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= Make the World Move =
" Make the World Move " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It features guest vocals from Cee Lo Green . The song was written by Alexander Grant , Mike Del Rio , Candice Pillay , Jayson DeZuzio , Dwayne Abernathy and Armando Trovajoli . Musically , the track is an up – tempo inspirational song , which combines dance , R & B and soul genres . Lyrically , it is a positive attitude song which features horns and synthesizers as part of its instrumentation .
" Make the World Move " received a mixed response from music critics ; some were complimentary of Aguilera and Green 's performance , although others felt that the track is weak compared to other songs on Lotus . Upon the release of the album , the song debuted at number 123 on the South Korean international singles chart . Aguilera and Green performed " Make the World Move " on the third season of The Voice , a singing competition show on which they are both a coach .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , and its low sales figures , Aguilera filed for divorce from husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film entitled Burlesque and recorded its accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and was featured on Maroon 5 's single " Moves like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent a total of four consecutive weeks at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . After these events , Aguilera announced her plans to record her seventh album , stating that she wanted good quality songs and that she wanted to find " personal " songs to record . She revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She continued to say that " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the obstacles she had to overcome during the last couple of years and wanting to go back to her roots . Speaking about her new material on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera revealed that the album was taking a while to record because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " .
= = Development = =
In April 2011 , it was announced that Aguilera and Green were collaborating on a song . A demo track , entitled " Nasty " , leaked online and was later confirmed to be an unused song from Aguilera 's soundtrack album Burlesque . In May , Green revealed that they had recorded " Nasty " prior to becoming judges on The Voice . The same month , Green was asked about the song in an interview with Billboard ; he explained : " It 's a song for her album . I won 't disclose the title , because it could possibly be a working title ... You know , but we 've talked about it amongst ourselves and I 'm gonna go in on it and work it out . It 'll be the second song we 've done . " Despite not revealing the title of the song , he confirmed that Aguilera 's vocals on the track were finished .
In April 2012 , Aguilera confirmed that she and Green had worked on a new track entitled " Make the World Move " and described it as " positive " and " full of life . " Regarding the collaboration , she said : " I 'm just excited to share the stage with Cee Lo because we both get off on production and dancers and having all of those fun elements about being on stage and being a performer ... So the two of us together joining forces is going to be huge ! " When asked if " Make the World Move " would be released as a single , Aguilera replied saying that she was not sure about what would be done with the song . In an interview with MTV News in November , Aguilera explained how she felt the song would be suited to Green as she felt a male vocal contribution was needed , saying : " I got to collaborate with my good buddy Cee Lo ... There was a part for a potential male vocal on the chorus , and I just heard immediately Cee Lo 's voice on it , his signature Cee Lo , and it was fun collaborating with him and having him on my record and us joining forces together . "
= = Production and composition = =
" Make the World Move " was written by Alexander Grant , Mike Del Rio , Candice Pillay , Jayson DeZuzio , Dwayne Abernathy and Armando Trovajoli , with production done by Grant credited with his professional name , Alex da Kid , Del Rio and DeZuzio Aguilera was involved with the song 's vocal production , along with Pillay . Lucas Secon , co @-@ writer and producer of another Lotus track " Red Hot Kinda Love " , served as the programmer and arranger . The song was recorded by Josh Mosser while Aguilera and Green 's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez and edited by Del Rio . The song contains a portion of the composition " Let 's Find Out " , written by Armando Trovajoli . " Make the World Move " , an up – tempo and " old school " inspirational song which consists of dance , R & B and soul genres , and lasts for a duration of 2 : 59 ( two minutes and 59 seconds ) . Demonstrating a sense of " sassiness " and " power " in her vocal performance , Aguilera sings the positive attitude lyrics , " The time is now / No time to wait / Turn up the love / Turn down the hate " over what Robert Copsey of Digital Spy called a " bonkers arrangement " which consists of " horn blasts " and " plinky synths . " Instrumentation also consists of a " brassy , big @-@ band arrangement . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Make the World Move " received a mixed response from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described the collaboration between Aguilera and Green as a " pulsating party , " while Andrew Hampp for Billboard described the song as " a barn @-@ storming party anthem " . Hampp was complimentary of the song 's arrangement , writing that it is something that would have worked well on Aguilera 's fifth studio album , Back to Basics ( 2006 ) , which features prominent 1940 's music influences . He praised da Kid 's production , writing that he has bought a 1940s inspired song into the " 2010s " . Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club wrote that the " Make the World Move " is " a dizzying duet " and is " downright inspiring . " Sarah Rodman for The Boston Globe demonstrated admiration for the song , writing that it is " impossible @-@ to @-@ resist . " Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa was brief in her review of the track , writing that the song is " playful . "
In comparison to the previous track on Lotus , " Red Hot Kinda Love " , Chris Younie for 4Music wrote that " Make the World Move " is " not the same " , but " by no means hugely different . " Younie continued to say that the song is " a bit retro and a bit modern " and " a bit underground but a bit mainstream . " While he praised the chorus and its memorability , Younie labelled the track as being " lack – lustre following ' Red Hot Kinda Love ' " . Sarah Godfrey of The Washington Post described the song as a " strange " dance version of Buffalo Springfield 's " For What It 's Worth " . Robert Copsey wrote that the song did not fulfill his expectations . Michael Gallucci for Popcrush noted that as the fourth song on the album , it " keeps the party going " , but is forgettable . The Huffington Post 's Mesfin Fekadu criticized " Make the World Move " , along with album tracks " Around the World " and " Red Hot Kinda Love " , for failing to capture the " fun " in which they are supposed to embody .
= = Live performance = =
Aguilera and Green performed " Make the World Move " for the first time together on the third season of The Voice on November 13 , 2012 . Opening the show , the set consisting of two red chairs on which each singer sat on , as well as a balcony for Green . Green wore a striped polo shirt , while Aguilera sported a " purple Afro wig and plastic tiara . " As described by Cassie Carpenter for the Daily Mail , Aguilera 's outfit consisted of 2a bridal – style grey strapless gown with visible panties and thigh – high sparkly Stuart Weitzman boots . " Aguilera 's make @-@ up artist Kristofer Buckle gave her a " drag – level appearance " , with false eyelashes , purple eye shadow , garish blush , and Barbie pink lipstick . The " spirited " performance ended with red balloons being dropped over the audience .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Westlake Studios , Los Angeles .
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , California
Sample
Contains a portion of the composition " Let 's Find Out " written by Armando Trovajoli
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Lotus , " Make the World Move " debuted on the South Korean singles chart at number 88 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 , due to digital download sales of 2 @,@ 999 .
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= Vladimir Lenin =
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov , alias Lenin ( / ˈlɛnɪn / ; 22 April [ O.S. 10 April ] 1870 – 21 January 1924 ) , was a Russian communist revolutionary , politician , and political theorist . He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918 , of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924 , and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924 . Under his administration , Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one @-@ party communist state governed by the Russian Communist Party . Ideologically a Marxist , his political theories are known as Leninism .
Born to a wealthy middle @-@ class family in Simbirsk , Lenin became interested in revolutionary socialist politics following his brother 's execution in 1887 . Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empire 's Tsarist regime , he devoted the following years to a law degree . In 1893 , he moved to Saint Petersburg and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party ( RSDLP ) . Arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years , there he married Nadezhda Krupskaya . After his exile , he moved to Western Europe , where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications . In 1903 , he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split , leading the Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov 's Mensheviks . Encouraging insurrection during Russia 's failed Revolution of 1905 , he later campaigned for the First World War to be transformed into a Europe @-@ wide proletarian revolution , which as a Marxist he believed would cause the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement with socialism . After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the Tsar and established a Provisional Government , he returned to Russia to campaign for the new regime 's replacement by a Bolshevik @-@ led government of the soviets .
Lenin played a leading role in the October Revolution of 1917 , which overthrew the Provisional Government and established a one @-@ party state under the new Communist Party . His government abolished Russia 's elected Constituent Assembly , withdrew from the First World War by signing a treaty with the Central Powers , and granted temporary independence to non @-@ Russian nations under Russian control . Ruling by decree , it redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalized banks and large @-@ scale industry . Opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror , a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services ; tens of thousands were killed and many others interned in concentration camps . Lenin 's government defeated anti @-@ Bolshevik armies in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 . Responding to famine and popular uprisings , in 1921 Lenin introduced a mixed economic system with the New Economic Policy . Creating the Communist International and waging the Polish – Soviet War to promote world revolution , Lenin 's government also united Russia with neighbouring territories to form the Soviet Union in 1922 . In increasingly poor health , Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor , Joseph Stalin , before dying at his dacha in Gorki .
Widely considered one of the most significant and influential figures of the 20th century , Lenin was the posthumous subject of a pervasive personality cult within the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991 . He became an ideological figurehead behind Marxism @-@ Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement . A controversial and highly divisive individual , Lenin is viewed by Marxist @-@ Leninists as a champion of socialism and the working classes , while critics on both the left and right see him as the founder of a totalitarian dictatorship responsible for civil war and mass human rights abuses .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1870 – 87 = = =
Lenin 's father , Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov , was from a family of serfs , although his ethnic origins remain unclear ; there have been suggestions that he was Russian , Chuvash , Mordvin , or Kalmyk . Despite this lower @-@ class background he had risen to middle @-@ class status , studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility . Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in the summer of 1863 . Well educated and hailing from a relatively prosperous background , she was the daughter of a German – Swedish woman and a Russian Jewish physician who had converted to Christianity . Soon after their wedding , Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod , rising to become Director of Primary Schools in the Simbirsk district six years later . Five years after that , he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province , overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the government 's plans for modernisation . His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir , which bestowed on him the status of hereditary nobleman .
The couple had two children , Anna ( born 1864 ) and Alexander ( born 1868 ) , before Lenin was born as Vladimir " Volodya " Ilyich in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870 , and baptised several days later . They were followed by three more children , Olga ( born 1871 ) , Dmitry ( born 1874 ) , and Maria ( born 1878 ) . Two later siblings died in infancy . Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it , although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity , a view that influenced her children . Both parents were monarchists and liberal conservatives , being committed to the emancipation reform of 1861 introduced by the reformist Tsar Alexander II ; they avoided political radicals and there is no evidence that the police ever put them under surveillance for subversive thought . Every summer they holidayed at a rural manor in Kokushkino . Among his siblings , Lenin was closest to his sister Olga , whom he often bossed around ; he had an extremely competitive nature and could be destructive , but usually admitted his misbehaviour . A keen sportsman , he spent much of his free time outdoors or playing chess , and excelled at school , the disciplinarian and conservative Simbirsk Classical Gimnazia .
Ilya Ulyanov died of a brain haemorrhage in January 1886 , when Lenin was 16 . Subsequently , Lenin 's behaviour became erratic and confrontational , and he soon renounced his belief in God . At the time , Lenin 's elder brother Aleksandr " Sasha " Ulyanov was studying at Saint Petersburg University . Involved in political agitation against the absolute monarchy of the reactionary Tsar Alexander III , he studied the writings of banned leftists and organised anti @-@ government protests . He joined a revolutionary cell bent on assassinating the Tsar and was selected to construct a bomb . However , before the attack the conspirators were arrested and tried , and in May , Sasha was executed by hanging . Despite the emotional trauma of his father 's and brother 's deaths , Lenin continued studying , graduated with a gold medal for exceptional performance , and decided to study law at Kazan University .
= = = University and political radicalisation : 1887 – 93 = = =
Upon entering Kazan University in August 1887 , Lenin moved into a nearby flat with his mother . Interested in his late brother 's radical ideas , he joined both a zemlyachestvo ( a university society ) and an agrarian @-@ socialist revolutionary cell . The zemlyachestvo elected him as its representative to the university 's zemlyachestvo council , and in December , he took part in a demonstration against government restrictions that banned student societies . The police arrested Lenin and accused him of being a ringleader in the demonstration ; he was expelled from the university , and the Ministry of Internal Affairs exiled him to his Kokushkino estate . There , he read voraciously , becoming enamoured with Nikolay Chernyshevsky 's 1863 pro @-@ revolutionary novel What is to be Done ? . Lenin 's mother was concerned by her son 's radicalization , and was instrumental in convincing the Interior Ministry to allow him to return to the city of Kazan , although not the university . On his return , he joined Nikolai Fedoseev 's revolutionary circle , through which he discovered Karl Marx 's 1867 book Capital . This sparked his interest in Marxism , a socio @-@ political theory that argued that society developed in stages , that this development resulted from class struggle , and that capitalist society would ultimately give way to socialist society and then communist society .
