . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said it seemed like the episode " took everything they were warming up to over the last few weeks , and hit them hard " . Heisler particularly praised Poehler 's performance , as well as the interactions between Ron and Tom . In contrast , however , A.V. Club writer Leonard Pierce said " Practice Date " " was the first time all year I felt like P & R wasn 't firing on all cylinders " .
= = DVD release = =
" Practice Date " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Lady of the Forest =
Lady of the Forest : A Novel of Sherwood is a 1992 historical fiction novel by American author Jennifer Roberson . A re @-@ telling of the Robin Hood legend from the perspective of twelve characters associated with the legend , the story centers around English noblewoman Lady Marian FitzWalter 's encounters with Lord Robert of Locksley and his scheming rival the Sheriff of Nottingham amid the backdrop of Prince John 's schemes – he aims to increase his own wealth and power at the expense of post @-@ Conquest England and his brother , King Richard .
Roberson wrote her novel as a prequel to the known legend . Understanding that Robin Hood lacked a single origin story , she decided to create an original narrative that depicted how " seven very different people from a rigidly stratified social structure came to join together to fight the inequities of medieval England . " Roberson spent a year researching and writing the story , and sought to combine fact and legend in developing the motivations for certain characters .
The novel was published in September 1992 by Zebra Books , with a cover designed by illustrator Anne Yvonne Gilbert . Lady of the Forest received generally positive reviews , and has been analyzed by Robin Hood scholar Stephen Thomas Knight , who observed that Roberson 's Marian is a " strong woman " who helps Robert , a traumatized veteran of the Crusades , adjust to his life in England ; Knight connects this to the " post @-@ Vietnam " mood that existed when the novel was written . Roberson released a sequel , Lady of Sherwood , in 1999 .
= = Plot summary = =
The story begins in the spring of 1194 in the English county of Nottinghamshire . Lady Marian FitzWalter attends a festival held at Huntington Castle by the Earl of Huntington , who wishes to honour the return of his only surviving heir , Lord Robert of Locksley , from the Crusades . Marian seeks an audience with Robert to learn the manner of her father , Sir Hugh 's , death the previous year , as Robert was a witness . The reserved , mentally scarred Robert reacts strongly , having flashbacks to Sir Hugh 's violent murder at the hands of Saracens . He informs her that Hugh wished for Marian to marry William DeLacey , the harsh and scheming Sheriff of Nottingham , to her dismay . DeLacey knows naught of this , but intends to make her marry him anyway .
Prince John arrives unexpectedly with plans : he states his wish to ally himself with the Earl by marrying Robert to his bastard daughter Joanna , and also approaches DeLacey about raising more taxes ostensibly to be sent to ransom John 's brother , King Richard . In truth , John wishes to keep the revenue for himself and maintain his brother 's imprisonment . Soon after , Marian is reluctantly manipulated into accompanying the Sheriff to attend a market at Nottingham Castle . There , she is kidnapped by the prisoner William " Scarlet " Scathlocke , an enraged man imprisoned for killing four Norman soldiers , and is taken into the depths of nearby Sherwood Forest . Lord Robert , who was taught how to navigate the massive forest as a youth , secretly tracks Scarlet and is able to secure Marian 's release . While accompanying Marian back to her modest manor – Ravenskeep – Robert falls ill from a fever . Marian gradually wears down the mental wall he had built up in captivity by the Saracens , and after his recovery at Ravenskeep , they consummate their relationship soon after she refuses DeLacey 's offer of marriage .
Robert returns to Huntington , along the way besting outlaws such as Adam Bell and Will Scarlet at a contest of archery . He encounters his father and several other prominent noblemen , and is told they wish for him to marry Joanna to mislead Prince John about their intentions to thwart his grabs for power . Robert refuses . Meanwhile , Marian barely avoids being forced to marry DeLacey , and only escapes with the help of the kind Friar Tuck and the Sheriff 's seneschal Guy de Gisbourne , who is infatuated with her . She flees to Huntington Castle ; the Earl is displeased with his son 's disobedience and their liaison , causing Marian and Robert to travel to the small village of Locksley , his namesake and holding .
Robert endeavours to steal the funds needed for King Richard 's ransom , and begins robbing the rich with the help of Sherwood 's outlaws , whom he has gradually befriended . At the same time , Eleanor of Aquitaine , Richard 's mother , is working to raise the ransom through more legal methods : by taxing clergy and laymen for a quarter of the value of their property , confiscating the gold and silver treasures of the churches , and imposing scutage and carucage taxes . Back in the small village of Locksley , Marian is captured and sent to the Sheriff 's dungeon , where she is given an ultimatum : marry DeLacey or find herself charged with witchcraft . She is rescued by Robert , who arrives with his friends to free her . Just as they are about to be arrested by a wrathful Prince John , whose money has been stolen by the outlaws , King Richard arrives unexpectedly , allowing Robert and his associates to escape .
= = Development = =
American author Jennifer Roberson was known for writing fantasy novels before she moved into historical fiction , a genre new to her . She noted , " One thing I 'd always wanted to try – another ‘ someday ’ dream – was a big , sprawling , mainstream historical epic . " She proposed to her literary agent that she write a reinterpretation of the Robin Hood legend from the perspective of Maid Marian . Roberson understood that her rendition was not a " recounting " of the original story , because " there is none " ; rather , Lady of the Forest was " purely [ her ] own concoction . " Describing the novel as a prequel , the author explained , " I wanted very much to write the story of how the legend came to be ; the tale of how seven very different people from a rigidly stratified social structure came to join together to fight the inequities of medieval England . To me , the key was logic — I interwove historical fact with the fantasy of the classic legend , and developed my own interpretation of how things came to be . I wanted to come to know all of these people ; to climb inside their heads and learn what motivated them to do what they did . "
It took Roberson a year to research and write the novel . She credited as resource materials J. C. Holt 's Robin Hood , Maurice Keen 's The Outlaws of Sherwood , The Ballads of Robin Hood , Elizabeth Hallam 's The Plantagenet Chronicles , W. L. Warren 's King John , as well as the works of Frances and Joseph Gies . In a 2007 interview , Roberson stated that writing the story was " extremely challenging " because she employs the viewpoints of twelve main characters – Marian , Lord Robert , DeLacey , Sir Guy de Gisbourne , the Earl of Huntington , Eleanor DeLacey ( the Sheriff 's plain , scheming daughter ) , Friar Tuck , Will Scarlet , the minstrel Alan of the Dales ( whom becomes an outlaw after being falsely accused of rape ) , the simple boy Much , the moneylender Abraham the Jew ( who Robert uses to raise money for the ransom ) , and the shepherd turned reluctant outlaw Little John . Roberson believed that this experience made her a better writer .
Roberson has spoken of the difficulties of writing medieval women , particularly because so many contemporary authors are accused of giving their characters " anachronistic independence of thought and feminist leanings . " The author acknowledged that with Eleanor DeLacey , an invented character , she " tread [ s ] close to the boundaries " but believes Eleanor is a reflection of women of " loose morals " , who indeed existed in the 1190s . Roberson continued , " I choose to believe an Eleanor might well have looked to sexual dalliance as a means of seeking freedom of choice in an age when women had very little . " Conversely , Marian , Roberson wrote , " is a truer product of her times , shaped by the ordinary responsibilities and expectations of a medieval woman . " Marian only gains the strength and freedom to love after the loss of her good reputation as a captive in Sherwood Forest .
= = Analysis = =
Stephen Thomas Knight , a scholar on Robin Hood , has written extensively on Roberson 's " interesting " perspective of the legend . According to him , Lady of the Forest was another in a long line of contemporary stories that has elevated Marian to " hero status " . He connects this to a corresponding " weakening " of Robin in Roberson 's story , noting that there is a relationship between the novel 's " post @-@ Vietnam " date and its story , with Robin rendered as a " battleweary veteran returning from the Crusades " in a " traumatized state . " Knight continues that " it is evident that Roberson is using the post @-@ Vietnam mood as the basis for her weakening of Robin to permit a ' strong woman ' presentation of Marion . " Roberson 's Marian is made " an independent and intelligent woman who helps Lord Robin , traumatised by the crusades , re @-@ establish himself both as a man and a leader of resistance . "
In an article published in the Journal of Gender Studies , Jane Tolmie stated that Lady of the Forest was another in a long line of contemporary fantasy novels that depicted women having to endure acts of rape , violence , and oppression as " aspects of a continuum rather than as isolated difficulties " – Marian for instance is subjected to abductions and attempted forced marriage . Tolmie added that in the context of Roberson 's book , Marian is praised as " extraordinary " only within the " oppressive , gender @-@ based " criteria promoted by the patriarchal Norman society . After Marian wields a quarterstaff to attack another , Robert compares the lady to a man , namely her father – both " had met adversity with the same determination , the same intensity . "
= = Release and reception = =
Lady of the Forest was published in September 1992 by New York City @-@ based Zebra Books , with cover art by Yvonne Gilbert . A Japanese translation was released in 1994 , while a German edition was published in 2003 . Roberson stated in a March 2007 interview that " various options " had been taken for adapting the book but added that this was true of many other works . In 1999 , she followed the novel with the sequel Lady of Sherwood , which depicts the effects of King Richard 's death : the outlaws are persecuted anew by the Sheriff , while the Earl works against John in favor of Arthur of Brittany .
Lady of the Forest has received generally positive reviews , with Stephen Knight deeming it a " highly effective novel . " The Library Journal lauded Roberson for thoroughly researching the story and yet not overwhelming readers with facts , and predicted the book would be popular in the wake of the 1991 feature film Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves . The Journal continued that the author 's " personal touches create a delightful historical novel with traditional romantic overtones . The writing is so colorful and active that it is difficult to put the book down . "
Publishers Weekly praised the novel for its " lively storytelling and pacing " , which helped make it " an enjoyable , almost creditable recasting of the Robin Hood legend as historical fiction . " The book 's romance , the reviewer added , " works beautifully , capturing in the tale of Robin and Marian the terrifying bliss of first love . A diverting , delightful book from a most promising talent . " However , Publishers Weekly included some criticisms , opining that Robert of Locksley and Marian " are unlikely to have been as naive as Roberson depicts them . "
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= RAF Coastal Command =
RAF Coastal Command was a formation within the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . Founded in 1936 , it was the RAF 's only maritime arm , as the Fleet Air Arm was transferred to the Royal Navy in 1937 . Naval aviation had been neglected in the inter @-@ war period , due to the RAF having control of the aircraft flying from Royal Navy carriers . As a consequence Coastal Command did not receive the resources it needed to develop properly or efficiently . This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War , during which it came to prominence . But owing to the Air Ministry 's concentration on RAF Fighter Command and RAF Bomber Command , Coastal Command was often referred to as the " Cinderella Service " , a phrase first used by the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time A V Alexander .
Coastal Commands 's primary task became the protection of Allied convoys from attacks by the German Kriegsmarine 's U @-@ boats , groups of which were known as " wolfpacks " . It also protected Allied shipping from aerial attacks by the Luftwaffe . The main operations of Coastal Command were defensive , defending supply lines in the various theatres of war , most notably the [ Mediterranean , Middle East and African , and the battle of the Atlantic . It also had an offensive capacity . In the Mediterranean theatre and the Baltic sea it attacked German shipping carrying war materials from Italy to North Africa and from Scandinavia to Germany . By 1943 Coastal Command finally received sufficient Very Long Range [ VLR ] aircraft it needed and its operations proved decisive in the victory over the U @-@ boats . These aircraft were Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberators and , from early 1943 , these , and other Coastal Command aircraft , were fitted with Mark III ASV [ air @-@ to @-@ surface vessel ] centimetric radar , the latest depth charges , including homing torpedoes , officially classed as Mark 24 mines [ nicknamed ' Wandering Annie ' or ' Wandering Willie ' ] and even rockets .
The Command saw action from the first day of hostilities until the last day of the Second World War . It completed one million flying hours , 240 @,@ 000 operations and destroyed 212 U @-@ boats . Coastal Command 's casualties amounted to 2 @,@ 060 aircraft to all causes . From 1940 to 1945 Coastal Command sank 366 German transport vessels and damaged 134 . The total tonnage sunk was 512 @,@ 330 tons and another 513 @,@ 454 tons damaged . 10 @,@ 663 persons were rescued by the Command , comprising 5 @,@ 721 Allied crew members , 277 enemy personnel , and 4 @,@ 665 non @-@ aircrews . 5 @,@ 866 Coastal Command personnel were killed in action .
After the war , the Command continued Anti @-@ Submarine Warfare duties during the Cold War , to combat the threat posed by the Soviet Navy and other fleets of the Warsaw Pact . It ceased to exist in 1969 when it was subsumed into the newly formed Strike Command , which had also absorbed the former Bomber , Fighter and Signals Commands and later also absorbed Air Support Command , the former Transport Command .
= = Formation and neglect = =
In 1936 , almost 18 years after the end of the First World War , there was a major change in the command structure of the RAF . Several Expansion Schemes were heading at such pace to re @-@ arm the British military in face of the Nazi threat that " Area " formations were now to be called " Commands " . Fighter and Bomber Areas became Fighter and Bomber Commands and Coastal Area was renamed Coastal Command . Its Headquarters was located at Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent . Air Marshal Sir Arthur Longmore , AOC RAF Coastal Area oversaw the renaming and handed over command to Air Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté on 24 August 1936 .
In March 1935 the threat from Nazi Germany prompted a series of expansion schemes which pushed the number of squadrons up to 163 ( as per Expansion Scheme M , the last before the outbreak of war ) and the number of aircraft to 2 @,@ 549 . But it was never fully implemented , and Scheme F , 124 Squadrons and 1 @,@ 736 aircraft , was the only scheme that ran its full course . It did produce modern aircraft and it made adequate provision for reserves ( 75 percent ) , but again , the bomber forces received no less than 50 percent which averaged 57 percent over all schemes . Maritime air units never made up more than 12 per cent of British air strength . From a pre @-@ expansion strength of just five squadrons , four of which were flying boats , the figure of maritime squadrons rose to 18 by September 1939 , with a strength of just 176 aircraft . Some 16 of these were allocated to trade defence , but given Trenchard 's policy ( which was still in place after his retirement ) of developing bombers for the maritime arm which could bolster the air offensive , most were not specialised ASW aircraft , and the Air Ministry was thoroughly uninterested in any aircraft which fell outside the bomber function .
De la Ferté was highly critical of the Air Ministry 's attitude to his service . In 1937 several exercises were carried out by Coastal Command in co @-@ operation with submarines against the Home Fleet to judge the surface fleet 's defence against submarine and air attack . However , despite the experiences of the First World War , no attention was paid to the problem of attacking submarines from the air as part of trade protection measures . Owing to the imperfect ASDIC invention , it appeared the Royal Navy no longer considered U @-@ boats were a threat to Britain 's sea lanes . The Air Ministry , keen to concentrate on strategic air forces , did not dispute the Admiralty 's conclusions and Coastal Command did not receive any guidance from the Air Ministry . The saving grace for both services was the construction of the Combined Headquarters which enabled rapid collaboration in maritime operations . This was one of the few successes in organisation and preparation made before the outbreak of war .
When the review of the role Coastal Command was to play in war was assessed in 1937 , the then AOC Sir Frederick Bowhill was informed by his Senior Air Staff Officer Air Commodore Geoffrey Bromet that the other two commands ( Bomber and Fighter ) had clear mission objectives while Coastal Command had been given no clear mandate . It was assumed that Coastal Command was to keep sea communications open for merchant shipping and prevent seaborne raids on British coastlines and ports . No mention of U @-@ boats was made by either man . Both assumed aircraft and surface raiders presented the greater threat in British waters . Thus they followed the Admiralty line that U @-@ boats were no longer a danger . When Admiral Sir Dudley Pound enquired about aerial assets in trade and commerce defence , Chief of the Air Staff Cyril Newall , 1st Baron Newall , replied that there was not enough " jam " [ resources ] to go around and stated it was more advisable to risk losses on trade routes than weaken the RAF 's ability to protect Britain from air attack and bomb its enemies .
In March 1937 , the then Director of Operations Group Captain Robert Saundby , complained that the role for Coastal Command in war , namely supporting the bomber offensive , and second , the support of naval forces along the British coastline , were too limited and was in danger of diverting the Command from its main concern : ASW . In October the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) Air Vice Marshal Richard Peirse confirmed that there was no formal role for the service or location of its units . Peirse did reverse the decision to have strategic bombing support as the primary function . This was changed to trade defence . Coastal Command was only to be used for other purposes if trade routes were suffering little interference and the intensity of air attack on Britain , or air attacks on enemy targets , required all available air units for those purposes . However , in December 1937 , the Naval and Air Staffs met again and changed the priority to North Sea reconnaissance . The Naval Staff insisted that commerce raiders presented the greatest danger , and aircraft could prove decisive only in locating enemy warships . ASW remained in third place , behind direct co @-@ operation with surface fleets . In December 1938 , this was changed again , and ASW moved up to second priority . In August 1939 it was moved to first priority . When Coastal Command went to war , its first task was to co @-@ operate with the Navy to prevent enemy vessels from escaping into the North Sea and Atlantic Oceans . Secondly , it was to provide ASW support where and when it could . These steps are significant as the language indicates a change from passive reconnaissance of enemy warships and submarines to an active directive which involved the attack of the vessels by Coastal Command aircraft .
Since the late 1920s the tension between the air and naval services had declined . It arose briefly again in 1937 when the question of the FAA operational control arose . On this occasion the British Government sided with the Admiralty . Despite a spirited defence of its asset , once the Minister for Coordination of Defence , Sir Thomas Inskip had decided to transfer the arm , the Air Ministry was content to let the matter rest . Any threat to the Air Ministry 's existence had long since passed ; budgetary constraint , and the reluctance to engage in another battle which would waste resources were also factors in the Air Ministry 's decision not to contest the issue further . However , inter @-@ service squabbling assured maritime aviation 's stagnation , especially in shore @-@ based elements . Virtually no co @-@ operation existed in the area of research and development . In the case of Coastal Command , it continued to come third in the Air Ministry 's list of priorities , after Fighter and Bomber Commands , well into the late 1930s .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Early war = = =
From its formation in 1936 Coastal Command did not receive the support it required to be an effective naval air service . In September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland beginning the war in Europe . The Command 's position was comfortable for the first nine months of the war , the period known as the Phoney War . German submarines were not able to reach the Atlantic unless they undertook a dangerous transit journey through the North Sea and around Britain 's northern waters , or through the English Channel , which was guarded by the Royal and French Navies . The powerful French Navy was responsible for covering half of the Atlantic shipping routes , and thus contributed half of the Allied forces available .
However , the events of April to June 1940 overturned the balance of naval and air power , as the Germans conquered Denmark , Norway , The Netherlands , Belgium and France . The occupation of these countries permitted the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine to operate from French ports on the Atlantic coast , hundreds of miles closer to the Atlantic shipping lanes . German medium bombers could also now reach British ports on the country 's westernmost and northernmost coasts . The advantage now enjoyed by the Germans allowed them to interdict merchant shipping supplying food and war materials to Britain much more effectively which had the potential to starve Britain . While merchant shipping was suffering these losses , Coastal Command had proven ineffective at countering German air and sea attacks on shipping . In particular , it was ineffective at protecting English Channel convoys , which were forced to abandon operations for a few months , starting in July 1940 . RAF Fighter Command was given the task as it enjoyed the majority of RAF resources at the time . The objectives of strategic air attack and defence predominated in the RAF , despite the warning signs from 1914 to 1918 , that U @-@ boats would become a serious threat again , and the experience that aircraft were a suitable counter to their operations . As a result , Coastal Command became the " Cinderella service " until 1943 .
The situation would not improve until 1942 . In the meantime , however , Coastal Command did operate with effect alongside RAF Bomber Command in disrupting enemy shipping during the Battle of Britain in 1940 . Coastal Command attacked shipping and mined waters around invasion ports . The German invasion of Britain in 1940 , Operation Sea Lion , was eventually cancelled owing to the German defeat in the Battle of Britain .
During the first three years of the Second World War , Coastal Command and the Admiralty fought a continuous battle with the RAF and Air Ministry over the primacy of trade defence in relation to the bomber effort against mainland Germany , a strategic tussle which conceivably could have cost the Western Alliance the Battle of the Atlantic . The Air Staff and Bomber Command enjoyed the backing of Churchill and the maritime air effort struggled to receive the recognition it needed . On the outbreak of war , the order of battle listed just 298 aircraft , of which only 171 were operational . On 15 February 1941 Coastal Command was placed under the operational control of the Admiralty . Instrumental in improving the strike rate against submarines was scientific advisor and assistant director of research E. J. Williams , who applied scientific analysis to the logistical problems to great effect and was present at some meetings of the Cabinet Anti @-@ U @-@ boat Committee at 10 Downing Street under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister .
Owing to the starvation of resources , even as late as March 1943 the Atlantic supply lines were being threatened . This situation arose as a direct result of the lack of very long @-@ range aircraft . Despite the enormous losses of the disastrous 1940 – 1942 period , known to the Germans as the " First " and " Second Happy Time " , the Air Ministry refused to invest in trade defence . Further delays in resource procurement might have led to German success , which could have defeated Britain and forced it out of the war , or at least caused a postponement of Operation TORCH , the Allied landings in French North @-@ West Africa and [ Operation OVERLORD ] , the landing in France , in 1942 and 1944 respectively . Other research indicates that losses unquestionably affected the build @-@ up for Operation NEPTUNE , the naval phase of the landings in Europe .
= = = Mid and later war = = =
Eventually the Command was given the investment it needed . Radar and long @-@ range aircraft enabled the Command to hunt down and destroy U @-@ boats with growing efficiency . German submarines had been sinking a large number of Allied ships in the Atlantic Gap , which was a stretch of water in the central Atlantic beyond the range of most Allied aircraft . The covering of the gap by long @-@ range aircraft equipped with radar helped reduce the effectiveness of U @-@ boats . In May 1943 the campaign reached a peak , when a large number of U @-@ boats were sunk with little loss to Allied shipping . During this time Coastal Command gained the initiative . It was known by the Germans as Black May . Thereafter the suppression of German submarines was effective not only in the Atlantic , but also in their transit routes through the Bay of Biscay in 1942 , 1943 and 1944 . In June 1944 the Normandy landings and subsequent Operation OVERLORD liberated France and cost the Germans their air and submarine bases , won in 1940 . The U @-@ boats were thus forced to relocate to Norway and Germany in August , restoring many of the difficulties faced by the Kriegsmarine in 1939 and early 1940 . The entire strategic position , which had been the foundation of the U @-@ boat war since June 1940 had been undermined .
In the last three years of the war , Coastal Command sank more U @-@ boats than any other service and continued to hold the technological advantage from 1943 onwards . A brief threat , in the shape of the German Type XXI submarine emerged , but was too late to alter the course of events . In any event the technological answers to the Type XXI were already available in the form of 3 @-@ centimetre radar and magnetic anomaly detectors in aircraft . It was not until midnight on 4 June 1945 that official wartime operations ceased . The last mission was flown by Wing Commander J. Barret DFC , commanding officer of No. 201 Squadron RAF . By that time over 2 @,@ 000 decorations had been awarded . These included four Victoria Crosses , of whom only one survived the war , 17 George Medals , and 82 Distinguished Service Orders .
= = Cold War = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The capitulation of Germany in May 1945 was followed by a rapid rundown of Coastal Command with the immediate disbandment of combat units and the transfer of aircraft to the RAF Transport Command . Commonwealth personnel were also sent home and the powerful Bristol Beaufighter and de Havilland Mosquito wings were reduced . The Command still maintained strong air @-@ sea @-@ rescue ASR and reconnaissance forces but its ASW was lopsided . With a few exceptions , only a handful of squadrons with ASW aircraft remained by January 1946 .
While the Command retained a minimum peacetime force and the Air Ministry had every intention of maintaining it as such , the fleet was further reduced and suffered from procurement problems . The Short Shetland and Short Seaford were rejected as replacements for the Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . A maritime version of the promising Avro Lincoln had yet to be ordered by the time the Lend @-@ Lease programme ended in August 1945 . The Short Sunderland was forced to continue as the main operational type until the end of 1946 . Most of the aircraft that operated in the command were the Second World War types ; the Spitfire , Lancaster , Mosquito and Beaufighter .
The Command was kept busy in the late 1940s . Units were sent to the Middle East and Palestine as part of an air policing policy , in co @-@ operation with the Israeli Air Force and Egyptian Air Force to prevent conflict between the two countries owing to the formation of the state of Israel in 1948 . While there , they undertook a major operation , Operation BOBCAT , to prevent floods of illegal Jewish immigrants coming into Israel . In May 1948 the variety of aircraft was reduced despite increasing demand for operations . In May Palestinian terrorists and their supporters began attacking British military installations throughout the region . In the largest British post @-@ war action , Operation DAWN ( 13 to 14 May 1948 ) was launched with the support of Coastal Command .
On 28 June 1948 Coastal Command was also involved in the Berlin Airlift . The Soviet Union attempted to cut off all aid to the city which was jointly occupied by the four major powers , the Soviets in the east , and the Americans , French and British in the west . The joint American @-@ British operation continued for almost a year . Coastal Command aircraft were involved as flying boats were the only aircraft with internal anti @-@ corrosion treatment allowing bulk salt to be transported . The Command 's operations grew in intensity . By 13 July daily sorties had risen to 16 . By October it was 214 sorties ( other RAF Commands were also flying in supplies ) . The flying boats made their flight in using the Elbe river , but these operations came to a close on 14 December 1948 , when the hazard from uncharted sandbanks and wreckage which , in some cases had been deliberately placed there by the Soviets to prevent the Western Allies from supplying the city , made operations impractical . Over 1 @,@ 000 sorties had been made , and 4 @,@ 500 tons of supplies were flown in and 1 @,@ 113 people , mainly children , evacuated .
= = = Soviet threat = = =
NATO ( North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ) began preparations for a military defence of Western Europe by incorporating most West European nations into a defence pact against Soviet aggression in April 1951 . This led to the militarisation of West Germany in 1955 and was met with the militarisation of East Germany soon after , and its merger into the Warsaw Pact alliance with the Soviet Union . The purpose of Coastal Command was to help bolster the defence and guard against a potential Soviet naval threat in Atlantic and European waters .
For Coastal Command the main concern was the Atlantic . On 1 March 1950 it had lost the photo reconnaissance units to RAF Bomber Command . The transfer was not complete when North Korea invaded South Korea beginning the Korean War . Handley Page Hastings were hastily modified and ready for operations but were not sent , owing to the need for ASW aircraft in the Eastern Atlantic .
The Avro Shackleton was the main operational aircraft in the 1950s , replacing the wartime Liberator GRs , along with the Neptune MR.1s. At the end of August 1951 , No. 201 Squadron RAF became the first unit to complete training on the type . In mid @-@ 1953 Coastal Command 's order of Battle consisted of eight Shackleton squadrons ; one at Gibraltar , four covering the South @-@ Western Approaches in the Atlantic , and three more covering the North @-@ Western Approaches . This force numbered 64 aircraft . A further four Sunderland squadrons totalling 20 aircraft were split between the North @-@ Western and South @-@ Western Approaches . The Neptunes , numbering 32 aircraft in four squadrons , covered the North @-@ Eastern and Eastern Approaches . The Helicopter also joined Coastal Command . Bristol Sycamores entered service in 1953 and 16 aircraft were dispersed in Britain for ASW . In March the Avro Lancaster was finally phased out of Coastal Command service .
The Command was too expensive to maintain and cost cuts were made during the 1950s which caused a reduction in strength . By mid @-@ 1957 the Command had been cut to 82 aircraft . By mid @-@ 1958 it had shrunk to just 67 . The Shackletons dominated the core of this force , numbering 54 aircraft . The Neptune was cut from the service altogether , beginning on 31 August 1956 . There was little operational action for the Command at this point . It airlifted British Army forces into Egypt during the Suez Crisis which was its major action during this period . The lack of funds and any active conventional military role saw the Command struggle to keep its front @-@ line strength high . There was a brief alert in October 1962 , during the Cuban Missile Crisis , when all six squadrons it then possessed were put on high alert , but nothing came of the crisis , although the Shackleton squadrons at RAF Ballykelly were sent to Macrihanish as it was known that Ballykelly was on the Soviet IRBM target list .
In the early 1960s the Soviet Navy and Communist Bloc 's fishing fleets began operating around the British Isles in increasing numbers . The British public began taking an interest in their operations as civilian fisherman began complaining about their presence . Operation CHACEWATER began , in which Coastal Command began monitoring their movements , in particular other vessels that loitered in areas covering the arrival and departure routes for Royal Navy nuclear submarine forces . Soon after , counter operations such as Operation ADJUTANT were carried out , which was aimed at searching for Soviet submarines . The main threat from the Soviets in the Atlantic came from the Soviet Northern Fleet and in early 1965 most of the Command 's units were concentrated in No. 18 Group RAF , based in Scotland to monitor their activities . No recorded confrontation took place between Coastal Command and Soviet naval forces during this time , although both the Shackletons from RAF Ballykelly and frigates operating out of Londonderry would ' ping ' the Soviet submarines carrying out surveillance off the mouth of Lough Foyle . In at least one instance , a Ballykelly @-@ based Shackleton lost its radome when making a mock attack on the Russian sub .
In 1969 the special @-@ purpose Hawker @-@ Siddeley Nimrod , based on the de Havilland Comet airliner , was introduced into RAF service and Coastal Command duties were passed on to general squadrons . The Nimrod was a replacement for the Shackleton and it began to do so on 2 October 1969 . However , less than eight weeks later , Coastal Command was disbanded and ceased to exist on 27 November 1969 , when it was subsumed into RAF Strike Command .
= = Organisation = =
= = Commanders in Chief = =
The following officers commanded the service :
= = Depiction in film = =
The work of Coastal Command was immortalised in a 1942 wartime propaganda documentary named Coastal Command with a score by Ralph Vaughan Williams .
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= William Eustis =
William Eustis ( June 10 , 1753 – February 6 , 1825 ) was an early American physician , politician , and statesman from Massachusetts . Trained in medicine , he served as a military surgeon during the American Revolutionary War , notably at the Battle of Bunker Hill . He resumed medical practice after the war , but soon entered politics .
After several terms in the state legislature , Eustis won election to the United States Congress in 1800 , serving as a moderate Democratic @-@ Republican . He briefly returned to state politics after losing reelection in 1804 , and was chosen to be Secretary of War in 1809 by President James Madison . Due in part to his inexperience at managing the army and a lack of preparedness , the military failures in the early months of the War of 1812 were laid on his shoulders , leading to his resignation .
Madison then appointed Eustis Minister to the Netherlands , a post he held from 1814 until 1818 . After another period in Congress , he was elected Governor of Massachusetts in 1822 . A popular successor to long @-@ serving John Brooks , Eustis died in office in 1825 . His Boston mansion , built in the 1750s by royal governor William Shirley , is known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House and is a National Historic Landmark .
= = Early years and military service = =
William Eustis was born on June 10 , 1753 in Cambridge , Massachusetts , to Benjamin Eustis , a prominent Boston doctor , and Elizabeth ( Hill ) Eustis . He was the second surviving son of twelve children . He was educated at the Boston Latin School before he entered Harvard College , from which he graduated in 1772 . While at Harvard he belonged to an undergraduate militia unit called the Martimercurian Band .
After graduation he studied medicine under Dr. Joseph Warren , a well @-@ known Patriot political leader . When the Battles of Lexington and Concord sparked the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 , Warren and Eustis both worked in the field , tending the injured revolutionaries . Warren secured for Eustis a commission as regimental surgeon to the rebel artillery . Eustis helped care for the wounded at the June 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill , in which Warren was killed . He served with the Continental Army in the New York and New Jersey campaign , refusing a lieutenant colonel 's commission offered by artillery chief Henry Knox . During his Continental Army service , Eustis met and established an enduring friendship with New Jersey native Aaron Burr .
In 1777 Eustis was placed in command of a military hospital established at the former residence of Loyalist Beverley Robinson north of New York City , where he remained for the duration of the war . In September 1780 he played a minor role in events surrounding the flight of traitor Benedict Arnold : he treated Arnold 's wife Peggy , who was seemingly hysterical over the sudden departure of her husband and the discovery of his plot .
After the war Eustis returned to medical practice in Boston . He was once again called on to serve in military matters when Shays ' Rebellion broke out in western Massachusetts in 1786 , becoming surgeon to the militia force raised by General Benjamin Lincoln that quashed the rebellion in the early months of 1787 . Eustis became vice president of the Society of the Cincinnati in 1786 , a post he held until 1810 , and again in 1820 .
= = Legislator = =
Eustis was elected to the Massachusetts General Court ( the state legislature ) from 1788 to 1794 , which he left because he was " sick of " the political gamesmanship in the body . He was thereafter chosen to serve on the Governor 's Council for two years . In 1800 he ran for a seat in the United States House of Representatives . During his successful campaign against Josiah Quincy , Eustis was charged with either authoring , or being complicit in the production of , letters that formed a part of the 1783 Newburgh Conspiracy , a threatened uprising in the Continental Army . Eustis publicly denied being the author of the letters , but was silent on his role in the affair . ( John Armstrong later admitted to writing the letters , and Eustis acknowledged some years later that he was privy to the plot . )
Eustis was a moderate Democratic @-@ Republican who did not seek the significant reforms more radical Republicans wanted . He demonstrated this by voting against President Thomas Jefferson 's repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801 , a Federalist bill passed in the late days of the John Adams administration that had greatly expanded the number of seats on the federal bench . In 1802 Eustis was reelected , defeating John Quincy Adams , and in a rematch of the 1800 election with Quincy , Eustis was defeated by fewer than 100 votes . While in the House , he was one of the managers appointed by the House of Representatives in 1804 to conduct the impeachment proceedings ( the first such action to succeed ) against John Pickering , judge of the United States District Court for New Hampshire . In 1804 he argued in favor of arming merchant vessels headed for the West Indies .
= = Secretary of War = =
When James Madison became president in 1809 , he sought to enhance the status of the Democratic @-@ Republicans in Federalist @-@ dominated New England . To that end he chose Eustis to be his Secretary of War . Eustis was not a good choice for the post , lacking the necessary administrative skills and detailed military background . He also had difficult relations with James Wilkinson and Wade Hampton , two senior army commanders .
Eustis made a major push to update the military 's field manuals , which had not changed since the Revolutionary War . After acquiring copies of manuals published in 1791 for use by the armies of the French Republic , Eustis commissioned a translation and lobbied for adoption of new manuals based on French tactics . Although a new manual was ready for use in 1812 , it was not well received by the officer corps , and was not used in the war that broke out that year .
As tensions grew between the United States and Great Britain , Eustis made modest moves to improve military readiness , but did not otherwise distinguish himself or introduce other initiatives or proposals . When the War of 1812 began , the army 's logistics were in shambles , and it had no overall commander , forcing Eustis to make detailed decisions for nine military districts . When the war began poorly with the surrender of General William Hull at Detroit , Eustis was severely criticized . Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin wrote that there was " a total want of confidence " in Eustis that was felt " through every ramification of the public service . " Eustis tendered his resignation in December 1812 , and Secretary of State James Monroe took over his duties until John Armstrong assumed the office on February 13 , 1813 .
= = Netherlands minister = =
Eustis was next appointed minister of the United States to the Netherlands by President Madison , serving from 1814 to 1818 . Madison believed the post to be important for sounding out conditions in Europe due to The Hague 's historical use as a neutral ground for negotiations , and he instructed Eustis to track European diplomatic sentiment . However , the status of the Dutch declined after the defeat of Napoleon , and the post was not particularly active . Eustis unsuccessfully pursued claims against the Dutch for seizures of American goods and ships that had taken place during the reign of Louis Bonaparte over the Kingdom of Holland ( the claims were eventually acknowledged by France ) . Eustis was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815 . Eustis and Albert Gallatin , then the US Ambassador to France , negotiated a new commerce treaty with the Dutch government in 1817 ; it was ratified in 1818 . Eustis was at a disadvantage due to his lack of French language skill , and was recalled in 1818 after the Dutch government reduced its American delegation head to a chargé d 'affaires . While in Europe Eustis renewed an acquaintance with the Marquis de Lafayette , with whom he had served in the Revolutionary War .
= = Later offices = =
Upon his return from Europe , Eustis purchased the mansion in Roxbury built by royal governor William Shirley in the 1750s ( which is now known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House ) . Eustis was again elected to Congress in a special election called after the resignation of Representative Edward Dowse . He served from 1820 to 1823 , presiding as chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Military Affairs . In the debate on the admission of Missouri as a state ( leading to the Missouri Compromise ) , Eustis made an impassioned speech in opposition to proposed language in the Missouri Constitution forbidding the entry of free blacks into the state .
He ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts three times ( 1820 – 22 ) , losing each time to the popular moderate Federalist John Brooks . In 1823 Eustis won the seat in a highly contentious contest with the unpopular arch @-@ Federalist Harrison Gray Otis . Republicans presented Eustis as a moderate successor to Brooks who would be less partisan than Otis , and also highlighted his Revolutionary War experience . He carried Federalist strongholds in Hampshire and Essex Counties , and very nearly defeated in Otis in Boston . Eustis ' victory in the election ( combined with a Republican sweep of the legislature the following year ) marked the effective end of the Federalist Party in Massachusetts .
Eustis was a popular governor , continuing Brooks ' moderate policies . He nominated his lieutenant governor , Levi Lincoln , Jr . , to the state 's high court , and won reelection in 1824 with former Representative Marcus Morton as his lieutenant . While governor he received his old friend Lafayette when he toured the United States . In March – April 1824 , perhaps due to his popularity , William Eustis was honored with a single vote at the Democratic @-@ Republican Party Caucus to be the party 's candidate for the Office of U.S. Vice President for the upcoming 1824 U.S. Presidential Election .
Eustis died in Boston of pneumonia while governor on February 6 , 1825 . His funeral and temporary interment took place Boston 's Granary Burying Ground , and he was memorialized by his friend Edward Everett . He was later reinterred at Lexington 's Old Cemetery .
= = Personal life = =
During the Revolutionary War Eustis became close friends with Aaron Burr , a friendship that deepened in the 1790s . Burr and Eustis exchanged letters on the most intimate subjects , recommending potential romantic partners to each other and sharing a taste for well @-@ educated women . Eustis aided Burr on one occasion by helping him find accommodations for a young woman whose mother had been involved in an adulterous relationship with Alexander Hamilton ; she was placed in a Boston @-@ area boarding school . Eustis may have also been the subject of a teenage crush by Burr 's daughter Theodosia , who shared intimate details of her life with him ( including medical conditions emanating from a difficult pregnancy ) well into adulthood .
Eustis was for many years a confirmed bachelor , described as urbane and charming . He married Caroline Langdon in 1801 ; they had no children . She was the sister of Henry Sherburne Langdon , who had married Eustis ' sister Ann , and the daughter of Woodbury Langdon , a prominent Portsmouth , New Hampshire merchant and judge . His wife survived him by forty years , after which his Boston property was divided among relatives . The mansion fell into decay , but was acquired by preservationists in 1913 and restored to its 19th @-@ century grandeur in the late 20th century . It is now a house museum and a National Historic Landmark .
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= Red Ruffing =
Charles Herbert " Red " Ruffing ( May 3 , 1905 – February 17 , 1986 ) was an American professional baseball player . A pitcher , he played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1924 through 1947 . He played for the Boston Red Sox , New York Yankees , and Chicago White Sox . Ruffing is most remembered for his time with the highly successful Yankees teams of the 1930s and 1940s .
Ruffing dropped out of school as a child to work in a coal mine in his native Illinois . He played for the mine 's company baseball team as an outfielder and first baseman . After he lost four toes from his left foot in a mining accident , he became unable to run in the field , and switched to pitching . He played in minor league baseball in 1923 and 1924 before making his MLB debut with the Red Sox . After struggling with Boston , pitching to a 36 – 93 win – loss record , the Red Sox traded Ruffing to the Yankees , where he became successful , pitching as the Yankees ' ace through 1946 . After one season with the White Sox , Ruffing retired from pitching to work in coaching . He served as a bullpen coach for the White Sox , a pitching coach for the New York Mets , and a scout and minor league instructor for the Cleveland Indians .
Ruffing was a member of six World Series championship teams with the Yankees . He also appeared in six MLB All @-@ Star Games . He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1967 . The Yankees dedicated a plaque to Ruffing in Monument Park in 2004 .
= = Early life = =
Ruffing was born on May 3 , 1905 , in Granville , Illinois . He was one of five children . His parents , John and Louise Ruffing , emigrated to the United States from Germany . Ruffing was raised in Coalton , Illinois and Nokomis , Illinois . He went to school in Nokomis . His father was a coal miner , working in a mine in Coalton , Illinois , until he suffered a broken back . John became the superintendent of the mine , and also served as mayor of Coalton .
Red quit school at the age of 13 to work for his father in the mine , earning $ 3 per day ( $ 47 in current dollar terms ) , working as a coupler . Conditions in the mine were dangerous . Red 's cousin , who also worked in the mine , died in an accident . He also played baseball as an outfielder and first baseman for the mine 's company team , and for a semi @-@ professional team in Nokomis .
When Ruffing was 15 years old , he suffered an accident in the mine , where his left foot was crushed between two cars . Though the doctor was able to save his foot , Red lost four toes . He was supposed to begin his professional baseball career in the Kentucky – Illinois – Tennessee League that year , but he found himself unable to run as fast as he previously could . Doc Bennett , the manager of a nearby semi @-@ professional team , suggested that Ruffing should try to continue pursuing a baseball career by becoming a pitcher .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 1923 – 24 ) = = =
Bennett helped arrange for Ruffing to sign his first professional contract when he reached the age of 18 . Ruffing signed with the Danville Veterans of the Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League , a minor league baseball team in the Class B designation level . With Danville , Ruffing had a 12 – 16 win – loss record . After pitching for Danville in the 1923 season , the Boston Red Sox purchased Ruffing from Danville for $ 4 @,@ 000 ( $ 55 @,@ 555 in current dollar terms ) .
The Red Sox assigned Ruffing to the Dover Senators of the Class D Eastern Shore League to pitch at the start of the 1924 season . He had a 4 – 7 record for Dover .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Boston Red Sox ( 1924 – 30 ) = = = =
Ruffing made his major league debut with the Red Sox on May 31 , 1924 . He pitched without earning a decision in over 23 innings pitched , and had a 6 @.@ 65 earned run average ( ERA ) . He saw regular playing time with the Red Sox over the next few years but had limited success . He had a 9 – 18 win @-@ loss record with a 5 @.@ 01 ERA in the 1925 season , as the Red Sox finished in last place in the eight team American League ( AL ) . Ruffing had a 6 – 15 win @-@ loss record and a 4 @.@ 39 ERA in the 1926 season , and a 5 – 13 win @-@ loss record with a 4 @.@ 66 ERA in the 1927 season , with the Red Sox finishing in last place both years . His best season to date , in terms of earned run performance , came in 1928 , when he posted a 3 @.@ 89 ERA . However , he led the AL in earned runs allowed , with 125 , and had a 10 – 25 win @-@ loss record , which led the AL in losses . On a positive note , he also led the AL with 25 complete games . As Ruffing had a .314 batting average during the 1928 season , the Red Sox and Ruffing considered having him shift to the outfield . The team decided against a position change due to the limitations of Ruffing 's left foot .
The Red Sox chose Ruffing to be their Opening Day starting pitcher for the 1929 season . During the 1929 season , he again led the AL in losses , with 22 , and earned runs , with 135 . He won only nine games . Ruffing often had difficulty pitching more than five innings in a game . Someone in the Red Sox organization suggested to Ruffing that he should try to gain weight by drinking beer , which saw him grow from 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) to 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) .
During the 1930 season , Bob Quinn , the owner of the Red Sox , was in debt and afraid he would lose the team due to foreclosure . To raise capital , he traded Ruffing to the New York Yankees for reserve outfielder Cedric Durst , $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 708 @,@ 267 in current dollar terms ) , and a $ 50 @,@ 000 loan from Jacob Ruppert , the Yankees ' owner . Ruffing ended his five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year tenure with the Red Sox with a 39 – 93 win @-@ loss record ; his winning percentage ( .289 ) was lower than that of the Red Sox during his tenure ( .344 ) .
= = = = New York Yankees = = = =
= = = = = 1930 – 38 = = = = =
Miller Huggins , who served as the Yankees ' manager through 1929 , had attempted to acquire Ruffing from the Red Sox for the last couple years of his Yankees ' tenure . When Ruffing told him that he was considering moving to the outfield , Huggins told him he should continue as a pitcher . Bob Shawkey , a former pitcher who succeeded Huggins as the Yankees new manager in 1930 , had convinced Ed Barrow , the Yankees ' general manager , to acquire Ruffing . Shawkey believed he could change Ruffing 's approach to pitching to obtain better results . Shawkey worked with Ruffing to change his pitching delivery , so that Ruffing used his body more . This helped Ruffing save his arm strength for the later innings of the game . The trade of Ruffing for Durst is now reckoned as one of the most lopsided trades in baseball history ; Durst was a reserve outfielder who always batted at the bottom of the lineup when he was used . The 1930 season proved to be Durst 's last year in the majors . Ruffing had a 0 – 3 record with the Red Sox before the trade . He won 15 games for the Yankees after the trade , losing only five games .
The Yankees chose Ruffing as their starting pitcher for Opening Day in 1931 . During the 1931 season , Ruffing had a 16 – 14 win @-@ loss record with a 4 @.@ 41 ERA . The Yankees finished the season in second place . On August 13 , 1932 , Ruffing threw a complete game shutout and hit a home run in the tenth inning off of Washington Senators ' pitcher Tommy Thomas to give the New York Yankees a 1 – 0 victory . Ruffing became the first pitcher in major league history to win a game 1 – 0 , hit a home run in the game , and strike out ten or more batters . Two other pitchers have since achieved this feat : Early Wynn in 1957 , and Yovani Gallardo , who did it in 2009 . Ruffing won 18 games during the 1932 season . He had a 3 @.@ 09 ERA , second in the AL only to Lefty Grove 's 2 @.@ 84 . Ruffing had 190 strikeouts , which led the AL . The Yankees won their first pennant since 1928 . Ruffing won his first World Series game during the 1932 World Series against the Chicago Cubs . He started Game One , and the Yankees swept the Cubs four games to zero .
Ruffing had a 9 – 14 win @-@ loss record with a 3 @.@ 91 ERA in the 1933 season , as the Yankees finished in second place in the AL . He threw a one @-@ hitter on June 20 , 1934 , against the Cleveland Indians . Two weeks later , Joe Cronin selected Ruffing for the 1934 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . At that point , he had a 9 – 3 win @-@ loss record on the season . He finished the season with a 19 – 11 win @-@ loss record , as the Yankees finished second in the AL . Ruffing pitched to a 16 – 11 record in the 1935 season , as the Yankees again finished second in the AL . His 3 @.@ 12 ERA was third in the league , behind only Grove and Ted Lyons .
Ruffing won 20 games during the 1936 season . His 3 @.@ 85 ERA was the sixth @-@ best in the league , and his 20 wins tied him for third place , with Johnny Allen and Wes Ferrell , behind Tommy Bridges and Vern Kennedy . He started Game One of the 1936 World Series against the New York Giants , but lost . The Yankees defeated the Giants four games to two . In a salary dispute with the Yankees , Ruffing did not report to spring training , and he held out at the start of the 1937 season , missing the first month . He signed in May , receiving a $ 15 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 246 @,@ 910 in current dollar terms ) . Ruffing had a 20 – 7 win @-@ loss record for the Yankees in 1937 . He finished with the fourth @-@ best ERA in the league , 2 @.@ 98 , trailing Lefty Gomez , Monty Stratton , and Allen , and his 20 wins were second only to Gomez , who had 21 . His performance earned him eighth place in AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award voting . He started Game Two in the 1937 World Series , earning the victory , as the Yankees defeated the Giants four games to one .
The Yankees started Ruffing on Opening Day for the 1938 season . He was again named an All @-@ Star during the 1938 season . Yankees ' manager Joe McCarthy , who managed the AL team in the All @-@ Star Game , chose teammate Lefty Gomez as the starting pitcher . As McCarthy did not believe in pitching two players from the same team in an All @-@ Star Game , Ruffing did not appear in the game . He led the AL with 21 wins in the 1938 season . He also tied for the AL lead in shutouts during with three , while his 3 @.@ 31 ERA was third @-@ best in the league , behind only Grove . Ruffing pitched the opening game of the 1938 World Series against the Cubs . He won two games in the series as the Yankees defeated the Cubs . Ruffing finished fourth in AL MVP voting for the 1938 season .
= = = = = 1939 – 46 = = = = =
McCarthy named Ruffing to be the starting pitcher for the Yankees on Opening Day in 1939 . McCarthy , managing the AL All @-@ Star team that year , also selected Ruffing as his starter for the 1939 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He missed several weeks late in the 1939 season due to an arm injury , but managed to start Game One of the 1939 World Series . He defeated the Cincinnati Redlegs in that game , and the Yankees won the series in a four games to zero sweep . Ruffing won 21 games during the 1939 season . His four shutouts in the 1939 season again tied him for the AL lead , while he finished second in wins behind Bob Feller , and fourth in ERA ( 2 @.@ 93 ) behind Grove , Lyons , and Feller . He finished fifth in the balloting for the AL MVP .
Ruffing was the Yankees ' Opening Day starting pitcher in 1940 . He was named to the 1940 All @-@ Star team , and Cronin , acting as manager , selected Ruffing as his starting pitcher . Ruffing finished the season with a 15 – 12 win @-@ loss record . Ruffing was a member of the 1941 All @-@ Star team as well , but he did not pitch in the game . He had a 15 – 6 win @-@ loss record during the 1941 season , and was named the starting pitcher for Game One of the 1941 World Series against the Brooklyn Dodgers . Ruffing defeated the Dodgers , as the Yankees won the series four games to one .
Ruffing pitched for the Yankees during Opening Day of the 1942 season . On the year , he compiled a 14 – 7 win @-@ loss record . He was again named an All @-@ Star , and again did not pitch in the All @-@ Star Game , which was started by teammate Spud Chandler . Though teammate Tiny Bonham had a better season , pitching to a 21 – 5 win @-@ loss record , McCarthy again chose Ruffing as his Game One starter for the 1942 World Series , setting a record with six World Series Game One starts that stood until Whitey Ford started his seventh Game One in the 1963 World Series . Ruffing defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in Game One , his seventh World Series victory . This set a record that was surpassed by Ford in 1960 . Ruffing pitched again in the Game Five , with the Yankees down three games to one . Ruffing lost the game , as the Cardinals defeated the Yankees to win the series .
After the 1942 season , Ruffing took a job with Vultee Aircraft , a defense contractor . Despite his age ( 37 ) and missing toes , a United States Army doctor certified Ruffing as Class 1 @-@ B in the Selective Service System , overruled Ruffing 's personal physician , who had ruled Ruffing unfit for service . The Army decided that Ruffing could serve in a non @-@ combat role . Ruffing missed the 1943 and 1944 seasons due to his service during World War II . He served in the Sixth Ferrying Group of the Air Transport Command of the United States Army Air Forces at the rank of private . However , he did pitch for the Air Transport Command 's baseball team , throwing a perfect game against Joe DiMaggio 's team , and leading his team to the championship against Ted Lyons ' team . In 1944 , he played with an All @-@ Star team for troops stationed in Hawaii .
Ruffing turned forty years of age during the war , resulting in his discharge in June 1945 . He rejoined the Yankees that month , signing for the same $ 20 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 262 @,@ 884 in current dollar terms ) he earned in 1942 . He made his first appearance with the Yankees since the 1942 season in July 1945 . Pitching for the Yankees as a spot starter in 1946 , he had a 5 – 1 win @-@ loss record and a 1 @.@ 77 ERA when he suffered a broken kneecap from a line drive hit by Hank Majeski , and missed the remainder of the season .
In total , Ruffing won 231 games with the Yankees . This mark was the most in franchise history , until Ford surpassed it in 1965 . He remains the winningest right @-@ handed pitcher in Yankees ' history .
= = = = Chicago White Sox ( 1947 ) = = = =
Suffering from recurrent knee injuries , the Yankees released Ruffing after the 1946 season . He signed with the Chicago White Sox for the 1947 season , but continued to be limited by his knee . In May , the White Sox removed Ruffing from their active roster after he was hit in his bad knee with another line drive . He rejoined the White Sox ' active roster in July . He pitched to a 3 – 5 win – loss record and a 6 @.@ 11 ERA in nine games pitched on the season . Ruffing retired after the 1947 season .
= = = = Career summary = = = =
Ruffing finished his career with 273 wins , 225 losses , 1 @,@ 987 strikeouts and a 3 @.@ 80 ERA . He also had 16 saves . Ruffing compiled 335 complete games in his 536 games started . Ruffing could also handle the bat very well compared to most other pitchers , hitting 36 home runs and batting .269 in 1 @,@ 937 career at @-@ bats . He hit over .300 in eight different seasons , and was frequently used as a pinch hitter in games he did not pitch . He also played in the outfield in emergency situations . Ruffing 's home run total as a pitcher trails only Ferrell , Warren Spahn , and Bob Lemon . Ruffing holds the AL record for most runs and earned runs allowed .
Ruffing threw a fastball , a " sharp " curveball , and a slider . According to AL umpire Bill Summers , " [ O ] n account of Red Ruffing , the slider got to be the thing . " Joe Paparella , also an AL umpire , said " The first game I ever worked behind the plate in the major leagues was against the guy who invented the slider and had the best slider ever seen — Red Ruffing " .
= = Coaching career = =
After he retired from pitching , Ruffing stayed with the White Sox organization to instruct their players . The White Sox named Ruffing the manager of their Class A minor league affiliate , the Muskegon Clippers of the Central League , for the 1949 season . That season , the Clippers finished in fifth place out of six teams . In 1950 , Ruffing managed the Daytona Beach Islanders of the Florida State League , a Cleveland Indians ' affiliate .
When Al Simmons retired from his coaching position with the Indians just before the 1951 season due to his failing health , bullpen coach Jake Flowers was moved to the third base coaching position , and Ruffing took over Flowers 's duties . From 1952 through 1961 , Ruffing was a player personnel executive for the Indians . Ruffing returned to the baseball field serving as pitching coach for the expansion New York Mets in 1962 , which were run by George Weiss , the general manager , and Casey Stengel , the manager . Weiss and Stengel had held the same positions with the Yankees during Ruffing 's tenure . As a team , the Mets had a 5 @.@ 04 ERA across the 1962 season , which was the worst in the major leagues . The job also involved scouting duties , which Ruffing did not like , and he retired shortly after the season ended . He returned to baseball again for the 1969 season , at the request of former teammate Don Heffner , who was managing the Denver Bears of the American Association . Ruffing served as Heffner 's pitching coach .
= = Personal = =
Ruffing married Pauline Mulholland , a native of Chicago , at the end of the 1934 season . The couple settled in Long Beach , California . When he worked for the Indians in the 1950s , the Ruffing family relocated to Cleveland . The couple had a son , named Charles , Jr .
Ruffing suffered a stroke in 1974 , at the age of 68 , which left him paralyzed on his left side . As a result , he used a wheelchair for the remainder of his life . This was Ruffing 's second stroke , and he also suffered from kidney and heart problems . He contracted skin cancer , necessitating the partial amputation of one of his ears . He died on February 17 , 1986 , at Hillcrest Hospital in Mayfield Heights , Ohio , of heart failure .
= = Honors = =
In balloting for the National Baseball Hall of Fame following his retirement , Ruffing often received votes from approximately 50 % of the voters in the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , short of the 75 % required for induction . Bob Feller wrote an article in The Saturday Evening Post in 1962 , calling Ruffing , Satchel Paige , and Luke Appling the three most deserving players who had yet to be elected . The balloting of 1967 was Ruffing 's final year of eligibility , as he had retired twenty years prior . Ruffing finished with 212 votes , tied with Joe Medwick for the highest vote count , but was seven votes short of the 219 required for induction . However , a runoff election held the next month saw Ruffing into the Hall of Fame the next month .
During an Old @-@ Timers ' Day ceremony held on July 10 , 2004 at Yankee Stadium , the Yankees dedicated a plaque in Ruffing 's memory . The plaque is displayed in Monument Park . ESPN.com ranked Ruffing as the ninth greatest Yankee of all time .
A museum in Nokomis , Illinois , the Bottomley @-@ Ruffing @-@ Schalk Museum , is dedicated to Ruffing and fellow Hall of Famers Ray Schalk and Jim Bottomley .
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= Washington State Route 538 =
State Route 538 ( SR 538 , alternatively named College Way ) is a 3 @.@ 62 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 83 km ) long state highway located within the northern area of Mount Vernon city limits and the urban growth boundary , located in Skagit County , a subdivision of the U.S. state of Washington . The highway , which has existed as a county road since 1911 , travels from Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in the west , passing former U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) , now Riverside Drive , and Skagit Valley College 's main Mount Vernon campus before terminating at a roundabout with SR 9 .
Before being designated Secondary State Highway 1G ( SSH 1G ) in 1937 , the current roadway that is now SR 538 was a county road through farmland for 26 years . SSH 1G traveled between Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) , also known as US 99 , and SSH 1A until 1964 , when the current designation of SR 538 was created . US 99 was bypassed by I @-@ 5 after 1966 and became Riverside Drive . The roundabout at SR 9 was constructed in 2007 while the Riverside Drive intersection was widened in 2009 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 538 ( SR 538 ) begins at the Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) interchange in northern Mount Vernon located south of the Skagit River . The roadway , which handled a daily average of 27 @,@ 000 motorists at the interchange in 2008 , is named College Way and travels east through a commercial zone , passing Riverside Drive , the former route of U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) , and crossing a set of rail tracks used by BNSF Railway . Transitioning from a commercial to residential area , the Mount Vernon campus of the Skagit Valley College , located on the north side of the highway , is passed and eventually SR 538 leaves Mount Vernon city limits . The road turns southeast and ends at a roundabout with SR 9 within Mount Vernon 's urban growth boundary .
= = History = =
Originating as a county road by 1911 , SR 538 was designated Secondary State Highway 1G ( SSH 1G ) in 1937 . SSH 1G ran from Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) , co @-@ signed as U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) , to SSH 1A . During the 1964 highway renumbering , SR 538 was created to replace SSH 1G , PSH 1 and US 99 were replaced with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and SR 9 replaced SSH 1A . I @-@ 5 was not built until after 1966 and the western terminus of SR 538 was still US 99 . Between early June and late July 2007 , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) constructed a roundabout at the SR 9 and Schopf Lane intersection , the first in Skagit County . The new roundabout reduced the length of SR 538 by 0 @.@ 05 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 08 km ) . In early 2009 , between I @-@ 5 and 18th Street , WSDOT repaved the highway and expanded the Riverside Drive intersection . Cemex Pacific Holdings was awarded the contract for repaving the road on January 20 and construction began with the closure of the Riverside Drive intersection on 31 May . The closure , which was delayed from 3 May , lasted until June 4 . Actual repaving happened in late June of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Skagit County .
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= Staten Island Railway =
The Staten Island Railway ( SIR ) is the only rapid transit line in the New York City borough of Staten Island . Legally called the Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority ( SIRTOA ) , a unit of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority , it is considered a standard railroad line , but only freight service which runs along the western portion of the North Shore Branch is connected to the national railway system .
SIR operates with modified R44 New York City Subway cars , and is run by the New York City Transit Authority , an agency of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority and operator of the New York City Subway . However , there is no direct rail link between the SIR and the subway system proper . SIR riders do get a free transfer to New York City Subway lines , and the line is included on official New York City Subway maps . Commuters who use the railway typically use the Staten Island Ferry to reach Manhattan ; the line is accessible from within the Ferry Terminal and most of its trains connect with the ferry .
The Staten Island Railway provides full @-@ time local service between Saint George and Tottenville along the east side of the borough . There is currently no subway service offered for those residents living on the western or northern sides of the borough , but Staten Island light rail has been proposed for these corridors , though not endorsed by the MTA . The line has a route bullet similar to other subway routes : the letters SIR in a blue circle . It is used only on timetables and on the MTA 's site , not on trains . The line runs 24 hours a day every day of the year ( since May 10 , 2015 , the overnight service is on a 30 @-@ minute headway ) and is one of only six mass @-@ transit rail lines in the United States to do so ( the others being the PATCO Speedline , the Red and Blue Lines of the Chicago ' L ' , the Green Line of the Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul METRO , the PATH lines , and the New York City Subway ) .
On weekdays , express service to St. George is provided between 6 : 15 a.m. and 8 : 15 a.m. and to Tottenville from 7 : 01 a.m. to 8 : 01 a.m. and 4 : 01 p.m. to 7 : 51 p.m. Morning express trains run non @-@ stop between St. George and New Dorp ; afternoon express trains run non @-@ stop from St. George to Great Kills southbound only . Express service is noted on trains by the presence of a red marker with the terminal and ' express ' directly underneath it .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century = = =
The Staten Island Railway was incorporated on August 2 , 1851 , after Perth Amboy and Staten Island residents petitioned for a Tottenville @-@ to @-@ Stapleton rail line . The railroad was financed through a loan from Cornelius " Commodore " Vanderbilt , the sole Staten Island @-@ to @-@ Manhattan ferry operator on the east shore , which was his first involvement in a railroad . The line was completed to Tottenville on June 2 , 1860 . Many stations were named after nearby large farms , such as Garretson 's or Gifford 's . There were more elaborate structures put in place at Eltingville and Annadale , as their namesakes , the Eltings and Anna Seguine , were influential in financing the construction of the Staten Island Railway . Under the leadership of Commodore Vanderbilt 's brother Jacob H. Vanderbilt , the Staten Island Rail Road took over several independent ferries , and train service was increased . The Staten Island Railway and ferry line were making a modest profit until the explosion of the ferry ship " Westfield " at Whitehall Street Terminal on July 30 , 1871 . By July 1872 , the railroad and the ferry were in receivership . On September 7 , 1872 , the property of the company was sold to George Law and Horace Theall .
Erastus Wiman , dubbed the " Duke of Staten Island , " became one of the most prominent residents of Staten Island after locating his residence in a mansion on the island . Because the Staten Island Railroad Company was barely operational by the late 1870s , New York State sued to have the company dissolved in May 1880 . Wiman organized the Staten Island Rapid Transit Company ( SIRT ) on March 25 , 1880 , and partnered with the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad to build a large rail terminal on the island and centralize the six @-@ to @-@ eight ferry landings . At one point , Wiman secured an extension on a land purchase option from George Law by naming the place " St. George " in order to flatter him .
Construction on the Vanderbilt 's Landing to Tompkinsville portion of the North Shore Branch began on March 17 , 1884 , and the line opened for passenger service on August 1 , 1884 . The lighthouse department just above Tompkinsville impeded the line 's extension to St. George , but after the SIRT lobbied for an Act of Congress , construction of a two @-@ tracked , 580 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) tunnel under the lighthouse began in 1885 , for about $ 190 @,@ 000 . The SIR was leased to the B & O for 99 years in 1885 . The proceeds of the sale were used to complete the terminal facilities at Saint George , pay for two miles of waterfront property , complete the Rapid Transit Railroad , build a bridge over the Kill Van Kull at Elizabethport , and build other terminal facilities . The North Shore Branch opened for service on February 23 , 1886 , up to Elm Park . The Saint George Terminal opened on March 7 , 1886 , and all SIR lines were extended to this station . On March 8 , 1886 , the South Beach Branch opened for passenger service to Arrochar . The remainder of the North Shore Branch to its terminus at Erastina was opened in the summer of 1886 . The new lines opened by the B & O railroad were called the Staten Island Rapid Transit Railway , while the original line from Clifton to Tottenville was called the Staten Island Railway .
Various proposals were made by the B & O for a railroad between Staten Island and New Jersey . The accepted proposal consisted of a five and one quarter line from the Arthur Kill to meet the Jersey Central at Cranford , through Union County and the communities of Roselle Park and Linden . Construction on this road started in 1889 , and the line was finished in the latter part of that year . Congress passed a law on June 16 , 1886 authorizing the construction of a 500 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) swing bridge over the Arthur Kill , after three years of effort by Erastus Wiman . The start of construction was delayed for nine months by the need for approval of the Secretary of War , and another six months due to an injunction from the State of New Jersey . This required construction to continue through the brutal winter of 1888 because Congress had set a completion deadline of June 16 , 1888 , two years after signing the bill . The bridge was completed three days early on June 13 , 1888 , at 3 p.m. At the time of its opening , the Arthur Kill Bridge was the largest drawbridge ever constructed in the world . There were no fatalities in the construction of the bridge . On January 1 , 1890 , the first train operated from Saint George Terminal to Cranford Junction . Once the Arthur Kill Bridge was completed , pressure was brought upon the United States War Department by the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad to have the newly built bridge torn down and replaced with a bridge with a different design , claiming that it was an obstruction for the navigation of the large numbers of coal barges past Holland Hook on the Arthur Kill . They were however not successful in these efforts .
In 1889 , the South Beach Branch was extended from Arrochar to a new terminal at South Beach . In 1889 , the Southfield Beach Electric Railway , a non @-@ Staten Island Rapid Transit service was built for one mile from the SIRT 's South Beach to Midland Beach , which during this time was a popular resort , with hotels and a gambling casino . In 1897 , the terminal at Saint George , which served the railroad and the ferry to Manhattan , was completed .
= = = 20th century = = =
Improvements were made to the SIRT after the Pennsylvania Railroad ( PRR ) took control of the B & O in 1900 . After PRR control , the B & O was profitable again and became a stronger railroad . On October 25 , 1905 , the city took ownership of the ferry and terminals , and ejected the B & O from Whitehall Street terminal . A new Saint George Terminal was then built by the city for $ 2 @,@ 318 @,@ 720 .
In anticipation of a tunnel under the Narrows to Brooklyn and a connection there with the New York subway system at the Bay Ridge – 95th Street station , the SIRT electrified its lines using third rail power distribution and cars similar to those of the Brooklyn – Manhattan Transit Corporation ( BMT ) . The first electric train was operated on the South Beach Branch between South Beach and Fort Wadsworth on May 30 , 1925 , and the other branches were electrified by November 1925 . The electrification brought no big increase in traffic , and the tunnel was never built . In the 1920s , a branch along the West Shore of Staten Island was built to haul materials to construct the Outerbridge Crossing . The branch was cut back to a point south of the bridge after the bridge was built . The Gulf Oil Corporation opened a dock and tank farm along the Arthur Kill in 1928 and in order to serve it , the Travis Branch was built south from Arlington Yard into the marshes of the island 's western shore to Gulfport .
On February 25 , 1937 , the Port Richmond – Tower Hill viaduct was completed , becoming the largest grade crossing elimination project in the United States . The viaduct was more than a mile long , and spanned eight grade crossings on the North Shore Branch of the SIRT . The opening of the viaduct marked the final part of a $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 grade crossing elimination project on Staten Island , which eliminated thirty @-@ four grade crossings on the north and south shores of Staten Island . Staten Island Borough President Joseph A. Palma proposed in 1936 to extend the Staten Island Rapid Transit to Manhattan across the Bayonne Bridge . The Port of New York Authority endorsed the same plan in 1937 , with a terminal at 51st Street in Manhattan near Rockefeller Center to serve the trains of Erie , West Shore , Lackawanna , Jersey Central , and trains from Staten Island . This original proposal would be brought back in 1950 , by Edward Corsi , a Republican candidate for mayor .
In the 1940s , freight and World War II traffic helped pay off some of the debt the SIRT had accumulated , and briefly made the SIRT profitable . During the second World War , all of the east coast military hospital trains were handled by the SIRT , with some trains stopping at Arlington on Staten Island to transfer wounded soldiers to a large military hospital . The need to transport war material , POW trains , and troops , made the stretch of the Baltimore & New York Railway between Cranford Junction and the Arthur Kill extremely busy . The B & O also operated special trains for important officials such as Winston Churchill . On June 25 , 1946 , a fire wrecked the terminal at Saint George killing three people and causing damage worth $ 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The fire destroyed the ferry terminal and the four slips used for Manhattan service , the terminal for Staten Island Rapid Transit trains . The replacement terminal would be opened in 1948 .
The number of passengers decreased from 12 @.@ 3 million passengers in 1947 to 4 @.@ 4 million in 1949 , due to passengers switching from SIRT to city @-@ operated buses due to a bus fare cut . On September 5 , 1948 , 237 of the previous 492 weekday trains were cut ; the express service would be reduced during rush hours , and all night trains after 1 : 29 A. M. would be cancelled . Thirty percent of the company 's personnel were laid off . On September 7 , 1948 , Borough President Hall of Richmond continued to rally against the cuts made by the SIRT at a Public Service Commission hearing in Manhattan . Commuters testified that trains were missing connections to ferry boats and that some trains were being held at the Saint George Terminal in the rush hour to wait for two boatloads of passengers . Previously , they said , the trains pulled out with only one boatload of passengers . On September 13 , 1948 , the SIRT agreed to add four trains , and to extend the schedule of four others . On September 22 , 1948 , the Interstate Commerce Commission allowed the SIRT to abandon the ferry it had operated for 88 years between Tottenville and Perth Amboy , New Jersey ; the ferry operation was transferred to Sunrise Ferries , Inc of Elizabeth , New Jersey on October 16 .
On June 8 , 1951 , a modern replacement terminal for Saint George opened , although portions of the terminal were phased into service at earlier dates . The SIRT discontinued passenger service on the North Shore Branch to Arlington and the South Beach Branch to Wentworth Avenue at midnight on March 31 , 1953 because of city @-@ operated bus competition ; the South Beach Branch was abandoned shortly thereafter , while the North Shore Branch continued to carry freight . By 1955 , the third rail on both of the lines were removed . On September 7 , 1954 , SIRT made an application to discontinue all passenger service on the Tottenville Branch on October 7 , 1954 . A large city subsidy allowed passenger service on the Tottenville Branch to continue .
In November 1957 , the Arthur Kill swing bridge was damaged by an Esso oil tanker , and was replaced by a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , single track , 558 foot vertical lift bridge in 1959 . The 2 @,@ 000 ton lift span was prefabricated , then floated into place . The new bridge was raised 135 feet and since the new bridge aided navigation on the Arthur Kill , the United States government assumed 90 percent of the $ 11 million cost of the project . Freight trains started crossing the bridge when it opened on August 25 , 1959 . In 1958 , the Travis Branch was extended to serve a new Consolidated Edison power plant in Travis , along Staten Island 's west shore , allowing long @-@ unit coal trains from West Virginia to serve the plant . The B & O continued to invest in its properties in New Jersey and Staten Island into the late 1950s .
The SIRT continued to lose money even as they rebuilt stations between Jefferson Avenue and New Dorp almost into the 1970s . Rail traffic via the Arthur Kill Bridge dropped dramatically with the closing of Bethlehem Steel in 1960 , and of U.S. Gypsum in 1972 . On July 1 , 1971 , operation of the Tottenville line was turned over to the Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority , a division of the state 's Metropolitan Transportation Authority , and the line itself was purchased by the city of New York . As part of the agreement , freight along the line was to be continued to be handled by the B & O. On February 28 , 1973 , new R44 cars — the same as the newest cars then in use on the subway lines in the other boroughs — were put into service on the Staten Island Rapid Transit , replacing the PS Standard rolling stock that had been inherited from the B & O and had remained in continuous service since 1925 .
The B & O became part of the larger C & O system through a merger with the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway . The freight operation on the island was renamed the Staten Island Railroad Corporation in 1971 . The B & O and C & O became isolated from their other properties in New Jersey and Staten Island , with the creation of Conrail on April 1 , 1976 , by merger of bankrupt lines in the northeast United States . As a result , their freight service was truncated to Philadelphia , however , for several years afterward , one B & O freight train a day ran to Cranford Junction , with B & O locomotives running through as well . By the year 1973 , the Jersey Central 's car float yard at Jersey Central was closed . Afterwards , the car float operation of the B & O was brought back to Staten Island at Saint George Yard . This car float operation was taken over by the New York Dock Railway in September 1979 , and was ended the following year . Only a few isolated industries on Staten Island were using rail service for freight , meaning that the yard at Saint George was essentially abandoned . The C & O system was forced to sell the Staten Island Railroad to the New York , Susquehanna & Western Railroad , which was owned by the Delaware Otsego Corporation in April 1985 , due to a lack of business . The Susquehanna then embargoed the track east of Elm Park on the North Shore Branch , ending rail freight traffic to Saint George . In 1990 , Procter & Gamble , the line 's largest customer closed , leading to a large drop in freight traffic . The last freight train over the bridge came in 1990 , and the operation ended on July 25 , 1991 , when the Arthur Kill bridge was taken out of service . Afterwards , the North Shore Branch and the Arthur Kill Bridge were taken over by CSX . The line as well as the bridge were purchased again in 1994 , this time by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ( NYCEDC ) , whose purchase was followed by a decade of false starts .
In 1994 , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority reinstituted the line 's original name ; the passenger portion of the line is called MTA Staten Island Railway .
= = Current use = =
= = = Passenger = = =
Only the north @-@ south Main Line is in passenger service . The terminal station at St. George provides a direct connection to the Staten Island Ferry . At St. George there are twelve tracks , only ten of which are presently used for service . At Tottenville , there is a three track yard , with two tracks on either side of a concrete station platform .
In general appearance , the current operating line of SIR looks somewhat like an outdoor line of the New York City Subway . Since the 1960s it has been grade separated from all roads , but it runs more or less at street level for a brief stretch north of Clifton , between the Grasmere and Old Town stations , and from south of the Pleasant Plains station to Tottenville , the end of the line . It uses NYC Transit @-@ standard 600 V DC third rail power . Its equipment are R44 subway type cars specially modified with headlight dimmers , electric windshield defrosters , FRA Compliant cab signals and horns , and FRA regulation 223 required shatterproof glazing , and exterior mounted grab rails near the side doors , purchased at the same time and built in early 1973 , at the tail end of the R44 order of subway cars for New York City Transit ( the Staten Island R44s being the last cars built by the St. Louis Car Company ) . Heavy maintenance of the equipment is performed at NYCT 's Clifton Shops . Any work that cannot be performed at Clifton requires the cars to be trucked over the Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge to the subway 's Coney Island Complex shops in Brooklyn . The right @-@ of @-@ way also includes elevated , embankment and open @-@ cut portions , and a tunnel near St. George .
The last passenger trains on both the North Shore Branch and the South Beach Branch ran on March 31 , 1953 . The right @-@ of @-@ way of the South Beach Branch was eventually de @-@ mapped and the tracks have been removed . On June 24 , 2001 , a small section of the easternmost portion of the North Shore Branch ( a few hundred feet ) was reopened to provide passenger service to the new Richmond County Bank Ballpark , home of the Staten Island Yankees minor @-@ league baseball team ; however , this service was discontinued on June 18 , 2010 . Plans to reopen the remainder of the North Shore Branch , to both freight and passenger service , are being studied , with one plan calling for the line to resume full operations between St. George and Arlington or Port Ivory , with even the possibility of through service between Arlington / Port Ivory and Tottenville , which the aforementioned Ballpark wye makes feasible .
Prior to 2007 , the Staten Island Railway used Baltimore & Ohio Railroad style color position light signals , that dated back to when it was a B & O @-@ operated line . In 2007 , a $ 72 million project to replace the old signal system was completed . The system was replaced with an FRA @-@ compliant 100 Hz , track circuit based , Automatic Train Control ( ATC ) signal system . As part of the project , 40 R44 subway cars and 4 locomotives were modified with on board cab signaling equipment for ATC bi @-@ directional movement . A new rail control center and back @-@ up control center was constructed as part of this contract .
Only the Dongan Hills , Saint George , Great Kills and Tottenville stations of the Staten Island Railway are currently in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 , with elevators and or ramps . However , the new nearly completed Arthur Kill Road station , which will replace the Atlantic and Nassau stations , will be compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ADA , when it opens in November 2016 . With the opening of Arthur Kill , the Atlantic and Nassau stations will be demolished . There are Park and Ride facilities at the Prince 's Bay , Huguenot , Annadale , Great Kills , and Dongan Hills stations . Once the new Arthur Kill Road station opens , there will be Park and Ride facilities there as well .
Over the years there have been several proposals for connecting the SIR with the subway system ( including the incomplete Staten Island Tunnel and a possible line along the Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge ) , as it uses B Division @-@ sized cars and loading gauge , but various economic , political , and engineering difficulties have prevented this from happening . The Main Line used to provide freight for Nassau Smelting , the Staten Island Advance , and Pouch Terminal .
The current head of Staten Island Railway is Douglas Connett , who holds the position Vice President and Chief Officer since his appointment in June 2015 . The hourly employee workforce of around 200 employees is represented by United Transportation Union Local 1440 .
= = = Railroad Police = = =
Until June 2005 , the Staten Island Railway had a 25 @-@ officer armed Railroad Police force known as the " Staten Island Rapid Transit Police " .
On June 1 , 2005 , the Staten Island Rapid Transit Police Department was disbanded and the 25 Staten Island railroad Police Officers merged into the much larger Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police . The Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police department was created in 1998 when the Long Island Rail Road Police and the Metro @-@ North Railroad Police Departments merged . In 2005 the MTA Police Department then opened their newest patrol district , Police District # 9 which began covering the Staten Island Railway .
= = = = Fares = = = =
The cash fare is $ 2 @.@ 75 , the same fare as on the New York City Subway and MTA Regional Bus Operations . Fares are paid on entry and exit only at St. George and Tompkinsville . Rides not originating or terminating at St. George or Tompkinsville are free . Prior to the 1997 introduction of " one @-@ fare zone " that came along with free transfers from the SIR to the subway system and MTA buses by using the MetroCard , fares were collected by the conductors on the trains for passengers boarding at stops other than St. George . In the past , passengers often avoided paying the fare by exiting at Tompkinsville , and taking a short walk to the St. George ferry terminal . Because of this , the MTA installed turnstiles at Tompkinsville , along with a new stationhouse which opened on January 20 , 2010 .
Fare is payable by MetroCard . Since this card enables free transfers for a continuing ride on the subway and bus systems , for many more riders there is effectively no fare at all for riding SIR . Riders are also allowed to transfer between a Staten Island bus , SIR , and a Manhattan bus or subway near South Ferry . Because of this , the SIR 's farebox recovery ratio in 2001 was 0 @.@ 16 — that is , for every dollar of expense , 16 cents was recovered in fares , the lowest ratio of MTA agencies . The low farebox recovery ratio is part of the reason the MTA wishes to merge the SIR with the subway proper is to simplify the accounting and subsidization of what is essentially a single line .
= = = Freight = = =
During the early 2000s , plans for reopening the Staten Island Rapid Transit line in New Jersey were announced by the New York Port Authority . Since the Central Railroad of New Jersey became a New Jersey Transit line , a new junction would be built to the former Lehigh Valley Railroad . In order for all New England and southern freight to pass through the New York metropolitan area , a rail tunnel from Brooklyn to Staten Island , and a rail tunnel from Brooklyn to Greenville , New Jersey were planned . On December 15 , 2004 , a $ 72 million project to reactivate freight service on Staten Island and to repair the Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge was announced by the NYCEDC and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . Specific projects on the Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge included repainting the steel superstructure and rehabilitating the lift mechanism . In June 2006 , the freight line connection from New Jersey to the Staten Island Railway was completed , and became operated in part by the Morristown and Erie Railway under contract with the State of New Jersey and other companies .
The Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge was renovated in 2006 and began regular service on April 2 , 2007 , sixteen years after the bridge closed . As part of the project , a portion of the North Shore Branch was rehabilitated , the Arlington Yard was expanded , and 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 981 m ) of new track was laid along the Travis Branch to Fresh Kills . Soon after service restarted on the line , Mayor Michael Bloomberg officially commemorated the reactivation on April 17 , 2007 . Service was provided by CSX Transportation , Norfolk Southern Railway , and Conrail over the Travis Branch to haul waste from the Staten Island Transfer Station at Fresh Kills and ship container freight from the Howland Hook Marine Terminal and other industrial businesses . Along the remainder of the North Shore Branch , there are still tracks and rail overpasses in some places .
= = Future = =
A new , ADA compliant station named Arthur Kill , near the southern terminus of the present line , will open in April 2016 after numerous delays . The station is sited between , and will replace both the Atlantic and Nassau stations , which are in the poorest condition of all the stations on the line . The new station will be able to platform a four @-@ car train . MTA will also provide parking for 150 automobiles across the street . Ground was broken for the $ 15 @.@ 3 million station on October 18 , 2013 . The constructor is John P. Picone , Inc . , which was awarded the contract on July 31 , 2013 . There is also discussion of rebuilding a Rosebank station , which would bridge the longest gap between two stations ( Grasmere and Clifton ) . A Rosebank station once existed on the now @-@ defunct South Beach Branch of the railway .
Elected officials on Staten Island , such as Diane Savino , have been demanding replacement of the Staten Island Railway 's aging R44 train cars . There is money allocated in the MTA 's 2015 @-@ 2019 capital program to replace the R44s with 75 new train cars from the R211 order . Until then , the R44s are undergoing another round of scheduled maintenance to extend their usefulness until at least 2023 .
= = = Restoration of the North Shore Branch = = =
In an 2006 report , Staten Island Advance explored the restoration of passenger services on 5 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 2 km ) of the North Shore Branch between St. George Ferry Terminal and Arlington station . Completion of the study is necessary to qualify the project for the estimated $ 360 million it will require . A preliminary study found that ridership could hit 15 @,@ 000 daily . $ 4 million of federal funding was requested for a detailed feasibility study by senator Chuck Schumer from New York .
In 2012 , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority released an analysis of transportation solutions for the North Shore , which included proposals for the reintroduction of heavy rail , light rail , or bus rapid transit using the North Shore line 's right @-@ of @-@ way . Other options included transportation systems management which would improve existing bus service , and the possibility of future ferry and water taxi services . Bus rapid transit was the preferred for its cost and relative ease of implementation , which would require $ 352 million in capital investment . The analysis evaluated the alternatives according to their ability to " Improve Mobility " , " Preserve and Enhance the Environment , Natural Resources and Open Space " , and " Maximize Limited Financial Resources for the Greater Public Benefit " . Currently , the MTA is planning to utilize the old right @-@ of @-@ way for bus rapid transit .
= = Branches and stations = =
= = = Main Line stations = = =
= = = Former passenger stations = = =
= = = = North Shore Branch = = = =
The North Shore Branch closed to passenger service at midnight on Tuesday , March 31 , 1953 . A small portion of the western end is used for freight service as part of the Howland Hook Marine Terminal transloading system called ExpressRail , which opened in 2007 and connects to the Chemical Coast after crossing over the Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge . A smaller eastern portion provided seasonal service to the passenger station for RCB Ballpark , where the Staten Island Yankees play . This service operated from June 24 , 2001 to June 18 , 2010 . As of 2008 , restoration was being discussed along this mostly abandoned 6 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 8 km ) line as part of the Staten Island light rail plan . The North Shore Branch served Procter & Gamble , United States Gypsum , the Staten Island Ship Building , and a Car float at Saint George Yard .
= = = = South Beach Branch = = = =
The South Beach Branch opened on March 8 , 1886 to Arrochar , and was extended to South Beach in 1889 . The branch closed at midnight on Tuesday , March 31 , 1953 . It was abandoned and demolished except for three segments : a concrete embankment on Saint John 's Avenue , a trestle spanning Robin Road in Arrochar , and a filled @-@ in bridge which McClean Avenue crosses over . This 4 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) line left the Main Line at 40 ° 37 ′ 08 ″ N 74 ° 04 ′ 18 ″ W , south of the Clifton station , and lay to the east of the Main Line . While the entire right of way has been redeveloped , most of the former right of way is still traceable on maps today . The Verrazano Narrows Bridge toll plaza sits on the former ROW . The South Beach Branch served Bachmann 's Brewery .
The Robin Road Trestle is the only remaining intact trestle along the former line . In the early 2000s developers purchased the property on either side of the trestle 's abutments , but the developers , the New York City Department of Transportation , and the New York City Transit Authority all claimed ownership of it . Consequently , townhouses have built up against both sides of it .