Wary of his political views , Lenin 's mother bought a country estate in Alakaevka village , Samara Oblast – made famous in the work of poet Gleb Uspensky , of whom Lenin was a great fan – in the hope that her son would turn his attention to agriculture . However , he had little interest in farm management , and his mother soon sold the land , keeping the house as a summer home . In September 1889 , the Ulyanov family moved to the city of Samara , where Lenin joined Alexei Sklyarenko 's socialist discussion circle . Both Lenin and Sklyarenko adopted Marxism , with Lenin translating Marx and Friedrich Engels ' 1848 political pamphlet , The Communist Manifesto , into Russian . He began to read the works of the Russian Marxist Georgi Plekhanov , a founder of the Black Repartition movement . Lenin agreed with Plekhanov 's argument that Russia was moving from feudalism to capitalism and so socialism would be implemented by the proletariat , or urban working class , rather than the peasantry .
This Marxist view contrasted with the view of the agrarian @-@ socialist Narodnik movement , which held that the peasantry could establish socialism in Russia by forming peasant communes . This view developed in the 1860s with the People 's Freedom Party and was dominant within the Russian revolutionary movement . Unlike the Marxists , Narodniks agitated for establishing socialism bypassing capitalism . Although opposing this perspective , Lenin was influenced by agrarian @-@ socialists like Pëtr Tkachëvi and Sergei Nechaev , and befriended members of that movement , in particular Apollon Shukht , who asked Lenin to be his daughter 's godfather in 1893 .
In May 1890 , Maria persuaded the authorities to allow Lenin to take his exams externally at a university of his choice . He chose the University of St Petersburg , and obtained the equivalent of a first @-@ class degree with honours . The graduation celebrations were marred when his sister Olga died of typhoid . Lenin remained in Samara for several years . In January 1892 , he worked as a legal assistant for a regional court , and later worked with a local lawyer . He devoted much time to radical politics , remaining active in Skylarenko 's group and formulating ideas about how Marxism applied to Russia . Inspired by Plekhanov 's work , Lenin collected data on Russian society , using it to support a Marxist interpretation of societal development and increasingly rejecting the claims of the Narodniks . In spring 1893 , Lenin submitted his paper " New Economic Developments in Peasant Life " to the liberal journal Russian Thought , but it was rejected and appeared in print only much later .
= = Revolutionary activity = =
= = = Early activism and imprisonment : 1893 – 1900 = = =
In autumn 1893 , Lenin moved to Saint Petersburg . There , he worked as a barrister 's assistant and rose to a senior position in a Marxist revolutionary cell that called itself the " Social @-@ Democrats " after the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany . Publicly championing Marxism within the socialist movement , he encouraged the founding of revolutionary cells in Russia 's industrial centres . By autumn 1894 , he was leading a Marxist workers ' circle , and meticulously covered his tracks , knowing that police spies tried to infiltrate the movement . He began a romantic relationship with Nadezhda " Nadya " Krupskaya , a Marxist schoolteacher . He also authored a political tract criticising the Narodnik agrarian @-@ socialists , What the " Friends of the People " Are and How They Fight the Social @-@ Democrats , based largely on his experiences in Samara ; around 200 copies were illegally printed in 1894 .
Lenin hoped to cement connections between his Social @-@ Democrats and Emancipation of Labour , a group of Russian Marxist émigrés based in Switzerland ; he visited the country to meet group members Plekhanov and Pavel Axelrod . He proceeded to Paris to meet Marx 's son @-@ in @-@ law Paul Lafargue and to research the Paris Commune of 1871 , which he considered an early prototype for a proletarian government . Financed by his mother , he stayed in a Swiss health spa before travelling to Berlin , where he studied for six weeks at the Staatsbibliothek and met the Marxist activist Wilhelm Liebknecht . Returning to Russia with a stash of illegal revolutionary publications , he travelled to various cities distributing literature to striking workers . While involved in producing a news sheet , Rabochee delo ( " Workers ' Cause " ) , he was among 40 activists arrested and charged with sedition .
Refused legal representation or bail , Lenin denied all charges against him but remained imprisoned for a year before sentencing . He spent this time theorising and writing , focusing on the revolutionary potential of the working @-@ class ; noting that the rise of industrial capitalism in Russia had led large numbers of peasants to move to the cities , where they formed a proletariat , from a Marxist perspective he argued that they would gain class consciousness and then violently overthrow Tsarism , the aristocracy , and the bourgeoisie to establish a proletariat state that would move toward socialism .
In February 1897 , he was sentenced without trial to three years exile in eastern Siberia , although granted a few days in Saint Petersburg to put his affairs in order . He used this time to meet with the Social @-@ Democrats , who had renamed themselves the League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class . His journey to eastern Siberia took 11 weeks , for much of which he was accompanied by his mother and sisters . Deemed only a minor threat to the government , he was exiled to a peasant 's hut in Shushenskoye , Minusinsky District , where he was kept under police surveillance ; he was nevertheless able to correspond with other revolutionaries , many of whom visited him , and permitted to go on trips to swim in the Yenisei River and to hunt duck and snipe .
In May 1898 , Nadya joined him in exile , having been arrested in August 1896 for organising a strike . Although initially posted to Ufa , she persuaded the authorities to move her to Shushenskoye , claiming that she and Lenin were engaged ; they married in a church on 10 July 1898 . Settling into a family life with Nadya 's mother Elizaveta Vasilyevna , in Shushenskoye the couple translated English socialist literature into Russian . Keen to keep up with developments in German Marxism – where there had been an ideological split , with revisionists like Eduard Bernstein advocating a peaceful , electoral path to socialism – Lenin remained devoted to violent revolution , attacking revisionist arguments in A Protest by Russian Social @-@ Democrats . He also finished The Development of Capitalism in Russia ( 1899 ) , his longest book to date , which criticised the agrarian @-@ socialists and promoted a Marxist analysis of Russian economic development . Published under the pseudonym of " Vladimir Ilin " , upon publication it received predominantly poor reviews .
= = = Munich , London , and Geneva : 1900 – 05 = = =
After his exile , Lenin settled in Pskov in early 1900 . There , he began raising funds for a newspaper , Iskra ( " Spark " ) , a new organ of the Russian Marxist party , now calling itself the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party ( RSDLP ) . In July 1900 , Lenin left Russia for Western Europe ; in Switzerland he met other Russian Marxists , and at a Corsier conference they agreed to launch the paper from Munich , where Lenin relocated in September . Containing contributions from prominent European Marxists , Iskra was smuggled into Russia , becoming the country 's most successful underground publication for 50 years . He first adopted the pseudonym " Lenin " in December 1901 , possibly based on the River Lena ; he often used the fuller pseudonym of " N. Lenin " , and while the N did not stand for anything , a popular misconception later arose that it represented " Nikolai " . Under this pseudonym , he published the political pamphlet What Is to Be Done ? in 1902 ; his most influential publication to date , it dealt with Lenin 's thoughts on the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat to revolution .
Nadya joined Lenin in Munich , becoming his personal secretary . They continued their political agitation , with Lenin writing for Iskra and drafting the RSDLP programme , attacking ideological dissenters and external critics , particularly the Socialist Revolutionary Party ( SR ) , a Narodnik agrarian @-@ socialist group founded in 1901 . Despite remaining a Marxist , he accepted the Narodnik view on the revolutionary power of the Russian peasantry , accordingly penning the 1903 pamphlet To the Village Poor . To evade Bavarian police , Lenin moved to London with Iskra in April 1902 , there becoming friends with fellow Russian Marxist Leon Trotsky . In London , Lenin fell ill with erysipelas and was unable to take such a leading role on the Iskra editorial board ; in his absence , the board moved its base of operations to Geneva .
The 2nd RSDLP Congress was held in London in July 1903 . At the conference , a schism emerged between Lenin 's supporters and those of Julius Martov . Martov argued that party members should be able to express themselves independently of the party leadership ; Lenin disagreed , emphasising the need for a strong leadership with complete control over the party . Lenin 's supporters were in the majority , and Lenin termed them the " majoritarians " ( bol 'sheviki in Russian ; thus Bolsheviks ) ; in response , Martov termed his followers the minoritarians ( men 'sheviki in Russian ; thus Mensheviks ) . Arguments between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks continued after the conference ; the Bolsheviks accused their rivals of being opportunists and reformists who lacked discipline , while the Mensheviks accused Lenin of being a despot and autocrat . Enraged at the Mensheviks , Lenin resigned from the Iskra editorial board and in May 1904 published the anti @-@ Menshevik tract One Step Forward , Two Steps Back . The stress made Lenin ill , and to recuperate he went on a hiking holiday in rural Switzerland . The Bolshevik faction grew in strength ; by the spring , the whole RSDLP Central Committee was Bolshevik , and in December they founded the newspaper Vperëd ( Forward ) .
= = = Revolution of 1905 and its aftermath : 1905 – 14 = = =
In January 1905 , the Bloody Sunday massacre of protesters in St. Petersburg sparked a spate of civil unrest known as the Revolution of 1905 . Lenin urged Bolsheviks to take a greater role in the events , encouraging violent insurrection . In doing so , he adopted SR slogans regarding " armed insurrection " , " mass terror " , and " the expropriation of gentry land " , resulting in Menshevik accusations that he had deviated from orthodox Marxism . In turn , he insisted that the Bolsheviks split completely with the Mensheviks , although many Bolsheviks refused and both groups attended the 3rd RSDLP Congress , held in London in April 1905 . Lenin presented many of his ideas in the pamphlet Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution , published in August 1905 . Here , he predicted that Russia 's liberal bourgeoisie would be sated by a transition to constitutional monarchy and thus betray the revolution ; instead he argued that the proletariat would have to build an alliance with the peasantry to overthrow the Tsarist regime and establish the " provisional revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry " .
In response to the Revolution of 1905 , Tsar Nicholas II accepted a series of liberal reforms in his October Manifesto , after which Lenin felt it safe to return to St. Petersburg . Joining the editorial board of Novaya Zhizn ( " New Life " ) , a radical legal newspaper run by Maria Andreyeva , he used it to discuss issues facing the RSDLP . He encouraged the party to seek out a much wider membership , and advocated the continual escalation of violent confrontation , believing both to be necessary for a successful revolution . Although he briefly supported the idea of reconciliation between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks , at the 4th Party Congress in Stockholm in April 1906 the Mensheviks condemned Lenin for supporting violence and encouraging bank robberies to obtain funds . Lenin was involved in setting up a Bolshevik Centre in Kuokkala , Grand Duchy of Finland , which was at the time a semi @-@ autonomous part of the Russian Empire , before the Bolsheviks regained dominance of the RSDLP at its 5th Congress , held in London in May 1907 . However , as the Tsarist government cracked down on opposition – both by disbanding Russia 's legislative assembly , the Second Duma , and by ordering its secret police , the Okhrana , to arrest revolutionaries – Lenin fled Finland for Switzerland .
Alexander Bogdanov and other prominent Bolsheviks decided to relocate the Bolshevik Centre to Paris ; although Lenin disagreed , he moved to the city in December 1908 . Lenin disliked Paris , lambasting it as " a foul hole " , and while there he sued a motorist who knocked him off his bike . He revived his polemics against the Mensheviks , who objected to his advocacy of violent expropriations and thefts such as the 1907 Tiflis bank robbery . Lenin also became very critical of Bogdanov 's view that Russia 's proletariat had to develop a socialist culture in order to become a successful revolutionary vehicle . Instead , Lenin favoured a vanguard of socialist intelligentsia who would lead the working @-@ classes in revolution . Furthermore , Bogdanov – influenced by Ernest Mach – believed that all concepts of the world were relative , whereas Lenin stuck to the orthodox Marxist view that there was an objective reality independent of human observation . Although Bogdanov and Lenin holidayed together at Maxim Gorky 's villa in Capri in April 1908 , on returning to Paris , Lenin encouraged a split within the Bolshevik faction between his and Bogdanov 's followers , accusing the latter of deviating from Marxism .
In May 1908 , Lenin lived briefly in London , where he used the British Museum Reading Room to write Materialism and Empirio @-@ criticism , an attack on what he described as the " bourgeois @-@ reactionary falsehood " of Bogdanov 's relativism . Lenin 's factionalism began to alienate increasing numbers of Bolsheviks , including his former close supporters Alexei Rykov and Lev Kamenev . The Okhrana exploited his factionalist attitude by sending a spy , Roman Malinovsky , to act as a vocal Lenin supporter within the party . Various Bolsheviks expressed their suspicions about Malinovsky to Lenin , although it is unclear if the latter was aware of the spy 's duplicity ; it is possible that he used Malinovsky to feed false information to the Okhrana .