= = = Freight Lines = = =
= = = = Mount Loretto Spur = = = =
The Mount Loretto Spur is an abandoned branch of the Staten Island Railway whose purpose was to serve the Mount Loretto Children 's Home . The spur diverged off of the Main Line south of Pleasant Plains . The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad served the Mount Loretto non @-@ electrified branch until 1950 , which had some industry and a passenger station . The Mount Loretto branch track was removed in the 1960s and 1970s but some ties were visible until the 1980s . A coal dump trestle is all that remains , located behind the powerhouse .
= = = = West Shore Line = = = =
In the 1920s , a non @-@ electrified branch along the West Shore of Staten Island was built to haul materials to construct the Outerbridge Crossing , branching off of the main line south of Richmond Valley . The branch was cut back to a point south of the bridge after the bridge was built . Afterwards , the branch served a scrapyard owned by the Roselli brothers . The branch still exists to Page Avenue , and the switch is kept working .
= = = = Travis Branch = = = =
The Travis Branch is a branch of the Staten Island Railway in New York City , that operates from Arlington Yard to Fresh Kills , which is used for freight transportation along the West Shore , Staten Island . The branch was built in 1928 , in order to serve Gulf Oil along the Arthur Kill , and was built south from Arlington Yard into the marshes of the island 's western shore to Gulfport . In 1958 , the line was extended to Travis in order to serve the newly built Consolidated Edison power plant . In 2005 , the Travis Branch was being renovated and was extended from the old Consolidated Edison plant to the New York Sanitation dump at Fresh Kills . Regular service to the facility began in April 2007 . A proposed route alignment for light rail on the west shore of Staten Island would have the light rail go on the North Shore rail right @-@ of @-@ way to the Travis Branch of the line , and from there , onto the median of the West Shore Expressway .
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= Maryland Route 5 =
Maryland Route 5 ( MD 5 ) is a 74 @.@ 34 @-@ mile ( 119 @.@ 64 km ) long state highway that runs north – south in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs from Point Lookout in St. Mary 's County north to the Washington , D.C. border in Suitland , Prince George 's County . MD 5 begins as the two @-@ lane undivided Point Lookout Road which runs from Point Lookout , St. Mary 's County , to an intersection with MD 235 in the northern part of the county . Point Lookout Road passes through rural areas as well as the county seat of Leonardtown . After the MD 235 intersection , the route becomes the four @-@ lane divided Three Notch Road and continues into Charles County , where it becomes Leonardtown Road . Here , the route bypasses Hughesville and continues north toward the Waldorf area , which it bypasses to the east on Mattawoman Beantown Road . The route merges onto U.S. Route 301 ( US 301 , Crain Highway ) and enters Prince George 's County , splitting from US 301 at an interchange in Brandywine . From here , MD 5 continues north on Branch Avenue , running through suburban areas , before becoming a freeway as it passes Andrews Air Force Base and interchanges with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) . Past the Capital Beltway , the route runs through suburban areas of Hillcrest Heights and Suitland before reaching the D.C. border , where Branch Avenue continues toward Pennsylvania Avenue .
MD 5 was designated in 1927 to run from Point Lookout to the Washington , D.C. border in Suitland . The route was realigned to follow Naylor Road to the Washington , D.C. line in 1939 , while MD 637 was designated along the portion of Branch Avenue leading to the border . Between 1939 and 1949 , the route continued into Washington , D.C. as District of Columbia Route 5 ( DC 5 ) , which followed Naylor Road , Good Hope Road , 11th Street SE , and DC 4 ( Pennsylvania Avenue ) to US 1 and US 240 near the White House . MD 5 was realigned to head to the Washington , D.C. border along Branch Avenue in 1950 . During the course of the 1950s and 1960s , most of MD 5 between the MD 235 intersection and the Washington , D.C. border was widened into a divided highway . In 1993 , the route bypassed Leonardtown ; the original alignment was designated MD 5 Business ( MD 5 Bus . ) before it was decommissioned in 2012 . In 1997 , MD 5 was realigned to bypass Waldorf to the east along what had been designated as MD 205 in 1989 . The former alignment through Waldorf followed what is now MD 5 Bus. and US 301 . In Prince George 's County , multiple interchanges were built along MD 5 between MD 223 and the Capital Beltway in the 1990s and early 2000s . In 2007 , a four @-@ lane , divided bypass of Hughesville was completed , alleviating the traffic bottleneck within that town at the intersection of MD 231 . The former alignment through Hughesville became MD 5 Bus . The portion of MD 5 between US 301 and the Capital Beltway is slated to be upgraded to a full freeway , with an interchange at MD 373 ( Accokeek Road ) / Brandywine Road planned and the remainder still in the planning stages .
= = Route description = =
= = = St. Mary 's County = = =
MD 5 begins within Point Lookout State Park in St. Mary 's County by heading west on Point Lookout Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road which continues south from the route ’ s southern terminus along the shoreline of the Chesapeake Bay to the confluence with the Potomac River . The route turns north , passing a toll booth at the entrance of the state park before continuing into wooded areas . A short distance later , the road makes a left turn and heads northwest through a mix of woodland and farmland . MD 5 passes through Scotland and continues north through more agricultural areas with intermittent residences . It reaches Ridge , where MD 5 intersects the southern terminus of MD 235 ( Three Notch Road ) . From here , the road heads into more wooded areas . MD 5 passes through agricultural and residential areas before turning northwest and entering St. Mary 's City . Here , the route makes a turn to the north , with MD 584 looping to the west of the route through the center of St. Mary 's City . The road runs long the shore of the St. Marys River and passes near St. Mary 's College of Maryland before leaving St. Mary 's City had heading into forested areas . It reaches Park Hall , where MD 5 intersects MD 489 ( Park Hall Road ) .
Past MD 489 , the route turns to the west and heads through a mix of woods , farms , and homes . It heads to Great Mills , where it briefly becomes a divided highway at the intersection with MD 246 ( Great Mills Road ) . From here , MD 5 continues west to an intersection with MD 471 ( Indian Bridge Road ) . Past this intersection , MD 5 continues to Callaway . Here , the route intersects MD 249 ( Piney Point Road ) . It passes some businesses before heading into wooded areas with residences . The route turns north , passing through Redgate , before heading toward Leonardtown .
Here , MD 5 intersects MD 244 ( Medleys Neck Road ) before it reaches a junction with MD 4 ( St. Andrews Church Road ) . Past this intersection , the route becomes a divided highway again , entering Leonardtown , where Fenwick Street heads west toward the downtown area . MD 5 heads northwest through woodland before passing by the Leonardtown campus of the College of Southern Maryland . Past the college , the road intersects MD 245 ( Hollywood Road ) and Washington Street . The road widens to four lanes and heads through a mix of residences and businesses , passing near St. Mary 's Hospital . It leaves Leonardtown and becomes a divided highway at the intersection with MD 243 ( Newtowne Neck Road ) . MD 5 passes commercial areas before heading into farmland at the intersection with MD 234 ( Budds Creek Road ) .
From here , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road again . It heads north through a mix of farm fields and residences , eventually coming to an intersection with MD 247 ( Loveville Road ) in Loveville . MD 5 turns northwest , heading through woodland and reaching Morganza , where the route intersects MD 242 ( Colton Point Road ) . The road heads west through a mix of woods and farms to Helen , where MD 5 comes to an intersection with MD 238 ( Chaptico Road ) . Here , the route turns north , with residential neighborhoods increasing along the road as it continues through rural areas . The route comes to another intersection with MD 235 ( Three Notch Road ) in Oraville , where MD 5 makes a left turn onto Three Notch Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route heads northwest through a mix of rural residences and businesses , with the median widening briefly to include some businesses when the route reaches Mechanichsville . The road continues through rural commercial areas before reaching Charlotte Hall . Here , MD 5 intersects MD 236 ( Thompson Corner Road ) and MD 6 ( New Market Turner Road ) . From here , the route turns to the north and continues through a mix of farms and woods with some businesses , with MD 863 looping off MD 5 .
= = = Charles County = = =
MD 5 crosses into Charles County , where it continues north on Leonardtown Road through areas of rural residences . The route reaches Hughesville , where MD 5 bypasses the community to the east on a limited @-@ access highway and MD 5 Bus . ( MD 625 ) continues to the north through Hughesville on Old Leonardtown Road . The bypass heads through wooded areas before coming to a dumbbell interchange with MD 231 ( Prince Frederick Road ) that features roundabouts where the ramps meet MD 231 . Past MD 231 , the bypass continues through woodland before intersecting MD 5 Business again . From here , MD 5 heads northwest through a mix of woods and farms with some residences and businesses . The route turns to the west and passes through Bryantown , where it intersects Olivers Shop Road / Bryantown Road intersection .
The road turns to the northwest past Bryantown and heads through wooded areas , passing through Zekiah Swamp . MD 5 comes to an intersection with MD 488 ( La Plata Road ) and turns north again , heading through a mix of woods , farms , and residences . The route heads through wooded residential neighborhoods before it heads back into farmland . The route reaches the eastern edge of the planned community of St. Charles , where it comes to an intersection where St. Charles Parkway heads south into St. Charles , MD 5 Business heads to the west on Leonardtown Road , and MD 5 turns north onto Mattawoman Beantown Road .
MD 5 follows Mattawoman Beantown Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway that bypasses the center of Waldorf to the east . The route intersects Poplar Hill Road , which leads to the house of Dr. Samuel A. Mudd . Mattawoman Beantown Road carries MD 5 north through farm fields before heading into woodland . It continues into suburban residential areas of Waldorf , passing by the entrance to the Pinefield neighborhood , which used to be intertwined with several Nike Missile installations . The route crosses over CSX ’ s Popes Creek Subdivision before coming to an intersection with US 301 ( Crain Highway ) . Here , MD 5 forms a concurrency with US 301 and continues north as a six @-@ lane divided highway .
= = = Prince George 's County = = =
The Crain Highway crosses the Mattawoman Creek into Prince George 's County , where it heads north through wooded areas with some businesses along the road . US 301 splits from MD 5 at an interchange near Brandywine with MD 5 continuing to the north on four @-@ lane divided Branch Avenue . A short distance past US 301 , the route intersects MD 373 ( Accokeek Road ) , where it briefly widens to six lanes . It continues north as a four @-@ lane divided highway through woodland with some businesses and adjacent residential areas before passing by the Southern Maryland Hospital Center at the Surratts Road intersection . Past Surratts Road , the route heads through suburban residential areas of Clinton as a six @-@ lane road before turning into a freeway that comes to a single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) with MD 223 ( Woodyard Road ) .
The route heads northwest through commercial areas , with interchanges located at Malcolm Road ( MD 5M ) / Schultz Road and Coventry Way ( MD 5L ) , the latter being a single @-@ point urban interchange . The route has a southbound exit to Old Branch Avenue and a northbound entrance from Old Alexandria Ferry Road before it turns north and heads through wooded surroundings , forming the western boundary of Andrews Air Force Base . MD 5 comes to another SPUI with MD 337 ( Allentown Road ) in Camp Springs . A short distance later , the road interchanges with Manchester Drive ( MD 5R ) / Linda Lane ( MD 5Q ) before heading north as a freeway to an interchange with I @-@ 95 / I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) .
Past the Capital Beltway , MD 5 becomes a surface road again , intersecting MD 535 ( Auth Road ) , which provides access to northbound MD 5 from southbound I @-@ 95 / I @-@ 495 as well as to the Branch Avenue station on Washington Metro ’ s Green Line . The route continues northwest into commercial areas , intersecting MD 967C ( Simpson Road ) / Auth Way and MD 967A ( Old Branch Avenue ) . The route narrows to four lanes and turns west , coming to an interchange with MD 414 ( St. Barnabas Road ) in Marlow Heights . MD 5 turns to the northwest past this interchange , passing by the Marlow Heights Shopping Center and continuing to Hillcrest Heights , where the route intersects MD 458 ( Silver Hill Road ) adjacent to the Iverson Mall .
The route passes more businesses and heads toward Suitland , where it intersects MD 414 ( Bonita Street ) again . The road continues north to an intersection with MD 637 ( Naylor Road ) . North of Naylor Road , the route passes under the Green Line of the Washington Metro , interchanges with the Suitland Parkway , and narrows to a 2 @-@ lane undivided road in quick succession . MD 5 passes through wooded areas before coming to an intersection with Southern Avenue at the Washington , D.C. border where the route ends and Branch Avenue continues into the District of Columbia toward Pennsylvania Avenue .
= = History = =
In 1911 , the road between Leonardtown and Mechanicsville and from south of Camp Springs to the Washington , D.C. border was completed as a state highway while the sections between south of Beantown and the border between Charles and Prince George 's counties and between TB and Camp Springs were under contract . At this time , the road between Point Lookout and Leonardtown , Mechanicsville and Beantown , and the Charles @-@ Prince George 's county border and TB were proposed as state highways . By 1915 , the entire length of the state highway between north of Point Lookout and the Washington , D.C. border was completed . This state highway was paved to the northwest of Leonardtown , between north of Morganza and Hughesville , between the Charles @-@ Prince George 's county border and north of TB , and from south of Camp Springs to the Washington , D.C. border while the remainder was an unpaved state road .
MD 5 was designated in 1927 to the state highway between north of Point Lookout and the Washington , D.C. border , passing through Leonardtown , Hughesville , and Waldorf . MD 5 ran concurrent with MD 3 ( now US 301 ) between Waldorf and TB . In 1928 , the route was paved between north of TB and Camp Springs . By 1933 , MD 5 was paved between northwest of Leonardtown and north of Morganza and along the MD 3 concurrency between Waldorf and the Charles @-@ Prince George 's county border . Also , the route was extended south along an unpaved road into Point Lookout State Park . In 1939 , MD 5 was rerouted to follow Naylor Road to the Washington , D.C. border while the portion of Branch Avenue leading to the border was designated as MD 637 . DC 5 continued into Washington , D.C. along Naylor Road , Good Hope Road , and 11th Street SE to DC 4 ( Pennsylvania Avenue SE ) . By this time , the section of route between Hughesville and Waldorf was paved while the section between Point Lookout and Leonardtown was a bituminous road . By 1946 , MD 5 was paved between Great Mills and Leonardtown . Also , DC 5 was extended to follow DC 4 along Pennsylvania Avenue to US 1 and US 240 at the east side of the White House . In 1949 , the DC 5 designation was decommissioned .
In 1950 , MD 5 was rerouted to follow Branch Avenue to the Washington , D.C. border , replacing MD 637 ; MD 637 was designated onto Naylor Road between MD 5 and the Washington , D.C. border by 1966 . In addition , the route was widened into a divided highway along the US 301 concurrency between the Charles @-@ Prince George 's county border and TB and along Branch Avenue between south of the Henson Creek and the Washington , D.C. border . MD 5 was upgraded from a bituminous to a paved road between St. Mary 's City and Great Mills in 1953 . The same year , the portion of route along the US 301 concurrency between Waldorf and the Charles @-@ Prince George 's county border was widened into a divided highway . MD 5 was relocated to a new alignment to the east between TB and north of Camp Springs in 1956 , with a northward extension of MD 381 designated onto the former alignment . This section of MD 381 , called Brandywine Road and Old Branch Avenue , was transferred to county maintenance in 1965 . In 1959 , MD 5 was paved between south of St. Inigoes and St. Mary 's City . A year later , the remainder of the route south to Point Lookout was paved . In 1962 , MD 5 was widened into a divided highway between south of Newmarket and the St. Mary 's @-@ Charles county border and between MD 223 in Clinton and Camp Springs . An interchange was built at the northern terminus of the US 301 concurrency in 1963 . The route was upgraded to a divided highway in the Beantown area in 1964 . In 1965 , MD 5 was improved to a divided highway between MD 235 and south of Newmarket . The divided highway was extended south from Beantown to the MD 488 intersection in 1966 . In 1967 , the route was widened into a divided highway between the St. Mary 's @-@ Charles county border and MD 488 with the exception of the portion through Hughesville . MD 5 was upgraded to a divided highway between US 301 and MD 223 in 1969 . An interchange was constructed at MD 414 in 1970 .
MD 5 was routed to bypass Leonardtown by 1993 , with the former route becoming MD 5 Bus . During the 1990s and early 2000s , multiple interchanges were constructed along MD 5 in Prince George 's County . In 1992 , an interchange was built at MD 223 . The interchange with MD 337 was built in 1996 . In 1999 , an interchange was constructed at Coventry Way . In 2001 , an interchange was constructed with Manchester Drive and Linda Lane in Camp Springs .
What is now MD 5 between Leonardtown Road and Poplar Hill Road was constructed as a gravel road by 1927 . This road was designated part of MD 233 . In 1956 , MD 382 was extended west into Charles County along part of what had been MD 233 to MD 5 at Beantown . MD 382 was removed from Charles County in 1989 . That same year , MD 205 was assigned to the westernmost portion of Poplar Hill Road in Beantown and north along two @-@ lane Mattawoman – Beantown Road to US 301 and MD 5 at Mattawoman . The route was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway and was taken over as MD 5 's bypass of Waldorf in 1997 . The portion of MD 5 from what had been MD 205 's southern terminus west to US 301 became MD 5 Bus .
In February 2007 , a $ 56 million limited @-@ access bypass around Hughesville was completed , redirecting MD 5 to the east of the community . The bypass was built due to the heavy amount of congestion at the old intersection of MD 5 and MD 231 in Hughesville 's central business district . Groundbreaking for construction of the bypass took place on November 5 , 2004 , with $ 10 million in federal funds given to the project . The old portion of MD 5 that went through Hughesville received the official MD 625 designation in 2006 , even though it is signed as MD 5 Bus . The bypass was formally opened on August 8 , 2007 .
= = Future = =
There are plans to improve MD 5 in Prince George 's County due to traffic congestion along the route . An interchange is planned to be built with MD 373 and Brandywine Road in Brandywine that would widen the route to six lanes in the vicinity of the proposed interchange . Construction of Phase 1 , which widened MD 5 to 6 lanes in the vicinity of the future interchange , began in November 2009 and was completed in August 2011 . Phase 2 , which will build the interchange itself , went through the design phase , with construction bids expected in summer 2015 . In addition , the route is planned to be upgraded to a full freeway between US 301 and the Capital Beltway , with new interchanges at Burch Hill Road / Earnshaw Drive and Surratts Road . This project is currently in the planning stages with many alternatives including upgrading only portions to freeway , adding reversible lanes or high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes , and various interchange designs .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Former Leonardtown business route = = =
Maryland Route 5 Business ( MD 5 Bus . ) was a 0 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 54 km ) business route of MD 5 that looped through the central part of Leonardtown . The route headed west from MD 5 on Fenwick Street , a two @-@ lane undivided road with a traffic count of 7 @,@ 271 vehicles in 2007 . It headed through wooded areas before it reached into the downtown area of Leonardtown . Upon reaching the town center , MD 5 Bus. turned north onto Washington Street , which followed a one @-@ way pair with two lanes in each direction . The road turned into a four @-@ lane undivided road and continued through residential and commercial areas before intersecting MD 5 again . Past here , the road becomes MD 245 ( Hollywood Road ) . The route was decommissioned in 2012 when it was transferred from the state to the town of Leonardtown .
= = = Hughesville business route = = =
Maryland Route 5 Business ( MD 5 Bus . , officially MD 625 in MDSHA internal documents ) is a 1 @.@ 36 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 19 km ) business route that was designated in 2006 along the former alignment of MD 5 in Hughesville after that route was moved to the Hughesville Bypass . The route heads north from MD 5 south of Hughesville on Old Leonardtown Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road with a traffic count of 3 @,@ 458 vehicles in 2007 . It passes a mix of residences and farm fields before becoming a four @-@ lane undivided road and passing businesses in the center of Hughesville , where the route crosses MD 231 ( Prince Frederick Road ) . Past this intersection , the route passes more businesses before narrowing to two lanes and ending at MD 5 north of Hughesville .
= = = Waldorf business route = = =
Maryland Route 5 Business ( MD 5 Bus . ) is a 1 @.@ 80 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 90 km ) business route that runs along Leonardtown Road between MD 5 in St. Charles and US 301 in Waldorf . The route heads west from MD 5 ( Mattawoman Beantown Road ) and St. Charles Parkway as a four @-@ lane divided highway with a traffic count of 29 @,@ 430 vehicles in 2007 . It passes by Thomas Stone High School before the route heads into commercial areas . The median ends and MD 5 Bus. gains a center left @-@ turn lane . It crosses CSX ’ s Popes Creek Subdivision before coming to an intersection with MD 925 ( Old Washington Road ) . A short distance later , MD 5 Bus. becomes a divided highway again and ends at US 301 ( Crain Highway ) , where the road continues west as MD 228 ( Berry Road ) .
= = = Auxiliary routes = = =
MD 5A runs along Old Great Mills Road from MD 5 northeast to MD 246 in Callaway , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
MD 5B runs along an unnamed road from MD 238 north to MD 5 in Helen , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) long .
MD 5C runs along an unnamed road from MD 234 southeast to MD 5 in Leonardtown , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 07 mi ( 0 @.@ 11 km ) long .
MD 5F runs along Gaslewbrook Drive from MD 5 north to a dead end in Scotland , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 19 mi ( 0 @.@ 31 km ) long .
MD 5G runs along Camp Calvert Road from the beginning of state maintenance north to Fenwick Street in Leonardtown , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
MD 5H runs along Cedar Lane Road from MD 5 east to the end of state maintenance in Leonardtown , St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 11 mi ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) long .
MD 5I ran along Cedar Lane Court from MD 5 north to MD 5H in Leonardtown , St. Mary 's County . The route was 0 @.@ 15 mi ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long . The route was decommissioned in 2012 when it was transferred from the state to the town of Leonardtown .
MD 5J runs along Eighteen Wheel Drive from a dead end north to MD 5 in St. Mary 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) long .
MD 5K runs along Mattawoman Drive from MD 5 northwest to US 301 in Waldorf , Charles County . The route is 0 @.@ 20 mi ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) long .
MD 5L runs along Coventry Way from the beginning of state maintenance west of MD 967D northeast to an intersection with Old Alexandria Ferry Road in Clinton , Prince George 's County , interchanging with MD 5 . The route is 0 @.@ 23 mi ( 0 @.@ 37 km ) long .
MD 5M runs along Malcolm Road from an interchange with MD 5 north to the end of state maintenance in Clinton , Prince George 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 09 mi ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) long .
MD 5N runs along an exit ramp from southbound MD 5 to Old Branch Avenue / Kirby Road in Clinton , Prince George 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 14 mi ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) long .
MD 5P runs along Deer Pond Lane from the end of state maintenance just south of an interchange with the northbound direction of MD 5 northwest to MD 5R in Camp Springs , Prince George 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long .
MD 5Q runs along Linda Lane from Old Branch Avenue east to an interchange with the southbound direction of MD 5 in Camp Springs , Prince George 's County . The route is 0 @.@ 16 mi ( 0 @.@ 26 km ) long .
MD 5R runs along Manchester Drive from Old Branch Avenue east to Ridgecroft Drive in Camp Springs , Prince George 's County , passing over MD 5 and intersecting MD 5P . The route is 0 @.@ 30 mi ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) long .
MD 5S runs along Shlagel Road from MD 5 northeast to the end of state maintenance in Waldorf , Charles County . The route is 0 @.@ 22 mi ( 0 @.@ 35 km ) long .
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= Stainforth and Keadby Canal =
The Stainforth and Keadby Canal is a navigable canal in South Yorkshire and Lincolnshire , England . It connects the River Don Navigation at Bramwith to the River Trent at Keadby , by way of Stainforth , Thorne and Ealand , near Crowle . It opened in 1802 , passed into the control of the River Don Navigation in 1849 , and within a year was controlled by the first of several railway companies . It became part of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation , an attempt to remove several canals from railway control , in 1895 . There were plans to upgrade it to take larger barges and to improve the port facilities at Keadby , but the completion of the New Junction Canal in 1905 made this unnecessary , as Goole could easily be reached and was already a thriving port .
The canal was a centre for boatbuilding between 1858 , when Richard Dunston moved his yard to Thorne from Torksey , and 1984 when the yard closed . Dunston 's company were pioneers in the use of welded construction and innovative tug propulsion systems . The operation was always restricted by the size of Keadby Lock , although vessels longer than the lock could pass through when the river was level with the canal and both sets of gates could be opened . The largest ship to be built required Dunston 's to build a dam across the canal , as the canal company feared that it might get stuck in the lock , resulting in flooding and draining of the canal .
The canal passes through a region which is largely rural , much of which is drained artificially . For most of its length , it is flanked by the North Soak Drain and the South Soak Drain , because it disrupted the established drainage scheme . Thorne Moors lie to the north and Hatfield Chase lies to the south . Until its demise in 1966 , the canal was crossed by the Axholme Joint Railway at Ealand . The swing bridge was retained for several years after closure , so that stators from the nearby Keadby Power Station could be taken away for repairs , as there were no road bridges which could support the weight .
= = History = =
The River Don , which flows through Sheffield and Doncaster , had originally split into two channels below Stainforth , one of which emptied into the River Trent near Adlingfleet , close to its junction with the River Ouse , while the other headed north to join the River Aire near Rawcliffe . Following the work of the Dutch drainage engineer Cornelius Vermuyden to drain Hatfield Chase , the Adlingfleet outlet was closed off , and the channel to the River Aire , passing through Newbridge , was improved to take all of the flow . The scheme was not entirely successful , and after severe flooding near Sykehouse , Fishlake and Snaith , accompanied by riots , a new channel was cut between Newbridge and the River Ouse near what became Goole . The old course of the Don gradually silted up . Navigation on the Don was improved by the construction of cuts and locks , with the lowest lock situated at Stainforth . From there to the Ouse , boats used the Dutch River , Vermuyden 's artificial drain , which was hazardous due to its fast flows , its tides and its shallowness at times .
The idea of reconnecting the Don to the Trent was first raised in 1763 , when James Brindley assisted the manager of the River Don Navigation to survey a route for a canal to do this . In 1772 a second survey was made , this time by John Thompson , the Don Navigation 's engineer , for a canal from Stainforth to Althorpe , some 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) above Keadby on the River Trent . An agreement to build the canal , which would have had three locks and cost £ 14 @,@ 614 , was reached , but no further action occurred . The plan was revived in 1792 , by which time the cost had risen to £ 24 @,@ 200 , and an Act of Parliament to authorise the work was obtained in 1793 . This allowed the Stainforth and Keadby Canal Navigation Company to raise £ 24 @,@ 200 by issuing shares , and a further £ 12 @,@ 000 if necessary . Work began at the Keadby end in late 1793 . A second Act , obtained in 1798 , allowed the company to raise an additional £ 20 @,@ 000 from shareholders , instead of the original £ 12 @,@ 000 , and to raise £ 10 @,@ 000 by mortgage . The canal opened without ceremony in early 1802 .
The canal had a lock at Thorne and another where it joined the River Trent at Keadby . This lock had four sets of gates , so that it could be used whether the level of the river was higher or lower than that of the canal . It could take keels up to 81 by 22 @.@ 5 feet ( 24 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 9 m ) , which could carry up to 200 tons .
= = = Development = = =
In 1828 , there was a proposal to build a canal from West Stockwith on the River Trent to the River Don at Doncaster , which would have bypassed the Stainforth and Keadby . There was also a plan for a lower Don bypass , to connect direct to the Goole Canal , avoiding the difficult Dutch River . Neither scheme progressed any further , but the Keadby end of the canal was improved , and a new deep water jetty was constructed on the Trent in 1833 . Traffic improved , with boats using the canal as an easier way to reach the Don than the Dutch River . The Don Navigation Company then proposed a new canal from Stainforth to the River Ouse at Swinefleet in 1836 . They needed to buy 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the Stainforth and Keadby from the Don towards Stainforth , and started to negotiate , while applying for an Act of Parliament . The Stainforth and Keadby opposed the bill , and an agreement was reached in May 1836 that the Don would buy the whole canal for £ 48 @,@ 000 . A bill to authorise the sale was opposed by some of the Stainforth and Keadby shareholders and was rejected by the House of Lords . After several more abortive plans at amalgamation , where the Stainforth and Keadby pulled out at the last minute , agreement was finally reached , and the Don Navigation took control of the canal on 1 January 1849 . A year later , it became part of the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company , after the Don Navigation and the Doncaster and Goole Railway companies merged .
Under an Act of Parliament of 1874 , the South Yorkshire company was absorbed into the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway . Despite the railway competition , traffic levels remained healthy , with the waterways carrying a total of 982 @,@ 000 tons in 1878 , but there was a growing dissatisfaction with the situation , particularly the high tolls compared to the railways , and the refusal to allow steam haulage , which had been in use on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation for over 50 years . In an attempt to improve the situation , the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Ltd was formed in 1888 , with the intention of buying back the canals from the railway company , and upgrading them to offer effective competition to the railways . As a result of their efforts , the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Co was created by an Act of Parliament dated 26 August 1889 , with powers to raise £ 1 @.@ 5 million to purchase and improve four canals . These were the Sheffield Canal , the River Don Navigation , the Dearne and Dove Canal and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal . The intention was to upgrade the Don and the Stainforth and Keadby to take 300 or 400 ton barges , to investigate the use of compartment boats , and to build a new port facility at Keadby , where coal could be trans @-@ shipped to seagoing vessels . Negotiations with the railway company were long and bitter , and the Navigation company only managed to raise £ 625 @,@ 000 of the £ 1 @.@ 14 million purchase price , with the result that although ownership of the waterways was transferred to them , the railway company still nominated five of the ten directors , and thus retained significant control .
During the protracted negotiations , the company had also been talking to the Aire and Calder about compartment boats , which resulted in a proposal to jointly fund and build a canal from Bramwith to the Aire and Calder . The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) New Junction Canal was authorised in 1891 , and finally opened in 1905 . This removed the need to build a new port at Keadby , and the planned upgrade to take larger vessels was also shelved , because the company were unable to raise significant working capital . Despite the lack of investment and the difficulties of the First World War , the waterways were still quite busy , with traffic recovering from 381 @,@ 727 tons in 1926 , the year of the general strike , to over 800 @,@ 000 tons in 1937 . Bramwith lock , the first on the Stainforth and Keadby , was lengthened in 1932 , and a new colliery layby was constructed to enable compartment boats to reach Hatfield Main Colliery . Stainforth lock , which connected the canal to the River Don , was closed in 1939 . The winter of 1947 was particularly severe , and the Stainforth and Keadby was closed for a period due to ice . After the Second World War , the canals of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation were nationalised on 1 January 1948 , together with most other operational canals in Britain .
They were initially managed by the British Transport Commission , but control passed to British Waterways with the passing of the Transport Act 1962 , which also disbanded the Transport Commission . The Transport Acts of 1968 and 1983 divided British canals into Commercial waterways , which were still carrying commercial traffic , cruising waterways , which had potential for leisure use , and remainder waterways , for which no economic use could be seen at the time . The Stainforth and Keadby was designated as a commercial waterway , and traffic was restricted to working boats carrying freight . With the steady demise of freight traffic , British Waterways encouraged the use of the canals for leisure cruising , walking and fishing , and later recognised their environmental value . Following the cessation of coal carrying from Hatfield Main colliery , and the closure of Dunston 's boatyard at Thorne , all use of the canal is now by leisure boaters . A further change of ownership took place in 2012 with the creation of the Canal & River Trust , which took over all of the assets of British Waterways .
= = Boatbuilding = =
Large numbers of boats were built beside the Stainforth and Keadby Canal . Richard Dunston set up a boatyard at Thorne , on the north bank just below the lock , in 1858 , after selling his previous boatyard at Torksey . He initially constructed clinker @-@ built sailing barges , capable of carrying up to 80 tons . The boatyard was fairly self @-@ contained , using timber which was grown locally and was sawn by hand at the yard . It included a ropewalk , which made ropes for many industries in the locality , as well as for rigging of the boats , and supplied sails , masts and chandlery to much of the Humber region . Gradually , carvel @-@ built barges with their smoother hulls replaced clinker @-@ built ones , and boat sizes became more standard , with Sheffield @-@ sized keels and larger sloops . Shortly after Richard 's grandson took over the yard in 1910 , it was remodelled to build iron and steel ships , and only one wooden boat was built subsequently .
One of the issues with the yard was that the size of boats that could be built was restricted by the locks at either side of the site . Sheffield @-@ sized boats were around 61 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 5 feet ( 18 @.@ 7 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) , and could leave the yard either by passing through Thorne Lock and on to the Don Navigation , or by travelling to Keadby and entering the Trent . Sloops were restricted to the Keadby route , because of their larger size , and the largest boats built at Thorne before the 1940s were 700 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 520 kW ) tugs , 300 @-@ ton coasters and 300 @-@ ton lighters . From 1933 , the yard began experimenting with welded rather than riveted construction , and their first all @-@ welded steam tugs were constructed for the Admiralty in 1942 . They continued to lead the field with developments in tug propulsion in the 1960s , and by the last 1970s had build seventeen tugs with Kort nozzle or Kort rudder steering and twenty tugs with Voith @-@ Schneider propulsion systems at Thorne . With the yard at Hessle on the Humber , bought from Henry Scarr in 1932 , they were one of the largest un @-@ nationalised shipbuilders in Britain .
The Empire Laird , a self @-@ trimming diesel collier measuring 140 by 21 @.@ 5 feet ( 42 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 6 m ) with a draught of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , was one of the largest vessels ever constructed at Thorne . It was built for the Admiralty in 1943 for use in the Bristol area , delivering coal to power stations . It was fitted with a 275 bhp ( 205 kW ) Crossley engine and a single propeller . Keadby Lock is much shorter than the ship , and so it had to sail through when the river made a level with the canal , and both sets of gates could be opened at the same time . However , the canal company were worried that because of its width , it might jam in the lock , which would cause flooding of the hinterland at high tide , and draining of the canal at low tide . Dunston 's had to build a dam across the canal beyond the lock , to prevent both consequences . Once built , the ship successfully passed through the lock , and the dam was removed . During the Second World War , Dunston 's designed and built TID ( Tugs in Dock ) tugs . They were constructed from eight pre @-@ fabricated sections , manufactured by companies who were not normally involved in shipbuilding . The sections weighted less than 6 tons , with a maximum size of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) by 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) by 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) , and were delivered by lorry to the yard . There they were joined together by welders , many of whom were women , and fitted with steam engines . The first TID tug was completed in February 1943 , and for more than a year , one left the yard every five days .
In the early 1980s , there were still 80 workers involved in construction work at Thorne , and 15 other staff . A total of 1 @,@ 358 vessels were built there between 1932 and the end of shipbuilding in 1984 . The yard closed completely in 1987 , and had been cleared by 1993 . Subsequently , it has become a housing estate , where a number of the roads reflect the former use of the site , including Capstan Rope Way and Dunstan Drive , although the spelling of " Dunston " is not quite the same .
= = Route = =
The Stainforth and Keadby follows a fairly direct course from west to east , running for 14 @.@ 9 miles ( 24 @.@ 0 km ) from Bramwith Junction , where it meets the New Junction Canal and the River Don Navigation , to Keadby Lock , where it joins the River Trent . There is a lock at both ends and one part way along at Thorne , which is smaller than the other two . Maximum boat sizes over the entire canal are 61 @.@ 7 feet ( 18 @.@ 8 m ) long by 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide . Boats can draw 7 @.@ 25 feet ( 2 @.@ 21 m ) and headroom is restricted to 10 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) .
The New Junction Canal and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal leave the end of the River Don Navigation , and both head broadly north east , but whereas the New Junction Canal continues in a straight line for its entire length , the Stainforth and Keadby gradually turns to the east . Shortly after the junction , Bramwith Lock lowers the level of the canal . The River Don , after flowing under the New Junction Canal , joins the canal and continues close to the north bank for several miles . Bramwith Swing Bridge is the first of several swing bridges , most of which are operated by boaters . The tiny village of Kirk Bramwith is just to the north of the canal and river . Its notable buildings include the church of St Mary , much of which dates from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries , with a twelfth @-@ century southern doorway . The building is a grade II * listed structure . The hamlet of South Bramwith lies to the south , with Bramwith Hall , a grade II listed 3 @-@ storey , 5 @-@ bay eighteenth @-@ century country house , which was rebuilt in the early nineteenth century , situated close to the canal . The canal passes to the north of Stainforth , where there is a fixed bridge . A basin , with its former connection to the Don , is now used as moorings by Thorne Cruising Club . This first section is now generally considered to be part of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal , although it was originally part of the Don Navigation as far as Stainforth Lock .
After a large pipe bridge , the canal widens to form a loading bay where coal from Hatfield Main Colliery was transferred to barges . A railway , which has now been dismantled , connected the site to the mine . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Stainforth , the Don turns towards the north , while the canal continues to the east , passing under the M18 motorway . As it approaches Thorne , it passes under the Sheffield to Hull Railway near Thorne North railway station . Immediately beyond the bridge is Stanilands Marina , followed by Thorne Lock , with a swing bridge crossing its head . The canal turns briefly to the south , to pass under the A614 road and the Doncaster to Cleethorpes railway near Thorne South railway station . The railway remains close to the northern bank for most of the way to Keadby . There is another marina near Wykewell Lift Bridge , and after Moor 's Swing Bridge , the canal crosses open countryside .
The land besides the canal is low lying , and there is evidence of strip farming , with a series of farms each with a long thin strip of land behind it . In this case the strips were 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) strips , appropximately 220 by 22 yards ( 201 by 20 m ) in size . The land is crossed by drainage ditches . To the north are those of Thorne Moors , while to the south , the drains include Boating Dyke , which was used for the export of peat during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The network of peat canals were largely destroyed by the cutting of the canal in 1802 , and Boating Dyke now feeds into the North Engine Drain , which crosses Hatfield Chase and discharges into the River Trent at Keadby . After Maud 's Swing Bridge is a long straight stretch , with the railway on the north bank . The North Soak Drain and South Soak Drain flank the canal on both sides , and were built because the canal disrupted the natural drainage of the area . Near to Crook o 'Moor Swing Bridge was Medge Hall peat works , which exported peat from the moors by railway until it was closed in 1966 .
Just before Godnow Swing Bridge , the northern soak drain crosses to the north side of the railway . As the canal approaches Ealand there are some large lakes to the north , which are now used for sailing . Crowle Bridge carries the A161 road over the railway and the canal , and Crowle railway station is sandwiched between the canal and the North Soak Drain . A little further east are the remains of Crowle railway bridge . It carried the Axholme Joint Railway over the canal , and consisted of four arches built from bricks , with a central swinging section , to allow keels to sail along the canal . The bridge was retained after the railway was closed in 1966 , because stators from Keadby Power Station were too heavy to be transported over the A161 road bridge . The stators were carried by road to Ealand , loaded onto the railway , and crossed the bridge to Belton , where they were transferred back to a road vehicle . The process became unnecessary when Lindsey County Council rebuilt the A161 bridge in 1970 , and the railway bridge was demolished in 1972 .
On the outskirts of Keadby , there are two more bridges . Vazon Swing Bridge is a conventional swing bridge , but the railway crosses to the south side of the canal on a sliding bridge . The bridge deck is only around 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) above the level of the water . When boats need to pass , the deck is winched sideways , and clears the waterway because it crosses it at an angle . The bridge was built in 1925 @-@ 26 and rebuilt in 2004 , and is controlled from a signal box nearby . Beyond the bridge , Keadby gas @-@ fired power station is located on the north bank . The final bridge is Keadby Swing Bridge , situated at the head of Keadby Lock . The lock controls passage to the River Trent , which is tidal at this point , and it therefore has four sets of gates . The main structure of the lock dates from the opening of the canal , and is grade II listed . The gates and sills were replaced in 1932 . There are wharves on the river for larger ships , and Keadby pumping station is situated just to the south . It was built in the 1930s , and pumps water from Hatfield Chase into the Trent . Since 1945 it has also dealt with water from the North and South Soak Drains . When the South Yorkshire Railway opened their line along the banks of the canal in 1859 , it terminated beside the lock , but was diverted to the south to cross the Trent on Keadby Bridge in 1864 .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority =
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority ( WMATA ) , commonly referred to as Metro , is a tri @-@ jurisdictional government agency that operates transit service in the Washington Metropolitan Area . WMATA was created by the United States Congress as an interstate compact between the District of Columbia , the State of Maryland , and the Commonwealth of Virginia .
WMATA provides rapid transit service under the Metrorail name , fixed @-@ route bus service under the Metrobus brand , and paratransit service under the MetroAccess brand . The authority is also part of a public @-@ private partnership that operates the DC Circulator bus system . WMATA has its own police force , the Metro Transit Police Department .
The authority 's Board of Directors consists of two voting representatives each from the District of Columbia , Maryland , Virginia , and the federal government . Each jurisdiction also appoints two alternate representatives . WMATA has no independent taxation authority and depends on its member jurisdictions for capital investments and operating subsidies .
In addition to ongoing operations , WMATA participates in regional transportation planning and is developing future expansions of its system . These projects include an extension of Metrorail to Dulles Airport , street car lines in the District and northern Virginia , and light rail in suburban Maryland .
= = History = =
Starting in the mid @-@ 19th century , the Washington area had been served by a variety of private bus lines and streetcar services , including extensions of Northern Virginia trolleys . Over time , most were absorbed into the Capital Transit Company , formed on December 1 , 1933 by the amalgamation of the Washington Railway , Capital Traction , and Washington Rapid Transit . Financier Louis Wolfson acquired the company in 1949 but had his franchise revoked in 1955 amidst a crippling strike . Congress then awarded a 20 @-@ year concession to O. Roy Chalk on the condition that he replace the city 's remaining streetcars with buses by 1963 . The company was thereafter known as DC Transit .
In that same year , the Mass Transportation Survey attempted to forecast both freeway and mass transit systems sufficient to meet the needs of the Washington area in the year 1980 . In 1959 , the study 's final report called for the construction of two rapid transit subway lines in downtown Washington . Congress responded to the report by enacting the National Capital Transportation Act of 1960 to coordinate future transportation planning for the area . The act created a new federal agency called the National Capital Transportation Agency ( NCTA ) . However , the 1959 report also called for extensive freeway construction within the District of Columbia . Residents successfully lobbied for a moratorium on freeway construction in what became part of a movement called the " freeway revolts . "
The NCTA 's November 1962 Transportation in the National Capital Region report included a proposal for an 89 @-@ mile ( 143 km ) , $ 793 million rail system . The total cost of the proposed highway and rail system was less than the 1959 plan due to the elimination of controversial freeways . The plan was supported by President Kennedy , but opposed by highway advocates in Congress who reduced the rail system to only 23 @-@ miles ( 37 km ) within the District of Columbia . However , that proposal was defeated in Congress shortly after President Kennedy 's death . The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 passed Congress , which promised 66 % federal funding for urban mass transportation projects . Encouraged by the new act , the NCTA recommended the formation of a private entity or a multi @-@ state authority to operate the system using more non @-@ federal funds . On September 8 , 1965 , President Johnson signed the National Capital Transportation Act of 1965 approving the construction of a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) rapid transit system .
The NCTA negotiated with Virginia , Maryland and the District of Columbia for the formation of a new regional entity . The authority was created by an interstate compact , a special type of contract or agreement between one or more states . Pursuant to the Compact Clause of the U.S. Constitution , any such compact must be approved by Congress . After the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority Compact was approved by the Maryland General Assembly in 1965 , and passed through the Virginia General Assembly and Congress in 1966 , WMATA was founded on February 20 , 1967 .
As a government agency , the compact grants WMATA sovereign immunity by all three jurisdictions in which it operates , and except for certain limited exceptions , the authority cannot be successfully sued unless it waives immunity . Under the provisions of the compact , the authority is legally incorporated in the District of Columbia , where WMATA maintains its headquarters .
WMATA broke ground for its train system in 1969 . The first portion of the Metrorail system opened March 27 , 1976 , connecting Dupont Circle to Rhode Island Avenue on the Red Line . The 103 miles ( 166 km ) of the original 83 @-@ station system was completed on January 13 , 2001 with the opening of Green Line 's segment from Anacostia to Branch Avenue .
WMATA 's bus system is a successor to four privately owned bus companies . While WMATA 's original compact provided only for rail service , by 1970 the need for reliable bus services to connect passengers to rail stations led to calls for authority to overhaul the entire bus system as well . The compact was amended in 1971 , allowing the authority to operate buses and take over bus companies . After months of negotiation with Chalk failed to produce an agreed price , on January 14 , 1973 WMATA condemned DC Transit and its sister company , the Washington , Virginia and Maryland Coach Company and acquired their assets for $ 38 @.@ 2 million . On February 4 , it acquired Alexandria , Barcroft and Washington Transit Company , which operated in Northern Virginia , and the WMA Transit Company of Prince George 's County for $ 4 @.@ 5 million . While AB & W and WMA Transit were in better financial condition than DC Transit , their owners did not wish to compete with a publicly owned bus system , and requested takeover .
In 1979 , an organization known as Metro 2001 , Inc . , planned to write a history of the development of the Metro system for WMATA using such documents as Congressional hearing transcripts , correspondence , and maps . However , this plan , known as the Metro History Project , was abandoned in 1985 , and materials that had been collected up until that point ( 1930 @-@ 1984 ) were donated to The George Washington University . This collection of materials is currently under the care of GWU 's Special Collections Research Center , located in the Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library .
In 1998 , Congress changed the name of the Washington National Airport to the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport with the law specifying that no money be spent to implement the name change . As a result , WMATA did not change the name of the National Airport station ( which never included the full name of the airport ) . In response to repeated inquiries from Republican congressmen that the station be renamed , WMATA stated that stations are renamed only at the request of the local jurisdiction . Because both Arlington County and the District of Columbia were controlled by Democrats , the name change was blocked . Finally , in 2001 , Congress made changing the station 's name a condition of further federal funding .
= = = Impacts of the Great Recession = = =
In response to a demand for immediate repayment of a $ 43 million debt , WMATA sought a temporary restraining order against the KBC Bank Group . KBC claimed that the WMATA was in technical default of a contract following the collapse of AIG , which had guaranteed the loan that KBC made to WMATA in 2002 . The contract involved the sale to KBC of WMATA 's rail cars , which were then leased back to WMATA . WMATA asked for an injunction from the U.S. District Court of the District of Columbia on October 29 , 2008 .
After three days of negotiations in federal court , Judge Rosemary M. Collyer announced a settlement on November 14 , 2008 . WMATA had 14 similar lease agreements with other financial institutions when the KBC case went to trial . Waivers were requested from the banks to allow WMATA time to replace AIG with another insurer or guarantees by the federal government .
In 2009 , WMATA issued two new series of municipal bonds bringing its total outstanding bonds to $ 390 @.@ 9 million , as of June 30 , 2010 . This includes $ 55 million of Build America Bonds issued in 2009 under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 that are partially subsidized by the federal government . However , most of the system 's debt is financed directly by each local jurisdiction . In addition , WMATA was authorized to receive $ 202 million in grants from the federal government for American Recovery and Reinvestment Act projects . The funds are spent in 30 projects which include information technology , facilities maintenance , and vehicles and vehicle parts .
On January 14 , 2010 , General Manager John B. Catoe announced his resignation from Metro , effective April 2 , 2010 . He was replaced on April 3 , 2010 by Interim General Manager Richard Sarles . Sarles became one of three finalists interviewing for the permanent position , and later became the permanent General Manager on January 27 , 2011 . Jack Requa became the Interim General Manager upon Sarles ' retirement January 16 , 2015 .
= = Organization = =
= = = Board of directors = = =
WMATA was originally set up with a board of directors , of twelve members . Of those , six were voting members , and six were alternates . In response to the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 , the WMATA Compact was amended on August 19 , 2009 to allow the appointment of four additional board members by the federal government , bringing the total to sixteen .
As of January 2013 , there were a total of fifteen board members : seven voting members and eight alternates . Virginia , Maryland , and the District had each appointed two voting members and two alternate members . The Federal Government , through the General Services Administration , is authorized to appoint up to two voting and two alternate members , but had appointed just two voting and one alternate members .
Board members serve without pay , but may be reimbursed for actual expenses . The board appoints a General Manager as CEO to supervise the day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the Authority . Under the terms of the " Procedures for WMATA Board of Directors " , none of the individual board members , including the Chairman , have any power to act regarding the operations of the Authority or to issue instructions to the General Manager or employees ; only the entire board as a body has power to instruct the General Manager .
The board approves WMATA 's annual budget . The budget was $ 2 @.@ 10 billion in fiscal year 2010 . In fiscal year 2010 , 31 @.@ 1 % of revenues came from capital contributions , 20 @.@ 2 % from passenger revenues , 32 @.@ 1 % from local jurisdiction operating subsidies , 3 @.@ 5 % from interest income , 1 @.@ 9 % from advertising revenue , 1 @.@ 1 % from rental revenue , and 0 @.@ 1 % from other sources .
The WMATA board has the following standing committees : Safety and Security Committee , Finance and Administration Committee ( with an Audits and Investigations subcommittee ) , Customer Service and Operations Committee ( with a Technology Review subcommittee ) , Policy , Program Development and Intergovernmental Relations Committee and the Joint Development and Real Estate Committee .
The position of board chairman rotates between the three jurisdictions . Article III Section 5 of the Compact specifies the method of appointment . The Compact prohibits WMATA from paying board members . However , Maryland pays its voting board members $ 20 @,@ 000 per year and Virginia pays $ 50 per meeting . The District of Columbia does not compensate its board members .
On February 17 , 2011 , outgoing 2010 – 11 WMATA Board Chairman Peter Benjamin announced he was leaving the board and will be replaced by former Congressman Michael D. Barnes . On that date , the new Governance Committee of the WMATA board , which is chaired by Mary Hynes , held its first meeting and established a work plan to develop a new relationship between the board and WMATA management . The Committee will draft new bylaws that will better define the role and term of the WMATA Board Chairman . The Governance Committee will also draft a code of conduct for board members .
= = = Management = = =
The General Manager is the chief executive officer of WMATA and leads all staff except that the General Counsel , Inspector General and Board Secretary , who report directly to the board . WMATA has a Chief Safety Officer which reports to the general manager . The safety of the system is independently reviewed by the Tri @-@ State Oversight Committee and the National Transportation Safety Board . On March 4 , 2010 , the Federal Transit Administration issue an Audit of the State Safety Oversight ( SSO ) program overseeing Metro which criticised the SSO as being underfunded and poorly trained . In response , Virginia , Maryland and the District of Columbia have increased their SSO funding and training for their employees responsible for safety oversight at metro .
Jackson Graham , a retired general in the Army Corps of Engineers who supervised the planning and initial construction of the Metrorail system , was the first general manager . Graham retired in 1976 , and was replaced by Theodore C. Lutz . Richard S. Page , head of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration , took over as general manager of WMATA in 1979 . Page resigned in 1983 , amid increasing financial difficulties for WMATA. and was replaced by Carmen E. Turner , who served for seven years . Former New York City Transit Authority chief , David L. Gunn , took over as head of WMATA in 1991 , followed by Lawrence G. Reuter in 1994 , and Richard A. White in 1996 .
White led efforts to improve accountability and dialogue with passengers during 2005 . This included independent audits , town hall meetings , online chats with White and other management officials , and improved signage in stations . White had three more years in his contract to work for Metro , but had come under fire for mismanagement ; however , he was also " widely credited with saving the Metrobus system from collapse and with keeping Metro running during the terrorist attacks of Sept . 11 , 2001 . " Despite these efforts , however , the Board of Directors dismissed White on January 11 , 2006 . Dan Tangherlini replaced White as interim General Manager , effective February 16 , 2006 .
Tangherlini was considered a leading candidate for Metro 's top job on a permanent basis before he resigned to work as D.C. City Administrator under Mayor Adrian Fenty . On November 6 , 2006 , Tangherlini was replaced as interim general manager by Jack Requa , Metro 's chief bus manager . John B. Catoe , Jr . , who was previously the Deputy Chief Executive Officer of the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority , became the agency 's eighth permanent General Manager on January 25 , 2007 . He resigned three years later following the deadliest crash in the Metrorail system 's history .
On April 3 , 2010 , the Board of Directors appointed Richard Sarles , former Executive Director of New Jersey Transit , as interim General Manager . Sarles , 65 , was offered the position of permanent General Manager but declined the appointment at that time . However , on January 27 , 2011 , the Board announced that Sarles accepted the position as WMATA 's permanent General Manager .
With Sarles ' retirement , the post of General Manager was filled by Paul Wiedefeld on November 30 , 2015 .
= = = Regional coordination = = =
The agency 's charter directs WMATA to create a unified regional transit system by coordinating other public and private agencies within its jurisdiction . Examples of its coordination efforts include : reducing unnecessary , duplicate services by other local transit systems ; providing " SmarTrip " farecards for buses operated by other local transit agencies ; and adding local bus schedules and commuter rail routes ( such as Maryland 's MARC and Virginia 's VRE ) to WMATA 's online " Trip Planner " guide .
= = = Transit Police = = =
Congress established the Metro Transit Police Department ( MTPD ) on June 4 , 1976 . MTPD police officers have jurisdiction and arrest powers for crimes that occur throughout the 1 @,@ 500 square mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) Transit Zone that includes Maryland , Virginia , and the District of Columbia . In December 2010 , MTPD began conducting random searches of carry @-@ on bags for explosive and weapons at checkpoints located at randomly designated Metrorail stations .
= = = Inspector general = = =
The Office of Inspector General was originally authorized by Board Resolution 2006 – 18 , approved by the WMATA Board on April 20 , 2006 . With the amendments enacted on August 19 , 2009 , the Office of Inspector General became part of the WMATA Compact . This change was one of the requirements for the $ 1 @.@ 5 billion federal grant offered by the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 . Helen Lew became the Metro 's first Inspector General on May 14 , 2007 , establishing the WMATA Office of Inspector General . Her appointment by the Board of Directors replaced the former Auditor General 's Office . Unlike the Auditor General , the Inspector General and her office report directly to the Board and are organizationally independent of WMATA management .
= = Services = =
= = = Metrorail = = =
Since opening in 1976 , the Metrorail network has grown to include six lines , 91 stations , and 117 miles ( 188 km ) of track . It is the second @-@ busiest rapid transit system in the United States in number of passenger trips , after the New York City Subway . There were 215 @.@ 3 million trips , or 727 @,@ 684 trips per weekday , on Metrorail in fiscal year 2008 . In June 2008 , Metro set a new monthly ridership record with 19 @,@ 729 @,@ 641 trips , or 798 @,@ 456 per weekday . On April 2 , 2010 , Metrorail set a new ridership record of 891 @,@ 240 trips . During 2010 , Metrorail had 217 @.@ 2 million trips . Fares vary based on the distance traveled and the time of day . Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card known as SmarTrip ; magnetic stripe tickets stopped being accepted on March 6 , 2016 . Metrorail 's frequency of service and fares vary depending on the available subsidy , the particular transit line , and the distance traveled .
As a part of 42 Metrorail stations , Metro offers parking for commuters . Most lots are on a first @-@ come , first @-@ served basis and fill up quickly each day . Thirty four stations offer reserved parking , with customers purchasing permits to park in specified spaces . Three Metrorail stations ( Greenbelt , Huntington , and Franconia @-@ Springfield ) have spaces reserved for multi @-@ day parking for up to ten days . Parking fees are paid by SmarTrip card , but 19 stations also accept credit cards . Cash payments are not accepted for parking fees .
= = = Metrobus = = =
Metrobus ' fleet consists of 1 @,@ 505 buses covering an area of 1 @,@ 500 square miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ² ) in Washington , D.C. , Maryland , and Virginia . There are over 300 bus routes serving 12 @,@ 216 stops , including 2 @,@ 398 bus shelters . In fiscal year 2009 , Metrobus provided more than 133 million trips . During 2010 , Metrobus had 123 @.@ 7 million trips . On a typical weekday , it provides more than 400 @,@ 000 trips .
Metro has currently awarded a five @-@ year contract with NABI ( now New Flyer ) for the procurement of up to 654 new buses . The first batch of 85 NABI diesel @-@ electric hybrid 42 @-@ foot buses is already on order , with delivery expected within a year . The new buses will replace some of Metro ’ s older Orion V , Neoplan AN460A and New Flyer C40LF buses , which were delivered in 1997 @-@ 2002 . Going forward , the contract gives Metro the option to order up to 498 additional 42 @-@ foot buses and up to 71 60 @-@ foot buses over the five @-@ year period . Red / silver painted buses will be used on " Local " routes and blue / silver buses will be used on " MetroExtra " routes . These buses will have either a red stripe in front of the bus for " Local " routes or a blue stripe in front of the bus for " MetroExtra " routes for easy identification . The numbering represents its region of operation . To differ the regions numbering system , Maryland letter is ( prefix ) to the route number and Virginia letter is ( suffix ) to the route number . For example : C22 ( Maryland ) & 15L ( Virginia ) .
= = = MetroAccess = = =
MetroAccess is a paratransit service which WMATA provides through private contractors . It began operation in May 1994 , and since that time , annual ridership has grown from 200 @,@ 000 to over 2 @.@ 4 million passengers . MetroAccess operates 365 days a year , providing door @-@ to @-@ door , shared rides reserved from one to seven days in advance . It is now the sixth largest paratransit service in the United States with a fleet of over 600 vehicles and over 1 @,@ 000 employees . WMATA staff determines eligibility to use the service in response to written applications . The cost per passenger for MetroAccess is significantly higher than its fixed @-@ route counterparts , and Metro has worked to provide as many opportunities to encourage and facilitate the use of fixed @-@ route transit by its customers with disabilities .
= = Funding = =
Fares and other revenue fund 57 @.@ 6 % of the Metro 's daily operations while state and local governments fund the remaining 42 @.@ 4 % . Since the Metro 's inception , the federal government has provided grants for 65 % of the system 's capital costs . Metrorail is unusual among major public transportation systems in having no dedicated source of funding . Instead , each year WMATA must ask each local jurisdiction to contribute funding , which is determined by a formula that equally considers three factors :
population density , as of the 2000 Census ;
average weekday ridership ;
number of stations in each jurisdiction .
Under this formula , the District of Columbia contributes the greatest amount ( 34 % ) , followed by Montgomery County ( 18 @.@ 7 % ) , Prince George 's County ( 17 @.@ 9 % ) , Fairfax County ( 14 @.@ 3 % ) , Arlington County ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) , the City of Alexandria ( 4 @.@ 7 % ) , the City of Falls Church ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) , and the City of Fairfax ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) . From time to time , a local jurisdiction will agree to subsidize a specific fare , with the jurisdiction funding the cost of the subsidy in addition to its contribution under the above formula . For example , the District of Columbia subsidized the fares charged at Metrorail stations located in economically challenged neighborhoods .
The cost of Metrobus is allocated under a formula which considers the excess of expenses over revenues from specific bus routes . The cost of MetroAccess is allocated under a different formula , which divides MetroAccess costs by the number of trips requested by riders who reside in each jurisdiction .
In 2004 , the Brookings Institution released a report entitled " Deficits by Design " that found the agency 's serious budgetary challenges owe in large part to its problematic revenue base . Most notably , Brookings found that WMATA 's extraordinary lack of dedicated funding sources has necessitated an over @-@ reliance on annually appropriated support that makes the agency vulnerable to perennial financial crises . As a result , the region 's political and business leaders created a committee to look at new ways to fund the system , including some type of dedicated tax .
Title VI of the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 , signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 16 , 2008 , authorized a grant of $ 1 @.@ 5 billion over a 10 @-@ year period for Metrorail capital maintenance projects . The grant was contingent upon the establishment of dedicated revenue sources for the Metro by the Compact jurisdictions . An amendment to the Metro 's Compact on August 19 , 2009 added the requirement for payments " from dedicated funding sources " by the Compact 's participating jurisdictions . In June 2010 , Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell threatened to withhold Virginia 's WMATA funding unless the composition of WMATA 's board is modified to allow Virginia 's Governor to appoint two of the four Virginia seats , instead of the localities . On June 17 , 2010 , Federal Transit Administrator Peter Rogoff required a formal commitment from Virginia to match its share of the federal funds if the federal funding is to continue . On July 1 , 2010 , the WMATA Board of Directors agreed to provide matching funds without regard to McDonnell 's request for Board seats . Based on this agreement , the federal funds were reconfirmed , and WMATA was able to proceed with a contract to purchase 428 new metrorail cars . McDonnell pressed for a Board seat again in 2011 , and used his amendatory veto authority to amend the 2010 @-@ 11 budget to require the NVTC to appoint someone of the Governor 's choosing to fill one of the NVTC seats on the WMATA Board .
In the course of considering a continuing resolution for federal fiscal year 2011 , the U.S. House of Representatives sought to defund all " earmarks " including the $ 150 million annual installment toward the $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in federal matching funds . On February 16 , 2011 , Rep. Gerry Connolly ( D @-@ Va . ) offered an amendment to reallocate $ 150 million from farm subsidy payments to meet this obligation , but the amendment was ruled out of order . The suspension of the federal appropriation also calls into question the matching funds from the individual jurisdictions for capital projects . On March 1 , 2010 , Republican Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell wrote to Congress urging continuation of the federal funds . The continuing resolution for the remainder of 2011 ultimately included the federal matching funds .
On June 24 , 2010 , WMATA adopted a six @-@ year capital spending plan totalling $ 5 billion . The plan is funded by the $ 3 billion from the 2008 Act , the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , and increased funding from the participating jurisdictions . The plan includes rebuilding much of its infrastructure for improved safety . The NTSB had recommended replacing Metrorail 's oldest series of railcars as uncrashworthy , and the spending plan would replace those cars .
The 57 % funding of WMATA from fares and other revenue compares with New York City 's Metropolitan Transportation Authority which receives 53 % of its funding from fares and car tolls . The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority receives of 31 @.@ 8 % . of its funding from fares .
In an effort to gain revenues , WMATA has started to allow retail ventures in Metrorail stations . WMATA has authorized DVD @-@ rental vending machines and ticket booths for the Old Town Trolley Tours and is seeking additional retail tenants .
The WMATA staff preliminary budget for 2011 @-@ 12 shows an $ 89 million operating deficit . This deficit can be addressed by fare increases , service reductions , or increased subsidies from the participating local jurisdictions .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Safety = = =
In recent years , WMATA has drawn criticism for a neglect of safety in both its rail and bus systems . Problems include failures within the system designed to prevent train collisions and escalators failing or breaking apart while in service . The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) has recommended that WMATA invest $ 1 billion in needed safety improvements . A December 2008 report by the WMATA Inspector General documented that Metro 's System Safety and Risk Management Office was bypassed when changes were made to Metrorail 's operating procedures , even though that office 's review and approval was required as a matter of policy . On June 22 , 2009 , two Metrorail trains collided between the Takoma and Fort Totten Metro stations , killing nine . In February 2011 , the National Transportation Safety Board conducted a public hearing during which witnesses testified about problems with the safety culture at WMATA . The NTSB 's final report on the accident commented that " [ t ] he failure of WMATA engineers and technicians or managers to properly address track circuit anomalies is symptomatic of the larger safety culture issues within the organization . "
Safety concerns have grown to the point that the region 's Congressional delegation introduced the " National Metro Safety Act of 2011 , " which would establish federal safety standards for heavy rail mass transit systems . In response , WMATA is replacing its track control system and ordered an immediate inspection of all of its escalators . That inspection showed that over 10 percent of the escalators had faulty brakes .
Elevator and escalator service are a public concern prompting WMATA to post a webpage that is updated daily to notify users of elevator and escalator outages . The NTSB has criticised the ability of Metrorail 's Series 1000 cars to withstand collisions even at very low speeds . WMATA has ordered new cars to replace its Series 1000 fleet .
Closed @-@ circuit television cameras monitor every Metrobus and every Metrorail station .
= = = Discrimination = = =
There have been claims of discrimination within WMATA over the years . As of 2005 , the WMATA workforce is composed of people from the following demographic groups :
In 1990 , Christine Townsend sued WMATA in the Washington federal district court on the basis of sexual discrimination . She won , with the court noting in the outcome of Townsend v. Washington Metro . Area Transit Auth. that the WMATA explanation had " many unexplained inconsistencies , irregularities , and holes " .
Former Metro workers claim that WMATA consistently passes over non @-@ black applicants or workers for employment or promotion .
In May 2015 , the WMATA board voted to ban advocacy advertising after the American Freedom Defense Initiative sought to purchase advertisements in five subway stations and on twenty buses depicting Muhammad . The Metropolitan Transportation Authority previously attempted to deny similar anti @-@ Islam ads by the AFDI , but had their decision successfully challenged in court , and subsequently voted to ban non @-@ commercial advertising .
= = Future expansion = =
WMATA and its local jurisdictions developed a six @-@ year , $ 5 billion " Capital Improvement Program " ( CAP ) which took effect on July 1 , 2010 , and will expire on June 30 , 2016 . Under CAP , the local jurisdictions will fund capital projects ( through the sale of municipal bonds ) with matching funds provided by the federal government . CAP projects include purchasing new rail cars , rehabilitating three rail lines , replacing three bus garages , implementation of NTSB safety recommendations and purchasing new track maintenance equipment and overhauling Metrorail station elevators and escalators .
WMATA added another color to its system , silver . The Silver Line 's Phase I extended service to the Tysons Corner area of Virginia , with further extension planned to Dulles Airport and Loudoun County . Utility relocation for Phase I began in mid @-@ 2008 . Phase I through Tysons Corner to Reston ( Wiehle @-@ Reston East station ) opened July 26 , 2014 , while Phase II to Dulles is expected to be completed in 2018 . No stations will be opened until the completion of each phase . The Silver Line is financed through toll increases on the Dulles Toll Road as well as a $ 900 million federal grant and a special taxing district on adjacent commercial properties . In contrast , a proposed new $ 270 @-@ million Potomac Yards metrorail stop on the Blue and Yellow Lines north of Braddock Road is to be funded by a special taxing district that will cover commercial properties and perhaps residential properties as well .
There has also been speculation about an extension of the Green Line northward to Baltimore 's BWI Airport , There was also talk of extending the Green either to National Harbor or to White Plains via Waldorf . An extension from Franconia / Springfield to Fort Belvoir is also a possibility due to the Base Realignment and Closure process which relocated thousands of area defense jobs at Fort Belvoir in 2012 . While there has been much discussion about all of these extensions , none are in any official planning stage . There as also been plans to extend the Orange Line to Centreville and Bowie .
Regarding Metrobus improvements , General Manager Sarles reported , " Bus service will benefit from new technology that integrates fare box , destination signage and next bus systems to improve our reliability and customer information delivery . And , we will begin work in certain priority bus corridors that will deliver faster travel times for bus customers . Additionally , I look forward to working with the District of Columbia on potential bus rapid transit service improvements , such as curb running and signal preference to make bus service even more attractive , efficient , and an even more powerful antidote to traffic congestion . "
= = Energy Efficiency Initiatives = =
WMATA reached an agreement in 2013 with the sustainable lighting division at Philips Electronics North America to switch to LEDs at no upfront cost . WMATA and Philips agreed to a ten @-@ year maintenance contract through the $ 2 million savings the LEDs will provide each year .
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= Julia Alvarez =
Julia Alvarez ( born March 27 , 1950 ) is a Dominican @-@ American poet , novelist , and essayist .
Alvarez rose to prominence with the novels How the García Girls Lost Their Accents ( 1991 ) , In the Time of the Butterflies ( 1994 ) , and Yo ! ( 1997 ) . Her publications as a poet include Homecoming ( 1984 ) and The Woman I Kept to Myself ( 2004 ) , and as an essayist the autobiographical compilation Something to Declare ( 1998 ) . Many literary critics regard her to be one of the most significant Latina writers and she has achieved critical and commercial success on an international scale .
Born in New York , she spent the first ten years of her childhood in the Dominican Republic , until her father ’ s involvement in a political rebellion forced her family to flee the country . Many of Alvarez ’ s works are influenced by her experiences as a Dominican in the United States , and focus heavily on issues of assimilation and identity . Her cultural upbringing as both a Dominican and an American is evident in the combination of personal and political tone in her writing . She is known for works that examine cultural expectations of women both in the Dominican Republic and the United States , and for rigorous investigations of cultural stereotypes . In recent years , Alvarez has expanded her subject matter with works such as In the Name of Salomé ( 2000 ) , a novel with Cuban rather than solely Dominican characters and fictionalized versions of historical figures .
In addition to her successful writing career , Alvarez is the current writer @-@ in @-@ residence at Middlebury College .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Julia Alvarez was born in 1950 in New York City . When she was three @-@ months @-@ old , her family moved back to the Dominican Republic , where they lived for the next ten years . She grew up with her extended family in sufficient comfort to enjoy the services of maids . Critic Silvio Sirias believes that Dominicans value a talent for story @-@ telling ; Alvarez developed this talent early and was " often called upon to entertain guests " . In 1960 , the family was forced to flee to the United States after her father participated in a failed plot to overthrow the island ’ s military dictator , Rafael Trujillo , circumstances which would later be revisited in her writing : her novel How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , for example , portrays a family that is forced to leave the Dominican Republic in similar circumstances , and in her poem , " Exile " , she describes " the night we fled the country " and calls the experience a " loss much larger than I understood " .
Alvarez ’ s transition from the Dominican Republic to the United States was difficult ; Sirias comments that she " lost almost everything : a homeland , a language , family connections , a way of understanding , and a warmth " . She experienced alienation , homesickness , and prejudice in her new surroundings . In How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents , a character asserts that trying to raise " consciousness [ in the Dominican Republic ] ... would be like trying for cathedral ceilings in a tunnel " .
As one of the few Latin American students in her Catholic school , Alvarez faced discrimination because of her heritage and was often called a " Spic ! " by her classmates . This caused her to turn inward and led to her fascination with literature , which she called " a portable homeland " . She was encouraged by many of her teachers to pursue writing , and from a young age , was certain that this was what she wanted to do with her life . At the age of 13 , her parents sent her to Abbot Academy , a boarding school , because the local schools were not considered sufficient . As a result , her relationship with her parents suffered , and was further strained when every summer she returned to the Dominican Republic to " reinforce their identities not only as Dominicans but also as proper young ladies " . These intermittent exchanges between countries informed her cultural understanding , the basis of many of her works .
After graduating from Abbot Academy in 1967 , she attended Connecticut College from 1967 to 1969 ( where she won the Benjamin T. Marshall Poetry Prize ) and then transferred to Middlebury College , where she obtained her Bachelor of Arts degree , summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa ( 1971 ) . She then received a master 's degree from Syracuse University ( 1975 ) .
= = = Career = = =
After acquiring a master 's degree in 1975 , Alvarez took a position as a writer @-@ in @-@ residence for the Kentucky Arts Commission . She traveled throughout the state visiting elementary schools , high schools , colleges and communities , conducting writing workshops and giving readings . She attributes these years with providing her a deeper understanding of America and helping her realize her passion for teaching . After her work in Kentucky , she extended her educational endeavors to California , Delaware , North Carolina , Massachusetts , Washington , D.C. , and Illinois .
In addition to writing , Alvarez holds the position of writer @-@ in @-@ residence at Middlebury College , where she teaches creative writing on a part @-@ time basis . Alvarez currently resides in the Champlain Valley in Vermont . She has served as a panelist , consultant , and editor , as a judge for literary awards such as the PEN / Newman 's Own First Amendment Award and the Casa de las Américas Prize , and also gives readings and lectures across the country . She and her partner , Bill Eichner , an ophthalmologist , created Alta Gracia , a farm @-@ literacy center dedicated to the promotion of environmental sustainability and literacy and education worldwide . Alvarez and her husband purchased the farm in 1996 with the intent to promote cooperative and independent coffee @-@ farming in the Dominican Republic .
= = Literary work = =
Alvarez is regarded as one of the most critically and commercially successful Latina writers of her time . Her published works include five novels , a book of essays , four collections of poetry , four children ’ s books , and two works of adolescent fiction .
Among her first published works were collections of poetry ; The Homecoming , published in 1984 , was expanded and republished in 1996 . Poetry was Alvarez ’ s first form of creative writing and she explains that her love for poetry has to do with the fact that " a poem is very intimate , heart @-@ to @-@ heart " . Her poetry celebrates nature and the detailed rituals of daily life , including domestic chores . Her poems portray stories of family life and are often told from the perspective of women . She questions patriarchal privilege and examines issues of exile , assimilation , identity , and the struggle of the lower class in an introspective manner . She found inspiration for her work from a small painting from 1894 by Pierre Bonnard called The Circus Rider . Her poems , critic Elizabeth Coonrod Martínez suggests , give voice to the immigrant struggle .
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , Alvarez ’ s first novel , was published in 1991 , and was soon widely acclaimed . It is the first major novel written in English by a Dominican author . A largely personal novel , the book details themes of cultural hybridization and the struggles of a post @-@ colonial Dominican Republic . Alvarez illuminates the integration of the Latina immigrant into the U.S. mainstream and shows that identity can be deeply affected by gender , ethnic , and class differences . She uses her own experiences to illustrate deep cultural contrasts between the Caribbean and the United States . So personal was the material in the novel , that for months after it was published , her mother refused to speak with her ; her sisters were also not pleased with the book . The book has sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies , and was cited as an American Library Association Notable Book .
Released in 1994 , her second novel , In the Time of the Butterflies , has a historical premise and elaborates on the death of the Mirabal sisters during the time of the Trujillo dictatorship in the Dominican Republic . In 1960 their bodies were found at the bottom of a cliff on the north coast of the island , and it is said they were a part of a revolutionary movement to overthrow the oppressive regime of the country at the time . These legendary figures are referred to as Las Mariposas , or The Butterflies . This story portrays women as strong characters who have the power to alter the course of history , demonstrating Alvarez ’ s affinity for strong female protagonists and anti @-@ colonial movements . As Alvarez explains , " I hope that through this fictionalized story I will bring acquaintance of these famous sisters to English speaking readers . November 25 , the day of their murders is observed in many Latin American countries as the International Day Against Violence Toward Women . Obviously , these sisters , who fought one tyrant , have served as models for women fighting against injustices of all kinds . "
In 1997 , Alvarez published Yo ! , a sequel to How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , which focuses solely on the character of Yolanda . Drawing from her own experiences , Alvarez portrays the success of a writer who uses her family as the inspiration for her work . Yo ! could be considered Alvarez ’ s musings on and criticism of her own literary success . Alvarez ’ s opinions on the hybridization of culture are often conveyed through the use of Spanish @-@ English malapropisms , or Spanglish ; such expressions are especially prominent in How the García Girls Lost Their Accents . Alvarez describes the language of the character of Laura as " a mishmash of mixed @-@ up idioms and sayings " .
In the Name of Salomé ( 2000 ) is a novel that weaves together the lives of two distinct women , illustrating how they devoted their lives to political causes . It takes place in several locations , including the Dominican Republic before a backdrop of political turbulence , Communist Cuba in the 1960s , and several university campuses across the United States , containing themes of empowerment and activism . As the protagonists of this novel are both women , Alvarez illustrates how these women , " came together in their mutual love of [ their homeland ] and in their faith in the ability of women to forge a conscience for Out Americas . " This book has been widely acclaimed for its careful historical research and captivating story , and was described by Publishers Weekly as " one of the most politically moving novels of the past half century . "
= = Influence on Latin American literature = =
Alvarez is regarded as one of the most critically and commercially successful Latina writers of her time . As Elizabeth Coonrod Martínez observes , Alvarez is part of a movement of Latina writers that also includes Sandra Cisneros and Cristina García , all of whom weave together themes of the experience of straddling the borders and cultures of Latin America and the United States . Coonrod Martínez suggests that a subsequent generation of Dominican @-@ American writers , such as Angie Cruz , Loida Maritza Pérez , Nelly Rosario , and Junot Díaz , have been inspired by Alvarez ’ s success .
Alvarez admits " the bad part of being a ' Latina Writer ' is that people want to make me into a spokesperson . There is no spokesperson ! There are many realities , different shades and classes " .
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is the first novel by a Dominican @-@ American woman to receive widespread acclaim and attention in the United States . The book portrays ethnic identity as problematic on several levels . Alvarez challenges commonly held assumptions of multiculturalism as strictly positive . She views much of immigrant identity as greatly affected by ethnic , gendered , and class conflict . According to critic Ellen McCracken , " Transgression and incestuous overtones may not be the usual fare of the mainstream ’ s desirable multicultural commodity , but Alvarez ’ s deployment of such narrative tactics foregrounds the centrality of the struggle against abuse of patriarchal power in this Dominican American ’ s early contribution to the new Latina narrative of the 1990s . "
Regarding the women ’ s movement in writing , Alvarez explains , " definitely , still , there is a glass ceiling in terms of female novelists . If we have a female character , she might be engaging in something monumental but she ’ s also changing the diapers and doing the cooking , still doing things which get it called a woman ’ s novel . You know , a man ’ s novel is universal ; a woman ’ s novel is for women . "
Alvarez claims that her aim is not simply to write for women , but to also deal with universal themes that illustrate a more general interconnectedness . She explains , " What I try to do with my writing is to move out into those other selves , other worlds . To become more and more of us . " As an illustration of this point , Alvarez writes in English about issues in the Dominican Republic , using a combination of both English and Spanish . Alvarez feels empowered by the notion of populations and cultures around the world mixing , and because of this identifies as a " Citizen of the World " .
= = Grants and honors = =
Alvarez has received grants from the National Endowment for the Arts and the Ingram Merrill Foundation . Some of her poetry manuscripts now have a permanent home in the New York Public Library , where her work was featured in an exhibit , " The Hand of the Poet : Original Manuscripts by 100 Masters , From John Donne to Julia Alvarez . " She received the Lamont Prize from the Academy of American Poets in 1974 , first prize in narrative from the Third Woman Press Award in 1986 , and an award from the General Electric Foundation in 1986 .
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was the winner of the 1991 PEN Oakland / Josephine Miles Literary Award for works that present a multicultural viewpoint . Yo ! was selected as a notable book by the American Library Association in 1998 . Before We Were Free won the Belpre Medal in 2004 , and Return to Sender won the Belpre Medal in 2010 . She also received the 2002 Hispanic Heritage Award in Literature .
= = = Fiction = = =
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books , 1991 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 945575 @-@ 57 @-@ 3
In the Time of the Butterflies . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books , 1994 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56512 @-@ 038 @-@ 9
Yo ! . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books , 1997 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 452 @-@ 27918 @-@ 6
In the Name of Salomé . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books , 2000 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56512 @-@ 276 @-@ 5
Saving the World : A Novel . Chapel Hill , NC : Algonquin Books , 2006 . ISBN 9781565125100 ( 2006 )
= = = = Children ’ s and young adult = = = =
The Secret Footprints . New York : Knopf , 2000 .
A Cafecito Story . White River Junction , VT : Chelsea Green , 2001 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 931498 @-@ 00 @-@ 5
How Tia Lola Came to visit Stay . New York : Knopf , 2001 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 90215 @-@ 4
Before We Were Free . New York : A. Knopf . 2002 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 81544 @-@ 7 .
Finding Miracles . New York : Knopf , 2004 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 92760 @-@ 7
A Gift of Gracias : The Legend of Altagracia . New York : Knopf . 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 82425 @-@ 8 .
El mejor regalo del mundo : la leyenda de la Vieja Belen / The Best Gift of All : The Legend of La Vieja Belen . Miami : Alfaguara , 2009 . ( bilingual book )
Return to Sender . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 85838 @-@ 3 .
How Tia Lola Learned to Teach . New York : Knopf . 2010 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 86460 @-@ 5 .
How Tía Lola Saved the Summer . New York : Knopf . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 86727 @-@ 9 .
How Tia Lola Ended Up Starting Over . New York : Knopf , 2011 .
= = = Poetry = = =
The Other Side ( El Otro Lado ) , Dutton , 1995 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 93922 @-@ 1
Homecoming : New and Selected Poems , Plume , 1996 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 452 @-@ 27567 @-@ 6 - reissue of 1984 volume , with new poems
The Woman I Kept to Myself , Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill , 2004 ; 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61620 @-@ 072 @-@ 5
= = = Nonfiction = = =
Something to Declare , Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill , 1998 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56512 @-@ 193 @-@ 5 ( collected essays )
Once Upon a Quinceañera : Coming of Age in the USA . Penguin . 2007 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 03873 @-@ 2 .
A Wedding in Haiti : The Story of a Friendship 2012 .
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= Washington Blade =
The Washington Blade is a lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ( LGBT ) newspaper in the Washington , D.C. metropolitan area . The Blade is the oldest LGBT newspaper in the United States and third largest by circulation , behind the Philadelphia Gay News and the Gay City News of New York City . The Blade is often referred to as America 's gay newspaper of record because it chronicled LGBT news locally , nationally , and internationally . The New York Times said the Blade is considered " one of the most influential publications written for a gay audience . "
The paper was originally launched by a group of volunteers as an independent publication in October 1969 with a focus on bringing the community together . In 2001 , the Blade was purchased by Window Media LLC , a group of gay @-@ oriented newspapers circulated throughout the United States with a staff composed of professional journalists , becoming a leading source of news for the readers both in Washington and around the nation . The paper publishes weekly on Fridays and celebrated its fortieth anniversary in October 2009 .
In November 2009 , the Blade and several related publications , including the Southern Voice , were shut down after Window Media announced it was closing business . After Blade staff members were told they no longer had jobs , plans were made for a new gay publication entitled DC Agenda , since the trademark for Washington Blade was still held by the now @-@ defunct Window Media .
It was announced on April 27 , 2010 that the DC Agenda would rename itself to the Washington Blade . The ownership group of the Agenda consisted of many former staff members of the Blade , whom purchased the trademark and paper archives out of bankruptcy court . The first issue of the newly independent Blade debuted on April 30 , 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins to 1973 = = =
The Washington Blade , originally called The Gay Blade , published its first issue on October 5 , 1969 . Taking its roots from the Mattachine Society of Washington 's newsletter in the late 1950s and early 1960s , the Blade was conceived as a way to fill in a perceived gap in the organization of social communications within the gay community of Washington , D.C. The Blade was originally published as a single page and distributed hand @-@ to @-@ hand in a variety of gay bars throughout the city . Afraid of a backlash over the publication , many of the initial authors of writings in the Blade used pen names during the early years of publishing . The initial publications were entirely created by volunteers from the community with two editors , Nancy Tucker and Bart Wenger , leading the helm . Wenger stated the initial goals of the publication were to " ... engender a sense of community " and that it was " very important for gays to become acquainted with one another . " Published monthly from 1969 to 1973 , the newspaper evolved from its original size and shape of a single letter sized paper sheet . In June 1972 , the Gay Blade published its first multi @-@ page edition which consisted of four pages and in April 1973 , the paper expanded to eight pages and was printed on legal sized paper sheets , stapled in the middle and folded . As the looks of the paper evolved , so did the news coverage . The Gay Blade began to focus less on being a newsletter used to organize the community and more of a newspaper for the community .
= = = 1974 to 1982 = = =
In July 1974 , the first newsprint edition was published and signaled an evolution in the history of the Gay Blade . A fifth anniversary edition of the paper was not published in October 1974 because of a lack of revenue and interest , marking the only time the paper failed to publish an edition in its history . The new focus on being a newspaper allowed the publication 's circulation to grow in 1974 and 1975 from five hundred copies distributed at less than a dozen sites to over 4 @,@ 000 copies available at thirty @-@ five locations throughout the city . The June 1975 edition of the Blade dropped the word ' Gay ' from the title of the publication after it was discovered that a newspaper in New York held the rights to the name Gay Blade . The new name of the publication was now The Blade . It continued to be published on newsprint paper and had no additional format changes until near the end of the decade . Incorporating as a non @-@ profit corporation under the title of " Blade Communications , Inc . " in November 1975 , the paper continued its growth . Don Michaels , an important voice on the pages of the publication , was named the editor of the paper in January 1978 . Michaels began strict enforcement of a policy that prohibited pen names from being used in bylines . By November 1978 , the Blade was regularly featuring color printing on its pages and beginning in 1979 , the Blade changed into a bi @-@ weekly publication . Starting in October 1980 , the name of the publication changed to The Washington Blade and the corporation re @-@ incorporated as a for @-@ profit , employee @-@ owned business . In July 1981 , the Blade ran a front @-@ page story entitled " Rare , Fatal Pneumonia Hits Gay Men , " making the paper one of the first gay newspapers in the country to write about the disease that has come to be known as AIDS . In November 1981 , Don Michaels got promoted to the position of publisher , a position he would hold for over two decades .
= = = 1983 to 2000 = = =
The Blade started publishing weekly in January 1983 and coverage shifted to the AIDS crisis and news about this newly emerging disease . The ever @-@ breaking news caused the paper to remain in a heightened state of coverage and nearly exhausted the papers resources with members of the community having to step in to support the work of the Blade . The reporting of the AIDS crisis from this timeframe allowed the newspaper to come of age to the mature and professionally driven publication seen today . In June 1988 , the editors of the paper used a computer to layout the paper for the first time . The 1990s saw increases in readership and circulation of the Washington Blade . In April 1993 , during the 1993 Gay March on Washington , the paper published its largest edition to date consisting of 216 pages . The paper expanded into new markets and mediums with the 1995 launch of the online version of the Blade , followed two years later with the launching of a sister publication in New York , called the New York Blade . In the later part of the century , coverage was expanded to include local and national news , as well as international news of interest to the LGBT community .
= = = 2001 to present = = =
On May 25 , 2001 , the print edition announced the sale of the Washington Blade to Window Media , LLC , a group of gay publications . With the new ownership came several changes to standardize the paper with other Window Media publications , such as the return of editorials to the publication after being missing for several decades . Shortly after the sale of the paper , staff at the Blade sought a vote to unionize with the help of the Washington @-@ Baltimore Newspaper Guild . The Guild and the staff of the Blade brought a complaint to the National Labor Relations Board and deliberated for a few weeks over this issue resulting in a ten to eight vote against unionization on July 20 , 2001 .
Beginning in 2005 , the Washington Blade also ran a free news clipping service called the BladeWire . This service collected news stories of interest to the LGBT community from a variety of local , state , regional , national , and selected international media sources . The service was generated by the Blades editors and was published on the internet . A feature of the BladeWire also allowed it to be syndicated onto other websites using JavaScript .
During the 2008 U.S. presidential election , Senator John McCain 's decision to participate in a written interview with the Blade marked the first time a Republican presidential nominee agreed to be interviewed by a gay publication .
On November 16 , 2009 , the paper was abruptly shut down because of the financial status of its parent company , Window Media , and its majority shareholder , Avalon Equity Partners . Employees at the Blade were aware of Window Media 's financial troubles , but the timing and total closure of the publication came as a shock to the entire staff . Kevin Naff , editor of the Blade , said employees " found out when two of the corporate officers were waiting for us when we got to work this morning " . Since the Blade had been a profitable newspaper , and because the debt @-@ ridden Window Media was no longer draining the publication 's finances , the same day the Blade shut down , Naff told the Washington City Paper he and the remaining staffers " We 're all together . Our first meeting for our new venture is tomorrow morning . " Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton said the Blade had been a " weekly must @-@ read " , and pledged support for a new publication to serve Washington 's LGBT community .
On November 20 , 2009 , a new venture , supported entirely by volunteering staff ( who consisted of the majority of the Blade 's editorial staff , as well as a few others , at the time of its closing ) , launched with its first issue . Called DC Agenda , no relation to the non @-@ profit organization of the same name , the new venture released the same week as the closing of the Blade . From the placeholder website SaveTheBlade.com :
" While we cannot save the name we can certainly save all that was the essence and spirit of our LGBTQ Community 's newspaper of record . The staff of the paper remains united and our mission to enlighten and inform remains steadfast . We will launch a new publication that will bring you what we have always worked to deliver - gay news and information that is critical to our Metro DC LGBTQ Community . "
Issues were handed out at Washington , D.C. Metro train stations , and an online copy is available at www.washingtonblade.com. It is still unclear if DC Agenda will be a profitable publication .
On February 25 , 2010 , DC Agenda acquired the assets of The Washington Blade from the US Bankruptcy Court . Included were the archives , name , trademarks , website , and fixtures from the Washington Blade offices . About a month later on April 26 , 2010 , the DC Agenda publisher announced that the Washington Blade name would return to the masthead of the paper with the DC Agenda becoming the name of the arts and entertainment section .
= = Circulation and demographics = =
The Washington Blade was published weekly on Fridays with a circulation of 33 @,@ 874 printed copies of each edition . News coverage focuses mainly on global and regional political issues concerning LGBT persons with additional coverage of entertainment and nightlife in the Washington , D.C. area . The masthead of the printed paper includes the slogan " The gay and lesbian weekly of the national capital area since 1969 " and the online masthead proclaims " All the news for your life . And your style . " Distribution of the Blade includes locations throughout the Washington , D.C. area . Additional distribution points are located in Maryland , Virginia , and as far away as Rehoboth Beach , Delaware . The newspaper is primarily distributed through free @-@ standing newspaper boxes on street corners , newspaper racks at Metro stations , and in shops and restaurants . The main competition to the Washington Blade in Washington , D.C. is the weekly newsmagazine , Metro Weekly , and nationally the Bay Area Reporter of San Francisco . For a brief period starting in 1979 , the Blade also had competition from Blacklight , the city 's first African @-@ American gay monthly periodical . Archives of the Washington Blade were maintained at their Washington , D.C. offices and on Microfilm at the Microfilm Reading Room of the Library of Congress , and in the Alternative & Underground Press Collections of ProQuest ( formerly called UMI ) in Ann Arbor , Michigan . The newspaper is a member of the National Newspaper Association , the National Gay Newspaper Guild , and the Associated Press .
According to a survey conducted by Simmons Market Research in April 2000 for the Washington Blade , the median age of their readership was forty @-@ one and 85 % of their readers were between the ages of twenty @-@ five and fifty @-@ four years old . 92 % of the readership is employed with 70 % of the readers in professional and managerial jobs . The median income of readers was $ 57 @,@ 200 per year with readers median household income at $ 84 @,@ 000 . Overall , 79 % of the Blade 's readership holds a college degree with 42 % of the readers holding postgraduate degrees .
= = Awards = =
A series of articles from March 1985 and continuing for five months entitled " When Pretending Stops , " written by Lisa Keen , won local acclaim and awards for the coverage of the slow death of local lawyer Ray Engebretsen . This series of articles chronicled the impact of AIDS in the gay community and was ground @-@ breaking coverage in Washington . In 1995 , the Washington Blade won a Silver Gavel award from the American Bar Association for a four @-@ part series of articles entitled " Legal Challenges to Anti @-@ Gay Initiatives " which explored the legal consequences of anti @-@ gay ballot initiatives and the constitutional challenges to them . In 2007 , the paper won four Dateline Awards for Excellence in Local Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists Washington , D.C. , Pro Chapter .
= = Criticism and controversy = =
Publication of the paper has not been without controversy over the years . The news coverage from the early years to the mid @-@ 1980s was perceived by some as being " white @-@ washed " for its lack of coverage of the gay African @-@ American population located in Washington , D.C. , a city where more than 70 percent of its residents were African @-@ American . This led to the creation of the short @-@ lived publication Blacklight , the city 's first African @-@ American gay monthly periodical in August 1979 , which attempted to compete with the Blade . Coverage of the City Council special election in April 1991 garnered intensive criticism of biased coverage and led to calls for reforming the paper 's editorial board . In 1993 , the Blade and its publishing company threatened to sue the Fairfax County Library over a potential ban on the distribution of the Blade at its branches . Also , the 2001 sale of the Washington Blade to Window Media , LLC led to intense criticism from former employees , editors , and media pundits of the consolidation of so many gay newspapers ' editorial boards into the same company , leading to fears of homogenizing of content and editorial control . A former staff writer has also accused the paper of playing politics through the mandated use of the capitalized version of the word ' Gay ' in order to make a political statement .
The newspaper has been accused from time @-@ to @-@ time of forcing public figures out of the closet . This policy of ' outing ' individuals surfaced in 1996 during the debate over the Defense of Marriage Act , when the Blade and The Advocate were going to out Congressmen Jim Kolbe and Mark Foley . Neither publication did out either politician , and both publications later denied ever intending to out the Congressmen . In recent years , these accusations have resurfaced as Kevin Naff , current editor of the Blade , has accused the Washington Post of ' straight @-@ washing ' stories about LGBT individuals . Naff wrote that " When someone is described as ' flamboyant , ' ' eccentric ' or ' a lifelong bachelor , ' we know what ’ s being implied ... Readers of the Washington Post had better hone their gaydar skills , because in story after story , the newsgathering behemoth either ignores questions of sexual orientation or employs endless winks and nods to convey what would be better spelled out . " When asked why identifying and outing of individuals by publications like the Blade , staff writer Greg Marzullo wrote " Why do [ we ] insist on mentioning someone 's sexual orientation at all ? Because we 're a queer paper . " As reported in the Washington Post , former editor Chris Crain summarized the Blade 's editorial reasoning for the ' outings ' by stating that " It is 2004 , not 1954 , and sexual orientation in and of itself is no longer a ' private fact ' beyond the pale of inquiry . " The Blade , he wrote , " would investigate and report about whether influential Hill aides are gay if facts about their sexual orientation raise highly newsworthy questions of hypocrisy in the stands taken by anti @-@ gay members of Congress for whom they work . " A former staff writer of the Washington Blade has noted objections to this perceived campaign to label individuals by their sexual orientations and has used a blog to register these objections .
In July 2005 , Jeff Gannon began writing editorials for the paper . His pieces included criticism of gay blogger John Aravosis , who had helped uncover Gannon 's pornographic ads . Editor Chris Crain attracted his own criticism from many in the gay community for this decision , due to Gannon 's history of anti @-@ gay reporting as well as Gannon 's refusal to disclose his sexual orientation . He has said , “ My personal life is a private matter , despite the fact that I have become a public person . ” Crain defended his decision in a September 2005 editorial and claimed the " steady stream of feedback / vitriol " had declined " a little " with each new Gannon article .
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= Hypnotico =
" Hypnotico " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) . It was originally written by RedOne , Lady Gaga , Aliaune " Akon " Thiam , Claude Kelly and Tami Chynn for Chynn 's second studio album Prima Donna in 2007 . RedOne and Akon flew Gaga and Kelly to Los Angeles to write songs for Chynn , with " Hypnotico " becoming the first song of several songs they had written together . The release of Prima Donna was cancelled and " Hypnotico " was thought to be a " lost cause " by its writers . That was until 2011 , when Lopez became interested in recording the song while working with RedOne , following her move to Island Records .
Jimmy Joker provided production for Lopez 's version of " Hypnotico " , while her vocals were produced by Kuk Harrell . " Hypnotico " is an up @-@ tempo dance song that contains a " chunky beat " and retro @-@ 1980s synths , with an " old @-@ school feel " . It received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who cited the song to single @-@ worthy . Some critics noticed similarities between " Hypnotico " and other Lady Gaga songs , such as " Poker Face " ( 2008 ) .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Hypnotico " was written by RedOne , Lady Gaga , Aliaune " Akon " Thiam , Claude Kelly and Tami Chynn . In 2007 , Gaga and Kelly were working with RedOne in a small recording studio in Queens , New York . Gaga was writing " what would later become " her debut studio album The Fame ( 2008 ) and Kelly was writing songs with RedOne to pitch to other artists . Kelly recalled the events by saying : " We were all friends and often rode the train together to get to the studio " . RedOne began working with Akon , who had signed Chynn to his record label . Akon and RedOne flew Gaga and Kelly to Los Angeles to write songs for Chynn 's second studio album Prima Donna . " Hypnotico " became the first of several songs they had written together . From that trip , according to Kelly , " Akon met , signed and helped launch Lady Gaga 's career " . Kelly credits the trip as also helping to launch his own songwriting career . He states that he and Akon became good friends and writing partners . Akon gave Kelly a CD of working tracks as a basis for composition . From that CD of tracks he wrote songs for Leona Lewis ( " Forgive Me " ) , Whitney Houston ( " Like I Never Left " , " I Got You " ) and Michael Jackson ( " Hold My Hand " ) . According to Kelly , " Hypnotico " is a " symbol of how dreams come true if you work hard , and a constant reminder of how far I 've come . I 'm still extremely grateful for all that I 've achieved " .
Chynn recorded " Hypnotico " in early 2008 at a studio in Atlanta , Georgia with Akon and RedOne producing , as part of her 13 @-@ track Prima Donna project initially intended for release in August 2008 . " Hypnotico " was considered as a possible single release for Chynn 's Prima Donna project , the second single after " Frozen " , but after the album was cancelled , Kelly thought the song to be a " lost cause " . The song remained unused by any artist until 2011 , when Lopez became interested in recording it while working with RedOne . Lopez 's version of the song was produced by Jimmy Joker . Her vocals were arranged by RedOne , produced by Kuk Harrell and recorded by Harrell and Josh Gudwin at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles . Lopez 's vocals were then edited by Harrell and Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan . RedOne provided instruments for the song . The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy .
While working with RedOne , Lopez insists that he brought the best out of her , crediting this to his Moroccan , Swedish and American heritage . She stated : " He 's awesome . He 's one of the nicest people and has a beautiful spirit . He can create something the whole world will love and that is probably to do with his international background . Some people can do dance , others can do urban or pop , but Nadir does it all and understand what makes a hit on every level " . Lopez and Gaga did not work on the song together in person . According to Lopez , RedOne brought Gaga into the process because they have worked together a lot in the past . She cited the process as being " kind of cool " and that Gaga is a " great songwriter : I don 't just love her lyrics , but also her melodies " .
= = Composition = =
" Hypnotico " is an up @-@ tempo dance song that contains a " chunky beat " and retro @-@ 1980s synths , with an " old @-@ school feel " . Categorized as a " synth @-@ heavy record " , the dancehall @-@ tinged track also contains handclaps and " boy @-@ toying , " with syllables and a " boricua shoutout " , all running at 119 bpm . It opens with Lopez calling out : " All the girls that know they sexy , come on ! " . " They love me for my body / I 'm original sexy , " sings Lopez over the " bombastic bassline " before the chanting chorus kicks in : " All the boys are lovin ' when we do our thing / We just some silly heartbreakers tonight " .
DJ Shane Phoenix considered " Hypnotico " to be a " dub @-@ style track " . He wrote that it " has some great breaks " , a " serious electro key line " , and he thought the repetitive bassline would be good for dancing . According to Emily Exton of Popdust , the song 's " light and catchy " chorus " declares herself just one among a group of innocent flirts " ; it allows Lopez to showcase " some range " and provides a nice counter to the " repetitive , staccato breakdown of the song ’ s title that precedes it " . Exton also pointed out that " hyp @-@ not , hyp @-@ not @-@ ico " is almost identical to " On the Floor " ' s " up on the floor , up on the floor " . Nyree McFarlane from Gulfnews named the song as " euphoric " , adding that it was a " true club track . "
= = Critical response = =
" Hypnotico " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Several journalists noted the similarities between the song and other Gaga works , with Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly stating that it sounded like " a watered down version of ' Poker Face ' " and Scott Shetler of PopCrush elaborating that " like many of [ Lady ] Gaga 's songs " , it is " likely to stick in your head long after the song has ended " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post further expanded on this view , stating that " without the slightest hint of noblesse oblige " to Gaga , " Hypnotico " is a synthy , " burbly slip " of a song . Eliot Glazer of MTV Buzzworthy stated that the song seems to continue right where Lopez 's 1999 hit single " Waiting for Tonight " left off , " making us want to put on our short shorts and dance " . In addition , he concluded that " The thump that rides the song 's undercurrent of ethereal echoes and a group chant of the chorus is a pretty solid reminder that this is most definitely a Gaga jam , which quickly gained J. Lo 's approval " . Amos Barshad of Vulture showcased his displeasure with the song , elaborating that although " you can sort of tell " that Gaga wrote the song , that was not an indication that it would become an instant hit , casting it as " Bland and half @-@ baked " , and concluding that " it was certainly farmed out for a reason " .
Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots gave a positive review of the song , stating that " the girls are going to love the lyrics . It brings total sex appeal and groove that starts the hips swinging and is so meant to break the set into a dark drive and into sensual exploration of a grind close contact dance rhythm " . Rich Lopez of the Dallas Voice cited the song as being one of the " better " songs of Love ? and was surprised it had " yet to be released as a single " . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly complimented the potential of the song by stating that it is " sure to fit right into club DJ mixes and get people dancing " ; however , he criticized that Gaga was " all over the song ... as if Lopez went into the booth trying to emulate her delivery . " Emily Exton of Popdust agreed , adding that " you 'd be silly not to think " that the song 's chorus will become a dance @-@ floor chant among " slightly intoxicated females ( and males ) in bars across America this summer " . She additionally wrote that it was " impossible to get [ the song ] out of your head after more than one listen " although becoming " increasingly monotonous over nearly three and half minutes " Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey roughly expanded on this view , stating that " Hypnotico " is not anything " we haven 't heard before , " although elaborating that it is worthy of a standalone release .
Katie Hasty of HitFix was not impressed by the lyrical potential of the song , stating that with lines like " sunburned baby / hurts like crazy , " " we 're just some silly heartbreakers tonight " and rhyming " yum yum " with " some some " won 't get this song " very good scores on the SAT " . She concluded by stating that : " In fact , it seems that Lopez goes out of her way to sing with a little @-@ girl inflection to her 41 @-@ year @-@ old pipes . But it comes off youthful , upbeat , and a little lighter than the single [ ' On the Floor ' ] and her island @-@ inflected collaboration with Lil Wayne , ' I 'm Into You ' . " Amos Barshad of Vulture questioned Lopez ' music , stating that " with the other facets of her multimedia empire clicking [ ... ] why does she insist on continuing to make music ? Why not sit back , relax , and enjoy the fact that there is something that you do that people like ? [ ... ] Well , one can only assume , Jennifer Lopez keeps making music because Jennifer Lopez actually loves making music . And that 's admirable " .
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
Locations
Recorded at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles
Personnel
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= Si Tjonat =
Si Tjonat ( Perfected Spelling : Si Conat ) is a likely @-@ lost 1929 bandit film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Nelson Wong and produced by Wong and Jo Eng Sek . Based on the novel by F.D.J. Pangemanann , the silent film followed an indigenous man who , having killed his fellow villager , flees to Batavia ( today Jakarta ) and becomes a bandit . After kidnapping an ethnic Chinese woman , he is defeated and brought to justice .
A commercially oriented work aimed at ethnic Chinese audiences , Si Tjonat received mixed reviews ; box office proceeds are unclear . Although intended as a serial , no sequel was ever made ; the production house , Batavia Motion Picture , closed soon afterwards . However , several works in the same genre as this one were released soon afterwards , including Si Pitoeng , which used the same director and star .
= = Plot = =
Tjonat , a Sundanese youth , kills his friend and escapes to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , the capital of the Dutch East Indies , where he finds work with a Dutch man . Tjonat soon robs the man of his wealth and seduces his mistress ( njai ) , then leaves the household to live the life of a bandit . When he asks Lie Gouw Nio ( Ku Fung May ) , the daughter of a peranakan Chinese farmer named Lie A Tjip , to be his lover , she refuses . Enraged , Tjonat kidnaps her , but Lie is rescued by her fiancé , Thio Sing Sang ( Herman Sim ) , who is well @-@ trained in martial arts .
= = Production = =
Si Tjonat was directed by Nelson Wong , who produced the film in conjunction with his business partner Jo Eng Sek . The two had established Batavia Motion Picture in 1929 . Wong had previously directed a single fiction film , the commercial flop Lily van Java ( 1928 ) , with funding from a high @-@ ranking General Motors employee in Batavia named David Wong . Jo Eng Sek , a shop owner , had never produced a film .
The story for Si Tjonat was based on the novel Tjerita Si Tjonat , written by reporter F.D.J. Pangemanann and first published in 1900 . The story had proved popular with ethnic Chinese readers . It was often adapted to the stage by Betawi stage troupes as a lenong stage performance . The story was selected by Jo Eng Sek . Several changes were introduced to the story . For instance , in the novel Lie A Tjip was a poor farmer , whereas in the film he was wealthy . Lie Gouw Nio , meanwhile , was not depicted as a poor Chinese woman , but the " a modern girl , dressed in a skirt , shoes , socks , and bobbed hair " .
The silent film was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and starred Ku Fung May and Herman Sim . Sim , of peranakan Chinese descent , had previously acted in Shanghai , while Ku Fung May had no film experience . The martial arts sequences used in the film were inspired by Hollywood Westerns , then popular in the Indies .
= = Release and reception = =
Si Tjonat was released in 1929 . Although a work of fiction , it was advertised as based on a true story ; this had been common in works of Malay literature at the turn of the 20th century , including Tjerita Si Tjonat . The film was one in a line of domestic production targeted primarily at ethnic Chinese audiences , following Lily van Java and Setangan Berloemoer Darah ( both 1928 ) ; film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that this was evident from the predominantly Chinese production team and cast . Native audiences also enjoyed the film , particularly its action sequences . Indonesian film critic Salim Said writes that it was of distinctly commercial orientation , meant only to turn a profit .
Sales figures are unclear . Said writes that it was a commercial success , while Biran – noting that Batavia Motion Picture was dissolved not long after Si Tjonat 's release – suggests that returns were poor . Reviews were mixed . In general the press criticised the emphasis on murder and crime , while in Panorama magazine , Kwee Tek Hoay wrote that the film had been " fairly well produced " , emphasising Sim 's acting – particularly his martial arts skills . Kwee concluded that what few mistakes were found in the film were , ultimately , insignificant .
Although Si Tjonat was initially intended to be a serial , production of the second instalment halted after the closure of Batavia Motion Picture . Jo Eng Sek left the industry completely , only returning in 1935 to produce Poei Sie Giok Pa Loei Tay . Wong , meanwhile , remained active in the cinema together with his brothers Joshua and Othniel . Using the banner Halimoen Film they later cast Sim in their 1931 film Si Pitoeng . Ku Fung May did not act in another film . Several films centred on bandits , including Lie Tek Swie 's Si Ronda ( 1930 ) and the Wongs ' Rampok Preanger ( 1929 ) and Si Pitoeng ( 1931 ) , followed soon after Si Tjonat .
Si Tjonat is likely a lost film . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , J.B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Wood Badge ( Boy Scouts of America ) =
Wood Badge in the United States of America is the highest level of adult Scout leader training available . It was first presented in England by the founder of Scouting , Baden Powell , and he introduced the program into the United States during a visit in 1936 . The first course was held at the Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation , but Americans did not fully adopt Wood Badge until 1948 . The National BSA Council staff provided direct leadership to the program through 1958 , when the increased demand encouraged them to permit local councils to deliver the training .
The program originally focused almost exclusively on Scoutcraft skills , some elements of the Patrol Method , and First Class Boy Scout requirements . In a major cultural shift during the 1970s , Wood Badge was modified to train Scouters in eleven specific leadership competencies . The National Council has updated it several times since then , and during 2001 – 2002 implemented an overhaul that emphasized a prototypical troop as a method for teaching team leadership and problem @-@ solving skills . The training is delivered through a lecture classroom environment and a short outdoor camping experience . It is a key element of the overall leadership training program .
= = Course slowly adopted by U.S. Scouters = =
Francis Gidney , the first camp chief of Gilwell Park , came to the United States in 1922 at the instigation of Walter W. Head , a member of the Boy Scouts of America National Board , and later its President . While Gidney demonstrated some of the Scoutcraft tricks from Gilwell , his ideas did not arouse interest , but were treated as entertainment by the American audience . A number of American Scouters later traveled to England and took the British Wood Badge course . These included assistant director of Volunteer Training Gunnar Berg and assistant director of camping William C. Wessel . Though the national training department approved a " Gillwill Training Camp " to be held at Camp Parsons in 1929 ( conducted by John A. Stiles , the Chief Scout Executive of Canada ) , the prevailing attitude of the Boy Scouts of America was that American men would not set aside eight days from their busy lives to attend the course .
= = = Shift away from the British course = = =
In 1935 , BSA President Walter W. Head attended the eighth International Boy Scout Conference in Stockholm , Sweden . He met with James E. West , Scouting 's founder Baden Powell , and his aide , Gilwell Park 's second camp chief John Skinner Wilson . Wilson was persuaded to visit the United States during 1936 and spend three months teaching others about Wood Badge . During May 1936 , he conducted two Wood Badge courses at Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation . Wilson had been told to " follow the book " as it was done in England , which he faithfully did , including the English menu with dishes like boiled leg of lamb and boiled ham . Wilson had a reputation as a " dour Scot " and he brooked no discussion during his course . William Hillcourt was a participant in that first course and four days later , he was the senior patrol leader for the second course . He received his Wood Badge beads in 1939 and was appointed as the deputy camp director for Wood Badge .
Some American Scouters chafed under Wilson 's authoritarian attitude . They found the course much too restrictive , demanding , and altogether too " British . " They felt the course would not work in the United States and recommended to the National Council that the program should not be adopted , which was followed . Before further experimentation could be implemented , World War II interrupted any ideas of men taking time off for Scouting .
= = = Adapted for American training = = =
After the war ended , new Gilwell Park camp chief John Thurman was interested in persuading the Boy Scouts of America to adapt Wood Badge . The new Chief Scout Executive Elbert K. Fretwell was an educator and training enthusiast . He was convinced to allow a few members of the Program Division and Volunteer Training Service to try a new National Wood Badge Course . Four national staff members were given the responsibility : Frank W. Braden ( assistant director of the Program Division and national coordinator of Training ) , William E. Lawrence ( director of the Boy Scouting Service ) , Joseph M Thomas ( assistant director of Volunteer Training ) , and William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt ( national director of Scoutcraft ) .
Hillcourt had received his Wood Badge beads in 1939 , making him the only national staff member eligible to serve as course Scoutmaster . He was appointed " Deputy Camp Chief of the United States . " The four men elected to include in the course all of the recently updated basic Boy Scout requirements for Tenderfoot to First Class , along with information on patrol work covered in the Handbook for Patrol Leaders ( authored by Hillcourt ) and troop organization and activities described in the Handbook for Scoutmasters ( also written by Hillcourt ) .
They added American touches to the course . They used the names of American birds for patrol names ; challenged patrols to make their own flags instead of using store @-@ bought flags ; introduced patrol totems and signatures ; and added singing Back to Gilwell when each patrol 's name was mentioned . Each member took turns as the patrol leader , and they met daily as the Patrol Leaders Council to conduct daily inspections . The staff taught course attendees basic Scout requirements and how to handle the U.S. flag . The patrols took an unsupervised patrol hike and overnight camp . Other American features included a program and a service patrol , a cracker barrel after each evening 's event , a feast , and other ceremonies . The first course , begun on July 31 , 1948 , was attended by 29 men from 12 states . Although it rained on four of the nine days , the Scouters were excited by the experience and enthusiastic about sharing it with others .
= = = New course tested = = =
Later in 1948 , six courses were led by members of the national BSA staff , with one at Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation and another at Philmont Scout Ranch . Scouters were enthusiastic about the new course . " Perhaps the finest experience we have had in 35 years of Scouting was attending the Wood Badge course in New Mexico ... Any man who lived nine days in a Gilwell Troop would know how a troop is operated . " The new Chief Scout of the Boy Scouts of America , Arthur A. Schuck , was a training enthusiast . He felt Wood Badge would be a great opportunity to train selected men who could return to their local councils and train others . Schuck was so enthusiastic about the Wood Badge course that he was responsible for sending invitations using his signature from his office to every participant .
= = = National council presents program = = =
From 1948 through 1958 , Wood Badge was presented exclusively by the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America . In 1955 , John Thurman , the Camp Chief of Gilwell , toured a number of U.S. Wood Badge courses . His assessment and comments helped to continue to improve the program on both the national and local council levels . Attendees from local councils were carefully screened , needing the " unqualified endorsement of the Council 's Leadership Training Committee and the Scout Executive . " The first Cub Scout Wood Badge beads awarded to a woman were given to Rebekeh T. Weir in 1957 . Her husband , Rev. Thomas E. Weir , had already received his beads , which made them the first American couple to both receive Wood Badge beads .
Through 1958 , over 6000 individuals took Wood Badge and its popularity continued to expand . Local councils agitated for the opportunity to run their own Wood Badge courses . In 1953 , the first council @-@ run program was hosted by the Cincinnati Area ( later Dan Beard ) Council . Qualified local councils continued to provide advanced leadership training to Scoutmasters and other Scout leaders using Wood Badge . Two or more councils are allowed to join together to present Wood Badge with regional approval .
In the 1970s , the National Council moved its headquarters from North Brunswick , New Jersey to Irving , Texas , and the national training center from Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation to the Philmont Training Center . However , the majority of Wood Badge courses are held throughout the country at local council camps under the auspices of each BSA region .
= = Change from camping to leadership = =
The Wood Badge program originally focused exclusively on teaching Scoutcraft skills , the Patrol Method and First Class Scouting requirements .
= = = White Stag program draws national attention = = =
Beginning in the 1950s , Béla H. Bánáthy , Chairman of the Leadership Training Committee of the Monterey Bay Area Council , formulated the idea of an experimental leadership training program . He named it White Stag Leadership Development after the white stag of Hungarian mythology , the emblem of the Fourth World Scout Jamboree , which Bela had attended when he was 14 years old . With the active interest and support of the Monterey Bay Area Council executive staff and board , Bela continually improved his experimental program . In 1963 Maury Tripp and Fran Peterson were working closely with Bela . They also served on the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America and brought the White Stag program to their attention . In November 1963 , Dr. John W. Larson , a staff researcher for the National Council , observed the program 's annual Indaba at the Presidio of Monterey . Impressed with what he witnessed , he recommended that the national office conduct a detailed analysis of the White Stag program .
During a thorough study , the national BSA staff interviewed participants , parents , and leaders . They distributed questionnaires to program participants , reviewed the White Stag literature , and observed the program in action . They also conducted a statistical analysis of troops taking part in White Stag and compared them to non @-@ participating units . In December 1965 , Chief Scout Executive Joseph Brunton received the White Stag Report . It stated that offering leadership development to youth was a unique opportunity for Scouting to provide a practical benefit to youth and would add substantial support to Scouting 's character development goals . It recommended that Wood Badge should be used to experiment with the leadership development principles of White Stag . The program had until this time taught the adults the same Scoutcraft skills a boy was required to learn to become a First Class Scout along with concepts of the patrol method .
= = = Focus shifts to leadership skills = = =
In February 1966 , Brunton appointed seven men to a National task force to lead the effort : Robert L. Calvert , head of the BSA Education Division , was chair of the committee composed of A. Warren Holm , John Larson , William E. Lawrence , Ben H. Love , Kenneth Wells , and Joseph W. Wyckoff . Their plan identified Wood Badge and senior patrol leader training as the best opportunities for providing leadership education within the BSA . Their report recommended that the National Council develop an experimental Wood Badge program as soon as possible to be tested at Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation , to be followed by further testing in selected local councils .
In January 1967 , John Larson , along with Bob Perin , Assistant National Director of Volunteer Training , were tasked with working with Dr. Bánáthy to write a new Wood Badge staff guide focusing on the White Stag leadership competencies .
= = = Resistance to change = = =
Shifting from teaching primarily camping skills to leadership competencies was a paradigm shift . It required rethinking the underlying assumptions , concepts , practices , and values guiding how adults were trained as Scout leaders . Some individuals on the national staff and many volunteers across the nation resisted the idea of changing the focus of Wood Badge from training leaders in Scout craft to leadership skills . Among them was Bill Hillcourt , who had been the first United States Wood Badge Course Director in 1948 . He remained loyal to the idea that Wood Badge should teach Scoutcraft skills . Although he had officially retired on August 1 , 1965 , his opinion was still sought after and respected .
Larson later reported , " He fought us all the way ... He had a vested interest in what had been and resisted every change . I just told him to settle down , everything was going to be all right . " Hillcourt presented an alternative to Larson 's plan to incorporate leadership into Wood Badge . Chief Scout Brunton asked Larson to look at Hillcourt 's plan , and Larson reported back that it was the same camping @-@ oriented skills content , just reordered and rewritten . Larson 's plan for Wood Badge was approved and he moved ahead to begin testing the proposed changes .
= = = Pilot tests conducted = = =
In May 1967 , participants from six councils met at Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation in New Jersey to train to prepare the new course and follow @-@ on courses . The first laboratory test was during June 1967 . Participants from five councils delivered the June course and follow @-@ on council courses . The councils represented were Del @-@ Mar @-@ Va Council in Wilmington , Delaware ; Baltimore Area Council in Baltimore , Maryland ; Valley Forge Council in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; Onondaga Council in Syracuse , New York ; and the National Capital Area Council in Washington , D.C.
A second experimental course was held at Philmont in New Mexico beginning on June 17 , 1967 . Bob Perin was Scoutmaster , Louis Adin of the Circle Ten Council in Dallas was senior patrol leader , and John Larson was assistant senior patrol leader . Participants were primarily from the councils who would conduct the next step in laboratory @-@ testing the new program . One month later , on July 18 , the Circle Ten Council presented its first new Wood Badge program at Philmont , while Bob Perin and John Larson watched from the sidelines .
In September 1967 , after the program was revised , William E. Lawrence , director of the Volunteer Training Service , named six councils who would pilot @-@ test the next phase of the experimental Wood Badge courses during 1968 . The councils and Course Directors were : Monterey Bay Area Council , Béla H. Bánáthy ; Piedmont Council , Don Crawford ; Middle Tennessee Council , Jimmy Stevens ; Del @-@ Mar @-@ Va Council , Bill Whisler ; Hiawatha Seaway Council , Carson Buck ; and the Circle Ten Council , Louis Adin .
= = = Leaders and boys both trained = = =
In the Monterey Bay Area Council , Bánáthy implemented a unique approach to training both the adults and the boys . During 1967 , he recruited a select group of young men and their leaders from troops in the Monterey Bay Area . The individuals were chosen to pilot @-@ test teaching both adult leaders and their Scouts in sequence . In an application not since reproduced , all Wood Badge attendees were also asked to bring their troop to a single week of White Stag summer camp in August .
The leaders attended Wood Badge at Fort Ord , California over four weekends during January and February 1968 . Joe St. Clair served as Scoutmaster , Bánáthy was course director , and Fran Petersen was Senior Patrol Leader . John Larson , who had become National Director of Education , was also present . The following August , boys from the troops of the Scoutmasters who attended Wood Badge went to the White Stag Leadership Development Program summer camp . Many of the Wood Badge staff were also present during summer camp so they could follow up on the Wood Badge participant 's tickets and their application of the leadership skills learned at Wood Badge . During the summer camp , John Larson held a day @-@ long leadership symposium for all of the youth and adults .
= = = Experiment includes junior leader training = = =
The results were promising and John Larson was appointed Director of Leadership Development . He was charged with continuing support for the experiment . During 1969 , Gene Rutherford of the Circle Ten Council along with the Course Directors from the pilot programs — Crawford , Stevens , Whisler and Carl Marlowe of the Hiawatha Councils — were charged with evaluating the project . They continued pilot @-@ testing and experimenting with the program for three more years , through 1972 . They also began developing an experimental junior leader training program that utilized the White Stag competencies .
The Boy Scouts also obtained funding that year from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund to evaluate the results of the unique experiment in leadership development by design . The grant underwrote continued testing of the junior leader instructor training program at the Philmont Scout Ranch in New Mexico and the Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation in New Jersey .
The junior leader training program was developed and named Troop Leader Development when it was published in 1974 . In 1991 , it was revised and rechristened Troop Leader Training Conference , and then in 1994 Junior Leader Training Conference . It was substantially revised and renamed again in 2004 as National Youth Leadership Training .
= = = National pilot @-@ tests begun = = =
The Wood Badge course was pilot @-@ tested still further in 1971 at Philmont , the five test councils , and in every national region excepting Region 8 . In 1972 , after five long years of testing and experimentation , the official new Wood Badge Staff Guide was published . The program was mandated for nationwide implementation and included for the first time teaching leadership skills over Scoutcraft skills .
An experimental Cub Scout Trainer Wood Badge was field tested in 1976 . In 1978 the National Council decided in a half @-@ step backwards that Wood Badge needed to place greater emphasis on the practical aspects of good troop operation along with a variety of leadership exercises . Wood Badge was adopted as the official advanced training program for adult Cub Scout Leaders . The modified course blended Scoutcraft skills and troop management practices along with scaled @-@ down content about the leadership competencies .
= = = More recent modifications = = =
In 1994 , the National Council revised the course content again to add key concepts based on Ethics in Action which had been added to Boy Scout training and literature . The leadership competencies remained an essential part of Wood Badge until 1998 , when the National Council revised it again to use the unit meeting and a troop camping activity as a delivery model . This new version , re @-@ titled Wood Badge for the 21st Century , was initially revised to include principles of Situational Leadership . However , the Center for Leadership Studies , which owns the trademark for Situational Leadership , required the Boy Scouts to pay royalties for each Scouter attending Wood Badge nationwide . The Wood Badge Task Force decided to describe how groups change and evolve using more generic , non @-@ trademarked language free of royalties . The program emphasized the stages of team development based on the principles described by Bruce Tuckman in 1965 as forming @-@ storming @-@ norming @-@ performing .
On January 1 , 2002 , the National Council required all councils to implement the updated Wood Badge for the 21st Century program which removed much of the Boy Scout @-@ specific information from the program . This allowed the National Council to designate Wood Badge as the advanced leadership training program for Cub Scout , Boy Scout , Varsity Scout , Venturing , council leaders , district leaders , and professional staff . It replaced both Boy Scout Leader Wood Badge and Cub Scout Trainer Wood Badge . Unlike the prior Wood Badge course which was conducted entirely outdoors , the modified Wood Badge program is delivered through a lecture classroom environment and in a short outdoor camping experience . Participants spend the first three days in a classroom setting , and the last three days camping . Teaching aids include VCRs , laptop computers , and video projectors . Session titles include Leading Change , Problem Solving , Valuing People and Leveraging Diversity , Managing Conflict , and Coaching and Mentoring . At the conclusion of the course , the participants are presented a multimedia presentation titled " Leaving a Legacy . " It includes inspirational excerpts from the movie Mr. Holland 's Opus and from a John Prine song Hello in There , sung by Bette Midler .
Thus Wood Badge for the 21st Century , at one time based on eleven leadership competencies adapted from White Stag Leadership Development during the 1960s and 1970s , was 30 years later updated , given the 21st century imprint , yet still based on generic group leadership concepts from the 1960s .
= = Course effectiveness = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , the Boy Scouts spent more than five years studying the White Stag program before implementing a version of the program that included adaptations of the eleven competencies , but excluded the program 's symbolism , spirit and traditions . All subsequent revisions have been implemented in two years or less . The actual usefulness and practical effect of Wood Badge training in the United States has never been measured . The Boy Scouts of America wrote in its A History of Wood Badge in the United States that :
It should be stated at the start that there is no objective evidence that Wood Badge improved leadership in Scouting . The Boy Scouts of America has never undertaken to statistically validate the impact of Wood Badge by conducting before and after tests , or by comparing Wood Badge Scouters with Scouters who are not Wood Badge trained .
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= Winchester Model 1200 =
The Model 1200 and Model 1300 are two pump @-@ action shotguns that are manufactured by the Winchester @-@ Western Division of Olin Corporation . It was produced in 12- , 16- and 20 @-@ gauge . The military version of the 1200 has the ability to have a bayonet fixed on the end of the barrel to be used in close quarter combat .
= = History = =
The Winchester Model 1200 was introduced in 1964 as a low @-@ cost replacement for the venerable Model 12 . A small number of these weapons were acquired by the United States Army in 1968 and 1969 . The military style Model 1200 was essentially the same weapon as the civilian version , except it had a ventilated handguard , sling swivels , and a bayonet lug . The Model 1200 was succeeded by the Winchester Model 1300 in 1983 when U.S. Repeating Arms Company became the manufacturer of Winchester firearms . Production of the Model 1300 ceased in 2006 , when USRAC went bankrupt .
= = Description = =
The Winchester Model 1200 came in barrel lengths of 30 @-@ inch , and 28 @-@ inch with a fixed choke or the Win @-@ choke screw in choke tubes system and is a 12 , 16 , or 20 @-@ gauge , manually operated , slide action shotgun . The slide action , also known as a pump @-@ action , means that the shotgun has a moving bolt system which is operated by a " wooden or composite slide called the fore @-@ end " . The fore @-@ end is located on the underside of the barrel and moves front to back . The weapon can hold a maximum of five rounds total with four in the tubular magazine and one in the chamber . It has a hammerless action which means that there is no external hammer spur . There is only a firing pin which strikes the primer on the shell to ignite the powder in the round .
The Model 1200 was the first shotgun to utilize a rotary bolt with four locking lugs secured within the barrel extension . The 1200 was Winchester 's first shotgun to incorporate the company 's patented Winchoke system , a quick change tube to allow the easy replacement of chokes .
= = Bayonet = =
A bayonet could be attached to the front end of the barrel of the Military version of the Model 1200 . The primary uses of the bayonet on the model 1200 are for close combat , guarding prisoners , and riot duty . The most commonly used bayonet with the Model 1200 was the M1917 bayonet . After World War I ended , there was a large surplus of the M @-@ 1917 bayonets because the Army decided to keep the M1903 Springfield as the standard issued rifle . The M @-@ 1917 bayonet did not fit the Springfield rifles so instead of just getting rid of them , the Army decided to make newer shotguns compatible with the bayonets . Model 1200 shotguns with bayonet lugs and ventilation ribs were still in U.S. Army inventories as late as the invasion of Iraq 2003 . During the Iraq war the Model 1200 shotguns were phased out in favor of Mossburg 500 shotguns .
= = Variants = =
Model 1200 : Standard capacity model with four @-@ shell tubular magazine
Model 1200 Defender : Increased capacity model with six @-@ shell tubular magazine ( Six 3 " Shells or seven 2 & 3 / 4 " Shells ) .
Model 1200 Police : Increased capacity variant of the Model 1200 Defender with an electrolysis nickel @-@ plated satin barrel and magazine tube .
Model 1200 Marine : Increased capacity variant of the Model 1200 Defender with an electrolysis nickel @-@ plated polished barrel and magazine tube .
Model 1200 Riot : Standard capacity model with 18 @.@ 5 " barrel and rifle sights . Blued steel barrel and magazine . Marked " Riot " on barrel .
Ted Williams Model 200 : Standard Model 1200 marketed by Sears
Model 1200 Hunting : 28 @-@ inch barrel with a built @-@ in choke and a five @-@ shell tubular magazine .
Model 1300 : Slightly updated version with five @-@ shell tubular magazine
Model 1300 Defender : Increased capacity variants of the Model 1300 with a seven @-@ shell tubular magazine .
Model 1300 Marine : Increased capacity variant of the Model 1300 with an electroless nickel @-@ plated barrel and magazine tube .
Various Model 1300 variants
Model 2200 : Model 1200 with full length stock and barrel , produced for the Canadian firearms market .
Model 120 : Budget version marketed at various department stores , such as K @-@ Mart . Birch stock , fixed choke , etc .
Ranger Model 120 : Budget version marketed at sporting goods stores , such as K @-@ Mart . Plain stock , Winchoke , etc .
= = Users = =
Czech Republic : The Model 1300 Defender is used in small numbers by the Czech Armed Forces .
Peru - The Model 1300 Defender is used by special forces
Russia - since 14 August 1992 until March 2006 Winchester 1300 shotguns were used in private security companies
United States
The Model 12 Ranger ( note correction in name order ) is a smaller / youth version of the Model 120 .
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= Aaron Saxton =
Aaron Saxton ( born 1974 ) is a former Scientologist and member of the organisation 's elite group called the Sea Org . He contacted Senator Nick Xenophon of Australia , who quoted statements by Saxton about Scientology into the parliamentary record of the Australian Senate in November 2009 . That speech caused a furor according to the The Courier @-@ Mail , The New Zealand Herald and other media .
= = Biography = =
= = = Scientology official = = =
= = = = Australia and United States = = = =
A New Zealander , Aaron Saxton 's parents were Scientologists . Saxton 's father committed suicide when he was 14 , and this had a significant impact on him . At age 15 he joined the Scientology group called the Sea Org , an elite unit within the organisation . After joining Scientology staff , Saxton moved to work with the organisation in Sydney , Australia . Saxton 's mother signed over guardianship of her son to Scientology when he was 16 years old . Saxton was assigned to become a security officer for the organisation . According to Saxton staff in Scientology were not given sufficient drugs or medical attention , and so he removed his own teeth without usage of medication for pain .
Saxton received influential positions within the organisation , both in Sydney and the United States . Senator Nick Xenophon stated that Saxton " rose to a position of influence in Sydney and the United States " within Scientology . The Sydney Morning Herald reported that Saxton " rose to a senior level " within the Sea Org , 3 News characterised the Sea Org as " Scientology 's senior management " . The Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of The Village Voice reported that Saxton served as " one of the Sea Org 's ruthless enforcers during the 1990s " . In their book Cults and New Religions , Douglas E. Cowan and David G. Bromley describe the Sea Org writing , " Described by the Church as ' a fraternal religious order , ' members of the Sea Org ' occupy the most essential and trusted positions in the senior churches in the Scientology hierarchy ' . " Rolling Stone wrote , " Sea Org members staff all of the senior ecclesiastic positions in the church hierarchy " . In 2010 , there were 5 @,@ 000 members in the Sea Org .
Between 1989 and 1996 , Saxton worked for the Church of Scientology of Australia , as well as at the headquarters of Scientology in the U.S. In 1991 , Saxton was assigned to work at Scientology facilities in Florida . While in the Sea Org , Saxton spent the majority of his time assigned to Scientology facilities in Los Angeles . While in Los Angeles , Saxton worked at the division of International Management for Scientology . He also functioned within the organisation as an Ethics Officer , and worked out of the Communications Office .
In this role , Saxton learned policies relating to Scientology 's Flag Organization and its Office of Special Affairs . While a member of the Commodore 's Messenger Organization ( CMO ) , Saxton tried to make sure those under his supervision had adequate nourishment . As a recruiter for the CMO , Saxton tried to get Scientologists between ages 13 to 14 to join the organisation . Saxton left Scientology in 2006 . He came to question why he had done some of the actions within the Sea Org that he later came to regret . He felt ashamed for what he had witnessed , as well as the part he played in controversial acts in the organisation .
= = = = Whistleblower against organisation = = = =
In 2009 , Saxton lived in Perth , Australia , and worked as an information technology contractor . He contacted Senator Nick Xenophon of Australia , who read statements by Saxton about Scientology into the parliamentary record of the Australian Senate . In a November 2009 speech , Xenophon said , " Aaron has now left the organisation and is willing to cooperate with police investigations into these matters . " Senator Xenophon characterised Saxton as a " victim " of Scientology that had written to him about the organisation . Saxton 's statement was tabled in Australian parliament .
Xenophon said , " In his statement Aaron also says he was forced to participate in the illegal confinement and torture of a follower who was kept under house arrest . ... He says while under control of Scientology he was involved in coercing female followers to have abortions ( because ) ... this was in line with a policy designed to keep followers loyal to the organisation and to allow them to keep working for the organisation . " He read into the record , " Aaron says women who fell pregnant were taken to offices and bullied to have an abortion . If they refused , they faced demotion and hard labour ... Aaron says one staff member used a coat @-@ hanger and self @-@ aborted her child for fear of punishment . He says she was released from the organisation and the files were destroyed . " Saxton said that while a member of the Scientology organisation , he had participated in actions including torture and blackmail . He stated that Scientology members deemed to be underperforming in their tasks were ordered to eat rations of beans and rice .
According to Xenophon , Saxton said he had participated in the " forced confinement and torture " of a woman in Scientology who had been relocated to a rural area in New South Wales . Senator Xenophon stated Saxton was , " ordered by superiors to remove documents that would link a Scientology staff member to murder " . While an official for Scientology , Xenophon stated Saxton had " ordered more than 30 people to be sent to Scientology 's work camps , where they were forced to undertake hard labour " . While in the organisation , Saxton had access to Auditing files on celebrity Scientologists , and he was later critical of the way information from these files could be used as leverage .
In response to the statements by former Scientologists read into the parliamentary record of the Australian Senate by Senator Xenophon , the Australian PM Kevin Rudd said he would ponder opening an inquiry into Scientology . The Prime Minister called the concerns raised in the statements by former Scientologists including Saxton " grave " , and stated , " Many people in Australia have real concerns about Scientology . I share some of those concerns . But let us proceed carefully , and look carefully at the material which he has provided , before we make a decision on further parliamentary action . " Senator Xenophon said that Saxton had been in touch with the office of the Prime Minister , and had offered to provide additional statements and testimony regarding the assertions made in the Australian Senate . In March 2010 , Xenophon 's call for an inquiry was " overwhelmingly rejected " by the Australian Senate , the senators voting 33 to 6 against , with 37 abstentions .
= = = = Scientology response = = = =
Scientology in November 2009 said that Saxton 's letter to Senator Xenophon was not reliable . The Church of Scientology released a statement in 2009 referring to Saxton as " a mean hateful young man " . The head of Scientology in New Zealand , Mike Ferriss , characterised Saxton as a " nutter " and a " consummate liar " . In a statement given by Ferriss to Campbell Live , he said , " There are no forced abortions in Scientology and if Aaron Saxton or anyone else coerced someone into having an abortion then they are way outside of the Church 's policy and ethical conduct . "
In February 2010 , Scientologist Sue Hunt tried to get an Apprehended Violence Order ( AVO ) filed against Saxton . Hunt said Saxton had banged on her car window during a protest against Scientology . Saxton said that he did not know the individual . According to Today Tonight , " Scientologist Sue Hunt completed a course called ' PTS / SP ' . This course is designed to teach Scientologists how to attack , intimidate , harass , even lie about anyone or any group that criticises Scientology . " Saxton said that the AVO was an attempt to suppress his right to freedom of speech . Magistrate Paul Falzon questioned the legitimacy of Hunt 's assertions , and said the court would require demonstration of " reasonable apprehension " of a threatening or violent action . " Have you seen what happens to Nicole Kidman ? " , queried the Magistrate regarding Hunt 's assertions .
Senator Xenophon spoke out critically about Scientology 's actions against Saxton , and referenced the practice of Fair Game . " Since Aaron has spoken out he says he 's been harassed at work , his mother 's been visited by private investigators , he 's been getting a number of unexplained phone calls to his private number and you 've got to ask the question has this got anything to do with the Scientology doctrine of Fair Game ? Let me just quote you what L Ron Hubbard said about it . He said Scientology critics can be tricked , sued or lied to or destroyed . They are the words of the founder of Scientology , " said Senator Xenophon .
= = Commentary = =
The Courier @-@ Mail called Saxton a whistleblower against Scientology , and 3 News said that Saxton 's " whistleblowing about the Church has made it all the way to the Australian Parliament " . The New Zealand Herald described the statements given to Senator Xenophon by Saxton as " at the centre " of the Senator 's speech in the Australian Senate criticising Scientology . The New Zealand Herald commented , " Saxton 's allegations about behind @-@ the @-@ scenes church activities caused an uproar after they were quoted in the Australian Senate " , and reported that Saxton 's statements " formed part of a blistering attack in the Australian Senate " . The Australian current affairs program , produced by the Seven Network , Today Tonight , described Saxton 's revelations as " shocking " . Today Tonight commented , " He joined a group of former Scientologists in revealing stunning , shocking claims of abuse , tabled by federal independent Senator Nick Xenophon . " The Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of The Village Voice stated that Saxton 's statements comprised " some of the most cited after Xenophon 's speech " , and commented , " Saxton 's profile in Australia blew up overnight after Xenophon 's speech , and his story quickly became familiar there " .
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= RaLa Experiment =
The RaLa Experiment , or RaLa , was a series of tests during and after the Manhattan Project designed to study the behavior of converging shock waves to achieve the spherical implosion necessary for compression of the plutonium pit of the nuclear weapon . The experiment used significant amounts of a short @-@ lived radioisotope lanthanum @-@ 140 , a potent source of gamma radiation ; the RaLa is a contraction of Radioactive Lanthanum . The method was proposed by Robert Serber and developed by a team led by the Italian experimental physicist Bruno Rossi .
The tests were performed with 1 / 8 inch ( 3 @.@ 2 mm ) spheres of radioactive lanthanum , equal to about 100 curies ( 3 @.@ 7 TBq ) and later 1 @,@ 000 Ci ( 37 TBq ) , located in the center of a simulated nuclear device . The explosive lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests . Some 254 tests were conducted between September 1944 and March 1962 . In his history of the Los Alamos project , David Hawkins wrote : “ RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design ” .
= = Experimental setup = =
The experiment was suggested on 1 November 1943 by Robert Serber . The idea was to measure the spatial and temporal symmetry of explosive compression of a metal sphere . The test measured changes of absorption of gamma rays in the metal of the sphere as it underwent compression . The gamma ray source was located in the center of a metal sphere . The increase of thickness ( of hollow shells ) and density ( of solid spheres ) as the compression progressed was detected as a decrease of intensity of gamma rays outside of the sphere ; the lower density explosives did not absorb gamma radiation enough to interfere with the experiment . The gamma rays had to be intense and of the right energy . Too low energy , and they would be fully absorbed in the surrounding metal ; too high energy and the difference of attenuation during the implosion would be too low to be practical . The detectors had to provide high speed and large area ; fast ionization chambers , then under development , were the only devices then available satisfying the requirements .
Lanthanum @-@ 140 was chosen for having the right emitted gamma ray energy ( 1 @.@ 60 megaelectronvolts ( MeV ) , with fraction of 0 @.@ 49 MeV ) and a sufficient radiation intensity to provide satisfying signal from the ionization chambers , combined with a rapid radioactive decay into stable Cerium @-@ 140 ( reducing the radiation hazard for the operators after a period of several half lives ) . It was also potentially available in larger quantities because its parent nuclide barium @-@ 140 is an abundant fission product of uranium . As a consequence , Lanthanum @-@ 140 samples contained small amounts of barium @-@ 140 , caesium @-@ 140 , and especially strontium @-@ 90 , which still presents a radioactive contamination problem in the area of the tests . Lanthanum @-@ 140 has a specific activity of 5 @.@ 57 × 105 Ci / g ( 20 @.@ 6 PBq / g ) ; a 1 @,@ 000 Ci ( 37 TBq ) La @-@ 140 source therefore equals about 1 @.@ 8 mg of lanthanum .
A radiolanthanum sample , precipitated in a tip of a small cone , followed by a plug , was lowered into the center of the metal sphere of the experimental assembly with a device resembling a fishing rod . The cone and the plug were mated to the metal center of the assembly , together forming a metal sphere . A section of the explosive lensing was then returned to its place above the sphere . Several , typically four , ionization chambers were located around the experimental setup . Immediately after the detonation they generated signals that were displayed on oscilloscopes in a blast @-@ proof shelter or a mobile laboratory in a tank , 150 feet ( 46 m ) away , and the oscilloscope traces recorded on cameras . A calibration measurement was performed before and after each test . The ionization chambers and their preamplifiers were destroyed during the explosion , but their simple design allowed their production in sufficient quantities .
The ionization chambers were cylindrical , 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in diameter , 30 inches ( 760 mm ) long , with a wire along the longitudinal axis . They were filled with a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide at 4 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 460 kPa ) . Eight chambers were arranged in a tray and connected in parallel ; four trays were located in a tetrahedron around the experimental assembly , recording the gamma radiation around the sphere , sufficiently close to give a signal and sufficiently far away to not be destroyed by the blast before they could record the required information . The initiation of the explosives was initially performed by a multipoint Primacord system . The results were erratic , as the detonations weren 't sufficiently synchronized . Much better results were obtained after February 1945 , when exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators , developed by Luis Alvarez 's G @-@ 7 group , became available .
As plutonium was not available , it was substituted with material with similar mechanical properties . Depleted uranium was used but was not optimal because of its opacity for radiation ; iron , copper , or cadmium were other choices . Cadmium was the choice for most of the tests . The first shot was performed with an iron mockup of the plutonium pit .
The resulting signal was a fast dip , corresponding to the compression of the cadmium sphere , followed by slower increase , corresponding to the decompression and following dispersal of the sphere and the lanthanum . The differences between the four traces on the oscilloscope display , each indicating the average compression in the direction of the detector , allowed the assessment of the required synchronization accuracy for the detonators .
The RaLa sources were very radioactive . They had to be lowered to the test apparatus by a 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) long rod . The tests were initially observed from a sealed M4 Sherman tank ; the mobile laboratory consisted of two tanks . Each experiment was supposed to contaminate an area of about 3 @,@ 000 square meters ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) for about a half year . When radiobarium was removed from the radiolanthanum , the short term contamination levels turned out to be insignificant . Tanks were then replaced with fixed shelters . One of the tanks was later lead @-@ plated , sealed , equipped with self @-@ contained air supply , and used for sampling of fission products in the post @-@ blast debris after the Trinity test . The sources posed a considerable radiation exposure risk ; the exposure rate of a 1 @,@ 000 Ci ( 37 TBq ) source at 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) was 1 @,@ 130 R / h and 11 @,@ 000 R / h at 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . Sources with activities up to 2 @,@ 300 Ci ( 85 TBq ) were used in some tests .
= = Radiation safety = =
The system for remote handling of the samples had flaws ; it took about six months to discover them all . The chemists , who operated on mixtures of fission products with batches reaching up to 2 @,@ 300 Ci ( 85 TBq ) each , were frequently exposed ( accidentally ) to undesirably high doses of radiation . The group handling the experiments themselves was less at risk ; they operated in close coordination with the Health Group , who was in charge of ensuring that radiation exposure of the people involved was survivable . The radioactive contamination posed a problem . The people working in the Bayo Canyon had to change their clothes and take showers after the work . Sometimes they would still trip detectors at security gates .
The experiments were performed in the Bayo Canyon in a location designated TA @-@ 10 ( " Technical Area 10 " ) ( but more commonly referred to as the Bayo Canyon Site ) in Los Alamos County and close to the border with Santa Fe County , northeast from the Los Alamos townsite . The site had several fixed structures . The lanthanum @-@ 140 was isolated in a radiochemistry building , TA @-@ 10 @-@ 1 . There were four firing sites . The instruments for firing the explosives and recording the data were housed in two detonation control buildings ( TA @-@ 10 @-@ 13 and TA @-@ 10 @-@ 15 ) .
Large amounts of radioactive lanthanum were dispersed by the explosions ; 254 tests were performed between 1944 and 1961 . In 1948 two workers received radiation burns there . The experiments were generally performed when the wind blew to the north , but occasionally the wind would change direction in the early morning . In 1949 and 1950 the nuclear fallout from the tests was blown over parts of the housing area and a road ; the radiation levels on the road occasionally reached 5 @-@ 10 mR / h and the road had to be closed for a while .
Each test released a plume of dispersed radioactive lanthanum . Three tests in 1950 are documented where the released radioactivity was tracked by a B @-@ 17 aircraft . In one case radiation was detected over a town 17 miles ( 27 km ) downwind . These tests were concurrent with the RaLa tests , and their aim was development of airborne detectors for tracking air burst nuclear tests . The size and altitude of the radioactive cloud was determined by the quantity of the explosive used . For the first 125 tests between 1944 and 1949 , meteorology and fallout monitoring were rare , but between 1950 @-@ 1954 closer monitoring was phased in , and was comprehensive afterwards . One cloud was reportedly tracked as far as 70 miles ( 110 km ) downwind , over Watrous , New Mexico .
= = Logistics and schedule = =
To handle the logistics of the tests , Luis Alvarez was appointed by Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Los Alamos laboratory , as the head of the RaLa program ; his group was designated E @-@ 7 , RaLa and Electric Detonators Group . Bruno Rossi and Swiss physicist Hans Staub built the ionization chambers and electronics by late spring . At first the work proceeded at a leisurely pace as the implosion was only a backup project ; it was believed that the plutonium bomb would be of the Thin Man gun @-@ type nuclear weapon design . This turned out not to be the case , as the first tests on reactor @-@ produced plutonium in early summer 1944 showed unacceptably high spontaneous fission rates due to the presence of plutonium @-@ 240 , precluding the use of gun assembly . On 17 July the Thin Man design was abandoned , and all effort was focused on implosion . To meet the challenge , the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized — the X @-@ Division ( Explosive Division ) and the G @-@ Division ( Gadget Division , or Weapon Physics Division ) were formed . Rossi 's group was assigned to G @-@ Division as G @-@ 6 , or RaLa Group ; Alvarez 's group was G @-@ 7 , or Electric Detonator Group .
On 25 July 1944 the first preliminary test was fired in the Bayo Canyon as a rehearsal , test of equipment , and measurement of collapse times and detonation and shock wave velocities . The program was delayed by about a month by late radiobarium shipments , as the test scheduled for 15 August was not conducted until mid @-@ September . The first test with radiobarium was fired on 22 September . In late August and at the request of Rossi 's group , the RaLa group was reformed under the leadership of Rossi , and Alvarez and his group took over the exploding bridgewire detonator research . At the suggestion of Robert Christy solid spheres instead of the originally intended hollow ones were chosen for the pit , in order to reduce the problems with jets and spalling . The first solid @-@ sphere RaLa shot was performed in early December but the results were inconclusive . The shot from 14 December though , showed ( in the words of Robert Bacher ) " definite evidence of compression " .
The first tests using electric detonators and solid pits were performed on 7 and 14 February 1945 ; until then primacord @-@ based initiation was employed . The electric detonators showed a significant improvement in the achieved compression degree and symmetry , and were used on all RaLa tests thereafter . Based on these results , by the end of February the design of the gadget , as the bomb was euphemistically known , was settled . Other test methods were also necessary , as the RaLa experiments provided only indirect indications about the formation of problematic jets that plagued the early implosion designs , but RaLa was the most important .
= = Radiolanthanum preparation = =
= = = Barium @-@ lanthanum preparation = = =
The half @-@ life of La @-@ 140 is 40 @.@ 224 hours ; it undergoes beta decay to stable cerium @-@ 140 . It was prepared from barium @-@ 140 , a common fission product isolated from the spent fuel from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor , and later , after 1948 , also from the Hanford Site plutonium @-@ 239 producing nuclear reactors . Barium was isolated in a purpose @-@ built hot laboratory in Oak Ridge and shipped in a lead pig to Los Alamos , where it was used to extract lanthanum . The Oak Ridge laboratory was the first laboratory where remote manipulators were used for work with radioactive materials . The delivery was performed by a truck with a two @-@ person crew , driving 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) nonstop .
At Oak Ridge , uranium slugs were irradiated for 40 days , then left to cool down for 1 to 5 days , then dissolved . Barium then was extracted and the solution evaporated ; the solid material was then shipped to Los Alamos . As of 1949 , full production runs involved up to 1728 slugs ( 34 @.@ 5 batches of 50 slugs ) . Until 1949 the Oak Ridge production site processed uranium slugs irradiated both on @-@ site and at Hanford ; afterward only Hanford material was processed .
At first the barium isolation was performed in building 3026 @-@ C ( 706 @-@ C ) , where an existing laboratory was converted for this purpose in 5 months ; the first run was finished in September 1944 . The 3026 @-@ C was designed for work with sources between 1 and 10 Ci ( 37 and 370 GBq ) , but conditions forced it to be adapted to work with 100 Ci ( 3 @.@ 7 TBq ) sources . Its capacity was insufficient as demand grew . In May 1945 a dedicated building 3026 @-@ D ( 706 @-@ D ) , adjacent to 3026 @-@ C and designed to process sources up to 1000 Ci , was completed . The first run in 3026 @-@ D was on 26 May 1945 , the same day as the last run in the 3026 @-@ C facility .
By March 1949 , 31 shipments averaging over 2000 Ci each were produced there for Los Alamos . Demand continued to grow though ; by July 1950 the production goal per shipment was 10 @,@ 000 Ci ( 370 TBq ) , and by the early 1950s the requirements went up to 50 @,@ 000 Ci ( 1 @,@ 800 TBq ) . By 1954 the shipments went up to 64 @,@ 805 Ci ( 2 @.@ 3978 PBq ) , and that year the AEC decided to build a new facility in Idaho National Laboratory for RaLa production . In October 1956 , Oak Ridge completed their 68th and last RaLa run . In total , Oak Ridge processed over 30 @,@ 000 uranium slugs and shipped over 500 @,@ 000 Ci ( 19 PBq ) to Los Alamos .
During preparation of RaLa volatile fission products were released . When dissolved , a batch of 50 slugs produced 2 @,@ 500 Ci ( 93 TBq ) of xenon @-@ 133 , 1 @,@ 300 Ci ( 48 TBq ) of iodine @-@ 131 ( high amounts , as the fuel had to be processed " fresh " ) , and a small amount of krypton @-@ 85 . As few precautions were used for limiting the fission product releases , the RaLa production was a major contributor to radioactive contamination at Oak Ridge . The iodine emissions were an important factor in the decision to move the facility to Idaho . Later improvements allowed a reduction of iodine emissions to levels about 100 times lower .
A serious accident with radioactivity release occurred in the 3026 @-@ D facility at about 5 pm on 29 April 1954 . After the dissolution of the third batch of uranium slugs , the liquid in the dissolver tank did not completely cover the slugs for about 29 hours , which overheated due to decay heat . When the acid was added for the fourth batch , the violent reaction with the hot metal produced gases and forced the solution up the slug loading chute and the pipes . The building staff donned their gas masks and evacuated the building . Radiation levels on the third floor of the building reached 100 roentgen per hour ( R / h ) , and were reduced to 100 mR / h by 7 am the next day . The highest exposure to a person was 1 @.@ 25 R of hard radiation and 4 @.@ 7 roentgen equivalent physical of soft radiation .
= = = Lanthanum preparation = = =
After delivery of the barium @-@ lanthanum material to Los Alamos , it was stored in a dedicated building in the Bayo Canyon Site . At first , the mixture was used as @-@ is , both barium and lanthanum together , but this led to unpleasant radioactive contamination that took a long time to disappear as the half @-@ life of barium @-@ 140 is 12 @.@ 5 days . Shortly after , the process was improved ; barium was removed chemically , by double precipitation from a solution as barium sulfate .
The process was improved again , to allow repeated separation of lanthanum from the barium solution , as the lanthanum built up . Initially , a phosphate process was used , where lanthanum was precipitated as lanthanum phosphate . This was later abandoned when an oxalate or hydroxide method was developed ; lanthanum was precipitated as lanthanum hydroxide and then converted to a filterable precipitate by addition of oxalate with a trace of fluoride . The oxalate method had to be performed quickly , as the oxalate ion was susceptible to radiolysis and the lanthanum had the tendency to go back into solution . The oxalate process could be performed by remotely operated devices . The batches contained about 100 curies ( 3 @,@ 700 GBq ) of radiolanthanum , the highest radiation levels people had ever worked with at that time . Special tools had to be developed for remote handling of the hot materials . Lead bricks were used for shielding the sources . The radiation dose limit for the personnel was set to 500 mrem ( 5 mSv ) per source preparation . Sometimes this limit was exceeded ; once the received dose was 2 rem ( 20 mSv ) .
The improved process that separated lanthanum from the barium chloride solution had the advantage that barium could be " milked " repeatedly , increasing radiolanthanum yield and allowing more experiments . The problems of radioactive contamination with barium @-@ 140 , with its half life of 12 @.@ 5 days , were eliminated ; the amount of contaminating strontium @-@ 90 was also significantly reduced . Use of purified lanthanum also allowed usage of a much smaller amount of material in the tests themselves . Semiautomatic equipment for " lanthanum milking " ( the barium @-@ 140 isotope was nicknamed a " cow " ) was built in a sufficiently distant area , which avoided time @-@ consuming construction of a heavily shielded building . Early on , the process hit a snag when impurities of iron and other metals , probably introduced from an irradiated shipping container , were found to impair the lanthanum phosphate precipitation by forming phosphate gels that clogged filters . This problem was solved with better shipping containers . A similar " milking " process is now used for preparation of technetium @-@ 99m , used in nuclear medicine , from a molybdenum @-@ 99 " cow " in technetium @-@ 99m generators .
The separation process was performed in a dedicated facility in the Bayo Canyon , in the radiochemistry building , designated TA @-@ 10 @-@ 1 . The separated lanthanum was then shipped to the test site in a lead cask on the back of a truck . In 1951 , the separation work was moved to TA @-@ 35 . The tests were performed in a month @-@ long series , as the barium source decayed and was periodically " milked " for lanthanum .
= = Post @-@ war progress = =
The technology was improved , and by 1951 the four ionization chambers were replaced by twenty scintillation counters , each using five gallons of a liquid scintillator . The flashes from 100 US gallons ( 380 l ; 83 imp gal ) of burning scintillator were remarkably brilliant in the early morning times when the tests were usually performed . RaLa tests continued until 1962 , after which they were replaced by more advanced methods . Currently several other methods are used for hydrodynamic testing .
= = Long @-@ term contamination = =
Lanthanum @-@ 140 has a short half @-@ life of some 41 hours , and is not a threat after a fairly short time . Other radioisotopes , present as impurities , have a long enough half @-@ life to present a potential problem even decades after the tests ; in 2002 the Los Alamos National Laboratory issued a warning to the Los Alamos county and the Forest Service performing thinning of trees in the area to not remove the trees cut in various parts of the Bayo Canyon due to possible content of residual radioactive materials . The worst affected zones are fenced off ; detectable levels of radioisotopes are present in the soil , insects and trees in the surrounding areas . The neighbouring population was not informed about the tests until the mid @-@ 1990s , and Los Alamos refused to declassify the documentation .
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= Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse =
The Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse , part of which is sometimes called the Battle of the Gifu , took place from 15 December 1942 to 23 January 1943 and was primarily an engagement between United States and Imperial Japanese forces in the hills near the Matanikau River area on Guadalcanal during the Guadalcanal Campaign . The U.S. forces were under the overall command of Alexander Patch and the Japanese forces were under the overall command of Harukichi Hyakutake .
In the battle , U.S. soldiers and Marines , assisted by native Solomon Islanders , attacked Japanese Army ( IJA ) forces defending well @-@ fortified and entrenched positions on several hills and ridges . The most prominent hills were called Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse by the Americans . The U.S. was attempting to destroy the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal and the Japanese were trying to hold their defensive positions until reinforcements could arrive .
Both sides experienced extreme difficulties in fighting in the thick jungles and tropical environment that existed in the battle area . Many of the American troops were also involved in their first combat operations . The Japanese were mostly cut off from resupply and suffered greatly from malnourishment and lack of medical care . After some difficulty , the U.S. succeeded in taking Mount Austen , in the process reducing a strongly defended position called the Gifu , as well as the Galloping Horse and the Sea Horse . In the meantime , the Japanese decided to abandon Guadalcanal and withdrew to the west coast of the island . From that location most of the surviving Japanese troops were successfully evacuated during the first week of February 1943 .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal Campaign = = =
Eight months after the beginning of the Pacific war , on 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The Japanese were taken by surprise . By nightfall on 8 August , the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops — primarily from the 1st Marine Division of the United States Marine Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift — secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The Allies later renamed the airfield Henderson Field . Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point . Additional reinforcements over the next two months later increased the number of U.S. troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20 @,@ 000 .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal . Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on 19 August to drive Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships — mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa — were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high @-@ speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by the Allies and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
Using forces delivered to Guadalcanal in this manner , the Japanese tried three times to retake Henderson Field , but they were defeated each time . First , a reinforced battalion from the 28th Infantry Regiment was defeated in the Battle of the Tenaru on 21 August . Next , the augmented 35th Infantry Brigade was defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge on 12 – 14 September . Finally , the 2nd Infantry Division augmented by one regiment from the 38th Infantry Division was defeated with heavy losses in the Battle for Henderson Field on 23 – 26 October .
Throughout the campaign , the Japanese used Mount Austen ( called Bear Height by the Japanese and Mount Mambulu by the local Solomon Islanders ) , located west of the Lunga River and about 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Henderson Field , to observe the American defenses around Lunga Point . Emplaced artillery on Mount Austen delivered harassing fire on Henderson Field . The hill was also used as a defensive point to protect their positions around the upper Matanikau valley as well as to protect the Maruyama Road , which was a trail used by the Japanese to move men and supplies into the interior of the island . Mount Austen — with a summit of 1 @,@ 514 ft ( 461 m ) — was not a single peak , but a mixed ridgeline of rocky exposed and jungle @-@ covered ridges and hilltops . After the defeat in the Battle for Henderson Field , the Army Section of Imperial General Headquarters directed Hyakutake to increase the numbers of troops and artillery emplaced on the ridgeline to help prepare for the next planned attack on the Americans . Therefore , Hyakutake directed some of the units that were retreating from the Henderson Field battle area to fortify Mount Austen and nearby hilltops . The forces deployed to Mount Austen included the 124th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Akinosuka Oka and several artillery units . Later , surviving troops from the 230th Infantry Regiment — which had taken heavy losses during the Koli Point action and subsequent retreat — joined Oka 's forces around Mount Austen .
= = = Reinforcement and resupply = = =
On 5 , 7 , and 8 November , Tokyo Express missions landed most of the 38th Division 's 228th Infantry Regiment and the 1st Battalion , 229th Infantry Regiment on Guadalcanal . On 10 November , Japanese destroyers landed Lieutenant General Tadayoshi Sano — commander of the 38th Infantry Division — plus his staff and 600 more troops from the 38th . Hyakutake used the newly arrived troops to help stop an American attack west of the Matanikau from 8 – 11 November , then sent the 228th and 229th Regiment 's units on 11 November to reinforce Oka 's forces . Japanese Major General Takeo Itō — commander of the 38th Division 's Infantry Group — later took command of the defenses around Mount Austen .
An attempt by the Japanese to deliver the rest of the 38th Division and its heavy equipment failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 12 – 15 November . Only 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 of the remaining 7 @,@ 000 troops from the division reached the island and most of their supplies , ammunition , and equipment were lost . Because of this failure , the Japanese canceled their next planned attempt to recapture Henderson Field .
As December began , the Japanese experienced considerable difficulty in keeping their troops on Guadalcanal resupplied because of Allied air and naval attacks on the Japanese supply chain of ships and bases . The few supplies delivered to the island were not enough to sustain Japanese troops , who by 7 December 1942 , were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition , disease , and Allied ground or air attacks . The Japanese had delivered almost 30 @,@ 000 army troops to Guadalcanal since the campaign began , but by December only about 20 @,@ 000 of that number were still alive . Of those 20 @,@ 000 , about 12 @,@ 000 remained more or less fit for combat duty . On 12 December , the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned . Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders , who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken from the Allies , Imperial General Headquarters , with approval from the Emperor , on 31 December , agreed to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia . The Japanese titled the evacuation effort of their forces from Guadalcanal Operation Ke ( ケ号作戦 ) and planned to execute the operation beginning on 14 January 1943 .
In the meantime , the U.S. continued to deliver additional troops to Guadalcanal . The three infantry regiments of the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , the 164th , the 182nd and the 132nd , were delivered to Guadalcanal on 13 October , 12 November , and 8 December , respectively . In addition , the U.S. Army 's independent 147th Infantry Regiment plus the 2nd Marine Division 's 8th Marine Regiment landed on 4 November . The reinforcements also included additional artillery , construction , aviation , naval , and support units .
On 9 December , U.S. Army Major General Alexander Patch — commanding general of the Americal Division — succeeded Vandegrift as commander of Allied forces on Guadalcanal and Tulagi . That same day , the 5th Marine Regiment departed the island , followed by the rest of the 1st Marine Division by the end of the month . Patch was ordered to eliminate all Japanese forces remaining on Guadalcanal . Patch told his superior — Millard Harmon , who commanded all U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific — that he needed more troops to accomplish his mission . In response , Harmon ordered the 25th Infantry Division — which was in the process of relocating from Hawaii to the South Pacific area — to ship directly to Guadalcanal . The 25th 's units would arrive at Guadalcanal in stages during the last two weeks of December and the first week of January 1943 . In addition , the rest of the 2nd Marine Division 's units — including the 6th Marine Regiment — were ordered to Guadalcanal during the same time period . By 7 January , American forces on Guadalcanal would total just over 50 @,@ 000 men .
= = Battles = =
= = = First Battle of Mount Austen = = =
On 12 December 1942 , a small group of Japanese soldiers from the 38th Field Engineer Regiment successfully infiltrated the American lines from the south , destroying a fighter aircraft and a fuel truck on Henderson Field before escaping back to friendly lines . Two days later , a U.S. Army patrol from the 132nd Infantry Regiment skirmished with a group of Japanese on the eastern slopes of Mount Austen . On 15 December , in yet another night infiltration raid onto Henderson Field , a Lieutenant Ono led four men equipped with picric acid blocks past American sentry positions destroying several P @-@ 39 Airacobra fighters . Throughout the Guadalcanal campaign , Japanese forces would continue night infiltration tactics against U.S. forces , but causing few American casualties .
General Patch , however , was convinced that these events illustrated an unacceptable risk to Henderson Field by Japanese troops stationed on and around nearby Mount Austen . Thus , on 16 December , in preparation for a planned general offensive to try to destroy all Japanese forces remaining on Guadalcanal , Patch elected to first secure the Mount Austen area . He therefore ordered the 132nd Infantry Regiment to immediately seize the objective . While the 132nd Infantry Regiment had little modern combat experience aside from jungle skirmishes and patrols , it was proud of its combat history , having participated in both the Civil War and World War I , and its young reserve officers and NCOs considered themselves skilled in rifle and machinegun tactics and marksmanship .
The 132nd 's commander — Colonel Leroy E. Nelson — directed his 3rd Battalion to lead the American assault on the first of several hills , followed by the regiment 's 1st Battalion . Artillery support was provided by 105 mm howitzers from the U.S. Army 's 246th Field Artillery Battalion and the 75 mm pack howitzers of the 2nd Battalion 10th Marines .
The exposed hills making up the Mount Austen complex were arbitrarily numbered by the Americans for reference purposes ( see map at right ) . On 17 December , Nelson 's 3rd Battalion — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William C. Wright — advanced south of Hill 35 and began to climb toward Mount Austen 's summit near Hills 20 and 21 . In order to achieve its timetable set by the division commander , the battalion was forced to leave behind many of its support weapons , such as heavy mortars and machine guns , and to take only limited quantities of ammunition and supplies , all of which had to be hand @-@ carried along hacked @-@ out paths through thick jungle . At 09 : 30 on 18 December , as Wright 's lead elements approached , Japanese defenders pinned down the Americans with machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Exhausted and dehydrated by their trek through the thick jungle , Wright 's troops — unable to deploy quickly out of column formation — made no headway against the Japanese defenses .
The next morning , after an artillery barrage and air strike from the CAF , Wright went forward with several artillery observers to investigate the terrain in front of his forces . Using concealed fire lanes , a Japanese machine @-@ gun team killed Wright with a burst of fire at 09 : 30 . Wright 's second in command , Major Louis Franco , was unable to get forward and take command until late in the day , preventing the battalion from continuing the attack . At the same time , Japanese riflemen infiltrated the American positions and effectively harassed the command posts of both the 3rd and 1st Battalions as well as the column of heavily loaded American supply and engineer parties on the hacked @-@ out jungle trail linking the battalions with the Lunga perimeter . Both U.S. battalions dug in for the night while artillery bombarded the Japanese positions .
Between 20 and 23 December , the Japanese apparently withdrew from the area , as aggressive U.S. Army patrols encountered no more enemy in the area of Hills 20 and 21 and further to the south . Nelson ordered the two battalions to move west to Hill 31 and then attack south towards Hill 27 . On 24 December , the 3rd Battalion was halted on the slopes of Hill 31 by intense machine @-@ gun fire from well @-@ concealed positions .
Facing the Americans was the most strongly fortified Japanese position on Guadalcanal , nicknamed the Gifu ( after Gifu Prefecture in Japan ) by the Japanese . The Gifu position sat between the summits of Mount Austen and Hills 27 and 31 and consisted of a 1 @,@ 500 yd ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) line of 45 – 50 interconnected , mutually supporting , well @-@ camouflaged pillboxes dug into the ground and forming a horseshoe shape with the open end to the west . Only about 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of each pillbox was above ground with walls and roofs , constructed from logs and dirt , up to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick . Each pillbox contained one to two machine @-@ guns and several riflemen ; some were sited underneath huge jungle trees . Each of these pillbox emplacements was sited to provide mutual support to the others . Numerous foxholes and trenches provided additional support and cover for additional riflemen and machine @-@ gunners . Behind the pillboxes , the Japanese had sited 81 mm and long @-@ range 90mm mortars . The Gifu was commanded by Major Takeyoshi Inagaki with around 800 men from the 2nd Battalion , 228th Regiment and the 2nd Battalion , 124th Infantry .
Between 25 and 29 December , the Japanese defenders prevented the Americans from making any headway in their attempt to overrun the Gifu position . While the U.S. 3rd Battalion — with artillery support — conducted frontal attacks against the position to pin the defenders , the U.S. 1st Battalion attempted to flank the Gifu on the east . However , as the Japanese defenses were fully integrated , the flanking attempt was unsuccessful . By 29 December , U.S. losses had reached 53 killed , 129 wounded , and 131 sick , though morale remained high . Assisting the Americans in this battle were Fijian commandos led by officers and non @-@ commissioned officers from the New Zealand Expeditionary Force .
On 2 January , Nelson added his 2nd Battalion — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George F. Ferry — to the offensive and sent them on a march around the Gifu toward Hill 27 . The battalion reached the lower slopes of the hill by 16 : 00 without meeting serious resistance from the Japanese . This same day , Nelson — who was apparently exhausted and / or sick — was replaced as commander of the 132nd by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander M. George . Some sources suggest that he was physically and mentally exhausted and / or suffering from malaria and either requested his own relief or was ordered to relinquish command .
The next day , elements of the 132nd 's 2nd Battalion occupied the summit of Hill 27 , surprised and killed a Japanese 75 mm artillery crew , and successfully repulsed , with help from heavy artillery fire , six Japanese counterattacks on their positions . By this time , the soldiers atop Hill 27 were running extremely short of ammunition and grenades , with Japanese forces returning 10 shots to each one fired by the Americans , and medical supplies were exhausted . The 2nd 's efforts to improve its position were made more difficult by the hard coral underneath the hill 's sod , which made the digging of foxholes difficult . The remainder of the 2nd Battalion , carrying ammunition , food , and medical supplies , reached Hill 27 and joined the battle , where they soon gained combat superiority over the attacking Japanese . At the same time , with the infusion of new leadership by Lieutenant Colonel George , the 1st and 3rd Battalions attacked and pushed a short way into the Gifu , killing 25 Japanese in the process , then closed the gaps between their units and consolidated their positions , while killing many of the Japanese defenders . One officer from the 2nd Battalion — who had brought his personal sniper rifle to the battle — witnessed the final disintegration of Japanese units attacking Hill 27 with a final flurry of suicidal frontal charges . The Japanese soldiers in the Gifu , who had apparently not been resupplied or replenished during the battle , consumed their last remaining food rations on 1 January .
Since the beginning of its offensive on Mount Austen , the 132nd had lost 115 killed and 272 wounded . The relatively high number of combat deaths were caused in part by wound infections in the tropical conditions and inability to medevac men wounded in the early stages of the operation . Even after intervention by the 2nd Battalion , wounded men continued to die , unable to withstand the arduous and slippery portage back down improvised jungle trails on a stretcher carried by two men . These losses , plus the effects of tropical diseases , heat , and combat exhaustion , temporarily rendered the 132nd 's 1st and 3rd Battalions incapable of further offensive action . Thus , on 4 January , the 1st and 3rd Battalions were ordered to dig in and hold positions surrounding the Gifu on the north , east , and south .
Reviewing the first Mount Austen offensive , former Marine officer and historian Samuel B. Griffith concluded , " As the thoroughly butchered Mount Austen operation dragged on into January , it became apparent that both Major General Patch and his assistant Division commander [ Brigadier General Edmund Sebree ] had much to unlearn , and perhaps even more to learn . " However , while Patch 's decision to attack Mount Austen was criticized , one participant noted the difficulties faced by the 132nd Regiment and its commanders , including the terrain , limited equipment ( light mortars and machineguns with limited ammunition supply , no flamethrowers or pole charges ) , and the necessity of assaulting thoroughly integrated , prepared , and roofed @-@ over Japanese defenses , which resisted direct hits by 75 mm and in some cases 105 mm shells .
For its part , once the 132nd was able to treat its wounded , morale remained high in the newly blooded regiment , which played a significant role in later combat operations on Guadalcanal . The 2nd Battalion , with just 27 killed , was immediately assigned to further offensive combat operations .