In August 1910 , Lenin attended the 8th Congress of the Second International – an international meeting of socialists – in Copenhagen as the RSDLP 's representative , following this with a holiday in Stockholm with his mother . With his wife and sisters he then moved to France , settling first in Bombon and then Paris . Here , he became a close friend to the French Bolshevik Inessa Armand ; their friendship continued until 1912 , with some biographers suggesting that they had an extra @-@ marital affair . Meanwhile , at a Paris meeting in June 1911 , the RSDLP Central Committee decided to move their focus of operations back to Russia , ordering the closure of the Bolshevik Centre and its newspaper , Proletari . Seeking to rebuild his influence in the party , Lenin arranged for a party conference to be held in Prague in January 1912 , and although 16 of the 18 attendants were Bolsheviks , he was heavily criticised for his factionalist tendencies and failed to boost his status within the party .
Moving to Kraków in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , a culturally Polish part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , he used Jagellonian University 's library to conduct research . He stayed in close contact with the RSDLP operating in the Russian Empire , convincing the Duma 's Bolshevik members to split from their parliamentary alliance with the Mensheviks . In January 1913 , the Bolshevik Joseph Stalin – whom Lenin referred to as the " wonderful Georgian " – visited him , and they discussed the future of non @-@ Russian ethnic groups in the Empire . Due to the ailing health of both Lenin and his wife , they moved to the rural town of Biały Dunajec , before heading to Bern for Nadya to have surgery on her goitre .
= = = First World War : 1914 – 17 = = =
Lenin was in Galicia when the First World War broke out . The war pitted the Russian Empire against the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , and due to his Russian citizenship , Lenin was arrested and briefly imprisoned until his anti @-@ Tsarist credentials were explained . Lenin and his wife returned to Bern , before relocating to Zürich in February 1916 . Lenin was angry that the German Social @-@ Democratic Party was supporting the German war effort – a direct contravention of the Second International 's Stuttgart resolution that socialist parties would oppose the conflict – and thus saw the Second International as defunct . He attended the Zimmerwald Conference in September 1915 and the Kiental conference in April 1916 , urging socialists across the continent to convert the " imperialist war " into a continent @-@ wide " civil war " with the proletariat pitted against the bourgeoisie and aristocracy . In July 1916 , Lenin 's mother died , but he was unable to attend her funeral . Her death deeply affected him , and he became depressed , fearing that he too would die before seeing the proletariat revolution .
In September 1917 , Lenin published Imperialism , the Highest Stage of Capitalism , which argued that imperialism was a product of monopoly capitalism , as capitalists sought to increase their profits by extending into new territories where wages were lower and raw materials cheaper . He believed that competition and conflict would increase and that war between the imperialist powers would continue until they were overthrown by proletariat revolution and socialism established . At this time , he spent much time reading the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Ludwig Feuerbach , and Aristotle , all of whom had been key influences on Marx . This changed Lenin 's interpretation of Marxism ; whereas he once believed that policies could be developed based on predetermined scientific principles , he concluded that the only test of whether a policy was correct was its practice . Although still perceiving himself as an orthodox Marxist , he began to divert from some of Marx 's predictions about societal development ; whereas Marx had believed that a " bourgeoisie @-@ democratic revolution " of the middle @-@ classes had to take place before a " socialist revolution " of the proletariat , Lenin believed that in Russia , the proletariat could overthrow the Tsarist regime without an intermediate revolution .
= = = February Revolution and the July Days : 1917 = = =
In February 1917 , the February Revolution broke out in St. Petersburg – renamed Petrograd at the beginning of the First World War – as industrial workers went on strike over food shortages and deteriorating factory conditions . The unrest spread to other parts of Russia , and fearing that he would be violently overthrown , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated . The State Duma took over control of the country , establishing a Provisional Government and converting the Empire into a new Russian Republic . When Lenin learned of this from his base in Switzerland , he celebrated with other dissidents . He decided to return to Russia to take charge of the Bolsheviks , but found that most passages into the country were blocked due to the ongoing conflict . He organised a plan with other dissidents to negotiate a passage for them through Germany , with whom Russia was then at war . Recognising that these dissidents could cause problems for their Russian enemies , the German government agreed to permit 32 Russian citizens to travel in a train carriage through their territory , among them Lenin and his wife . The group travelled by train from Zürich to Sassnitz , proceeding by ferry to Trelleborg , Sweden , and from there to Helsinki before taking the final train to Petrograd .
Arriving at Petrograd 's Finland Station , Lenin gave a speech to Bolshevik supporters condemning the Provisional Government and again calling for a continent @-@ wide European proletariat revolution . Over the following days , he spoke at Bolshevik meetings , lambasting those who wanted reconciliation with the Mensheviks and revealing his April Theses , an outline of his plans for the Bolsheviks which he had written on the journey from Switzerland . He publicly condemned both the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries – who dominated the influential Petrograd Soviet – for supporting the Provisional Government , denouncing them as traitors to socialism . Considering the government to be just as imperialist as the Tsarist regime , he advocated immediate peace with Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , rule by soviets , the nationalisation of industry and banks , and the state expropriation of land , all with the intention of establishing a proletariat government and pushing toward a socialist society . By contrast , the Mensheviks believed that Russia was insufficiently developed to transition to socialism and accused Lenin of trying to plunge the new Republic into civil war . Over the coming months , he campaigned for his policies , attending the meetings of the Bolshevik Central Committee , prolifically writing for the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda , and giving public speeches in Petrograd aimed at converting workers , soldiers , sailors , and peasants to his cause .
Sensing growing frustration among Bolshevik supporters , Lenin suggested an armed political demonstration in Petrograd to test the government 's response . However , amid deteriorating health , he left the city to recuperate in the Finnish village of Neivola . The Bolsheviks ' armed demonstration , the July Days , took place while Lenin was away , but upon learning that demonstrators had violently clashed with government forces , he returned to Petrograd and called for calm . Responding to the violence , the government ordered the arrest of Lenin and other prominent Bolsheviks , raiding their offices , and publicly alleging that he was a German agent provocateur . Evading arrest , Lenin hid in a series of Petrograd safe houses . Fearing that he would be killed , Lenin and fellow senior Bolshevik Grigory Zinoviev then escaped Petrograd in disguise , relocating to Razliv . There , Lenin began work on the book that became The State and Revolution , an exposition on how he believed the socialist state would develop after the proletariat revolution , and how from then on the state would gradually wither away , leaving a pure communist society . He began arguing for a Bolshevik @-@ led armed insurrection to topple the government , although at a clandestine meeting of the party 's central committee this idea was rejected . Lenin then headed by train and by foot to Finland , arriving at Helsinki on 10 August , where he hid away in safe houses belonging to Bolshevik sympathisers .
= = = October Revolution : 1917 = = =
In August 1917 , while Lenin was in Finland , General Lavr Kornilov , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Russian Army , sent troops to Petrograd in what appeared to be a military coup attempt against the Provisional Government . Premier Alexander Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet – including its Bolshevik members – for help , allowing the revolutionaries to organise workers as Red Guards to defend the city . The coup petered out before it reached Petrograd , although the events had allowed the Bolsheviks to return to the open political arena . Fearing a counter @-@ revolution from right @-@ wing forces hostile to socialism , the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries who dominated the Petrograd Soviet had been instrumental in pressurising the government to normalise relations with the Bolsheviks . Both the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries had lost much popular support because of their affiliation with the Provisional Government and its unpopular continuation of the war . The Bolsheviks capitalised on this , and soon the pro @-@ Bolshevik Marxist Trotsky was elected leader of the Petrograd Soviet . In September , the Bolsheviks gained a majority in the workers ' sections of both the Moscow and Petrograd Soviets .
Recognising that the situation was safer for him , Lenin returned to Petrograd . There he attended a meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee on 10 October , where he again argued that the party should lead an armed insurrection to topple the Provisional Government . This time the argument won with ten votes against two . Critics of the plan , Zinoviev and Kamenev , argued that Russian workers would not support a violent coup against the regime and that there was no clear evidence for Lenin 's assertion that all of Europe was on the verge of proletarian revolution . The party began plans to organise the offensive , holding a final meeting at the Smolny Institute on 24 October . This was the base of the Military Revolutionary Committee ( MRC ) , an armed militia largely loyal to the Bolsheviks that had been established by the Petrograd Soviet during Kornilov 's alleged coup .
In October , the MRC was ordered to take control of Petrograd 's key transport , communication , printing and utilities hubs , and did so without bloodshed . Bolsheviks besieged the government in the Winter Palace , and overcame it and arrested its ministers after the cruiser Aurora , controlled by Bolshevik seamen , fired on the building . During the insurrection , Lenin gave a speech to the Petrograd Soviet announcing that the Provisional Government had been overthrown . The Bolsheviks declared the formation of a new government , the Council of People 's Commissars or " Sovnarkom " . Lenin initially turned down the leading position of Chairman , suggesting Trotsky for the job , but other Bolsheviks insisted and ultimately Lenin relented . Lenin and other Bolsheviks then attended the Second Congress of Soviets on 26 and 27 October , and announced the creation of the new government . Menshevik attendees condemned the illegitimate seizure of power and the risk of civil war . In these early days of the new regime , Lenin avoided talking in Marxist and socialist terms so as not to alienate Russia 's population , and instead spoke about having a country controlled by the workers . Lenin and many other Bolsheviks expected proletariat revolution to sweep across Europe in days or months .
= = Lenin 's government = =
= = = Organising the Soviet government : 1917 – 18 = = =
The Provisional Government had planned for a Constituent Assembly to be elected in November 1917 ; against Lenin 's objections , Sovnarkom agreed for the vote to take place as scheduled . In the constitutional election , the Bolsheviks gained approximately a quarter of the vote , being defeated by the agrarian @-@ focused Socialist Revolutionary Party . Lenin argued that the election was not a fair reflection of the people 's will , that the electorate had not had time to learn the Bolsheviks ' political programme , and that the candidacy lists had been drawn up before the Left Socialist Revolutionaries split from the Socialist Revolutionaries . Nevertheless , the newly elected Russian Constituent Assembly convened in Petrograd in January 1918 . Sovnarkom argued that it was counter @-@ revolutionary because it sought to remove power from the soviets , but the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks denied this . The Bolsheviks presented the Assembly with a motion that would strip it of most of its legal powers ; when the Assembly rejected the motion , Sovnarkom declared this as evidence of its counter @-@ revolutionary nature and forcibly disbanded it .
Lenin rejected repeated calls – including from some Bolsheviks – to establish a coalition government with other socialist parties . However , Sovnarkom partially relented ; although refusing a coalition with the Mensheviks or Socialist Revolutionaries , in December 1917 they allowed the Left Socialist Revolutionaries five posts in the cabinet . This coalition only lasted four months , until March 1918 , when the Left Socialist Revolutionaries pulled out of the government over a disagreement about the Bolsheviks ' approach to ending the First World War . At their 7th Congress in March 1918 , the Bolsheviks changed their official name from the " Russian Social Democratic Labour Party " to the " Russian Communist Party " , as Lenin wanted to both distance his group from the increasingly reformist German Social Democratic Party and to emphasize its ultimate goal : a communist society .
Although ultimate power officially rested with the country 's government in the form of Sovnarkom and the Executive Committee ( VTSIK ) elected by the All @-@ Russian Congress of Soviets ( ARCS ) , the Communist Party was de facto in control in Russia , as acknowledged by its members at the time . By 1918 , Sovnarkom began acting unilaterally , claiming a need for expediency , with the ARCS and VTSIK becoming increasingly marginalized , so the soviets no longer had a role in governing Russia . During 1918 and 1919 , the government expelled Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries from the soviets . Russia had become a one @-@ party state .
Within the party was established a Political Bureau ( " Politburo " ) and Organisation Bureau ( " Orgburo " ) to accompany the existing Central Committee ; the decisions of these party bodies had to be adopted by Sovnarkom and the Council of Labour and Defence . Lenin was the most significant figure in this governance structure ; as well as being the Chairman of Sovnarkom and sitting on the Council of Labour and Defence , he was on the Central Committee and Politburo of the Communist Party . The only individual to have anywhere near this influence was Lenin 's right @-@ hand man , Yakov Sverdlov , who died in March 1919 during a flu pandemic . In November 1917 , Lenin and his wife took a two @-@ room flat within the Smolny Institute , although the following month left for a brief holiday in Halia , Finland . In January 1918 , he survived an assassination attempt in Petrograd ; Fritz Platten , who was with Lenin at the time , shielded him and was injured by a bullet .
Concerned that the German Army posed a threat to Petrograd , in March 1918 Sovnarkom relocated to Moscow , initially as a temporary measure . There , Lenin , Trotsky , and other Bolshevik leaders moved into the Kremlin , where Lenin lived with his wife and sister Maria in a first floor apartment adjacent to the room in which the Sovnarkom meetings were held . Lenin disliked Moscow , although he rarely left the city centre during the rest of his life . It was in the city in August 1918 that he survived a second assassination attempt ; he was shot following a public speech and injured badly . A Socialist Revolutionary , Fanny Kaplan , was arrested and executed . The attack was widely covered in the Russian press , generating much sympathy for him and boosting his popularity . As a respite , in September 1918 Lenin was driven to the Gorki estate , just outside Moscow , recently acquired for him by the government .