Losses among the Gifu defenders are unknown , but were estimated by one 2nd Battalion officer as of 9 January 1943 at 500 killed and wounded ; most of the latter would later die of their wounds when combined with illness and starvation . A Japanese officer 's recovered diary stated that the Japanese had suffered heavy casualties . Japanese prisoners captured in later operations referred to the combat at Hills 27 and 31 as The Battle of the Mountain of Blood .
= = = Arrival of American reinforcements = = =
On 2 January , with the arrival of the U.S. Army 's 25th Division and the rest of the U.S. Marine 2nd Division , all of the American units on Guadalcanal and Tulagi were together designated as the XIV Corps with Patch in command . Sebree took over as commander of the Americal Division . On 5 January , Patch issued his plan to begin operations to clear Guadalcanal of Japanese forces . The 2nd Marine Division was to push westward from the Matanikau River along the coast while the 25th Division was to finish clearing Mount Austen and to secure the hilltops and ridges located around the inland forks of the Matanikau . The Americal Division and the 147th Regiment would guard the Lunga perimeter .
The deep river ravines of the Matanikau 's upper forks naturally divided the U.S. 25th Division 's operations area into three distinct areas , with one main terrain feature dominating each area . East of the Matanikau was Mount Austen . In the wedge between the southeast and southwest forks of the Matanikau Hills 44 and 43 together formed a terrain feature that the Americans called the " Sea Horse " , because of its shape when viewed from above . Between the Matanikau 's southwest and northwest forks was a much larger hill mass labelled , also because of its shape , the " Galloping Horse " .
Major General J. Lawton Collins — commander of the 25th Division — assigned his 35th Infantry Regiment to clear the Gifu , secure the rest of Mount Austen , and to capture the Sea Horse . He ordered the 27th Infantry Regiment to seize the Galloping Horse from the north . The 35th and the 27th were then to link up on Hill 53 ( the Galloping Horse 's " Head " ) to finish clearing the nearby hills and ridges . Collins placed his 161st Infantry Regiment in reserve . Ammunition and supplies for the attacking troops would be transported along rough jeep trails as far forward as possible and then carried the rest of the way by native Solomon Islanders .
Having observed the arrival of the American reinforcements to the island , the Japanese were expecting the offensive . Hyakutake ordered the units on the hilltops around the Matanikau and in the Gifu to hold in place in their prepared positions . The Japanese hoped that as the Americans surrounded and intermingled with the Japanese defensive pockets that the close quarters fighting would prevent the Americans from employing their superior firepower in artillery and close air support . At night , the Japanese planned to infiltrate the American rear areas and interdict their supply lines to prevent the American assault forces from receiving sufficient ammunition and provisions to continue their attacks . The Japanese hoped to delay the Americans long enough for more reinforcements to arrive from Rabaul or elsewhere .
= = = Galloping Horse = = =
Viewed from overhead with north upward , the Galloping Horse appeared upside down , with Hills 54 and 55 forming the horse 's rear legs and Hill 57 forming the front legs . From east to west , Hills 50 , 51 , and 52 formed the horse 's body with the 900 ft ( 270 m ) high Hill 53 at the head . Colonel William A. McCulloch — commander of the 27th Regiment — ordered his 1st Battalion to attack Hill 57 and his 3rd Battalion to assault Hills 51 and 52 from Hill 54 , which was already in American hands . Defending the Galloping Horse and the nearby fork of the Matanikau were 600 Japanese soldiers from the 3rd Battalion , 228th Infantry Regiment under Major Haruka ( or Haruja ) Nishiyama .
The American attack commenced at 05 : 50 on 10 January with a bombardment by six battalions of artillery and airstrikes by 24 CAF aircraft on suspected Japanese positions in the valley between Hill 57 and the jumping @-@ off point for the 1st Battalion . Beginning their advance at 07 : 30 , the 1st Battalion successfully gained the summit of Hill 57 by 11 : 40 against light resistance .
From Hill 54 , the 3rd Battalion 's attack route was in the open and dominated by the high ground of Hills 52 and 53 . At 06 : 35 , the battalion commenced its assault and occupied Hill 51 without resistance . Continuing its advance , the battalion was stopped by heavy Japanese machine @-@ gun fire 200 yd ( 180 m ) short of Hill 52 's summit . After an airstrike by six CAF aircraft on Hill 52 and an artillery bombardment , the 3rd Battalion resumed their attack and successfully captured the summit by 16 : 25 , destroying six machine @-@ gun positions and killing about 30 Japanese on the hill .
At 09 : 00 on 11 January , the 3rd Battalion began its attack on Hill 53 . The Japanese quickly stopped the American advance with machine @-@ gun and mortar fire . The Americans — who had not received adequate replenishment in water — began to suffer extensive heat casualties . In one platoon , only 10 men remained conscious by the afternoon .
The next day , the 27th 's 2nd Battalion took over the assault on Hill 53 . Advancing up the hill , the Americans were stopped short of Hill 53 's summit . During the night , Japanese infiltrators cut the telephone line between the 2nd Battalion and its regimental headquarters , affecting unit communications . On 13 January , the Americans renewed the attack but were again halted by heavy Japanese machine @-@ gun and mortar fire .
A knoll on the south edge of the ridge ( the " horse 's neck " ) leading to Hill 53 was the fulcrum of the Japanese defenses . The knoll contained several machine @-@ gun and mortar positions which had effectively held off the American attacks across the ridge . The 2nd Battalion 's executive officer — Captain Charles W. Davis — volunteered to lead four other men against the knoll . Crawling on their bellies , Davis and his party crept to within 10 yd ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of the enemy position . The Japanese defenders threw two grenades at them , but the grenades failed to explode . Davis and his men threw eight grenades at the Japanese , destroying several of their positions . Davis then stood up , and while shooting his rifle , then pistol with one hand , waved his men forward with the other as he advanced further onto the knoll . Davis and his men then killed or chased away the rest of the Japanese on the knoll . Silhouetted against the sky during the action , Davis was visible to the Americans all up and down the ridge . Inspired by his actions , plus replenished with water by a sudden thunderstorm , the American troops " came to life " and quickly assaulted and captured Hill 53 by noon . The Americans counted the bodies of 170 Japanese soldiers on and around the Galloping Horse . The Americans suffered fewer than 100 killed .
Between 15 and 22 January , the 161st Infantry Regiment hunted the remainder of Nishiyama 's battalion in the nearby gorge of the southwest Matanikau fork . In total , 400 Japanese were killed defending the Galloping Horse and surrounding area . Two hundred Japanese survivors , including Nishiyama , escaped to friendly lines on January 19 .
= = = Sea Horse = = =
In the last week of December 1942 , Colonel Robert B. McClure — the commander of the U.S. 35th Infantry Regiment — was assigned to capture the Sea Horse and complete the reduction of the Gifu on Mount Austen . For this operation , the 3rd Battalion of the 182nd Infantry Regiment — commanded by Lt. Col. Roy F. Goggin — and the 25th Division 's Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop were attached to the 35th Infantry .
Colonel McClure — commanding the 35th Infantry — ordered the 35th 's 2nd Battalion and the 25th 's Reconnaissance Troop to relieve the 132nd Infantry Regiment at the Gifu , with orders to pressure that strong point and keep in touch with Goggin 's 3rd Battalion , 182nd on the right . The 35th 's own 3rd Battalion — commanded by Lt. Col. William J. Mullen , Jr . — was to advance southwest from Hill 27 ( south of the Gifu on Mount Austen ) , and then swing north to seize Hills 43 and 44 . Lt. Col. James B. Leer 's 1st Battalion was to be initially in regimental reserve , following about a half day 's march behind Mullen 's battalion . The 3rd Battalion , 182d Infantry , was assigned the task of protecting the 25th Division 's artillery positions on the open ground north of Mount Austen and east of the Matanikau by advancing south from Hill 65 to block the river gorge and the ravine between Hills 31 and 42 against Japanese infiltration . Maintaining contact with the 27th and 35th Regiments , Goggin 's battalion was to assault Sea Horse Ridge in concert with the other two regiments . By 30 December , Goggin 's 3rd Battalion , 182nd was in action against Japanese forces atop Sea Horse Ridge .
Colonel McClure next assigned his 2nd Battalion to the assault on the Gifu and sent his 1st and 3rd Battalions on a long march through the jungle to attack the Sea Horse from the south . Defending the Sea Horse and nearby valleys were the Japanese 124th Regiment 's 1st and 3rd Battalions , with Oka 's command post located nearby . The Sea Horse consisted of two hills , Hill 43 on the south with Hill 44 adjoining to the north .
After taking a 7 @,@ 000 yd ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) circuitous route through the jungle around Mount Austen , at 06 : 35 on 10 January , McClure 's 3rd Battalion launched its attack on Hill 43 . As the Americans closed on Hill 43 from the south , a group of Japanese soldiers near Oka 's command post spotted the U.S. soldiers as they crossed a stream and attacked immediately , threatening the flank of the American column . Two American soldiers — William G. Fournier and Lewis Hall — successfully repelled the Japanese attack with a machine @-@ gun but were killed in the process . Making progress against light resistance , the 3rd Battalion dug in for the night about 700 yd ( 640 m ) short of Hill 43 's summit .
The next day , the 1st Battalion of the 35th was added to the attack and the two units — with artillery support — drove through several Japanese machine @-@ gun positions and took Hill 43 by early afternoon . Continuing on towards Hill 44 against light opposition , the Americans captured the rest of the Sea Horse by nightfall , cutting off Japanese forces in the Gifu . The native Solomon Islanders who had been man @-@ packing supplies to the two American battalions during the attack were having difficulty delivering sufficient food and ammunition over the long trail between the Sea Horse and the Lunga perimeter . Thus , B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers were now used to air drop supplies to the American troops around the Sea Horse .
On 12 January , the two American battalions of the 35th continued their attack to the west toward the Galloping Horse , but were stopped by a Japanese strongpoint on a narrow ridge about 600 yd ( 550 m ) west of their point of departure . After trying to flank the position for two days , the Americans were able to smash the strongpoint with mortar and artillery fire , killing 13 Japanese defenders , and advanced to a ridge overlooking the southwest fork of the Matanikau by 15 : 00 on 15 January . That same day , Japanese survivors from the Sea Horse battle — including Oka and most of the 124th 's headquarters staff section and the 1st Battalion — were able to slip past the American forces and reach friendly lines further west . The Americans counted 558 Japanese dead around the Sea Horse , mostly from the 124th 's 3rd Battalion , and captured 17 .
= = = Second Mount Austen = = =
On 9 January , McClure 's 2nd Battalion — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Ernest Peters — replaced the three battalions from the 132nd Regiment and prepared to assault the Gifu . Over the next four days , the Americans tried to feel out the Japanese positions with patrols . At the same time , the Gifu defenders attempted to wear down the Americans with night infiltration attacks . By 13 January , the 2nd Battalion had lost 57 killed or wounded . The battle casualties plus malaria reduced the battalion to 75 % of its effective strength by the next day . To assist the battalion , the 35th Regiment 's anti @-@ tank gun company personnel were attached to the battalion as infantry .
With the capture of the Sea Horse by the Americans , the Japanese in the Gifu were now isolated from the rest of the 17th Army . In a last message over his field phone before the line was cut , Inagaki refused an order from Oka to abandon his position and attempt to infiltrate back to friendly lines , instead vowing that his command would " fight to the last " . Inagaki apparently refused the order because to do so would have meant leaving his sick and injured men behind .
An American attack on the Gifu by the entire 2nd Battalion on 15 January was completely repulsed by the Japanese . In response , McClure relieved Peters of command on 16 January and replaced him with Major Stanley R. Larsen . Larsen decided to completely surround the Gifu and try to reduce it with a massive artillery bombardment on 17 January .
In the meantime , the Americans used a loudspeaker to broadcast a surrender appeal in Japanese to the Gifu 's defenders . Only five Japanese soldiers responded . One of the five reported that his company actually gathered to discuss the appeal , but decided not to surrender because they were too weak to carry their injured , non @-@ ambulatory comrades with them to the American lines . Instead , they elected to perish together as a unit . One Japanese officer defending the Gifu wrote in his diary , " I heard the enemy talking in Japanese over a loud speaker . He is probably telling us to come out - what fools the enemy are . The Japanese Army will stick it out to the end . Position must be defended in all conditions with our lives . "
At 14 : 30 hours on 17 January , twelve 155 mm and thirty @-@ seven 105 mm guns opened fire on the Gifu . Over the next one and a half hours , the American artillery fired 1 @,@ 700 shells into an area about 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) square . Because of the lateness of the hour , the Americans were unable to follow the barrage with an immediate attack but instead had to wait until the next day , which allowed the Japanese time to recover . On 18 January , the Americans attacked into the weaker west side of the Gifu , making some headway and destroying several Japanese pillboxes over the next two days until heavy rain stopped the attack on 20 January . That night , 11 Japanese were killed trying to escape from the Gifu .
On 22 January , the Americans were able to move a light tank up their supply trail to Mount Austen . The tank proved to be the decisive factor in the battle . At 10 : 20 , the tank — protected by 16 – 18 riflemen — blasted three Japanese pillboxes and penetrated into the Gifu pocket . Proceeding onward , the tank completely traversed the Gifu and destroyed five more pillboxes , breaching a gap 200 yd ( 180 m ) wide in the Japanese line . The American infantry surged through the gap and took positions in the middle of the Gifu .
That night , around 02 : 30 , apparently realizing that the battle was lost , Inagaki led his staff and most of the remaining survivors of his command — about 100 men — in a final charge on the Americans . In the charge , Inagaki and the remainder of his troops were killed almost to the last man . At sunrise on 23 January , the Americans secured the rest of the Gifu . Sixty @-@ four men from the American 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry were killed during the assaults on the Gifu between 9 and 23 January , bringing the total number of Americans killed taking Mount Austen to 175 . The Americans counted the bodies of 431 Japanese in the remains of the Gifu 's fortifications and 87 elsewhere around Mount Austen . Total Japanese losses in the Sea Horse and both Mount Austen battles were probably between 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 500 men .
= = = Coastal drive = = =
At the same time that the U.S. Army offensive was taking place in the hills around the upper Matanikau , the U.S. 2nd Marine Division — under the command of Brigadier General Alphonse DeCarre — was attacking along the north coast of Guadalcanal . Facing the Marines in the hills and ravines south of Point Cruz were the remains of the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division , commanded by Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama , plus the 1st Battalion , 228th Infantry Regiment from the 38th Infantry Division under Major Kikuo Hayakawa .
On 13 January , the 2nd and 8th Marine regiments began their offensive with the 8th Marines attacking along the coast and the 2nd Marines advancing further inland . The Japanese were pushed back in some places but held in others , with heavy fighting occurring at several locations in the hills and ravines near the coast . On 14 January , the 2nd Marines were relieved by the 6th Marine Regiment .
The Marines renewed the offensive on 15 January . The Japanese stymied the 8th Marines ' advance along the coast . Inland , however , the 6th Marines were able to successfully advance about 1 @,@ 500 yd ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) and threatened the flank of the Japanese forces emplaced in front of the 8th Marines . At 17 : 00 , Maruyama ordered his troops to retreat to a pre @-@ coordinated line about 1 @,@ 300 yd ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to the west .
Early on 16 January , as many of Maruyama 's men attempted to comply with the order to retreat , the 6th Marines turned and drove to the coast , trapping most of Maruyama 's 4th and 16th Regiments between themselves and the 8th Marines . By 14 : 00 on 17 January , the Marines had destroyed the Japanese forces trapped in the pocket , killing 643 and capturing two .
= = Aftermath = =
On 15 January , an IJA representative from Rabaul reached Guadalcanal on a Tokyo Express mission and informed Hyakutake of the decision to withdraw Japanese forces from the island . Grudgingly accepting the order , the 17th Army staff communicated the Ke evacuation plan to their forces on 18 January . The plan directed the 38th Division to disengage and withdraw towards Cape Esperance on the western end of Guadalcanal beginning on 20 January . The 38th 's retirement would be covered by the 2nd Division and other units , which would then follow the 38th westward . Any troops unable to move were encouraged to kill themselves to " uphold the honor of the Imperial Army " . From Cape Esperance the Japanese navy planned to evacuate the army forces over the last few days of January and first week of February with a projected completion date of the evacuation of 10 February .
The U.S. and its Allies mistook Japanese preparations for Ke as another reinforcement attempt . With this in mind , Patch ordered his forces to launch another offensive against the Japanese forces west of the Matanikau . On 21 January , the 27th and 161st Regiments pushed westward from the area of the Galloping Horse . The Americans — unaware that the 38th Division was withdrawing in preparation to evacuate the island — were surprised to encounter light resistance . Advancing more quickly through the inland hills and ridges than the Japanese had anticipated , by 22 January the Americans were in position to capture Kokumbona on the coast , headquarters of the 17th Army , and completely cut off the remainder of the 2nd Division .
Reacting quickly to the situation , the Japanese hurriedly evacuated Kokumbona and ordered the 2nd Division to retire westward immediately . The Americans captured Kokumbona on 23 January . Although some Japanese units were trapped between the American forces and destroyed , most of the 2nd Division 's survivors escaped .
Over the next week , the Japanese rear @-@ guard — assisted by difficult terrain — effectively delayed the American advance westward from Kokumbona . General Patch — still believing that a Japanese reinforcement effort was imminent — kept most of his forces back to guard Henderson Field , sending only one regiment at time to continue the advance . Thus , the majority of the surviving Japanese army forces were able to gather at Cape Esperance by the end of January . On 1 , 4 , and 7 February , Japanese warships successfully evacuated 10 @,@ 652 army troops from the island . On 9 February , the Americans discovered that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure .
In hindsight , some historians have faulted the Americans — especially Patch and Admiral William Halsey , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific — for not taking advantage of their ground , aerial , and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal . Halsey had just been recently repulsed at the Battle of Rennell Island .Patch and Harmon 's insistence on taking Mount Austen has been cited as one of the factors that delayed the American 's main attack to the west , giving the 17th Army a chance to escape . Said Merrill B. Twining of the Japanese forces deployed on and around Mount Austen , " Theoretically these Japanese did offer a threat to our major force advancing westward along the coast , but as a practical matter these isolated groups were composed of sick and starving men unable to do anything more than die in place . Under the circumstances disclosed by subsequent events , it is obvious that Mt . Austen was just part of the scenery and of no significant import to either of the antagonists . "
Nevertheless , the successful campaign to recapture Guadalcanal from the Japanese was an important strategic victory for the U.S. and its allies . Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere , the Allies continued their campaign against Japan , ultimately culminating in Japan 's defeat and the end of World War II .
= = Depictions in Media = =
James Jones wrote his novel The Thin Red Line based on his experiences during the battle of the Galloping Horse , the Sea Horse , and Kokumbona which he renamed " The Dancing Elephant " , " The Sea Slug " , and " Bunabala " . The novel has spawned two film adaptations : one by Andrew Marton in 1964 , and one by Terrence Malick in 1998 .
= = = Books = = =
Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . Guadalcanal . The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 – 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
George , John B. ( 1981 ) . Shots Fired In Anger : A rifleman 's view of the war in the Pacific , 1942 – 1945 , including the campaign on Guadalcanal and fighting with Merrill 's Marauders in the jungles of Burma . National Rifle Association . ISBN 0 @-@ 935998 @-@ 42 @-@ X.
Gilbert , Oscar E. ( 2001 ) . Marine Tank Battles in the Pacific . Da Capo . ISBN 1 @-@ 58097 @-@ 050 @-@ 8 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Twining , Merrill B. ( 1996 ) . No Bended Knee : The Battle for Guadalcanal . Novato , California : Presidio Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89141 @-@ 549 @-@ 1 .
= = = Web = = =
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Archived from the original on 27 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1995 ) [ 1949 ] . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 5 @-@ 3 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Archived from the original on 14 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= Effects of Hurricane Dean in the Greater Antilles =
The effects of Hurricane Dean in the Greater Antilles were spread over six countries and included 20 deaths . Hurricane Dean formed in the Atlantic Ocean west of Cape Verde on August 14 as part of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . The Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane tracked steadily westward into the Caribbean , where it rapidly intensified . Its outer bands swept over the Greater Antilles ; the storm surge was felt from the eastern side of Puerto Rico to the western tip of Cuba . It brushed the island of Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before striking Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula at Category 5 strength .
National governments , domestic non @-@ governmental organizations , and international aid agencies established hundreds of shelters , evacuated hundreds of thousands of people , raised millions of dollars of resources , and rallied thousands of rescue workers as the powerful hurricane churned through the Caribbean . Despite a number of near misses , Hurricane Dean did not make landfall in the Greater Antilles and the islands were spared the brunt of the storm .
Six people were killed in the Dominican Republic and another fourteen in Haiti . Three were killed in Jamaica , which also suffered US $ 310 million of damage — the heaviest in the Caribbean . The most severe damage there was to the agricultural sector ; nearly the entire banana crop was destroyed . Global aid organizations contributed to the subsequent recovery effort ; immediate life @-@ saving needs were met within days , but the damage to Jamaica 's infrastructure and economy took much longer to repair . With loans and grants from the local government , the European Union , and the United Nations , normality was restored by the following summer .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Hispaniola = = =
A tropical storm watch was issued for the south coast of the Dominican Republic on August 17 at 0300 UTC . Later that day the tropical storm watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . Additionally , a hurricane watch was issued from Cabo Beata to the Haitian border . This was further upgraded that night with a hurricane warning from Barahona to the Haitian border . Workers from World Vision , already on the island for unrelated humanitarian work , pre @-@ positioned food , clean water , medicines and emergency generators in the southern provinces where hurricane warnings had been issued . As the storm approached , 1 @,@ 580 of the island 's most vulnerable residents were evacuated to shelters .
A tropical storm watch was issued at 0900 UTC for the southwestern peninsula of Haiti from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince to the Dominican border . This advisory was upgraded the next morning to a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch , and that night was further upgraded to a hurricane warning . The Haitian coastal authority advised all small craft to stay in port , while at Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , all flights to southern Haiti from Toussaint Louverture International Airport were canceled . More than 1 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas and workers from World Vision again pre @-@ positioned relief supplies .
= = = Jamaica = = =
On August 17 , when a hurricane watch was issued for Jamaica , Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson @-@ Miller convened an emergency meeting of Jamaica 's national disaster preparedness council . The Jamaican government finalized evacuation plans , which included converting the country 's national arena into a shelter and relocating inmates from two maximum security prisons . Political parties in the island suspended their campaigning for the August 27 national elections to allow residents to prepare for the storm . The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency ( CDERA ) , which was already responding to Hurricane Dean 's impact in the Lesser Antilles , contacted the Jamaican Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management to confirm technical and logistics support , and to notify the Jamaican government that utilities teams had been placed on standby should they be needed . The North @-@ West Caribbean Donor Group also met to consider what action might it might undertake in Dean 's aftermath .
On August 18 the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Curfews were put in place for parts of the island , while off @-@ duty essential personnel were called back to work . The United States confirmed that it would offer aid if it was needed . Only one member of a United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination team arrived in Jamaica before all incoming flights were canceled .
More than 1 @,@ 000 schools and churches were converted to emergency shelters , but residents only occupied 47 of them before the storm 's arrival . The country 's high crime rate led islanders to fear for their belongings should they abandon their homes . UNICEF prepared 4 emergency health kits and 1 @,@ 000 water containers and Copa Airlines agreed to fly the supplies to Jamaica on its scheduled August 22 flight , if possible . The World Food Program prepared food stock in nearby Haiti , ready to move them to Jamaica if they were needed , although damage to their airport ultimately prevented their distribution .
= = = Other islands = = =
At 2100 UTC August 16 , 2007 a tropical storm watch was issued for Puerto Rico . At 0300 UTC August 17 this advisory was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency , eager to make a good showing after its heavily criticized response to Hurricane Katrina , deployed a Federal Incident Response Support Team to the unincorporated territory of the United States ahead of Hurricane Dean . This five @-@ member team of disaster management experts was equipped with satellite communication systems to provide video @-@ teleconferencing and help make real @-@ time assessments of any damage .
On August 17 a tropical storm watch was issued for Cuba between the provinces of Camagüey and Guantánamo . This was upgraded on the afternoon of August 18 to a tropical storm warning . At 0300 UTC August 19 a tropical storm watch was issued for portions of central Cuba : Ciego de Ávila , Sancti Spíritus , Cienfuegos , Matanzas , and Isla de la Juventud . Had it been necessary , soldiers and emergency officials were prepared to convert schools and other government buildings into temporary shelters . More than 350 @,@ 000 people were evacuated by the Civil Defense in the coastal provinces , and the government in Havana suspended all tourist programs ahead of the storm .
At 1500 UTC on August 18 a hurricane watch was issued for the Cayman Islands and the Emergency Operations Centre was activated . Twelve hours later , as Hurricane Dean continued to track west towards the islands , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Major airlines added flights leaving the islands for tourists to evacuate . Tourists were barred from entering the islands starting August 17 . A mandatory evacuation order was imposed on the island of Little Cayman by Governor of the Cayman Islands Stuart Jack , and extra flights were initiated between Little Cayman and Cayman Brac . On August 19 , nineteen schools and civic centers were converted to shelters : fifteen on Grand Cayman , three on Cayman Brac , and , despite the mandatory evacuation order in effect , one on Little Cayman . Two Royal Navy ships of the Atlantic Patrol Task ( North ) , HMS Portland and RFA Wave Ruler , followed 240 km ( 150 mi ) behind the storm in order to arrive at Cayman as soon after the hurricane as possible .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Dean passed just south of the Greater Antilles from August 17 to August 21 . Having entered the Caribbean Sea as a Category 2 storm , it quickly strengthened to a Category 5 hurricane near Puerto Rico before weakening slightly to Category 4 strength as it swept under the rest of the Greater Antilles . It never made landfall in the island chain , but at Category 4 strength the storm passed just 40 km ( 25 mi ) south of Jamaica . Strengthening again as it passed the islands , Dean regained Category 5 strength off the eastern tip of Cuba before making landfall in Mexico . The storm 's winds , rains , and storm surge endangered life and property throughout the island chain .
= = = Hispaniola = = =
Hurricane Dean passed 270 km ( 170 mi ) south of the Dominican Republic 's capital , Santo Domingo , and although the island experienced relatively little wind , heavy rain flooded the streets . The moderate winds and heavy rains did not damage the agriculture sector as they did elsewhere in the Caribbean . Six deaths were attributed to the effects of the hurricane . The strong wave activity on the southern coastline attracted a crowd of onlookers and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy was swept out to sea and drowned as he watched 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) swells break over a road in Santo Domingo . Also , five fishermen drowned in the northern Santiago province after their boat capsized due to the effect of wind and torrential rain in the Tavera Dam , near the town of Baitoa . The victims were fishing along with three others that managed to swim ashore , and were believed to have ignored warnings issued by civil defense authorities . Rough surf destroyed at least 5 houses along the southern coast and damaged 316 .
The outer fringes of Hurricane Dean swept over Haiti bringing heavy squalls . On Gonâve Island , thousands of people lost power and some took shelter in schools and churches . The roof of the Hopital St. Michel in Jacmel , damaged before the storm , leaked significantly leading to water damage in the operating room . Two people were killed in Tiburon and Moron , towns in the south and southeast of the island , respectively . Seven other storm @-@ related deaths were confirmed but few details were given . Another four were injured in a sailboat after disregarding warnings to stay in port . Several hundred homes were destroyed due to the resulting landslides . In the departments of South @-@ East , Nippes , Centre , and Artibonite , 5 @,@ 154 people retreated to temporary shelters . Hurricanes typically pose significant hazards to potable water in Haiti , but Hurricane Dean produced only a modest 2 @.@ 06 inches ( 52 mm ) of rainfall . As such , the storm caused no major problems with water and sanitation , except in the town of Bainet , where the temperamental water system was compromised .
= = = Jamaica = = =
In Jamaica , flooding was reported on the east of the island , and mudslides occurred on the northeast coast . In Kingston , buildings collapsed and houses had their roofing torn off by the strong winds , which felled trees and lampposts . A shoot @-@ out between police and looters occurred in the parish of Clarendon . Over 1 @,@ 500 roofs were lost , primarily to the hurricane @-@ force winds . 3 @,@ 127 houses were heavily damaged , 1 @,@ 582 of which were left totally uninhabitable . Two @-@ thirds of the homes in the southeastern parishes of Clarendon , St. Catherine , and Kingston / St. Andrew sustained significant damages . One man was killed in Clarendon by a collapsing roof , and a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl in Whitehorses , St. Thomas was killed by rock damage to her home . A third Jamaican was killed when he was struck by flying debris during the height of the storm .
Hurricane Dean affected 248 roads : 10 were blocked in the Kingston metropolitan region , 14 sections were blocked in St. Andrew , 43 were blocked in St. Catherine , 8 were blocked in the Western Region ( Saint James , Hanover , Westmoreland , and Trelawny ) , and 110 were blocked in the Northeast region . Furthermore , the road from Kingston to the airport was covered in sand , boulders , and downed power lines .
Agriculture damage was widespread . Across the country 40 % of the sugarcane crop , 80 – 100 % of the banana crop , 75 % of the coffee trees under three years old , and 20 % of the top layer of the cocoa crop were lost to the storm . Insured damage in Jamaica was initially estimated at around US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , but post @-@ storm analysis showed that it was closer to US $ 310 million .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Rain from Hurricane Dean closed several roads throughout Puerto Rico and there was heavy surf along the island 's coast , but no deaths or injuries were reported . The hurricane 's outer bands swept over Cuba between August 19 and August 21 , bringing heavy rain and high seas , but sparing the island its damaging winds . In the Cayman Islands , rain flooded roads and there were high waves along the coast , but no deaths or serious injuries were reported . There were localized power outages and the water supply was shut off briefly , but the rest of the island 's infrastructure was unaffected . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 people weathered the storm in temporary shelters .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the storm 's powerful intensity , Hurricane Dean 's damage was moderate . It did not have severe or lasting effects on infrastructure , and the non @-@ agricultural sectors of economies throughout the Greater Antilles recovered quickly .
= = = Haiti = = =
On August 23 the Haitian government sent food , sachets of potable water , mattresses , and medicines to the town of Bainet in the South @-@ East Department . On August 24 the Pan American Development Foundation sent food to all people living in temporary shelters and Venezuela delivered 11 tonnes of emergency food to the South @-@ East Department in 500 family bags . Hurricane assistance was then compounded by the country 's standard humanitarian assistance programs and became indistinct from the country 's continued poverty crisis .
= = = Jamaica = = =
The World Food Program immediately placed 5 @,@ 500 Jamaicans on complementary food assistance , a daily ration of 1900 kJ ( 450 kcal ) of High Energy Biscuits , for two weeks . On August 22 , three days after the hurricane struck the island , the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) sent US $ 398 @,@ 000 of emergency supplies to Jamaica 's Norman Manley International Airport . These supplies included mattresses , blankets , plastic sheeting , hygiene kits and water containers . The Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) provided a US $ 200 @,@ 000 grant to support the relief effort . The Chinese Red Cross , despite dealing with Typhoon Sepat , sent US $ 30 @,@ 000 to its Jamaican counterpart for the purchase of emergency relief supplies .
On August 24 Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller announced that her government would provide JA $ 225 million in emergency assistance to the country 's agriculture sector , especially the parishes of Portland , Clarendon , St. Thomas , Manchester , St. Catherine and St. Elizabeth . JA $ 100 million was immediately allocated to the purchase of fertilizers , JA $ 25 million to the Blue Mountain coffee farmers , and the Agriculture Ministry 's JA $ 50 million fruit tree programme was accelerated . She also announced that the National Housing Trust had established a JA $ 500 million programme to provide loans at 6 % per annum for emergency repairs . The National Housing Trust also made JA $ 200 million available to the Hurricane Relief Fund . The government provided tarpaulins , 10 @,@ 000 of which were shipped in after the storm , free of charge to patch houses with damaged roofs .
The Jamaican general election scheduled for August 27 was postponed until September 3 , at which point they went ahead as planned . Opponents accused Prime Minister Portia Simpson @-@ Miller of unnecessarily extending the state of emergency ( and related curfews ) to maintain her political control as predictions at the time suggested that she and her party would be ousted by the opposition . She and her party ultimately did lose the election , although Dean 's light damage was not thought to have been a major factor .
By the end of the summer of 2008 , banana production in Jamaica was returning to pre @-@ Dean levels . With the help of JA $ 1 @.@ 1 billion of aid from the EU 's Banana Support Programme , thousands of acres were replanted . Banana chips were the first products ready for export at the beginning of the summer , with fresh banana production following shortly thereafter as the agricultural industry returned to normal .
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= Air Mata Iboe =
Air Mata Iboe ( Perfected spelling : Air Mata Ibu ; Malay for A Mother 's Tears ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed and written by Njoo Cheong Seng . Starring Fifi Young , Rd Ismail , Ali Sarosa , and Ali Joego , it followed a mother who raises her children lovingly but is ultimately betrayed by her eldest sons when she falls upon hard times . The film , billed as a musical extravaganza , featured a soundtrack by R. Koesbini , and an eponymous title song written by Njoo .
The last production completed by Fred Young 's Majestic Film Company , Air Mata Iboe was released in December 1941 , shortly before the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies . This film , now possibly lost , received positive reviews . A remake was produced under the same title in 1957 ; Young retook her role .
= = Plot = =
Soegiati ( Fifi Young ) is the mother of four children : sons Achmad ( Rd Ismail ) , Idris ( S Poniman ) and Soemadi ( Ali Sarosa ) , and a daughter named Soepinah ( Soelami ) . She loves them all , but Soemadi receives the most of her attention because he receives little from his father , the merchant Soebagio ( Ali Joego ) . As the children grow , they marry and move away , and eventually only Soemadi is left . Although he begins a relationship with a young woman named Noormala ( Soerip ) , he does not marry her as his income is not enough to support them .
On the night of Eid al @-@ Fitr , the family gathers for the holiday . Unknown to the family , Soebagio is leading a double life as a robber , and that evening the police come to arrest him . To protect his father , Soemadi declares himself the culprit , and he is exiled . Feeling guilty for his sins , Soebagio falls ill and dies soon afterwards . Because of their debts , their home and belongings are repossessed , leaving Soegiati to fend for herself .
Though wealthy , Achmad and Idris refuse to take Soegiati in , fearing their respective wives Moedjenah ( Titing ) and Mariam ( Ning @-@ Nong ) . Soepinah and her husband Bakar ( Koesbini ) are willing to take her in , but they live in poverty . Unwilling to burden them , ultimately Soegiati decides to leave and find her own way , depending on the kindness of strangers . Years pass , and Soemadi returns from exile . Encountering his mother , who now lives in poverty , he decides to take revenge on his brothers .
= = Production = =
The Malang @-@ based Majestic Film Company announced Air Mata Iboe in June 1941 together with two other films , Boedi Terbenam ( Hidden Wisdom ) and Bachtera Karam ( Wrecked Ark ) . Production began soon afterwards and , by early December 1941 , over 55 reels had been shot , as well as 60 sound reels .
Air Mata Iboe was written and directed by Njoo Cheong Seng under his penname M. d 'Amour ; he had previously directed Djantoeng Hati ( Heart and Soul ; 1941 ) , which also had a tragic ending , for the company . The film was produced by the company 's owner , Fred Young . It starred Njoo 's wife Fifi Young ( no relation to Fred ) , Rd Ismail , Ali Sarosa , and Ali Joego . Other roles were held by established singers of keroncong ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) , including Soerip , Titing , Soelami , Ning Nong , and Poniman . The film , which used make @-@ up to make Fifi Young age into an old woman over the course of its plot , was the actress ' first for Majestic ; she had been ill during the production of her husband 's debut for the company .
The black @-@ and @-@ white film featured eleven keroncong songs written by music director R. Koesbini , who also had a role in the film . Backing music was provided by Koesbini 's troupe , the Krontjong Syncopaters , while songs were performed by the cast . Notes and lyrics for the film 's title song , " Air Mata Iboe " , were published in the December 1941 edition of Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film .
= = Release and legacy = =
Air Mata Iboe , which was rated for all ages , was distributed by Columbia Pictures and premiered at Sampoerna Theatre in Surabaya on 24 December 1941 . Also advertised under the Dutch title Tranen Eener Moeder ( a literal translation from Malay ) , the film was promoted as a " musical extravaganza " ; other advertisements emphasised the size of the cast . An anonymous review in the Soerabaijasch Handelsblad noted the extensive use of keroncong and praised the acting and singing , suggesting that native audiences would flock to see the film .
Air Mata Iboe was the last film produced by Majestic Film Company , which closed following the Japanese occupation . During the occupation Njoo , Fifi Young , and Fred Young established their own travelling theatrical troupe , Pantjawarna , though all returned to cinema in the 1950s . Joego likewise returned to film after spending the occupation in theater . Poniman , Sarosa , Ismail , and Soerip all returned to cinema , the men in the 1950s and Soerip in 1973 . Soelami is not recorded as acting in any further productions .
A remake of Air Mata Iboe was produced in 1957 , after Indonesia had obtained its independence . Directed by Fred Young , the film had Fifi Young retake her role as Sugiati , while Rd Ismail took the role of Subagio . The remake 's other cast members had not appeared in the original film . The sons Achmad , Idris , and Soemadi were portrayed by Sukarno M. Noor , Boes Boestami , and Kamsul , respectively . The couple 's daughter , renamed Atikah , was played by Farida Arriany .
Air Mata Iboe may be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . Thus , the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider wrote that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= 2008 Italian Grand Prix =
The 2008 Italian Grand Prix ( formally the LXXIX Gran Premio Santander d 'Italia ) was a Formula One motor race held on 14 September 2008 at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza , Monza , Italy . It was the 14th race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 53 @-@ lap race was won by Sebastian Vettel for the Toro Rosso team after starting from pole position . Heikki Kovalainen finished second in a McLaren , and Robert Kubica third in a BMW Sauber .
Vettel began the race , started under the safety car , ahead of Kovalainen in second . Red Bull 's Mark Webber started from third . Rain early in the race allowed Vettel to establish a solid lead over Kovalainen , which he extended as the track dried . Kubica and Fernando Alonso finished in the top four after starting from 11th and eighth , respectively . McLaren driver and Drivers ' Championship leader Lewis Hamilton was able to move through the field after qualifying in 15th , finishing in seventh , one place behind rival Felipe Massa , of Ferrari .
Vettel 's victory made him the youngest driver to win a Formula One race , at 21 years 73 days in addition to giving Toro Rosso ( which was formerly Minardi team ) its maiden Formula One win . Vettel 's record was broken by Max Verstappen aged 18 years and 228 days at the 2016 Spanish Grand Prix . Massa scored one point more than Hamilton , narrowing the McLaren driver 's lead in the Championship once more with four races remaining . However , Kovalainen 's second @-@ placed finish put McLaren closer to catching Ferrari in the Constructors ' Championship .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Heading into the 14th race of the season , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 76 points ; Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was second on 74 points , two points behind Hamilton . Behind Hamilton and Massa in the Drivers ' Championship , Robert Kubica was third on 58 points in a BMW Sauber , and Massa 's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen fourth on 57 points . Kubica 's teammate Nick Heidfeld was fifth on 49 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading on 131 points and McLaren were second on 119 points , 12 points behind . BMW Sauber were third with 107 points . In the battle for fourth @-@ place Toyota had 41 points , ahead of Renault with 36 points .
After the previous race , Hamilton was penalised for cutting a chicane and gaining an advantage over Räikkönen in the closing laps . This meant that Hamilton was demoted from first to third position , giving victory to Massa . While McLaren had lodged an appeal against the decision , the result would not be heard until September 23 . Reflecting on the controversy , Norbert Haug , Vice President of Mercedes @-@ Benz Motorsport , said :
Our disappointment was big , when the stewards took away victory from him [ Hamilton ] and the team . However , we are fighters . If we would have needed a better motivation for the last five races of the season we have it now . When we went to the airport last Sunday evening , Lewis said to me - preferably we now want to win all remaining races , don 't we ? I have no objection .
Following the rain @-@ soaked Belgian Grand Prix , Massa expressed his hope that the Italian Grand Prix would be held on a dry track , saying " it would be nice not to have the rain here and not have any opportunity to have a consistent race . " The close nature of the Championship meant that Ferrari 's home race had the potential to be a turning point in the season . Testing at the Monza circuit in early September had indicated that the performance gap between McLaren and Ferrari had narrowed . Despite this , Ferrari were hoping that their straight @-@ line speed would be better suited to Monza 's long straights . Ferrari confirmed on September 12 that Räikkönen would continue to drive for the team until at least 2010 , ending media speculation that he could be about to retire .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the race : the first was held on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon . Both sessions lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . All three sessions were affected by rain , with only the second giving teams any chance to run dry @-@ weather tyres . Adrian Sutil was quickest with a time of 1 : 32 @.@ 842 in the first session , more than half a second quicker than the next fastest drivers Rubens Barrichello and Giancarlo Fisichella . Timo Glock was the next quickest , almost four seconds behind Sutil . Conditions were so poor that six drivers , including both McLarens , failed to set times . The session was stopped four minutes early , though by that time no cars had entered the track for at least ten minutes . The track dried out in the second session ; Räikkönen adapted best to the changed conditions with a lap of 1 : 23 @.@ 861 , significantly quicker than his morning time . Kubica was the next fastest , with his BMW teammate Heidfeld in third . Hamilton , Nico Rosberg and Massa rounded out the top six . Glock was fastest in the final session with a time of 1 : 35 @.@ 464 , followed by Sebastian Vettel , Rosberg , Jarno Trulli , Kazuki Nakajima and Heidfeld . Hamilton only completed eight laps , and finished last with a time almost 11 seconds behind Glock .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes and eliminated the cars from qualifying that finished the session 16th or lower . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 15 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Vettel became the youngest driver in the history of Formula One to take pole position , with a time of 1 : 37 @.@ 555 in very wet conditions . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Kovalainen . Mark Webber qualified third after his final lap pushed Sébastien Bourdais into fourth position . Massa took sixth position behind Rosberg . Trulli , Fernando Alonso , Glock and Heidfeld rounded out the top ten . Kubica qualified 11th , blaming late rain in the second qualifying session for his position . Fisichella qualified 12th to give Force India its best grid position of the season . Both Räikkönen and Hamilton blamed a late entry into the second session for their poor qualifying times , which saw them eliminated in 14th and 15th positions , respectively . Hamilton originally ran on the standard wet @-@ weather tyres , and by the time he had changed to extreme wet @-@ weather tyres the rain had intensified . This was McLaren 's only result outside the top ten in qualifying all season and the first time in Hamilton 's career that he had failed to progress into the final qualifying session .
= = = Race = = =
Heavy rain prior to the race made the track very slippery , with more rain expected throughout the day . The air temperature at the track was 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) . Jenson Button and Kazuki Nakajima started the race from the pit @-@ lane , their teams choosing to make adjustments from qualifying to the set @-@ ups of their cars . All cars were using extreme wet @-@ weather tyres . The race began at 14 : 00 local time ( UTC + 1 ) behind the safety car because of the rain , meaning that there would be a rolling start . Bourdais ' car stalled on the grid , and was pushed back to the pits . By the time his team restarted the car , he was in last position and one lap down .
The safety car pulled into the pit @-@ lane at the end of the second lap . Vettel retained his lead into the first corner , followed by Kovalainen , Webber , Rosberg and Massa . Kubica passed Heidfeld at the first chicane ; Glock passed Alonso later in the lap . Vettel immediately opened a lead of two seconds over Kovalainen ; the McLaren driver experienced visibility problems as a result of the spray off the back of the Toro Rosso . Alonso regained seventh from Glock when he passed him at the first chicane on lap four as the track began to dry . Räikkönen and Hamilton passed Coulthard on the same lap to take 12th and 13th positions , respectively . The next lap , Hamilton attempted to pass Räikkönen at the third corner , but overshot , cutting the chicane . Emerging ahead of the Ferrari , he gave the place back , returning the advantage and avoiding a penalty . Glock spun on lap seven , losing one place to Kubica .
Vettel continued to open his lead on Kovalainen ; by lap eight it stood at 6 @.@ 3 seconds . Both Räikkönen and Hamilton passed Fisichella in separate manoeuvres over the next two laps . Hamilton took 11th position from Räikkönen on lap 11 , outbraking the Ferrari at turn four . Fisichella collided with Coulthard two laps later . As a result of the contact , the Force India 's front wing broke loose and lodged under the car . Consequently , Fisichella lost control at turn nine , spinning into the gravel trap and retiring . Massa overtook Rosberg for fourth on the same lap , beginning a close fight where both drivers repeatedly exchanged positions over the next three laps . Massa eventually consolidated fourth position on lap 15 . Hamilton passed Heidfeld , Glock , Kubica and Alonso in separate manoeuvres , to sit in seventh by lap 19 .
Vettel pitted from first position on lap 18 . Kovalainen , Webber and Massa pitted four laps later . Light rain began to fall on lap 26 , though only lasted five minutes . Glock , Trulli , Räikkönen and Hamilton completed their first pit stops over the following laps . Coulthard was the first driver to try intermediate wet @-@ weather tyres when he pitted on lap 28 . He lost grip in the wet and went straight through the first chicane . Alonso , Heidfeld , Kubica and Piquet took their only pit stops for the race soon after , all changing to intermediate tyres . By lap 36 the majority of the field were running on intermediate tyres . Webber was passed at turn eight by Massa on lap 35 . The Australian spun after the corner , though managed to retain seventh position . A lap later , however , Hamilton outbraked Webber at turn three and demoted the Red Bull driver to eighth .
Hamilton began lapping fastest , recording a 1 : 32 @.@ 869 on lap 38 , more than a second faster than first @-@ placed Vettel . Lap 45 saw three drivers set consecutive new fastest laps ; Kubica 's 1 : 32 @.@ 366 was beaten by Webber with a 1 : 32.014s. They were then superseded by Räikkönen , who set a 1 : 31 @.@ 691 . On lap 49 Webber attempted to pass Hamilton at the first chicane , but the two cars touched wheels . Webber was forced down the escape road , and when he emerged in front of Hamilton , he returned the position . Räikkönen continued to move through the field ; he passed Coulthard and Piquet in separate manoeuvres to take ninth position . Nakajima attempted to pass Coulthard into turn nine , but succeeded only in turning into the Red Bull RB4 , sending it into the gravel trap . Coulthard pitted for a new front wing , which dropped him to 17th . Vettel crossed the finish line on lap 53 by 12 @.@ 5 seconds over Kovalainen , becoming the youngest driver in Formula One history to win a Grand Prix . The one @-@ stop strategies used by Kubica and Alonso paid off as they finished in third and fourth , respectively . Heidfeld , Massa , Hamilton and Webber rounded out the top eight . Räikkönen finished in ninth position , setting the fastest laptime of 1 : 28 @.@ 047 on the final lap .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference . Vettel acknowledged the support of his team , saying the set @-@ up of the car perfectly suited the way the race developed . Other drivers congratulated Vettel ; Hamilton said that " with all that pressure it is easier to make mistakes , and he obviously didn 't , so congratulations to him . He did a good job . " The Grand Prix also marked the first win by Toro Rosso , the first non @-@ Ferrari Italian @-@ based team to win since 1957 . Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali paid tribute to the team , who use Ferrari engines , saying " They deserve it , they are close to us , and we are happy to work with them because we are giving them our engine . "
Kovalainen expressed his disappointment in finishing second , saying :
Clearly not possible to win today . Sebastian and Toro Rosso have been strong all weekend . I had a little bit of a problem earlier on in the race , in the first couple of stints , especially with the extreme wet tyre and some problems also to warm up my brakes , so I was just struggling to find more time and trying to go faster . We kept pushing and towards the end it got a little bit better but I think it was the maximum we could do today . We picked up some good points and we can look forward to the next grand prix .
Hamilton was satisfied with his performance in the race , saying " today was all about damage control : I came away with some points and kept my lead in the world drivers ' championship . " Massa said that he had hoped to do better , but added " I 've managed to make up a point on my nearest rival so this is absolutely not a negative result . " Massa took three points from the race , compared to Hamilton 's two , and narrowed the gap in the Drivers ' Championship to one point with four races remaining . Kovalainen 's second @-@ placed finish closed the gap in the Constructors ' Championship between Ferrari and McLaren from twelve to five points .
Third @-@ placed Kubica said that his strategy allowed him to capitalise on the changing track conditions , as his only stop seemed the best time to change to intermediate tyres . The Polish driver said that racing in Italy was particularly special for him , having lived in the country for five years : " That is why we divided the helmet into two pieces . One was Italian colours , one was Polish colours . " Alonso , who used a similar strategy , said " the result today is very good because Monza was supposed to be the race that we were looking forward to the least . " Toyota 's failure to score at the race meant that they were tied with Renault on 41 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
^ Sébastien Bourdais , Kazuki Nakajima and Jenson Button started the race from the pit lane .
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Vukovar massacre =
The Vukovar massacre , also known as the Vukovar hospital massacre or the Ovčara massacre , was the killing of Croatian prisoners of war and civilians by Serb paramilitaries and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) at the Ovčara farm southeast of Vukovar on 20 November 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar 's capture by the JNA , Croatian Serb Territorial Defence ( TO ) , and paramilitaries from neighbouring Serbia . It was the largest massacre of the war , and the worst war crime in Europe since World War II until that time .
In the final days of the battle , the evacuation of the Vukovar hospital was negotiated between Croatian authorities , the JNA and the European Community Monitor Mission in cooperation with the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . The JNA subsequently refused the ICRC access to the hospital despite the agreement and removed approximately 300 people from its premises . The group , largely consisting of Croats but also including Serbs , Hungarians , Muslims and two foreign nationals who fought on the side of the Croatian National Guard , was initially transported to the JNA barracks in Vukovar . Several prisoners were identified as hospital staff and removed from the group to be returned to the hospital while the rest of them were transported to the Ovčara farm south of Vukovar . Once at the farm , the prisoners were beaten for several hours before the JNA pulled its troops from the site , leaving the prisoners in the custody of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries . The prisoners were then taken to a prepared site , shot in groups of ten to twenty and buried in a mass grave .
The mass grave was discovered in October 1992 and guarded by the United Nations Protection Force which had deployed to the area earlier that year . In 1996 , 200 sets of remains were exhumed from the grave by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) investigators . Croatia believes 61 others were buried in a different grave on the site , while ICTY prosecutors believe that figure stands at 60 . The ICTY convicted two JNA officers in connection with the massacre , and also tried former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević for a number of war crimes , including those committed at Vukovar . Milošević died in prison before his trial could be completed . The ICTY trial of Croatian Serb political leader Goran Hadžić for various war crimes , including those committed in Vukovar , is ongoing . Several former members of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitary units have been tried by the Serbian judiciary and convicted for their involvement in the massacre . In February 2015 , the International Court of Justice ruled that the massacre did not constitute genocide .
The site of the mass grave is marked by a monument , and the storage building used at Ovčara farm to hold the prisoners in captivity before their execution was rebuilt as a memorial centre in 2006 . Since then , the centre has been visited by half @-@ a @-@ million tourists .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian Latin : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expanding Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . The first casualties of the conflict occurred by the end of March . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to unite the areas under their control with Serbia . These areas were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under the control of the Croatian Ministry of Defence and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II @-@ era arms taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
After Croatia launched the Battle of the Barracks to capture JNA facilities in Croatia on 14 – 15 September , the JNA launched a small @-@ scale operation against Vukovar to relieve the city garrison . At the same time , it began large @-@ scale mobilization in preparation for its campaign in Croatia . It was met with widespread refusal of mobilised personnel to report to their designated units , desertions and an overall lack of enthusiasm for the campaign . This resulted in low troop availability , forcing the JNA to deploy fewer infantry units . Response to the mobilisation was particularly poor in Central Serbia , where only 26 percent of those called @-@ up reported for service .
The JNA 's offensive operations , directly associated with the campaign in the east Croatian region of Slavonia , were launched on 20 September . The assault on Croatian positions in Vukovar gradually became the main effort of the campaign as the JNA was repeatedly unable to capture the city . The fighting in and around Vukovar lasted months and eventually drew in the JNA 's main armoured force , which had previously been slated to advance west towards Serb @-@ held areas in western Slavonia . In addition to relieving its Vukovar garrison , the JNA wished to dissipate the Croatian forces in the city so that they would not pose any threat to its rear in the event that the campaign progressed west of Vinkovci .
The JNA forces around Vukovar were reinforced by local Serb @-@ manned TO units and Serbian paramilitary volunteers who were meant to replace those reservists that had failed to respond to their call @-@ up . The volunteers were often motivated by ethnic hatred , looted countless homes and committed numerous atrocities against Croatian civilians . After more than two months of fighting , the Croatian forces in the city surrendered on 18 November . Vukovar suffered great destruction from JNA artillery and rocket barrages against the town . By the end of the battle , over 700 @,@ 000 shells and other missiles had been fired at Vukovar at a rate of up to 12 @,@ 000 a day .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Evacuation arrangements = = =
On 17 November , Major General Andrija Rašeta , the commander of the JNA 5th ( Zagreb ) Military District , notified the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) that the JNA accepted in principle the quick evacuation of vulnerable persons from Vukovar . At the time , it was estimated that there were about 400 people trapped in the city 's hospital , but the actual number was later discovered to be about 450 . This included about 40 patients receiving treatment for severe injuries sustained over the preceding few days and about 360 patients recovering from wounds suffered earlier on . In addition to these individuals , some civilians had taken shelter in the hospital in the final days of the battle . They moved there expecting to be evacuated from the city , even though the hospital itself was subjected to daily artillery attack . Furthermore , a number of Croatian troops took refuge in the hospital posing as patients or staff .
On 18 November , the Tripartite Commission , consisting of representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the ECMM , discussed methods of evacuation with representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) , the Médecins Sans Frontières and the Malteser International . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Rašeta and Croatian Health Minister Andrija Hebrang signed an agreement on the evacuation . The agreement guaranteed that the evacuees would travel via the route Lužac suburb – Bogdanovci – Marinci – Zidine junction – Nuštar – Vinkovci . They were to be handed over to international authorities at the Zidine junction , the hospital was to be placed under the contol of the ICRC and the ECMM was to oversee the entire operation . Hebrang notified the hospital director Vesna Bosanac of the agreement and told her that ICRC teams would arrive . That evening Siniša Glavašević , a radio reporter who had covered the entire course of the siege from within the city , broadcast his final report from the hospital . Glavašević himself hoped to leave the city with the ICRC , fearing for his life should the Serb paramilitaries capture him .
= = = Takeover of the hospital = = =
On the morning of 19 November , the ECMM became aware that organised resistance had ceased in Vukovar , but it did not receive any information on the fate of the hospital patients . Consequently , the head of the ECMM , ambassador Dirk Jan van Houten , contacted Rašeta asking him to intervene on the ECMM 's behalf . That day , a JNA unit arrived at the hospital and Bosanac was taken to meet JNA Colonel Mile Mrkšić . According to Bosanac , Mrkšić told her that he was not obligated by the evacuation agreement . Even though the ICRC was not granted access to Vukovar by JNA officers at the scene , in the early evening of 19 November , ICRC representative Nicolas Borsinger managed to reach the hospital claiming he had an appointment with " a general " . Once there , Borsinger found a JNA captain in charge of the facility who agreed to grant the ICRC access . Borsinger then rejoined the ICRC convoy that was moving towards the hospital to evacuate it . The hospital was also toured by French reporter Agnès Vahramian that day , and there she recorded an interview with Jean @-@ Michel Nicolier , a wounded Frenchman who fought alongside Croatian forces in Vukovar . Vahramian offered Nicolier a press pass to try to get him out of the city , but he refused .
On the morning of 20 November , the ICRC convoy reached Vukovar , only to be stopped at a bridge near the hospital . An armoured vehicle blocked access to the bridge leading to the hospital , and a JNA officer at the scene , Major Veselin Šljivančanin , refused to let the ICRC pass . In order to facilitate negotiations with the ICRC at the scene , BBC reporter Martin Bell volunteered his interpreter . In a confrontation recorded by television cameras , Šljivančanin told the ICRC personnel : " This is my country , we have conquered this . This is Yugoslavia , and I am in command here ! " The ECMM personnel that had arrived at the Zidine junction to meet the returning convoy were informed by the JNA that the evacuees would instead be turned over to them in Bosanski Šamac , in northern Bosnia , on 22 November . While Šljivančanin held back the convoy , the prisoners were smuggled out of the hospital in buses in another direction . In total , approximately 300 people were taken away from the hospital .
= = = Ovčara farm = = =
Later on 20 November , Šljivančanin and Colonel Nebojša Pavković informed the press that the JNA would provide buses to transport the wounded out of Vukovar . Instead , at about 10 : 30 , the buses took the prisoners to the JNA barracks on the southern edge of Vukovar , where 15 men were separated from the group and returned to the hospital after being identified as hospital staff . During their stay in the barracks , the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries threatened the prisoners . Croatian Serb leaders opposed moving the prisoners to detention facilities in Serbia , claiming they wished to prosecute them for alleged crimes committed against Serbs . After spending two hours at the barracks , the buses took the prisoners to the Ovčara farm near the village of Grabovo . The group largely consisted of Croats , but also included several ethnic Serbs , Muslims , ethnic Hungarians , the French national Nicolier , and one German national who fought in defence of Vukovar . It also included Rašeta 's nephew , who worked at the Vukovar hospital pharmacy at the time . The group of taken to Ovčara consisted of 261 people . Sources disagree as to whether the group included one , or two women , one of whom was five months pregnant . The age of the prisoners ranged from 16 to 72 . The youngest among them was 16 @-@ year @-@ old Igor Kačić .
Once they reached Ovčara , ten kilometres ( six miles ) away from Vukovar , the captives were ordered from the buses one @-@ by @-@ one and forced to run the gauntlet past dozens of JNA troops and Serb paramilitaries towards a farm storage building . Slavko Dokmanović , a former mayor of Vukovar , was one of the armed men involved in beating prisoners . As the captives were beaten , they were also stripped of their personal belongings , money and jewelry . Over the course of the day , the JNA military police failed to prevent soldiers of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries from beating the prisoners in the storage building . They were beaten using sticks , rifle butts , chains , baseball bats , and in one instance a wounded prisoner was beaten with his own crutches . By sundown , at least two men were beaten to death . In addition , one of the captors shot five prisoners , including one Frenchman , who is presumed to be Nicolier . Seven or eight men were returned to Vukovar on orders of the JNA , presumably released at the intervention of their Serb neighbours . Ultimately , Mrkšić ordered the JNA military police to withdraw from the farm , leaving the prisoners in the custody of a Croatian Serb TO unit led by Miroljub Vujović , commander of the Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar , and the Leva Supoderica paramilitary unit . Leva Supoderica was a volunteer unit set up by the Serbian Radical Party ( Serbian : Srpska radikalna stranka ; SRS ) in Šid , Serbia , and subordinated to the JNA 's 1st Guards Mechanised Brigade .
At about 18 : 00 , the prisoners were divided into groups . Each group of 10 to 20 was loaded onto a truck and transported several hundred metres ( yards ) from the building towards a wooded ravine . When the prisoners reached the previously prepared execution site , they were shot and buried in a mass grave using a bulldozer . After 15 – 20 minutes , the truck would return empty to pick up the next group . The final group of prisoners was executed just outside the farm building itself . By 22 : 00 that evening , all the prisoners had been killed . Sources variously report their number at about 260 , but up to 264 in total . Croatian authorities believe the total figure stands at 261 . ICTY prosecutors asserted that there were approximately 260 victims . The massacre was the most severe individual war crime committed in Europe since World War II until that point .
= = Aftermath = =
Croatian Serb forces turned Ovčara into a prison camp in early October 1991 . Aside from the massacre , 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 male prisoners were temporarily held in the Ovčara camp at some point during autumn of 1991 before being transported to the prison in Sremska Mitrovica or to the local JNA barracks , which was the transit point for Serbian detention camps such as Stajićevo and Begejci . Following a series of political agreements concluded in 1991 and a ceasefire between the JNA and Croatia in early 1992 , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed for peacekeeping in certain parts of Croatia , including Vukovar and its surroundings . It began its deployment in March 1992 .
= = = Discovery of the mass grave = = =
Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow learned of the massacre during his visit to Zagreb in October 1992 . Snow travelled there as a United Nations ( UN ) team member sent to investigate reports of war crimes . In a meeting Snow had with the dean of the Zagreb University School of Medicine , he was introduced to a former soldier who claimed to have survived the massacre and told Snow where it took place . Three days later , Snow went to Vukovar and drove to Ovčara accompanied by Royal Canadian Mounted Police Sergeant Larry Moore who was deployed to the region with the UNPROFOR . At the site , Moore spotted a human skull in the mud . A few days later , the UN declared the site a crime scene and deployed Russian UNPROFOR troops to guard it .
Snow put together a four @-@ man team including himself to conduct a preliminary investigation of the site before the winter , and the team arrived at the site in December 1992 . They examined the site still under guard by the Russian troops , excavated the skull spotted by Moore and the rest of the body , as well as another set of partially covered remains . The team excavated a one metre ( 3 @.@ 3 feet ) trench across the site . That allowed them to detect a few more bodies and infer the size of the grave . The information they obtained led Snow to conclude that the grave may contain more than two hundred bodies . The investigators also found spent cartridges consistent with standard Yugoslav @-@ built AK @-@ 47s on one side of the grave and bullet holes in trees on the opposite side , leading them to conclude that a firing squad had stood on one side of the pit and fired across or into it .
Croatian authorities launched initiatives to exhume the bodies buried at Ovčara in 1993 and 1994 , but those were unsuccessful . A five @-@ member Commission of Experts appointed by the UN Secretary General came to Ovčara to exhume the victims in October 1993 . However , they were prevented from carrying out their work by the local Croatian Serb administration . After the Croatian Serb authorities blocked several attempts to further investigate the mass grave at Ovčara , still under constant guard by the Russian peacekeepers , the site was visited by then @-@ U.S. Ambassador to the UN Madeleine Albright in January 1994 . She used the occasion to stress U.S. support for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , which had been set up in 1993 .
= = = Exhumation = = =
The political situation in the area did not change until 1995 . That year , Croatia militarily defeated the Croatian Serbs in offensives codenamed Flash and Storm , in May and August respectively . That left eastern Slavonia as the last remaining Croatian Serb @-@ held area . Gradual restoration of the area to Croatian rule was agreed upon in November through the Erdut Agreement , and the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) peacekeeping mission was deployed to implement the agreement .
The exhumation of the remains at Ovčara began on 1 September 1996 while the site was still under the constant guard of peacekeepers . The exhumation was conducted by ICTY personnel and the Physicians for Human Rights , with Croatian observers at the site . The excavation works uncovered a mass grave encompassing approximately 30 square metres ( 320 square feet ) and containing a heap of intertwined bodies . Most of the bodies exhibited evidence of multiple gunshot wounds . By 24 October , 200 sets of remains were recovered from the grave . The remains were transported for forensic examination to the Zagreb University School of Medicine . In the four years preceding the exhumation , Croatian authorities collected ante @-@ mortem information on presumed victims , built a modern morgue at the School of Medicine and trained geneticists in DNA analysis to allow for the identification of those who could not be identified by ICTY investigators using traditional methods . By October 2002 , 184 victims were identified , largely using DNA analyses , and the figure was increased to 194 by 2010 . Glavašević 's remains were among those exhumed at Ovčara .
Croatian authorities suspect that a further 61 individuals killed at Ovčara were buried there as well . They suspect one or more additional mass graves exist in the general area , or that the bodies originally buried at the site were moved to a secondary grave . Nevenka Nekić , the Croatian author of a book on Nicolier , claims that an additional shallow grave was excavated at Ovčara in November 1991 and that Nicolier and 60 others were buried there . According to her , they were exhumed by Croatian Serb authorities and moved to a secondary location in early 1992 because the grave was so shallow that body parts protruded through the ground surface .
= = = War crime trials = = =
In November 1995 , the ICTY indicted Mrkšić , Šljivančanin and JNA captain Miroslav Radić for war crimes related to the Ovčara massacre . The group was subsequently termed the " Vukovar three " by the media . The ICTY also charged Dokmanović , mayor of Vukovar at the time , with war crimes in connection with the massacre in a sealed indictment in March 1996 . He was arrested by UNTAES troops in Operation Little Flower and transferred to the ICTY via Čepin Airfield on 27 June 1997 . The operation was the first arrest of a person indicted by the ICTY by any UN force in the former Yugoslavia . Dokmanović 's trial never produced a verdict , however . He hanged himself in his ICTY prison cell on 28 June 1998 , several days before a verdict was to be announced . The ICTY also linked Serb warlord Željko Ražnatović and his paramilitary formations to the massacre , but he was assassinated in Belgrade before he could be brought to trial .
Mrkšić surrendered to the ICTY in the Netherlands in May 2002 . Radić and Šljivančanin were arrested in Serbia in May and June 2003 respectively . The arrests were made shortly before the expiration of a deadline set by the U.S. Congress linking financial assistance to Serbia to its cooperation with the ICTY . In 2007 , the ICTY convicted Mrkšić and Šljivančanin , but acquitted Radić . Mrkšić received a 20 @-@ year prison sentence , while Šljivančanin was sentenced to five years in prison . In 2009 , Šljivančanin 's sentence was increased to 17 years in prison on appeal and finally reduced to ten years following a review of the judgment in 2010 .
The ICTY also indicted Milošević , as well as Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović of the Serbian State Security Service , Croatian Serb political leader Goran Hadžić and the leader of the Serbian Radical Party Vojislav Šešelj for various war crimes , including those committed in Vukovar . Milošević 's trial ended without any verdict upon his death in March 2006 , while the Vukovar @-@ related charges against Stanišić and Simatović were dropped from their indictments even before the pair were acquitted on all counts in 2013 . In March 2016 , Šešelj was acquitted on all counts pending appeal . Hadžić 's trial is ongoing as of 2014 .
As of 2015 , Serbian authorities have convicted 15 people in connection with the Ovčara massacre . In 2010 , Vujović and Stanko Vujanović ( deputy commander of Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar ) were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison along with eleven others , all of them former members of the Croatian Serb TO or Leva Supoderica . Predrag Milojević , Đorđe Šošić , Miroslav Đanković and Saša Radak were sentenced to 20 years in prison , Milan Vojnović and Ivan Antonijević were sentenced to 15 years in prison , Jovica Perić was sentenced to 13 years , Nada Kalaba was sentenced to 11 years , Milan Lančužanin was sentenced to seven , and Predrag Dragović and Goran Mugoša were given five @-@ year prison sentences . In December 2013 , these convictions were set aside by the Constitutional Court of Serbia and the case was returned to the Court of Appeals for a new trial . In February 2015 , Vujović , Vujanović , Milojević , Radak , Šošić and Đanković were released from custody based on a decision of the Supreme Court of Cassation pending a retrial by the Court of Appeals . In a separate trial completed in 2014 , Serbian authorities convicted and sentenced Petar Ćirić to 15 years in prison for participating in the massacre as a member of Leva Supoderica . In February 2015 , the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) ruled that the siege of Vukovar and the ensuing massacre did not constitute genocide , though it confirmed that serious crimes had taken place .
= = = Commemoration = = =
Since 1998 , the victims of the Battle of Vukovar and the events that occurred in its immediate aftermath are commemorated annually on 18 November by a procession starting at the Vukovar hospital and reaching the city 's memorial cemetery . In 2014 , the event drew 80 @,@ 000 participants . A monument sculpted by Slavomir Drinković that marks the site of the mass grave at Ovčara was unveiled on 30 December 1998 . Monuments of the same design have subsequently been used to mark all the other mass graves from the Croatian War of Independence . The massacre itself has come to be referred to as the Vukovar massacre , the Ovčara massacre , or the Vukovar hospital massacre . It was by far the largest massacre committed during the Croatian War of Independence .
In 2006 , the Ovčara Memorial Centre , designed by Miljenko Romić , opened at the site of the former Ovčara farm . The centre opened in a remodeled storage building where prisoners were held on 20 November 1991 before they were executed . The dim interior of the building , accessed through a glass @-@ encased foyer , features illuminated photographs of 200 victims exhumed from the mass grave and the 61 missing who were executed at Ovčara . The concrete floor contains encased spent cartridges and the Spiral of Evil ( Croatian : Spirala zla ) sculpture displaying the names of 261 victims . The ceiling contains 261 lighting fixtures symbolising the number of victims . The centre also contains an exhibition of personal belongings and documents found in the mass grave . The completion of the centre was funded by the City of Zagreb at the cost of 2 million kuna ( c . 270 @,@ 000 euro ) . By July 2014 , the centre was visited by half @-@ a @-@ million people . In the same year , Croatia launched an education programme which entails visits to the centre by eighth @-@ grade pupils , and 50 @,@ 000 pupils are scheduled to visit the centre annually . In 2010 , Serbian President Boris Tadić visited the memorial centre and the mass grave site , as the first Serbian head of state to do so . He laid wreaths at the site and apologized on behalf of the Serbian state .
Several victims of the massacre are honoured individually in Vukovar . There is a monument honouring Kačić together with his father who was killed on 2 October 1991 during the Battle of Vukovar , a bridge in the city is named after Nicolier , and one of the city 's schools is named after Glavašević .
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= 2011 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup Final =
The 2011 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup Final was a soccer match between the Seattle Sounders FC and the Chicago Fire , played on October 4 , 2011 , at CenturyLink Field in Seattle , Washington . The match was the culmination of the 2011 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup , a tournament open to amateur and professional soccer teams affiliated with the United States Soccer Federation ( U.S. Soccer ) . This was the 98th edition of the U.S. Open Cup , the oldest ongoing competition in American soccer . The Seattle Sounders FC won by defeating the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 with goals scored by Fredy Montero and Osvaldo Alonso . The attendance was 36 @,@ 615 , breaking the record for the final set the previous year when Seattle also won and hosted . Seattle became the first team since 1968 to win three consecutive U.S. Open Cup championships and the fourth team ever to do so in the 98 @-@ year history of the tournament .
Sounders FC automatically qualified for the third round of the U.S. Open Cup tournament by finishing among the top six in the 2010 Major League Soccer season . The Fire did not automatically qualify , and had to play through two qualification rounds before entering the official tournament . Prior to the final , Chicago and Seattle had met twice in 2011 , with Seattle winning one game and the other ending in a draw .
The final was televised live on Fox Soccer . This was the second consecutive year the tournament final was played at CenturyLink Field . As the winner of the tournament , Seattle earned a berth in the 2012 – 13 CONCACAF Champions League and received a $ 100 @,@ 000 cash prize . Chicago received a $ 50 @,@ 000 prize as the runner @-@ up . Following the final , criticism was raised regarding Seattle winning hosting rights for each round they played . In response , U.S. Soccer announced changes to the rules for determining the host of tournament matches .
= = Road to the final = =
The U.S. Open Cup is an annual American soccer competition open to all U.S. Soccer affiliated teams , from amateur adult club teams to the professional clubs of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . The 2011 tournament was the 98th edition of the oldest soccer tournament in the United States .
The MLS , which has teams that play in both the United States and Canada , was allowed to enter eight of its fifteen U.S.-based teams in the tournament . The top six MLS teams from the previous season 's league standings qualified automatically for the tournament , while the remaining two spots were determined by preliminary qualification matches . The eight MLS entries began play in the third round of the tournament . In 2010 , Seattle Sounders FC finished among the top six in the MLS overall league standings to qualify for the third round of the 2011 U.S. Open Cup . The Chicago Fire however , did not and therefore had to play a series of qualification matches against fellow MLS teams that finished outside of the top six to qualify for the Open Cup tournament .
= = = Chicago Fire = = =
Prior to reaching the 2011 final , the Chicago Fire had reached the U.S. Open Cup final five times in their 14 @-@ year history , the most of any MLS franchise , winning four out of five of the tournaments – most recently in 2006 . The Fire began their 2011 Open Cup campaign on March 30 , 2011 , in the MLS qualification semifinals , hosting the Colorado Rapids at Shea Stadium in Peoria , Illinois . Chicago scored first with a goal from Gastón Puerari right before half time . Just one minute into the second half , the Rapids equalized off of a goal from Andre Akpan . Following Akpan 's goal , the match remained tied for 15 minutes until Chicago 's Jalil Anibaba scored the match @-@ winning goal in the 61st minute of play . Chicago moved on to the next round of qualification with a final score of 2 – 1 .
The Fire then turned their attention to their second and final qualification match hosted by the San Jose Earthquakes at Buck Shaw Stadium in Santa Clara , California . Played on May 24 , 2011 , in front of 4 @,@ 124 spectators , the hosts took a two @-@ goal lead in the first half with Ellis McLoughlin and Justin Morrow scoring in the 14th and 43rd minutes , respectively . The Fire halved the deficit in the 61st minute with a goal from Orr Barouch . Fifteen minutes later the Fire tied the score with a strike from Yamith Cuesta . The score remained tied until the end of regulation , leading to extra time , during which Chicago 's Gonzalo Segares was ejected for dissent . Despite the Earthquakes ' man advantage , the two sides remained tied during overtime , prompting a penalty shootout . In the fifth round of penalties , with Chicago leading 5 – 4 , San Jose 's Scott Sealy missed his shot as it deflected off of the crossbar , giving the Fire a second qualifier victory and a berth into the third round of the 2011 U.S. Open Cup tournament .
In the third round , Chicago faced the Rochester Rhinos of the USL Pro division . Rochester hosted the match on June 28 at the Rhinos ' Sahlen 's Stadium in front of a crowd of 5 @,@ 558 . The Fire 's Diego Cháves netted the match 's only goal in the 37th minute of play , earning the Fire a spot in the quarterfinals for the first time since 2008 .
In the quarterfinals , held on July 12 , 2011 , the Fire hosted MLS Eastern Conference rival the New York Red Bulls at Toyota Park in Bridgeview , Illinois . Against mostly reserves for New York , the Fire won the match 4 – 0 with two goals from Orr Barouch and a goal each scored by Dominic Oduro and Yamith Cuesta . Due to power outages in the area following a severe thunderstorm , the game 's start time was moved up from 7 : 30 pm to 5 : 00 pm local time , resulting in a late @-@ arriving attendance of about 2 @,@ 000 . Following the match , uproar from Red Bull fans prompted coach Hans Backe to explain that fatigue was the reason for sending only his team 's reserve players and an assistant coach to Chicago . New York had lost to DC United in league play just 2 days earlier .
On August 31 , 2011 , the Fire played host to another USL Pro side , the Richmond Kickers , in the semifinal round . On their way to the semifinals , the Kickers defeated two MLS teams in consecutive rounds . They upset the Columbus Crew and Sporting Kansas City in the third round and the quarterfinals , respectively . The semifinal was hosted by the Fire at Toyota Park in front of a crowd of 8 @,@ 909 . In the 32nd minute , the Fire took the lead with a goal from Sebastián Grazzini . In the 61st minute , Chicago went up 2 – 0 with a goal from Dominic Oduro . Seven minutes later , the Kickers cut the lead in half with a goal from Yomby William . The Fire won 2 – 1 , earning their sixth trip to the U.S. Open Cup final .
= = = Seattle Sounders FC = = =
In 2009 , Seattle Sounders FC became the second MLS expansion club to win the U.S. Open Cup tournament , after the Chicago Fire in 1998 . They defended their title in 2010 to win a second straight championship . Prior to the final , Sounders FC played U.S. Open Cup home games at the Starfire Sports Complex in Tukwila , Washington . The facility is smaller than the club 's home stadium for league matches , CenturyLink Field , but Sounders FC representatives preferred the atmosphere at Starfire for smaller cup matches .
Sounders FC began the defense of their title on June 28 , 2011 , when they hosted the Kitsap Pumas of the USL Premier Development League from Bremerton , Washington . The match was played at Starfire in front of 3 @,@ 811 fans . Seattle took the lead in the 39th minute when Michael Fucito scored off a headed pass from Nate Jaqua . Early in the second half Fucito doubled the lead by taking a pass from Mike Seamon and shooting past several defenders for the goal . Kitsap attempted their comeback in the 71st minute when Nikolas Besagno scored off of a crossing pass from Robert Christner . In the 83rd minute , Kitsap forward Warlen Silva nearly equalized on a breakaway run , but his shot went into the side netting . Seattle was able to hold on for the 2 – 1 victory .
Seattle then hosted their quarterfinal match on July 13 against a fellow MLS side , the Los Angeles Galaxy . The match was again held at Starfire , with an attendance of 4 @,@ 322 . Nate Jaqua scored following a pass from Pat Noonan in the 4th minute . In the 25th minute , Fredy Montero scored with a left footed shot off of an assist from Jaqua giving Seattle a 2 – 0 lead . The Galaxy gained a goal back in the 40th minute when Adam Cristman scored on a cross from Chris Birchall . In the 74th minute , Seattle midfielder Lamar Neagle scored from a cross by Álvaro Fernández , extending Seattle 's lead to 2 goals .
On August 30 , 2011 , Sounders FC hosted their semifinal opponent , FC Dallas , in front of 4 @,@ 593 at Starfire Sports Complex . Both teams started their first team players for the match . Seattle applied offensive pressure for most of the first half and broke through with a goal in the 40th minute . Fredy Montero , who had just missed with a bicycle kick shot moments earlier , took a curling left @-@ footed shot in front of goal for the score . Dallas nearly equalized in the 49th minute when Marvin Chavez had a shot bounce hard off of the goal post . Dallas continued to attack for most of the second half , and Chavez again had a chance to equalize just before the final whistle , but his shot went high over the goal . With a final score of 1 – 0 , Seattle secured their third straight appearance in the U.S. Open Cup final match . Following the match , Dallas coach Schellas Hyndman complained about how hosts are determined for U.S. Open Cup matches saying , " for me , this is one of the best events – the Lamar Hunt Open Cup – but I 'd really like to see it into a structure where it 's not a bid system . A bid system is where one team will buy the games because they 're bidding higher . " He continued , " it could go to the higher seeds , instead of a bid system where you 're spending money , or it could be pre @-@ determined . I think that brings out all the fairness to the event . "
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue selection = = =
On August 26 , 2011 , U.S. Soccer announced the potential sites for the final , depending on the outcome of the semifinals . It was determined through a blind bid process that if Seattle qualified for the final , they would host it at CenturyLink Field regardless of the opponent , for the second straight year . If FC Dallas defeated Sounders FC in the semifinals , they would host the Richmond Kickers at Pizza Hut Park in Frisco , Texas , or visit the Chicago Fire at Toyota Park in Bridgeview , Illinois , depending on the outcome of the other semifinal match . Seattle defeated Dallas and Chicago defeated Richmond in the semifinals , which resulted in Sounders FC hosting the Fire in the 2011 Open Cup final at CenturyLink Field . Seattle had hosted the previous final , in 2010 , drawing a crowd of 31 @,@ 311 and breaking the 81 @-@ year @-@ old attendance record for the event set in 1929 when New York Hakoah defeated the Madison Kennel Club of St. Louis .
Tickets for the 2011 final went on sale to the public on September 6 . By September 19 , it was announced that 27 @,@ 000 tickets had already been sold . Nine days later , ticket sales surpassed 30 @,@ 000 and it was announced that the " Hawks Nest " bleacher seats in the north end of CenturyLink Field would be made available for the event . In the week leading up to the final , Sounders FC owner and general manager Adrian Hanauer indicated that sections of the stadium would continue to be opened to meet demand . He stated that " no paying customer would be turned away . "
= = = Analysis = = =
With a better MLS regular season record and home field advantage , Sounders FC were the favorites to win the match ; however , the Fire had improved throughout the year through better play from their wingers and midfielders .
Seattle and Chicago had met twice in MLS regular season matches in 2011 . The first meeting , on April 9 , 2011 , resulted in a 2 – 1 win for Sounders FC in front of their home crowd . It was Seattle 's 5th game of the season . The second meeting was hosted by Chicago on June 4 , 2011 , and resulted in a 0 – 0 draw . It was the first game for Chicago coach Frank Klopas as he replaced Carlos de los Cobos , who was fired by the club the previous week . As a player , Klopas had scored the winning goal for Chicago in the 1998 U.S. Open Cup final . As coach , ESPNChicago.com analyst Charlie Corr credited him with the team 's successful shift in tactics since previously meeting Seattle .
In the days leading up to the final , Seattle had recently finished a long road trip . Chicago 's schedule made the match their third in a week 's time . In preparation for the final , the managers fielded weaker sides during their respective league matches two days before the game , allowing them to rest several regular starters . The Sounders were playing well , having already clinched a MLS playoff berth . A victory over the New England Revolution on the weekend prior to the final gave the team a three @-@ game winning streak . The Fire had defeated Real Salt Lake on September 28 , but their playoff chances were diminished after a tie against the Houston Dynamo on the weekend prior to the final .
= = Match = =
The match was televised live on Fox Soccer with coverage starting at 7 pm PT ( 02 : 00 UTC ) . The attendance of 36 @,@ 615 was a record crowd for the competition 's final . Seattle 's Emerald City Supporters unveiled tifo before kickoff depicting the Grim Reaper over the graves of D.C. United , the Columbus Crew , and the Chicago Fire .
Injuries to key players were a concern for both teams in the buildup to the final . For Seattle , midfielder Mauro Rosales 's knee was injured and he did not recover in time for the final . Also , Sounders FC defender James Riley was recovering from a concussion . He practiced in the week prior to the final and started in the match . For Chicago , midfielder Sebastian Grazzini was a key player who was questionable before the match . Grazzini began the game on the bench for Chicago .
= = = First half = = =
The match started with a frenetic pace as both teams earned free kick attempts within the opening two minutes . Seattle forward Mike Fucito had the first goal scoring opportunity of the match in the eighth minute as he broke free in the penalty area and took a shot on goal . The shot was kicked away by Fire goalkeeper Sean Johnson . Neither side appeared to gain control as the match progressed through the first 10 minutes . In the 11th minute , Chicago midfielder Marco Pappa slipped between two defenders in the middle of the field and had a long range shot go just wide of the net . Two minutes later Pappa again had a long shot which forced Seattle goalkeeper Kasey Keller to make a save . Pappa was responsible for all five of his team 's shots in the first half . In the 26th minute , Patrick Nyarko was shown a yellow card by referee Alex Prus for a hard tackle on Seattle 's Osvaldo Alonso near the touch @-@ line .
As the match passed the 30 minute mark , Seattle began to take control as they held possession and created more scoring opportunities . Five minutes before half time Marco Pappa again tested the Seattle goalkeeper as he cut inside a defender and took a shot from 30 yards . The shot forced Kasey Keller to make a diving save . In the 44th minute Seattle striker Mike Fucito rushed onto a poor backpass by the Chicago defense and then backhealed a pass to Alvaro Fernandez who was streaking into the box . His shot was stopped with a reaching save by Chicago goalkeeper Sean Johnson . One minute later , in first half injury time , Seattle striker Fredy Montero nearly scored with a 20 @-@ yard shot that flew past the keeper and bounced off the left goal post . The half ended with the score tied 0 – 0 .
= = = Second half = = =
At half time , Seattle midfielder Erik Frieberg was subbed on for Alvaro Fernandez , who had suffered a slight concussion during the first half . Shortly after the second half began , Seattle nearly broke the stalemate . In the 53rd minute , a Sounders FC throw @-@ in was flicked on to Mike Fucito , who lifted a shot up and over the keeper . His shot was chased by several Chicago defenders as it crossed the goal mouth and bounced off the far goal post and back into play . In the 78th minute , Montero broke the deadlock on a corner kick taken by Erik Friberg . Sounders FC defender Jeff Parke headed the corner kick on goal and Chicago goalkeeper Sean Johnson saved the shot . The ball rebounded to the feet of Fredy Montero , who tapped the ball into the net for in the first goal of the game . Sounders FC now had a 1 – 0 lead .
For much of the first half and early second half , Sounders FC 's defensive efforts had been focused on closely defending Chicago midfield Pável Pardo . With Pardo unable to distribute the ball to Chicago 's speedy wingers , Patrick Nyarko and Domonic Oduro , Chicago 's offense had been effectively neutralized for much of the match . Fire coach Frank Klopas made two substitutions late in the match , bringing on forward Diego Chaves in the 80th minute and midfielder Sebastián Grazzini in the 85th . Chicago 's best chance of the half came in the 90th minute when Dominic Oduro headed a shot toward Kasey Keller , who made the save even though the attempt was ruled offside .