= = = Social , legal , and economic reform : 1917 – 18 = = =
Upon taking power , Lenin 's regime issued a series of decrees . The first was a Decree on Land which declared that the landed estates of the aristocracy and the Orthodox Church should be nationalised and redistributed to peasants by local governments . This contrasted with Lenin 's desire for agricultural collectivisation but provided governmental recognition of the widespread peasant land seizures that had already occurred . In November 1917 , the government issued the Decree on the Press which closed many opposition media outlets deemed counter @-@ revolutionary . They claimed the measure would be temporary , although the decree was widely criticised , including by many Bolsheviks , for compromising freedom of the press .
In November 1917 , Lenin issued the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia , which stated that non @-@ Russian ethnic groups living inside the Republic had the right to cede from Russian authority and establish their own independent nation @-@ states . As a result , many nations declared independence : Finland and Lithuania in December 1917 , Latvia and Ukraine in January 1918 , Estonia in February 1918 , Transcaucasia in April 1918 , and Poland in November 1918 . Soon , the Bolsheviks actively promoted communist parties in these independent nation @-@ states , while in July 1918 , at the Fifth All @-@ Russian Congress of the Soviets , a constitution was approved that reformed the Russian Republic into the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . Seeking to modernise the country , the government officially converted Russia from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar used in Europe .
In November 1917 , Sovnarkom issued a decree abolishing Russia 's legal system , calling on the use of " revolutionary conscience " to replace the abolished laws . The courts were replaced by a two @-@ tier system : Revolutionary Tribunals to deal with counter @-@ revolutionary crimes , and People 's Courts to deal with civil and other criminal offences . They were instructed to ignore pre @-@ existing laws , and base their rulings on the Sovnarkom decrees and a " socialist sense of justice " . November also saw an overhaul of the armed forces ; Sovnarkom implemented egalitarian measures , abolished previous ranks , titles , and medals , and called on soldiers to establish committees to elect their commanders .
In October 1917 , Lenin issued a decree limiting work for everyone in Russia to eight hours per day . He also issued the Decree on Popular Education which stipulated that the government would guarantee free , secular education for all children in Russia , and a decree establishing a system of state orphanages . To combat mass illiteracy , a literacy campaign was initiated ; an estimated 5 million people enrolled in crash courses of basic literacy from 1920 to 1926 . Embracing the equality of the sexes , laws were introduced that helped to emancipate women , by giving them economic autonomy from their husbands and removing restrictions on divorce . A Bolshevik women 's organisation , Zhenotdel , was established to further these aims . Militantly atheist , Lenin and the Communist Party wanted to demolish organised religion , and in January 1918 the government decreed the separation of church and state and prohibited religious instruction in schools .
In November 1917 , Lenin issued the Decree on Workers ' Control , which called on the workers of each enterprise to establish an elected committee to monitor their enterprise 's management . That month they also issued an order requisitioning the country 's gold , and nationalised the banks , which Lenin saw as a major step toward socialism . In December , Sovnarkom established a Supreme Council of the National Economy ( VSNKh ) which had authority over industry , banking , agriculture , and trade . The factory committees were subordinate to the trade unions , which were subordinate to VSNKh ; thus , the state 's centralised economic plan was prioritised over the workers ' local economic interests . In early 1918 , Sovnarkom cancelled all foreign debts and refused to pay interest owed on them . In April 1918 , it nationalised foreign trade , establishing a state monopoly on imports and exports . In June 1918 , it decreed nationalisation of public utilities , railways , engineering , textiles , metallurgy , and mining , although often these were state @-@ owned in name only . Full @-@ scale nationalisation did not take place until November 1920 , when small @-@ scale industrial enterprises were brought under state control .
A faction of the Bolsheviks known as the " Left Communists " criticised Sovnarkom 's economic policy as too moderate ; they wanted nationalisation of all industry , agriculture , trade , finance , transport , and communication . Lenin believed that this was impractical at that stage , and that the government should only nationalise Russia 's large @-@ scale capitalist enterprises , such as the banks , railways , larger landed estates , and larger factories and mines , allowing smaller businesses to operate privately until they grew large enough to be successfully nationalised . Lenin also disagreed with the Left Communists about economic organisation ; in June 1918 , he argued that centralised economic control of industry was needed , whereas Left Communists wanted each factory to be controlled by its workers , a syndicalist approach that Lenin considered detrimental to the cause of socialism .
Adopting a left libertarian perspective , both the Left Communists and other factions in the Communist Party critiqued the decline of democratic institutions in Russia . Internationally , many socialists decried Lenin 's regime and denied that he was establishing socialism ; in particular , they highlighted the lack of widespread political participation , popular consultation , and industrial democracy . In autumn 1918 , the Czech @-@ Austrian Marxist Karl Kautsky authored an anti @-@ Leninist pamphlet condemning the anti @-@ democratic nature of Soviet Russia , to which Lenin published a vociferous reply . German Marxist Rosa Luxemburg echoed Kautsky 's views , while the Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin described the Bolshevik seizure of power as " the burial of the Russian Revolution " .
= = = Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk : 1917 – 18 = = =
Upon taking power , Lenin believed that a key policy of his government must be to withdraw from the First World War by establishing an armistice with the Central Powers of Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . He believed that ongoing war would create resentment among war @-@ weary Russian troops – to whom he had promised peace – and that these troops and the advancing German Army threatened both his own government and international socialism . By contrast , other Bolsheviks – in particular Bukharin and the Left Communists – believed that peace with the Central Powers would be a betrayal of international socialism and that Russia should instead wage " a war of revolutionary defence " that would provoke an uprising of the German proletariat against their own government .
Lenin proposed a three @-@ month armistice in his Decree on Peace of November 1917 , which was approved by the Second Congress of Soviets and presented to the German and Austro @-@ Hungarian governments . The Germans responded positively , viewing this as an opportunity to focus on the Western Front and stave off looming defeat . In November , armistice talks began at Brest @-@ Litovsk , the headquarters of the German high command on the Eastern Front , with the Russian delegation being led by Trotsky and Adolph Joffe . Meanwhile , a ceasefire until January was agreed . During negotiations , the Germans insisted on keeping their wartime conquests – which included Poland , Lithuania , and Courland – whereas the Russians countered that this was a violation of these nations ' rights to self @-@ determination . Some Bolsheviks had expressed hopes of dragging out negotiations until proletarian revolution broke out throughout Europe . On 7 January 1918 , Trotsky returned from Brest @-@ Litovsk to St. Petersburg with an ultimatum from the Central Powers : either Russia accept Germany 's territorial demands or the war would resume .
In January and again in February , Lenin urged the Bolsheviks to accept Germany 's proposals . He argued that the territorial losses were acceptable if it ensured the survival of the Bolshevik @-@ led government . The majority of Bolsheviks rejected his position , hoping to prolong the armistice and call Germany 's bluff . On 18 February , the German Army relaunched the offensive , advancing further into Russian @-@ controlled territory and within a day conquering Dvinsk . At this point , Lenin finally convinced a small majority of the Bolshevik Central Committee to accept the Central Powers ' demands . However , on 23 February , the Central Powers issued a new ultimatum : Russia must recognise German control not only of Poland and the Baltic states but also Ukraine , or face a full @-@ scale invasion of Russia .
On 3 March , the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk was signed . It resulted in massive territorial losses for Russia , with 26 % of the former Empire 's population , 37 % of its agricultural harvest area , 28 % of its industry , 26 % of its railway tracks , and two @-@ thirds of its coal and iron reserves being transferred to German control . Accordingly , the Treaty was deeply unpopular across Russia 's political spectrum , and several Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries resigned from Sovnarkom in protest . After the Treaty , Sovnarkom focused on trying to foment proletarian revolution in Germany , issuing an array of anti @-@ war and anti @-@ government publications in the country ; the German government retaliated by expelling Russia 's diplomats . In that month the German Emperor Wilhelm II resigned and the country 's new administration signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . As a result , Sovnarkom proclaimed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk void .
= = = Anti @-@ Kulak campaigns , Cheka , and Red Terror : 1918 – 22 = = =
By spring 1918 , many cities in western Russia faced famine as a result of chronic food shortages . Lenin blamed this on the kulaks , or wealthier peasants , who allegedly hoarded the grain that they had produced to increase its financial value . In May 1918 , he issued a requisitioning order that established armed detachments to confiscate grain from kulaks for distribution in the cities , and in June called for the formation of Committees of Poor Peasants to aid in requisitioning . This policy resulted in vast social disorder and violence , as armed detachments often clashed with peasant groups , helping to set the stage for the civil war . A prominent example of Lenin 's views was his August 1918 telegram to the Bolsheviks of Penza , which called upon them to suppress a peasant insurrection by publicly hanging at least 100 " known kulaks , rich men , [ and ] bloodsuckers " .
Requisitioning disincentivised peasants from producing more grain than they could personally consume , and thus production slumped . A booming black market supplemented the official state @-@ sanctioned economy , and Lenin called on speculators , black marketeers and looters to be shot . Both the Socialist Revolutionaries and Left Socialist @-@ Revolutionaries condemned the armed appropriations of grain at the Fifth All @-@ Russian Congress of Soviets in July 1918 . Realising that the Committees of the Poor Peasants were also persecuting peasants who were not kulaks and thus contributing to anti @-@ government feeling among the peasantry , in December 1918 Lenin abolished them .
Lenin repeatedly emphasised the need for terror and violence to overthrow the old order and for the revolution to succeed . Speaking to the All @-@ Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets in November 1917 , he declared that " the state is an institution built up for the sake of exercising violence . Previously , this violence was exercised by a handful of moneybags over the entire people ; now we want ... to organise violence in the interests of the people . " He strongly opposed suggestions to abolish capital punishment . Fearing anti @-@ Bolshevik forces would overthrow his administration , in December 1917 Lenin ordered the establishment of the Emergency Commission for Combating Counter @-@ Revolution and Sabotage , or Cheka , a political police force led by Felix Dzerzhinsky .
In September 1918 , Sovnarkom passed a decree that inaugurated the Red Terror , a system of oppression orchestrated by the Cheka . Although sometimes described as an attempt to eliminate the entire bourgeoisie , Lenin did not want to exterminate all members of this class , merely those who sought to reinstate their rule . The majority of the Terror 's victims were well @-@ to @-@ do citizens or former members of the Tsarist administration , however others were non @-@ bourgeois anti @-@ Bolsheviks and perceived social undesirables such as prostitutes . The Cheka claimed the right to both sentence and execute anyone whom it deemed to be an enemy of the government , without recourse to the Revolutionary Tribunals . Accordingly , throughout Soviet Russia the Cheka carried out killings , often in large numbers . For example , the Petrograd Cheka executed 512 people in a few days . There are no surviving records to provide an accurate figure of how many perished in the Red Terror , although later estimates of historians have ranged from 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 in one estimate , and 50 @,@ 000 to 140 @,@ 000 in another .
Lenin never witnessed this violence or participated in it first @-@ hand , and publicly distanced himself from it . His published articles and speeches rarely called for executions , although he regularly did so in his coded telegrams and confidential notes . Many Bolsheviks expressed disapproval of the Cheka 's mass executions and feared the organisation 's apparent unaccountability . The Party brought in attempts to restrain its activities in February 1919 , stripping it of its powers of tribunal and execution in those areas not under official martial law , although the Cheka continued as before in swathes of the country . By 1920 , the Cheka had become the most powerful institution in Soviet Russia , exerting influence over all other state apparatus .
A decree in April 1919 resulted in the establishment of concentration camps , which were entrusted to the Cheka , although they were later administered by a new government agency , Gulag . By the end of 1920 , 84 camps had been established across Soviet Russia , holding about 50 @,@ 000 prisoners ; by October 1923 , this had grown to 315 camps and about 70 @,@ 000 inmates . Those interned in the camps were used as slave labour . From July 1922 , intellectuals deemed to be opposing the Bolshevik government were exiled to inhospitable regions or deported from Russia altogether ; Lenin personally scrutinized the lists of those to be dealt with in this manner . In May 1922 , Lenin issued a decree calling for the execution of anti @-@ Bolshevik priests , causing between 14 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 deaths . Although the Russian Orthodox Church was worst affected , the government 's anti @-@ religious policies also impacted on Roman Catholic and Protestant churches , Jewish synagogues , and Islamic mosques .
= = = Civil War and Polish @-@ Soviet War : 1918 – 20 = = =
Although Lenin expected Russia 's aristocracy and bourgeoisie to oppose his government , he believed that the numerical superiority of the lower classes , coupled with the Bolsheviks ' ability to effectively organise them , guaranteed a swift victory in any conflict . In this , he failed to anticipate the intensity of the violent opposition to Bolshevik rule in Russia . The ensuing Russian Civil War pitted the pro @-@ Bolshevik Reds against the anti @-@ Bolshevik Whites , but also encompassed ethnic conflicts on Russia 's borders and conflict between both Red and White armies and local peasant groups , the Green armies , throughout the former Empire . Accordingly , various historians have seen the civil war as representing two distinct conflicts : one between the revolutionaries and the counter @-@ revolutionaries , and the other between different revolutionary factions .
The White armies were established by former Tsarist military officers , and included Anton Denikin 's Volunteer Army in South Russia , Alexander Kolchak 's forces in Siberia , and Nikolai Yudenich 's troops in the newly independent Baltic states . The Whites were bolstered when 35 @,@ 000 members of the Czech Legion – prisoners of war from the conflict with the Central Powers – turned against Sovnarkom and allied with the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly ( Komuch ) , an anti @-@ Bolshevik government established in Samara . The Whites were also backed by Western governments who perceived the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk as a betrayal of the Allied war effort and feared the Bolsheviks ' calls for world revolution . In 1918 , the United Kingdom , France , United States , Canada , Italy , and Serbia landed 10 @,@ 000 troops in Murmansk , seizing Kandalaksha , while later that year British , American , and Japanese forces landed in Vladivostok . Western troops soon pulled out of the civil war , instead only supporting the Whites with officers , technicians and armaments , but Japan remained because they saw the conflict as an opportunity for territorial expansion .
Lenin tasked Trotsky with establishing a Workers ' and Peasants ' Red Army , and with his support , Trotsky organised a Revolutionary Military Council in September 1918 , remaining its chairman until 1925 . Recognising their valuable military experience , Lenin agreed that officers from the old Tsarist army could serve in the Red Army , although Trotsky established military councils to monitor their activities . The Reds held control of Russia 's two largest cities , Moscow and Petrograd , as well as most of Great Russia , while the Whites were located largely on the former Empire 's peripheries . The latter were therefore hindered by being both fragmented and geographically scattered , and because their ethnic Russian supremacism alienated the region 's national minorities . Anti @-@ Bolshevik armies carried out the White Terror , a campaign of violence against perceived Bolshevik supporters , although this was typically more spontaneous than the state @-@ sanctioned Red Terror . Both White and Red Armies were responsible for attacks against Jewish communities , prompting Lenin to issue a condemnation of anti @-@ Semitism , which he blamed on capitalist propaganda .
In July 1918 , Sverdlov informed Sovnarkom that the Ural Regional Soviet had overseen the execution of the former Tsar and his immediate family in Yekaterinburg to prevent them from being rescued by advancing White troops . Although lacking proof , biographers and historians like Richard Pipes and Dmitri Volkogonov have expressed the view that the killing was probably sanctioned by Lenin ; conversely , historian James Ryan cautioned that there was " no reason " to believe this . For Lenin , however , the killing was necessary ; he highlighted the precedent set by the execution of Louis XVI in the French Revolution .
After the Brest @-@ Litovsk Treaty , the Left Socialist Revolutionaries had abandoned the coalition and increasingly viewed the Bolsheviks as traitors to the revolution . In July 1918 , the Left Socialist Revolutionary Yakov Grigorevich Blumkin assassinated the German ambassador to Russia , Wilhelm von Mirbach , hoping that the ensuing diplomatic incident would lead to a relaunched revolutionary war against Germany . The Left Socialist Revolutionaries then launched a coup in Moscow , shelling the Kremlin and seizing the city 's central post office before being stopped by Trotsky 's forces . The party 's leaders and many members were arrested and imprisoned , but were treated more leniently than many other opponents of the Bolsheviks .
By 1919 , the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 they were defeated on all three fronts . However , the Polish @-@ Soviet War broke out that year , after Poland tried to annex parts of Belarus and Western Ukraine ; by May 1920 it had captured Kiev . After forcing the Polish Army back , Lenin urged the Red Army to push into Poland itself , believing that the Polish proletariat would rise up to support the Russian troops and thus spark European revolution . Although Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were sceptical , they eventually agreed to the invasion . However , the Polish proletariat did not rise up , and the Red Army was defeated at the Battle of Warsaw . The Polish armies began to push the Red Army back into Russia , forcing Sovnarkom to sue for peace ; the war culminated in the Peace of Riga , in which Russia ceded territory to Poland and paid it reparations .
= = = Comintern and world revolution : 1919 – 20 = = =
After the Armistice on the Western Front , Lenin believed that the breakout of European revolution was imminent . Seeking to promote this , Sovnarkom supported the establishment of Béla Kun 's Communist government in Hungary in March 1919 , followed by the Communist government in Bavaria and various revolutionary socialist uprisings in other parts of Germany , including that of the Spartacus League . During Russia 's Civil War , the Red Army was sent into the newly independent national republics on Russia 's borders to aid Marxists there in establishing soviet systems of government . In Europe , this resulted in the creation of new Communist @-@ led states in Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine , all of which were officially independent of Russia , while further east it led to the creation of Communist governments in Georgia , and then in Outer Mongolia . Various senior Bolsheviks wanted these absorbed into the Russian state ; Lenin insisted that national sensibilities should be respected , but reassured them that these nations ' new Communist Party administrations were de facto regional branches of Moscow 's government .
In late 1918 , the British Labour Party called for the establishment of an international conference of socialist parties , the Labour and Socialist International . Lenin saw this as a revival of the Second International which he had despised , and formulated his own rival international conference of socialists to offset its impact . He organised this conference with the aid of Zinoviev , Trotsky , Christian Rakovsky , and Angelica Balabanoff . In March 1919 , the First Congress of this Communist International ( " Comintern " ) opened in Moscow . It lacked global coverage ; of the 34 assembled delegates , 30 resided within the countries of the former Russian Empire , and most of the international delegates were not officially recognised by the socialist parties within their own nations . Accordingly , the Bolsheviks dominated proceedings , with Lenin subsequently authoring a series of regulations that meant that only socialist parties that endorsed the Bolsheviks ' views were permitted to join Comintern . During the first conference , Lenin spoke to the delegates , lambasting the parliamentary path to socialism espoused by revisionist Marxists like Kautsky and repeating his calls for a violent overthrow of Europe 's bourgeoisie governments . While Zinoviev became the International 's President , Lenin continued to wield great control over it .
The Second Congress of the Communist International opened in Petrograd 's Smolny Institute in June 1920 , representing the last time that Lenin visited a city other than Moscow . There , he encouraged foreign delegates to emulate the Bolsheviks ' seizure of power , and abandoned his longstanding viewpoint that capitalism was a necessary stage in societal development , instead encouraging those nations under colonial occupation to transform their pre @-@ capitalist societies directly into socialist ones . For this conference , he authored " Left @-@ Wing " Communism : An Infantile Disorder , a short book articulating his criticism of far @-@ left elements within the British and German communist parties who refused to enter those nations ' parliamentary systems and trade unions ; instead he urged them to do so to advance the revolutionary cause . The conference had to be suspended for several days due to the ongoing war with Poland , before the Congress subsequently moved to Moscow , where it continued to hold sessions until August . However , Lenin 's predicted world revolution did not materialise , as the Hungarian Communist government was overthrown and the German Marxist uprisings suppressed .
= = = Famine and the New Economic Policy : 1920 – 22 = = =
Within the Communist Party , there was dissent from two factions , the Group of Democratic Centralism and the Workers ' Opposition , both of which criticised the Russian state as too centralised and bureaucratic . The Workers ' Opposition , which had connections to the official state trade unions , also expressed the concern that the government had lost the trust of the Russian working class . The ' trade union discussion ' preoccupied the party in this period ; Trotsky angered the Workers ' Opposition by suggesting that the trade unions be eliminated , seeing them as superfluous in a " workers ' state " , but Lenin disagreed , believing it best to allow them to exist , and most of the Bolsheviks eventually embraced the latter view . To deal with the dissent , at the Tenth Party Congress in February 1921 , Lenin introduced a ban on factional activity within the party , under pain of expulsion .
Caused in part by a drought , the Russian famine of 1921 was the most severe that the country had experienced since that of 1891 , resulting in around five million deaths . The famine was exacerbated by government requisitioning , as well as the export of large quantities of Russian grain . To aid the famine victims , the U.S. government established an American Relief Administration to distribute food , although Lenin was suspicious of this aid and had it closely monitored . During the famine , Patriarch Tikhon called on Orthodox churches to sell unnecessary items to help feed the starving , an action endorsed by the government . In February 1922 Sovnarkom went further by calling on all valuables belonging to religious institutions to be forcibly appropriated and sold . Tikhon opposed the sale of any items used within the Eucharist and many clergy resisted the appropriations , resulting in violence .
In 1920 and 1921 , local opposition to requisitioning resulted in anti @-@ Bolshevik peasant uprisings breaking out across Russia , although these were suppressed . Among the most significant was the Tambov Rebellion , which was put down by the Red Army . In February 1921 , workers went on strike in Petrograd , resulting in the government proclaiming martial law in the city and sending in the Red Army to quell demonstrations . In March , the Kronstadt rebellion began when sailors in Kronstadt revolted against the Bolshevik government , demanding that all socialists be allowed to publish freely , that independent trade unions be given freedom of assembly and that peasants be allowed free markets and not be subject to requisitioning . Lenin declared that the mutineers had been misled by the Socialist Revolutionaries and foreign imperialists , calling for violent reprisals . Under Trotsky 's leadership , the Red Army put down the rebellion on 17 March , with thousands dead and many survivors sent to labour camps .
In February 1921 , Lenin introduced a New Economic Policy ( NEP ) to the Politburo , eventually convincing most senior Bolsheviks of its necessity , with it passing into law in April . Lenin explained the policy in a booklet , On the Food Tax , in which he stated that the NEP represented a return to the original Bolshevik economic plans ; he claimed that these had been derailed by the civil war , in which Sovnarkom had been forced to resort to the economic policies of " war communism " . The NEP allowed some private enterprise within Russia , permitting the reintroduction of the wage system and allowing peasants to sell produce on the open market while being taxed on their earnings . The policy also allowed for a return to privately owned small industry , although basic industry , transport and foreign trade remained under state control . Lenin termed this " state capitalism " , and many Bolsheviks thought it to be a betrayal of socialist principles . Lenin biographers have often characterised the introduction of the NEP as one of his most significant achievements , with some believing that had it not been implemented then Sovnarkom would have been quickly overthrown by popular uprisings .
In January 1920 , the government brought in universal labour conscription , ensuring that all citizens aged between 16 and 50 had to work . Lenin also called for a mass electrification project , the GOELRO plan , which began in February 1920 ; Lenin 's declaration that " communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the whole country " would be widely cited in later years . Seeking to advance the Russian economy through foreign trade , Sovnarkom sent delegates to the Genoa Conference ; Lenin had hoped to attend but was prevented by ill health . The conference resulted in a Russian agreement with Germany , the Treaty of Rapallo , and the Anglo @-@ Soviet Trade Agreement was negotiated . Lenin hoped that by allowing foreign corporations to invest in Russia , it would exacerbate rivalries between the capitalist nations and hasten their downfall ; he tried to rent the oil fields of Kamchatka to an American corporation to exacerbate tensions between the U.S. and Japan , who desired Kamchatka for their empire .
= = = Declining health and arguments with Stalin : 1920 – 23 = = =
To Lenin 's embarrassment and horror , in April 1920 the Bolsheviks held a party to celebrate his fiftieth birthday , which was also marked by widespread celebrations across Russia and the publication of poems and biographies dedicated to him . Between 1920 and 1926 , twenty volumes of Lenin 's Collected Works were published ; some material was omitted . During 1920 , a number of prominent Western figures visited Lenin in Russia ; these included the author H. G. Wells and the philosopher Bertrand Russell , as well as the anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman . Lenin was also visited at the Kremlin by Armand , who was in increasingly poor health . He sent her to a sanatorium in Kislovodsk in the Northern Caucasus to recover , but she died there in September 1920 during a cholera epidemic . Her body was transported to Moscow , where a visibly grief @-@ stricken Lenin oversaw its burial beneath the Kremlin Wall .
Lenin was seriously ill by the latter half of 1921 , suffering from hyperacusis , insomnia , and regular headaches . At the Politburo 's insistence , in July he left Moscow for a month 's leave at his Gorki mansion , where he was cared for by his wife and sister . Lenin began to contemplate the possibility of suicide , asking both Krupskaya and Stalin to acquire potassium cyanide for him . 26 physicians would be hired to help Lenin during his final years ; many of them were foreign and had been hired at great expense . Some suggested that his sickness could have been caused by metal oxidation from the bullets that were lodged in his body from the 1918 assassination attempt ; in April 1922 he underwent a surgical operation to remove them . The symptoms continued after this , with Lenin 's doctors unsure of the cause ; some suggested that he was suffering from neurasthenia or cerebral arteriosclerosis , although others believed that he had syphilis , an idea endorsed in a 2004 report by a team of neuroscientists , who suggested that this was later deliberately concealed by the government . In May 1922 , he suffered his first stroke , temporarily losing his ability to speak and being paralysed on his right side . He convalesced at Gorki , and had largely recovered by July . In October he returned to Moscow , although in December he suffered a second stroke and returned to Gorki .