As the match neared its conclusion , Chicago shifted players forward as they searched for an equalizing goal . However , in the sixth minute of stoppage time , Osvaldo Alonso scored Seattle 's second goal on a counterattack play as he dribbled around multiple defenders and the goalkeeper and finally tapped the ball into the net . The goal gave Sounders FC a 2 – 0 lead and sealed the victory .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
Overall
= = Post @-@ match = =
Most of the record crowd remained after the game as they watched Seattle players and coaches engaged in the post match trophy awarding ceremony and celebrated on the field . In the post match press conference , Sigi Schmid praised his team 's defensive efforts in the match , saying " We talked about making sure their defenders – and primarily Pável Pardo – didn ’ t have a chance to lift their heads and hit those long balls in behind . " Schmid continued , " I thought Evans did a really good job . Sometimes we were stretched in the midfield , but I thought he did a very good job of stepping up to Pável . When you look at the 90 minutes , it was a rare occasion that he was able to hit a ball behind our defense . " Chicago midfielder Logan Pause commented on the game saying , " It ’ s disappointing . We came here to win . We were under the gun all night . They ’ re a great team , one of the best in the league . It was a great atmosphere and home field advantage . The better team won tonight unfortunately . "
The day after the match , Sounders FC flew a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 280 m2 ) scarf over Seattle and Bellevue in the afternoon and early evening respectively , in celebration of their victory . By winning the final , Sounders FC became the first MLS team to win the competition three times in a row , and the first club to do so in the competition since Greek American Atlas did so in 1968 , 42 years earlier . Seattle also became the fourth team in the 98 @-@ year history of the tournament to win three in a row . As U.S. Open Cup champions , Seattle received the $ 100 @,@ 000 cash prize while Chicago was given $ 50 @,@ 000 as the runner up . Seattle also earned a berth in the 2012 – 13 CONCACAF Champions League with the victory . In the Champions League , Seattle won their group and were eventually knocked out of the tournament in the semifinals by Mexican club Santos Laguna .
Sounders FC midfielder Osvaldo Alonso was voted the " player of the round " for the final . Alonso was recognized for his goal scoring effort as well as his record @-@ setting fourth consecutive appearance as a player in the U.S. Open Cup final match . He had appeared first with the Charleston Battery in the 2008 final and then 3 times with Seattle from 2009 to 2011 . Seattle forward Fredy Montero was recognized as the " player of the tournament " as he scored the game winning goals for Sounders FC in their quarterfinal , semifinal , and final matches . Osvaldo Alonso was one of the four finalists for " player of the tournament " along with Montero and two players from the semifinalist Richmond Kickers – Ronnie Pascale and David Bulow .
= = = Host selection process changes = = =
U.S. Soccer was criticized after the match for the secretive bid process that allows teams to outspend their opponents for hosting rights . Both the blind bidding process for hosting tournament matches and the manner in which MLS teams qualified for the tournament were widely criticized . An example of the concerns raised around hosting came from FC Dallas midfielder Daniel Hernandez on Twitter , where he complained about Seattle 's home @-@ field advantage throughout the 2011 tournament . Following the final , MLS and U.S. Soccer officials met to discuss rule changes to the tournament 's host bidding system and team qualification processes . Sounders FC owner Adrian Hanauer commented on the changes and the possibility of raising the profile of the tournament , " I don ’ t think the bidding process is going to change the profile of the tournament , necessarily . It might make a few people happy , it might make a few people unhappy . But ultimately , I ’ m not convinced that ’ s what is going to raise the profile . "
In January 2012 , in preparation for the 2012 edition of the U.S. Open Cup , U.S. Soccer announced several changes to the tournament format . Included in these changes was the introduction of a new host selection process . Beginning in 2012 , for all rounds of the tournament through the quarterfinals , a random host selection process would be used . While in previous years a blind bidding system was used to determine the host of a match , the new process has the host determined by blind draw if both teams ' venues meet minimum standards . The blind bidding system for hosting rights remained in effect for the semifinals and final of the 2012 tournament . However , U.S. Soccer announced in 2013 that hosting for all rounds of the tournament would be determined randomly as long as both venues met minimum standards .
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= Robert Ramsay ( cricketer ) =
Robert Christian Ramsay ( 20 December 1861 – 25 June 1957 ) was an English @-@ born gentleman who spent much of his life as a pastoralist and businessman in Queensland , Australia . During the late 1880s , he was also an amateur cricketer who played for Harrow , Cambridge University and Somerset . In 1882 , he also played for the Gentlemen of England under W.G. Grace .
Born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , Ramsay spent his early childhood in Australia , but moved back to England with his family in March 1874 to enable him and his older brother to receive an education . He attended Harrow and then Cambridge , and gained his sporting Blue at the latter , playing in the University match against Oxford in 1882 . He made fifteen first @-@ class appearances for Cambridge and Somerset in 1881 and 1882 , but did not play any first @-@ class cricket after that . In 1883 , he left Cambridge without graduating and returned to Australia where , after working as a jackaroo at Winbar Station in New South Wales for nearly two years , he joined his brother Frank at Eton Vale , a large pastoral station on Queensland 's Darling Downs owned by their father Robert Burnett Ramsay and Arthur Hodgson . At the time , Eton Vale was being managed by Arthur Hodgson 's son Edward .
Bob Ramsay remained in Australia until his retirement in June 1920 , when he returned with his wife and children to England and settled in Bekesbourne , Kent .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and cricket = = =
Robert Christian Ramsay was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire on 20 December 1861 as the sixth child and fourth son of Robert Burnett Ramsay and Susan , née Lindsay Carnegie . Three of his elder siblings died in very early childhood and his older brother Alfred died from appendicitis in 1874 when only 15 years old . Apart from spending five years as a director of mercantile firm Ramsay , Young & Co. in Sydney between 1839 and 1844 , Robert Ramsay 's father was a pastoralist and politician in Queensland who served as the eighth treasurer of Queensland . Bob Ramsay was at school in Warwick and then briefly at Ipswich Grammar School in Queensland , Australia until the family moved to England in March 1874 . He then attended Elstree School and Harrow School . At Harrow , he was part of the football team in 1878 and 1879 , captaining the side in the latter year . He also played for the school 's cricket team , alongside his older brother Marmaduke Francis Ramsay , better known as Frank . In 1879 , the brothers combined to take seventeen of Eton College 's twenty wickets , of which Robert claimed six in the first innings and four in the second .
Ramsay followed his older brother to Trinity Hall , Cambridge , and in his first year played in the freshmen 's trial match in which he claimed six wickets , five of them in the first innings . He played one first @-@ class match for the university that summer , bowling ten overs without taking a wicket against Yorkshire . He also played five second @-@ class matches during 1881 , all for Somerset County Cricket Club . His best performance for Somerset during that time was against Kent , when he claimed six wickets in the first innings .
The following year at Cambridge , Ramsay played nine first @-@ class matches for the university , and gained his blue . His first match in the summer of 1882 was played for the university against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , a match which Cambridge won by 189 runs , aided by the strong bowling of Ramsay , who claimed 13 wickets and conceded 49 runs , the tenth best bowling performance for the university . Later in the summer he claimed eight wickets against Lancashire , and then picked up 12 wickets against the touring Australians . In the match against the Australians , he collected five wickets in the first innings and seven in the second , albeit more expensively than in the match against the MCC . He was less prolific against Lancashire for Somerset , during a match played in such cold weather that catches were hard to hold . Bill Roe said that during this match , Lancashire 's number eleven , George Nash was dropped off every ball of an over bowled by Ramsay , before Roe himself caught Nash off the first ball of the following over . Ramsay was selected to play for the " Gentlemen of England " against the touring Australians , and claimed three wickets in a match which the Australians won by an innings . In the University match against Oxford , Ramsay had little success , taking two wickets from his 52 overs , during which he conceded 91 runs . Cambridge won the match by seven wickets .
In all , Ramsay played 15 first @-@ class cricket matches , and took 69 wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 82 . He claimed five wickets in an innings five times , and ten wickets in a match twice . He bowled with an unusual action which gained him the nickname " Twisting Tommy " , because of its resemblance to a corkscrew . As a batsman , he totalled 303 runs at an average of 13 @.@ 77 , including two half @-@ centuries , with a career best of 71 .
= = = Return to Australia = = =
Ramsay did not graduate from Cambridge , but instead returned to Australia in 1883 to go into farming , first as a jackaroo on Winbar Station in New South Wales and then , in late 1885 , with his older brother Frank at Eton Vale , a large station on the Darling Downs owned by their father and Arthur Hodgson , later Sir Arthur Hodgson , that was then being managed by Arthur Hodgson 's son Edward .
In December 1886 , he and Frank , together with Edward Hodgson , established Ramsay Bros. & Hodgson independently of their fathers and bought Oondooroo , a huge station that , in Bob 's own words in a letter to his father , was " about 140 miles from Hughenden Railway and 18 miles from Winton , [ and ] consists of 1035 square miles of country as good as it is possible to get " . The two Ramsay brothers became five when three younger Ramsay brothers , Lauderdale , Douglas and Norman joined the firm two years later . Ramsay Brothers & Hodgson went on to acquire numerous other Queensland stations and , after the premature death of Edward Hodgson in 1896 , became one of the largest sheep @-@ farming enterprises in the world . In response to claims by an American journalist about an American sheep @-@ farmer , The Western Champion and General Advertiser dated 9 October 1905 echoed the North Queensland Register in saying that the Ramsay Bros. would , " with a good season or two , give the American a shaking " for the title of biggest sheep @-@ farmers in the world . At Oondooroo , Ramsay established what the Australian Dictionary of Biography described as " the most progressive run [ station ] in north @-@ west Queensland . " He used modern technology to achieve this , including " private telephone @-@ lines , shearing machines , Humber motorcycles and Serpollet steam @-@ motorcars . " In 1907 , Ramsay married 20 @-@ year @-@ old Olive Zillah Voss at St James ' Cathedral in Townsville , Queensland , with whom he had seven children between 1908 and 1924 .
He took over management of the family estates upon his brother Frank 's retirement to England in November 1908 , and two years later became a founding member of the Brisbane branch of the Round Table . Between 1914 and 1917 , he was a member of the Queensland Recruiting Committee but left in protest over the failure of the 1916 Federal Government referendum to introduce conscription . Instead , he joined the Queensland Reinforcements Referendum Committee , of which he became president . He remained active as a pastoralist and businessman until his retirement in 1920 , at which time he moved to England . In 1921 , he moved to Howletts , his parents ' former home in Bekesbourne , Kent , and remained there until he died on 25 June 1957 .
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= Boroughitis =
Boroughitis ( also borough fever or borough mania ) was the creation , usually by referendum , of large numbers of small boroughs in the American state of New Jersey in the 1890s , particularly in Bergen County . Attempts by the New Jersey Legislature to reform local government and the school systems led to the breakup of most of Bergen County 's townships into small boroughs , communities that still balkanize the state 's political map . This occurred because of the development of commuter suburbs in New Jersey , residents of which wanted more government services than did the long @-@ time rural population .
In the late 19th century , much of New Jersey was divided into large townships . In Bergen Counties , several of these townships contained multiple commuter suburbs , often formed around railroad stations . Political disputes arose between the growing number of commuters , who wanted more government services for the new developments near railroad lines , and long @-@ time residents such as farmers , who feared higher taxes . A previously little @-@ used law permitted small segments of existing townships to vote by referendum to form independent boroughs . In late 1893 , Republicans , backed by commuters , captured control of the legislature and the following year passed legislation allowing boroughs that were formed from parts of two or more townships to elect a representative to the county Board of Chosen Freeholders . This 1894 act , in combination with a second one the same year that consolidated school districts into one per township , made it easy and attractive for dissatisfied communities to break away and become boroughs , in order to gain a seat on the county board or to keep control of the local school .
Forty new boroughs were formed in 1894 and 1895 , with the bulk in Bergen County , where townships were broken up or greatly reduced in size ; there are few there today . Feeling that the 1894 laws had allowed the formation of an excessive number of municipalities , the legislature scuttled the right to elect a freeholder in 1895 , and ended the formation of boroughs by referendum the following year . Municipalities continued to be created by the legislature into the 20th century , and although there have been efforts at consolidation in recent years to lower the cost of government , their number has been only slightly reduced .
= = Background = =
At the time of the union of East Jersey and West Jersey into the Province of New Jersey in 1702 , there were about 24 townships ; more were added under British government by letters patent , court decrees , or legislative action . Following the American Revolutionary War , the New Jersey Legislature confirmed all municipal charters , and granted new ones ; by 1798 , the state had 104 townships . Increased economic activity in Essex , Morris and Sussex counties , and the formation of Warren County , raised the number to 125 by 1834 .
Most of the townships had low taxes and little government ; the roads ( mostly of dirt ) were maintained by farmers in lieu of taxes . Township meetings occurred each February ; the citizens would discuss concerns , seek solutions , and collectively appoint agents to carry out their will . Voters in each township elected members of the county governing body , the Board of Chosen Freeholders .
The railroad brought major changes to New Jersey beginning in the mid @-@ 19th century . The state was mostly agricultural , and the new lines made it easier for farmers to get their crops to market . But they also made it easier for those employed in New York City or Philadelphia to live outside the urban core and yet go to work each day . Even before the Civil War , the Brick Church station , in Orange , Essex County , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from New York City , became the center of the nation 's first commuter suburb . New Jersey 's townships acquired a new population , of commuters , who formed communities near railroad stations , and who wanted good well @-@ lit streets and roads , quality schools , and a stake in the government . They were bitterly opposed on each issue by the rural , agricultural population ( or " punkin dusters " ) , who feared that their taxes would be raised to pay for services they did not want .
Schools and school districts caused angry debate between commuters and long @-@ time residents . School district lines were independent of those of townships , for every school formed its own school district . Accordingly , townships could contain a number of school districts : Bergen County 's Franklin Township in the early 1890s contained eleven school districts serving 774 students . Bergen County was sparsely populated when the railroad lines went through in the 1850s , making for a different pattern of development than other suburban counties , such as Union and Camden , which saw more planned development around railroad stations . Bergen 's pattern of development was unique in New Jersey , with , until 1894 , several commuter suburbs in a single township , something rare elsewhere in the state .
The town @-@ meeting style of government then prescribed for townships proved ill @-@ suited to those changing times . The New Jersey Constitution gave the state government in Trenton relatively weak powers over the townships , but from time to time the legislature attempted reform . The townships were divided into road districts , with residents appointed to see that maintenance was done ; in 1859 , the state allowed residents of each district to elect a road commissioner , who saw to it their road taxes were spent effectively . Many of these districts later became individual municipalities , with the road commissioner often the first mayor .
= = Legislation = =
Until 1875 , municipalities had been created or modified only by special acts of the legislature , but this ended then , with lawmakers instead passing general laws , and leaving actual incorporation of municipalities to referenda in areas wanting redress . In 1878 , the legislature passed the Borough Act , allowing landowners in an area less than 4 square miles ( 10 km2 ) and with fewer than 1 @,@ 000 people to seek a referendum on secession from the township to become a borough . This referendum could take place on petition of the owners of 10 percent of the land , as measured by value , in the area in question , and 10 days notice of the vote was required . In 1882 , the legislature expanded this measure to allow areas of less than 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 2 km2 ) to become borough commissions with some autonomy within the township . Another impetus towards more municipalities developed in the 1870s , with the New Jersey public soured on the railroads because of the Panic of 1873 . The newly Democratic legislature passed laws that ended tax exemptions on railroad @-@ owned lands . Much of the land , generally near stations , was sold off , and was transformed into communities that in the following years would secede from the township in which they lay , creating some of the " doughnut holes " , with boroughs surrounded by the townships they were formerly part of , that mark the New Jersey municipal landscape today .
In the 1893 elections , Republicans recaptured control of the New Jersey Legislature . This was due in part to another economic depression , the Panic of 1893 , which had occurred with Democrat Grover Cleveland in the White House , and in part because some Democrats , like Republicans before them , had proven corrupt . The increasing commuter population also played a role ; Bergen County contained ( and still does ) many commuter communities because of its proximity to New York City . These new residents were strongly Republican , as contrasted with the Democratic farmers . According to local historian Kevin Wright , " Having gained sufficient numbers by 1893 to challenge Punkin Dusters at the polls , the Commuters of Bergen County led a political revolution in Home Rule that finally toppled the ancien régime . " Legal disputes about control of the New Jersey Senate and the Republican desire to undo many Democratic policies occupied the legislature in the early part of its 1894 session . Nevertheless , interest groups such as local landowners pushed the legislature for permissive policies on municipal incorporation , hoping to gain power in the new governments .
As the legislature sat , the townships of Bergen County fractured . The provision of the Borough Act allowing separation had been little used prior to 1893 . A year @-@ long legal battle in Palisades Township , along the Hudson River , led to a referendum that saw Tenafly break away in January 1894 . Some communities seceded in early 1894 because of disputes about how to pay for macadamized roads , which were first paved through much of Bergen County in the first half of the 1890s . The Hackensack Republican reported on March 1 , " the chief reason why Delford [ later Oradell ] , Westwood , Hillsdale and Park Ridge want to become boroughs is that they may avoid what is feared will be heavy macadam tax " . The proposed borough of Delford would take land from multiple townships , uniting communities on both sides of the Hackensack River that shared a school , but incorporation was put on hold because of legal uncertainty as to whether a borough could be formed from parts of more than one township .
In April , the Republican majority in Trenton let it be known they were working on a bill to solve Delford 's problem by allowing boroughs to be formed from portions of two or more townships , and this became the Act of May 9 , 1894 . The act also granted such boroughs a seat on the county Board of Chosen Freeholders . According to Wright , " the consequences of casting special legislation under guise of a general law soon became patent " . Since 1885 , new boroughs had not gotten their own freeholder , with borough voters instead joining with those in the township they were formerly part of to elect one . Partisans saw the political possibilities of the 1894 law , and contested control of the Bergen County government through the formation of boroughs that would elect freeholders of their party .
The energetic legislators finally reached school reform with Chapter CCCXXXV of the Public Laws of 1894 . That act , passed on May 25 , provided that " the several school districts in each township shall be consolidated into one school district " . The legislature 's intent was to equalize funding between wealthier districts and poorer ones . Had the legislature done no more , according to former New Jersey General Assembly Speaker Alan Karcher , " New Jersey might have had fewer than 500 municipalities today " . However , the legislature further enacted in the bill , " that each city , borough , and incorporated town , shall be a school district , separate and distinct from the township school district " . Thus , if a community seceded from its township to form a borough , it would keep control of its school . The new township school districts would be responsible for the debts of their predecessors , meaning that some communities faced the prospect of paying off , in part , the debts of others , and seeing some of their tax dollars going to fund others ' schools . Under the law , by becoming an incorporated borough , they could avoid these things .
The school legislation greatly fueled the borough craze in Bergen County . Wealthy communities that had had their own school districts now faced the prospect of sharing their school tax revenues with poorer areas , or of being divided up piecemeal in borough referenda . Allendale broke away , principally from Franklin Township , because of such fears . At 650 people , Allendale was one of the more populous boroughs formed in 1894 . In such commuter communities as Park Ridge , those new residents often led the borough drives against the opposition of the old inhabitants who feared the improvements would not benefit them and that the new borough would quickly incur debt through issuance of municipal bonds .
Another new borough created by the residents to keep local school control was Woodcliff , which was formed around the settlement of Pascack from parts of Harrington Township and Orvil Township , and which in 1910 became Woodcliff Lake . Rural Upper Saddle River broke away from Orvil Township and Hohokus Township , taking one of Orvil Township 's six schoolhouses — the press noted that the nascent borough would most likely go Democratic as only 16 Republicans could be found . Ridgewood , then a township , avoided further depredations by Midland Park and Glen Rock by incorporating as a village . The borough of Wood @-@ Ridge was formed after the boundary lines were carefully drawn with an eye to the referendum , to exclude the home of a family of prominent landowners who were opposed to the incorporation — though not excluding their farmland . Once Wood @-@ Ridge was successfully established , the farmhouse was annexed by borough ordinance .
Of the 40 boroughs created in 1894 and 1895 , 26 were in Bergen County . The ones elsewhere included Roselle and Mountainside , in Union County . In September 1894 , state Senator Henry D. Winton warned that the legislature at its next session was likely to amend if not gut the Borough Act because of the craze in Bergen County . Nine new members had been added to the Board of Chosen Freeholders from the previous sixteen , Winton noted , with a proportionate increase in the cost of government , which would be further inflated by the multiplicity of boroughs . The signal that the law might change did not slow the incorporations : Wood @-@ Ridge , Carlstadt , Edgewater , Old Tappan and other boroughs trace their geneses to late 1894 . There were some fistfights and hard feelings over the borough formations , and Russell Jones , whose house was on the newly drawn line between Teaneck and Bogota , saw it burn down as firefighters argued about who had jurisdiction .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The wave of incorporations continued into 1895 , with Cliffside Park gaining borough status in January . That month , Bergen County 's school superintendent , John Terhune , wrote a report to Trenton , decrying that the law allowed borough petitioners to set the proposed lines to exclude opponents of incorporation , " The idea of allowing a bare majority the power to accept or reject a few that have dared to oppose the new fad , and for this simple expression of their rights to cut them from all school facilities is radically wrong and gross injustice . There is no defense for the injured , but they must meekly accept the situation . It is inconsistent with liberty , a term so dear to us all " . Superintendent Terhune wrote that " until the boroughing is done " , it would not be possible to assess the many problems that the rapid subdivision had caused : " I would not attempt to estimate , let alone approximate , the changes caused by the boroughs . It is simply inconceivable " .
The Act of February 18 , 1895 amended the previous year 's borough bill to raise the requirement for incorporation petitions from owners of 10 percent of the land value to 50 percent . The rush was also slowed by the legislature deciding that no borough created thereafter could maintain a separate school system unless there were at least 400 children living within its limits . With the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders by then at 28 members , divided evenly between the parties , the legislature passed a bill setting the number of members of such boards in third @-@ class counties ( including Bergen ) at 9 , with the freeholders elected from the Delford @-@ style boroughs to go out of office on May 8 . Nevertheless , on May 9 , electors in what became the borough of Englewood Cliffs voted to secede from Englewood , 34 – 1 .
North Arlington was incorporated as a borough by a referendum held on March 26 , 1896 , the day the state legislature passed a bill providing that , " no borough or village shall hereafter be incorporated in this state except by special act of the legislature . " The following year , the legislature undertook a thorough revision of the laws relating to boroughs , and forbade incorporations , dissolutions , or boundary changes without its leave . This simply moved the venue for conflicts over schools from local referenda to the corridors of the State House in Trenton . Boroughs continued to be incorporated by legislative act , with a major burst in the 1920s . These 20th century increases in the number of boroughs were sometimes caused by conflicts over road funds , causing Caldwell Township , Essex County , to divide into six municipalities by 1908 , and with Clementon Township , Camden County fracturing into nine between 1915 and 1929 .
By the 1920s , the number of municipalities in Bergen County had reached 70 , where it still stands . After the 1920s , the legislature did not create many new municipalities , but local officials used zoning to affect land use , making annexation less attractive . Because of boroughitis , the township as a form of government all but disappeared from Bergen County . One that remains is South Hackensack , the remnants of Lodi Township that no seceding borough wanted . Its three pieces are separated from each other by several miles .
A number of boroughs became townships in the early 1980s , though they did not necessarily change their form of government , as until 1986 , more federal aid was available to municipalities called townships than to those styled boroughs . As of 2014 , New Jersey has 565 municipalities , the highest number of municipalities per capita of any state , and more than eight other states combined . Its boroughs include Teterboro in Bergen County , site of an airport , industrial buildings , and the homes of fewer than a hundred residents , and Pine Valley and Tavistock in Camden County , each consisting primarily of a country club . Governor Chris Christie has urged consolidation to lower the cost of government , and a number of municipalities have studied it , but the only significant recent merger has been that of Princeton Borough with Princeton Township ( 2012 ) .
Karcher , both while Speaker and afterwards , promoted consolidation , but saw it fall victim to home rule advocates . He discussed the long @-@ term effect of the boroughitis craze :
The ultimate cost to the state 's taxpayers ... directly attributable to the Republican reforms of 1894 , is incalculable . One need only take an afternoon drive through Bergen County . The only evidence that you have traversed one borough in the last five minutes and are now entering another , which may take only three minutes to cross , is a sign . Otherwise it is virtually impossible to tell one fungible borough from the other . Yet each has its own most prized possession , and prized it should be considering its cost : its own school district .
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= Brian Adams ( wrestler ) =
Brian Keith Adams ( April 14 , 1964 – August 13 , 2007 ) was an American professional wrestler . Adams is well known for his time with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , under the name Crush , and for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) under his real name Brian Adams . Trained in Japan by Antonio Inoki , he was a two @-@ time WCW World Tag Team Champion and a one @-@ time WWF World Tag Team Champion and All Japan Pro Wrestling World Tag Team Champion , among other titles and accomplishments . In 2002 , he briefly tried a career in boxing until he was forced to retire due to back and shoulder injuries . He died of accidental respiratory failure from a combination of buprenorphine , carisoprodol , chlordiazepoxide and alprazolam .
= = Early life = =
Brian Adams was born in Kona , Hawaii and was raised in Kealakekua , Hawaii and attended Konawaena High School . After graduating from high school , Adams joined the US Air Force , where he began boxing . It was during his time in the USAF , while stationed in Japan , that he was also exposed to wrestling . Adams was trained in wrestling by famed Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist Antonio Inoki . In 1986 , after training in Japan , Adams came to the United States and began working in Portland , Oregon 's Pacific Northwest Wrestling ( PNW ) .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 1986 – 1987 ) = = =
Brian Adams made his debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling in 1986 . However , his work visa expired , forcing him to return to the United States .
= = = Pacific Northwest Wrestling ( 1987 – 1990 ) = = =
In the Pacific Northwest Wrestling ( PNW ) promotion , he was given the nickname The American Ninja and was put in a tag team called " The Wrecking Crew " with Len Denton , who wrestled under a mask , billed as " The Grappler . " Adams and Denton were the Pacific Northwest Tag Team Champions for a time and worked a feud with the Southern Rockers , Steve Doll and Rex King . In 1990 , he won the Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship after winning a tournament final match against Larry Oliver in Portland on April 21 , 1990 for the vacant title . He lost the title to Scott Norton on May 12 , 1990 in Portland .
= = = Return to NJPW ( 1987 – 1988 ) = = =
In September 1987 , Adams returned to NJPW with a couple of victories over Kenichi Oya . By February 1988 , he began wearing a mask and going by the name The Midnight Soldier . Although he was usually on the losing end of most of the matches , he wrestled to a double countout with George Takano and held a victory over Tatsutoshi Goto .
= = = All Japan Pro Wrestling ( 1989 ) = = =
In January 1989 , Adams went to All Japan Pro Wrestling for its New Year 's Giant Series tour .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1990 – 1991 ) = = =
In June 1990 , while still working for the PNW , Adams debuted in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) as Crush , the third member of the WWF World Tag Team Championship team Demolition . With Adams joining Demolition , the stable exercised the Freebird Rule allowing any combination of the three to defend the tag team title , which allowed Crush to become a World Tag Team Champion without being involved in the match where the team won the title ( Demolition had begun their third reign as champions at Wrestlemania VI in April 1990 before Adams even debuted for the WWF ) . At the SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ view in 1990 , Demolition , with new member Adams , lost the Tag Team title to The Hart Foundation in a two out of three falls match with Adams getting pinned for the final fall to lose the title . After SummerSlam , Demolition resumed an earlier feud with The Legion of Doom . Adams continued to perform as part of Demolition until after WrestleMania VII where he and Smash lost to Genichiro Tenryu and Koji Kitao . After WrestleMania , the WWF decided to disband Demolition as a team .
= = = Return to PNW ( 1991 – 1992 ) = = =
Upon his departure from the WWF , Adams , who continued to use the Crush gimmick , returned to PNW . He was portrayed as a dominant wrestler , winning both the Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship and the Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship . Adams received the first of these two championships during this stint in the PNW while teaming with previous rival Steve Doll and defeating The Bruise Brothers for the Tag Team Championship on July 27 , 1991 in Portland , Oregon . They remained the champions until September 1 , 1991 when they lost the title to The Grappler and Don Harris . A little more than a month later , Adams received his second Pacific Northwest Heavyweight title , on October 12 , 1991 , in Portland after he defeated Rip Oliver via submission to the Full Nelson hold . Adams was the champion for just over three months , losing the title to Ron Harris at a show in Portland , on January 18 , 1992 .
= = = Return to WWF = = =
= = = = Kona Crush ( 1992 – 1993 ) = = = =
Adams went back to work for the WWF in 1992 and was given a new fan favorite gimmick : an easygoing surfing Hawaiian who wore bright neon tights and utilized a new two @-@ handed skull vice finisher called the Kona Crush . Crush made his televised debut in WWF under his new character on May 9 , 1992 episode of Superstars , defeating Kato . At SummerSlam 1992 at the famous Wembley Stadium in London , England in front of 80 @,@ 355 fans , he defeated his former tag team partner Barry Darsow ( Smash ) who was now known as Repo Man , although it was never part of a storyline that the two were former tag @-@ team partners . Crush then engaged in a feud with Doink the Clown ( Matt Osborne ) , after he was attacked with a loaded prosthetic arm while confronting the clown about his cruel pranks on children at ringside , which caused Crush to miss the 1993 Royal Rumble . The feud culminated at WrestleMania IX in Las Vegas , where Crush lost after a second , identical Doink ( played by Steve Keirn ) appeared from underneath the ring and struck Crush with the prosthetic arm . At the first King of the Ring pay @-@ per @-@ view , Crush challenged Shawn Michaels for the Intercontinental Championship , but lost the match after a distraction by Doink .
On July 4 , 1993 , Crush injured his back in the stars and stripes challenge trying to bodyslam WWF Champion Yokozuna who at the time had a billed weight of 580 lb ( 260 kg ) ( the bodyslam challenge took place on the US Navy Aircraft carrier USS Intrepid ) . Crush , generally considered to have the best chance of those present , was the first wrestler to actually get Yokozuna off his feet but his back gave out forcing him to stop . Lex Luger , repackaged from the heel character The Narcissist to an all @-@ American hero , arrived soon after via helicopter and slammed the 580 lb WWF Champion . On the July 12 edition of Monday Night RAW , Crush faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship in a losing effort . To send a message to Luger , Yokozuna performed several Banzai Drops to Crush , leaving him off TV for several months .
= = = = Various alliances and storylines ( 1993 – 1995 ) = = = =
Crush returned in the fall of 1993 and attacked his on @-@ screen friend Randy Savage , because Savage had encouraged him to enter the Body Slam Challenge , and had failed to contact him during recuperation . Crush then allied himself with Yokozuna and Mr. Fuji , becoming a villain . Adams adopted a " Japanese sympathizer " gimmick to go with his new attitude , including growing a beard , using face paint ( albeit a design far different from his Demolition days ) , and wearing darker colors . This rivalry led to a falls count anywhere match against Savage at WrestleMania X , which he lost when Savage hogtied him to a metal rack and returned to the ring before a 60 @-@ second count . The match with Savage is notable for being Savage 's final WrestleMania appearance .
After the feud with Savage ended , Crush was put into a feud with Lex Luger . Crush would also briefly form a tag team with Yokozuna , defeating such combinations as The Smoking Gunns and Mabel and Typhoon before challenging The Headshrinkers for the World Tag Team Championship at the 1994 King of the Ring pay @-@ per @-@ view . They lost the match after Luger distracted Crush as retaliation for Crush costing him a spot in the King of the Ring tournament . The feud was dropped in July when rumors that Luger was joining Ted DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation were starting . Crush left the WWF in August 1994 .
In January 1995 , Crush returned and took part in the 1995 Royal Rumble match as the 30th entrant in the elimination match . He eliminated Billy Gunn , Bart Gunn , Adam Bomb , and Fatu before being eliminated by Davey Boy Smith . Shortly after , while home in Hawaii , he was arrested and subsequently jailed for purchasing steroids and possessing an illegal hand gun .
= = = = NOD and DOA ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = = =
After a brief stint in jail , Adams was brought back to the WWF with a new biker look at the beginning of the Monday Night Wars in 1996 , with his real @-@ life incarceration being referenced as part of a storyline on Monday Night Raw . Upon his return , the WWF gave Adams Clarence Mason , who portrayed a lawyer @-@ like character on @-@ screen , as a manager . Shortly after his return , he was made a member of the Nation of Domination ( NOD ) along with Faarooq and Savio Vega . Adams was later kicked out of the group , while once again turning face and subsequently formed and led a wrestling biker gang stable called the Disciples of Apocalypse ( DOA ) . The DOA feuded with Faarooq 's NOD and Vega 's new stable , Los Boricuas . Adams later left the WWF in 1997 , partially in protest to the Montreal Screwjob , while in storyline , he was injured by Kane even though his real last appearance was on Shotgun Saturday Night that week as he and the rest of the DOA defeated Steve Corino , Marty Garner , Mike Hollow , and Jason Ahrndt .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
Adams signed with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in 1998 and debuted as part of the New World Order . As a lower card performer , he often tag @-@ teamed with the likes of Scott Norton and Stevie Ray , occasionally losing matches against smaller and lesser known wrestlers . However , he also gained squash victories over jobbers in singles competition . During his time with the promotion , he was involved in a tag team tournament steel cage match on WCW Thunder in February 1999 , in which he and Horace Hogan lost to Chris Benoit and Dean Malenko . Afterwards , he was chosen to portray the KISS @-@ themed wrestler " The Demon " after walking out on the New World Order and entering a limo that supposedly had the band inside . He played the character for its debut on WCW Monday Nitro in which KISS also played a live concert . He would play it one more time to come out and have a staredown with heel wrestler Vampiro and abandoned it afterwards , never wrestling a single match with the gimmick . The Demon mantle was subsequently passed to Dale Torborg with no explanation given . Later , he formed a team with Bryan Clark called KroniK , which won the WCW World Tag Team Championship twice .
= = = Second return to WWF ( 2001 ) = = =
After the WWF 's purchase of WCW , KroniK appeared in WWF as part of the Alliance storyline . During their time in WWF , they were managed by Steven Richards and were placed in a short feud with The Brothers of Destruction ( The Undertaker and Kane ) . Adams and Clark faced , and lost to , the duo at the 2001 Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view . Both men were accosted by the Undertaker in the locker room after the match for their lackluster performance . Clark was released from his WWF contract after refusing to go to the then WWF developmental territory Heartland Wrestling Association in Cincinnati , Ohio , while Adams did go to the HWA , where he performed until he , too , was released from his WWF contract in November 2001 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Adams and Clark briefly worked for World Wrestling All @-@ Stars in early 2002 . They then traveled to Japan to work for All Japan Pro Wrestling ( AJPW ) . On July 17 , 2002 , at an AJPW pay @-@ per @-@ view , Adams and Clark defeated Keiji Mutoh and Taiyō Kea for the World Tag Team Championship . Adams and Clark remained champions until November 2002 when AJPW declared the title vacant , because Adams had left the promotion to pursue a boxing career .
= = = Wrestle @-@ 1 ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
After recovering from his shoulder injury , Adams returned to wrestling for " Wrestle 1 " , a pay @-@ per @-@ view for the Japanese promotion W @-@ 1 , which was held at the Tokyo Dome in Japan . In January 2003 , he made his last in @-@ ring performance , teaming with Bryan Clark , and facing Bill Goldberg and Keiji Mutoh in a losing effort . He suffered a spinal injury in this match that forced him into retirement .
= = Boxing career = =
Adams was scheduled to have his first boxing match , against Rick Zufal , on November 16 , 2002 at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada with professional wrestler Randy Savage in his corner . This bout was to air on the Never Surrender boxing pay @-@ per @-@ view , but during his training for the bout , Adams injured his shoulder and was unable to fight .
= = Personal life = =
On March 13 , 1995 , Adams was arrested at his home in Kona , Hawaii , after narcotics officers search his home and discover 500 units of anabolic steroids and several unregistered semi @-@ automatic guns . He was released on $ 10 @,@ 275 bail . On October 28 , 1995 , he was sentenced to five years probation after pleading no @-@ contest to 11 counts of drug and weapons charges .
In 1996 , Adams had an uncredited role in the Bollywood movie Khiladiyon Ka Khiladi . In the movie , he played " Crush " and was killed by " The Undertaker " ( played by Brian Lee ) in a wrestling match .
Adams had surgery to attempt to correct his spinal injury , but it left him unfit to continue to wrestle . Following his retirement , Adams became a bodyguard for his longtime friend , wrestler @-@ turned @-@ rapper Randy Savage , who was touring to promote his CD , Be a Man . It was reported that Adams was living on income from a Lloyd 's of London insurance policy . Adams expressed interest in opening a health club in Tampa , Florida , which was to be a franchise of fellow wrestler Marc Mero 's " Body Slam " training center . Brian Adams and his wife had two children .
= = Death = =
On August 13 , 2007 , Adams was found unconscious in his bed by his youngest son ( age 7 ) at their Tampa , Florida home . His son called 911 , but Adams was pronounced dead by paramedics when they arrived . The medical examiner concluded that he died as a result of mixing the painkiller buprenorphine with the muscle relaxant carisoprodol and the sedatives chlordiazepoxide and alprazolam . The coroner determined the drugs in his system were individually at therapeutic levels , but their combination impeded his respiratory system enough to kill him . He was 43 years old .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Chokeslam – WCW
Cranium Crush / Kona Clutch ( Two @-@ handed clawhold ) – 1992 – 1993
Heart punch – 1994 ; 1996 – 1997
Signature moves
Around the Islands ( Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl into either a backbreaker or a mat slam )
Backbreaker
Bearhug
Bow and arrow hold
Cuts Like a Knife ( Full nelson slam )
Dropkick
Fireman 's carry DDT
Flying shoulder block
Gorilla press into either a gutbuster or a slam
Headbutt
Inverted atomic drop
Multiple suplex variations
Delayed
Super
Ura @-@ nage
Vertical
Piledriver
Superkick
With Ax or Smash
Demolition Decapitation ( Backbreaker hold / Diving elbow drop combination )
With Bryan Clark
High Times ( Double chokeslam )
Total Meltdown ( Powerbomb ( Clark ) / Diving clothesline ( Adams ) combination )
Managers
Jim Cornette
Paul Ellering .
Mr. Fuji
Clarence Mason
Steven Richards
Vincent
Nicknames
" Big "
" B.A. "
" The Original Hawaiian Punch "
Entrance themes
" In The World Beyond " by Loudness ( NJPW ; 1988 )
" Demolition Daze " by Jimmy Hart , J.J.Maguire , and Rick Derringer ( WWF ; 1990 )
" Demolition " ( 3rd Theme ) by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; 1990 – 1991 )
" Crush " by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; 1992 – 93 )
" Crush " ( 2nd Theme ) by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; 1993 – 1995 )
" Jailbird " by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; 1996 )
" Nation of Domination " by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; used while part of the Nation of Domination ; 1996 – 1997 )
" Disciples of Apocalypse " by Jim Johnston ( WWF ; 1997 )
" Rockhouse " by J.Hart and Howard Helm ( WCW ; used while a part of the New World Order ; 1998 – 1999 )
" God of Thunder " by KISS ( August 30 , 1999 )
" KroniK " by Jimmy Hart & Howard Helm ( 2000 – 2001 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
All Japan Pro Wrestling
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Bryan Clark
Oregon Wrestling Federation
OWF Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Mike Miller
Pacific Northwest Wrestling
NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with The Grappler ( 1 ) and Steve Doll ( 1 )
Salem City Tournament ( 1988 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 35 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 1993
PWI ranked him # 289 of the Top 500 Singles Wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
PWI ranked him # 59 of the 100 best tag teams during the PWI Years with Smash and Ax in 2003
World Championship Wrestling
WCW World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Bryan Clark
World Wrestling Federation
WWF World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Smash and Ax1
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Bryan Clark vs. The Undertaker and Kane at Unforgiven
Worst Feud of the Year ( 1997 ) vs. Los Boricuas
Worst Tag Team ( 2000 , 2001 ) with Bryan Clark
1Demolition , after Crush became a member , defended the titles via the Freebird Rule
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= Para Siempre =
Para Siempre ( Forever ) is the 79th studio album released by Mexican singer Vicente Fernández on September 18 , 2007 by Sony BMG Norte . Written and produced by Joan Sebastian , and co @-@ produced by Jesús Rincón , the album is a successful mariachi record . It has sold two million copies worldwide , and is one of the biggest @-@ selling albums by Fernández . It spawned four singles : " Estos Celos " , " La Derrota " , " Un Millón de Primaveras " and the title track , the latter of which was used as the main theme to the Mexican telenovela Fuego En La Sangre , which brought the album wider exposure and helped it to stay in the charts for over two years . It was named the best @-@ selling Regional Mexican Album of the decade by Billboard .
Originally conceived as a banda music project , the album earned Fernández a Latin Grammy Award for Best Ranchero Album , four Premios Oye ! and a Grammy nomination . Para Siempre is considered responsible for bringing Mexican traditional music to a younger audience that had never listened to the singer before . Fernández released music videos for the twelve tracks and recorded a TV special on his ranch in Guadalajara , Jalisco . A sold @-@ out promotional tour led to the recording of the live album Primera Fila , Fernández ' follow up album .
= = Background = =
Two recognized artists worked together for the first time on Para Siempre : Vicente Fernández , the " king " of Mexico 's traditional ranchera music and one of that country 's most recognizable and influential cultural icons , and singer @-@ songwriter Joan Sebastian . Since Fernández 's emergence in the mid- ' 60s , his popularity among Mexicans and Mexican @-@ Americans has been likened to that of Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley in the United States . His concerts both in Mexico and the United States routinely sell out and his 100 @-@ plus albums ( including compilations ) have reportedly sold 50 million copies . Sebastian has been celebrated by critics for his contribution to Mexican culture , thanks to his successful singer career and his work producing artists such as Antonio Aguilar , Pepe Aguilar , Lucero and Rocío Dúrcal ; he is also a three time Grammy winner . Para Siempre , the 79th studio album by Fernández , was released in September 2007 in several countries . It was recorded to celebrate the 40th anniversary of his singing career , and is , according to Fernández 's record label , one of his most important albums . Nevertheless , Sebastian said that the label did not have high expectations for the album .
= = Recording = =
Fernández has stated that the album was conceived as a banda album with original music by Sebastian , a first for the singer ; before this , in 1993 , he included a cover of a song written by Sebastian titled " Verdad Que Duele " ( " It Hurts " ) on his album Lástima Que Seas Ajena ( A Shame You Belong to Another ) . Fernández ' fans kept asking to record banda songs and written by Sebastian , prompting him to record the album . Fernández was not pleased with the idea of trading his classic mariachi style for banda , but agreed to record with Sebastian as a " thank you " to his fans . In the album liner notes the singer dedicated the album to his wife and included a message for this fans : " As long as you keep applauding , I will be singing ' forever ' . "
In late 2006 , on Fernández ' ranch in Guadalajara , Jalisco , he asked Sebastian for songs to record on his next album and they agreed that his next project would be to work with Fernández on the album . Sebastian began preparing the demos along with Beto Jiménez , and in early 2007 he told Fernández that the songs were ready . The singer flew to the producer 's studio and recorded them . Fernández has said of working with Sebastian : " He is more than a friend , he is my brother , he writes excellent songs and has a great sensibility . "
The album was recorded in Cuernavaca , Morelos at the JS Studios . " I went to one of his houses for a day and in less than seven hours my part of the album was ready , he put everything on the table , it 's very good and romantic . " Fernández kept his mariachi style on the album and the producer only added more tamboras ; the singer was confident that this album was going to be a success , since his audience was demanding his union with Sebastian .
= = Composition = =
From the 12 tracks included , only the title track presents a successful love relationship ; while Sebastian 's lyrics contain popular slang . Guitars , trumpets , violins and an accordion create the mariachi sound . The last track , " El Chofer " ( " The Driver " ) , is a resembles José Alfredo Jiménez lyrical style , since Fernández travels " through Laredo to Michoacán . " Some inspiration for the tracks came from the writer 's crush on the Mexican actress Salma Hayek .
= = Presentation = =
The album debuted on September 15 , 2007 , in a live concert at the Arena VFG in Guadalajara , Jalisco . Due to his dislike of massive tours , Fernández did not hold a large promotional campaign . Despite this , he performed live in the Mexican cities of Ciudad Juárez , Reynosa , Ciudad del Carmen , Lagos de Moreno , Sahuayo , Jiménez , Tijuana , Ensenada , San Luis Potosí , México City , Guadalajara , Pachuca , and the American cities Phoenix , Denver , Atlanta , New York , Miami , Chicago , Dallas , Houston , Los Angeles , Las Vegas , Nevada and San Jose . This short tour garnered a nomination for Latin Tour of the Year at the Billboard Latin Music Awards . Vicente Fernández recorded a TV special on his ranch in Guadalajara , Jalisco , which was broadcast in late September 2007 and December 25 , 2007 , by Televisa .
= = Reception = =
On his review for Billboard En Español , Joel Brito declared that the tracks , " Un Millón de Primaveras " ( " A Million Springs " ) and " El Último Beso " ( " The Last Kiss " ) , are tender and desperate , with Vicente 's voice powerful , sweet and cheerful ; while " Estos Celos " , was one of his best performances , along with " Niña Hechicera " ( " Wicked Girl " ) . Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic gave the album four stars ; he described it as " near @-@ perfect " and " stellar " . He praised the singing , the songwriting , and the instrumentation . Tijana Ilich of About.com gave the album a four and a half stars calling " Para Siempre for a melody as lovely as the story " . According to the Colombian newspaper El Tiempo , Para Siempre was one of the most memorable albums of 2008 , since Fernández dominates the " formula for success " . For the Grammy Awards of 2008 the album received a nomination for Best Mexican / Mexican @-@ American Album which it lost to 100 % Mexicano by Pepe Aguilar . For the Latin Grammy Awards of 2008 Para Siempre won for Best Ranchero Album , and the first single " Estos Celos " won a Latin Grammy as Best Regional Mexican Song . The album was also nominated for Album of the Year , which was awarded to La Vida ... Es un Ratico , by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Juanes . In México , the album won four Premios Oye ! in the following categories : Album of the Year , Song of the Year ( " Estos Celos " ) , Best Ranchero Solo Artist and Best Telenovela , Movie or Series Song ( " Para Siempre " ) . Joan Sebastian also received two awards by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers for the title track : Song of the Year and Best Regional Music Song .
Vicente Fernández received five nominations for the 11th Billboard Latin Music Awards for his work on this album : Hot Latin Songs Artist , Hot Latin Song , Male ( " Para Siempre " ) , Top Latin Albums Artist and Regional Mexican Airplay Song , Male ( " Para Siempre " and " La Derrota " ) ; Joan Sebastian was nominated for both Songwriter and Producer of the Year . On April 23 , 2009 , Fernández won the awards for Top Latin Albums Artist and Regional Mexican Airplay Song for the title track .
= = Commercial release = =
= = = Formats = = =
The standard CD track listing was released on September 18 , 2007 in México , September 25 , 2007 in United States and on February 26 , 2008 in Spain with an album cover featuring the performer on a red background . On April 15 , 2008 , a CD / DVD format , with a black background on the cover was released , which included music videos for the 12 tracks recorded on Para Siempre , directed by Benjamin Hidalgo . A karaoke version of the album , with a yellow background , was released in April 2008 .
= = = Album = = =
The recording debuted at number 51 on the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas Mexican Album Chart in October 2007 and climbed to the top position 21 weeks later ; it spent a total of 14 weeks ( non @-@ consecutive ) at the top of the chart . Para Siempre was certified diamond in Mexico for sales of 600 @,@ 000 units . The sales were , according to Sony BMG Marketing Vice @-@ President and A & R Nir Seroussi , a " phenomenon " because " the music market in Mexico is completely pirated " and Fernández 's albums usually sell only 50 @,@ 000 units per album .
In October 2007 , the album debuted at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and spent almost its entire chart run in the Top Ten ; it topped the chart for five non @-@ consecutive weeks , three weeks in 2008 and two in 2009 , when it replaced Primera Fila , Fernández ' follow @-@ up live album , at the top of the chart , being the first time that a male performer replaces himself at number @-@ one , and the first time since Selena did it in 1995 . According to Sony BMG Norte , with over one million copies sold worldwide , Para Siempre is the most successful release by Vicente Fernández since 2000 . Only seven other recordings by Fernández sold more units in the United States . It was the best @-@ selling Regional Mexican album of 2008 and at the Billboard Top Latin Albums Year @-@ end chart the album ranked at number two , behind Los Extraterrestres by Wisin & Yandel . Para Siempre was purchased on 50 @,@ 000 mobile phones in Mexico , a " novelty " for a regional Mexican album . The album 's success is attributed to a change in the sound ; instead of employing multiple composers and producers as in previous albums , Para Siempre was written and produced entirely by Joan Sebastian . Miguel Trujillo , Sony BMG México CEO , commented about the album , " This album connected to a new generation that probably never listened to Vicente before . " Para Siempre was named the best @-@ selling Regional Mexican album of the decade in the United States .
= = = Singles = = =
On August 10 , 2007 , " Estos Celos " ( " This Jealousy " ) was released in México and United States as the lead single from the album . It peaked at number three in the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks , spent 40 weeks on the chart , . " Estos Celos " ranked 28th in 2007 and 5th in 2008 in the Billboard Hot Regional Mexican Songs Year @-@ end charts and its ringtone has been one on the top two sellers for Sony BMG Norte since the album release . In Colombia , broadcast of a cover version of this single performed by ' El Cape ' Medina and Sneider Geles — recorded in vallenato style and included on the album Por Siempre y Para Siempre — was not allowed by the Colombian Music Association . The song was recorded without a planned commercial release , and the album recorded by Medina and Geles was only given to their friends , but the song unexpectedly achieved success on the Internet and some radio stations in Colombia . ' Cape ' Medina said that the song may have been restricted out of the original Mexican publisher 's jealousy . This version can still be found on file sharing websites and in the video sharing website YouTube . The second single released , " La Derrota " ( " The Defeat " ) , peaked at number seven in the Hot Latin Tracks chart and number one in México and Colombia . The third single , " Para Siempre " , was featured as the main theme for the Mexican telenovela Fuego En La Sangre and hit the number two spot in the Latin charts in United States and number one in México and Colombia . The fourth single yielded from the album was " Un Millón de Primaveras " which did not chart in United States , but peaked at number one in México and Colombia . On the Billboard Year @-@ end charts of 2008 , Vicente Fernández appeared three times within the Top 25 with three singles from this release : the title track ranked at number six , " Estos Celos " at number 10 and " La Derrota " ended at number 25 . The ringtones for " Estos Celos " and " Para Siempre " received a platinum certification for sales over 25 @,@ 000 units .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Joan Sebastian .
= = Personnel = =
The following information is from Allmusic and from Para Siempre liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Karen O 'Connor =
Karen Lende O 'Connor ( born February 17 , 1958 ) is an American equestrian who competes in three day eventing . Although she did not come from a family of equestrians , her interest in horses started at an early age , and she received her first horse for her 11th birthday . O 'Connor began competing internationally in the late 1970s , and in 1986 began riding for the US national eventing team . Since then , she had ridden in five Olympic Games , three World Equestrian Games and two Pan @-@ American Games , winning multiple medals , including a team silver at the 1996 Olympic Games and a team bronze at the 2000 Olympic Games . She has also posted numerous wins and top @-@ 10 finishes at other international events . As of 2013 , O 'Connor is not competing , having suffered fractures to two thoracic vertebrae during a fall at a competition in October 2012 .
In 1993 , O 'Connor married fellow equestrian David O 'Connor , also a three day event rider for the US team . When not competing , she plays active roles in the administration side of the United States Equestrian Federation and the United States Eventing Association ( USEA ) . O 'Connor and her horses have been honored by multiple organizations for their competition record , and as of 2013 , six horses ridden by O 'Connor held positions in the list of the top 50 USEA high scoring horses .
= = Early life and marriage = =
O 'Connor was born in Bolton , Massachusetts , to parents Phillip and Joanne Lende . She was the second child of three , and the only girl ; her two brothers are Steven and Chip . She did not come from a family of equestrians , but became interested in the sport after seeing a documentary on Great Britain 's Princess Anne 's involvement in the sport . For O 'Connor 's 11th birthday , she received a horse named Midnight . She was a member of the United States Pony Clubs , in the Groton Pony Club in the Central New England Region . She has been inducted into the United States Pony Club Hall of Fame . She later owned a Connemara pony named Erin 's Shamrock , who in 1978 was awarded the Camlin Trophy by the American Connemara Pony Society " in recognition of a career of outstanding competitive performance " .
O 'Connor married fellow equestrian David O 'Connor , also an international three day event rider , on June 26 , 1993 . The pair became the first married couple to compete on the same US Olympic equestrian team when they rode with their team to a silver medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . They rode to a second shared medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics , again marking a historical Olympic moment as the first husband and wife duo to do so . They operate equestrian training facilities in The Plains , Virginia and Ocala , Florida .
= = Career = =
O 'Connor began competing internationally in the late 1970s , and in 1986 started riding with the US national eventing team , beginning with the Australian Gawler World Championships , mounted on Lutin V. She won multiple CCI3 * events , including the Rolex Kentucky Three Day and the Fair Hill International , and the CCI4 * at the 1999 Rolex event , riding Prince Panache . During the 1990s , O 'Connor and her horse Biko were mainstays of the US eventing team , riding to multiple top @-@ ten finishes at major international events , including the Badminton Horse Trials and the Rolex Kentucky Three Day . O 'Connor rode at the 1994 World Equestrian Games and the 1998 World Equestrian Games , helping the US team to a bronze medal at the latter . At the 2006 World Equestrian Games she rode Upstage as an individual , but did not compete in the team portion of the event .
O 'Connor has competed in five Olympic Games , representing the US team at all five and also riding as an individual at three . At the 1988 Summer Olympics , riding The Optimist , she posted a DNF ( did not finish ) in both the team and individual portions . At the 1996 Summer Olympics , riding Biko , she and the US team rode to a silver medal . At the 2000 Summer Olympics , riding Prince Panache , O 'Connor and the US team again took a medal , this time bronze . O 'Connor did not ride as an individual at either the 1996 or the 2000 events . In the 2008 Summer Games , riding Mandiba , she placed 44th individually , while the US team took 7th . O 'Connor was not originally scheduled to ride in the 2008 Games , but was moved to a competition spot in July 2008 when teammate Heidi White was forced to withdraw . Four years later , at the 2012 Summer Games , the US team repeated their placing , while O 'Connor improved to 9th , riding Mr. Medicott . Her 9th place finish was the highest rank achieved by a US equestrian at the 2012 Games . O 'Connor was the oldest Olympian to represent the US in any sport at the 2012 Games .
At the 2003 Pan American Games , O 'Connor took an individual silver medal , riding Joker 's Wild . During the 2000s , O 'Connor and her 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) sport pony Theodore O 'Connor , nicknamed Teddy , gathered a large following as he competed and won against much larger horses . The pair finished third at the 2007 Rolex Kentucky Three Day and sixth at the same event in 2008 . At the 2007 Pan American Games , O 'Connor , riding Teddy , won individual gold and assisted the US squad to a team gold . In 2008 , short @-@ listed for the US eventing team at the 2008 Olympic Games , Teddy suffered a catastrophic injury and was euthanized . The United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) issued a press release that stated " Seeing was believing with ‘ Teddy ’ as it seemed impossible to imagine that a pony of his size could do his job with such tremendous ease . " In September 2009 , O 'Connor suffered a broken shoulderblade in a motorcycle accident . She was out of competition for five weeks , during which time her main mount , Mandiba , was ridden by fellow US eventer Phillip Dutton . Between 2010 and 2012 , O 'Connor continued her successful career , riding to multiple top @-@ ten finishes , and several wins , at CCI2 – 4 * events , aboard a number of horses . On October 6 , 2012 , O 'Connor fell while competing at the Morven Park Fall Horse Trials in Leesburg , Virginia . She suffered a burst fracture of her T4 vertebra and a compression fracture of her T5 vertebra . After one of the vertebra shifted , she underwent surgery on October 18 . In June 2013 , it was announced that during the remainder of her recovery , Phillip Dutton would again take over as the rider of her top horse , this time 2012 Olympic mount Mr. Medicott .
When not competing , O 'Connor serves as a member of the USEF 's Board of Directors and as an active member of the United States Eventing Association 's ( USEA ) Instructor Certification Program .
= = = Honors = = =
In 1995 , O 'Connor 's horse Biko was named The Chronicle of the Horse 's Eventing Horse of the Year , and in 1996 , O 'Connor was named the journal 's Eventing Horseman of the Year , in combination with her husband , David . In 1999 , Biko was honored as the USEA 's Horse of the Century , and in 2006 , was inducted into the organization 's Hall of Fame . In 2007 , O 'Connor 's pony Theodore O 'Connor was named The Chronicle of the Horse 's Overall Horse of the Year and Eventing Horse of the Year , as they called him the " horse world 's most adored underdog " . As of 2013 , six horses ridden by O 'Connor ( Upstage , Biko , Prince Panache , Mandiba , Regal Scot and Grand Slam III ) held positions in the list of the top 50 USEA high scoring horses .
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= War of the Antiochene Succession =
The War of the Antiochene Succession , also known as the Antiochene War of Succession , comprised a series of armed conflicts in Northern Syria between 1201 and 1219 , connected to the disputed succession of Bohemond III of Antioch . The Principality of Antioch was the leading Christian power in the region during the last decades of the 12th century , but Armenian Cilicia challenged its supremacy . The capture of an important fortress , Bagras , in Syria by Leo II of Cilicia gave rise to a prolonged conflict already in the early 1190s . Leo tried to capture Antioch , but the Greek and Latin burghers formed a commune and prevented the Armenian soldiers from occupying the town . Bohemond III 's eldest son , Raymond , died in 1197 , leaving an infant son , Raymond @-@ Roupen . The boy 's mother , Alice of Armenia , was Leo I 's niece and heir presumptive . Bohemond III and the Antiochene noblemen confirmed Raymond @-@ Roupen 's right to succeed his grandfather in Antioch , but the commune preferred Bohemond III 's younger son ( Raymond @-@ Roupen 's uncle ) , Bohemond , Count of Tripoli .
Bohemond of Tripoli seized Antioch without resistance after his father died in April 1201 , but many noblemen left the principality to seek refuge in Cilicia . Leo invaded the Principality of Antioch in almost every year between 1201 and 1208 , but he had to return to his kingdom on each occasion because Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi , the Ayyubid emir of Aleppo , or Kaykaus I , the Seljuq sultan of Rum stormed into Cilicia in his absence . Pope Innocent III initially supported Leo . However , the conflict between Leo and the Knights Templar over Bagras led to Leo 's excommunication in 1208 . During the following years , Leo captured new fortresses in Syria , abandoning them in 1213 as part of an effort to improve his relationship with the Holy See . Taking advantage of Bohemond IV 's isolation , Leo entered Antioch , helping Raymond @-@ Roupen seize the principality in 1216 . Before long , Leo abandoned Bagras and lost the Armenian fortresses to the north of the Taurus Mountains to the Seljuqs . Raymond @-@ Roupen increased taxes , which made him unpopular in Antioch . His relationship with Leo also became tense , enabling Bohemond IV to regain Antioch in 1219 . The war contributed to the weakening of the Christian states in Northern Syria .
= = Background = =
After Saladin , the Ayyubid sultan of Syria and Egypt , destroyed the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the late 1180s , the Principality of Antioch became the leading Christian power of Northern Syria . By 1186 Leo II , Lord of Armenian Cilicia , had already acknowledged the suzerainty of Bohemond III of Antioch , but their relationship became tense after Bohemond borrowed money from Leo but failed to repay it .
In 1191 Leo captured and rebuilt Bagras , a strategically important fortress that Saladin had seized from the Knights Templar and then destroyed before abandoning it . Bohemond ordered Leo to return it to the Templars , but Leo refused , stating that his right of recent conquest was stronger that the claim of the Templars who had lost their property . After Bohemond failed include Cilicia in his truce with Saladin in 1192 , Leo invited him to Bagras to start negotiations . Bohemond accepted the offer , but Leo had him captured , forcing him to surrender Antioch . Although the noblemen ( who were closely related to Armenian nobles ) were willing to accept Leo 's rule , the mainly Greek and Latin townspeople formed a commune and prevented the Armenian soldiers from occupying Antioch .
Peace was restored with the mediation of Henry I of Jerusalem , who persuaded both Leo and Bohemond to renounce their claims to suzerainty over each other . Leo 's occupation of Bagras was confirmed . Bohemond 's eldest son , Raymond , married Leo 's niece and heir presumptive , Alice . Raymond died in early 1197 , but his widow give birth to a posthumous son , Raymond @-@ Roupen . The almost sixty @-@ year @-@ old Bohemond III sent Alice and her son to Armenia , showing that he did not want to acknowledge his infant grandson 's right to succeed him in Antioch .
Leo had meanwhile united the Armenian Church in Cilicia with Rome and acknowledged the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry VI . The emperor 's envoy , Conrad of Wittelsbach , Archbishop of Mainz , was present when Leo was crowned the first king of Armenian Cilicia on 6 January 1198 . Before long , Conrad went to Antioch and persuaded Bohemond and his barons to swear an oath to accept Raymund @-@ Roupen 's right to inherit Antioch .
Bohemond III 's younger son ( Raymund @-@ Roupen 's uncle ) , Bohemond , Count of Tripoli , disputed the validity of their oath . He expelled his father from Antioch with the support of the Templars , the Hospitallers and the commune of the burghers in late 1198 . Three months later Leo invaded the Principality of Antioch , forcing the younger Bohemond to allow his father to return to Antioch . Pope Innocent III also supported the restoration of Bohemond III in Antioch , but , responding to the Templars ' demand , he also began urging Leo to restore Bagras to them .
= = War = =
= = = First phase = = =
When Bohemond III died in April , Bohemond of Tripoli hurried to Antioch , where , because he was the late duke 's closest living relative , he was recognized by the commune of the townspeople as his father 's rightful heir . The nobles who had regarded Raymond @-@ Roupen ( the only son of Bohemond III 's eldest son ) the lawful prince , fled to the Kingdom of Cilicia . Bohemond repaid a loan that Raymond III of Tripoli had long before borrowed from the Knights Hospitaller , thus winning them over to his side .
Leo continued to support Raymond @-@ Roupen , which sparked an enduring conflict , with many theatres of war . During the war , neither Leo nor Bohemond IV was able to control his own territory ( Cilicia and Tripoli , respectively ) and Antioch at the same time , due to insufficient forces . Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi , the Ayyubid emir of Aleppo , and the Seljuq rulers of Anatolia were always ready to invade Cilicia , while the Ayyubid rulers of Hama and Homs controlled the territory between Antioch and Tripoli , hindering the movements of Bohemond 's troops between the two crusader states .
Shortly after Bohemond seized Antioch , Leo laid siege to it to press Raymond @-@ Roupen 's cause , but Bohemond 's allies , Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi and Suleiman II , Seljuq Sultan of Rum , stormed into Cilicia , forcing Leo to withdraw in July 1201 . He soon sent letters to Pope Innocent , informing him of Bohemond 's cooperation with the Muslim rulers . Leo again invaded Antioch in 1202 , but Aimery , King of Jerusalem and Cyprus , and the papal legate , Cardinal Soffredo , mediated a truce . After Bohemond IV refused to acknowledge the right of the Holy See to pass judgement in the case of the succession of Antioch , Leo renewed the war . Taking advantage of Bohemond 's absence , Leo entered Antioch on 11 November 1203 , but he was not able to seize the citadel , which was defended by the Templars and the troops of the commune . Before long , Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi again invaded Cilicia , forcing Leo to return to his kingdom .
Renoart of Nephin , who had married an heiress in the County of Tripoli without Bohemond 's consent , rose up against Bohemond in late 1204 . He routed Bohemond at the gates of Tripoli . Leo seized the Antiochene fortresses in the Amanus Mountains , which controlled the road towards Antioch . He laid siege to the fortress at Trapessac on 25 December 1205 , but Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi 's troops routed his army . After crushing Renoart of Nephin 's revolt , Bohemond returned to Antioch , forcing Leo to sign a truce for eight years in summer 1206 .
= = = Conflicts with the Church = = =
A conflict between the new papal legate , Peter of Capua , and the Latin Patriarch of Antioch , Peter of Angoulême , who had become Raymond @-@ Roupen 's supporter , ended with the excommunication of the patriarch . Exploiting the situation to get rid of his opponent , Bohemond replaced Peter of Angoulême with the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch , Symeon II with the support of the commune in early 1207 . Peter of Angoulême was reconciled with the legate , excommunicated Bohemond and the commune , and then persuaded some nobles to rise up against Bohemond , forcing him to take refuge in the citadel . Leo entered Antioch , but Bohemond collected his forces and defeated the Armenians . Peter of Angoulême was captured and died of drink deprivation in his prison .
The Ayyubid sultan , Al @-@ Adil I , stormed into the County of Tripoli , creating an opportunity for Leo to plunder the land around Antioch in 1208 . Bohemond persuaded Kaykaus I , Sultan of Rum , to invade Cilicia , forcing Leo to withdraw from Antioch . Pope Innocent tasked Albert Avogadro , Patriarch of Jerusalem , to mediate a peace . Avogadro , who was an ally of the Knights Templar , urged Leo to return Bagras to them . In an attempt to renew the truce , Leo obeyed the legate 's demand , promising to withdraw from Bagras .
Before long , Leo broke his promise and refused to return Bagras to the Templars . He also decided to terminate the union of the Armenian Church with Rome . On the other hand , he granted fortresses to the Teutonic Knights in Cilicia . He also arranged the marriage of Raymond @-@ Roupen with Helvis , sister of Hugh I of Cyprus . Leo ambushed a caravan which had been transporting provisions to the Templars in 1211 . In the skirmish , Guillaume de Chartres , Grand Master of the Knights Templar , was badly injured . News of Leo 's action shocked Pope Innocent , who forbade all Christian rulers to assist Leo and urged John of Brienne , King of Jerusalem , to intervene on the Templars ' behalf . John sent fifty knights to Northern Syria to fight against Leo . Leo expelled the Latin priests from Cilicia and gave shelter to the Orthodox Patriarch , Symenon , who had been driven out of Antioch . He dispatched Raymond @-@ Roupen to plunder the region of Antioch in 1212 .
Pope Innocent , who had proclaimed a new crusade in 1213 , wanted to persuade Leo to assist the crusaders . In that year , Leo renounced all lands that he had seized from the Templars , but retained Bagras . John of Brienne married Leo 's daughter , Stephanie , in 1214 . During the same period , Bohemond 's position weakened . His attempt to take vengeance on the Assassins for the murder of his eldest son , Raymond , brought him into conflict with his old ally , Az @-@ Zahir Ghazi of Aleppo .
= = = Raymond @-@ Roupen in Antioch = = =
With Leo 's support , Raymond @-@ Roupen began to find new allies , promising land grants to the Hospitallers and Antiochene noblemen , including Acharie of Sermin , the head of the commune of the burghers . Taking advantage of the absence of Bohemond IV , Leo and his army entered Antioch during the night of 14 February 1216 . A few days later , the Templars , who had held the citadel , also surrendered without a struggle . The Latin Patriarch of Antioch , Peter of Ivrea , consecrated Raymond @-@ Roupen prince . After his protégé seized the Principality of Antioch , Leo restored Bagras to the Knights Templar . During Leo 's absence , Kaykaus I captured the Armenian forts to the north of the Taurus Mountains .
After finding an empty treasure in Antioch , Raymond @-@ Roupen increased taxation , which made him unpopular among his subjects . He also refused to assist Leo against the Seljuqs . In 1217 , Raymond @-@ Roupen tried to capture Leo , but the Templars assisted Leo to flee to Cilicia . Bohemond visited John , King of Jerusalem , in Acre in autumn 1217 . John recognized Bohemond as the lawful prince of Antioch early the next year , but did not provide him with military assistance .
The burghers and noblemen of Antioch rose up against Raymond @-@ Roupen . Their leader , William Farabel , persuaded Bohemond to come back to the town . After Bohemond 's arrival , Raymond @-@ Roupen at first sought refuge in the citadel but soon fled to Cilicia , granting the citadel to the Hospitallers . Raymond @-@ Roupen could never regain Antioch , thus the war " came to a rather unspectacular end " .
= = Aftermath = =
Leo was dying when Raymond @-@ Roupen came to Cilicia . Leo did not forgive his great @-@ nephew and willed Cilicia to his five @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Isabella , in May 1219 . Both Raymond @-@ Roupen ( the grandson of Leo 's elder brother , Rupen ) and John , King of Jerusalem ( the husband of Leo 's eldest daughter , Stephanie ) refused to accept Leo 's last will , claiming Cilicia for themselves . The new conflict lasted for decades , further weakening the Christian states of Northern Syria .
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= Peter Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood =
Sir Peter Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood , 1st Baronet , ( 9 May 1801 – 12 April 1866 ) was an English landowner , developer and Member of Parliament , who founded the town of Fleetwood , in Lancashire , England . Born Peter Hesketh , he changed his name by Royal assent to Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood , incorporating the name of his ancestors , and was later created Baronet Fleetwood . Predeceased by an older brother , he inherited estates in west Lancashire in 1824 . Inspired by the transport developments of the early 19th century , he decided to bring the railway to the Lancashire coast and develop a holiday resort and port . He hired architect Decimus Burton to design his new town , which he named Fleetwood ; construction began in 1836 . Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood was instrumental in the formation of the Preston and Wyre Railway Company and with his financial support , a railway line was built between Preston and Fleetwood which opened in 1840 .
Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood married twice and had several children , most of whom died in infancy . His new town flourished , but the expense of building it left him close to bankruptcy and forced him to sell most of his estates including Rossall Hall , which had been his family home . He left Lancashire and died in London , succeeded by his son Louis .
= = Early life and family = =
Peter Hesketh was born in 1801 at Wennington Hall , in Wennington , near Lancaster , the second son of Robert and Maria ( née Rawlinson ) Hesketh . He had an older brother , Edward , a younger brother , Charles , and a younger sister , Anna . He was descended ( through his paternal grandmother ) from the Fleetwood family who had owned the large Rossall estate in West Lancashire for over 200 years . Robert inherited the estate in 1819 on the death of his elder brother , Bold , and the family relocated to the manor house , Rossall Hall , on the Fylde coast . On Robert 's death in 1824 , the estate passed to Peter , his elder brother Edward having predeceased him in 1820 . By that time the family 's land extended from Heysham in the north , to North Meols , near Southport , in the south , and encompassed most of the Fylde .
Hesketh was educated , along with his younger brother Charles , at Trinity College , Oxford . Although Charles was a studious young man , who planned to enter the church on graduation , Peter had an active social life in both Oxford and London . He holidayed in southern resorts including St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea , a new development in Sussex , where he admired the work of architect James Burton . He became close friends with Burton 's son Decimus , who was also an architect . The two men were involved in the formation of London 's Athenaeum Club and Burton designed the club 's building in Pall Mall . Hesketh received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1823 and his Master of Arts degree in 1826 . That same year , he married Eliza Debonnaire Metcalfe , the daughter of Sir Theophilus Metcalfe , 2nd Baronet , commonly known by her middle name . Debonnaire 's father gave the couple a house in Dover , but they also spent time at the Rossall estate . The couple were very close to Charles and his new wife Anna , and their sister Anna , and her husband Thomas Knowlys . Charles was ordained in 1828 and as patron of St Chad 's Church in Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde , Peter presented his brother with that curacy .
Hesketh enjoyed looking after the Rossall estate ( which had no steward or agent ) , but struggled to keep on top of finances ; he was an indulgent landlord . He became an enthusiastic member of the Lancashire Agricultural Society and was concerned about the fate of local farm workers who were losing their jobs because of increased mechanisation . Hesketh was gradually becoming more interested in the lives and conditions of the working classes .
The Heskeths ' first child , Anna Maria ( known as Maria to distinguish her from three close relatives named Anna ) , was born in 1827 . Three more children — named Metcalfe Bold , Debonnaire and Frances — all died in infancy . In 1831 Hesketh changed his name by royal licence to Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood , incorporating the better @-@ known family name of his ancestors into his own . Debonnaire contracted tuberculosis and died in early 1833 . Shortly before Debonnaire 's death Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood contracted scarlet fever . This was followed by erysipelas , a bacterial infection so severe that it necessitated the removal of one of his eyes . At the end of the year , the Rossall estate was severely flooded and suffered damage costing about £ 3 @,@ 000 to repair . Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood subsequently spent very little time at Rossall .
In 1837 in Belgium , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood married Virginie Marie Garcia , the daughter of a Spanish nobleman . Maria , his daughter with Debonnaire , contracted tuberculosis and died in 1838 at Regent 's Park , aged 11 . She was interred in a glass coffin in the family vault at St Chad 's , Poulton . Around the same time as Maria 's death , Virginie gave birth to a son , Peter Louis . In 1841 , on the death of his aunt , Anna Maria Hesketh , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood succeeded to Tulketh Hall in Preston .
= = Politics = =
Hesketh was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire in 1830 . In 1831 he was invited to stand as a Tory Party candidate for the constituency of Preston . He had similar views to Tory statesman Robert Peel and readily agreed to stand . Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood opposed monopolies , slavery and capital punishment and was in favour of reforming the Corn Laws . At the 1832 general election , he was elected — along with his friend , Henry Stanley — Member of Parliament for Preston , in the first parliament following the Reform Act . He made his maiden speech to parliament in 1834 .
Queen Victoria came to the throne in 1837 , and in June the following year Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood was knighted in the Coronation honours list and created Baronet Fleetwood . He remained MP for Preston until the 1847 general election , although towards the end of his parliamentary career he was recorded as a Liberal MP . In 1840 he translated Victor Hugo 's pamphlet , The Last Day of a Condemned Man , with a foreword entitled " Observations on capital punishment " that made clear Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood 's abolitionist stance on the issue .
= = Development of Fleetwood = =
As a student holidaying in coastal towns , Hesketh had become aware of the lack of resorts in Lancashire . He was concerned that the working classes of Lancashire could not afford to travel south for their holidays as wealthy people like him could . The number of railways in Great Britain steadily increased in the first half of the 19th century , and Hesketh was impressed by the arrival in 1828 of the steam locomotive in Lancashire . As High Sheriff of Lancashire , he attended the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway on 15 December 1830 . The event filled him with great excitement at the idea of bringing the railway to the coast and enabling Lancashire mill workers to take day @-@ trips to the seaside .
As he discussed the idea with his brother Charles , Hesketh soon realised that day @-@ trippers would need certain facilities that were not yet available , and decided that a new town would need to be built . He initially planned to site his town and railway terminus near the village of Thornton , but it was not close enough to the coast for his liking . He eventually decided on Rossall Point , a small peninsula north of Rossall Hall , at the mouth of the River Wyre , which was then an uninhabited rabbit warren . Although bleak and waterlogged , the area had views of Morecambe Bay and the Lake District .
Hesketh was influenced in the early planning stages by his friends , including mill owners Samuel Fielden and Benjamin Whitworth . They pointed out that mill workers would not wish to make day trips to the seaside all year round , and wondered how the people of the new town would be occupied during the winter months . They encouraged Hesketh to build a new port ; because charges at Liverpool were on the rise , and there were no reasonable alternatives for Manchester mill owners , both Whitworth and Fielden agreed that they would make good use of a port on the Fylde coast . Hesketh soon found that he was not the only one thinking of extending the railway , or of building a new port . He had competition from the residents of Lytham , a village about 13 miles ( 21 km ) south of Rossall , at the mouth of the River Ribble . They were already planning the formation of the Preston Port Company ; Hesketh acted quickly and applied to the official railway committee to have a port built on the River Wyre . The committee agreed to hear all applications .
Charles met Frederick Kemp , a land agent newly arrived in Poulton from his native Essex , and introduced him to his brother , who was on the lookout for a steward or agent . Kemp , well @-@ dressed and charming , made a good impression on Hesketh , who employed him immediately . At the meeting of the railway committee Hesketh put forward a persuasive argument . Despite opposition from the Lytham contingent the committee decided that Rossall Point was the best place for the railway terminus to be built , and the Railway and Port Company was formed . In the early 19th century it was thought that steam locomotives would be unable to negotiate hilly terrain , and that Lake District hills like Shap Fell would prevent the railway from reaching Scotland . The Fylde terminus would have even more importance than Hesketh had hoped , providing a sea link for passengers from London to travel on to Scotland . Initially Hesketh had considered naming his new town New Liverpool or Wyreton , but after changing his name to Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood in 1831 he decided to call it Fleetwood . With a new career in parliament to prepare for , he readily handed over financial management of the project to his manager , Frederick Kemp .
After Debonnaire 's death in 1833 , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood immersed himself in his development plans . Southport , a town he owned much of , was becoming a popular sea bathing resort , and Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood organised the construction of a promenade . He was becoming concerned over delays on the part of the Railway and Port Company and decided to get on with building Fleetwood . He hired his old friend Decimus Burton , who had become a successful architect , and together they discussed what buildings would be required . Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood wanted a church , docks , housing , a gas office , a school and a hotel . Burton agreed that a hotel would be important for passengers to spend the night before travelling on to Scotland . Because those passengers would be arriving from Euston railway station in London , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood decided to call the hotel the North Euston Hotel . Burton 's plans were ready by 1835 .
In 1835 , still frustrated by the lack of activity on the part of the Railway and Port Company , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood organised the formation of the Preston and Wyre Railway Company to raise the funds required to bring the railway to Fleetwood . The estimated cost was £ 122 @,@ 000 . The company obtained Royal assent to start construction , with an underwritten guarantee from Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood . The following year Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood and Burton oversaw the marking out of Fleetwood 's first street , and the first railway lines were laid .
By 1838 it had become clear that construction costs for the town were spiralling out of control . To make matters worse , the railway 's engineer informed Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood that the cost of the railway was expected to exceed £ 300 @,@ 000 . The company had also sold far fewer shares than had been hoped . Frederick Kemp was collecting rents and rates from tenants , and Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood repeatedly asked him for money to pay some of the mounting bills . Kemp , a more forceful character than his employer , kept claiming that there was no money . Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood turned to his brother Charles and asked him to get £ 4 @,@ 000 out of Kemp . Charles was more assertive , but Kemp said that the money had been spent on workers ' wages and produced yet more invoices that needed to be paid . During Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood 's many absences from the Fylde , Kemp managed to involve himself in a number of enterprises in the town , to his own financial advantage . The railway was taking longer than expected and , with mounting debts , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood grew increasingly depressed and began to withdraw from society .
Construction of the railway was finally completed in 1840 , and in July the Preston and Wyre Railway opened . The following year St Peter 's Church was finished , and Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood appointed as vicar the Rev. St. Vincent Beechey of Hilgay in Norfolk . Also in 1841 , the North Euston was the fourth hotel to open in the town . Steamer services opened to the Isle of Man , Whitehaven , Ardrossan and Belfast . Fleetwood initially flourished , but Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood had run out of money and was compelled to take out mortgages . He lost the £ 75 @,@ 000 he had invested in the Preston and Wyre Railway Company owing to a lack of accounts . Kemp claimed that Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood owed him money , but Kemp refused to explain his book @-@ keeping . In the face of enormous debts Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood sold his estates at Blackpool , Southport , Meols Hall , and Tulketh Hall . Charles bought the Churchtown estate , where he and his wife had been living , from his brother . In 1844 Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood auctioned off his personal possessions from Rossall Hall and left Lancashire . The Rev. St. Vincent Beechey had set up the Northern Church of England School for boys . Close to bankruptcy , Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood leased the buildings at Rossall Hall to the school for six years , with the option to buy it after nine for £ 7 @,@ 000 . Thereafter , the school was called Rossall School .
Fleetwood continued to grow without its principal investor , albeit slowly . As a port , it soon faced competition from Lytham and Preston . In 1847 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert travelled through Fleetwood on their way to London from Scotland , but that year saw the decline of the town 's importance on the route to Scotland . More powerful locomotives were now able to travel over hilly terrain , and the railway was extended over Shap Fell all the way to Scotland ; Fleetwood was no longer needed as a sea link .
= = Later life and death = =
Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood moved to London with Virginie and their son Louis . He rarely visited Lancashire again , and in 1847 he retired from politics . The family spent some time living in Virginie 's home country , Spain . In 1861 Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood expressed an intention to return to politics , but was prevented from doing so by his failing health . He died at his home in Piccadilly , London on 12 April 1866 , following a lengthy illness . He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery . His son Rev. Peter Louis Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood ( 1838 – 1880 ) succeeded to the baronetcy , which became extinct on his death . What was left of Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood 's land in Lancashire was bought by the Fleetwood Estate Company in 1875 .
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= Entren Los Que Quieran =
Entren Los Que Quieran ( English : Enter Those Who Want to ) is the fourth studio album from Puerto Rican band Calle 13 , released on November 22 , 2010 . Recorded in the wake of controversial events surrounding the group , the album contains more political lyrical themes not discussed on previous Calle 13 releases . It also expands upon the musical experimentation demonstrated in the group 's albums Residente o Visitante ( 2007 ) and Los de Atrás Vienen Conmigo ( 2008 ) . The record features various stylistic elements in its compositions , including rock , ska , merengue , reggaeton , and Bollywood music .
The album received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised the record 's diverse musical experimentation . Entren Los Que Quieran impacted several charts internationally , peaking at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and number 25 on the Billboard Rap Albums chart . The record spawned seven singles , including " Latinoamérica " , which reached the top ten of both the Billboard Latin Digital Songs and Latin Rhythm Digital Songs charts . The record won a total of nine Latin Grammy Awards including Album of the Year . It was also nominated for a Grammy in the Best Latin , Pop , Rock or Urban Album category at the 2012 Grammys .
= = Background and recording = =
Drawing influence from a more diverse array of musical styles than Residente o Visitante ( 2007 ) , Calle 13 released Los de Atrás Vienen Conmigo in 2008 , which experimented with genres such as samba , candombe , and electronica . The album won five Latin Grammys at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2009 including " Album of the Year " . The group generated controversy when vocalist / lyricist Residente was hosting the 2009 MTV Latin America Awards and attempted to inform the audience about a strike in Puerto Rico in protest of governor Luis Fortuño 's cutting of thousands of government jobs , one of which belonged to Residente 's mother . During the ceremony , he referred to Fortuño as a " son of a whore " , which generated widespread anger towards the group . Reflecting on the incident " I was upset , really upset . But I 'm a little more strategic now - I want to speak the truth , but I don 't want to diminish the merits of what I 'm saying . "
Calle 13 once again became the subject of debate when the duo traveled to Cuba in March 2010 to perform in front of the American embassy in the country . Before the show , a political prisoner had died in a hunger strike in protest of the Cuban government , and Cuban exiles in Miami criticized the group for performing at such a time . Residente defended the performance , noting that it had been inaccurately reported and that " we said things that no artist had said from the stage , like ' here the people are in charge , and the government has to obey . ' " These events had a major impact on Residente 's lyrical style and the subjects he planned to discuss on the new album : " What 's making me more mature is not about my age , it 's about what I 'm seeing and living . I 'm not saying things carelessly anymore . I 'm thinking before I say them . "
Recording sessions for the album took place at Playbach Studios and Música Satánica Studios in San Juan , Puerto Rico , as well as Circle House Studios in Miami , Florida . It was mixed at Circle House Studios and Zeitgeist Sound Studios in Long Island , New York . The phrase " entren los que quieran " has been translated as " everyone is welcome " . Visitante explained that the title of the album means that " Everyone ’ s invited to enter . If you don ’ t want to , well don ’ t . " Ed Morales of NY Daily News interpreted the album 's title as " an invitation to like @-@ minded Latino youth to a safe space for rebellion . " The album 's artwork features illustrations of explosives ; Billboard writer Judy Cantor Navas opined that this " simultaneously exceeded and parodied [ Calle 13 's ] reputation as provocateur " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Visitante , who composed and performed the music on the record , stated that the album continues to experiment with different styles of music . He noted that the group 's collaboration with Omar Rodríguez @-@ López from The Mars Volta on " Calma Pueblo " gives the song a " Beastie Boys vibe . " Rodríguez @-@ López 's guitar work on the track has been categorized as " vicious " and is said to match the violence in the song 's lyrics " at every turn " . " Baile de los Pobres " contains elements of Bollywood music and reggaeton , while the atmospheric qualities of " La Bala " have been compared to spaghetti western film soundtracks . " Vamo ' a Portarnos Mal " features ska and merengue @-@ influenced rhythms . Visitante employs a ukulele on " Muerte en Hawaii " , a song that contains a " cool beach sound " . " Latinoamérica " has been described as " folkloric " and features guest vocals from Susana Baca , from Peru , Totó la Momposina , from Colombia , and Maria Rita , from Brazil .