Despite his illness , Lenin remained keenly interested in political developments . When the Socialist Revolutionary Party 's leadership was found guilty of conspiring against the government in a trial held between June and August 1922 , Lenin called for their execution ; they were instead imprisoned indefinitely , only being executed during the Great Purges of Stalin 's leadership . With Lenin 's support , the government also succeeded in virtually eradicating Menshevism in Russia by expelling all Mensheviks from state institutions and enterprises in March 1923 and then imprisoning the party 's membership in concentration camps . Lenin was concerned by the survival of the Tsarist bureaucratic system in Soviet Russia , and became increasingly worried by this in his final years . Condemning bureaucratic attitudes , he suggested a total overhaul to deal with such problems , in one letter complaining that " we are being sucked into a foul bureaucratic swamp " .
During December 1922 and January 1923 Lenin dictated " Lenin 's Testament " , in which he discussed the personal qualities of his comrades , particularly Trotsky and Stalin . He recommended that Stalin be removed from the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party , deeming him ill @-@ suited for the position . Instead he recommended Trotsky for the job , describing him as " the most capable man in the present Central Committee " ; he highlighted Trotsky 's superior intellect but at the same time criticised his self @-@ assurance and inclination toward excess administration . During this period he dictated a criticism of the bureaucratic nature of the Workers ' and Peasants ' Inspectorate , calling for the recruitment of new , working @-@ class staff as an antidote to this problem , while in another article he called for the state to combat illiteracy , promote punctuality and conscientiousness within the populace , and encourage peasants to join co @-@ operatives .
In Lenin 's absence , Stalin had begun consolidating his power both by appointing his supporters to prominent positions , and by cultivating an image of himself as Lenin 's closest intimate and deserving successor . In December 1922 , Stalin took responsibility for Lenin 's regimen , being tasked by the Politburo with controlling who had access to him . Lenin was however increasingly critical of Stalin ; while Lenin was insisting that the state should retain its monopoly on international trade during the summer of 1922 , Stalin was leading a number of other Bolsheviks in unsuccessfully opposing this . There were personal arguments between the two as well ; Stalin had upset Krupskaya by shouting at her during a phone conversation , which in turn greatly angered Lenin , who sent Stalin a letter expressing his annoyance .
The most significant political division between the two emerged during the Georgian Affair . Stalin had suggested that both Georgia and neighbouring countries like Azerbaijan and Armenia should be merged into the Russian state , despite the protestations of their national governments . Lenin saw this as an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Stalin and his supporters , instead calling for these nation @-@ states to join Russia as semi @-@ independent parts of a greater union , which he suggested be called the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia . Stalin ultimately relented to this proposal , although – with Lenin 's agreement – he changed the name of the newly proposed state to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) . Lenin sent Trotsky to speak on his behalf at a Central Committee plenum in December , where the plans for the USSR were sanctioned ; these plans were then ratified on 30 December by the Congress of Soviets , resulting in the formation of the Soviet Union . Despite his poor health , Lenin was elected chairman of the new government of the Soviet Union .
= = = Death and funeral : 1923 – 24 = = =
In March 1923 , Lenin suffered a third stroke and lost his ability to speak ; that month , he experienced partial paralysis on his right side and began exhibiting sensory aphasia . By May , he appeared to be making a slow recovery , as he began to regain his mobility , speech , and writing skills . In October , he made a final visit to Moscow and the Kremlin . In his final weeks , Lenin was visited by Zinoviev , Kamenev , and Bukharin , with the latter visiting him at his Gorki dacha on the day of his death . Lenin died at his Gorki home on 21 January 1924 , having fallen into a coma earlier in the day . His official cause of death was recorded as an incurable disease of the blood vessels .
The government publicly announced Lenin 's death the following day . On 23 January , mourners from the Communist Party , trade unions , and soviets visited his Gorki home to inspect the body , which was carried aloft in a red coffin by leading Bolsheviks . Transported by train to Moscow , the coffin was taken to the House of Trade Unions , where the body lay in state . Over the next three days , around a million mourners came to see the body , many queuing for hours in the freezing conditions . On 26 January , the eleventh All @-@ Union Congress of Soviets met to pay respects to the deceased leader , with speeches being made by Kalinin , Zinoviev , and Stalin , but notably not Trotsky , who had been convalescing in the Caucasus . Lenin 's funeral took place the following day , when his body was carried to Red Square , accompanied by martial music , where assembled crowds listened to a series of speeches before the corpse was placed into the vault of a specially erected mausoleum . Despite the freezing temperatures , tens of thousands attended .
Against Krupskaya 's protestations , Lenin 's body was mummified to preserve it for long @-@ term public display in the Red Square mausoleum . During this process , Lenin 's brain was removed ; in 1925 an institute was established to dissect it , revealing that Lenin had suffered from severe sclerosis . In July 1929 , the Politburo agreed to replace the temporary mausoleum with a permanent granite alternative , which was finished in 1933 . The sarcophagus in which Lenin 's corpse was contained was replaced in 1940 and again in 1970 . From 1941 to 1945 the body was moved from Moscow and stored in Tyumen for safety amid the Second World War .
= = Political ideology = =
Lenin was a fervent believer in Marxism , and believed that his interpretation of Marxism – first termed " Leninism " by Martov in 1904 – was the sole authentic and orthodox one . According to his Marxist perspective , humanity would eventually reach pure communism , becoming a stateless , classless , egalitarian society of workers who were free from exploitation and alienation , controlled their own destiny , and abided by the rule " from each according to his ability , to each according to his needs " . According to Volkogonov , Lenin " deeply and sincerely " believed that the path which he was setting Russia on would ultimately lead to the establishment of this communist society .
However , Lenin 's Marxist beliefs led him to the view that society could not transform directly from its present state to communism , but must first enter a period of socialism , and so his main concern was how to convert Russia into a socialist society . To do so , he believed that a dictatorship of the proletariat was necessary to suppress the bourgeoisie and develop a socialist economy . He defined socialism as " an order of civilized co @-@ operators in which the means of production are socially owned " , and believed that this economic system had to be expanded until it could create a society of abundance . To achieve this , he saw bringing the Russian economy under state control to be his central concern , with – in his words – " all citizens " becoming " hired employees of the state " . Lenin 's interpretation of socialism was centralised , planned , and statist , with both production and distribution strictly controlled . He believed that all workers throughout the country would voluntarily join together to enable the state 's economic and political centralisation . In this way , his calls for " workers ' control " of the means of production referred not to the direct control of enterprises by their workers , but the operation of all enterprises under the control of a " workers ' state " . This resulted in two conflicting themes within Lenin 's thought : popular workers ' control , and a centralised , hierarchical , coercive state apparatus .
Before 1914 , Lenin mostly agreed with mainstream European Marxist orthodoxy . However , Leninism introduced revisions and innovations to orthodox Marxism , and adopted a more absolutist , doctrinaire perspective . Similarly , Leninism distinguished itself from established variants of Marxism by the emotional intensity of its liberationist vision and its focus on the leadership role of a revolutionary vanguard proletariat . Thus , Lenin came to deviate from the Marxist mainstream over the issue of how to establish a proletarian state ; his belief in a strong state apparatus that excluded the bourgeois conflicted with the views of European Marxists like Kautsky who envisioned a democratic parliamentary government in which the proletariat had a majority . Moreover , according to historian James Ryan , Lenin was " the first and most significant Marxist theorist to dramatically elevate the role of violence as revolutionary instrument " . Lenin incorporated changing circumstances into his belief system , and the pragmatic realities of governing Russia amid war , famine , and economic collapse resulted in him deviating from many of the Marxist ideas he had articulated before the October Revolution .
Lenin 's ideas were heavily influenced both by pre @-@ existing thought within the Russian revolutionary movement , and by theoretical variants of Russian Marxism which had focused heavily on how Marx and Engels ' writings would apply to Russia . Accordingly , Lenin was also influenced by earlier currents of Russian socialist thought such as those of the Narodnik agrarian @-@ socialists . Conversely , he derided Marxists who adopted from contemporary non @-@ Marxist philosophers and sociologists . In his theoretical writings , particularly Imperialism , he examined what he thought were the developments in capitalism since Marx 's death , arguing that it had reached a new stage , state monopoly capitalism . Before taking power in 1918 , he believed that while Russia 's economy was still dominated by the peasantry , the fact that monopoly capitalism existed in Russia meant that the country was sufficiently materially developed to move to socialism .
Lenin was an internationalist and a keen supporter of world revolution , deeming national borders to be an outdated concept and nationalism a distraction from class struggle . He believed that under revolutionary socialism , there would be " the inevitable merging of nations " and the ultimate establishment of " a United States of the World " . He opposed federalism , deeming it to be bourgeois , and instead emphasised the need for a centralised unitary state . Lenin was anti @-@ imperialist , and believed that all nations deserved " the right of self @-@ determination " . He thus supported wars of national liberation , accepting that such conflicts might be necessary for a minority group to break away from a socialist state , because socialist states are not " holy or insured against mistakes or weaknesses " .
He expressed the view that " Soviet government is many millions of times more democratic than the most democratic @-@ bourgeois republic " , the latter of which was simply " a democracy for the rich " . He deemed his " dictatorship of the proletariat " to be democratic through the election of representatives to the soviets , and by workers electing their own officials , with regular rotation and involvement of all workers in the administration of the country . Lenin believed that the representative democracy of capitalist countries had been used to give the illusion of democracy while maintaining the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie ; describing the representative democratic system of the United States , he referred to the " spectacular and meaningless duels between two bourgeois parties " , both of whom were led by " astute multimillionaires " that exploited the American proletariat . He also opposed liberalism , exhibiting a general antipathy toward liberty as a value , and believing that liberalism 's freedoms were fraudulent because it did not free labourers from capitalist exploitation .
= = Personal life and characteristics = =
Lenin saw himself as a man of destiny , and firmly believed in the righteousness of his cause and his own ability as a revolutionary leader . Biographer Louis Fischer described him as " a lover of radical change and maximum upheaval " , a man for whom " there was never a middle @-@ ground . He was an either @-@ or , black @-@ or @-@ red exaggerator . " Highlighting Lenin 's " extraordinary capacity for disciplined work " and " devotion to the revolutionary cause " , Pipes noted that he exhibited much charisma . Similarly , Volkogonov believed that " by the very force of his personality , [ Lenin ] had an influence over people . " Conversely , Lenin 's friend Gorky commented that in his physical appearance as a " a baldheaded , stocky , sturdy person " , the communist revolutionary was " too ordinary " and did not give " the impression of being a leader " .
Historian and biographer Robert Service asserted that Lenin had been an intensely emotional young man , who exhibited strong hatred for the Tsarist authorities . According to Service , Lenin developed an " emotional attachment " to his ideological heroes , such as Marx , Engels and Chernyshevsky ; he owned portraits of them , and privately described himself as being " in love " with Marx and Engels . According to Lenin biographer James D. White , Lenin treated their writings as " holy writ " , a " religious dogma " which should " not be questioned but believed in " . In Volkogonov 's view , Lenin accepted Marxism as " absolute truth " , and accordingly acted like " a religious fanatic " . Similarly , Bertrand Russell felt that Lenin exhibited " unwavering faith – religious faith in the Marxian gospel " . Biographer Christopher Read suggested that Lenin was " a secular equivalent of theocratic leaders who derive their legitimacy from the [ perceived ] truth of their doctrines , not popular mandates . " However , Lenin was an atheist and a critic of religion , believing that socialism was inherently atheistic ; he thus considered Christian socialism a contradiction in terms .
Service stated that Lenin could be " moody and volatile " , and Pipes deemed him to be " a thoroughgoing misanthrope " , a view rejected by Read , who highlighted many instances in which Lenin displayed kindness , particularly toward children . According to several biographers , Lenin was intolerant of opposition and often dismissed outright opinions that differed from his own . He could be " venomous in his critique of others " , exhibiting a propensity for mockery , ridicule , and ad hominem attacks on those who disagreed with him . He ignored facts which did not suit his argument , abhorred compromise , and very rarely admitted his own errors . He refused to bend his opinions , until he rejected them completely , after which he would treat the new view as if it was just as unbendable . Although he showed no sign of sadism or of personally desiring to commit violent acts , Lenin endorsed the violent actions of others and exhibited no remorse for those killed for the revolutionary cause . Adopting an amoral stance , in Lenin 's view the end always justified the means ; according to Service , Lenin 's " criterion of morality was simple : does a certain action advance or hinder the cause of the Revolution ? "
Aside from Russian , Lenin spoke and read French , German , and English . Concerned with physical fitness , he exercised regularly , enjoyed cycling , swimming , and hunting , and also developed a passion for mountain walking in the Swiss peaks . He was also fond of pets , in particular cats . Tending to eschew luxury , he lived a spartan lifestyle , with Pipes noting that Lenin was " exceedingly modest in his personal wants " , leading " an austere , almost ascetic , style of life " . Lenin despised untidiness , always keeping his work desk tidy and his pencils sharpened , and insisted on total silence while he was working . According to Fischer , Lenin 's " vanity was minimal " , and for this reason he disliked the cult of personality that the Soviet administration began to build around him ; he nevertheless accepted that it might have some benefits in unifying the communist movement .
Despite his revolutionary politics , Lenin disliked revolutionary experimentation in literature and the arts , for instance expressing his dislike of expressionism , futurism , and cubism , and conversely favouring realism and Russian classic literature . Lenin also had a conservative attitude towards sex and marriage . Throughout his adult life , he was in a relationship with Krupskaya , a fellow Marxist whom he married . Lenin and Krupskaya were both sad that they never had children , although they enjoyed entertaining their friends ' offspring . Read noted that Lenin had " very close , warm , lifelong relationships " with his close family members , although he had no lifelong friends , and Armand has been cited as being his only close , intimate confidante .
Ethnically , Lenin identified as Russian . It is likely that he was unaware of his mother 's Jewish ancestry , which was only discovered by his sister Anna after his death . Service described Lenin as " a bit of a snob in national , social and cultural terms " . The Bolshevik leader believed that other European countries , especially Germany , were culturally superior to Russia , " one of the most benighted , medieval and shamefully backward of Asian countries " . He was annoyed at what he perceived as a lack of conscientiousness and discipline among the Russian people , and from his youth had wanted Russia to become more culturally European and Western .
= = Legacy = =
Volkogonov claimed that " there can scarcely have been another man in history who managed so profoundly to change so large a society on such a scale " . Lenin 's administration laid the framework for the system of government that ruled Russia for seven decades and provided the model for later Communist @-@ led states which came to cover a third of the inhabited world in the mid @-@ 20th century . Thus , Lenin 's influence was global . A controversial figure , Lenin remains both reviled and revered ; he has been idolised by communists , and demonised by critics on both the left , such as democratic socialists and anarchists , and the right , such as conservatives and fascists . Even during his lifetime , Lenin " was loved and hated , admired and scorned " by the Russian people .
The historian Albert Resis suggested that if the October Revolution is considered the most significant event of the 20th century , then Lenin " must for good or ill be considered the century 's most significant political leader " . White described Lenin as " one of the undeniably outstanding figures of modern history " , while Service noted that the Russian leader was widely understood to be one of the 20th century 's " principal actors " . Read considered him " one of the most widespread , universally recognizable icons of the twentieth century " , while Ryan called him " one of the most significant and influential figures of modern history " . Time magazine named Lenin one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century , and one of their top 25 political icons of all time .
In the Western world , biographers began writing about Lenin soon after his death ; some – like Christopher Hill – were sympathetic to him , and others – like Richard Pipes and Robert Gellately – expressly hostile . A number of later biographers , such as Read and Lars Lih , sought to avoid making either hostile or positive comments about him , thereby evading politicized stereotypes . Among sympathisers , he was portrayed as having made a genuine adjustment of Marxist theory that enabled it to suit Russia 's particular socio @-@ economic conditions . The Soviet view characterised him as a man who recognised the historically inevitable and accordingly helped to make the inevitable happen . Conversely , the majority of Western historians have perceived him as a person who manipulated events in order to attain and then retain political power , moreover considering his ideas as attempts to ideologically justify his pragmatic policies . More recently , revisionists in both Russia and the West have highlighted the impact that pre @-@ existing ideas and popular pressures exerted on Lenin and his policies .
Various historians and biographers have characterised Lenin 's administration as totalitarian , and as a police state , and many have described it as a one @-@ party dictatorship . Several such scholars have described Lenin as a dictator , although Ryan stated that he was " not a dictator in the sense that all his recommendations were accepted and implemented " , for many of his colleagues disagreed with him on various issues . Fischer noted that while " Lenin was a dictator , [ he was ] not the kind of dictator Stalin later became " , while Volkogonov believed that whereas Lenin established a " dictatorship of the Party " , it would only be under Stalin that the Soviet Union became the " dictatorship of one man " . Conversely , various Marxist observers – including Western historians Hill and John Rees – argued against the view that Lenin 's government was a dictatorship , viewing it instead as an imperfect way of preserving elements of democracy without some of the processes found in liberal democratic states . Ryan contends that the leftist historian Paul Le Blanc " makes a quite valid point that the personal qualities that led Lenin to brutal policies were not necessarily any stronger than in some of the major Western leaders of the twentieth century . " Historian J. Arch Getty remarked that " Lenin deserves a lot of credit for the notion that the meek can inherit the earth , that there can be a political movement based on social justice and equality . " Some left @-@ wing intellectuals , among them Slavoj Žižek , Alain Badiou , Lars T. Lih , and Fredric Jameson , advocate reviving Lenin 's uncompromising revolutionary spirit to address contemporary global problems .
= = = Within the Soviet Union = = =
In the Soviet Union , a cult of personality devoted to Lenin began to develop during his lifetime , but was only fully established after his death . According to historian Nina Tumarkin , it represented the world 's " most elaborate cult of a revolutionary leader " since that of George Washington in the United States , and has been repeatedly described as " quasi @-@ religious " in nature . Busts or statues of Lenin were erected in almost every village , and his face adorned postage stamps , crockery , posters , and the front pages of Soviet newspapers Pravda and Isvestia . The places where he had lived or stayed were converted into museums devoted to him . Libraries , streets , farms , museums , towns , and whole regions were named after him , with the city of Petrograd being renamed " Leningrad " in 1924 , and his birthplace of Simbirsk becoming " Ulyanovsk " . The Order of Lenin was established as one of the country 's highest decorations . All of this was contrary to Lenin 's own desires , and was publicly criticised by his widow .
Various biographers have stated that Lenin 's writings were treated in a manner akin to holy scripture within the Soviet Union , while Pipes added that " his every opinion was cited to justify one policy or another and treated as gospel . " Stalin codified Leninism through a series of lectures at the Sverdlov University which were then published as Questions of Leninism . Stalin also had much of the deceased leader 's writings collated and stored in a secret archive in the Marx @-@ Engels @-@ Lenin Institute . Material , such as Lenin 's collection of books in Kraków , were also collected from abroad for storage in the Institute , often at great expense . During the Soviet era , these writings were strictly controlled and very few had access . All of Lenin 's writings that proved useful to Stalin were published , but the others remained hidden , and knowledge of both Lenin 's non @-@ Russian ancestry and his noble status was suppressed . In particular , his Jewish ancestry was suppressed until the 1980s , perhaps out of Soviet anti @-@ Semitism , and so as not to undermine Stalin 's Russification efforts , and perhaps so as not to provide fuel for anti @-@ Soviet sentiment among international anti @-@ semites . Under Stalin 's regime , Lenin was actively portrayed as a close friend of Stalin 's who had supported Stalin 's bid to be the next Soviet leader . During the Soviet era , five separate editions of Lenin 's published works were published in Russian , the first beginning in 1920 and the last from 1958 to 1965 ; although the fifth edition was described as " complete " , in reality it had much omitted for political expediency .
After Stalin 's death , Nikita Khruschev became leader of the Soviet Union and began a process of De @-@ Stalinization , citing Lenin 's writings , including those on Stalin , to legitimize this process . When Mikhail Gorbachev took power in 1985 and introduced the policies of glastnost and perestroika , he too cited these actions as a return to Lenin 's principles . In late 1991 , amid the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Russian President Boris Yeltsin ordered the Lenin archive be removed from Communist Party control and placed under the control of a state organ , the Russian Centre for the Preservation and Study of Documents of Recent History , at which it was revealed that over 6 @,@ 000 of Lenin 's writings had gone unpublished . These were declassified and made available for scholarly study . Yeltsin did not dismantle the Lenin mausoleum , however , recognising that Lenin was too popular and well respected among the Russian populace for this to be viable .
In Russia in 2012 , a proposal from the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia , with the support of some members of the governing United Russia party , proposed the removal of all Lenin monuments , a proposal strongly opposed by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation . In Ukraine , during the 2013 – 14 Euromaiden protests , several Lenin statues were damaged or destroyed by protesters who viewed them as a symbol of Russian imperialism , and in April 2015 the Ukrainian government ordered that all others be dismantled to comply with decommunization laws . After the discovery of Lenin 's Jewish ancestry , this aspect was repeatedly emphasised by the Russian far @-@ right , who claimed that his inherited Jewish genetics explained his desire to uproot traditional Russian society .
= = = In the international communist movement = = =
According to Lenin biographer David Shub , writing in 1966 , it was Lenin 's ideas and example that " constitutes the basis of the Communist movement today " . Communist regimes professing allegiance to Lenin 's ideas appeared in various parts of the world during the 20th century .
After Lenin 's death , Stalin 's administration established an ideology known as Marxism @-@ Leninism , a movement which came to be interpreted differently by various contending factions in the Communist movement . After being forced into exile by Stalin 's administration , Trotsky argued that Stalinism was a debasement of Leninism which was dominated by bureaucratism and Stalin 's own personal dictatorship . Marxism @-@ Leninism would be adapted to many of the 20th century 's most prominent revolutionary movements , forming into variants such as Stalinism , Maoism , Juche , Ho Chi Minh Thought , and Castroism . Conversely , many later Western communists such as Manuel Azcárate and Jean Ellenstein who were involved in the Eurocommunist movement expressed the view that Lenin and his ideas were irrelevant to their own objectives , thereby embracing a Marxist but not Marxist @-@ Leninist perspective .
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= Take a Bow ( Madonna song ) =
" Take a Bow " is a song by American singer Madonna from her sixth studio album Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . It was released as the album 's second single on October 28 , 1994 , by Maverick Records . It is a midtempo pop ballad written and produced by Madonna and Babyface . The song also appears on her compilation albums Something to Remember ( 1995 ) , GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . Following the sexually explicit persona portrayed by Madonna on her previous album , Erotica , the singer wanted to tone down her image for Bedtime Stories . She started collaborating with Babyface , whose work with other music artists had impressed her . " Take a Bow " was developed from this collaboration , after Madonna listened to the beat and the chords of the demo structure of the song .
Recorded at The Hit Factory Studios in New York , " Take a Bow " was backed by a full orchestra . It was also the first time that Babyface had worked with live strings , per Madonna 's suggestion . Containing oriental pentatonic strings , giving the impression of Chinese or Japanese opera , " Take a Bow " lyrically talks about unrequited love , and Madonna saying goodbye . It received favorable reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's soulful , poetic lyrics . It was a commercial success in the United States , becoming Madonna 's eleventh number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , topping the chart for seven weeks . It also reached number one in Canada , and the top ten in Italy , Switzerland and New Zealand . The single had moderate success in the United Kingdom , reaching number 16 on the UK Singles Chart , ending Madonna 's record @-@ holding string of 35 consecutive top @-@ ten hits there .
The music video for " Take a Bow " was directed by Michael Haussman , and was filmed in Ronda , Spain . The video depicts Madonna as a bullfighter 's ( played by real @-@ life Spanish bullfighter Emilio Muñoz ) neglected lover , yearning for his love . It won the Best Female Video award at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards . Journalistic and academic analysis of the video included its plotline , usage of religious iconography , themes and motifs of feminism and submission , as well as its impact on contemporary music videos . In order to promote Bedtime Stories , Madonna performed " Take a Bow " on a few occasions , including live with Babyface at the 1995 American Music Awards . In 2016 , she added the song to the setlist of the Asian and Oceanian legs of her Rebel Heart Tour and her one @-@ off Sydney concert Tears of a Clown .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release of Madonna 's first book publication , Sex , the erotic thriller , Body of Evidence , her fifth studio album , Erotica , as well as a disastrous interview on David Letterman 's show in the early 1990s , the media and public 's backlash against Madonna 's overtly sexual image was at a peak . Madonna wanted to tone down her explicit image . Her first attempt was to release the tender ballad " I 'll Remember " from the soundtrack of the film With Honors . Musically , she wanted to move in a new musical direction and started exploring new @-@ jack R & B styles with a generally mainstream , radio @-@ friendly sound . It was included on her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories , released in October 1994 . In author Fred Bronson 's The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Madonna explained :
The idea going in was to juxtapose my singing style with a hardcore hip @-@ hop sensibility and have the finished product still sound like a Madonna record . I began the process by meeting with the hip @-@ hop producers whose work I most admired . It was important , if I were to use a variety of collaborators , that the end product sound cohesive and thematically whole . I wasn 't interested in the variety pack approach .