With the lyrics on Entren Los Que Quieran , Residente took a more political approach , inspired by events that transpired after the last album . " Calma Pueblo " discusses various topics including dishonest politicians , lip @-@ synching in live performances , and payola . Residente also references Calle 13 's sponsors with the line " Adidas doesn 't use me , I use Adidas . " Residente originally wrote eight pages of lyrics for " Calma Pueblo " , but later " deleted and deleted " many of the words , as he felt that the song 's subject matter " can come off like cheap pamphleteering . And that 's not what I wanted to do . " " Digo Lo Que Pienso " has been labeled as a " scathing attack " on San Juan mayor Jorge Santini .
" Latinoamérica " is a celebration of Latin America and its culture as well as a statement against United States intervention in the region ; in the song , Residente vows that he will " never forget " Operation Condor . " La Bala " illustrates the pathway of a bullet as a means to denounce violence . According to Visitante , " Prepárame la Cena " is about " being imprisoned " , adding , " Sometimes you can be imprisoned and still be outside . " " Baile De Los Pobres " has been described as a " lust song " with subject matter comparable to Billy Joel 's " working @-@ class desires " in his 1983 song " Uptown Girl " . Residente 's " gentler side " is displayed on " La Vuelta al Mundo " , where he describes a trip around the world to escape the monotonous nature of working in an office cubicle .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
Entren Los Que Quieran peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart , remaining on the chart for 25 weeks . It also peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Rap Albums chart , remaining on the chart for one week , as well as number 199 on the magazine 's Top Current Albums chart . The record peaked at number one in Argentina , number 22 in Mexico , and number 90 in Spain .
" Calma Pueblo " was the first single to be released from the album which was released on August 9 , 2010 . " Vamo ' A Portarnos Mal " was the second single released from the album which peaked at # 32 on the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay , # 21 on the Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay , and # 11 on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Airplay charts . " Digo Lo Que Pienso " peaked at # 16 on the Latin Rhythm Digital Songs . " Baile de los Pobres " was the fourth single to be released from the album on February 21 , 2011 . The fifth single , " Muerte en Hawaii " , peaked at # 33 on the Latin Pop Airplay and # 11 on the Latin Rhythm Airplay charts . " Latinoamerica " peaked at # 9 on the Billboard Latin Digital Songs and # 3 on the Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart . " La Vuelta al Mundo " was the last single from the album which peaked at # 14 on the Latin Rhythm Airplay chart and # 44 in Mexico .
= = = Critical = = =
Entren Los Que Quieran received generally positive reviews from critics . Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A- grade , writing , " Igniting their agitprop songs with Bollywood , Hawaiian , hip @-@ hop , and Latin styles on Entren Los Que Quieran , they ’ ll make you want to bomb any radio station that won ’ t play rock en español . " Mariano Prunes of Allmusic gave Entren Los Que Quieran three and a half stars out of five , and felt that while the album was strong overall , the shock value employed in the group 's earlier records had become less impactful : " As the album progresses , while the beats remain strong and the lyrics clever , this maximum @-@ impact approach tends to eventually exhaust itself . " Jasmine Garsd of NPR praised the album and referred to the song " Latinoamérica " as " a gorgeous ode to Latinos everywhere " . Garsd commented on the band 's appeal to Latin American listeners , explaining " They are fighters who endure and struggle against the very real horrors of Latin America . But part of their defiance lies in the ability to have fun , to be funny and sexy in spite of these horrors . "
Bill Friskics @-@ Warren of The Washington Post recommended the album , particularly the tracks " Calma Pueblo , " " La Bala , " and " Vamo ' a Portarnos Mal " , and applauded Visitante 's musical diversity , calling his compositions " as globally conscious as the band 's message . " Judy Cantor @-@ Navas of Billboard called " La Bala " the album 's " most affecting " track , and wrote that " Calle 13 's fierce brand of first @-@ person social commentary and all @-@ terrain rebellion transmits as honest and even brave , even if Perez 's defensive swagger can become tiresome . " Melissa MacEwen of The Tufts Daily gave the album four out of five stars , commending the album 's cohesiveness and calling the album a " highly listenable album valuable for both its witty lyrics and song structures , and its definitively dance − worthy feel " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Entren Los Que Quieran received ten nominations at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2011 — a record for Latin Grammy nominations . Jon Pareles of the Los Angeles Times opined that the group 's eclectic musical experimentation helped the band qualify for multiple categories , including Urban , Alternative , and Tropical . The record won " Album of the Year " , the group 's second release in a row to win the award , after Los de Atrás Vienen Conmigo ( 2008 ) . The group also won Best Urban album , Best Urban Song for " Baile de los Pobres " , and both Record of the Year ( for recording ) and Song of the Year ( for songwriting ) for " Latinoamérica " . The album also received a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Pop , Rock or Urban Album . In Mexico , the album received two nominations for the Oye ! Awards for Album of the Year and Latin Urban Album of the Year , while " Prepárame la Cena " was nominated for Song of the Year from a Telenovela show .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Residente , all music composed by Visitante .
= = Tour = =
= = Chart performance = =
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= Apollo 17 =
Apollo 17 was the final mission of NASA 's Apollo program , the enterprise that landed the first humans on the Moon . Launched at 12 : 33 am Eastern Standard Time ( EST ) on December 7 , 1972 , with a crew made up of Commander Eugene Cernan , Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans , and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt , it was the last use of Apollo hardware for its original purpose ; after Apollo 17 , extra Apollo spacecraft were used in the Skylab and Apollo – Soyuz programs .
Apollo 17 was the first night launch of a U.S. human spaceflight and the final manned launch of a Saturn V rocket . It was a " J @-@ type mission " which included three days on the lunar surface , extended scientific capability , and the third Lunar Roving Vehicle ( LRV ) . While Evans remained in lunar orbit in the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) , Cernan and Schmitt spent just over three days on the moon in the Taurus – Littrow valley and completed three moonwalks , taking lunar samples and deploying scientific instruments . Evans took scientific measurements and photographs from orbit using a Scientific Instruments Module mounted in the Service Module .
The landing site was chosen with the primary objectives of Apollo 17 in mind : to sample lunar highland material older than the impact that formed Mare Imbrium , and investigate the possibility of relatively new volcanic activity in the same area . Cernan , Evans and Schmitt returned to Earth on December 19 after a 12 @-@ day mission .
Apollo 17 is the most recent manned Moon landing and was the last time humans travelled beyond low Earth orbit . It was also the first mission to be commanded by a person with no background as a test pilot , and the first to have no one on board who had been a test pilot ; X @-@ 15 test pilot Joe Engle lost the lunar module pilot assignment to Schmitt , a scientist . The mission broke several records : the longest moon landing , longest total extravehicular activities ( moonwalks ) , largest lunar sample , and longest time in lunar orbit .
= = Crew = =
Eugene Cernan , Ronald Evans , and former X @-@ 15 pilot Joe Engle were assigned to the backup crew of Apollo 14 . Engle flew sixteen X @-@ 15 flights , three of which exceeded the 50 mi ( 80 km ) border of space . Following the rotation pattern that a backup crew would fly as the prime crew three missions later , Cernan , Evans , and Engle would have flown Apollo 17 . Harrison Schmitt served on the backup crew of Apollo 15 and , following the crew rotation cycle , was slated to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 18 . However , Apollo 18 was cancelled in September 1970 . Following this decision , the scientific community pressured NASA to assign a geologist to an Apollo landing , as opposed to a pilot trained in geology . In light of this pressure , Harrison Schmitt , a professional geologist , was assigned the Lunar Module Pilot position on Apollo 17 . Scientist @-@ astronaut Curt Michel believed that it was his own decision to resign , after it became clear that he would not be given a flight assignment , that mobilized this action .
Subsequent to the decision to assign Schmitt to Apollo 17 , there remained the question of which crew ( the full backup crew of Apollo 15 , Dick Gordon , Vance Brand , and Schmitt , or the backup crew of Apollo 14 ) would become prime crew of the mission . NASA Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton ultimately assigned the backup crew of Apollo 14 ( Cernan and Evans ) , along with Schmitt , to the prime crew of Apollo 17 .
= = = Backup crew = = =
= = = = Original = = = =
= = = = Replacement = = = =
The Apollo 15 prime crew received the backup assignment since this was to be the last lunar mission and the backup crew would not rotate to another mission . However , when the Apollo 15 postage stamp incident became public in early 1972 the crew was reprimanded by NASA and the United States Air Force ( they were active duty officers ) . Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton removed them from flight status and replaced them with Young and Duke from the Apollo 16 prime crew and Roosa from the Apollo 14 prime and Apollo 16 backup crews .
= = = Support crew = = =
Robert F. Overmyer
Robert A. Parker
C. Gordon Fullerton
= = = Mission insignia = = =
The insignia 's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god Apollo backdropped by a rendering of an American eagle , the red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the flag of the United States . Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmen of the mission . The background includes the Moon , the planet Saturn and a galaxy or nebula . The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon , suggesting man 's established presence there . The gaze of Apollo and the direction of the eagle 's motion embody man 's intention to explore further destinations in space .
The patch includes , along with the colors of the U.S. flag ( red , white , and blue ) , the color gold , representative of a " golden age " of spaceflight that was to begin with Apollo 17 . The image of Apollo in the mission insignia is a rendering of the Apollo Belvedere sculpture . The insignia was designed by Robert McCall , with input from the crew .
= = Planning and training = =
Like Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 , Apollo 17 was slated to be a " J @-@ mission , " an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days , higher scientific capability , and the usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle . Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program , high @-@ priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration . A landing in the crater Copernicus was considered , but was ultimately rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact , and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited the vicinity of Mare Imbrium . A landing in the lunar highlands near the crater Tycho was also considered , but was rejected because of the rough terrain found there and a landing on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication during surface operations . A landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was also considered , but rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site ; Luna 20 eventually did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made .
After the elimination of several sites , three sites made the final consideration for Apollo 17 : Alphonsus crater , Gassendi crater , and the Taurus @-@ Littrow valley . In making the final landing site decision , mission planners took into consideration the primary objectives for Apollo 17 : obtaining old highlands material from a substantial distance from Mare Imbrium , sampling material from young volcanic activity ( i.e. , less than three billion years ) , and having minimal ground overlap with the orbital ground tracks of Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 to maximize the amount of new data obtained .
The Taurus @-@ Littrow site was selected with the prediction that the crew would be able to obtain samples of old highland material from the remnants of a landslide event that occurred on the south wall of the valley and the possibility of relatively young , explosive volcanic activity in the area . Although the valley is similar to the landing site of Apollo 15 in that it is on the border of a lunar mare , the advantages of Taurus @-@ Littrow were believed to outweigh the drawbacks , thus leading to its selection as the Apollo 17 landing site .
Apollo 17 was the only lunar landing mission to carry the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment ( TGE ) , an experiment built by Draper Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology designed to provide relative gravity measurements throughout the landing site at various locations during the mission 's moonwalks . Scientists would then use this data to gather information about the geological substructure of the landing site and the surrounding vicinity .
As with previous lunar landings , the Apollo 17 astronauts underwent an extensive training program that included training to collect samples on the surface , usage of the spacesuits , navigation in the Lunar Roving Vehicle , field geology training , survival training , splashdown and recovery training , and equipment training .
= = Mission hardware and experiments = =
= = = Traverse Gravimeter = = =
Apollo 17 was the only Apollo lunar landing mission to carry the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment . As gravimeters had proven to be useful in the geologic investigation of the Earth , the objective of this experiment was to determine the feasibility of using the same techniques on the Moon to learn about its internal structure . The gravimeter was used to obtain readings at the landing site in the immediate vicinity of the Lunar Module ( LM ) , as well as various locations on the mission 's traverse routes . The TGE was carried on the Lunar Roving Vehicle ; measurements were taken by the astronauts while the LRV was not in motion or after the gravimeter was placed on the surface .
A total of twenty @-@ six measurements were taken with the TGE during the mission 's three moonwalks , with productive results . As part of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package ( ALSEP ) , the astronauts also deployed the Lunar Surface Gravimeter , a similar experiment , which ultimately failed to function properly .
= = = Scientific Instrument Module = = =
Sector one of the Apollo 17 Service Module ( SM ) contained the Scientific Instrument Module ( SIM ) bay . The SIM bay housed three experiments for use in lunar orbit : a lunar sounder , an infrared scanning radiometer , and a far @-@ ultraviolet spectrometer . A mapping camera , panoramic camera , and a laser altimeter were also included in the SIM bay .
The lunar sounder beamed electromagnetic impulses toward the lunar surface , which were designed with the objective of obtaining data to assist in developing a geological model of the interior of the Moon to an approximate depth of 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) .
The Infrared Scanning Radiometer was designed with the objective of generating a temperature map of the lunar surface to aid in locating surface features such as rock fields , structural differences in the lunar crust , and volcanic activity .
The Far @-@ Ultraviolet Spectrometer was to be used to obtain data pertaining to the composition , density , and constituency of the lunar atmosphere . The spectrometer was also designed to detect far @-@ UV radiation emitted by the Sun that has been reflected off the lunar surface .
The Laser Altimeter was designed with the intention of measuring the altitude of the spacecraft above the lunar surface within approximately two meters ( 6 @.@ 5 feet ) , and providing altitude information to the panoramic and mapping cameras .
= = = Light flash phenomenon = = =
Throughout the Apollo lunar missions , the crew members observed light flashes that penetrated closed eyelids . These flashes , described as " streaks " or " specks " of light , were usually observed by astronauts while the spacecraft was darkened during a sleep period . These flashes , while not observed on the lunar surface , would average about two per minute and were observed by the crew members during the trip out to the Moon , back to Earth , and in lunar orbit .
The Apollo 17 crew conducted an experiment , also conducted on Apollo 16 , with the objective of linking these light flashes with cosmic rays . As part of an experiment conducted by NASA and the University of Houston , one astronaut wore a device that recorded the time , strength , and path of high @-@ energy atomic particles that penetrated the device . Analysis of the results concluded that the evidence supported the hypothesis that the flashes occurred when charged particles travelled through the retina in the eye .
= = = Surface Electrical Properties Experiment = = =
Apollo 17 was the only lunar surface expedition to include the Surface Electrical Properties ( SEP ) experiment . The experiment included two major components : a transmitting antenna deployed near the Lunar Module and a receiving antenna located on the Lunar Roving Vehicle . At different stops during the mission 's traverses , electrical signals traveled from the transmitting device , through the ground , and received at the LRV . The electrical properties of the lunar soil could be determined by comparison of the transmitted and received electrical signals . The results of this experiment , which are consistent with lunar rock composition , show that the top 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the Moon are extremely dry .
= = = Lunar Roving Vehicle = = =
Apollo 17 was the third mission ( the others being Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 ) to make use of a Lunar Roving Vehicle . The LRV , in addition to being used by the astronauts for transport from station to station on the mission 's three moonwalks , was used to transport the astronauts ' tools , communications equipment , and samples . The Apollo 17 LRV was also used to carry experiments unique to the mission , such as the Traverse Gravimeter and Surface Electrical Properties experiment . The Apollo 17 LRV traveled a cumulative distance of approximately 35 @.@ 9 km ( 22 @.@ 3 mi ) in a total drive time of about four hours and twenty @-@ six minutes ; the greatest distance Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt traveled from the Lunar Module was about 7 @.@ 6 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) .
= = = Biological cosmic ray experiment = = =
Apollo 17 included a biological cosmic ray experiment ( BIOCORE ) , carrying mice that had been implanted with radiation monitors to see whether they suffered damage from cosmic rays .
Five pocket mice ( Perognathus longimembris ) were implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps and flown on the mission . The species was chosen because it was well @-@ documented , small , easy to maintain in an isolated state ( not requiring drinking water for the duration of the mission and with highly concentrated waste ) , and for its ability to withstand environmental stress . Four of the five mice survived the flight ; the cause of death of the fifth mouse was not determined .
The study found lesions in the scalp itself and liver . The scalp lesions and liver lesions appeared to be unrelated to one another , and were not thought to be the result of cosmic rays . No damage was found in the mice 's retinas or viscera . At the time of the publication of the Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report , the mouse brains had not yet been examined . However , subsequent studies showed no significant effect on the brains .
Officially , the mice — four male and one female — were assigned the identification numbers A3326 , A3400 , A3305 , A3356 and A3352 . Unofficially , according to Cernan , the Apollo 17 crew dubbed them " Fe " , " Fi " , " Fo " , " Fum " and " Phooey " .
= = Mission highlights = =
= = = Launch and outbound trip = = =
Apollo 17 was launched at 12 : 33 am EST on December 7 , 1972 , from launch pad 39 @-@ A at the Kennedy Space Center . It was the last manned Saturn V launch and the only night launch . The launch was delayed by two hours and forty minutes due to an automatic cutoff in the launch sequencer at the T @-@ 30 second mark in the countdown . The issue was quickly determined to be a minor technical error . The clock was reset and held at the T @-@ 22 minute mark while technicians worked around the malfunction in order to continue with the launch . This pause was the only launch delay in the Apollo program caused by this type of hardware failure . The count resumed and the rocket lifted off achieving a normal low Earth orbit .
Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people were estimated to have observed the launch in the immediate vicinity of Kennedy Space Center , despite the early morning hour . The launch was visible as far away as 800 km ( 500 mi ) ; observers in Miami , Florida , saw a " red streak " crossing the northern sky .
At 3 : 46 am EST , the S @-@ IVB third stage was re @-@ ignited to propel the spacecraft towards the Moon .
At approximately 2 : 47 pm EST on December 10 , the Service Propulsion System engine on the Command / Service Module ignited to slow down the CSM / Lunar Module stack into lunar orbit . Following orbit insertion and orbital stabilization , the crew began preparations for landing in the Taurus @-@ Littrow valley .
= = = Moon landing = = =
After separating from the Command / Service Module , the Lunar Module Challenger and its crew of two , Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt , adjusted their orbit and began preparations for the descent to Taurus @-@ Littrow . While Cernan and Schmitt prepared for landing , Command Module Pilot Ron Evans remained in orbit to take observations , perform experiments and await the return of his crew @-@ mates a few days later .
Soon after completing their preparations for landing , Cernan and Schmitt began their descent to the Taurus @-@ Littrow valley on the lunar surface . Several minutes after the descent phase was initiated , the Lunar Module pitched over , giving the crew their first look at the landing site during the descent phase and allowing Cernan to guide the spacecraft to a desirable landing target while Schmitt provided data from the flight computer essential for landing . The LM touched down on the lunar surface at 2 : 55 pm EST on December 11 . Shortly thereafter , the two astronauts began re @-@ configuring the LM for their stay on the surface and began preparations for the first moonwalk of the mission , or EVA @-@ 1 .
= = = Lunar surface = = =
The first moonwalk ( EVA ) of the mission began approximately four hours after landing , at about 6 : 55 pm on December 11 . The first task of the first lunar excursion was to offload the Lunar Roving Vehicle and other equipment from the Lunar Module . While working near the rover , a fender was accidentally broken off when Gene Cernan brushed up against it , his hammer getting caught under the right @-@ rear fender , breaking off the rear extension . The same incident had also occurred on Apollo 16 as Commander John Young maneuvered around the rover . Although this was not a mission @-@ critical issue , the loss of the fender caused Cernan and Schmitt to be covered with dust thrown up when the rover was in motion . The crew used duct tape to fix the problem by attaching a map to the damaged fender , but the dust picked up on the tape surface prevented it from sticking properly and the first fix was short lived . After an overnight rethink by the flight controllers , a better method of applying the tape resulted in a satisfactory fix that lasted for the length of the exploration . The crew then deployed the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package ( ALSEP ) west of the immediate landing site . After completing this , Cernan and Schmitt departed on the first geologic traverse of the mission towards Steno crater to the south of the landing site , during which they gathered 14 kilograms ( 31 lb ) of samples ; took seven gravimeter measurements ; and deployed two explosive packages , which were later detonated remotely to test geophones that had been placed by the astronauts and seismometers that had been placed on previous Apollo missions . The EVA ended after seven hours and twelve minutes .
On December 12 , at 6 : 28 pm EST , Cernan and Schmitt began their second lunar excursion . One of the first tasks of the EVA was repairing the right @-@ rear fender on the LRV , the rearward extension of which had been broken off the previous day . The pair did this by taping together four cronopaque maps with duct tape and clamping the replacement fender extension to the fender , thus providing a means of preventing dust from raining down upon them while in motion . During this EVA , the pair sampled several different types of geologic deposits found in the valley , including the avalanche at the base of the South Massif , orange @-@ colored soil at Shorty crater , and ejecta of Camelot crater . The crew completed this moonwalk after seven hours and thirty @-@ seven minutes . They collected 34 kilograms ( 75 lb ) of samples , deployed three more explosive packages and took seven gravimeter measurements .
The third moonwalk , the last of the Apollo program , began at 5 : 26 pm EST on December 13 . During this excursion , the crew collected 66 kilograms ( 146 lb ) of lunar samples and took nine gravimeter measurements . They drove the rover to the north and east of the landing site and explored the base of the North Massif , the Sculptured Hills , and the unusual crater Van Serg . Before ending the moonwalk , the crew collected a rock , a breccia , and dedicated it to several different nations which were represented in Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas , at the time . A plaque located on the Lunar Module , commemorating the achievements made during the Apollo program , was then unveiled . Before reentering the LM for the final time , Gene Cernan expressed his thoughts :
... I 'm on the surface ; and , as I take man 's last step from the surface , back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the future - I 'd like to just [ say ] what I believe history will record . That America 's challenge of today has forged man 's destiny of tomorrow . And , as we leave the Moon at Taurus @-@ Littrow , we leave as we came and , God willing , as we shall return , with peace and hope for all mankind . " Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17 . "
Cernan then followed Schmitt into the Lunar Module after spending approximately seven hours and 15 minutes outside during the mission 's final lunar excursion .
= = = Return to Earth = = =
Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt successfully lifted off from the lunar surface in the ascent stage of the Lunar Module on December 14 , at 5 : 55 pm EST . After a successful rendezvous and docking with Ron Evans in the Command / Service Module in orbit , the crew transferred equipment and lunar samples between the LM and the CSM for return to Earth . Following this , the LM ascent stage was sealed off and jettisoned at 1 : 31 am on December 15 . The ascent stage was then deliberately crashed into the Moon in a collision recorded by seismometers deployed on Apollo 17 and previous Apollo expeditions .
On December 17 , during the trip back to Earth , at 3 : 27 pm EST , Ron Evans successfully conducted a one @-@ hour and seven minute spacewalk to retrieve exposed film from the instrument bay on the exterior of the CSM .
On December 19 , the crew jettisoned the no @-@ longer @-@ needed Service Module , leaving only the Command Module for return to Earth . The Apollo 17 spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere and landed safely in the Pacific Ocean at 2 : 25 pm , 6 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) from the recovery ship , USS Ticonderoga . Cernan , Evans and Schmitt were then retrieved by a recovery helicopter and were safely aboard the recovery ship 52 minutes after landing .
= = Spacecraft locations = =
The Command Module America is currently on display at Space Center Houston at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston , Texas .
The ascent stage of lunar module Challenger impacted the Moon December 15 , 1972 at 06 : 50 : 20 @.@ 8 UT ( 1 : 50 am EST ) , at 19 @.@ 96 ° N 30 @.@ 50 ° E / 19 @.@ 96 ; 30 @.@ 50 ( Apollo 17 LM ascent stage ) . The descent stage remains on the Moon at the landing site , 20 @.@ 19080 ° N 30 @.@ 77168 ° E / 20 @.@ 19080 ; 30 @.@ 77168 ( Apollo 17 LM descent stage ) .
In 2009 and again in 2011 , the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photographed the landing site from increasingly low orbits .
= = Depiction of mission in fiction and popular culture = =
Portions of the Apollo 17 mission are dramatized in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled " Le Voyage dans la Lune . "
The prologue to the 1999 novel Back to the Moon , by Homer Hickam , begins with a dramatized depiction of the end of the second Apollo 17 EVA . The orange soil then becomes the major driver of the plot of the rest of the story .
The 2005 novel Tyrannosaur Canyon by Douglas Preston opens with a depiction of the Apollo 17 moonwalks using quotes taken from the official mission transcript .
Additionally , there have been fictional astronauts in film , literature and television who have been described as " the last man to walk on the Moon , " implying they were crew members on Apollo 17 . One such character was Steve Austin in the television series The Six Million Dollar Man . In the 1972 novel Cyborg , upon which the series was based , Austin remembers watching the Earth " fall away during Apollo XVII . " In the 1998 film Deep Impact fictional astronaut Spurgeon " Fish " Tanner , portrayed by Robert Duvall , was described at a Presidential press conference as the " last man to walk on the moon " by the President of the United States , portrayed by Morgan Freeman .
In the Anime Aldnoah.Zero , the Apollo 17 mission locates an ancient transporter gate leading to Mars left by an unknown , extinct alien race . This discovery is the divergence point for the story 's alternate history .
= = Multimedia = =
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= Marge in Chains =
" Marge in Chains " is the 21st episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 6 , 1993 . In the episode , Marge is arrested for shoplifting after forgetting to pay for an item at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . The family hires attorney Lionel Hutz to defend her at trial , but she is found guilty and sentenced to 30 days imprisonment . Homer , and the rest of the family have trouble coping without Marge . The townspeople start a riot when an annual bake sale missing Marge fails to raise enough money for a statue of Abraham Lincoln and they have to settle for a statue of Jimmy Carter . Mayor Quimby has Marge released from jail in order to save his career and quell the riot .
After its initial airing on Fox , the episode was later included as part of a 1997 video release titled The Simpsons : Crime and Punishment . It was released again on the 2005 edition of the same set . The episode is included in the June 15 , 2004 DVD release of The Simpsons – The Complete Fourth Season . " Marge in Chains " received a positive reception from television critics . A quote by Lionel Hutz from the episode was included in The News Tribune 's " Eight Great ' Simpsons ' Quotes " . The authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented positively on the episode , as did reviews in The Daily Mirror and The Observer .
= = Plot = =
Many of Springfield 's residents purchase " Juice Looseners " through the mail , which are inefficient and loud juicers built in Japan and shipped from there . One of the assembly line workers has the flu and coughs into the box destined for Homer , filling it with airborne germs . When the Juice Looseners arrive in Springfield , the dreaded Osaka Flu hits the town and many of the townspeople are affected by the illness . Due to exhaustion from having to look after the rest of her ill family , Marge accidentally forgets to pay for Grampa 's bottle of bourbon when shopping at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . She is then arrested for shoplifting . Chief Wiggum tells Mayor Quimby about the arrest in confidence , and Quimby later reveals this fact to everyone in town during a public address . Marge 's reputation is lowered dramatically among the townspeople , who now distrust her around their possessions . The family hires Lionel Hutz to defend Marge at her trial , but Hutz loses the case and the jury finds Marge guilty . She is sentenced to 30 days imprisonment at Springfield Women 's Prison .
Marge 's absence is felt at home as Homer and the rest of the family struggles to cope without her . Without Marge , the house shortly becomes a complete wreck . The annual bake sale also suffers – without Marge 's marshmallow squares , the Springfield Park Commission fails to raise enough money to pay for a statue of Abraham Lincoln . Instead they purchase one of Jimmy Carter . The townspeople are enraged by this , and riot . When Marge is released from jail , the townspeople welcome her back and apologize for suspecting her . They even unveil a statue for Marge , though it is just the Carter statue with Marge 's hair added to it . The last scene shows Bart and Lisa playing on the statue , which has been converted into a tether ball post .
= = Production = =
" Marge in Chains " was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein and was the first episode that they wrote as staff writers . The script was assigned to them after somebody else had come up with the idea . The first draft of the script was " slightly more realistic " than the final version of the episode because Oakley and Weinstein had done a lot of research about women in prison , much of which was later replaced . For Apu and Sanjay 's brief lines of Indian dialogue , the writers called the Embassy of India in Washington to get them to translate . The Embassy was not " interested or happy " but still did it .
In the episode , Jimmy Carter is referred to as " history 's greatest monster " . In the 2004 Season 4 DVD commentary for this episode , show runners Mike Reiss and Al Jean reveal that they did not like Carter , although they would vote for him ahead of George W. Bush . Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart operator Apu testifies in a courtroom scene in the episode that he is able to recite 40 @,@ 000 decimal places of the number pi . He correctly notes that the 40,000th digit is the number one . The episode 's writers prepared for this scene by asking David H. Bailey of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( now at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ) for the number of the 40,000th decimal place of pi . Bailey sent them back a printout of the first 40 @,@ 000 digits .
" Marge in Chains " originally aired May 6 , 1993 on Fox . The episode was selected for release in a 1997 video set of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons : Crime and Punishment . Other episodes included in the set were " Homer the Vigilante " , " Bart the Fink " , and " You Only Move Twice " . It was included in The Simpsons season 4 DVD set , which was released June 15 , 2004 – The Simpsons – The Complete Fourth Season . The episode was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the " Crime and Punishment " set .
= = Cultural references = =
David Crosby portrays himself in a cameo appearance in the episode as the 12 @-@ step sponsor for Lionel Hutz . During Marge 's trial for shoplifting , prosecutors show the Zapruder film and assert that Marge was present on the grassy knoll when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated . The scene where Maude Flanders peers through a hole in a wall at Marge is a reference to the 1960 film Psycho . In Lionel Hutz 's dream of what the world would be like without lawyers , the writers had wanted to use the song " I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing " which was used in Coca @-@ Cola advertisements , but they could not get the rights to it . Instead , they used a similar instrumental theme .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Marge in Chains " finished 31st in ratings for the week of May 3 – 9 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 .
In a review of the episode in The Observer , Caroline Boucher wrote : " My domestic Simpsons correspondent , Simon , reports a particularly fine episode , Marge in Chains to the extent that he watched the tape twice . " Karl French of Financial Times characterized the plot of the episode as a " modern version " of It 's a Wonderful Life . Dusty Lane of The News Tribune cited a quote from Lionel Hutz in the episode among his list of " Eight Great ' Simpsons ' Quotes " – " Well , he 's kind of had it in for me since I kinda ran over his dog . Well , replace the word ' kinda ' with the word ' repeatedly , ' and the word ' dog ' with ' son ' . "
Jessica Mellor of The Daily Mirror highlighted the episode in a review of The Simpsons season four DVD release , along with " Kamp Krusty " , " New Kid on the Block " , and " I Love Lisa " , commenting : " Springfield 's finest prove once again why they are the cleverest thing on telly . " In a section on the episode in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood wrote : " We like Bart 's plan to rescue Marge from prison by becoming the glamorous Bartina , and Lionel Hutz is supremely inept " .
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= Run the World =
" Run the World " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) . Written and produced by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and C. " Tricky " Stewart , " Run the World " was one of several songs recorded with the duo following Lopez 's move from Epic Records to Island Records . The track originally featured vocals from The @-@ Dream and a rap verse from American rapper Rick Ross however , the rap verse was removed during mastering process and The @-@ Dream was credited with background vocals instead .
According to Lopez , " Run the World " is about a " type of love when you come together you make each other better ; " noting that she shared that love with her husband Marc Anthony . Relating the song to Anthony , Lopez said she believes that they have made each other better artists and people . " Run the World " is a midtempo pop song that critics compared to Lopez 's 2002 single " Jenny from the Block " .
= = Production and leak = =
" Run the World " was written and produced by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Tricky Stewart . Lopez 's vocals for the song were produced by Kuk Harrell , who also provided backing vocals alongside Anesha Birchett , Lauren Evans and The @-@ Dream . The vocals were recorded by Jim Annunziato , Josh Gudwin at Record Plant Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , Larrabee Studios in Hollywood , California and MSR in New York City , New York . Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas and Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan handled audio engineering of " Run the World " , with additional engineering from Andrew Wuepper , Pat Thrall , Chris Galland and Chris Soper and assistance from Dustin Capulong , Nick Banns and Steven Dennis . The song was later mixed by Jaycen Joshua with the assistance of Jesus Garnica at Larrabee Studios .
" Run the World " was leaked onto the internet on September 13 , 2010 . The version that leaked featured guest vocals from American rapper Rick Ross , as well as song 's co @-@ producer The @-@ Dream . The @-@ Dream 's featuring credit was demoted to backing vocals and Ross ' rap was removed from the mastered version of the song . In a February 2011 article about the then @-@ upcoming release of Love ? conducted by Rap @-@ Up , Lopez called " Run the World " featuring Ross one of her favorite songs on the album . Ross ' rap from the song was later removed during the mastering process of the track .
= = Lyrical interpretation = =
" Run the World " is a midtempo song with a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds ( 3 : 55 ) . It was cited by Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots as " bringing back " the old school feel of Lopez 's single " Jenny from the Block " ; the " feel and style that made ' The Girl from the Block ' [ Lopez ] so famous " . The song contains " nice drum synchs with a real throw back feel " , that will " get you tapping your foot and swaging back and forth " . Although Lopez did not write the song herself , " Run the World " is based on her relationship with husband Marc Anthony . The song is about a " type of love when you come together you make each other better " . Lopez further stated that she believes that since her and Anthony have been together they have made each other better artists and better people — " and that 's when you can really run the world " .
Of working with Stewart and The @-@ Dream , Lopez stated that : " What I love about great producers and writers is that they can take you and transport you right into this moment , but not change you . And that 's what I feel like Tricky and Dream did with this record . They took that ' Jenny from the Block ' side of me , which is still very much a part of who I am and will always be , and they put it right there on that track " . According to Scott Shetler of PopCrush , " Run the World " contains an optimistic message and upbeat melody . Shetler particularly noted the lyric " Our love could run the world " as a good example of the optimism in the song .
Lopez told MTV News at an album @-@ release event in May 2011 , that out of all the songs on Love ? , she was most excited for people to hear " Run the World " , " ( What Is ) Love ? " , " One Love " , " Papi " and " Starting Over " . Lopez stated that : " They all express different moments in love and that 's what this album was about . You know , sometimes it 's difficult , sometimes it 's amazing , sometimes overwhelming , sometimes you just don 't know what to do . And I hope that I captured all of that on this album " . MTV News noted that on the songs , Lopez might be " giving us some insight about what she was dealing with in her personal life in the months before it was released " .
= = Critical response = =
Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey noted the song to be inspired by J to tha L – O ! The Remixes ( 2002 ) . He concluded by stating that the song was worthy of a standalone release . Monica Herrera from Billboard complimented The @-@ Dream for the production of the song and his background vocals . She continued by calling " Run the World " refreshingly self @-@ assured . When the original version of the song leaked online , an editor from Vibe commented that with the help of The @-@ Dream and Rick Ross , Lopez " takes another shot at running the charts " . Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots said that the keys are " a little lost " and the synth clapping is over used , but the " breaks are amazing and the lyrics have something to say " .
Poppy Reid of The Music Network criticized the song for its reliance on auto @-@ tune and lyrics " you just don 't expect ( or want ) from a 41 @-@ year @-@ old " . UR Chicago 's Neil Miller , Jr. also gave a negative review of the song , questioning if " Run the World " was meant for Lopez , stating that : " Because up until this point , it seemed like we were listening to the album that Brave was meant to be – a collection of tracks meant to make us dance , not ones that we 're supposed to blast out of our trunks . Swagata Panjari of Radio and Music gave a negative review of the song , stating that it is " slow paced and has a miss on beats which leaves listeners wanting for more " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
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= Sesame Street international co @-@ productions =
Sesame Street international co @-@ productions are educational children 's television series based on the American Sesame Street but tailored to the countries in which they are produced . Shortly after the debut of Sesame Street in the US in 1969 , television producers , teachers , and officials of several countries approached the show 's producers and the executives of Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) about the possibility of airing international versions of Sesame Street . Creator Joan Ganz Cooney hired former CBS executive Mike Dann to field offers to produce versions of the show in other countries .
The producers of these shows developed them using a variant on the CTW model , a flexible model of production based upon the experiences of the creators and producers of the US show . The model consisted of the combination of producers and researchers working together on the show , the development of a unique curriculum , and extensive test screening of the shows . The shows came to be called co @-@ productions , and they contained original sets , characters , and curriculum goals . Different co @-@ productions were produced , depending upon each country 's needs and resources . They included both dubbed versions of the American show and versions created , developed , and produced in each country that reflected their needs , educational priorities , and culture . For example , the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , Kami , from the South African co @-@ production Takalani Sesame was created in 2003 to address the epidemic of AIDS in South Africa , and was met with controversy in the US . By 2006 , there were 20 co @-@ productions in countries all over the world . In 2001 , there were more than 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street , and by the US show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , they were seen in more than 140 countries .
= = History = =
A few months after the 1969 debut of Sesame Street on PBS in the US , producers from Brazil , Mexico , Canada , and Germany requested that the organization responsible for the show 's production , the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) create and produce versions of Sesame Street in those countries . Even before the American show 's debut , the CTW established an international division , which oversaw its licensing in other countries . According to Gregory J. Gettas , the division immediately developed four main licensing policies : ( 1 ) like the American version , all foreign versions had to be broadcast without commercials ; ( 2 ) any changes would have to meet high production standards , which protected the CTW 's proprietary interests ; ( 3 ) all versions had to reflect the country 's cultural values and traditions ; and ( 4 ) all changes would have to be approved , initiated , and supervised by a local committee working with the CTW .
Many years later , co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney recalled , " To be frank , I was really surprised , because we thought we were creating the quintessential American show . We thought the Muppets were quintessentially American , and it turns out they 're the most international characters ever created " . Mike Dann , a former CBS executive whom Cooney had hired as a CTW vice @-@ president and her assistant , was assigned to field offers from other countries to produce their own versions of Sesame Street . Dann 's appointment led to television critic Marvin Kitman stating , " After he [ Dann ] sells [ Sesame Street ] in Russia and Czechoslovakia , he might try Mississippi , where it is considered too controversial for educational TV " .
By summer 1970 , Dann had made the first international agreements for what the CTW later called " co @-@ productions " . 38 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television stations broadcast Sesame Street to Canada 's English @-@ speaking provinces . The Armed Forces Radio and Television Network agreed to air the first 130 episodes of the US @-@ made show for children of military personnel serving in 16 countries , including Iceland , Greece , Ethiopia , and South Korea . During his tenure at CTW , Dann also made agreements with several Caribbean nations , Mexico , Australia , Japan , the Philippines , France , Israel , and Germany . He later told author Michael Davis , " I was aggressive and I knew people around the world " . During the same period there were discussions about broadcasting the US version in England or producing a British version of Sesame Street but British broadcasters found the show too controversial and rejected the idea . The American version was broadcast throughout the UK on a limited basis starting in 1971 , but went off the air in 2001 .
As of 2006 , there were 20 active " co @-@ productions " . CTW vice @-@ president Charlotte Cole , in 2001 , estimated that there were more than 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street , and by the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , they were seen in more than 140 countries . In 2005 , Doreen Carvajal of The New York Times reported that income from the co @-@ productions accounted for US $ 96 million . Cole stated , " Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) can be regarded as the single largest informal educator of young children in the world " . Studies conducted on the effects of several co @-@ productions ( Mexico in 1974 , Turkey in 1990 , Portugal in 1993 , and Russia in 1998 ) , found that viewers of these shows gain basic academic skills , especially literacy and numeracy , from watching them .
In 2001 , the Workshop introduced Sesame English , a series focused on teaching children and their families the basics of the English language and on familiarizing them with some aspects of American culture . As of 2009 , it aired in several countries , including Japan , Korea , and Italy . In 2003 , in response to the epidemic of AIDS in South Africa , the co @-@ producers of Takalani Sesame included the first preschool AIDS / HIV curriculum . They created the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , Kami , to confront the stigma of HIV and AIDS in South Africa . According to the documentary , The World According to Sesame Street , the reaction of many in the US surprised Sesame Workshop . Some members of Congress attacked Sesame Street , Sesame Workshop ( previously , the CTW ) , and PBS . According to co @-@ producer Naila Farouky , " The reaction we got in the US blew me away . I didn 't expect people to be so horrible ... and hateful and mean " . The controversy in the US was short @-@ lived , and died down when the public discovered the facts about the South African co @-@ production , and when Kofi Anan and Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop 's efforts .
Gettas explained what he called " Sesame Street 's unprecedented appeal abroad " was its broad appeal and adaptability to other cultures . Gettas stated , " Here is a program that speaks to them in their own language , on their level , and with respect for their intelligence " . According to Cooper Wright , the Sesame Workshop 's vice @-@ president of International Co @-@ Productions in 2006 , the " mission " of the co @-@ productions was to " help children reach their highest potential " . The producers were further galvanized to accomplish this goal after the events of 9 / 11 . Cooney stated , " Our producers are like old @-@ fashioned missionaries . It 's not religion they 're spreading , but it is learning and tolerance and love and mutual respect " .
= = Production = =
The earliest international versions were what then @-@ CTW vice @-@ president Charlotte Cole called " fairly simple " , consisting of dubbed versions of the show with local language voice @-@ overs and instructional cutaways . Dubbed versions of the show continued to be produced if the country 's needs and resources warranted it . They utilized a variant of a flexible model called the CTW model , developed by the producers and creators of the original show , to create and produce independently produced preschool television shows in other countries . The Workshop recognized that the production model developed in the US , which reflected its needs and culture at the time , served as a framework for other countries that wanted to repeat it . Its inherent flexibility was attractive to producers in other countries , who saw the model as " a methodological approach that is neither doctrinaire nor culture @-@ bound " that could be used to achieve different results in different countries . According to the 2006 documentary , The World According to Sesame Street , the producers of the co @-@ productions repeated the " experiment " undertaken by the original US show , but adapted it to each specific situation . In 1969 , the producers of the original show depended upon government and foundation funding , but as Sesame Workshop CEO Gary Knell stated in 2009 , the US funding model would not necessarily be effective in countries with different economic and political structures . All co @-@ productions share elements with the American show , but because of their different needs , no two are exactly alike . According to Gettas , the producers of the programs would " rely on variants of the CTW model to help them create programming that faithfully reflects the linguistic , cultural , social , or religious diversity of their native lands " .
The need for preschool education in each country was assessed through research and interviews with television producers , researchers , and educational experts , which paralleled what the producers of Sesame Street did in the late 1960s . Then they convened the experts in a series of meetings , held in the individual countries , to create and develop a curriculum , the show 's educational goals , and its set and characters , as was done in 1968 in the US . Finally , they held a series of meetings , both at the CTW offices in New York City and in the individual countries , to train the co @-@ production team in the CTW model . Writing seminars were also held in New York .
The co @-@ productions consisted of unique characters , sets , and curricula designed to meet the needs of their own children . Cole reported that the goal of the co @-@ productions was to provide children in each country a program that reflected their country 's culture , local values , and educational priorities . She stated that this cultural specificity was the reason for the co @-@ productions ' success , popularity , and educational impact . The co @-@ productions combined universal curriculum goals that were common around the world with educational content that specifically addressed the needs of children in each country . Another goal of the international co @-@ productions of Sesame Street was , as executive producer Lutrelle Horne stated in 1987 , the improvement of " the overall quality of a country 's television " . He added , " We give a country a model of how television can be used effectively to address people 's needs " .
US cast members Kevin Clash and Marty Robinson have cast and trained the international puppeteers . At first , Muppet builder Kermit Love constructed the puppets for the new shows in the US . According to Gikow in 2009 , Jim Henson 's Creature Shop , overseen by Connie Peterson , has taken over puppet creation . The producers of Sisimpur , the Bangladesh co @-@ production , created their own traditional puppets because their puppet @-@ making craft is thousands of years old and an important part of their culture . The producers of each co @-@ production developed and built their own sets , live @-@ action videos , and animations in @-@ country . After they developed , produced , and aired the new show , they conducted research to ascertain whether their curriculum goals were met , just as was done in the US after the first season of Sesame Street . According to producer Nadine Zylstra , they faced unusual challenges rarely experienced in the US . For example , riots and conflicts between Serbs and Albanians in 2004 delayed production of the Kosovo co @-@ production for three months . In 2005 , a nationwide strike in Bangladesh temporarily stalled production of their show .
When countries were not able to afford creating original co @-@ productions , the Workshop provided alternatives for them . They created Open Sesame , a series with no specific cultural references in it , and with , as Horne described , " universally acceptable material " . The show was also broadcast in US military bases . The Workshop 's library of Muppet skits , short films , and animations were sold to many countries and were either broadcast in English or dubbed in the local language . According to Gikow , it often served as the basis for the creation of new material for their own co @-@ productions . As of 2009 , the Workshop opened its entire library of episodes , short films , and animations created all over the world so that poorer countries could use and adapt them for their purposes .
= = Co @-@ productions = =
= = = 1970s = = =
The first international co @-@ production of Sesame Street was Brazil 's Vila Sésamo , which first aired in 1972 and had an initial run of two years . Its set consisted of an open plaza . The Muppet Garibaldo was " the centerpiece " of the Brazil co @-@ production and remained popular with viewers when the show was revived in 2007 . Garibaldo 's performer in the revival , Fernando Gomes , became a puppeteer because of the original Brazilian show 's influence . It was broadcast in Portuguese . Also in 1972 , Plaza Sésamo was produced in Mexico . This co @-@ production has also been broadcast in Puerto Rico and in Spanish @-@ speaking Latin America since 1973 , and has aired on Spanish television stations in the US since 1995 .
In 1973 , West Germany , one of the first countries to approach CTW , began airing Sesamstraße . It has been continually produced since . At first , this co @-@ production incorporated original German animation and live action segments into the US version . Starting in 1978 , its producers began using puppets filmed in their own studio in Germany . The Netherlands ' version , Sesamstraat , began in 1976 . This show has aired in both Dutch and Flemish . In Sesamstraat 's early years , Belgium television participated in its production , so it also aired there . In 2011 , to celebrate the show 's 35th anniversary , the Sesame Workshop partnered with the Vincent van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam to recreate a version of van Gogh 's " Bedroom in Arles " , featuring Muppets from both the American and Dutch shows . France aired Open Sesame in the early 1970s before creating its own co @-@ production . One version , created in 1974 , Bonjour Sesame , was fifteen minutes long and had no street scenes . 5 , Rue Sésame began in 1976 ; its set consists of a courtyard of a building in a small French town .
The final two co @-@ productions of the 70s , both made in 1979 , occurred in Kuwait and Spain . The Kuwaiti show , Iftah Ya Simsim , which ran until 1990 , was the first of its kind in the Arab world . It used Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) , and was broadcast in 22 Arab countries . The show continued to be well @-@ known decades after it went off the air . It returned in 2013 , and had similar goals and objectives as the original version , including the use of MSA . Barrio Sésamo , made in Spain , featured a snail character who was able to hide a thousand and one things in her shell . One of the show 's Muppet characters , Dr. Valentin Ruster , was based upon Dr. Valentin Fuster , a native Spaniard who worked at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City . Dr. Fuster 's likeness was created to educated children in Spain about exercise and eating healthy .
= = = 1980s = = =
Sweden 's version of Sesame Street , Svenska Sesam ( 1981 – 1983 ) , was originally a single season full co @-@ production , but did not integrate puppets . Dubs have aired before and after . Israel filmed its co @-@ production , called Rechov Sumsum , in 1983 . It was the first co @-@ production to devote an entire section of its curriculum to educating children about mutual respect , which was a priority due to " profound political tension in the region " . Its curriculum , which was based upon their viewers ' needs , differed from many other countries and exposed Israeli children to children from different cultures . The show 's counterpart of Big Bird was a hedgehog named Kippi .
Also in 1983 , the Philippines created Batibot , the first fully bilingual ( Tagalog and English ) version of Sesame Street . In 1989 , Susam Sokağı , a co @-@ production filmed in Turkey , featured versions of Big Bird and an " exuberant little @-@ girl Muppet host " named Simi . There have been three versions of Sesame Street in Portugal , including one co @-@ production created in 1989 . Rua Sésamo was also broadcast in the Portuguese @-@ speaking nations Angola , Mozambique , Guinea , Cape Verde , and São Tomé . Play with Me Sesame is the title of the current version .
= = = 1990s = = =
Norway 's co @-@ production , entitled Sesam Stasjon , began filming in 1991 . Three co @-@ productions premiered in 1996 , in Russia , Canada , and Poland . Russia 's version , Ulitsa Sezam ( Улица Сезам ) , debuted in 1996 . No longer on the air , one of its curriculum goals was to prepare Russian children to live in a " new open society " . Poland 's Ulica Sezamkowa has been since replaced by dubs of various Sesame Workshop programs and has changed its name to Sezamkowy Zaketek . Canada aired Sesame Street Canada , a combination of locally produced and US @-@ made content from 1972 to 1996 . A French @-@ dubbed version was shown in 1975 , which demonstrated the producers ' commitment to bilingualism , one of their curriculum goals . In 1996 , a half @-@ hour program called Sesame Park was produced by the country 's public broadcasting corporation and consisted of more content created in @-@ country . The series featured a polar bear , an otter , a female bush pilot , and a girl in a wheelchair .
In 1998 , the Chinese co @-@ production of Sesame Street , Zhima Jie , was created . An auto mechanic became the head writer of this show , broadcast in Mandarin Chinese , because there were few people with experience in writing for children in the country . It has aired in 40 local markets , comprising forty percent of all Chinese homes . Its curriculum emphasized aesthetics . The Chinese puppeteers were trained by Kevin Clash and Caroll Spinney . Also in 1998 , a fifteen @-@ minute version of the Israeli show was dubbed in Arabic and renamed Shara 'a Simsim ; this Palestinian co @-@ production promoted children 's sense of national identity .
= = = 2000s = = =
In 2000 , Egypt 's co @-@ production , entitled Alam Simsim ( عالم سمسم ) , began to air throughout the Arab World and was broadcast in Arabic . Its curriculum focused on literacy , math , cognitive and social skills , girls ' education , the environment , and health . The show was sponsored by its patron , Egyptian First Lady Suzanne Mubarak . A study conducted in 2004 showed that the show 's efforts to educate Egyptian children about health were substantially influential .
South Africa aired Takalani Sesame , also in 2000 ; it focused on AIDS education with the creation of the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , Kami , who was declared a UNICEF " Champion for Children " in 2003 . The show reached almost 70 percent of children in urban areas and almost 50 percent in rural areas , and its viewers had improvements in HIV / AIDS knowledge , attitudes , and communication . In 2007 , it began airing in almost all of the country 's official languages , and its Muppets were used in health educational campaigns . In 2008 , the show began to focus on diversity within South Africa and technology . Takalani Sesame 's tenth anniversary in 2010 was marked by a series of workshops in South Africa focusing on the future of the show and the needs of the country 's children . Research conducted about the show 's affects showed that viewers gained in four major areas : basic knowledge , blood safety , discrimination , and numeracy skills . They also improved in life skills , such as safety , sounds , nature , emotions , and self @-@ esteem .
Hikayat Simsim premiered in 2003 in Jordan . According to its producers , its goal was to " promote respect in the face of conflict " . The show also focused on literacy , numeracy , health and hygiene , emotions , road safety , and the environment . Afghanistan temporarily aired its first version of Sesame Street , called Koche Sesame in 2004 , to help rebuild its educational system . Although this production filmed its own live @-@ action films , it used Muppet segments filmed in the U.S. , which were dubbed in Dari , one of the country 's two main languages . The show 's producers donated 400 education kits , which included a message from President Hamid Karzai , to schools , orphanages , and TV stations across the country . Its curriculum focused on encouraging awareness of other cultures , increasing opportunities for women and girls , and fostering children 's interests in education .
In 2005 , Sisimpur aired in Bangladesh . This co @-@ production 's goal was to improve school achievement and decrease drop @-@ out rates for children before the third grade . This difficult co @-@ production , which was beset by political difficulties and severe flooding that delayed production , was depicted in the 2006 documentary , The World According to Sesame Street . Also in 2005 , the producers of the Kosovo co @-@ production ( Rruga Sesam / Ulica Sezam ) chose to present the languages of the region more evenly . Instead of showing words on screen , children were challenged to label objects verbally , thus learning that there are different ways to say the same thing . The Workshop worked in conjunction with UNICEF to produce this show , to aid in the peace process between Albanians and Serbs . One of its goals was to demonstrate to Albanian and Serbian children that their counterparts were like them .
In 2008 , Cambodia produced Sabai Sabai Sesame , a dubbed version of the original US show . It aired twice weekly , and emphasized basic literacy , numeracy , and social skills . Northern Ireland 's production , which was broadcast throughout the U.K. but was " rooted in everyday life in Northern Ireland " , was called Sesame Tree , and was set in and around a whimsical tree . The show 's curriculum focused on mutual respect and understanding . Also in 2008 , Jalan Sesama , the Indonsian co @-@ production , premiered . Its focus was the country 's rich diversity . Denmark created Sesamgade in 2009 , which contained elements of Play With Me Sesame and locally produced segments with Elmo .
= = = 2010s = = =
Nigeria produced its own version of Sesame Street , called Sesame Square , in 2010 . Previously , they aired the US version . Funded in part by a grant from the US government , the show focused on AIDS , malaria nets , gender equality , and yams . It also featured the HIV @-@ positive Muppet Kami from the South African co @-@ production .
After an absence of ten years , and almost 30 years after the 1983 movie Big Bird in China , 53 eleven @-@ minute episodes of Sesame Street 's Big Bird Looks at the World , filmed in Mandarin Chinese , debuted in early 2011 in China . Inspired by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake , the program emphasized emergency preparedness . In the first week of December 2011 , a Pashto and Dari @-@ language version called Baghch @-@ e @-@ Simsim was launched in Afghanistan , and in the same month Pakistan began airing its own Urdu @-@ language version , called SimSim Humara , which was supposed to run for three years . In June 2012 , the United States terminated funding for SimSim Humara due to serious allegations of corruption by the local Pakistani puppet theater working on the initiative .
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= Up Out My Face =
" Up Out My Face " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . Written and produced by Carey , Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream , it is a club music song which includes a marching band in its instrumentation . It received a mixed response from music critics , but its humorous lyrics attracted praise . Brian Mansfield of USA Today believed that the lyrics were directed at Eminem , whom Carey has a longstanding feud with , at one point singing " I know you 're not a rapper , so you better stop spittin ' it . " Carey released " Up Out My Face " as a remix featuring Nicki Minaj in January 2010 for a proposed Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel remix album called Angels Advocate , which was ultimately shelved .
= = Production and composition = =
" Up Out My Face " was written and produced by Mariah Carey , Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream , for Carey 's twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . Copyright is held by Rye Songs ( 2009 ) which is administered by Songs of Universal ( BMI ) / WB Music Publishing ( ASCAP / Songs of Peer / March 9 Publishing ( ASCAP ) . It was recorded by Brian Garten , Chris " Tex " O 'Ryan and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank and Honeywest Studios in New York City . They were assisted by Luis Navarro . It was mixed by Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado ( for Penua Project / Innersound Management ) at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , and were assisted by Giancarlo Lino .
A club music song that lasts for three minutes , forty @-@ one seconds , " Up Out My Face " appears as the ninth track on the album ; track ten is a fifty @-@ one second reprise called " Up Out My Face ( The Reprise ) " . Its instrumentation makes use of a " thumping " marching band coda , while its lyrics are about expressing " anger at an incompatible lover " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today highlights the lyrics " If we were two Lego blocks , even the Harvard University graduating class of 2010 couldn 't put us back together again " as one of the album 's " many funny lines " . Rolling Stone writer Jody Rosen wrote that the singer " gets in touch with her funny bone " on " Up Out My Face " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the references to Lego , Harvard University and Humpty Dumpty as " a whole new level of lyrical ridiculousness " .
= = Lyrical interpretation = =
Brian Mansfield speculated that Carey was addressing Eminem in the lyrics , with whom she has had a longstanding feud . Carey has reportedly been romantically linked with several male celebrities during the course of her career , some of which she has openly spoken about and acknowledged , while others she has denied dating . Eminem has claimed on multiple occasions that he dated Carey , but Carey has always firmly denied that she knew him on a romantic level . In 2001 , Carey contacted Eminem to discuss the possibility of writing a song together for inclusion on Carey 's ninth studio album Charmbracelet ( 2002 ) , and they reportedly started dating soon after .
In 2002 , Eminem mentioned the singer twice on The Eminem Show , his fourth studio album , on the tracks " Superman " and " When the Music Stops " , both of which were revealed to have been inspired by their relationship in Eminem 's 2008 autobiography , The Way I Am . The former track contained the lyrics " What you trying be ? My new wife ? / What , you Mariah ? Fly through twice , " while the latter suggested that he begged to be taken back by Carey . Later that year , Eminem confirmed that they had been in a relationship in an interview for Rolling Stone , but claimed to have not been fully committed to it and that he disliked her as a person , while Carey told Maxim that it was never a " sexual relationship " and interviewer Larry King " I hung out with him , I spoke to him on the phone . I think I was probably with him a total of four times . And I don 't consider that dating somebody . " Carey recorded a song called " Clown " for Charmbracelet which " ambiguously addressed the relationship " with the lyrics " Should 've left it at I like your music too " and " You should 've never intimated we were lovers / When you know very well we never even touched each other . "
In 2005 , Eminem played voicemails to the audience during his Anger Management Tour allegedly from Carey and reported as saying " Why won 't you see me ? Why won 't you call me ? " . Eminem reiterated his dislike of Carey the following year on a track called " Jimmy Crack Corn " from his compilation album , Eminem Presents : The Re @-@ Up , with the lyrics " Your mind 's on us like mine 's on Mariah / And y 'all are just like her , you 're all fucking liars / But I 'll just keep fucking you like I fucked her / Right in the ass with KY yes sir . " 50 Cent referenced Carey 's denial of the relationship on a track called " All of Me " from his third studio album Curtis in 2007 : " Em predicted it all , I don 't know how he knew it / He said women from Hollywood they liars , liars , liars / You fuck them , they get you heated , deny it like Mariah . " Two years later , Eminem released a song called " Bagpipes from Baghdad " , on which he took aim at Carey 's husband Nick Cannon by calling him a " prick " and wishing him " luck with the fucking whore " . The lead single from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel was " Obsessed " . Many critics believed the track to be about Eminem , and its accompanying music video portrayed Carey being followed by a male stalker which critics also thought bore a strong resemblance to the rapper . Mansfield thought that the lyrical content of " Up Out My Face " appeared to be a continuation of " Obsessed " and her feud with Eminem , as Carey sings " I know you 're not a rapper , so you better stop spittin ' it . "
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Lamb of About.com placed " Up Out My Face " in his list of the album 's top four tracks . Although J. Edward Keyes of Newsday described the track as " exuberant " , he was critical of its placement on the album : " The production , courtesy of the reliable Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream , feels boilerplate at best . At 17 songs , the record is far too long , and by the time the exuberant ' Up Out My Face ' arrives , it feels like it was grafted on from a better record . " Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times thought that Carey lacked conviction in her approach to the song , writing that despite its aggressive tone , " restraint stops serving her agenda " .
= = Remix single featuring Nicki Minaj = =
= = = Background and release = = =
Carey revealed that she intended to re @-@ release Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel as a remix album in early 2010 , titled Angels Advocate , consisting of remixes of the standard songs with new featured artists , including Mary J. Blige , Snoop Dogg , Trey Songz , R. Kelly , T @-@ Pain , Gucci Mane and OJ da Juiceman . " Angels Cry " and " Up Out My Face " from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel were released as remix singles with Ne @-@ Yo featuring on the former and Nicki Minaj on the latter . The remix version of " Up Out My Face " featuring Minaj was released to rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporary radio in the United States on January 26 , 2010 . It was made available for digital download on February 16 , 2010 .
In an interview for MTV News at Dylan 's Candy Bar , Minaj revealed that she had kept the collaboration a secret from everyone she knew because she was " so surprised " at being asked to work with Carey and did not believe that the collaboration would actually come to fruition . " That one , I didn ’ t believe until I was physically in the studio that I was doing with something with Mariah , " Minaj said . " She ’ s an icon , I ’ ve loved her since I was little , like ’ Vision of Love , ’ ’ Someday . ’ I was one of those little girls in the mirror singing her songs with my mother . ” A release date of February 23 , 2010 , for the album was slated , and then pushed back to March 9 . It was then further pushed back to March 30 . However , it was confirmed in March 2010 that production of Angels Advocate had halted and the project was shelved indefinitely . Island Def Jam stated that the singer was instead working on a new project and " new surprises " . Metro revealed that Carey was possibly recording a Christmas album .
= = = Composition = = =
Musically , the remix does not greatly differ from that of the original apart from added rap verses by Minaj interspersed throughout the track . She adds some " spunky rhymes " including " Mariah , I was in the million dollar meetin ’ s , he was cheatin ' / All up in the church he was sneakin ' with the deacon , " and references Trey Songz 2009 single " LOL : - ) " in a British accent . While the original version is three minutes , forty @-@ one seconds in duration , the remix lasts for four minutes , twenty @-@ three seconds .
= = = Reception = = =
Similar to the original track , the remix had a blended reception . The Washington Post Alison Stewart praised the track , writing that the addition of Minaj made it more lively : " Sometime in the past six months , Minaj became the go @-@ to girl for artists who wanted to add some skank to their tracks without sullying themselves in the process . Here , she enlivens an otherwise polite track from Carey 's upcoming remix disc " . Robbie Daw of Idolator felt that the track was too reminiscent to one of Carey 's previous singles " Don 't Forget About Us " , which he thought in turn was very similar to another preceding single , " We Belong Together " . He contained to add " But still , if Mimi ’ s going to mine from her own extensive back catalog of ballads , those are the primo melodies to go for . " A reviewer for DJ Booth thought that Minaj " ruined " the song .
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for the remix of " Up Out My Face " was directed by Carey 's husband , Nick Cannon . Minaj spoke about filming a video with Carey and how she did not believe that the video would ever be released : " I didn ’ t even tell anyone I shot a video with Mariah , because I didn ’ t even believe . In the back of my mind , I felt like , ’ This video is not gonna come out . There ’ s no way I ’ m gonna do a video with Mariah Carey before I even put out my album . ’ Then , when it came out , I think it was the # 1 video on YouTube in one day , something crazy like that . " It premiered simultaneously with the video for " Angels Cry " with Ne @-@ Yo on Vevo on January 28 , 2010 . Carey and Minaj play different characters , include Barbie dolls who escape from their boxes , sexy nurses in matching outfits , two women in a nail salon and two divas shopping . Carey 's doll box has " She sings " written on the front , while Minaj 's say " She raps " . Cannon makes a cameo appearance in the video , which Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy thought was a reference to the 2002 film , Drumline . According to Anna Pickard of The Guardian , the escape from their packaging demonstrates a theme of being independent women and that they will not be restrained by men . Minaj spoke about the video in an interview for MTV News : " A lot of times , more famous artists or more confident artists take from a younger artist but they ’ ll never include you in that . I feel like she liked the whole doll thing and she wanted to do it with me . But she said that : She said , ’ Everybody ’ s gonna say ' she ’ s doing Nicki . ' But I told her , she ’ s always had a doll persona , like all that ’ doll baby ’ [ stuff ] . So it goes perfect with Barbie and we had fun . That ’ s all that matters . "
Melina Newman of HitFix thought that it looked like one of Carey 's lowest @-@ production budgets for a music video to date , but explained that it was not necessarily " a bad thing " , and that Carey looked " adorable " in a nurses outfit . She likened the use of a red and white color scheme for the video to a Target commercial . Anna Pickard commented that Carey and Minaj looked " grumpier " than what dolls usually do because " their men are low @-@ down dirty dogs who should henceforth get up out of Mimi and Nikki 's faces " . She compared the use of a red and white palette to Kylie Minogue 's music video for " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , Cheryl Fernandez @-@ Versini 's " Fight for This Love " and Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " , and that it appeared to be a " go @-@ to device for directors who want their pop video to pop visually , without the need for too much pesky plot to worry about " . Chris Ryan thought that Minaj outshined Carey in the video . In a review of Minaj 's ten best videos in December 2014 , Rolling Stone ranked the video for " Up Out My Face " at number eight , and wrote that Carey and Minaj had " great on @-@ camera chemistry " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Release history = = =
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= Brian Hill ( swimmer ) =
Brian David Hill ( born 29 December 1982 ) is a S13 Canadian para @-@ swimmer who has competed in the 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 Summer Paralympics and the 2007 Parapan American Games . He had won five gold medals , three silver medals and 3 bronze medals in his international career . Hill started swimming as a child and competitive swimming at the age of nine . He has won the Blind Sports Award and also the Athlete of the Year Award .
= = Personal life = =
Hill was born on 29 December 1982 in Duncan , British Columbia with a genetic retinal disorder which results in only ten percent vision . Since the 2004 Summer Paralympics , he has resided in Montreal , Quebec . During his childhood , Hill 's parents dug a 17 @-@ metre pool for him to swim in . " It was the first sport where I was able to train and compete with other kids at an equal level , ” he says . He started competitive swimming at the age of nine . Hill 's girlfriend Karine Thomas is a member in Canada 's Olympic synchronized swimming team . After he retires , he wants to have a culinary career .
= = Career = =
At the age of 17 , Hill participated in six events at the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney , Australia . He won silver in the men 's 100 metre butterfly in 1 : 02 @.@ 79 , finished fourth in the 100 metre backstroke in 1 : 10 @.@ 39 , sixth in the 50 metre freestyle in 27 @.@ 11 , eighth in the 100 metre freestyle in 59 @.@ 23 , eighth in the 400 metre freestyle in 4 : 54 @.@ 96 and tenth in the 200 metre individual medley in 2 : 35 @.@ 39 . Looking back in 2008 on his results , Brian said , " Sydney Games were special because it was my first Paralympic Games and everything . The atmosphere , crowds and facilities were amazing . "
At the 2004 Summer Paralympics , Hill won bronze in the 100 metre backstroke in 1 : 06 @.@ 97 , bronze in the 400 metre freestyle in 4 : 39 @.@ 52 , finished equal fourth in the 100 metre butterfly in 1 : 03 @.@ 90 , fifth in the 100 metre freestyle in 59 @.@ 32 , fifth in the 200 metre individual medley in 2 : 31 @.@ 07 and 14th in the 50 metre freestyle in 28 @.@ 09 . About the 2004 Paralympics in Greece , Brian said in 2008 that he " was really able to feel the history of the Olympics " .
At the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , Hill finished ninth in the 50 metre EAD freestyle in 26 @.@ 68 and ninth in the 100 metre EAD freestyle in 59 @.@ 58 .
Hill won five medals at the 2007 Parapan American Games including three golds and two silvers . He won gold in 100 metre butterfly where he got a time of 1 : 00 @.@ 52 . He had tied the world record time with Canadian para @-@ swimmer Walter Wu . He had also won another two golds and two silvers . He says " I 'm pretty happy with the result overall . Technically it was very good . "
Before going to Beijing for his third Paralympic Games , Hill 's preparation involved swimming about 120 kilometres in two weeks . Hill said , " I completed about eight to nine workouts a week and spent around 18 to 20 hours per week in the pool , " .
At the 2008 Summer Paralympics , Hill finished fifth in the 100 metre backstroke in 1 : 05 @.@ 52 , 12th in the 100 metre butterfly in 1 : 03 @.@ 25 , 15th in the 100 metre freestyle in 59 @.@ 80 and 17th in the 50 metre freestyle in 26 @.@ 84 .
At the 2009 IPC Swimming World Championships 25 m in Rio , Hill won gold in the 100 metre backstroke in a new record time of 59 @.@ 30 , gold in the 100 metre butterfly in a new record time of 57 @.@ 04 and bronze in the 100 metre freestyle in 54 @.@ 66 . At the 2010 IPC Swimming World Championships , Hill finished fifth in the 100 metre backstroke in 1 : 04 @.@ 65 .
At the 2012 Summer Paralympics , Hill finished seventh in the 100 metre backstroke in 1 : 04 @.@ 97 and equal eighth in the heats 100 metre butterfly with Australia 's Sean Russo in 1 : 01 @.@ 61 . In the swim @-@ off , Russo defeated Hill with each posting times of 1 : 01 @.@ 24 and 1 : 02 @.@ 72 respectively .
= = Achievements = =
In 2002 , Hill won the Athlete of the Year award in the athletes with a disability category . He won again in the next year . In 2003 , Hill was awarded the Blind Sports award from the British Columbia Blind Sports and Recreation Association ( BCBSRA ) .
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= Maria Radner =
Maria Friderike Radner ( German : [ ˈʁaːdnɐ ] ; 7 May 1981 – 24 March 2015 ) was a German contralto who performed internationally in opera and in concerts .
Radner studied at the Robert Schumann Hochschule in Düsseldorf , Germany . Both Stern magazine and Munich 's Abendzeitung described her as an " extremely talented interpreter of Wagner 's music " . Possessing the " rare pitch of a true alto " , she frequently appeared as Erda in Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Leipzig Opera , Schwertleite in Die Walküre at the Teatro Comunale di Firenze with Zubin Mehta , and in Mahler 's Symphony No. 2 ( the Resurrection ) conducted by Antonio Pappano in Rome and Milan . Her debut at the Metropolitan Opera in 2012 in Götterdämmerung was part of that company 's documentary Wagner 's Dream .
= = Early life and education ( 1981 – 2000 ) = =
Radner was born in Düsseldorf and had a brother , Bozidar , and a sister , Anna . Her father Klaus Radner and his wife had immigrated from Austria and started a trading company . They were not particularly interested in music . During long drives to Austria , Maria would sing for hours . At school she was a " rather unobtrusive , popular student " who enjoyed music lessons but found mathematics difficult . Her talent for singing remained unnoticed at school , but when she was 14 , her parents introduced her to voice teacher Angelo Melzani , who told her , " I will get you into opera . " As a teen she took part in the Rhenish Carnival and the Largest Fair on the Rhine ( Große Rheinkirmes ) . Her father remembered her calling him excitedly after winning first prize in a beer @-@ tent karaoke competition . She attended the St. Ursula Gymnasium in Düsseldorf , finishing in 2000 .
= = Vocal education ( 2000 – 2008 ) = =
Radner pursued German studies for one semester , but left because she disliked it . She started training in an import – export business and had the best grades at the vocational school , but felt that it did not suit her . She applied to the Robert Schumann Hochschule for music in Düsseldorf and was one of seven selected from 200 applicants . Her voice teacher , Michaela Krämer , considered her to be a mezzo @-@ soprano . Radner 's father obtained additional voice lessons for her with Jeannette Zarou in Düsseldorf , and later with mezzo @-@ soprano Marga Schiml , both of whom are experts in early music and Lieder . They recognized that she was really a contralto . Radner 's mother died in 2003 after a long illness . Almost a year later , Radner earned her diploma . In the 2006 Berlin National Singing Competition , she won the € 3 @,@ 000 third prize in the concert ( not opera ) division and a scholarship from the Richard Wagner Society in Bayreuth to attend the 2007 Bayreuth Festival . In the concert division of the 2007 Cantilena Singing Competition , she placed second out of 120 vocalists from 19 countries . In 2008 she played Cornelia in Handel 's Giulio Cesare in Egitto at the Theater Hagen . It was to be her only engagement as an ensemble member at a theatre . She decided that it was " not her world " , not because it was no fun , but because she wanted to earn more , and she went independent . Radner was still a student in 2008 when she made her first public appearance under Zubin Mehta at the Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia in Valencia , singing Martin y Soler 's oratorio Philitaei a Jonatha disperse . She gave a recital in June 2008 .
In August 2008 Radner performed the title role in Handel 's Solomon at the Bregenzer Festspiele . Local newspapers praised her as " outshining " the other , more established British soloists ( Vorarlberger Nachrichten , 19 August 2008 ) and as possessing the " rare pitch of a true alto , having an impressive charisma and great musicality " ( Vorarlberger Neue Tageszeitung , 20 August 2008 ) . In 2009 she performed in a new production of Parsifal under Lorin Maazel in Valencia and in Arthur Honegger 's Jeanne d 'Arc au bûcher under the direction of Antonio Pappano at Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome .
= = Career ( 2009 – 2015 ) = =
After graduating with distinction , Radner performed Schumann 's Faust scenes under Jesús López @-@ Cobos at the Teatro Real Madrid . She sang in Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 conducted by Gianandrea Noseda at the Teatro Regio Torino . She performed a recital at Wahnfried on 16 August 2009 with works by Schubert , Brahms , Liszt and Wagner 's Wesendonck Lieder . In December 2009 she sang the third lady in Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte under Tomáš Netopil at the Bayerische Staatsoper in Munich in five performances . The conductor Sir Simon Rattle cast her as First Norn and Flosshilde in Götterdämmerung at the 2009 Festival d ’ Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence and again at the Salzburger Osterfestspiele in 2010 .
In 2009 and 2010 , Radner was part of a new production of Stravinsky 's Rossignol by the Canadian Opera Company in Toronto . She then sang Beethoven 's Missa Solemnis under Philippe Herreweghe at the Concertgebouw Amsterdam .
In 2010 , she gave her first performance as Erda in a concert adaptation of Das Rheingold at the Leipzig Opera , a role she performed every year from then until her death . In the same year she sang in Mahler 's Symphony No. 2 ( the Resurrection ) under Pappano in Rome and Milan . In the summer of 2010 she was part of a new production of Elektra at her first summer Salzburg Festival under Daniele Gatti and Die Frau ohne Schatten , conducted by Christian Thielemann . In October 2010 she appeared as Dryad in Ariadne auf Naxos at the Theater an der Wien , conducted by Bertrand de Billy .
Radner performed the third lady in Die Zauberflöte at La Scala under Roland Böer during March and April 2011 , and Rheingold 's Erda in Essen conducted by Stefan Soltesz in April . At the Salzburg Festival in July and August she was " a voice from above " and a servant in Richard Strauss 's Die Frau ohne Schatten under Christian Thielemann . She performed Martha in Tchaikovsky 's Iolanta and " death " in Le Rossignol , both under Ivor Bolton . In November 2011 she sang Siegfried 's Erda in Leipzig under Ulf Schirmer .
In January 2012 Radner made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in Götterdämmerung . The production was documented in the film Wagner 's Dream by Robert Lepage and the 11 February 2012 performance was recorded and broadcast by radio . In March 2012 , she participated in Die Frau ohne Schatten at La Scala under Marc Albrecht . In the fall of 2012 , she was at the Royal Opera House in London performing in three Wagner operas conducted by Pappano : the Erda in Siegfried and Rheingold during September and October , and the first norn in Götterdämmerung during October and November 2012 . She sang in Dvorak 's Requiem under Tomas Netopil in Lyon , and in Mahler 's Symphony No. 3 under Sebastian Weigle in Frankfurt am Main .
In January 2013 Radner appeared as the valkyrie Schwertleite in Die Walküre at the Teatro Comunale di Firenze under Zubin Mehta , and in March she again portrayed Erda in Das Rheingold , conducted by Ingo Metzmacher at the Grand Théâtre de Genève . She traveled to Bucharest in September , where she sang Erda in a concert performance of Das Rheingold with the Radio Symphony Orchestra Berlin under the direction of Marek Janowski . The 2013 – 2014 season also included Dvorak 's Stabat Mater with Santa Cecilia in Rome under Netopil .
From January to May 2014 , in Geneva , Radner performed Erda in Siegfried , and in May in Das Rheingold conducted by Metzmacher . In April 2014 she performed as Anna in the Berlioz opera Les Troyens at La Scala under Pappano .
Radner gave her final performance as the earth goddess Erda on 23 March 2015 in Wagner 's Siegfried at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona . She had been scheduled to appear at Bayreuth in the summer of 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Scottish mezzo @-@ soprano Karen Cargill summarized " Maria Radner , my beloved friend " in The Guardian : " She was the most generous @-@ spirited person I have ever met . Hysterical laughter , an obsession with all things Burberry , unadulterated passion for Bayern Munich and the warmest of hugs were things you could always be guaranteed of when you were with her . Her son and partner were her whole life . " Further down Cargill qualified the latter , in that " Music was Maria 's entire life until she met her partner and they had their son . "
The authors of an article in the German weekly Stern echoed this sentiment when they wrote that " Radner was a happy mother . Radner had a side , that many internationally successful opera stars are not privy to : her own family . " Stern described photos of her private life , published one week prior in Bild , showing the young woman embraced by her partner Sascha Schenk in the soccer stadium with a scarf of FC Bayern Munich , and him holding their infant son , who is sitting on a motorbike . Stern wrote that " privately Radner was able to simply be Maria , the wife of insurance specialist Sascha S. "
According to Opernnetz " Radner had moved with him [ Schenk ] to Wuppertal @-@ Kronenberg . " Bild wrote " They lived in Mettmann . She was travelling a lot professionally , while he looked after his insurance clients in Wuppertal . " Their son Felix Schenk was described as one year old by Bild , and as two years according to the Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung .
= = Death = =
Radner died on 24 March 2015 along with her husband Sascha Schenk , their two @-@ year @-@ old son Felix , and her colleague Oleg Bryjak , when Germanwings Flight 9525 crashed near Prads @-@ Haute @-@ Bléone , Alpes @-@ de @-@ Haute @-@ Provence , France . The pilot had a history of depression , had barricaded himself into the cockpit and steered the plane into the mountains . They were en route to Düsseldorf after Radner 's and Bryjak 's two performances in Wagner 's Siegfried at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona . Radner 's voice teacher Michaela Krämer said " she was a magnificent artist and yet remained unassuming , helpful and natural " .
The Metropolitan Opera issued a brief statement , mourning her " untimely and tragic death " and calling her " a gifted artist who touched the lives of many " . The Deutsche Oper am Rhein expressed sympathy .
= = Discography = =
Rundfunk @-@ Sinfonieorchester Berlin Choir / Wagner – Richard Wagner : Das Rheingold . 28 May 2013 . PentaTone Classics .
Gürzenich @-@ Orchester Köln / Markus Stenz , conductor : Gustav Mahler : Symphony No. 8 . Oehms Classics ; recording of a September 2011 live performance in the Philharmonie Köln . Maria Radner as Maria Egyptiaca ( Part 2 , Acta Sanctorum ) .
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= France national rugby union team =
The France national rugby union team represents France in rugby union . They compete annually against England , Ireland , Italy , Scotland and Wales in the Six Nations Championship . They have won the championship outright sixteen times , shared it a further eight times , and have completed nine grand slams . Eight former French players have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame .
Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by the British , and on New Years Day 1906 the national side played its first Test match – against New Zealand in Paris . France played sporadically against the Home Nations until they joined them to form a Five Nations tournament ( now the Six Nations Championship ) in 1910 . France also competed in the rugby competitions at early Summer Olympics , winning the gold medal in 1900 and two silver medals in the 1920s . The national team came of age during the 1950s and 1960s , winning their first Five Nations title outright in 1959 . They won their first Grand Slam in 1968 . Since the inaugural World Cup in 1987 , France have qualified for the knock @-@ out stage of every tournament . They have reached the final three times , losing to the All Blacks in 1987 and 2011 and to Australia in 1999 . France hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup , where , as in 2003 , they were beaten in the semi @-@ finals by England .
France traditionally play in blue shirts with white shorts and red socks , and are commonly referred to as les tricolores or les bleus . The French emblem is a golden rooster imposed upon a red shield . Their alternative strip is composed of a white shirt and navy blue shorts and socks . French international matches are played at several venues across the country ; the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint @-@ Denis is used for their games during the Six Nations , and they have a formidable home record at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille where they have only lost twice , to Argentina in 2004 and to New Zealand in 2009 .
= = History = =
Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by English merchants and students . On 26 February 1890 , a French rugby team recruited from the Janson Desailly Lyceum defeated an international team at the Bois de Boulogne .
Although France were represented at the 1900 Summer Olympics , their first official test match did not take place till New Year 's Day , 1906 against the New Zealand All Blacks in Paris . France then played intermittently against the Home Nations until they joined them to form the Five Nations tournament in 1910 . In 1913 France faced South Africa 's Springboks for the first time ; losing 38 – 5 . France also competed at the 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics , and on both occasions lost to the United States in the gold medal match , Vicky LeDonne scored the winning goal .
France were ejected from the Five Nations in 1932 after being accused of professionalism in the French leagues at a time when rugby union was strictly amateur . Forced to play against weaker opposition , France went on a winning streak ; winning ten games in a row during the years from 1931 to 1936 . France was invited to rejoin the Five Nations in 1939 but did not compete until 1947 as international rugby was suspended during World War II .
French rugby came of age during the 1950s and 1960s : they won their first Five Nations championship and completed a successful tour of South Africa . Their first championship was won in 1954 when they shared the title with England and Wales . France won their first outright Five Nations championship in 1959 ; they won with two wins , a draw ( against England ) and a defeat ( against Ireland ) .
France first toured South Africa winning the test series in 1958 . The Springboks also visited Paris in 1961 , the test was not completed due to onfield fighting amongst the players . France also toured New Zealand and Australia in 1961 losing both tests against the All Blacks but defeating Australia 's Wallabies . They won their first Five Nations Grand Slam in 1968 by beating all four other competing teams , and won numerous titles in the following years .
In 1977 , France won their second Grand Slam , fielding an unchanged side throughout the tournament and conceding no tries . They also defeated the All Blacks in Toulouse that year , but lost the return match in Paris . On Bastille Day , 1979 they defeated the All Blacks in New Zealand for the first time , at Eden Park in Auckland .
In 1981 the French clinched their third Grand Slam ; at Twickenham against England . They again completed a Grand Slam in 1987 on the eve of the first Rugby World Cup hosted by Australia and New Zealand . In that tournament they came from behind numerous times to defeat the Wallabies in their semi @-@ final , and faced the All Blacks in final at Eden Park , Auckland ; France lost 29 – 9 . They shared the Five Nations with Wales the next year , and also won it in 1989 .
France hosted some of the tests during the 1991 World Cup , but made their exit from the after being knocked out by England at the Parc des Princes ( Paris ) in their quarter @-@ final . One Five Nations championship was won in the early 1990s , in 1993 . The following year France won a test series 2 – 0 in New Zealand in the 1994 . They were knocked out of the 1995 World Cup semi @-@ finals by eventual champions the Springboks , but did win their third place play @-@ off match against England . France played the All blacks in two tests , winning the first 22 – 15 at Toulouse and lost the second 37 – 12 at Paris . France won back @-@ to @-@ back Grand Slams in 1997 and 1998 . At the 1999 World Cup they defeated tournament favourites the All Blacks in the semi @-@ finals , but lost to the Wallabies in the final .
The Five Nations Championship was expanded in 2000 to include Italy . In the now Six Nations Championship France won a Grand Slam in 2002 . At the 2003 World Cup in Australia they qualified for the semi @-@ finals where they were defeated by eventual champions England . In 2004 , they won a second Six Nations Grand Slam , which was followed by a Championship win in 2006 and a successful defence in 2007 .
During the opener of the World Cup 2007 , Argentina defeated France 17 – 12 . However , after defeating Ireland 25 – 3 , France qualified for the quarter @-@ finals . After defeating the New Zealand All Blacks 20 – 18 , they lost to England 14 – 9 in the semi @-@ final . France then lost for a second time to Argentina 34 – 10 in the third @-@ place match . In 2010 , France won its ninth Grand Slam .
During the 2011 Rugby World Cup , France defeated Wales 9 – 8 in the semi @-@ final at Eden Park in Auckland , New Zealand , on 15 October 2011 and in the following week they lost 8 – 7 to the All Blacks at the final to make it three final defeats .
During the 2015 Rugby World Cup France lost 62 @-@ 13 to New Zealand in the Quarter Finals
= = Strip = =
Until 1912 , the strip ( uniform ) of the French team was white with two rings , one red and one blue . After the first game won by France against Scotland in 1911 , France 's captain Marcel Communeau asked that the team adopt the coq gaulois ( Gallic rooster ) , historical emblem of France , as its symbol . The Gallic rooster was probably chosen partly because it is considered as a proud and combative animal that can be sometimes aggressive , although it had been used previously as a symbol by French teams – a former soccer player , Jean Rigal , wore a uniform with this emblem as early as May 1910 . The badge was initially white and red , but was altered to a multicoloured , embroidered image after 1945 , and has been golden since 1970 .
The symbol used by the French rugby team was a great success , and was later adopted by the French delegation at the Olympic Games of 1920 where the rooster was perched on five Olympic rings . The rooster has since become a well @-@ known symbol of French teams . French players are sometimes called les coqs and some French supporters have been known to release roosters on the playing field before games .
The French team traditionally played in blue shirts , white shorts , and red socks , the colors of the national flag , and as such were nicknamed les tricolores . Due to the mostly blue strip the French team currently wears , the team is now often referred to as les Bleus ( the Blues ) , like many other French sporting teams . When this strip clashes with that of their opponents , such as in games against Scotland and Italy , French players wear white . New strips were developed for the 2007 World Cup , one of which is a darker blue . In June 2011 they relaunched another kit which they wear blue shirt , blue shorts and blue socks for their home kit and they wear white shirt , white shorts and white socks for their away kit .
In 2011 the French Rugby Federation ( FFR ) announced that Adidas would be their new partner for a period of six years , with them taking over production of the French national rugby shirt from 1 July 2012 to 30 June 2018 . The latest French jersey was unveiled on 6 November 2014 .
= = Home grounds = =
Historically , France played internationals at venues such as Parc des Princes and the Stade Olympique de Colombes , both in Paris . The Stade Olympique de Colombes was the main venue for the 1924 Summer Olympics , where rugby was a sport .
Ever since moving out of Parc des Princes at the end of 1997 , France 's main home venue has been the Stade de France in Saint @-@ Denis , where their home Six Nations matches are played . It has a capacity of 80 @,@ 000 . Since 2005 , France has also played home internationals at the following venues around the country : Stade Chaban @-@ Delmas , Grand Stade Lille Métropole ( now known as Stade Pierre @-@ Mauroy ) , Stade Gerland , Stade Vélodrome , Stade de la Mosson , Stade de la Beaujoire , Stade Bonal , Stadium Municipal , Toulouse .
In June 2012 , the FFR announced that plans were under way for a new rugby @-@ dedicated stadium to be constructed in Évry , 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) south of Paris . The stadium is projected to cost € 600M and have a seating capacity of 82 @,@ 000 . It was originally scheduled for completion by 2017 , but has since been delayed to 2020 .
= = = World Cup venues = = =
During the 1991 World Cup , Pool D ( which included France ) matches were played throughout France including Béziers , Bayonne , Grenoble , Toulouse , Brive and Agen . Parc des Princes and Stadium Lille @-@ Metropole also hosted a quarter @-@ final each . Pool C fixtures at the 1999 World Cup were played throughout France in Béziers , Bordeaux and Toulouse . A second round match was held at Stade Félix Bollaert , and one quarter final was held at the Stade de France , both 2007 venues .
For the 2007 World Cup , France was the primary host , and there were ten venues used for matches throughout the country ( Cardiff in Wales and Edinburgh in Scotland also hosted some games ) . The French cities that hosted matches were Bordeaux ( Stade Chaban @-@ Delmas ) , Lens ( Stade Félix Bollaert ) , Lyon ( Stade Gerland ) , Marseille ( Stade Vélodrome ) , Montpellier ( Stade de la Mosson ) , Nantes ( Stade de la Beaujoire ) , Paris ( Stade de France , Saint @-@ Denis and Parc des Princes ) , Saint @-@ Étienne ( Stade Geoffroy @-@ Guichard ) , and Toulouse ( Stadium de Toulouse ) . The final was played at Stade de France .
= = Record = =
= = = Six Nations = = =
France competes annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : England , Ireland , Italy , Scotland and Wales . France first contested the tournament in 1910 when the Home Nations became the Five Nations . France were expelled from the tournament due to rumours of professionalism in the then @-@ amateur sport in 1932 , but rejoined in 1947 . They first won the competition in 1954 , sharing the championship with both England and Wales . France shared with Wales again the following season , and won it outright for the first time in 1959 . France 's longest wait for a championship spanned 37 tournaments ( 1910 – 1954 ) . The Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy is also contested between France and Italy during the Six Nations . Over the whole history of the Tournament , they are the third most @-@ winning nation , eight wins behind England . However , it should be taken into account that France have been present in 33 fewer tournaments than the Home Nations . France has won almost exactly the same proportion of Six Nations Tournaments in which it has competed as England , and is the most successful nation in the post @-@ World War II era ( 1945 – present ) .
= = = World Cup = = =
The French have competed at every World Cup since the inaugural tournament in 1987 . Although they have yet to win a World Cup , they have participated in the play @-@ off stage of every tournament , and have reached the final three times .
In 1987 France took on pre @-@ tournament favourites Australia at Concord Oval for a place in the final . In one of the greatest World Cup matches , the Australians appeared to be in control , leading 9 – 0 , 15 – 12 and 24 – 21 at various stages of the match , only for the French to keep coming back . With the scores locked at 24 – 24 and the prospect of extra time looming , the French scored one of the most memorable tries in rugby history . Starting an attack from inside their own half , the French passed the ball through 11 pairs of hands before fullback Serge Blanco beat Wallabies hooker Tom Lawton to score a try in the corner . France won 30 – 24 , and would face co @-@ hosts New Zealand in the final at Eden Park . The French had not fully recovered from their magnificent effort in the semi @-@ final , and New Zealand won the anti @-@ climactic decider 29 – 9 .
In 1991 France met eternal arch @-@ rivals England in the quarterfinal at Parc des Princes . Earlier in the year at Twickenham the two sides had played off for the Five Nations Grand Slam . The French scored three magnificent tries but were denied by the fearsome English forward pack . In a very tense and brutally physical match , the scores were tied at 10 @-@ all when the French were awarded a scrum five metres out from the tryline . French number eight Marc Cecillon looked set to score the try that would have won the game for the French . Suddenly he was hit and driven back in a tackle from opponent Mick Skinner , a tackle which changed the momentum of the match . England went on to win 19 – 10 and eventually reached the Final . At the end of the match , France coach Daniel Dubroca angrily assaulted New Zealand referee David Bishop in the players tunnel . He resigned soon afterwards .
In 1995 France finished third overall , defeating England 19 – 9 in the third / fourth place play @-@ off after their defeat to South Africa in the semi @-@ finals . After coming from behind to defeat the All Blacks in their 1999 semi @-@ final , France lost to Australia 35 – 12 in the final . In 2003 they finished fourth , losing the third / fourth place game to the All Blacks . At the World Cup 2007 , after defeating New @-@ Zealand 18 – 20 in the quarter @-@ final , France lost out to England in the semi @-@ finals losing 14 – 9 after finishing the break 5 – 6 ahead . France lost to Argentina in the bronze final to finish the tournament fourth .
France 's 2011 campaign was marked by turmoil within the camp ; reports before the tournament indicated as many as 25 of the 30 @-@ member squad had turned against head coach Marc Lièvremont . In pool play , France had unimpressive wins over Japan and Canada , an expected loss to New Zealand , and a shock loss to Tonga . During this stage , Lièvremont heavily criticized the team in the media , further angering many of his players , with veteran back @-@ rower Imanol Harinordoquy publicly critical of Lièvremont . Despite the losses , they qualified for the knockout stage . At this time , the players effectively rebelled against Lièvremont ; after the tournament , Harinordoquy would tell the French rugby publication Midi Olympique , " We had to free ourselves from his supervision . " The team responded by defeating England 19 – 12 in the quarter final and controversially beating Wales 9 – 8 in the semi @-@ final after Welsh captain Sam Warburton was sent off . The French proved admirable opponents in the final , however , losing out to New Zealand 8 – 7 to finish second for the third time in a Rugby World Cup
France are the third @-@ highest World Cup points scorers of all time , with 1195 points . They are also the third @-@ highest try scorers , and the second @-@ highest penalty scorers . France 's Thierry Lacroix was the top points scorer at the 1995 tournament with 112 points , and Jean @-@ Baptiste Lafond was the joint top try scorer in 1991 with six tries ( equal with David Campese ) .
= = = Overall = = =
When the World Rankings were introduced by World Rugby ( then the International Rugby Board ) in 2003 , France were ranked fifth . During November 2003 France briefly occupied third place before falling to fourth by December that year . After falling to fifth during November 2004 , France rose again to fourth by April 2005 . During early 2006 , France rose again , peaking at second in July that year . France were ranked number two in the world until falling to third in June 2007 after two successive defeats to the All Blacks . They then fell to fifth after losing to Argentina in the opening match of the 2007 World Cup .
France have won 398 of their 729 test matches , a win record of 54 @.@ 60 % .
Below is a table of the representative rugby matches played by a France national XV at test level up until 25 June 2016 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
On 6 June , Guy Novès named the first set of players for France 's two @-@ test series against Argentina . The squad did not include any of the six Top 14 play @-@ offs teams , Castres , Clermont , Toulon , Toulouse , Racing or Montpellier ( except François Trinh @-@ Duc who was released by Montpellier for the tour ) due to the play @-@ offs taking place between 11 and 24 June .
On 13 June , Novès named a further 11 players on top of the initial 17 , after Toulouse and Castres and were eliminated from the Top 14 quarter @-@ finals .
On 19 June , Paul Jedrasiak was called up to the squad following Clermont Auvergne 's elimination from the Top 14 .
Head coach : Guy Novès
Caps updated : 25 June 2016
Note : Flags indicate national union for the club / province as defined by World Rugby .
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= Cleopatra and Caesar ( painting ) =
Cleopatra and Caesar ( French : Cléopâtre et César ) , also known as Cleopatra Before Caesar , is an oil on canvas painting by the French Academic artist Jean @-@ Léon Gérôme , completed in 1866 . The work was originally commissioned by the French courtesan La Païva but she was unhappy with the finished painting and returned it to Gérôme . It was exhibited at the Salon of 1866 and the Royal Academy of Arts in 1871 .
Gérôme 's painting is one of the earliest modern depictions of Cleopatra emerging from a carpet in the presence of Julius Caesar , a minor historical inaccuracy that arose out of the translation of a scene from Plutarch 's Life of Caesar and the semantic change of the word " carpet " over time . The work is considered a classic example of Egyptomania and was mass @-@ produced by Goupil , allowing it to reach a wide audience .
The painting was held by California banker Darius Ogden Mills and remained in the Mills family art collection for over a century until it was sold to a private collector in 1990 .
= = Background = =
Jean @-@ Léon Gérôme ( 1824 – 1904 ) was a nineteenth century French painter and sculptor . At the age of twenty @-@ three , he came to the attention of the art world at the Salon of 1847 with The Cock Fight ( 1846 ) , a Neo @-@ Grec painting that was praised by Théophile Gautier . With works informed by his frequent travels throughout the Middle East and visits to Egypt , Gérôme specialized in historical and Orientalist painting and became known as a leader of the Academic art movement . According to historian Charles Sowerwine , Gérôme
painted erotic subjects with a photographic approach and sensual charge , but avoided ' indecency ' by the use of Oriental and historical contexts . . . To us , Gérôme 's nudes seem pornographic , but to contemporaries they were idealized by their removal from contemporary society and their insertion in the Oriental context .
French writer Prosper Mérimée first proposed the subject of Cleopatra and Caesar in a letter sent to Gérôme in December 1860 . La Païva , a wealthy French courtesan , later commissioned the painting from Gérôme , intending it for display in the Hôtel de la Païva , her mansion on the Champs @-@ Élysées . According to American art critic Earl Shinn , the work was originally painted on silk and was designed as a " transparency to be lowered or raised midway of a long saloon " in La Païva 's mansion , " which it was desirable to divide occasionally into two " .
= = Development = =
Gérôme made at least two previous oil paintings and a number of sketches in preparation for the work . One shows Cleopatra lying on the ground stretching out to Julius Caesar with Apollodorus crouching behind her . In one variation before the finished version , Caesar is shown by himself with his hands on the desk ( instead of outstretched ) without his four secretaries . When the work was finished in 1866 , Cleopatra 's position changed to show her standing before Caesar with Apollodorus bent down beside her .
Gérôme painted the scene based on the meeting between Cleopatra and Caesar written in the Life of Caesar by Greek historian Plutarch ( c . AD 46 – AD 120 ) more than a century after the incident took place . Even though Gérôme visited Egypt in 1857 , where George W. Whiting of Rice University notes " he acquired numerous abundant local color and exact detail " that informed the painting of Cleopatra and Caesar , the Egyptian background setting in the work is derived from a plate in a volume from the Description de l 'Égypte ( 1809 – 29 ) that depicts a temple at Deir el @-@ Medina .
= = Completion and exhibition = =
La Païva disliked the finished painting she had commissioned and returned it to Gérôme . Ackerman notes that La Païva felt the work was too expensive . Gérôme modified the painting by adding canvas to the back for strength , and it was subsequently purchased by his father @-@ in @-@ law , Adolphe Goupil ( 1806 – 1893 ) of Goupil & Cie , the leading art dealership in nineteenth @-@ century France . Gérôme first met Goupil in 1859 and married his daughter Marie several years later . Cleopatra and Caesar was one of three works Gérôme presented at the Salon of 1866 where it was exhibited with the title César et Cléopâtre . The painting appeared at the Royal Academy of Arts exhibition in 1871 under the longer name Cléopâtre apportée à César dans un tapis ( Cleopatra brought to Caesar in a carpet ) .
= = Description = =
The painting depicts the year 47 BC , when Cleopatra stands before Julius Caesar after Apollodorus , her servant , has just finished smuggling her into the palace inside a rug . The figures are shown approximately half life @-@ size . Since the 1866 exhibition , the work has become known by other titles , such as Cleopatra Before Caesar , and more recently , Cleopatra and Caesar .
= = Critical reception = =
The American Egyptomania project at George Mason University describes the painting as a classic example of Egyptomania , containing " sex , slavery , nudity , and decadence " . Lucy H. Hooper called it a companion piece to Gérôme 's earlier work , Phryne before the Areopagus ( 1861 ) . The painting was one of two notable depictions of Cleopatra from the nineteenth century along with Cleopatra and the Peasant ( 1838 ) by Eugène Delacroix .
= = Historical inaccuracy = =
A translation of Plutarch 's Life of Caesar by John Langhorne and his brother William published in 1770 was the first source to use the word " carpet " to describe the material used by Cleopatra 's servant to sneak her into the palace . Although the original meaning used by Plutarch was more akin to what is today known as a duffel bag , at the time of Langhorne 's translation a carpet meant a type of " thick fabric " , not an actual rug . But by the nineteenth century , semantic change led to the word taking on a different meaning . The legend of Cleopatra hiding in a rug , although historically inaccurate , became the most popular image , with Gérôme one of the first to popularize it in modern art .
= = Influence = =
Gérôme 's professional relationship with art collector Adolphe Goupil allowed his paintings to become mass @-@ produced in the form of engravings and photographs , reaching more people and impacting the wider culture throughout Britain and the United States . Over time , both theatrical and Hollywood productions about Cleopatra looked to Gérôme 's painting for inspiration . Whiting argues that Gérôme 's work may have influenced Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw 's play Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1898 ) , particularly the carpet scene in Act III . Many of Gérôme 's history paintings influenced the composition of cinematic scenes portraying ancient history .
= = Provenance = =
The painting was bought by California banker , philanthropist , and New York real estate developer Darius Ogden Mills in the 1870s and remained in the Mills family art collection until it was sold to a private collector in 1990 .
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= StarCraft : Ghost =
StarCraft : Ghost is a unreleased military science fiction stealth @-@ action video game previously under development by Blizzard Entertainment . Part of Blizzard 's StarCraft series , the game was announced on September 20 , 2002 , and was to be developed by Nihilistic Software for the Nintendo GameCube , Xbox , and PlayStation 2 video game consoles . Several delays in development caused Blizzard to move back the release date and the game has not yet materialized . Nihilistic Software ceded development to Swingin ' Ape Studios in 2004 before Blizzard bought the company , and plans for the GameCube version were cancelled in 2005 .
Blizzard announced in March 2006 that the game was put on " indefinite hold " while the company investigated seventh generation video game console possibilities . Subsequent public statements from company personnel had been contradictory about whether production was to be renewed or planned story elements worked into other products . The continued delay of Ghost had caused it to be labeled as vaporware , and it was ranked fifth in Wired News ' annual Vaporware Awards in 2005 . In 2014 , Blizzard president Mike Morhaime confirmed that Ghost was officially cancelled .
Unlike its real @-@ time strategy predecessor StarCraft , Ghost was to be a third @-@ person shooter , and intended to give players a closer and more personal view of the StarCraft universe . Following Nova , a Terran psychic espionage operative called a " ghost " , the game would have been set four years after the conclusion of StarCraft : Brood War and cover a conspiracy about a secretive military project conducted by Nova 's superiors in the imperial Terran Dominion . Very little of the game 's storyline has been released ; however , in November 2006 after the game 's postponement , a novel was published called StarCraft Ghost : Nova , which covers the backstory of the central character .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Campaign = = =
During StarCraft : Ghost 's gameplay , the player 's character Nova must use stealth and darkness to reach objectives and remain undetected . Nova has a cloaking device that allows for temporary concealment , but certain hostile non @-@ player characters can overcome this with special devices and abilities . Nova is also equipped with thermal imaging goggles and a special EMP device for disabling electronic devices and vehicles . In addition to the focus on stealth elements , StarCraft : Ghost includes a complex combat system . Blizzard planned to include a small arsenal of weaponry with assault and sniper rifles , grenades , shotguns , and flamethrowers . Nova can engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and uses these skills to eliminate enemy threats quietly . If alerted , enemy characters will hunt for the player , set up traps , and fire blindly to nullify Nova 's cloaking device .
Nova is highly agile , acrobatic , and able to perform maneuvers such as mantling and climbing ledges , hanging from pipes , and sliding down ziplines . The player has access to Nova 's psionic powers honed through training as a ghost agent , such as the ability to improve her speed and reflexes drastically . StarCraft : Ghost includes many of the vehicle units featured in StarCraft and StarCraft : Brood War . Some vehicles , such as space battlecruisers and starfighters , only play support roles , while others , such as hoverbikes , scout cars , and futuristic siege tanks , can be piloted by the player .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The multiplayer mode in StarCraft : Ghost differs from the stealth @-@ based mechanics of the single @-@ player portion . It aims to give players a personal view of the battles from the real @-@ time strategy games of the series . Accordingly , Ghost 's multiplayer is structured around class @-@ based team gameplay and fighting in a variety of game modes . Ghost incorporates traditional game modes from multiplayer video games such as deathmatch , capture the flag , and king of the hill , but also introduces two game modes specifically designed for the StarCraft universe . The first is " Mobile Conflict " , which requires two teams to fight for control of a single Terran military factory with the ability of atmospheric flight . Using vehicles and team tactics , both teams must first board the structure and then capture its control room to fly it to the team 's starting point . The structure must then land and be defended from capture by the opposing team for a set amount of time .
The second unique game mode is " Invasion " , in which two teams fight for control of mineral resource nodes . Whenever teams capture a node they gain points that can be used to purchase classes and vehicles . In all of the team @-@ based game modes , teams have access to four Terran unit classes : light infantry , marine , firebat , and ghost . The light infantry class has minimal armor but a larger range of weapons , while the marine is a heavily armored soldier with an assault rifle and grenades . The firebat is a heavy marine armed with a flamethrower and napalm rockets . Finally , the ghost is a variation of Nova 's character in the single @-@ player mode , equipped with a cloaking device , thermal vision , EMP device , and sniper rifle , but lacks the speed ability . Due to the size of the armor worn by marines and firebats , only ghosts and light infantry can pilot vehicles .
= = Plot = =
Ghost takes place in the fictional universe of the StarCraft series . The series is set in a distant part of the galaxy called the Koprulu Sector and begins in the year 2499 . Terran exiles from Earth are governed by a totalitarian empire , the Terran Dominion , that is opposed by several smaller rebel groups . Two alien races discover humanity : the insectoid Zerg , who begin to invade planets controlled by the Terrans ; and the Protoss , an enigmatic race with strong psionic power that attempt to eradicate the Zerg . Ghost takes place four years after the conclusion of StarCraft : Brood War , in which the Zerg become the dominant power in the sector and leave both the Protoss and the Dominion in ruins . The game follows the story of Nova , a young ghost agent — a human espionage operative with psychic abilities — in the employ of the Dominion .
Although the game has been indefinitely postponed , the backstory for Nova was released in the novel StarCraft Ghost : Nova by Keith R. A. DeCandido . It was meant to accompany the game 's release , but was published in 2006 after development halted . In the novel , Nova is a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old girl and daughter to one of the ruling families of the Confederacy of Man , an oppressive government featured in StarCraft . The Confederacy is overthrown by rebels , who go on to form the Dominion . Nova has significant psionic potential , but has been kept out of the Confederate ghost operative training program because of her father 's influence . After her family is murdered by rebels , Nova loses control of her mental abilities and accidentally kills 300 people around her home . She flees from her home before she is caught , and is later forced to work for an organized crime boss as an enforcer and executioner . She is rescued by a Confederate agent who is investigating her disappearance during a rebel attack on the Confederate capital that leads to the Confederacy 's destruction . Nova is consequently acquired by the newly formed Terran Dominion , who erase her memory and train her as a ghost agent .
Few details have been revealed about Ghost 's plot beyond Nova 's backstory . Under emperor Arcturus Mengsk , the Terran Dominion has rebuilt much of its former strength and controls a new military formed to counter the Zerg . To further bolster the effectiveness of his military , Mengsk initiates a secret research operation codenamed Project : Shadow Blade and places it under the command of his right @-@ hand man , General Horace Warfield . In the program , an experimental and potentially lethal gas called terrazine is used to enhance the genetic structure of the Dominion 's psychic ghost agents . The process is described as changing the agents into " shadowy superhuman beings bent on executing the will of their true master " . It is into the midst of this that Nova finishes her training and is dispatched in operations against the Koprulu Liberation Front , a rebel group that challenges Mengsk 's empire . However , Nova 's mission leads her to uncover a conspiracy that involves Shadow Blade . This revelation causes her to question her loyalty to the Dominion and could upset the balance of power within the galaxy .
= = Development and cancellation = =
On September 20 , 2002 , Blizzard Entertainment announced the development of StarCraft : Ghost in conjunction with fellow video game company Nihilistic Software . Nihilistic aimed to release the game for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube video game consoles in late 2003 , which elicited positive reactions from the press . The game was consistently delayed , and during the third quarter of 2004 , Nihilistic discontinued their work on the project . Blizzard stated that Nihilistic had completed the tasks it had been contracted for , and the game would be delivered on time .
In July 2004 , Blizzard Entertainment began collaboration with Swingin ' Ape Studios to work on the game , and bought the company in May 2005 . Despite anticipation for the game by industry journalists , Ghost was delayed again and its release date was pushed back to September 2005 . At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2005 , Ghost was officially reannounced , but the GameCube version was canceled by Swingin ' Ape Studios due to the platform 's lack of online support . The game 's release was again delayed until 2006 . Despite the efforts of Swingin ' Ape , Ghost failed to materialize as scheduled , and in March 2006 Blizzard Entertainment announced an indefinite postponement on development of Ghost while the company explored new options with the emerging seventh generation of video game consoles . Despite its long development history , IGN noted that the concept of Ghost still held promise . Although the game 's development was suspended , Keith R. A. DeCandido 's novel StarCraft Ghost : Nova was published several months later in November 2006 .
Complementing Nihilistic 's and Swingin Ape Studio 's work on the game , Blizzard 's cinematics team — originally formed to develop StarCraft 's cut scenes — created the cut scenes for Ghost 's single @-@ player campaign , which are integral to the game 's storyline . The team , which originally consisted of six people , grew to 25 , and used newer hardware , software , and cinematics techniques to create higher quality cut scenes than those featured in StarCraft and Brood War . The game 's trailer , composed of the cinematics team 's work , was released in August 2005 .
Since Ghost 's production halted , Blizzard Entertainment has sporadically released information about the title . The game 's protagonist , Nova , shows up in one campaign mission of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty , in which players are given the option to side with her or fight against her forces . She also features in StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm . Metzen further stated that he believed Ghost had an excellent storyline that may be told in future novels following from DeCandido 's Nova . In June 2007 , Rob Pardo , one of the lead developers at Blizzard Entertainment , indicated that there still was interest in finishing Ghost . Later in an interview , Pardo stated that Blizzard had been " stubborn " in persevering with Ghost , but they " were not able to execute [ the game ] at the level we wanted to " . Blizzard 's president Mike Morhaime and Pardo gave a presentation on the company 's history at the D.I.C.E. Summit in February 2008 . During the presentation , they listed games canceled by Blizzard , which did not include Ghost . When questioned about this , Blizzard 's co @-@ founder Frank Pearce explained that the title was never " technically canceled " and that it was not in the company 's focus at the time due to a finite amount of development resources . Morhaime later elaborated that it was the sudden success of World of Warcraft and the concurrent development of StarCraft II that consumed Blizzard 's resources , leading to Ghost being put on hold . Despite Blizzard 's announcements , many of the video games industry 's journalists now list Ghost as canceled and consider it vaporware ; the game was ranked fifth in the 2005 edition of Wired News ' annual Vaporware Awards .
On September 23 , 2014 in an interview with Polygon about the cancellation of Blizzard 's next generation MMO Titan , Mike Morhaime confirmed that StarCraft : Ghost was also cancelled . Morhaime said , " It was hard when we canceled Warcraft Adventures . It was hard when we canceled StarCraft : Ghost , but it has always resulted in better @-@ quality work . " In a July 2016 Polygon article , it was suggested that when the game 's production halted the main reasons it was shelved were because the game worked on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox , but it was scheduled to be released in 2005 when the Xbox 360 was about to be released , and it would take a lot of resources to move from the previous console generation to the current generation as well as Blizzard having a lot of success with its then recently released PC @-@ only game World of Warcraft .
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= 1957 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1957 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally inactive year for tropical cyclogenesis in the North Atlantic basin . There were eight tropical storms – two of which went unnamed – and three hurricanes , two of which intensified further to attain major hurricane intensity . The season officially began on June 15 and ended on November 15 , though the year 's first tropical cyclone developed prior to the start of the season on June 8 . The final storm dissipated on October 27 , well before the official end of the season . The strongest hurricane of the year was Carrie , which reached the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on two separate occasions in the open Atlantic ; Carrie later caused the sinking of the German ship Pamir southwest of the Azores , resulting in 80 deaths .
In total , the season resulted in at least 513 fatalities and $ 152 @.@ 5 million in damages . Hurricane Audrey was the season 's most destructive and deadly storm , causing 416 deaths and about $ 150 million in damages . Audrey made landfall just east of Sabine Pass , Texas , in the U.S. state of Louisiana as a strong Category 3 hurricane in late June . Three other tropical storms in the year made landfalls along the Gulf Coast of the United States , bringing heavy rains that resulted in widespread flooding across much of the Southeastern United States . The highest rainfall total measured associated with a tropical cyclone was 18 @.@ 39 in ( 467 mm ) in Quarantine , Louisiana , during Tropical Storm Esther . However , an unofficial reading of 19 in ( 480 mm ) was measured in an unknown location in the Florida Panhandle during Tropical Storm One . The year 's other tropical systems curved out to sea without causing much impact . After the season , the name Audrey was retired .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1957 . It was a below @-@ average season in which eight tropical cyclones formed , of which three became hurricanes . Of these hurricanes , two became major hurricanes . In an average season , ten tropical cyclones form , of which five become hurricanes . Five of the season 's eight tropical cyclones developed in the Gulf of Mexico , the most since the 1936 season , in which six formed in the gulf . The first tropical storm of the season formed on June 8 , a week before the official start of the hurricane season . However , the first named storm , Audrey , formed afterwards , on June 25 ; these two storms were the only to form in June during the season . July featured no Atlantic tropical cyclones . Tropical Storm Bertha was the only system to form during August , developing in the Gulf of Mexico . Despite warm sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) in the tropical Atlantic , no storms formed during the month , below the climatological average of one . The low monthly activity was in part due to an unfavorable wind pattern which prevailed across the Atlantic for much of the month . In September , however , conditions for tropical cyclogenesis were more favorable , with concomitant cyclonic activity . Four storms formed , of which two attained hurricane strength , higher than the mean activity of the last 70 Septembers . By contrast , only one tropical storm formed in October , below the average of two in the month . This tropical storm dissipated on October 27 , 16 days before the official end of the hurricane season .
Five tropical cyclones made landfall during the hurricane season , including one hurricane . All of these storms made landfall on the Gulf Coast of the United States . Property damage that resulted from cyclone @-@ related impacts totaled to $ 152 million in the United States , with most caused by Hurricane Audrey , which made landfall near the border between Texas and Louisiana . 513 deaths were also caused by tropical storms during the season , with 416 deaths attributable to Hurricane Audrey .
The season 's activity was reflective with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 84 , which is categorized as being " near normal . " However , this was under the 1950 – 2000 average of 96 @.@ 1 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of hurricanes multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical cyclones with winds exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
An area of disturbed weather accompanied by low barometric pressure was first identified near the Yucatán Peninsula on June 7 . Reports from the following day in the region reported pressures that were indicative of a developing tropical cyclone , and at 06 : 00 UTC , the disturbance attained tropical depression strength , the first of the season . The depression quickly developed into a tropical storm later that day . Though hurricane reconnaissance flights could not locate a well @-@ defined center , ship observations showed that the tropical storm was moving quickly to the northeast . Due to its fast forward motion , the storm gained little in organization and made landfall near Port Leon , Florida , on June 9 with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . However , the system gradually strengthened as it crossed the Florida peninsula , reentering the North Atlantic later that day . On June 10 , the storm reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) prior to becoming an extratropical storm . The post @-@ tropical cyclone then strengthened and moved erratically in open seas before entirely dissipating on June 15 .
Despite the tropical storm 's fast passage over land , heavy rainfall was reported , officially peaking at 14 @.@ 95 in ( 380 mm ) in Live Oak , Florida . However , unofficial reports of at least 19 in ( 480 mm ) of rain were collected . In Perry , Florida , 100 – 200 families were evacuated due to the floodwater . Field crops , including tobacco and watermelon , were damaged , with flood damage estimated at $ 30 @,@ 000 . The storm also spawned ten tornadoes , with nine in northeastern Florida and one on Georgia 's Jekyll Island . All of these tornadoes were relatively weak and caused minor damage , totaling to $ 12 @,@ 000 . At the coast , the tropical storm 's strong winds generated waves 2 – 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 – 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , which caused moderate damage . Though located south of where the storm made landfall , buildings and roads along the Tampa Bay Area waterfront were flooded by the waves . Thee cabin cruiser Kinnebar capsized in the Gulf of Mexico due to the waves , and five of the seven crew on board drowned ; these were the only deaths associated with the system . Coastal damages due to storm surge amounted to $ 10 @,@ 000 , and overall the storm caused $ 52 @,@ 000 in damages across the southeastern United States .
= = = Hurricane Audrey = = =
An ill @-@ defined tropical wave was first identified in the Caribbean Sea on June 20 , and moved westward into the Bay of Campeche . The disturbance slowly strengthened as it developed a low pressure system . A nearby trough aided the intensification of the system , and it developed into a tropical depression on June 25 , while remaining generally stationary in the Bay of Campeche . Situated in an area of favorable upper @-@ air divergence and warm SSTs , the storm quickly organized and strengthened , reaching hurricane strength later that day . Audrey began to accelerate northward due to troughing in the upper @-@ levels in the atmosphere . During this time , the hurricane rapidly intensified , attaining Category 4 hurricane strength . On June 27 , Audrey reached peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) , and made landfall at this intensity near the mouth of the Sabine River later that day . The hurricane quickly weakened as it moved inland , becoming an extratropical cyclone by June 28 . The extratropical remnants of Audrey moved northeastward across the United States , before completely dissipating on June 29 over southern Quebec .
Hurricane Audrey caused widespread impacts across a wide swath of the United States and Canada . The storm 's worst effects were felt in Louisiana , where the storm caused $ 120 million in damages . The highest storm surge measured with the hurricane was 12 @.@ 4 ft ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) , reported west of Cameron , Louisiana . The strong surge inundated much of the coast , killing much of the local wildlife and causing widespread property damage . Heavy rainfall also caused flooding , peaking at 10 @.@ 63 in ( 270 mm ) west of Basile , Louisiana . Rainfall was concentrated particularly in the Atchafalaya Basin . In Texas , effects of the storm were much less severe , but the storm still caused $ 8 million in damages , primarily as a result of strong winds . Further inland , the weakening hurricane spawned tornadoes and caused additional flooding in conjunction with a frontal boundary . The effects of Audrey were felt as far north as Canada , where 15 people died due to the strong winds and heavy rain . In total , the storm caused $ 152 million in damages and at least 416 deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Bertha = = =
A weak extratropical low entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 6 and drifted slowly westward . The system slowly organized , developing into a tropical storm on August 8 about 100 mi ( 160 km ) south of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving generally northward , Bertha quickly organized ; the system attained its peak intensity with 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and an estimated minimum pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) on August 9 . That same day , Bertha came ashore near Cameron , Louisiana at the same intensity . After landfall , the storm moved northward due to a strong high @-@ pressure system and weakened over land , before degenerating into a remnant low at 1800 UTC on August 11 over Oklahoma . The storm 's remnants later moved across the U.S. Interior Highlands before dissipating .
In the Gulf of Mexico , 1 @,@ 350 workers on offshore oil drilling platforms were evacuated in preparation for the storm . The oil drilling tender Murmanill No. 1 sunk due to the strong waves , though the two people on board at the time were evacuated by helicopter . At the coast , the maximum storm surge height measured was 4 @.@ 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) at the Schooner Bayou Control Structure . Bertha dropped heavy rainfall primarily as a remnant low across much of The Ozarks . Rainfall peaked at 13 @.@ 77 in ( 350 mm ) near Damascus , Arkansas , which set a 24 @-@ hour rainfall record for the city and made August 1957 the wettest month on record . Across Arkansas , the heavy rains triggered flash floods after numerous rivers exceeded flood stage . The flash floods caused property damage in cities adjacent to rivers . Though damage estimates were difficult to accurately obtain , four Arkansas counties reported combined losses of $ 925 @,@ 000 , and two deaths were reported .
= = = Hurricane Carrie = = =
Hurricane Carrie formed from an easterly tropical wave off the western coast of Africa on September 2 . Moving to the west , the storm gradually intensified , reaching hurricane strength on September 5 . Carrie intensified further , before reaching peak intensity on September 8 as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) in the open Atlantic Ocean . The hurricane curved northward and fluctuated in intensity before recurving to the west and restrengthening , attaining Category 4 intensity for a second time as it neared Bermuda on September 14 . However , Carrie passed well north of the island and turned to the northeast towards Europe . Weakening as it reached higher latitudes , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 23 , prior to affecting areas of the British Isles .
Due to its distance away from any major land masses , Carrie caused relatively minor damage along its path . On September 16 , the hurricane passed well north of Bermuda , causing minimal damage despite its intensity at the time , though hurricane reconnaissance flights in the area were postponed due to damage sustained by one of the aircraft . As it was transitioning to an extratropical cyclone southwest of the Azores , the German ship Pamir encountered the storm and capsized on September 21 , resulting in the deaths of 80 crew members on board . As an extratropical storm , Carrie brought strong storm surge and heavy rain to the British Isles , which claimed three lives . The hurricane 's long duration and path in open water also helped it attain a number of Atlantic hurricane records .
= = = Tropical Storm Debbie = = =
On September 5 , a weak easterly wave moved into the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea due to the influence of an upper @-@ level trough . The wave organized and spawned a weak area of circulation which developed into a tropical storm by 0600 UTC on September 7 . Moving steadily towards the northeast at roughly 15 mph ( 25 km / h ) , Debbie only marginally strengthened due to the presence of cooler air entrainment . Early on September 8 , Debbie made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida as a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . A minimum barometric pressure of 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) was recorded in Pensacola , Florida . The tropical storm weakened as it moved over land , degenerating to a tropical depression on September 9 . The system became increasingly diffuse , and later merged with strong weather systems by 0600 UTC later that day .
Offshore , the tropical storm generated high tides 2 @.@ 5 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 76 – 1 @.@ 22 m ) above average in Apalachee Bay , located about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of where Debbie made landfall . The strong surf caused some localized flooding . In St. Marks , Florida , a station recorded maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the highest measured in association with the storm . However , a station in Tampa , Florida recorded a peak wind gust of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) in a squall . Heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding , though rainfall was mostly beneficial to crops . Rainfall peaked at 11 @.@ 26 in ( 286 mm ) in Wewahitchka , Florida , while precipitation was reported as far north as Pennsylvania . The tropical storm only caused minor damage , but was indirectly responsible for four deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Esther = = =
On September 12 , a mid @-@ level circulation area formed over Nicaragua and slowly drifted northeastward into the Gulf of Mexico . As it entered the Gulf , the system developed thunderstorm activity and an area of low pressure , and as a result the Weather Bureau began initiating advisories on a newly formed tropical depression by 1800 UTC on September 16 . The depression quickly intensified and attained tropical storm strength by the next day . At the time , Esther had a minimum pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , as reported by a hurricane reconnaissance flight ; this would be the lowest pressure measured associated with Esther . The large tropical storm intensified to peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) later that day , and held that intensity before making landfall in southeastern Louisiana on the morning on September 18 . Esther weakened over land and later dissipated over the Mississippi Valley by 1200 UTC on September 19 .
Like Tropical Storm Debbie , which had made landfall just a week prior in the same area , Esther 's wind impacts were minimal . The strongest gust measured associated with the storm was 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , as recorded at Pensacola International Airport . Other locations reported similar gusts and strong winds in squalls . Heavy rains persisted in the region well after Esther moved inland , resulting in high rainfall amounts . Rainfall peaked at 18 @.@ 39 in ( 467 mm ) in Quarantine , Louisiana , near the mouth of the Mississippi River . The heavy rains breached several levees , resulting in severe flooding , particularly in Buras , Louisiana . Although rainfall was beneficial in many places due to an existing drought , cotton , pecan , and peanut crops were damaged by the floods . While crop damage amounted to $ 1 million , property damage amounted to $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Esther also caused three indirect deaths , all of which were in Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Frieda = = =
On September 20 , a low pressure area developed within the same frontal boundary that had curved Hurricane Carrie towards the Azores . Rapidly developing , the system was classified as a tropical depression at 1200 UTC later that day , southwest of Bermuda . Initially , the depression was ill @-@ defined and was slowly moving to the southwest . The following day , the attached cold front dissipated , allowing for the system to intensify . The system was subsequently upgraded a tropical storm by September 22 , following a reconnaissance flight into the system which reported a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) . At the time , however , Frieda was a small system with minimal shower activity . Gradually strengthening , Frieda reached an initial peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) later that day . Following the split of an upper @-@ level ridge to the north , Frieda recurved towards the northeast the next day . As it sped to the northeast , a westerly shortwave progressed eastward , enhancing environmental conditions . As a result , the tropical storm began to quickly strengthen . By 1200 UTC on September 25 , Frieda attained hurricane strength , and reached peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 30 inHg ) , as reported by the Canadian merchant ship Irvingbrook . However , a cold front associated with the shortwave encountered the hurricane , which caused it to transition into an extratropical cyclone on September 26 . Frieda 's extratropical remnants later passed over Newfoundland . Though Frieda remained far from any land masses , a peak rainfall amount of 3 @.@ 26 in ( 83 mm ) was measured in Bermuda .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
On October 22 , an area of thunderstorm activity developed north of the Lesser Antilles , and barometric pressures fell throughout the region . The following day , a cut @-@ off low developed and strengthened along the edge of a trough extending from Bermuda . This justified the classification of the system as a tropical depression on October 23 , 500 mi ( 800 km ) northeast of Puerto Rico . Moving towards the west , the depression attained tropical storm strength shortly after formation . A ship reported a minimum pressure of 999 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) in the storm 's vicinity . The large system gradually strengthened the following day , reaching its peak intensity by 1800 UTC on October 24 . A ship reported a minimum pressure of 993 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 33 inHg ) early the next day , the lowest pressure measured in association with the tropical storm . At the same time , the tropical storm also recurved towards the northeast . Heading towards more northerly latitudes , a gradual weakening trend began , due to the presence of an extratropical system . The tropical storm was itself absorbed by the same system on October 27 . This storm may not have been named operationally due to a lack of discernible tropical characteristics .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for tropical cyclones that reached at least tropical storm intensity in the North Atlantic in 1957 . However , two of such storms , the first and last , went unnamed . The name Audrey would later be retired , only the seventh name to do so . Storms were named Audrey , Bertha , Carrie , Debbie , Esther , and Frieda for the first time in 1957 .
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= Noel F. Parrish =
Noel Francis Parrish ( November 11 , 1909 – April 7 , 1987 ) was a Brigadier General in the United States Air Force who was the white commander of a group of black airmen known as the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II . He was a key factor in the program 's success and in their units being assigned to combat duty . Parrish was born and raised in the south @-@ east United States ; he joined the US Army in 1930 . He served in the military from 1930 until 1964 , and retired as a Brigadier General in 1964 .
Parrish 's association with the Tuskegee Airmen began when he was assigned to be the Assistant Director of Training of the Eastern Flying Training Command . On December 5 , 1941 , Parrish was promoted to the position of Director of Training at Tuskegee Army Flying School in Alabama . One year later in December 1942 Parrish became the Tuskegee Army Air Field commander .
The prestigious " Brigadier General Noel F. Parrish Award " was so named due to Parrish 's efforts to desegregate his troops , reduce overcrowding , increase morale , and improve relations between Tuskegee 's residents and the inhabitants of the base . Tuskegee 's highest award has been named the " Brigadier General Noel F. Parrish Award " in honor of its titular namesake .
= = Early life and career = =
Born in Versailles , Kentucky , to a Southern white minister , Parrish spent parts of his youth living in Alabama and Georgia . His birthplace is often listed as being in nearby Lexington , Kentucky . He graduated from Cullman High School , Cullman , Alabama in 1924 and Rice Institute , Houston , Texas in 1928 . He dropped out of graduate school after one year and decided to hitchhike to San Francisco . The lack of work meant hunger , so he chose to join the United States Army 's 11th Cavalry Regiment as a private on July 30 , 1930 , serving in Monterey , California .
After a year in the horse cavalry , Parrish became an aviation cadet in June 1931 and subsequently qualified as an enlisted pilot . He completed flight training in 1932 and was assigned to the 13th Attack Squadron at Fort Crockett , near Galveston , Texas . One year later in September 1933 Parrish joined the Air Corps Technical School at Chanute Field , Illinois ; later transferring to the First Air Transport Squadron at Dayton , Ohio . In July 1935 he rejoined the 13th Attack Squadron as assistant operations officer , then located at Barksdale Field , Louisiana . Parrish became a flying instructor at Randolph Field in April 1938 , and by July 1939 he was a supervisor at the Air Corps Flying School in Glenview , Illinois . Commissioned as a lieutenant in 1939 , Parrish attended the Air Command and Staff School at Maxwell Field , Alabama . As a captain , and still a student at Maxwell , his association with the Tuskegee Airmen began as in March 1941 when he was assigned as Assistant Director of Training of the Eastern Flying Training Command . Upon graduation in June 1941 , he chose to remain at Maxwell , and work with the Tuskegee Institute as a primary flight instructor . By doing so , he gave up his own desires for a combat command . On December 5 , 1941 , two days before the attack on Pearl Harbor , he was promoted to Director of Training at Tuskegee Army Flying School in Alabama , assuming command of Tuskegee Army Air Field a year later , in December 1942 .
= = Tuskegee Airmen Experiment = =
= = = Formation of the Tuskegee Airmen Experiment = = =
Black Americans were not permitted to fly for the U.S. armed services prior to 1940 . The Air Corps at that time , which had never had a single black member , was part of an army that possessed exactly two black Regular line officers at the beginning of World War II : Brigadier Generals Benjamin O. Davis , Sr. and Benjamin O. Davis , Jr . The first Civilian Pilot Training Program ( CPTP ) students completed their instruction in May 1940 .
The creation of an all @-@ black pursuit squadron resulted from pressure by civil rights organizations and the black press who pushed for the establishment of a unit at Tuskegee , an Alabama base , in 1941 . The Tuskegee Institute was selected by the military for the " Tuskegee ( Airmen ) Experiment " because of its commitment to aeronautical training . Tuskegee had the facilities , engineering and technical instructors , as well as a climate for year @-@ round flying . Eleanor Roosevelt , who was interested in the Tuskegee aviation program , took a 40 @-@ minute flight around the base in a plane piloted by Charles " Chief " Anderson on April 19 , 1941 . Anderson was a self @-@ taught black civilian and experienced aviator who learned how to fly before the war . He was hired by the Tuskegee program to be its Chief Flight Instructor . Anderson has been referred to as the ' Ancient Mariner ' of black aviation , having flown long before many of the new recruits were of age .
The Tuskegee program was then expanded and became the center for African @-@ American aviation during World War II . Members of the Tuskegee unit became known as the Tuskegee Airmen . Formation of the black air units was announced by Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson on January 16 , 1941 . On March 19 , 1941 , the 99th Pursuit Squadron ( Pursuit being an early World War II synonym for " Fighter " ) was established at Chanute Field in Rantoul , Illinois and activated three days later on March 22 . Over 250 enlisted men formed the first group of black Americans trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades . This small number became the core of other black squadrons subsequently formed at Tuskegee and Maxwell Fields in Alabama . Later in 1941 , the 99th Pursuit Squadron moved to Maxwell Field and then Tuskegee Field before deploying to combat in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations in 1943 . Pilots , commanders , instructors , and maintenance and support staff comprised the " Tuskegee ( Airmen ) Experiment . "
In December 1941 , Noel F Parrish became the Director of Training at the school . By the end of 1942 Parrish had been promoted to the position of Tuskegee Army Air Field Commander . As Director of Training and later Tuskegee Field commander , Parrish played a key role in the program 's success . There were approximately 14 @,@ 000 ground support personnel at Tuskegee Field during WW II and almost 1 @,@ 000 graduating pilots , of which about 450 saw active combat during the war .
Exercises at a Booker T. Washington monument located at the Tuskegee Institute commemorated the beginning of black American pre @-@ flight training for military aviation . The first twelve candidates for officer @-@ flier positions were cited by America 's black press as , " the cream of the country 's colored youth . " The first classes started at the institute , and flying lessons soon began at the Tuskegee Army Air Field ( TAAF ) some approximately ten miles away . After it was built , government press releases recounted that the air field was developed and built by Negro contractors both skilled and unskilled . Of the original class , five students graduated in March 1942 .
The PTI3A Stearman was the first type of training plane to be used in teaching the new recruits . The AT6 Texan , and P @-@ 40 Warhawk followed as the aircraft of choice over time . Much of the primary flight training was done at Moton Field at Tuskegee . Tuskegee trained over 1 @,@ 000 black aviators during the war , about half of whom served overseas .
= = = Initial problems = = =
Local white residents of the area objected almost immediately . They complained about black MPs challenging white people and patrolling the town while brandishing their military weapons . The first commanding officer , Major James Ellison , was supportive of his MPs ; however , he was soon relieved of his command . A segregationist colonel replaced Ellison , and enforced segregation both on and off the base . This prompted black newspapers to protest his assignment . The colonel was transferred with a promotion , and Noel Parrish then took command as ' director of training ' . The lack of assignments according to background and training led to an excess of non @-@ aviation black officers without a mission . This became disparaging to morale , as the facility became overcrowded . As there was little in the line of recreation , Parrish began to arrange for celebrities to visit and perform at the base . Lena Horne , Joe Louis , Ella Fitzgerald , Ray Robinson , Louis Armstrong , and Langston Hughes were among the many guests . Parrish also desegregated the base to a much larger extent than his predecessors .
Parrish demanded high standards of performance of his men and did not view race as an issue . Parrish felt that what mattered was professionalism and an individual 's capacities , techniques , and judgement . Parrish held his black trainees to the same high standards of performance as whites ; and those who did not meet those standards were failed out of the program .
= = = Tuskegee Airmen Experiment results = = =
History views the results of the " Tuskegee Airmen Experiment " as a tremendous success , in which Parrish played a significant role , and proved that blacks could perform well in both leadership and combat roles . Parrish felt people should be judged by their capability , not their color . During its development Parrish would often return from Washington DC depressed because of the massive resistance to the Tuskegee program . Decades later at Tuskegee Airmen reunions , when Parrish 's name was called everyone applauded with a standing ovation . The experience of the AAF during World War II necessitated that the military review its policies on the utilization of black servicemembers . Confrontation , discussion , and coordination with both black and white groups led AAF leaders to the conclusion that active commitment , leadership , and equal opportunity produced a more cost @-@ effective , viable military force . In 1948 , President Harry Truman signed an Executive Order on equality of treatment and opportunity in the military , due in no small part to the successes of the Tuskegee Airmen . Parrish was commander of Tuskegee Field from 1942 – 1946 and historians generally give him credit for improving morale , living conditions , relations between blacks and whites , and relations with local citizens .
Parrish , stated in his memoirs that he often mediated between the Army officials , whites near Tuskegee who felt that the airmen were uppity , and the aviation trainees themselves . Dr. Frederick D. Patterson , the third president of Tuskegee Institute , wrote to Parrish on September 14 , 1944 : " In my opinion , all who have had anything to do with the development and direction of the Tuskegee Army Air Field and the Army flying training program for Negroes in this area have just cause to be proud . . . . The development had to take place in a period of emergency and interracial confusion . "
= = After Tuskegee = =
Parrish stayed in command of the Tuskegee Airmen through the end of World War II in 1945 until August 20 , 1946 when he was assigned to the Air University at Maxwell . During this time the war was winding down and the struggle to integrate the United States military heated up . Virtually all commanders submitted reports claiming that blacks took longer to train and performed more poorly than whites . Parrish was one of the few who did not do so . Parrish pointed out instances that showed blatant discrimination occurred against black airmen during the war , such as when there was a shortage of bomber pilots in Europe , white fighter pilots were sent to replace them despite the fact that fully trained black bomber pilots were available , even though flying fighter planes requires skills quite different from flying a bomber . Parrish also commented : " It is a discouraging fact that officers of the Army Air Force , whose scientific achievements are unsurpassed , and whose scientific skill is unquestioned in mechanical matters and in many personnel matters , should generally approach the problem of races and minorities with the most unscientific dogmatic and arbitrary attitudes ... Whether we like or dislike Negroes ... they are citizens of the United States having the same rights and privileges of other citizens ... "
In August 1947 he entered the Air War College at Maxwell Field and graduated the following June . He then became deputy secretary of the Air Staff at Air Force Headquarters , Washington , D.C. and became a special assistant to the vice chief of staff there in January 1951 . In September 1954 he became Air Deputy to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Defense College , which was then located in Paris , France . On September 1 , 1956 he became deputy director , Military Assistance Division , United States European Command , also in Paris . In May 1958 he returned to Air Force headquarters and became assistant for coordination to deputy chief of staff for Plans and Programs .
He eventually became a Brigadier General — retiring from the Air Force on October 1 , 1964 . His military decorations include the Legion of Merit and Air Medal . He earned a PhD from his alma mater , Rice University , and taught college history in Texas . Parrish died on Tuesday , April 7 , 1987 of cardiac arrest at the Veterans Administration Medical Center in Piney Point , Maryland . At the service Lieutenant General Davis Jr. said " He may have been the only white person who believed that blacks could learn to fly airplanes . "
= = Family and personal life = =
Parrish was married twice , the second time to Dr. Florence Tucker Parrish @-@ St.John , and had three stepsons Joseph Tucker , III of Dallas , Texas , F. Steven Tucker of Bel Air , Maryland and James D. Tucker of Douglasville , Pennsylvania . He wrote magazine articles under a pen name and was interested in music and painting . Parrish was considered charming , witty , and likable . Looking younger than his years , he was also considered to be a ladies ' man . Prior to being assigned to Tuskegee , he had not been actively involved with any of the black Americans ' causes . Parrish had as a youth , however , hiked three miles to see where a black man had been lynched . He later recalled that when people heard of the project to train black pilots and mechanics , he often heard " weird and worried kind of laughter " from white people and that a visiting British flying ace once stated that it was better to have a " Messerschmitt on his tail than to try to teach a Negro to fly . "
= = Legacy = =
According to a 2001 presentation which won top prize at a National History Day competition , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Topeka High School student John Freeman wrote that the Tuskegee Airmen , America 's first black military pilots , helped lay the groundwork for the civil rights movement . The most prestigious award of the association of Tuskegee Airmen which is presented at the Tuskegee Airmen , Inc. annual convention , was named ' the Brigadier General Noel F. Parrish Award ' in his honor . For many years the award was presented in person by his widow , Florence . In recognition Mrs. Parrish received the General Daniel James Jr . Distinguished Service / Achievement / Leadership Award at the 2010 convention .
Historians generally give credit to Colonel Noel Parrish , Commander of Tuskegee Field from 1942 to 1946 , for his enlightened leadership and fair treatment of cadets which improved morale by reducing the amount of segregation and overcrowding and improving relations with both blacks and whites in the town of Tuskegee . The record of the Airmen became a driving force for President Harry S Truman 's decision to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948 .
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= Pennsylvania Route 143 =
Pennsylvania Route 143 ( PA 143 ) is a 20 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 32 km ) state highway in Pennsylvania . It runs from PA 662 in Richmond Township , Berks County northeast to PA 309 near New Tripoli in Lehigh County . The route passes through rural areas , intersecting Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) / U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) in Lenhartsville , PA 737 near Kempton , and PA 863 in Lynnport . What is now PA 143 north of Lenhartsville was originally designated Legislative Route 285 in 1911 . PA 143 was designated to in 1928 to run from PA 43 in Lenhartsville to PA 29 near New Tripoli . The route was extended slightly east through New Tripoli by 1940 following a realignment of PA 29 . PA 143 was extended south to PA 662 by 1966 .
= = Route description = =
PA 143 begins at an intersection with PA 662 in Richmond Township , Berks County , heading to the north on two @-@ lane undivided Hard Hill Road . It turns northwest through a mix of hilly farms and woods with some homes , reaching the community of Virginville and becoming Main Street . In Virginville , the road crosses the Maiden Creek into Perry Township , where it runs a short distance to the west of the creek with woods to the east and farm fields to the west as an unnamed road . PA 143 continues through rural surroundings as it passes through Windsor Township and into Greenwich Township . The road enters more wooded surroundings and makes a few sharp turns prior to heading west into Lenhartsville . Here , the road becomes Chestnut Street and passes homes and businesses , making a right turn to the north onto Willow Street as it intersects the former alignment of US 22 .
Upon leaving Lenhartsville for Greenwich Township again , PA 143 becomes unnamed and reaches an interchange with I @-@ 78 / US 22 . From this point , the road winds north through more forested areas , still running to the west of Maiden Creek . The route enters Albany Township and enters a mix of woods and farms as it comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 737 near the community of Kempton . Following this intersection , the road passes through more rural areas as it runs to the west of Ontelaunee Creek and the Wanamaker , Kempton and Southern Railroad .
PA 143 crosses into Lynn Township , Lehigh County , continuing northeast to the community of Wanamakers as Kings Highway . At this point , the road turns more to the east and passes the terminus of the Wanamaker , Kempton and Southern Railroad and heads into more agricultural areas with some homes . Upon reaching the community of Lynnport , PA 143 comes to the northern terminus of PA 863 . From this intersection , the route continues farther east , passing through New Tripoli as Decatur Street before reaching its northern terminus at PA 309 .
PA 143 has a total length of 20 @.@ 039 miles ( 32 @.@ 250 km ) . In 2010 , PA 143 had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 5 @,@ 400 vehicles between PA 662 and I @-@ 78 / US 22 to a low of 1 @,@ 800 vehicles between PA 737 and PA 863 . None of PA 143 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now PA 143 north of Lenhartsville was designated as part of Legislative Route 285 , a legislative route that ran from Hamburg to New Tripoli , in 1911 . PA 143 was designated in 1928 to follow its current alignment from PA 43 ( now Old Route 22 ) in Lenhartsville northeast to PA 29 west of New Tripoli . The route was originally unpaved between Lenhartsville and Kempton while the section between Kempton and New Tripoli was paved . By 1940 , PA 143 was paved between Lenhartsville and Kempton . Also by this time , PA 143 was extended through New Tripoli to end at PA 29 ( now PA 309 ) to the east of the community following a realignment of PA 29 . PA 143 was extended south from Lenhartsville to its current southern terminus at PA 662 by 1966 , adding 6 @.@ 4 miles ( 10 @.@ 3 km ) to the length of the road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Freedom from Want ( painting ) =
Freedom from Want , also known as The Thanksgiving Picture or I 'll Be Home for Christmas , is the third of the Four Freedoms series of four oil paintings by American artist Norman Rockwell . The works were inspired by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's 1941 State of the Union Address , known as Four Freedoms .
The painting was created in November 1942 and published in the March 6 , 1943 issue of The Saturday Evening Post . All of the people in the picture were friends and family of Rockwell in Arlington , Vermont , who were photographed individually and painted into the scene . The work depicts a group of people gathered around a dinner table for a holiday meal . Having been partially created on Thanksgiving Day to depict the celebration , it has become an iconic representation of the Thanksgiving holiday and family holiday gatherings in general . The Post published Freedom from Want with a corresponding essay by Carlos Bulosan as part of the Four Freedoms series . Despite many who endured sociopolitical hardships abroad , Bulosan 's essay spoke on behalf of those enduring the socioeconomic hardships domestically , and it thrust him into prominence .
The painting has had a wide array of adaptations , parodies , and other uses , such as for the cover for the 1946 book Norman Rockwell , Illustrator . Although the image was popular at the time in the United States and remains so , it caused resentment in Europe where the masses were enduring wartime hardship . Artistically , the work is highly regarded as an example of mastery of the challenges of white @-@ on @-@ white painting and as one of Rockwell 's most famous works .
= = Background = =
Freedom from Want is the third in a series of four oil paintings entitled Four Freedoms by Norman Rockwell . They were inspired by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's State of the Union Address , known as Four Freedoms , delivered to the 77th United States Congress on January 6 , 1941 . In the early 1940s , Roosevelt 's Four Freedoms themes were still vague and abstract to many , but the government used them to help boost patriotism . The Four Freedoms ' theme was eventually incorporated into the Atlantic Charter , and it became part of the charter of the United Nations . The series of paintings ran in The Saturday Evening Post accompanied by essays from noted writers on four consecutive weeks : Freedom of Speech ( February 20 ) , Freedom of Worship ( February 27 ) , Freedom from Want ( March 6 ) , and Freedom from Fear ( March 13 ) . Eventually , the series was widely distributed in poster form and became instrumental in the U.S. Government War Bond Drive .
= = Description = =
The illustration is an oil painting on canvas , measuring 45 @.@ 75 by 35 @.@ 5 inches ( 116 @.@ 2 cm × 90 @.@ 2 cm ) . The Norman Rockwell Museum describes it as a story illustration for The Saturday Evening Post , complementary to the theme , but the image is also an autonomous visual expression .
The painting shows an aproned matriarch presenting a roasted turkey to a family of several generations , in Rockwell 's idealistic presentation of family values . The patriarch looks on with fondness and approval from the head of the table , which is the central element of the painting . Its creased tablecloth shows that this is a special occasion for " sharing what we have with those we love " , according to Lennie Bennett . The table has a bowl of fruit , celery , pickles , and what appears to be cranberry sauce . There is a covered silver serving dish that would traditionally hold potatoes , according to Richard Halpern , but Bennett describes this as a covered casserole dish . The servings are less prominent than the presentation of white linen , white plates and water @-@ filled glasses . The people in the painting are not yet eating , and the painting contrasts the empty plates and vacant space in their midst with images of overabundance .
= = Production = =
In mid @-@ June Rockwell sketched in charcoal the Four Freedoms and sought commission from the Office of War Information ( OWI ) . He was rebuffed by an official who said , " The last war , you illustrators did the posters . This war , we 're going to use fine arts men , real artists . " However , Saturday Evening Post editor , Ben Hibbs , recognized the potential of the set and encouraged Rockwell to produce them right away . By early fall , the authors for the Four Freedoms had submitted their essays . Rockwell was concerned that Freedom from Want did not match Bulosan 's text . In mid @-@ November , Hibbs wrote Rockwell pleading that he not scrap his third work to start over . Hibbs alleviated Rockwell 's thematic concern ; he explained that the illustrations only needed to address the same topic rather than be in unison . Hibbs pressured Rockwell into completing his work by warning him that the magazine was on the verge of being compelled by the government to place restrictions on four @-@ color printing , so Rockwell had better get the work published before relegation to halftone printing .
In 1942 , Rockwell decided to use neighbors as models for the series . In Freedom from Want , he used his living room for the setting and relied on neighbors for advice , critical commentary , and their service as his models . For Freedom from Want , Rockwell photographed his cook as she presented the turkey on Thanksgiving Day 1942 . He said that he painted the turkey on that day and that , unlike Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Worship , this painting was not difficult to execute . Rockwell 's wife Mary is in this painting , and the family cook , Mrs. Thaddeus Wheaton , is serving the turkey , which the Rockwell family ate that day . The nine adults and two children depicted were photographed in Rockwell 's studio and painted into the scene later . The models are ( clockwise from Wheaton ) Lester Brush , Florence Lindsey , Rockwell 's mother Nancy , Jim Martin , Mr. Wheaton , Mary Rockwell , Charles Lindsey , and the Hoisington children . Jim Martin appears in all four paintings in the series . Shirley Hoisington , the girl at the end of the table , was six at the time .
After the Four Freedoms series ran in The Saturday Evening Post , the magazine made sets of reproductions available to the public and received 25 @,@ 000 orders . Additionally the OWI , which six months earlier had declined to employ Rockwell to promote the Four Freedoms , requested 2 @.@ 5 million sets of posters featuring the Four Freedoms for its war @-@ bond drive in early 1943 .
Rockwell bequeathed this painting to a custodianship that became the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge , Massachusetts , and it is now part of the museum 's permanent collection . Rockwell lived in Stockbridge from 1953 until his death in 1978 .
= = Reactions = =
Freedom from Want is considered one of Rockwell 's finest works . Of the four paintings in the Four Freedoms , it is the one most often seen in art books with critical review and commentary . Although all were intended to promote patriotism in a time of war , Freedom from Want became a symbol of " family togetherness , peace , and plenty " , according to Linda Rosenkrantz , who compares it to " a ' Hallmark ' Christmas " . Embodying nostalgia for an enduring American theme of holiday celebration , the painting is not exclusively associated with Thanksgiving , and is sometimes known as I 'll Be Home for Christmas . The abundance and unity it shows were the idyllic hope of a post @-@ war world , and the image has been reproduced in various formats .
During the Cold War , Rockwell 's images affirmed traditional American values , depicting Americans as prosperous and free . Rockwell 's work came to be categorized within art movements and styles such as Regionalism and American scene painting . Rockwell 's work sometimes displays an idealized vision of America 's rural and agricultural past . Rockwell summed up his own idealism : " I paint life as I would like it to be . "
Despite Rockwell 's general optimism , he had misgivings about having depicted such a large turkey when much of Europe was " starving , overrun [ and ] displaced " as World War II raged . Rockwell noted that this painting was not popular in Europe : " The Europeans sort of resented it because it wasn 't freedom from want , it was overabundance , the table was so loaded down with food . " Outside the United States , this overabundance was the common perception . However , Richard Halpern says the painting not only displays overabundance of food , but also of " family , conviviality , and security " , and opines that " overabundance rather than mere sufficiency is the true answer to want . " He parallels the emotional nourishment provided by the image to that of the food nourishment that it depicts , remarking that the picture is noticeably inviting . However , by depicting the table with nothing but empty plates and white dishes on white linen , Rockwell may have been invoking the Puritan origins of the Thanksgiving holiday .
To art critic Robert Hughes , the painting represents the theme of family continuity , virtue , homeliness , and abundance without extravagance in a Puritan tone , as confirmed by the modest beverage choice of water . Historian Lizabeth Cohen says that by depicting this freedom as a celebration in the private family home rather than a worker with a job or a government protecting the hungry and homeless , Rockwell suggests that ensuring this freedom was not as much a government responsibility as something born from participation in the mass consumer economy .
One of the notable and artistically challenging elements of the image is Rockwell 's use of white @-@ on @-@ white : white plates sitting on a white tablecloth . Art critic Deborah Solomon describes this as " one of the most ambitious plays of white @-@ against @-@ white since Whistler 's Symphony in White , No. 1 " . Solomon further describes the work as " a new level of descriptive realism . Yet , the painting doesn 't feel congested or fussy ; it is open and airy in the center . Extensive passages of white paint nicely frame the individual faces . "
Jim Martin , positioned in the lower right , gives a coy and perhaps mischievous glance back at the viewer . He is a microcosm of the entire scene in which no one appears to be giving thanks in a traditional manner of a Thanksgiving dinner . Solomon finds it a departure from previous depictions of Thanksgiving in that the participants do not lower their heads or raise their hands in the traditional poses of prayer . She sees it as an example of treating American traditions in both sanctified and casual ways . Theologian David Brown sees gratitude as implicit in the painting , while Kenneth Bendiner writes that Rockwell was mindful of the Last Supper and that the painting 's perspective echoes its rendition by Tintoretto .
= = Essay = =
Freedom from Want was published with an essay by Carlos Bulosan as part of the Four Freedoms series . Bulosan 's essay spoke on behalf of those enduring domestic socioeconomic hardships rather than sociopolitical hardships abroad , and it thrust him into prominence . As he neared his thirtieth birthday , the Philippine immigrant and labor organizer Bulosan was experiencing a life that was not consistent with the theme Rockwell depicted in his version of Freedom From Want . Unknown as a writer , he was subsisting as a migrant laborer working intermittent jobs . Post editors tracked down the impoverished immigrant to request an essay contribution . Bulosan rose to prominence during World War II when the Commonwealth of the Philippines , a United States territory , was occupied by Japan . To many Americans , Bulosan 's essay marked his introduction , and his name was thereafter well recognized . The essay was lost by The Post , and Bulosan , who had no carbon copy , had to track down the only draft of the essay at a bar in Tacoma .
Freedom From Want had previously been less entwined in the standard liberalism philosophies of the western world than the other three freedoms ( speech , fear , and religion ) ; this freedom added economic liberty as a societal aspiration . In his essay , Bulosan treats negative liberties as positive liberties by suggesting that Americans be " given equal opportunity to serve themselves and each other according to their needs and abilities " , an echo of Karl Marx 's " from each according to his abilities , to each according to his needs " . In the final paragraph of the essay , the phrase " The America we hope to see is not merely a physical but also a spiritual and intellectual world " describes an egalitarian America . In a voice likened to Steinbeck 's in works such as The Grapes of Wrath , Bulosan 's essay spoke up for those who struggled to survive in the capitalist democracy and was regarded as " haunting and sharp " against the backdrop of Rockwell 's feast of plenty . It proposed that while citizens had obligations to the state , the state had an obligation to provide a basic level of subsistence . Unlike Roosevelt , Bulosan presented the case that the New Deal had not already granted freedom from want as it did not guarantee Americans the essentials of life .
= = Pop culture = =
The painting was used as the 1946 book cover for Norman Rockwell , Illustrator , written during the prime of Rockwell 's career when he was regarded as America 's most popular illustrator . This image 's iconic status has led to parody and satire . New York painter Frank Moore re @-@ created Rockwell 's all @-@ white Americans with an ethnically diverse family , as Freedom to Share ( 1994 ) , in which the turkey platter brims over with health care supplies . Among the better known reproductions is Mickey and Minnie Mouse entertaining their cartoon family with a festive turkey . Several political cartoons and even frozen vegetable advertisements have invoked this image .
A snapshot at the end of the 2002 Walt Disney Feature Animation film Lilo & Stitch shows the movie 's characters , including some clearly alien life forms , seated at a Thanksgiving table that echoes the painting . The painting was also featured in the May 16 , 2012 , season 3 " Tableau Vivant " episode of the comedy series , Modern Family . Another well @-@ known imitation of the work is the cover art to Tony Bennett 's 2008 Christmas album , A Swingin ' Christmas ( Featuring The Count Basie Big Band ) . The parody includes all 13 members of Count Basie 's band .
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= Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? =
" Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 21 , 1991 . In the episode , Grampa confesses that Homer has a half @-@ brother , whom Homer immediately tries to track down . He eventually discovers that his brother is Herbert Powell , a car manufacturer . Herb immediately starts to bond with Bart and Lisa , and he invites Homer to design his own car . Homer 's car design turns out to be a disaster , which causes Herb to become bankrupt .
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . American actor Danny DeVito provided the voice of Herb . The episode features cultural references to cars such as the Edsel , the Tucker Torpedo , the Ford Mustang , and the Lamborghini Cheetah . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 4 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on Fox the week it aired . Some fans were upset with the sad ending of the episode , and as a result the producers decided to write a sequel , " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " , in which Herb regains his fortune and forgives Homer .
= = Plot = =
After watching the latest McBain film , Grampa suffers a mild heart attack . Thinking he might die , he is prompted to confess a long @-@ hidden secret : Homer has a half @-@ brother . Grampa explains that he met a carnival prostitute before marrying Homer 's mother , and they had a son that they left at the Shelbyville Orphanage . Determined to find his brother , Homer and his family go to the orphanage and find out that Grampa 's love child was adopted by a Mr. and Mrs. Powell and named Herbert .
Herbert Powell , who looks just like Homer , except he is taller , slimmer and has more hair , is the head of the automobile manufacturer Powell Motors in Detroit , which is in need of new ideas . He is very rich , but is unhappy not knowing who he is and where he comes from . He is overjoyed upon hearing of his half @-@ brother and invites the entire Simpson family to stay at his mansion . Bart , Lisa , and Maggie are enthralled by Herb 's wealthy lifestyle and kind personality , although Marge constantly worries about spoiling her kids . Herb then decides that Homer , being an average American , is the perfect person to design a new car for his company .
Homer is given entirely free rein in the design , but is at first too timid to voice an opinion , as Herb 's designers begin to design the car with their own ideas in mind . When Herb gets word of this , he gives Homer a pep talk that sends him back to the designers determined to build the car with all sorts of weird effects like bubble domes , tail fins and several horns that play " La Cucaracha " . At the unveiling of the new car , Herb is horrified to find that the car is a badly @-@ designed and hideously styled monstrosity that costs US $ 82 @,@ 000 , leaving Powell Motors bankrupt and out of business , while Herb 's mansion is foreclosed and he loses everything he ever worked for . As he departs Detroit on a bus , he angrily remarks to Homer that he would have been better off if he never met him and that as far as he is concerned , he has no brother . While Marge tries to console Homer , Lisa agrees with Herb and laments on his life before he discovered he was a " Simpson " . Grampa soon arrives and asks about Herb . Before Homer can even answer what happened , Grampa remarks to Homer that he knew " he 'd blow it " , and leaves in the cab he just arrived in , rather than getting in the car with the rest of the Simpson family .
While Homer drives the family home , Bart tells him that the car he built was great , and Homer becomes relieved to discover that at least one person liked it .
= = Production = =
" Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . Both Homer 's mother Mona Simpson and Herb make their first appearances on The Simpsons in the episode . Some fans were upset with the sad ending of the episode , and as a result the producers decided to write a sequel in which Herb would be given a kinder fate . The resulting episode , " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " , aired at the end of the third season . In that episode , Herb briefly settled in the Simpson household , despite his intense continuing antipathy toward Homer . Homer loaned Herb US $ 2000 , which Herb used to build an invention that translated infantile speech into comprehensible English , based on observations he made of Maggie . He proceeded to mass @-@ produce his new product and regained his fortune . He then bought each member of the family gifts and paid Homer back with a vibrating chair , along with his forgiveness .
The episode was recorded on August 13 , 1990 . The voice of Herb was provided by guest star Danny DeVito , an American actor who was suggested for the role by Simpsons executive producer Sam Simon . Bart 's voice actor , Nancy Cartwright , writes in her autobiography My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy that DeVito had to record his lines quickly because he had another appointment , so the staff focused on recording his scenes only instead of the whole episode at once . Cartwright was a fan of DeVito 's and recalls : " This morning , at the table read , I had just filled my plate with assorted fruits when Bonnie said to my backside , ' Nancy , I want to introduce you to ... ' and I turned and practically knocked over Danny DeVito , all four feet , eleven inches of him . How embarrassing ! " While recording the scenes , Cartwright stood directly across the room from DeVito , which she appreciated since she got to see him in action . She thought DeVito " threw his body and soul " into his performance . While the recording took part , animation director Archer scribbled down some of DeVito 's attitudes , gestures , and facial expressions on a piece of paper as he performed . In one scene of the episode , Herb tells Homer and the rest of the Simpson family to " [ make ] yourselves at home . We have a tennis court , a swimming pool , a screening room ... " Cartwright said of it :
This was obviously written with Danny in mind as I have no doubt that he actually has the aforementioned amenities in real life . He has earned his right to stand tall , and it wouldn 't have shocked me to see him spew attitude all over us if he wanted to . But he 's a hard worker and he concentrated on the job [ ... ] As the episode came to its climax , we discovered that all the material things in the world don 't mean as much to Herb as being with family . Somehow I just get the feeling that this part was tailor @-@ made with Danny , the family man , in mind .
= = Cultural references = =
The storyline of a controversially styled car causing the company to fail both echoes that of the Edsel and the Tucker Torpedo , as well as the later DMC 12 . The Edsel was a controversially styled car that bore the name of Henry Ford 's son , Edsel Ford , and is now considered one of the biggest car flops in history . Production of the Tucker Torpedo , which introduced many new features , was shut down amidst scandal and accusations of stock fraud in 1949 . Homer wants the horns of the car he is designing to play the traditional Spanish folk corrido " La Cucaracha " . The Pope shows up for the unveiling of Homer 's new car . Herb berates his staff for suggesting that the company name a new car " Persephone " after the Greek goddess of fertility in Greek mythology . Herb tells the staff , " People don 't want cars named after hungry old Greek broads ! They want names like ' Mustang ' and ' Cheetah ' — vicious animal names , " referencing the Ford Mustang and Lamborghini Cheetah cars .
The title of the episode is a reference the name of the fictional book " O Brother , Where Art Thou ? " in the 1941 film Sullivan 's Travels . Herb lives in a house that looks like American architect Frank Lloyd Wright 's house in Oak Park , Illinois , works in a studio that looks like the Taliesin school of architecture in Spring Green , Wisconsin , and his factory resembles the Johnson Wax Headquarters in Racine , Wisconsin , all three buildings designed by Wright .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " finished twenty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of February 18 – 24 , 1991 . With a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 14 @.@ 1 million viewing households , it was the highest @-@ rated show on Fox that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that although it is " inevitable " that Homer 's car will be a disaster , the " joy of this episode is anticipating exactly what sort of disaster . " A member of the IGN staff wrote in a season two review that " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " is one of the " real winners to be found in the second season . " Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal thought the most memorable line of the episode was Homer 's idea of the perfect car , " You know that little ball you put on the aerial so you can find your car in a parking lot ? That should be on every car ! And some things are so snazzy they never go out of style — like tail fins ! And bubble domes ! And shag carpeting ! "
DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called the episode a solid episode and said that the introduction of Homer 's brother " could have been gimmicky , especially with a big @-@ name guest star like DeVito , but the concept fared nicely . " Jacobson added that he thought DeVito " brought spark to his part and made Herb fun and lively . The parts in which Homer developed his car were also hilarious and offered some of the show ’ s best bits . The program even showed some great little moments , like the hallmark Simpson five o 'clock shadow on infant Herb . " Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk said the episode " features another great guest voice , this time by Danny DeVito as the voice of Homer 's long lost brother Herb , who reenters Homer 's life and solicits his ' common man ' prospective in building a car . Once again , Homer 's sentimentality comes through . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked DeVito 's performance as the 10th best guest appearance in the show 's history .
On June 29 , 2013 , Porcubimmer Motors debuted a real @-@ life version of " The Homer , " the car that was designed by Homer in this episode , at the 24 Hours of LeMons race in Buttonwillow , California .
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= Riya Sen =
Riya Sen ( born Riya Dev Varma ; 24 January 1981 ) is an Indian film actress and model . Riya , who comes from a family of actors including her grandmother Suchitra Sen , mother Moon Moon Sen and sister Raima Sen , began her acting career in 1991 as a child actress in the film Vishkanya . Her first commercial success in her film career was with Style , a 2001 Hindi low @-@ budget sex comedy directed by N. Chandra . Some of her other notable films include producer Pritish Nandy 's musical film , Jhankaar Beats ( 2003 ) in Hinglish , Shaadi No. 1 ( 2005 ) and Malayalam horror film Ananthabhadram ( 2005 ) .
Riya was first recognised as a model when she performed in Falguni Pathak 's music video Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi at the age of sixteen in 1998 . Since then , she has appeared in music videos , television commercials , fashion shows , and on magazine covers . Riya has worked as an activist and appeared in an AIDS awareness music video with the aim of dispelling popular myths about the disease . She also helped raise funds for pediatric eye @-@ care .
= = Acting career = =
Riya first appeared as a child artist in the film Vishkanya in 1991 , where she played the role of the young Pooja Bedi . At the age of 19 , she did National Film Awards winning director Bharathiraja 's Tamil film , Taj Mahal ( 2000 ) , which did not achieve commercial success . She was scheduled to make her Bollywood film debut in Love You Hamesha , opposite actor Akshaye Khanna ; however , the film was stalled , and she finally made her debut in N. Chandra 's Style in 2001 . This low @-@ budget sex comedy was the first commercial success in over a decade for the director . A launch pad for Riya , cast in the female lead along with fellow @-@ newcomers , Sharman Joshi , Sahil Khan and Shilpi Mudgal , the film pioneered a trend of commercial success for small budget films in India . Riya and the second female lead of the film were replaced by aspirant actresses Sonali Joshi and Jaya Seal in Xcuse Me ' .
Her next success was Jhankaar Beats , a comedy revolving around the music of legendary composer R D Burman , which saw her playing a small and glamorous role alongside Shayan Munshi , Juhi Chawla , Rahul Bose , Rinke Khanna and Sanjay Suri . Produced by Pritish Nandy , publishing director of The Times of India , the film was made on a budget of Rs . 25 million ( US $ 525 @,@ 000 ) , marking the sixth in a row of small to medium budget films made by Pritish Nandy Communications ( PNC ) . Despite being part of a wave of offbeat films that mostly failed to make an impact at the box office , it drew public attention upon its release , which led to a commercial success among a restricted audience targeted by a selective release in twenty cities . It was one of the first films made in Hinglish , a mixture of Hindi and English . In 2005 , she starred in Shaadi No. 1 , which had no female lead . This comedy , based on the theme of modern marriage , was directed by David Dhawan , a renowned film director from this genre .
Although films like Style and Jhankar Beats succeeded commercially , most of her later films have generated less revenue . A number of them remained unfinished . While many of her appearances have been item numbers and cameos , few of her leading roles have been in low @-@ budget films . Though she had small roles in Dil Vil Pyar Vyar ( 2002 ) , Qayamat ( 2003 ) and Plan ( 2004 ) , attention was drawn to her item numbers in all three , especially the one in Qayamat that featured her in a bubble @-@ bath . Besides this , she performed another item number in James ( 2005 ) on director @-@ producer Ram Gopal Varma 's behest , who has a history of casting aspirant actress @-@ models like Sameera Reddy , Isha Koppikar and Koena Mitra in similar roles . Furthermore , she took part in a dance number for Sajid Khan 's Heyy Babyy ( 2007 ) that featured several mainstream Bollywood actresses .
= = = Non @-@ Hindi films = = =
Riya has , in addition to Hindi films , appeared in Bengali , Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam and English films . Her film career began in the earnest with Tamil films such as Bharathi Raja 's Taj Mahal , co @-@ starring Manjoj Bharatiraja in the male lead , and Manoj Bhatnaghar 's Good Luck , opposite Prasanth . Both of the films failed commercially , and she had a brief reappearance in Tamil cinema only to perform in a dance number for N. Maharajan 's Arasatchi .
Her first English language movie was It Was Raining That Night , a remake of the Bengali film Hei Brishtir Raat , scripted by Sudeshna Roy and directed by Mahesh Manjrekar . In the film , she collaborated with mother Moon Moon Sen. Riya was slated to appear in Anjan Dutt 's Bengali @-@ English bilingual film The Bong Connection with her sister , but she was eventually dropped from the project and replaced by Peeya Rai Chaudhary . The two sisters were later cast together in director Ajai Sinha 's The Bachelor , a Bengali film that , as of 2008 , is yet to be finished .
Her most successful non @-@ Hindi film has been director Santhosh Sivan 's Ananthabhadram ( 2005 ) . The first Malayalam venture for both Riya and Sivan , was both a critical and commercial success . It won five Kerala State Film Awards and surfaced as one of the biggest Malayalam successes that year . She played the role of Bhama in the film , a village girl who is lured by Digambaran , the evil magician portrayed by Manoj K. Jayan . In a song @-@ and @-@ dance sequence showing Digambaran turning Bhama into a medium for demonic rituals , the choreographer Aparna Sindoor made abundant use Kathakali movements . The use of Kathakali has been a high point in the resurgence of the classical dance form in other major Indian films as well , including Shaji Karun 's Vanaprastham ( 1999 ) and Adoor Gopalakrishnan 's Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair ( 2005 ) . She made her Telugu Debut with Nenu Meeku Telusa ... ? , in which she was paired opposite Manoj Manchu .
In 2012 Sen won the Star Guide Award as best actress for her performance in Noukadubi .
= = Modeling career = =
Riya became a popular model when she appeared in numerous music videos for songs by popular singers , including Falguni Pathak 's Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi ( alternative title : Chudi Jo Khankayi ) , Asha Bhosle 's Jhumka Gira Re , Jagjit Singh and Bhosle 's Jab Samne Tum and Kahin Kahin Se , Lata Mangeshkar , Bhonsle and Singh 's Dil Kahin Hosh Kahin , Sonu Nigam 's Jeena Hai Tere Liye and Shaan 's Sutta Maro . She shot for her first music video , Yaad Piya Ki Aane Lagi , at the age of sixteen . This led to her being identified primarily as a performer for music videos early in her career , an image she aimed to shed in 2005 . Riya has appeared on several magazine covers , including Femina , Elaan , Man 's World , Gladrags , Savvy and Indian versions of Elle , Maxim and Cosmopolitan , as well as on the ramp of major fashion shows like Lakmé Fashion Week ( 2005 – 07 ) and Wills Fashion Week ( 2006 – 2007 ) . She participated in fashion shows along with her elder sister , Raima Sen. Besides modelling , Riya has ventured into the advertisement world as well . A high point of her modelling career came in 2006 , when she became the soft drink , Limca 's brand ambassador , replacing Deepika Padukone . Her other notable assignments include Colgate , Dabur Vatika , Reliance Industries , Cadbury Dairy Milk Chocolate , and Nirma .
In 2004 , she was featured partially nude in leading Indian photographer Dabboo Ratnani 's annual calendar , which is a major happening in the Indian glamour industry . According to Daboo , " Her mother saw it much later , after the calendar released . She thought it was too sexy , and Riya shouldn 't have done it . But the response to the photograph was superb . Riya was so thrilled that for her next ad campaign , she asked me to light her up like I did in this . " A career highlight for the model , it led to a three @-@ year contract with Ratnani to feature her on his annual calendar . She is the only female face to be featured on the calendar for five consecutive years ( 2003 – 07 ) .
= = Personal life and family = =
Born on 24 January 1981 in Kolkata , West Bengal , Riya is the daughter of Moon Moon Sen , a former actress , and granddaughter of Suchitra Sen , a legend in Bengali cinema . Before leaving for Mumbai , she lived in Kolkata with her parents and sister Raima Sen , also an actress . Her father Bharat Dev Varma is a member of the royal family of Tripura . Her paternal grandmother , Ila Devi , was the princess of Cooch Behar , whose younger sister Gayatri Devi was the Maharani of Jaipur . Her paternal great @-@ grandmother Indira was the only daughter of Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III of Baroda . Riya 's maternal great @-@ grandfather Adinath Sen was a prominent Kolkata businessman , whose father Dinanath Sen – a relative of former Union Law Minister Ashoke Kumar Sen- was the Diwan or a Minister of the Maharaja of Tripura . The sisters are credited on @-@ screen under their mother 's maiden name , although their official papers carry the surname Dev Varma .
Riya completed her schooling at Loreto House and Rani Birla Girls ' College ( a University of Calcutta affiliate ) , both in Kolkata . Thereafter , she studied at the National Institute of Fashion Technology , and she took up jewellery @-@ designing as a hobby . She designs most of the clothes that she wears in films and commercials . Riya is trained in Kathak and is still pursuing it under Vijayshree Chaudhury . She is taking kickboxing lessons and has completed Level I of the 5 levels in belly dancing . Riya entered the film industry through small @-@ time modelling assignments , commuting between Mumbai and Kolkata and travelling by public transport during her early career . After breaking into the film industry , she shifted from her mother 's house in Ballygunge Circular Road in south Kolkata to Mumbai . There she moved into the family house in Juhu , where she stays with her sister .
Riya has suffered a number of untimely incidents . During the filming of Shaadi No. 1 in France , she was knocked unconscious after being accidentally run over by a stuntman 's motorbike , but she was not seriously injured . Shortly before the release of Silsiilay , in which she starred opposite her boyfriend Ashmit Patel , a 90 @-@ second video clip was circulated through Multimedia Messaging Services and the internet , showing the pair in compromising situations in a hotel bedroom . This was one of a number of controversies that erupted when celebrities were caught in similar situations using cameraphones . Following this incident , the couple split up , although Riya denied that she was the girl in the MMS clip . One commentator claimed that the footage was an orchestrated publicity stunt . In 2007 , she underwent a brief detoxification session in Bangkok for addiction to chocolate .
= = = Public persona = = =
Riya 's on @-@ screen performances have established her as a bold youth icon in India . Since entering the film industry , she has gained attention for wearing a bikini in Shaadi No. 1 and sharing on @-@ screen kisses with co @-@ stars Ashmit Patel in Silsiilay and Sharman Joshi in Style , respectively . Such performances garnered negative attention because of the relatively conservative outlook of Indian cinema at that time and her own statements about such practices . In 2008 , Riya Sen was also linked to author Salman Rushdie . Before becoming a film star , she had a reputation for partying , which started at the age of fifteen . Riya 's public persona is compared to her mother Moon Moon , who was seen as a sex symbol of her time , while her sister Raima is mostly compared to their grandmother Suchitra .
Although her film career has yet to achieve large @-@ scale success , Riya has generated considerable media attention . She was ranked ninth on Femina 50 Most Beautiful Women , published in the magazine 's September 2007 issue . She was a jury member for the 2008 Final of the Mr. India contest . Riya appeared in Haath Se Haath Mila , an HIV / AIDS awareness music video . She made charity appearances at McDonald 's India to raise money for paediatric eye @-@ care during World Children 's Week ( 14 – 20 November ) in 2003 .
= = Filmography = =
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= Faith Leech =
Faith Yvonne Leech ( 31 March 1941 – 14 September 2013 ) was an Australian freestyle swimmer who won a gold medal in the 4 × 100 – metre freestyle relay and bronze in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne .
A tall and lean swimmer known for her elegant technique , Leech started swimming as a child to build strength after a series of stomach disorders in her infancy . She quickly rose to prominence after breaking a string of age group records . In 1955 , she became the youngest swimmer to win an Australian title , claiming victory in the 110 @-@ yard freestyle at the age of 13 . She twice broke the Australian record in the 100 @-@ yard freestyle in late 1955 , thereby positioning herself as a leading contender for Olympic selection in 1956 . Leech 's preparation was hindered by illness , which forced her out of the 1956 Australian Championships , but she recovered to gain Olympic selection in both the 100 @-@ metre freestyle and the corresponding relay . Leech produced a late surge to take bronze in the individual event and seal an Australian trifecta , before swimming the second leg in the relay to help secure an Australian victory in world record time . Leech retired after the Olympics at the age of 15 ; she cited anxiety caused by racing as one of the main factors in her decision .
= = Early years = =
The second child of Johnstone Melmore and Jessie Francis Leech , Leech was born in the inland regional Victoria town of Bendigo in Australia . Leech was given the name Faith after her elder sister , who died from leukaemia at the age of two . As a delicate child , Leech had an aversion to eating in the first two years of her life , so her mother fed her in small hourly doses . Leech was twice rushed from the family home to a Melbourne ] hospital . Conventional medicine failed to rectify Leech 's dietary issues , so her mother put her on a fast for ten days at the recommendation of a naturopath . Leech was later placed on a diet of fruit , salad and vegetables , with an emphasis on beetroot juice and carrot juice .
Leech 's health improved , but she remained slight and frail , with a double curvature of the back . In an effort to help her gain muscle control and confidence , her parents sent her to start ballet dancing , before trying swimming , a sport her mother had competed in . Aged six , she was taken to swimming classes while the family holidayed in the Mornington Peninsula . Leech was coached by Gus Froelich , a former European swimming champion and coach of Australian Olympic medallist Judy @-@ Joy Davies . After a difficult start , Leech improved in her second year . At the Victorian Championships , she showed her potential by setting a state record of 17 @.@ 4 seconds ( s ) for the 25 @-@ yard freestyle in the under @-@ 8 division . The following year , she covered 25 yards in 15 @.@ 7 seconds , three seconds faster than Davies had done at the same age . She progressed steadily , sweeping the state age titles from nine to 13 , setting records that were often faster than those by boys of the same age .
Living in Bendigo and studying at Camp Hill Primary School , Leech could only travel three times a year to train with Froelich , so she relied heavily on dry land simulations , such as a pulley attached to the kitchen door . When she was 12 , she covered 110 yards in 1 minute ( min ) 7 @.@ 1 seconds , setting an unofficial world record for her age group . This achievement prompted her parents to rent an apartment in Melbourne , so she could train with Froelich on a regular basis . Leech moved there with her mother , while her father stayed to look after the family 's jewellery business . From 1954 , Leech attended St. Michael 's Girls ' Grammar School and trained with Froelich on a daily basis at the City Baths . The regular sessions paid off at the 1955 Victorian Championships ; Leech won the open 110- and 220 @-@ yard freestyle in times of 1 minute 7 @.@ 2 seconds and 2 minutes 39 @.@ 3 seconds , respectively , setting state records in both events . She proceeded to the Australian Championships , winning the 110 @-@ yard freestyle in 1 minute 7 @.@ 6 seconds to become the youngest ever winner of an open title at the age of 13 . Leech also won the national junior 110- and 220 @-@ yard events .
Leech 's regimen differed from most swimmers because Froelich was not an advocate of distance training , and designed shorter workouts for his students . She trained once a day , swimming no more than 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . Froelich did not push her to continue swimming laps when she felt tired , but emphasised an efficient stroke mechanism , which Leech implemented with a long and graceful arm action . Leech stood 180 centrimetres ( 5 ' 11 " ) , but weighed only 57 kg ( 126 lb ) , with broad shoulders , slim hips and large hands and feet . Her long streamlined action prompted observers to call her a " flying fish " . Spinal problems caused by a back misalignment prevented her from using the optimal flip turn preferred by freestyle swimmers . Instead , she was forced to utilise the touch turn , which was slower .
= = National selection = =
In August 1955 , Leech set an Australian record of 1 minute 5 @.@ 0 seconds for the 110 @-@ yard freestyle , before lowering it to 1 minute 4 @.@ 8 seconds in October ; this prompted newspapers to trumpet her as a prospect for the Melbourne Olympics . She did not get an opportunity to defend her Australian title in 1956 because she was hospitalised with illness . Leech recovered in time to win the national age title in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle in a time of 1 minute 4 @.@ 6 seconds , just 0 @.@ 1 of a second outside Dawn Fraser 's world record . She then posted a time of 1 minute 4 @.@ 6 seconds to defeat Fraser and Lorraine Crapp at another meeting in the following month .
Leech was named in the Olympic squad and the Australian Swimming Union exempted her from travelling to the national training camp in Townsville so she could train with Froelich , who understood her special dietary requirements . She joined the squad for the final race trials in Melbourne in October before the Olympics . Fraser and Crapp were too strong in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with Leech finishing second and third in the two races . After combining with Fraser , Crapp and Margaret Gibson to break the world record for the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay , Leech was selected as one of Australia 's three entrants in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle entrants and one of six swimmers for the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay squad for the Olympics .
= = International career = =
Having arrived at the Olympics , Leech made her debut in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , an event in which she , Fraser and Crapp were regarded as the three strongest competitors , although the latter two were considered to be substantially stronger . All three won their heats . Leech won her heat by 1 @.@ 6 second in a time of 1 minute 4 @.@ 9 seconds . She was third fastest qualifier behind Fraser and Crapp , who were over 1 @.@ 5 seconds faster . Drawn in Fraser 's semifinal , Leech finished second in a time of 1 minute 5 @.@ 2 seconds , and was the third fastest qualifier for the final behind her compatriots . The semifinals followed a similar pattern to the heats , with Fraser and Crapp more than two seconds ahead of the six remaining qualifiers , who were separated by just 0 @.@ 8 of a second .
This pattern was repeated in the final . Fraser and Crapp were far ahead of the field , finishing in 1 minute 2 @.@ 0 seconds and 1 minute 2 @.@ 3 seconds , respectively . Leech overtook the United States ' Joan Rosazza in the final 25 metres to take bronze in 1 minute 5 @.@ 1 seconds . The race for third place had been tight , with just 0 @.@ 7 of a second separating Leech and the final finisher . The youngest swimmer in the field , Leech had come through to claim the last podium position . Leech said that it was an emotional occasion , having seen the Australian men take a trifecta in the corresponding event on the previous night of racing .
As the Australians boasted the three fastest swimmers in the individual 100 @-@ metre freestyle event , they were clear favourites for the corresponding relay , especially as Fraser and Crapp were three seconds faster than all of the other swimmers . Leech was not assured of a place in the final quartet . In the heats , Fraser and Crapp were rested and the remaining four swimmers , Sandra Morgan , Elizabeth Fraser , Gibson and Leech qualified the team . Leech swam the second leg in 1 minute 5 @.@ 9 seconds , the second fastest of the Australians , thereby securing her position in the final along with Sandra Morgan , who recorded a time of 1 minute 5 @.@ 4 seconds . Australia won the second heat by 3 @.@ 1 seconds to qualify quickest for the final . They were 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 3 seconds faster than South Africa and the United States , respectively , both of whom swam in the first heat . The selection of Leech and Morgan generated controversy . They were Australia 's youngest swimmers and lacked experience at open level competition : Morgan had false started twice at the Australian Championships , and both had competed at national level only once .
In the final , Australia made a poor start ; Dawn Fraser almost stopped when she heard a second gunshot , believing that a false start had occurred . She finished her leg in 1 minute 4 @.@ 0 seconds , two seconds slower than the world record she set in the individual 100 @-@ metre final , but with a 2 @.@ 3 @-@ sedond lead over the United States ' Sylvia Ruuska . Nevertheless , this meant that Australia had a smaller than expected advantage . Swimming the second leg , Leech maintained the lead in the first 50 metres but faded in the second half and finished with a split of 1 minute 5 @.@ 1 seconds , with the Australian lead cut to 0 @.@ 9 of a second . Even with the advantage of a flying start , Leech 's leg was 0 @.@ 4 of a second slower than her fastest time during the individual competition .
Morgan was then overhauled and passed by Nancy Simons . With 25 metres left , Morgan took her head out of the water , and seeing the American a body length in front , dug deep to re @-@ establish a lead of 0 @.@ 7 of a second going into the final changeover . Crapp then extended the lead over the United States to 2 @.@ 2 seconds to secure gold in a world record time of 4 minutes 17 @.@ 1 seconds . The Melbourne Olympics was the only time that Australia has made a clean sweep of the 100 @-@ metre freestyle and the relay events for both men and women . This feat has only been equaled by the Americans at the 1920 Summer Olympics . The victory was Australia 's only victory in a female swimming relay at the Olympics until the 2004 Summer Olympics .
= = Retirement = =
After the 1956 Olympics , Leech retired from competitive swimming at the age of 15 . She was the first person from Bendigo to win an Olympic medal and was feted upon returning to her hometown . She regarded the experience of living in the Olympic Village as an unusual one ; in addition to the large crowds and the pressure of an Olympics , it was the first time that she had been away from the family home . Physicians endorsed her decision to retire , feeling that she became too nervous prior to races . Leech briefly worked in Melbourne as a model , before returning to Bendigo to help run the family jewelry business . She took a leading role in the business after the death of her father in the 1970s , before handing control of the firm to her son .
Leech married Mitch Tuohy and had two sons , Adam and Troy , whom she discouraged from entering competitive swimming , fearing the pressure and strain of racing . In retirement , she shunned competitive sport , but maintained her fitness and athleticism . She taught swimming to disabled children , some of whom represented Australia at the Special Olympics .
Leech continued her involvement with the Olympic movement through volunteer work . In July 1999 , Leech and Australia 's then @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran Jack Lockett were the guests of honor at a countdown celebration to the arrival of the Olympic Torch in Bendigo in July 2000 . In 2001 , she was diagnosed with a cancerous tumor in her neck , which was the size of a 50c coin . The tumor was removed in a seven @-@ hour operation followed by six weeks of radiotherapy treatment . This experience prompted her to become a volunteer for the Cancer Council and help those who were diagnosed with the disease . In February 2003 , Leech phoned quadruple Olympic champion Betty Cuthbert to comfort her during her recovery from a brain hemorrhage . In October 2006 , Leech combined with 1956 teammate John Devitt to launch " 50 Years On — The Melbourne Olympics " , a series of stamps from the Australia Post .
Leech is an inductee of the Path of Champions at Sydney Olympic Park Aquatic Centre . She died at her home on 14 September 2013 , aged 72 .
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= Miles Away ( Madonna song ) =
" Miles Away " is a song by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her eleventh studio album , Hard Candy . It was first released as a promotional single in Japan , during June 2008 , as the theme for the Fuji Television Japanese drama , Change . The song was released by Warner Bros. Records , as the third and final single from the album on October 17 , 2008 , and was subsequently included on her compilation album , Celebration ( 2009 ) . Written by Madonna , Justin Timberlake , Timbaland and Nate " Danja " Hills , " Miles Away " is a melancholy electronic ballad , which according to Madonna is autobiographical , and is inspired by her then husband Guy Ritchie . Lyrically , the song deals with long @-@ distance relationships .
" Miles Away " has received positive appreciation from music critics for being a harmonious and meaningful ballad . It reached the top forty in most countries , while peaking inside the top ten in Czech Republic , Netherlands , Hungary , Japan , Slovakia and Spain . It became the best @-@ selling digital single of 2008 in Japan and won three trophies at the 23rd Japan Gold Disc Awards . In the United States , the song did not appear on the Billboard Hot 100 , but became Madonna 's seventh consecutive number @-@ one song on the Hot Dance Airplay chart , the most for any artist . The song has been performed by Madonna in the promotional tour for the Hard Candy album and the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , during the gypsy segment of the show .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The music for " Miles Away " was the first song of Hard Candy to be composed . After hearing it , Madonna began singing and writing the lyrics for the song . In an interview with MTV , Madonna said that the song was inspired by her then husband , Guy Ritchie . " So many people have to deal with long @-@ distance relationships . It 's not easy . You have to work hard to make it work . " When asked if the song was autobiographical , she said :
Probably in many respects most of the songs [ on Hard Candy ] are [ autobiographical ] . But in more of an unconscious way . I don 't really think about telling personal stories when I 'm writing music . It just comes . And then a lot of times , six months later , eight months later , I go , " Oh , that 's what I wrote that song about . " But that 's when I play the song for lots of people and they all go , ' Oh , I can totally relate to that ' . In ' Miles Away ' I 'm tapping into the global consciousness of people who have intimacy problems .
In an interview with The Daily Telegraph Madonna further explained her inspiration behind the song and stated that " [ ' Miles Away ' is ] a song most people who work can relate to . If part of your work is travelling , and the person you are with also works and travels , you find yourself separated a lot and it can be very frustrating , [ ... ] I 'm American and he [ Ritchie ] is British , and I have to come to America all the time . [ ... ] Especially at the beginning of our relationship , that long @-@ distance thing was very frustrating . I also think it 's easier for people to say things from a distance ; it 's safer . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Miles Away " is a melancholy song with influences of ballad . The song carries the characteristic sound of Timbaland @-@ Timberlake production . Generally a downtempo , electropop song , " Miles Away " is accompanied by beats and backing vocals , which sing the lines " So far away " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A minor ; Madonna 's voice spans from the high @-@ note of G3 to the low @-@ note of C5 . " Miles Away " has a basic sequence of Am – Em – G – F – Am – Em – G – F as its chord progression .
During recording , Timberlake sat down with Madonna and played a guitar riff composed by him , asking her how she wanted the song to sound . Madonna had " all these thoughts , riddles , poems , feelings , all written in huge notebooks , " Timberlake said , " and she kept handing them over . It was amazing , taking these little bits here and there and putting them together like a puzzle . " In this way , one of the ideas they connected was the universality of long @-@ distance relationships , the pain and heartache of which they were able to incorporate in " Miles Away " . After recording it , Timberlake commented that he had helped in creating a classic Madonna song , saying " I couldn 't do a song like that , [ ... ] I thought it was completely her . That was the trick . "
Lyrically , " Miles Away " deals with a relationship in trouble . Madonna said that it 's not difficult to express herself lyrically without giving away too much of her own privacy . Though Madonna has said before that the song is about Guy Ritchie , it has been speculated that lines from the lyrics of the song like : " You always have the biggest heart when we 're 6 @,@ 000 miles apart " , talked about the then failing marriage between Madonna and Guy .
= = Critical reception = =
Kerri Mason of Billboard called the song a harmonious ballad which , along with the single " 4 Minutes " , " might be some of her best work yet " . She also said that the song sounded familiar and compared it with Timbaland 's remixed version of the 2008 single " Apologize " . Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone believed the song has a " melancholy pining " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic held the view that " the icy heartbreak of ' Miles Away ' " was " a worthy successor of Justin Timberlake 's 2006 single ' What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around ' " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that the song has the typical ensuring quality of the production of Timbaland and Justin Timberlake , and bears the " pair 's distinct , modern stamp , making Hard Candy more than just a throwback to Donna Summer , Anita Ward , and Quaaludes . " Chris William from Entertainment Weekly made the observation that " Miles Away " was one of the " few actual confessions on this dance floor [ Hard Candy ] — enough to give the tabs speculative fodder . " He also compared the song to " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " . Jim Farber of the New York Daily News called it the album 's most beguiling tune .
Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe said that Madonna 's journey " from shameless seductress to thoughtful student produces nary a ballad , but some seriously bittersweet tones linger under the surface of these effusive tunes . " He also said that the song has a peace of mind quality in it . Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle complemented the galloping beats and melodic backing vocals of " Miles Away " and said that it " sounds like late- ' 80s Madonna " . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said Madonna sings " with the emotional engagement of a sat @-@ nav suggesting a right turn onto the A23 . " Miles Marshall Lewis of The Village Voice said that with " Miles Away " , Madonna comes closest " to reflecting on her married @-@ with @-@ children bliss ( or lack thereof ) . " Tom Young from the BBC called the song " genuinely good , genuinely felt " and compared it with some of Madonna 's other hit songs like " Holiday " , " Into the Groove " , " Ray of Light " and " Music " . Pete Paphides of The Times called the song " excellent " , and describing it as " a collision of acoustic downstrokes and feverishly jaunty rhythm that verges on reggae . " Thomas Hauner of PopMatters said , " At one point the album ’ s tediousness [ ... ] is such that one assumes Ashlee Simpson and Britney have already passed on the material because even they deemed it too redundant . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States " Miles Away " charted on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart and peaked at number two , kept from the top spot by the Pussycat Dolls single " I Hate This Part " . The song became Madonna 's ninth release to top the Hot Singles Sales chart , moving from number 31 to the top , and becoming the first number @-@ one song of the chart for 2009 . It debuted at number fifteen on the Hot Dance Airplay chart and reached number one in its December 27 , 2008 issue . This feat gave Madonna her seventh consecutive number one single on the Hot Dance Aiplay chart making her the artist with the most Dance Airplay hits on this chart . On the issue dated December 20 , 2008 , " Miles Away " debuted and peaked at number 99 on the Pop 100 chart but dropped off it the following week . The song debuted at number 90 on the Canadian Hot 100 . The next week it dropped out of the chart , but made a re @-@ entry and climbed up to the top forty , peaking at number 23 for the issue dated December 13 , 2008 .
" Miles Away " achieved its strongest commercial reception in Japan , where it was used as the theme for Fuji Television drama Change . It was first released there as a promotional single in 2008 , following " 4 Minutes " . The song peaked at number seven on the Japan Hot 100 on May 30 , 2008 and stayed on the chart for 10 weeks . It became the best @-@ selling digital single of 2008 and received music certifications from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) — platinum for 250 @,@ 000 PC downloads , and double platinum for 500 @,@ 000 master ringtones . At the 23rd annual Japan Gold Disc Awards , " Miles Away " won three awards as " Mastertone of the Year " , " Mobile Single Track of the Year " and " Online Single Track of the Year " . According to the RIAJ , the song has sold 681 @,@ 000 digital downloads as of April 2009 .
On November 30 , 2008 , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 39 , selling 5 @,@ 643 digital downloads . It dropped to number 68 the following week and then dropped off the chart . This ended a run of 63 consecutive top 20 UK hits for Madonna , stretching from 1984 through 2008 , as " Miles Away " became Madonna 's first ever single not to crack the UK top twenty . The track debuted at number 39 in the Dutch Top 40 on September 20 , 2008 and reached a peak of number ten on November 15 , 2008 . In Australia , the Thin White Duke Mix charted at number 28 on the Australian Club Charts . In Spain , " Miles Away " became her third consecutive single from Hard Candy to reach number one on the official singles chart . In other countries , " Miles Away " peaked within the top forty of the official charts .
= = Live performance = =
Madonna performed " Miles Away " during the promotional tour for Hard Candy and the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . In the promotional tour , Madonna performed " Miles Away " as the second song from the six @-@ song set list . Madonna wore a black dress with black tails , track pants and high @-@ heeled , lace @-@ up boots . She performed the song standing in front of the microphone while playing acoustic guitar . The backdrops showed graphical images of airplanes leaving London and arriving in New York , boarding passes and passports as well as airports .
In the Sticky & Sweet Tour , " Miles Away " was performed during the gypsy segment of the show . Madonna wore a gypsy inspired Givenchy long cape , over a black dress , with pink colored ribbons around her neck . She also wore black stockings on her leg . Before starting the song she said , " This is for all who know the struggle of long @-@ distance relationships . I know you 're out there . " While dancers gathered and sat down in a circle around her , Madonna went up on a platform , started playing the acoustic guitar and encouraged the crowd to clap and sing along . The screens give another message to the song , showing a stream of world maps and passport stamps and the history as well as journey of gypsies travelling around the world , adding to the atmosphere of that particular section of the show .
After the breakup between Madonna and Guy Ritchie was announced , during a performance of " Miles Away " in the Boston leg of the tour , she dedicated the song to the " emotionally retarded " . She then added , " You may know a few people who fall into that category — God knows I do , " the line being a probable reference to Ritchie himself although this has not been confirmed .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , producer
Timbaland – writer , producer
Justin Timberlake – writer , producer , background vocals , guitar
Danja – producer , writer
Demacio " Demo " Castellon – programming and mixing
Ron Taylor – protools
Dan Warner – guitar
Hannon Lane – additional keyboards
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Ralph Heikkinen =
Ralph Isaac “ Hike ” Heikkinen ( May 14 , 1917 – January 12 , 1990 ) was an All @-@ American guard for the University of Michigan Wolverines football team from 1936 @-@ 1938 . He was a consensus All @-@ American in 1938 , the first player from the Gogebic Range area of Michigan ’ s Upper Peninsula to win the honor . His exploits were widely reported in the Upper Peninsula press , where he became a local hero . He played professional football for the NFL Brooklyn Dodgers in 1939 .
From 1940 @-@ 1944 , he was the line coach for the Virginia Cavaliers football team while attending the University of Virginia School of Law at the same time . After practicing law in New York for a time , he spent a year as a line coach and law professor at Marquette University in 1947 . After leaving Marquette , Heikkinen worked as executive secretary and attorney for Studebaker @-@ Packard Corporation . He later joined the legal staff at General Motors ( GM ) , retiring in 1978 after 20 years of service in GM ’ s legal department . Heikkinen also helped initiate and implement a corporation @-@ wide alcohol treatment and education program at General Motors .
= = Youth in the Upper Peninsula = =
Born in Hancock , Michigan in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , Heikkinen was the son of Finnish immigrants , and grew up in Ramsay , Michigan , a heavily Finnish American community in the Gogebic Range area .
He attended A.D. Johnston High School , in Bessemer , Michigan from 1933 @-@ 1935 . As a junior in 1933 , Heikkinen was elected president of the student council . Heikkinen was a superior student who graduated with high honors student , and finished third in his high school class academically . When a new library opened in Bessemer in 1934 , Heikkinen was the first person to check out a book , A.B. Demille ’ s “ Three English Comedies . ” He was also an officer in the school 's ROTC program , and received honors for his participation in the high school ’ s military , athletics and student affairs programs .
Despite weighing only 145 pounds ( 66 kg ; 10 st 5 lb ) , Heikkinen won a spot on his high school football team ; his high school coach Robert Reihsen said he won a spot due to his aggressive play . Local papers reported that Heikkinen ’ s line play during high school was marked by hard tackling and blocking . During his junior season in 1934 , Coach Reihsen recalled Heikkinen played every minute of every game . Coach Reihnsen 's team was known as the “ Speed Boys , ” and gave up only two points in the first four games , outscoring opponents , 65 – 2 . In November 1934 , Coach Reihsen took Heikkinen to Minneapolis to attend his first Big Ten football game , the Little Brown Jug match between Michigan and Minnesota . Reihsen recalled that , after the game , Heikkinen said : “ Some day I ’ m going to play in this stadium . ”
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = Heikkinen won an academic scholarship = = =
In July 1926 , Heikkinen won an academic scholarship to the University of Michigan . The Bessemer Herald noted : “ It was no surprise to learn that Ralph Heikkinen of Ramsay has been awarded a University of Michigan Alumni scholarship , although only 50 high school seniors in the state can win the honor each year . . . Ralph is a very good student ; he ranked third in scholastic standings in a class of 128 . . . Heikkinen was also an outstanding guard on the B.H.S. football team for two years and he intends to try out for the Wolverine freshman squad this fall . ” The scholarship was renewed from year to year and covered Heikkinen ’ s tuition .
To supplement his income , Heikkinen worked eight @-@ hour days in a Fort Dearborn plant during his freshman year . The president of the Gogebic Range U @-@ M Alumni Club later recalled that Heikkinen won his scholarship by passing a competitive examination . Of those receiving scholarships , Heikkinen was credited with the finest all around record of any undergraduate among the alumni scholarship students .
= = = Heikkinen ’ s diminutive stature = = =
When Heikkinen graduated from high school , he weighed only 155 pounds ( 70 kg ; 11 @.@ 1 st ) and was thought too light to play Big Ten football . His height was reported variously as 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) , 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) , and 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) . Heikkinen was described by the Detroit News as a “ pigmy ” compared to Michigan ’ s last great guard , Albert Benbrook , who was 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) and more than 250 pounds ( 110 kg ; 18 st ) . He was also described as “ the stock atom , ” and the “ pint @-@ sized ” lineman . But Heikkinen viewed his size as an asset : “ My size had been a help rather than a hindrance . It is easier for a small man to pull out of the line and run interference than a big one . I had no trouble out @-@ charging big men ; it was the small men who gave me all the trouble . ”
= = = Freshman and sophomore years = = =
Heikkinen did not excel on the freshman team , but was invited by Coach Harry Kipke to spring practice in 1936 to try out for the varsity team . In April 1936 , the people back in Bessemer gave Heikkinen a vote of confidence ; the school board approved a $ 55 payment to Heikkinen as “ advance payment ” for some form of employment to be given “ during the coming summer months . ”
However , Heikkinen did not win a starting spot on the 1936 team and was not even ranked among the top sophomore guards on the team . At the end of the 1936 season , the highest praise Coach Kipke could muster was to call him “ one of the better defensive linemen on the squad . ” Assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said Heikkinen had “ the right attitude , ” and coach Wally Weber described him as “ a hard worker . ” However , the Michigan Daily noted : “ The only weakness of the Ramsay boy is his lack of speed . Speedy guards are needed to pull out of the line and lead the interference , and Heikkinen hasn ’ t quite shown that he is fast enough to move in Big Ten competition as yet . ”
= = = Role of Hunk Anderson = = =
The first person on the Michigan staff to believe in Heikkinen was Heartley “ Hunk ” Anderson . A fellow native of the Upper Peninsula ( Tamarack City , Michigan ) , Anderson played guard at Notre Dame from 1919 – 1921 and was Knute Rockne ’ s successor as Notre Dame ’ s head coach in 1931 . In 1937 , Anderson became Michigan ’ s line coach , and came to the conclusion during spring practice that Heikkinen was Michigan ’ s best football player . After a strong showing in spring practice , Heikkinen “ hardened up ” over the summer working at the Wakefield Iron .
= = = 1937 season = = =
In 1937 , Heikkinen won the starting job at right guard , but the team finished 4 – 4 , and were outscored by opponents 110 – 54 . They were soundly defeated by Minnesota , 39 – 6 , and Ohio State , 21 – 0 .
Heikkinen was the one bright spot in the Wolverines ’ 1937 season . In early November 1937 , Hunk Anderson described Heikkinen as “ the smallest but best lineman in the Michigan forward wall . ” Anderson continued in his praise for Heikkinen : “ Heik has shown the stuff in both of our tough games against Minnesota and Northwestern . . . Minnesota didn ’ t split our guards more than twice during the game . Heik was responsible for a lot of that . My conception of a good guard is one that stops anything that comes his way on defense and leads the blocking on offense . Heik has done just that . When we have the ball he is our fifth man in the backfield . He pulls out most of our plays and bowls over the opposition . We have made most of the gains through the line over his position . ”
Heikkinen ’ s interception of a forward pass proved to be the key break in a 7 – 0 win over Penn . He also blocked kicks for points after touchdown in one @-@ point wins over Illinois ( 7 – 6 ) and Chicago ( 13 – 12 ) . Without Heikkinen ’ s big plays against Penn , Illinois and Chicago , the Wolverines likely would have been 1 – 5 – 2 instead of 4 – 4 . Even in a 21 – 0 loss to Ohio State , Heikkinen blocked two kicks .
Described at the end of the season as Kipke ’ s “ pride and joy , ” Heikkinen averaged 50 minutes a game in 1937 , and was the only Michigan player selected to the All @-@ Big Ten team ( UP first team ; AP second team ) . He was also voted by his teammates as the team ’ s Most Valuable Player , an honor never before bestowed on a junior . And Hunk Anderson noted , “ if Michigan ’ s record had been better , Heikkinen would have made the All @-@ America . There isn ’ t a better guard in the country ; I don ’ t know another as good . Wait til next year . ”
A Detroit newspaper wrote that Heikkinen was the surprise of the 1937 season . “ Heikkinen has no spectacular record as a high school player to show . He was a reserve guard last season and really just started to show up in spring practice this year . ” The Bessemer Herald reported on the impressive turnaround of the first player from the Gogebic Range to be named All @-@ Big Ten : “ Heikkinen , one of the quietest and least boisterous men on the Michigan grid squad , has suddenly shot from obscurity into the Western Conference hall of fame . . . From a lowly bench warmer last year , ‘ Hike ’ became one of the most consistent first @-@ stringers this season . He played many if not more minutes than any other member of the squad . ”
After the team ’ s 4 – 4 finish , Michigan dismissed Harry Kipke as head coach . Hunk Anderson , described by Heikkinen as the “ greatest line technician in football today , ” also resigned as line coach . Asked about rumors that players did not like Kipke , Heikkinen said those reports were probably originated by disgruntled players who did not make the squad or were in other ways dissatisfied . However , just over a year later , in February 1939 , Heikkinen led the opposition when Kipke ran for the University ’ s Board of Regents and campaigned actively for Kipke ’ s opponent .
= = = Political campaigning in 1938 = = =
Heikkinen majored in political science and did political organization work for the Young Republicans during the summer of 1938 in Gogebic and Ontonagom Counties . He was the Upper Peninsula field representative for gubernatorial candidate Harry S. Toy in 1938 , traveling more than 16 @,@ 000 miles over the course of the summer .
= = = 1938 season = = =
In 1938 , with Heikkinen returning at guard , a new coach in Fritz Crisler , and sophomores Forest Evashevski and Tom Harmon joining the varsity squad , the Wolverines began to turn things around . They finished with a 6 – 1 – 1 record and were ranked # 16 in the final AP poll .
Harmon and Evashevski made immediate contributions , but Heikkinen was once again voted the team ’ s Most Valuable Player . Having been the first junior to win the award in 1937 , he became the first player to receive the award twice in 1938 . Though line coach Hunk Anderson did not return in 1937 , Michigan hired Clarence “ Biggie ” Munn to replace him . Munn was a unanimous All @-@ American guard for Minnesota in 1931 . Under the new coaching staff of Crisler and Munn , Heikkinen became one of the best college football players in the country . After the 1938 season , Heikkinen credited Crisler and Munn for his development . Heikkinen noted that Michigan linemen were taught not to depend on sheer strength . " We have not been taught to rear up and hurl back the opposition . We have not been taught to roll it back by power . We have been schooled to out @-@ block and out @-@ trick the other side . Our method is to be alert . We try to catch the other fellows off balance . "
Michigan won the first game of the season against Michigan State , 14 – 0 , and Heikkinen drew attention for playing 59 of 60 minutes in the game . The team 's only loss was a close 7 – 6 defeat to Minnesota in the third game of the season .
The fourth game of the season was a 45 – 7 win over Yale . An Ann Arbor newspaper reported that Gerald R. Ford , former Michigan center then serving as a scout for Yale , “ tried to feed Hike a line . . . on how impossibly inferior ” Yale ’ s team would be . According to the report , Heikkinen , “ in his typically pungent manner , nipped Ford ’ s eulogies in the bud with some poignant remarks on who was trying to kid who and how . ”
The 1938 Northwestern game ended in a scoreless tie . Heikkinen led a goal @-@ line stand that preserved the tie . Northwestern reached the 11 @-@ yard line on a 51 @-@ yard pass play . A penalty took the ball to the six @-@ yard line . On first down , they drove to the five , then to the two , and then to the one @-@ yard line for a first down . On first down with a yard to go , Heikkinen stopped Northwestern a foot short of the goal line . Heikkinen called time out and encouraged the players when the ball was on the one @-@ foot line , and the Michigan team kept the Wildcats from the end zone in an impressive goal @-@ line stand . In the Ohio State game , his former coach Anderson said : “ He was the fifth man in the Ohio backfield . He pulled out of the line to lead the Michigan interference , blocked , went down under punts , smeared Ohio running plays and what not ! ”
Detroit News sports editor H.G. Salsinger wrote : “ He was Michigan ’ s outstanding player for the last two years . He was probably the best offensive guard Michigan ever had , and fitted perfectly into the new Michigan running attack . Fast and powerful , Heikkinen frequently blocked out two defense players . Heikkinen was the fastest charger in the Michigan line . He outmaneuvered opponents . On defense it was impossible to gain through his position , and he had a way of jamming opposing lines and making holes so that his secondary could break through and stop the ball carrier . ”
Ann Arbor newspaper writer , Bud Benjamin , wrote about Heikkinen : “ If ever a player deserved national recognition it is the brilliant Ralph Heikkinen , 180 pounds of inspired dynamite in a great Michigan line . . . . He came out of a small town in northern Michigan , Hike , did , a sandy haired , extremely reserved Finnish boy with an irrepressible urge to play football . ” He played between 50 and 60 minutes of every game in 1937 and 1938 and not once was a timeout called on his account or a substitution made for him due to injury . “ He was on his feet – active , explosive , dynamic --all the time . ”
= = = Selection as an All @-@ American = = =
Heikkinen was chosen as a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American by more than 25 sports magazines , newspapers and wire services , including the Associated Press , the United Press , Grantland Rice for Collier 's Weekly , the Newspaper Enterprise Association Service , the New York Sun , and Chesterfield Cigarettes as selected by Eddie Dooley .
Heikkinen received 226 points in the United Press poll , the fifth highest total in the balloting . The UP noted : “ He dominated the voting for guards on ballots from the East , West , South and North . He has a trick on defense of jamming the opposition line and making a hole for a teammate to go through and get the ball carrier . On offense he excels in swinging out to lead the interference and often gets in two blocks on a play . Motion pictures of the Ohio State @-@ Michigan game show Heikkinen jamming opposing linesmen back from one to three yards on almost every play . He is so good that professional teams have approached him , but he wants to study law . ”
In announcing its selection , the Associated Press noted : “ An all @-@ Big Ten guard for two years , Heikkinen tears down under punts , pulls out of the line to lead interference and tackles hard . He is Michigan ’ s first All @-@ American in five years . A 60 @-@ minute performer , seldom fooled by intricate maneuvers , Heikkinen is regarded by Coach Fritz Crisler as the finest guard he has ever seen . ” The NEA said : “ Ralph Heikkinen , Michigan senior and Ramsay , was small as guards go . He stood only five feet eight and weighed 182 pounds but he was the fastest guard in the Big Ten . . . one of the best Fritz Crisler ever saw . He had a great offensive charge . A corking blocker , especially when pulling out of the line , he was chosen as the Wolverines ’ most valuable player in 1937 . ” Another reporter described Heikkinen as “ Michigan ’ s 182 @-@ pound dynamo , ” who was “ fast as a halfback , and possessing the quickest charge his coach , Fritz Crisler , has seen . ”
In addition to the All @-@ American honors , Heikkinen finished second in voting for the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the Big Ten Conference ’ s Most Valuable Player . He was also chosen to play in the East @-@ West Shrine Game in San Francisco on January 1 , 1939 . And in July 1939 , Heikkinen was elected with 846 @,@ 943 votes ( fourth highest vote count of any player ) to play in the annual game between the College All @-@ Stars and the NFL New York Giants . The Ironwood Daily Globe boasted that residents of Michigan ’ s sparsely populated Gogebic Range had accounted for 25 @,@ 000 of Heikkinen ’ s votes .
= = = Heikkinen the poet = = =
Many of the articles reporting on Heikkinen ’ s All @-@ American selection focused on his academic performance and on his love of poetry . While at Michigan , Heikkinen was also the president of the undergraduate “ M ” club in 1938 and president of U @-@ M ’ s senior honor society , “ Michigamua . ” Detroit News sports editor H.G. Salsinger wrote that Heikkinen “ writes poetry , and one of his poems appeared in a literary publication in 1938 . ” The Associated press noted that Heikkinen was “ a high @-@ ranking student whose hobby is poetry ” An Ann Arbor paper wrote : “ He ’ s extremely intelligent , dabbling in such fields as creative writing , drama , and poetry with considerable vim and no little skill during his spare moments . He is completely unassuming , unusually quiet , and above all a real gentleman . " In August 1939 , Heikkinen was hired by a magazine to write a story on college football . Newspapers reported that Heikkinen was “ collecting dividends on the reputation he made as a poet and writer as an undergraduate . ” In 1937 , Heikkinen was the subject of an article titled , “ But He ’ s No Sissy . ” The articles noted that Heikkinen “ adheres strictly to a liquid diet ” and drank a full quart of milk after every game as part of a special diet due to a stomach disorder .
= = = Hero of the Upper Peninsula = = =
Heikkinen was the first player from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to win All @-@ Big Ten honors in 1938 , and he topped that in 1939 as the region ’ s first All @-@ American . His exploits were followed closely both during the summer and during the football season in the Gogebic Range ’ s newspapers , The Ironwood Daily Globe and The Bessemer Herald . When he was named an All @-@ American by the AP , it was front page news , and the sports sections ran banner headlines . The Ironwood Daily Globe reported : “ Football honors are coming so fast for Ralph I. Heikkinen . . . that it ’ s hard for range fans who have watched Ralph ’ s progress on the gridiron to keep up with the latest developments . The latest and greatest tribute came today with the releasing of the Associated Press all @-@ America team on which he was named for a guard position . Heikkinen has twice been named on the all @-@ conference eleven and twice selected as Michigan ’ s most valuable player , the latter award never before having gone to a Michigan man two years in a row . There remains only one greater honor possible – that of being named to Grantland Rice ’ s official all @-@ America team . ”
When he was named to the Grantland Rice team the following week , the Globe reported : “ Heikkinen ’ s exceptional analytical ability on defense and his near @-@ perfect blocking on offense this last season has gained him a position on every major all @-@ star team chosen this year . ” On December 8 , 1938 , the Globe announced that a banquet honoring Heikkinen would be held with “ Hike ” himself traveling north to attend .
In the week leading up to the banquet , the Globe published an interview with “ Hike ” ’ s high school football coach , Robert Reihsen . On the day of the banquet , the Bessemer Herald ran an editorial urging the city of Ramsay to name a street or park in Heikkinen ’ s honor : “ Ramsay has never received the national publicity that its native son , Ralph Heikkinen , has brought to it this fall . By newspapers , magazines and radio the Gogebic range ’ s first All @-@ American football star has brought renown to himself , his home town and his school . If Ramsay has any street , public building , park or athletic field , that are now without title , or the names of which can be changed , why not dedicate something to Ralph Heikkinen who has so nobly proved himself to be Bessemer township ’ s leading citizen for 1938 ? Other communities have done as much for their heroes . As far as the University of Michigan is concerned Heikkinen has already written his name forever on the athletic scroll of honor . He takes his place with a long line of All @-@ American Wolverines . They are never forgotten at the Ann Arbor institution . ”
At the testimonial dinner , Heikkinen ’ s six @-@ year @-@ old brother , Donald Heikkinen , was asked to name the greatest football player in the world and responded , “ Ralph . ” Donald offered that Ralph was best because he used “ proper technique , ” and found it difficult to choose his older brother ’ s greatest play because “ there were so many of them . ” Referring to the Ohio State game , Donald noted , “ Ralph crushed through and smeared ‘ em . ” Heikkinen , or “ Hike ” as he was known to Yoopers , was presented with a purse of $ 36 representing the No. 36 he wore for Michigan .
Heikkinen ’ s high school coach was the “ toastmaster , ” and the local school superintendent , E.J. Oas , said that Heikkinen is “ not only all @-@ American , he ’ s all man and all gentleman . ” A nine @-@ piece orchestra played , and led the community in singing . And the local American Legion post presented him with a medal . The Bessemer Herald reported that “ friends and admirers of Ralph Heikkinen . . . came from all parts of the Upper Peninsula last night to pay tribute to the football star . ” The following day , he spoke to students in the assembly room of Bessemer high school where the school band gave a concert and Heikkinen was “ given a boisterous welcome by the students . ”
The Upper Peninsula press continued to report on Heikkinen ’ s every move , as he returned home shortly before Christmas , before heading west to play in the East @-@ West Shrine Game . On his departure for California , The Bessemer Herald said : “ Ralph has made every major All America team in the nation this year . . . . Our nation has had many great men to emulate . The children of the Ramsay school not only have these in common with all others , but we have our own local hero who has gained national repute as a gentleman , scholar and last , but not least , a great athlete . To say that we are proud of Ralph is putting it mild . We feel that we are very honored to have had him as a student of the Ramsay school . ”
The celebration resumed again in January 1939 when Michigan coach Fritz Crisler accompanied Heikkinen back to the Upper Peninsula for another banquet . Filmed highlights of Michigan ’ s 1938 season , featuring Heikkinen , were shown at the banquet . Even in April 1939 , Heikkinen ’ s appearances at banquets in the Upper Peninsula drew large crowds and wide press coverage .
In 1954 , Heikkinen was one of the twenty initial inductees into the Gogebic Range Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Professional football = =
Heikkinen signed on as an assistant coach at Michigan in the spring 1939 initially expressing ambivalence about playing professional football . Then , on September 9 , 1939 he had accepted an offer to play with the Brooklyn Dodgers of the NFL . Heikkinen had previously refused offers to play pro football , but the persistence of coach Potsy Clark , and Crisler ’ s assurance that a coaching job would be open for him in 1940 , persuaded Heikkinen to try professional football . Heikkinen noted on signing , though , that he would definitely return to law school in 1940 . It was reported that Heikkinen signed a contract for “ at least $ 175 a game ” with the Dodgers . Heikkinen was cut by the Dodgers after playing only three games .
When Heikkinen was released , one writer noted that Heikkinen “ was perhaps the biggest disappointment among the highly ballyhooed players who came up this season . ” Brooklyn ’ coach Clark noted that an “ All @-@ American man doesn ’ t mean a thing to us ” in the NFL . Clark said : “ Heikkinen weighed only 183 pounds and was pretty light for our league . He reported late and didn ’ t give himself a fair chance to show me what he could do . I just didn ’ t think he was in the right physical shape and mental shape .
The Upper Peninsula press disputed accounts that Heikkinen had not cut it in the NFL . Heikkinen ’ s friends said that Heikkinen asked for his own release in order to accept the opportunity to study law and coach football at the University of Virginia . One Upper Peninsula paper reported : “ Had Heikkinen wanted to , he still could be a member of the Brooklyn squad . However , the Dodgers moguls co @-@ operated with Ralph and released him from his contract when he informed them of the Virginia offer . ”
= = Later years = =
In October 1939 , Heikkinen was hired as the line coach at the University of Virginia , where he also studied law . An influential alumnus of Virginia interviewed Heikkinen when the Dodgers played the Detroit Lions and was instrumental in securing Heikkinen ’ s position with Virginia . Heikkinen worked as Virginia ’ s line coach from 1940 – 1944 and graduated first in his class from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1944 . Fellow Michigan All @-@ American , Edliff Slaughter , was also a Virginia coach with Heikkinen . During World War II , in 1943 , Slaughter and Heikkinen turned from coaching to teaching aerial navigation at the University of Virginia Flight Preparatory School .
On March 3 , 1941 , Heikkinen married Margaret Jackson , in Davenport , Iowa . In March 1947 , Hekkinen was appointed line coach at Marquette University in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . Heikkinen was line coach under head coach Frank Murray at Virginia and joined Murray again at Marquette . In between the stints at Virginia and Marquette , Heikkinen was a New York attorney . While serving as Marquette ’ s line coach , Heikkinen also carried a full teaching schedule as an assistant law professor on the faculty of Marquette law school . Heikkinen only stayed one year at Marquette , returning to the practice of law in New York in 1948 .
After leaving Marquette , Heikkinen worked as executive secretary and attorney for the Studebaker @-@ Packard Corporation . He later joined the legal staff at General Motors , retiring in 1978 after 20 years of service in GM ’ s legal department . Heikkinen helped initiate and implement a corporation @-@ wide alcohol treatment and education program at GM .
In 1987 , Heikkinen was inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor . He died of heart failure in Pontiac , Michigan at age 72 . He was survived by his wife , Margaret Helen Heikkinen , and six children , Ralph Heikkinen , Jr . , James Heikkinen , Peggy Parisen , Elizabeth Heikkinen , Linda Heikkinen , and Pamela Ronci . His funeral was held at St. Paul Methodist Church in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan .
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= 2008 Chinese Grand Prix =
The 2008 Chinese Grand Prix ( formally the V Sinopec Chinese Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 19 October 2008 at the Shanghai International Circuit , Shanghai , China . It was the 17th and penultimate race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 56 @-@ lap race was won by Lewis Hamilton for the McLaren team after starting from pole position . Ferrari driver Felipe Massa finished second , and Kimi Räikkönen was third in the other Ferrari .
Hamilton , the eventual Drivers ' Champion , led the Championship going into the race , and started from pole position alongside Räikkönen . Second in the Drivers ' Championship , Massa began from third , next to Fernando Alonso of Renault . The first three drivers retained their positions into the first corner , but Alonso was passed by Hamilton 's McLaren teammate Heikki Kovalainen . Alonso , however , was able to regain the place midway through the first lap . Over the course of the race , Hamilton extended a considerable lead over the two Ferraris . Massa passed Räikkönen with seven laps remaining , to improve his chances of surpassing Hamilton 's points tally at the final race in Brazil .
The result extended Ferrari 's lead over McLaren in the Constructors ' Championship from seven to 11 points . Third @-@ placed in the Drivers ' Championship , Robert Kubica 's sixth place at the Grand Prix eliminated his hopes of winning the Championship , and reduced his lead over fourth @-@ placed Räikkönen to six points . Nelson Piquet Jr. scored his last ever world championship points at this race .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams and Toro Rosso . As is normal for a Formula One race , Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .
Prior to the race , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 84 points , and Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was second with 79 points . Behind them in the Drivers ' Championship , Robert Kubica was third with 72 points in a BMW Sauber , and Massa 's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen was fourth with 63 points . Kubica 's teammate Nick Heidfeld was fifth with 56 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 142 points , seven points ahead of their rivals McLaren – Mercedes , whom they had overtaken at the previous race . BMW Sauber were third with 128 points . In the battle for fourth place , Renault had 66 points , now 16 points ahead of Toyota .
At the previous race in Japan , the gap between Hamilton and Massa had closed by two points . Hamilton had started from pole position ahead of Räikkönen , but had a poor start . At the first corner he braked late , and forced Räikkönen wide . He was later given a penalty , which dropped him down the field from where he was unable to recover to a points scoring position . Massa also received a penalty for a collision with Hamilton on the second lap , but was able to finish in seventh position . The British press described Hamilton 's move as " impetuosity and untamed aggression " , saying that the McLaren driver would have to adopt a more conservative race strategy in China . For his part , Hamilton said that he would be taking no risks :
We will approach it the same as always . We won 't be taking risks , but we will be attacking as much as we can to win the race . If I 'm in a position where we are looking to gain good points , and it 's an unnecessary risk to make a manoeuvre , then I won 't be doing that . It 's always important to be fast , but it 's not necessarily the fastest car that wins . Being fast is great for positioning , and maybe getting out in front , and then afterwards trying to stay calm .
With ten points on offer for the winner of the Grand Prix , it was possible that Hamilton would clinch the Championship in Shanghai . Massa remained confident , saying that the race was just like any other : " You have a pressure but it is a different pressure , but you have always the pressure on your side . "
Renault driver and two @-@ time Championship winner Fernando Alonso created controversy when he said " if I can help , I will help Massa . " Alonso 's departure from McLaren after driving for the British team in 2007 had been acrimonious , and Alonso 's dislike for the rookie Hamilton was well documented . Talking about Hamilton 's penalty in Japan , Alonso said " I don 't know what he did , but it 's good he 's punished anyway . " Hamilton refused to be drawn into the controversy : " I don 't particularly have an opinion on it , " he said , adding that he was interested only in his own race .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . All three sessions were held on a dry track . Hamilton was fastest in the first session with a time of 1 : 35 @.@ 630 , 0 @.@ 39 of a second ahead of Massa , who was next quickest . Räikkönen , Heikki Kovalainen of McLaren , Kubica , Alonso and Heidfeld rounded out the top seven . Sébastien Bourdais of Toro Rosso was eighth , having been quickest early in the session . Renault driver Nelson Piquet drove into the gravel beside the pit @-@ lane entry , though managed to rejoin . Hamilton was again quickest in the second session ; his early time of 1 : 35 @.@ 750 was the fastest of the afternoon . The Renaults were next quickest , ahead of Jarno Trulli of Toyota , Red Bull driver Mark Webber , Massa , Bourdais and Räikkönen . Bourdais spun off at turn two late in the session and beached his car in the gravel . Heidfeld was fastest in the final session with a time of 1 : 36 @.@ 061 , ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen . Massa , Räikkönen and Alonso lacked pace , and failed to make the top ten . Webber stopped late in the session when his engine failed on the back straight , requiring an engine change before qualifying . This would give him a ten @-@ place penalty on the grid .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 16th or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 15 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Hamilton clinched his seventh pole position of the season with a time of 1 : 36 @.@ 303 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Räikkönen , who qualified 0 @.@ 342 seconds behind Hamilton 's time . Massa took third place , needing a good result to retain the possibility of a Championship victory . Alonso qualified in fourth ahead of Kovalainen , who took fifth after struggling for tyre grip during the final session . Webber was sixth fastest in the final session , but was demoted to 16th on the grid as a result of his penalty . Heidfeld originally qualified sixth , but was penalised three positions for impeding Red Bull driver David Coulthard in the first session . As a result , Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel inherited sixth position , ahead of Trulli and Bourdais . Piquet took tenth position . Kubica 's eleventh placing was his worst qualifying result to that point in the season , struggling with his car 's set @-@ up throughout his two sessions . Rubens Barrichello of Honda took 13th behind Timo Glock of Toyota , to reach the top 15 for the first time in ten races . Williams driver Nico Rosberg took 14th on the grid . Coulthard failed to move beyond the first session ; the Red Bull driver qualified in 15th and blamed Heidfeld for his poor performance . Kazuki Nakajima of Williams , Jenson Button of Honda and the Force Indias of Adrian Sutil and Giancarlo Fisichella would line up on the back two rows of the grid .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race . The air temperature was 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) and the track temperature was 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ; weather forecasts suggested a small possibility of rain . Hamilton and Alonso began the race on harder compound tyre ; both Ferraris opted for the softer compound . Hamilton accelerated faster than the Ferraris off the line , and retained his lead into the first corner . Kovalainen overtook Alonso to take fourth in the opening corners . However , Alonso pushed Kovalainen hard through the middle sector of the lap , and passed him at the turn 14 hairpin after drafting the McLaren along the back straight . At the end of the first lap , Hamilton led from Räikkönen , Massa , Alonso and Kovalainen . Heidfeld was able to move from ninth on the grid to take sixth , after Bourdais drove into the back of Trulli at the first corner . Bourdais dropped back to 18th ; Trulli pitted at the next opportunity as a result of the damage and retired after the second lap .
Webber was able to climb from 16th on the grid to take 12th behind Glock , and passed the Toyota on the second lap . Kubica , further up the field , improved on his grid position , moving from 11th to take eighth behind Vettel . However , Hamilton was the quickest on track , as he set new fastest laps on laps three , six and eight , to extend his lead over Räikkönen to more than four seconds . This trend continued until lap 10 when Räikkönen fought back and closed the gap . However , Hamilton extended his lead when he set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 36 @.@ 325 on lap 13 . In the other McLaren , Kovalainen was struggling , running two seconds a lap slower than Hamilton , and dropping back from Alonso to Heidfeld .
The Red Bull of Mark Webber was the first to pit , on lap 12 . Webber had passed Barrichello and Piquet in separate manoeuvres to take ninth , but his pit stop dropped him back down to 18th position . Massa and Alonso came in to pit on lap 14 , from third and fourth . Kovalainen took the lead of the Grand Prix when Hamilton and Räikkönen paused their battle to take harder tyres and fuel on lap 15 . By the time Kovalainen and Heidfeld had pitted on laps 17 and 18 , Hamilton had established a commanding lead : 6 @.@ 9 seconds over Räikkönen and 14 @.@ 1 seconds over Massa . Räikkönen began to pull back Hamilton 's lead over the next ten laps , before losing 1 @.@ 4 seconds on lap 30 .
At the back of the race , Bourdais began a slow climb back up the field . The Toro Rosso driver passed Sutil ( who later spun out and retired with a gearbox problem ) , Nakajima and Coulthard , to sit in 15th by lap 30 . Rosberg fought Glock for 12th , until he passed the Toyota at the turn 14 hairpin on lap 12 . Rosberg 's pit stop relegated him to 18th , dropping six places . Kubica pitted late , on lap 25 , dropping from third to ninth , one position outside of the points .
Kovalainen suffered a puncture on lap 35 . The McLaren limped around the track back to the pit lane on the disintegrating tyre , rejoining in 17th on a replacement . Alonso , Massa , Hamilton and Räikkönen all pitted for the final time over laps 36 to 38 . Coming out of the second round of pit stops , Hamilton led Räikkönen by 13 seconds , Räikkönen more than 2 @.@ 5 seconds ahead of Massa . The gap between the Ferraris began to close , and Massa eased past Räikkönen on the back straight on lap 49 , to take second place on the track . Meanwhile , Kovalainen parked his car in the McLaren garage and retired from the race , his team not taking any chances with a problem which had developed with the engine 's hydraulics .
Hamilton took his fifth win of the season when he crossed the line at the end of the 56th lap , almost 15 seconds ahead of the second @-@ placed Massa . Räikkönen took third ahead of Alonso . Heidfeld managed to jump from ninth on the grid to finish in fifth place , just ahead of his teammate Kubica , who climbed from eleventh on the grid . A one @-@ stop pit strategy worked well for Glock as he finished seventh ; Piquet took eighth . Vettel , Coulthard , Barrichello and Nakajima took the next four places ; Bourdais recovered from his early contact with Trulli to take 13th . Webber 's initial success with a two @-@ stop strategy faded as he finished 14th . Rosberg took 15th , ahead of Button and Fisichella . Trulli , Sutil and Kovalainen were the three retirements from the 56 lap race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference , where Hamilton praised his team : " they have done a phenomenal job and the car is really a dream to drive . " Looking ahead to the next race in Brazil , where Hamilton would enter with a seven @-@ point advantage , the Championship leader seemed confident : " It will be tough and [ Ferrari ] will be pushing us hard but hopefully as a team we can pull through . " Massa admitted that McLaren had the stronger car on the day :
For us we were completely driving on the limit trying to reduce the gap but it was not possible . I was trying to push as Kimi was trying to push to get closer to Lewis but it was not possible . So today unfortunately Lewis had the better car for the whole weekend .
Asked about his pass on Räikkönen in the closing laps , Massa said that " it was the best time for me in the race , I was quite strong and then I caught him and I passed him . " Since the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix , where Barrichello ceded the lead to Michael Schumacher , team orders have been banned in Formula One . Räikkönen appeared unbothered when asked about Massa 's pass : " I mean we know what we want as a team and that 's what we did it . It is normal in these situations . " No investigation was undertaken by the stewards at the race . GrandPrix.com played down the incident , saying " Anyone who understands racing understood what was going on and only the silly people objected . "
Kovalainen 's car had apparently been fitted with mismatched tyres at the front of the car during the first stint , meaning that the tyres spun in the opposite direction to which they were designed , causing his understeer . At his first pit stop his team , not realising the cause of the problem , had adjusted his front wing to compensate for the understeer and replaced the tyres correctly . This caused further handling problems , and eventually led to his retirement .
Kovalainen 's failure to score , combined with the two Ferraris making the top three , meant that Ferrari extended their lead over McLaren in the Constructors ' Championship from seven to 11 points . Massa said Ferrari had succeeded in the race : " I think for the Drivers ' Championship it was not fantastic but for the Constructors ' it was very good . " Kubica 's sixth place at the Grand Prix ruled out any chance of claiming the Drivers ' Championship . The BMW driver said his focus would now be on getting as good a result as possible in Brazil , saying " There is now one race left , and I shall try hard to defend my third place . "
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Black @-@ headed sugar ant =
The black @-@ headed sugar ant ( Camponotus nigriceps ) , also known as the brown sugar ant , is a species of Formicinae ant endemic to Australia . Found throughout most states , the species is a member of the genus Camponotus , a cosmopolitan genus of ants commonly known as carpenter ants . It was formally described and named by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 . These ants are characterised by their black head , reddish @-@ brown mesosoma and black gaster , which can change in colour .
The species is polymorphic : workers and soldiers measure 6 to 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) and males are 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . The queens are the largest members of the colony , measuring 16 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) . Colonies dwell in dry regions , including open areas or in dry sclerophyll woodland , where they nest in soil , large mounds or under stones . Nuptial flight occurs in summer and nests can hold several thousand individuals . Considered a household pest , black @-@ headed sugar ants feed on sweet foods and insects and tend to butterfly larvae . Numerous birds and fish prey on these ants .
= = Taxonomy = =
The black @-@ headed sugar ant was described from a holotype worker by British entomologist Frederick Smith in his 1858 publication Catalogue of the hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum . Part VI . Formicidae , and was originally placed in the genus Formica . Some years later , the species was assigned to the genus Camponotus by German entomologist Julius Roger . The specific name , nigriceps , is a combination of nigri , which derives from the Latin word nigra , meaning " black " , and ceps , which is derived from the Greek word cephalē , meaning " head " . This references the distinctive black head of the ant .
In 1887 , Italian entomologist Carlo Emery described a subspecies , Camponotus nigriceps lividipes , based on collections of smaller ants . In 1933 , William Morton Wheeler classified the black @-@ headed sugar ant as a subspecies of the banded sugar ant ( Camponotus consobrinus ) , but it was later revived as a full species in 1934 .
The ant is a member of the Camponotus nigriceps species group , which also includes C. clarior , C. consobrinus , C. dryandrae , C. eastwoodi , C. loweryi , C. longideclivis , C. pallidiceps and C. prostans .
= = Description = =
Ants of this species are relatively large ; it is a polymorphic species with two castes of workers , known as minor workers and major workers ( soldiers ) . Workers and soldiers range in sizes from 10 to 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) . Males measure 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) and queens are the largest , measuring 16 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) . Workers and soldiers of the subspecies Camponotus nigriceps lividipes only grow to 6 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) . Workers ' gasters and mesosomi can vary in colour ; the gaster can be black , brown or yellowish @-@ brown while the mesosoma is either reddish @-@ brown or yellow . Workers are mostly brown with light patches noticeable on the head and mesosoma , and their clypei and mandibles are even darker ; the legs are either black or brown .
A large number of hairs grow from the gaster , mesonotum , pronotum and propodeum . On average , individual hairs are 0 @.@ 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 01 in ) long . Golden , erect setae are present under the head and on the mesosoma . The setae on the tibia are short in comparison to setae on the mesosoma . The workers ' eyes bulge while soldiers ' eyes are flat . Within the Camponotus nigriceps species group , the black @-@ headed sugar ant can be easily mistaken for a banded sugar ant due to its similar appearance , but the latter are darker and have a band wrapping around their gaster , a feature absent on the black @-@ headed sugar ant . Minor worker specimens are usually examined when trying to identify similar @-@ looking species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black @-@ headed sugar ant can be found in most Australian states . The species is restricted to the north and south @-@ east of Queensland , and is widespread throughout the Australian Capital Territory . The ant is also widespread throughout New South Wales and Victoria , but it is not found in the north @-@ west of New South Wales and south @-@ east of Victoria . In South Australia , it is commonly seen in the south @-@ eastern regions and less encountered in the north @-@ west . Populations are present in Western Australia , but they are not found in either the north regions of the state or in the Northern Territory .
Black @-@ headed sugar ants mostly live in dry regions including dry sclerophyll woodland or open areas , particularly in pastures . Other preferred habitats include mallee , eucalyptus woodland and Casuarina cristata woodland , at elevations ranging 241 – 319 metres ( 791 – 1 @,@ 047 ft ) . Nests are found in laterite soil in upland areas , surrounded by tall eucalyptus trees or under groves . Nests can also be found in large mounds or under stones . Sometimes , cedar wood and large mounds occupied by the meat ant ( Iridomyrmex purpureus ) are inhabited by black @-@ headed sugar ants .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Black @-@ headed sugar ants are nocturnal foragers of food . The species is sometimes considered a household pest since ants can enter human homes at night in search of food . During the day , these ants are not active and have exhibited sleep @-@ like behaviours until it is night . The black @-@ headed sugar ant predominantly feeds on sweet secretions and sugar water ; insects and a variety of foodstuffs in human homes are also consumed .
Workers use several social techniques during colony movements to other nest sites or to lead others to food sources , which includes a worker carrying another worker , tandem running or laying down an pheromone trail for orientation . They are also attendants to the butterflies Ogyris idmo and Ogyris genoveva . The larvae will reside in underground areas constructed by attending ants , and during the night they will emerge with them and feed on mistletoe leaves . The species is tolerant to myrmecophiles ; the beetles Ctenisophus morosus and Cryptodus paradoxus have been found in nests , and the wingless cricket Myrmecophilus australis also dwells inside colonies . Other insects which dwell inside nests include froghoppers in the family Cercopidae .
Several birds and other predatory organisms prey on the black @-@ headed sugar ant . Birds such as the black @-@ faced woodswallow , rufous treecreeper , noisy miner , jacky winter and southern scrub robin prey on this species , as indicated by the fact that workers body parts have been found in the birds ' stomach contents . Other predators of the black @-@ headed sugar ant include the rainbow trout .
Nuptial flight most likely begins during summer , as a young mated queen with no brood was found in a freshly built chamber in January . During the early years of colony foundation , there are more soldiers , and older colonies may have a workforce consisting only of minor workers . A typical colony may contain five to seven thousand individuals . Queens of the species can live for an exceptionally long time ; wild queens can live for up to 21 years with one known captive living to 23 years of age , making it the second oldest recorded ant queen . Larvae of this species can grow to be quite large ; collected larvae reach lengths of 16 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 65 in ) .
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= Javan slow loris =
The Javan slow loris ( Nycticebus javanicus ) is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris native to the western and central portions of the island of Java , in Indonesia . Although originally described as a separate species , it was considered a subspecies of the Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) for many years , until reassessments of its morphology and genetics in the 2000s resulted in its promotion to full species status . It is most closely related to the Sunda slow loris and the Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) . The species has two forms , based on hair length and , to a lesser extent , coloration .
Its forehead has a prominent white diamond pattern , which consists of a distinct stripe that runs over its head and forks towards the eyes and ears . The Javan slow loris weighs between 565 and 687 g ( 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 51 lb ) and has a head @-@ body length of about 293 mm ( 11 @.@ 5 in ) . Like all lorises it is arboreal , and moves slowly across vines and lianas instead of jumping from tree to tree . Its habitat includes primary and secondary forests , but it can also be found in bamboo and mangrove forests , and on chocolate plantations . Its diet typically consists of fruit , tree gum , lizards and eggs . It sleeps on exposed branches , sometimes in groups , and is usually seen alone or in pairs .
The Javan slow loris population is in sharp decline because of poaching for the exotic pet trade , and sometimes for traditional medicine . Remaining populations have low densities , and habitat loss is a major threat . For these reasons the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lists its status as critically endangered , and it has also been included on the 2008 – 2010 list of " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " . It is protected by Indonesian law and , since June 2007 , is listed under CITES Appendix I. Despite these protections , as well as its presence in several protected areas , poaching continues ; the wildlife protection laws are rarely enforced at the local level .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Javan slow loris ( Nycticebus javanicus ) was first described scientifically in 1812 , by the French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire . The species name javanicus refers to its place of origin . However , the species was not recognized for long ; by 1840 , René Primevère Lesson classified it as one of several varieties of a single species of slow loris , which he called Bradylemur tardigradus . In 1921 , Oldfield Thomas named a second species of slow loris from Java , Nycticebus ornatus .
In his 1971 review of slow loris taxonomy , taxonomist and primatologist Colin Groves recognized the Javan slow loris as a subspecies , Nycticebus coucang javanicus , of the Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) , with ornatus as a synonym . It was first recognized as a distinct species again in a 2000 Indonesian field guide on primates by Jatna Supriatna and Edy Hendras Wahyono . In 2008 , Groves and Ibnu Maryanto promoted it to species status , based on an analysis of cranial morphology and characteristics of pelage . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences of the D @-@ loop and cytochrome b genes demonstrated it to be genetically distinct from other slow loris species ; phylogenetically , it is sister to a clade containing the Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) and the Sunda slow loris . Due to its close resemblance to neighboring slow loris species , even rescue centers have been known to misidentify it .
There are two forms of the Javan slow loris , distinguished mainly by differences in hair length . These have occasionally been recognized as separate species , N. javanicus and N. ornatus , but are currently both classified as a single species , although their exact taxonomic status remains unclear .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The Javan slow loris weighs between 565 and 687 g ( 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 51 lb ) and is similar in appearance to the largest slow loris , the Bengal slow loris . Its face and back are marked with a distinct stripe that runs over the crown and forks , leading to the eyes and ears , which leaves a white diamond pattern on the forehead . Its color is yellowish @-@ gray . In contrast , its head , neck , and shoulders have cream hues . Like the Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) , it lacks the second incisor ( I2 ) in its dentition .
The Javan slow loris is larger than both of the other Indonesian slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris and the Bornean slow loris . Based on averages determined from six specimens obtained from the illegal wildlife trade in Java , other morphometric parameters are as follows : head length , 59 @.@ 2 mm ; muzzle length , 19 @.@ 9 mm ; head breadth , 43 @.@ 6 mm ; body breadth , 250 @.@ 8 mm ; head and body length , 293 @.@ 1 mm ; chest girth , 190 @.@ 8 mm ; dark percentage girth ( girth measurement of zone with dark dorsal hair , measured as a percent of girth circumference ) , 48 @.@ 0 mm ; neck circumference , 136 @.@ 7 mm ; tail length , 20 @.@ 4 mm ; humerus length , 67 @.@ 2 mm ; radius length , 71 @.@ 8 mm ; femur length , 83 @.@ 2 mm ; tibia length , 85 @.@ 9 mm ; hand span , 59 @.@ 1 mm ; foot span , 70 @.@ 3 mm ; and ear length , 16 @.@ 8 mm .
The ornatus morphotype is most reliably distinguished by its longer fur , averaging 26 @.@ 8 mm compared to 22 @.@ 4 mm in javanicus . Other distinguishing characteristics include overall color ( generally light brown in ornatus compared with brown to reddish in javanicus ) , and amount of brown coloring in the fur ( ornatus has less brown than javanicus , resulting in a lighter @-@ colored ventral region ) .
In the 1860s , the brain of the Javan slow loris was examined by William Henry Flower , a comparative anatomist who specialized in the primate brain . In addition to detailing the organization , shape , and measurements of its brain , he noted that the form and surface markings were comparable to that of lemurs . He argued against grouping strepsirrhines with Insectivora ( a now @-@ abandoned biological grouping ) and noted that the brain had features transitional between other primates and " inferior " mammals such as bats and carnivorans .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Like other lorises , the Javan slow loris is nocturnal and arboreal , relying on vines and lianas . However , the animal has been observed moving on the ground to cross open spaces in disturbed habitat . It moves through the canopy at heights between 3 and 22 m ( 9 @.@ 8 and 72 @.@ 2 ft ) and is often encountered at heights between 1 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 and 31 @.@ 2 ft ) .
The Javan slow loris will eat fruit , lizards , eggs , and chocolate seeds . It is also known to eat the gum of trees of the genus Albizia , in the legume family , Fabaceae , as well as from the palm genus Arenga ( family Arecaceae ) . Javan slow lorises are seen alone or in pairs and are sometimes found sleeping in groups . Instead of sleeping in nest holes , they sleep curled up on branches . Like other slow lorises , the Javan slow loris has a distinctive call that resembles a high @-@ frequency whistle . The species is a host for the parasitic flatworm , Phaneropsolus oviforme .
= = Distribution = =
The species is found only on the western and central portion of the island of Java in Indonesia . Its presence has been confirmed in the Dieng Mountains , and it is known to be found in low densities at Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park ( in montane cloud forests ) and Mount Halimun Salak National Park , often only where human disturbance is minimal . It inhabits both primary and secondary disturbed forest , and can be found from sea level to 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) , although it is more commonly found at higher elevations since lower elevations tend to be deforested . A study in 2000 showed that in addition to primary and secondary forest , the Javan slow loris could be found in bamboo forests , mangrove forests , and on plantations — particularly chocolate plantations . In 2008 , they were observed in West Java to occupy mixed @-@ crop home gardens , tolerating high levels of human disturbance .
= = Conservation = =
The Javan slow loris is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) as " critically endangered , " primarily due to a rapid decline in population . For the 21 – 24 years prior to its 2008 assessment by the IUCN — which corresponds to three generations for the species — its numbers had dropped by at least 50 % . Population data for the species is sparse , but a few studies have shown a low population density of 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 02 individuals per km2 .
Its numbers are still decreasing , primarily because of poaching . In Indonesia , it is sometimes used in traditional medicine , because of myths of it having magical and curative properties , but it is more frequently sold as an exotic pet . The species is easily captured because of its slow movement , nocturnal habits , and its tendency to sleep on exposed branches . They are both actively sought for the pet trade and collected opportunistically when felling forests . Its habitat is also in decline , although most of the habitat loss occurred by the mid @-@ 1980s . Within its range , human land use is intense . Environmental niche modelling indicates that the Javan slow loris is more threatened by habitat loss than other slow loris species . For these reasons , the Javan slow loris has been included on " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN / SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI ) .
Along with all other slow lorises , the Javan slow loris was elevated from CITES Appendix II to CITES Appendix I in June 2007 , offering it increased protection from commercial trade . It is also protected by Indonesian law , but according to loris researchers Nekaris and Jaffe , " effective law enforcement with respect to wildlife protection laws is all but non @-@ existent in Indonesia " . The species can be found in several protected areas , but its numbers are uncertain . Captive collections of the Javan slow loris can be found in Prague , Czech Republic , Jakarta , Indonesia , and Singapore .
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= John Lloyd Waddy =
John Lloyd Waddy , OBE , DFC ( 10 December 1916 – 11 September 1987 ) was a senior officer and aviator in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , and later served as a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly and Minister of the Crown . As a fighter pilot during World War II , he shot down fifteen enemy aircraft in the Desert War , becoming one of Australia 's top @-@ scoring aces and earning the Distinguished Flying Cross . He went on to command No. 80 Squadron in the South West Pacific , where he was awarded the US Air Medal . He was also one of eight senior pilots who took part in the " Morotai Mutiny " of April 1945 .
Discharged from the Permanent Air Force at the end of the war , Waddy took a commission in the RAAF Reserve , leading the organisation as a group captain in the early 1950s . He was active in business and in veterans ' groups , and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1955 . As the Liberal Member for Kirribilli from 1962 to 1976 , he held cabinet posts in the New South Wales Parliament , including Minister for Child Welfare and Social Welfare ( later Youth and Community Services ) , Minister for Health , and Minister for Police and Services . He retired from politics in 1976 , and died in 1987 at the age of seventy .
= = Family and early life = =
Born in Sydney on 10 December 1916 , Waddy was the son of first @-@ class cricketer Edgar Lloyd Waddy and his wife Lottchen , and great @-@ grandson of General Sir Richard Waddy , KCB . His four siblings included a sister and three brothers . Edgar Waddy established the real estate firm of E.L. Waddy & Son in Rose Bay , which John joined as a clerk after completing his education at the King 's School , Parramatta . He married Vera Nellie May ( Ve ) Dengate on 21 July 1938 . The couple had a son , Lloyd , and two daughters , Denise and Rosalind .
Waddy enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in late 1940 , learning to fly under the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) in Southern Rhodesia . His two older brothers , Edgar and Richard , were also pilots . Edgar had taken a short @-@ service commission with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in the 1930s , while Richard trained in Canada with EATS during the war prior to active duty in Britain , where he was killed flying a single @-@ engined fighter in 1941 . Waddy 's elder sister , Lett , was commissioned into the Women 's Volunteer Naval Reserve , and his younger brother Rowen served as an officer with Z Special Unit in the South West Pacific .
= = World War II = =
= = = North Africa = = =
Completing his training in June 1941 , Pilot Officer Waddy was posted to the North African theatre with No. 250 ( Fighter ) Squadron RAF , operating P @-@ 40 Tomahawks and , later , Kittyhawks . He was befriended and mentored by the RAAF 's top @-@ scoring ace , Clive " Killer " Caldwell , who became godfather to Waddy 's daughter . Waddy 's first operational sortie was as Caldwell 's wingman ; he found the ensuing dogfight so fast and confusing that he had no idea what was happening and afterwards had to ask the more experienced pilot how things had gone . On 9 December , he registered his first victory — in a Tomahawk that had previously been Caldwell 's personal mount — when he shared in the destruction of a Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin @-@ engined fighter near El Adem .
By the end of April 1942 , Waddy had scored four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half victories over enemy aircraft . Promoted flying officer , he achieved four " kills " in a single sortie on 12 May 1942 , destroying two Junkers Ju 52 cargo planes and two escorting Bf 110s from a German air transport convoy operating between Crete and North Africa . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for this action , gazetted on 2 October . The citation praised his " masterly airmanship as a fighter pilot " and his " great courage and devotion to duty " . Shortly after claiming a victory over a Messerschmitt Bf 109 on 22 May , Waddy was posted to another RAF unit , No. 260 Squadron , flying Kittyhawks . He accounted for two enemy aircraft in June , before being assigned to No. 4 Squadron , South African Air Force , with which he destroyed a Bf 109 in September . In October , following the award of his DFC , Waddy began flying Spitfire Vs in No. 92 Squadron RAF . He claimed a further three victories with his latest unit before being posted back to Australia on 19 November 1942 . His final tally of fifteen @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half victories made him one of the most successful Allied fighter pilots in the Desert War , and second only to Caldwell among the RAAF contingent .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
In February 1943 , Waddy took charge of the Spitfire Squadron of No. 2 Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) , based at Mildura , Victoria . He was quoted in The Canberra Times that April offering his message of congratulation to the RAF on the 25th anniversary of its foundation : " You should not have many more birthdays before ' Jerry ' and the Japs are shot clean out of the skies . Here 's hoping . " Fellow aces and Desert War veterans Clive Caldwell , Wilf Arthur and Bobby Gibbes were also instructors at No . OTU prior to their combat postings in the South West Pacific ; in December 1943 , Caldwell and Waddy nearly collided when they crossed paths during an aerobatics display at No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty , New South Wales . Waddy undertook a staff course the following year , and was promoted to squadron leader . He was posted to Noemfoor in the Dutch East Indies in September 1944 to command No. 80 Squadron ; his unit was part of No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing of the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , led by Air Commodore Harry Cobby . Operating Kittyhawks , No. 80 Squadron undertook dive bombing and strafing missions against Japanese targets , but saw little air combat .
In April 1945 , Waddy joined Caldwell , Arthur , Gibbes and four other senior pilots of No. 1 TAF in an action that became known as the " Morotai Mutiny " . The eight attempted to resign their commissions in protest at the relegation of the RAAF 's fighter squadrons to apparently worthless ground attack missions . Earlier that month , Waddy had asked his intelligence officer to produce a " profit and loss statement " for No. 80 Squadron , covering the period 1 October 1944 to 31 March 1945 , in order to " bring out the fact that the expenditure by the squadron was not compensated for by the achievements of the Squadron " . In that time , Waddy had lost eleven pilots with the unit , including seven to enemy action . Arthur had produced a similar " balance sheet " for No. 81 Wing . Both had become frustrated with the lack of attention paid by superior officers to their concerns regarding the usefulness of No. 1 TAF operations . At the subsequent inquiry into events on Morotai , Justice John Vincent Barry cleared the pilots of fault over the incident , finding their motives in tendering their resignations to be sincere . Waddy continued to lead No. 80 Squadron until handing over command on 1 June 1945 . For his service in the Pacific , he was mentioned in despatches and awarded the US Air Medal , the former promulgated on 25 June 1946 and the latter on 1 July 1948 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = RAAF reservist and businessman = = =
With the end of the Pacific War , Waddy was discharged from the Permanent Air Force ( PAF ) as an acting wing commander in September 1945 . He joined the Rose Bay branch of the Liberal Party , and accepted a commission in the RAAF Reserve , also known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) . He also worked as a sales executive in the import @-@ export firm of Falkiner , Caldwell Pty Ltd , run by Clive Caldwell and businessman George Falkiner . Promoted group captain , Waddy led the CAF from 1950 through 1954 , becoming its first member to take a seat on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body that consisted of its most senior officers and which was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . During his tenure , CAF squadrons continued to operate aircraft and were expected to act as home defence in the absence of PAF forces serving overseas , roles they would lose by the end of the 1950s .
Retiring from the CAF in 1954 , Waddy established his own real estate and travel agency , John L. Waddy Pty Ltd , and served as Honorary Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen until 1957 . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1955 New Year Honours . The Australian delegate to the World Veterans Federation from 1956 to 1963 , he was President of the New South Wales Division of the Australian Flying Corps and Royal Australian Air Force Association throughout the 1950s , becoming an honorary life member in 1958 . In October 1956 , he joined former Chiefs of the Air Staff Air Marshals Sir Richard Williams and Sir George Jones in calling for greater investment in the local aircraft industry , warning that unless prompt action was taken the situation would deteriorate to the same level as before World War II .
= = = State parliamentarian = = =
After an unsuccessful bid to become Lord Mayor of Sydney that saw him defeated by the Labor Party 's Pat Hills , Waddy was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as the Liberal member for the newly created seat of Kirribilli , on Sydney 's North Shore , in March 1962 . He sold his interest in John L. Waddy Pty Ltd the same year . Appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education in 1967 , he was an Assistant Minister from February 1969 until March 1971 , when he became a Minister of the Crown in charge of Child Welfare and Social Welfare in Premier Robert Askin 's cabinet , succeeding Frederick Hewitt . His portfolio included responsibility for Aboriginal affairs ; in 1972 he founded the Aboriginal Lands Trust , staffed by a council of nine elected Indigenous Australians , to assume freehold title of former government reserves in New South Wales as a precursor to granting land rights .
Waddy 's position was changed to Minister for Youth and Community Services in January 1973 . In September he piloted a bill to reorganise the Ministries of Child Welfare and Social Welfare as the Department of Youth and Community Services ; the move was designed to " revitalise " and re @-@ focus welfare services , and to remove " overtones of charity and paternalism " inherent in the earlier titles . Waddy was succeeded by Dick Healey on 3 December 1973 , and took over as Minister for Health from Harry Jago . On 3 January 1975 , he was appointed Minister for Police and Minister for Services under new Premier Tom Lewis , serving until 23 January the following year . In this portfolio he sponsored an amendment to the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Bill , including provisions to close polling booths at 6 pm rather than 8 pm to expedite the reporting of results , and to change the term " Christian name " to " Given name " on candidate nominations to reflect changing community attitudes . He also put through a bill to hold a referendum on whether to make daylight saving a permanent fixture in New South Wales , following trials that had commenced in 1971 .
Described by one of his parliamentary colleagues as a " mixture of bon vivant and conservatism " , Waddy was also known for an occasionally quick temper ; his staff were said to " start making motions as though they were bombing and strafing the enemy " when their boss got " wound up " . Charles Cutler , New South Wales Deputy Premier from 1965 to 1975 , reflecting on the bond between ex @-@ servicemen in the political arena , recalled Waddy as " a great bloke , but inclined to be a bit pompous when speaking in the house ... " , while John Booth found him to have an " old @-@ fashioned sense of service to the community " . Waddy was named a Freeman of the City of London in 1972 , and Australian Father of the Year in 1973 . Having held his state seat in Kirribilli for fourteen years and four re @-@ election campaigns — in 1965 , 1968 , 1971 and 1973 — he was denied preselection by the Liberal Party for the 1976 contest . He resigned from the party and stood as an Independent , but was defeated by future Liberal leader Bruce McDonald . His parliamentary career was over but , in the words of a later Deputy Premier , Ian Armstrong , Waddy had " refused to retreat to political obscurity " , and " went out fighting " . He was permitted to continue to use the title " Honourable " on his retirement . After eleven years in power in New South Wales , the sitting Liberal government itself lost office in the 1976 poll , to Neville Wran 's Labor Party .
= = Later life = =
Waddy maintained his interest in aviation during and after his political career . He flew a Beechcraft King Air twin @-@ engined turboprop in the 1969 England @-@ to @-@ Australia Air Race , taking second prize in the New South Wales Government division . As Minister for Child Welfare and Social Welfare with responsibility for Aboriginal affairs in 1971 , he piloted his own light plane on three of the longest legs of his tour of government reserves in rural New South Wales . Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Australian and British Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators in 1977 – 78 , he was an honorary member of the American Fighter Aces Association , and became director of a private airline , Aquatic Airways , in 1979 . He also raised cattle on his farm near Goulburn , New South Wales .
Following several bouts of serious illness in his later years , John Waddy died on 11 September 1987 , at the age of seventy . He was survived by his wife and three children , and given a funeral at St Andrew 's Cathedral , Sydney . His pallbearers included Clive Caldwell and Tom Lewis . Waddy 's son Lloyd served in the RAAF Reserve from 1979 to 1995 , and was appointed Queen 's Counsel in 1988 and later a Justice of the Family Court of Australia . He was also a co @-@ founder and National Convenor of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy . Waddy 's widow Ve died in 2006 , at the age of ninety @-@ six .
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