After searching for prospective collaborators , Madonna chose to work with Babyface , whose previous work with artists like Whitney Houston , Boyz II Men , and Toni Braxton had resulted in successful smooth R & B songs . She was also fond of Babyface 's song , " When Can I See You " from his third studio album For the Cool in You ( 1994 ) . The singer 's management called Babyface to set up a meeting and see if they wanted to work together . Once met , both were surprised by their camaraderie and wanted to write songs . Madonna came over to Babyface 's house and after a couple of days they came up with two songs . One of them was based on a piece of music composed by Babyface , but he was not sure about its musical direction . He made Madonna listen to the composition , and she found a way to take the song forward . Babyface clarified that " [ i ] t was just a beat and the chords . From there we collaborated and built it up ... I was living in Beverly Hills and I created a little studio in my house , so she came over there to write . " Together they agreed that the first line of the song should be its title , and " Take a Bow " was written . The words were never repeated in the track again .
" Take a Bow " was released as the second single from Bedtime Stories on October 28 , 1994 , following " Secret " . The maxi single release of the song included two remixes . According to Jose F. Promis of AllMusic , the first remix , known as the " In Da Soul " mix , gives the ballad a funkier , more urban feel while the second remix , known as the " Silky Soul Mix " , is a little more " quiet storm " and " melancholy " than the first .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Take a Bow " was recorded at The Hit Factory studios , New York , and was mastered and mixed at Sterling Sound Studios , New York . Babyface recalled that he was nervous about recording with Madonna , since he feared that Madonna was a " perfectionist " in the studio , and that would ultimately be time consuming for the whole process . However , it was one of the fastest recording and mixing . The song was backed by a full orchestra and was also the first time that Babyface had worked with live strings . He recalled that using strings in the song was " [ Madonna 's ] suggestion , and it was Nellee Hooper who actually [ arranged the strings ] . She had worked with them before but for me it was a new experience " . Along with Hooper , Jessie Leavey , Craig Armstrong and Susie Katiyama also worked on the strings and conducting .
" Take a Bow " was written and produced by Madonna and Babyface , and is a midtempo pop ballad with Japanese musical influences , like that of Kyu Sakamoto 's 1961 song , " Sukiyaki " . It begins with sounds of oriental pentatonic strings , giving the impression of Chinese or Japanese opera . The verses consist of a descending chord sequence , containing twists at the end . Madonna 's vocals are in a " sleepy languid mood " that is the characteristic of the songs from Bedtime Stories . The lyrics during the chorus talk about Madonna saying goodbye to a lover , who had taken her for granted . The title plays upon the verse in the song " all the world is a stage and everyone has their part " , a reference to a line by William Shakespeare in his play As You Like It , " All the world 's a stage , and all the men and women mere players " .
In his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , author J. Randy Taraborrelli describes the song as a " somber , sarcastic , all @-@ the @-@ world 's @-@ a @-@ stage song about unrequited love ... [ about a subject ] whose phoniness might have fooled everyone else , but not her . " He goes on to say that in the song Madonna tells the subject of her unrequited love to take a bow for " rendering a great , transparent performance in life and love . " Alongside the betrayal of her lover , the lyrics also talk about Madonna trying to understand the reasons behind adultery . As the song progresses , the listener realizes that through the lyrics the singer was talking about herself — " One lonely star and you don 't know who you are " . According to Musicnotes.com , the song has a moderate calypso feel and is set in the time signature of common time and progresses in 80 beats per minute . The composition is set in the key of A ♭ major with Madonna 's vocal ranging from E ♭ 3 to C5 . " Take a Bow " contains a basic sequence of A ♭ – B ♭ m7 / E ♭ – A ♭ – F ♭ maj7 during the opening strings , and A ♭ – A ♭ / G ♭ – Fm7 during the verses as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
Taraborrelli called it a " melancholy and beautifully executed ballad " . Author Chris Wade wrote in his book The Music of Madonna that " Take a Bow " was a standout from the album . He complimented Madonna and Babyface 's vocals , while calling the music " stunning " . He declared it as one of the singer 's " purest songs , totally free of any gimmicks , self consciousness or knowing sexual references ; a graceful end to the album . " Encyclopedia Madonnica writer Matthew Rettenmund called it a " sentimental ballad with showbiz theme " while finding similarities in the song to that of " Superstar " by The Carpenters . In his review of Bedtime Stories , Billboard 's Paul Verna called it a " holiday feast for Top 40 , rhythm crossover , and AC " . Also from Billboard , Larry Flick gave the single a particularly positive review ; " The follow @-@ up to the top five smash ' Secret ' [ ... ] is as perfect as top 40 fare gets . This single has a delightful , immediately memorable melody and chorus , engaging romance @-@ novel lyrics and a lead vocal that is both sweet and quietly soulful . A lovely way for [ Madonna ] to kick out ' 95 " . J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun stated that the song , about " innocent romance " has a " gently cascading melody " . Peter Calvin from The Advocate praised the lyrical flow of the song , saying that the " effect is truly heartbreaking . The song ... shows that ultimately Madonna ... is just like you and me " .
James Hunter from Vibe called the song " a New Soul masterpiece " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic referred to " Take a Bow " as " tremendous " , listing it as one of the best songs from Bedtime Stories and stating that it " slowly works its melodies into the subconscious as the bass pulses " . He goes on to say that it " offer [ s ] an antidote to Erotica , which was filled with deep but cold grooves " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani , called it " syrupy and bittersweet " . NME 's Alex Needham , opined it was a " gorgeously constructed song by any standards " . Matthew Jacobs , from The Huffington Post , placed it at number 19 of his list " The Definitive Ranking Of Madonna Singles " . Jacobs wrote :
" Take a Bow " is Madonna 's most poetic ballad . Much in the way that such hits as " Borderline " and " Into the Groove " act as the fuselage of ' 80s pop [ ... ] a lost @-@ love elegy that squares nicely with the burgeoning female singer @-@ songwriter movement of the ' 90s . Don 't mistake its sleepy quality for stuffiness . This song is Madonna at her loveliest .
Enio Chiola of PopMatters , included the song on his list of " Top 15 Madonna Singles of All Time " . He opined that " [ ' Take a Bow ' ] features a more demure Madonna , confident in her termination of a doomed relationship , and the music is accented by characteristically Asian orchestration and lovely poetic lyrics " , concluding that " [ Madonna ] quickly learned that the way back into the public 's collective hearts was to focus more attention on the music than on the frankness of her sexual image " . In his 2011 review of Bedtime Stories , Brett Callwood of the Detroit Metro Times called the song " spectacular " . NPR Multimedia senior producer Keith Jenkins gave a positive review of the song , stating that it " washes over you and gets your blood boiling . You may not walk on water after hearing it , but you may want to get your focus back by walking on broken glass " . Louis Virtel , from TheBacklot.com , placed " Take a Bow " at number 27 of his list " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " . He wrote ; " Madonna 's most successful single to date is a melancholic evisceration of a lover 's artifice , and its hopeless plain @-@ spokenness makes it one of the finest examples of 90s balladry " . Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , was less impressed with the track . Although he felt that it sounded " shockingly normal " after the " ambient ' Bedtime Story ' " , he found the song 's length as over @-@ long and deduced it to be " communica [ ting ] no sense whatsoever of the pain of a real goodbye . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Take a Bow " was a commercial success in the United States , reaching the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was Madonna 's second number @-@ one single since Billboard started using Nielsen SoundScan and Nielsen BDS data for tabulating its charts , the first being " This Used to Be My Playground " . The song topped the chart for seven weeks and is her longest @-@ running number @-@ one single on this chart . It was her 11th single to top the Billboard Hot 100 and her 23rd top five entry — both records for a female artist . She also replaced Carole King as the female who had written the most number @-@ one songs . It was present on the chart for a total of 30 weeks , tying up with " Borderline " as Madonna 's longest running song on the Hot 100 . With the song reaching number one on the Hot 100 , Madonna was at fourth place on the list of artists with most number @-@ one singles on the chart : She was behind The Beatles , Elvis Presley and Michael Jackson and The Supremes . In 2013 , Billboard allocated " Take a Bow " the number four spot on its list of " Madonna 's Biggest Billboard Hits " , declaring it Madonna 's second @-@ most successful single of the 1990s decade after " Vogue " .
" Take a Bow " became Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single on the Adult Contemporary chart in the United States , following " Live to Tell " , " La Isla Bonita " , " Cherish " , and " I 'll Remember " . It was number @-@ one for nine weeks . The song is also notable as Madonna 's last single to make the top 40 of the US R & B chart . It also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart , and reached number four on the Rhythmic chart . On February 27 , 1995 , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and according to Billboard , it was one of the best selling singles of 1995 , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies that year . With " Take a Bow " ' s certification , Madonna ranked with Janet Jackson as the female artists with most gold certified singles . In Canada the song debuted at number 85 on the RPM Singles Chart , and reached the top after 11 weeks , becoming Madonna 's 12th number @-@ one single in that country . " Take a Bow " was present for a total of 25 weeks and placed at number three on the RPM Year @-@ end ranking . It also reached number one on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart .
" Take a Bow " had moderate chart success in the United Kingdom , where it reached a peak of number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . This ended Madonna 's record @-@ holding string of 35 consecutive top @-@ ten singles on the chart from " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) to " Secret " ( 1994 ) . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has sold 102 @,@ 739 copies in the United Kingdom , as of August 2008 . In Australia , " Take a Bow " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at number 21 on December 25 , 1994 , eventually peaking at number 15 , and was present on the chart for a total of 17 weeks . The song peaked at number two on the Italian Singles Chart and number eight on the Swiss Singles Chart . In New Zealand , the single peaked at number nine on the New Zealand Singles Chart , spending a total of 13 weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and release = = =
The music video for " Take a Bow " was directed by Michael Haussman , and is a lavish period @-@ style piece filmed from November 3 – 8 , 1994 in Ronda and in the bullring of Antequera , Spain . In the video Madonna wore a fitted , classic suit by British fashion designer John Galliano . The costumes worn by Madonna in the video was created by stylist Lori Goldstein who received the VH1 Fashion and Media award for best styling . Other designers who provided clothing included Donatella Versace and a then @-@ unknown Christian Louboutin . Madonna had a 1940s style on her , with tight corset , silk dresses and a black @-@ veiled hat . The plot of the video was set in the 1940s , depicting Madonna as a neglected lover of a bullfighter , played by real @-@ life Spanish actor and bullfighter Emilio Muñoz . Madonna 's character yearns for the bullfighter 's presence , with erotic heartbreak . In an interview with MTV 's Kurt Loder on the set of the music video , Madonna said that when she was initially writing " Take a Bow " the inspiration for the song was an actor , but she wanted the male character in the video to be a matador instead because she wanted the video to be about an " obsessive , tragic love story that doesn 't work out in the end " and a matador would be more visually effective in expressing the emotion of the song .
Madonna arrived in Ronda in November 1994 with a team of 60 people and wanted to shoot at the bullrings in the city . However , her request was rejected by the Real Maestranza de Caballería of Ronda ( Royal Cavalry Brotherhood of Ronda ) , who considered it as a desecration of the arenas if Madonna would have filmed there , since her name at that time was associated with provocative imagery . Also , Madonna had to give up shooting around the city 's square due to high economic demands of its owner , former bullfighter Antonio Ordóñez who demanded ₧ 17 million ( US $ 122 @,@ 302 in 1994 ) . Later it was clarified that Madonna was refused due to unknown moral reasons from the Brotherhood , who accused the media of making free publicity on the singer 's behalf . The refusal generated controversy in Ronda , whose political groups believed that allowing the video to be shot within its precipices would be great promotion for the city . Madonna later obtained permit to shoot inside the palace of the Marquis of Salvatierra . Bullfighting scenes were shot at the Plaza de Toros de Ronda ( The Toros Plaza of Ronda ) , where Muñoz acted along side three fighting bulls . The actor was paid ₧ 7 million ( US $ 50 @,@ 360 in 1994 ) for participating in the video .
The music video was released on November 22 , 1994 on MTV . It was also part of VH1 's relaunching promotional campaigns , where the channel used the video in its trio of 30 second commercials titled " The New VH1 " . The commercial showed a couple in a vintage porsche pulling in front of an ATM cash machine . The man makes a transaction while the woman looks at VH1 playing at a store , showing " Take a Bow " . When the man turns back to the car , the woman is gone and can be seen inside the video along side Madonna , while the singer appears in the car , and utters the tagline : " The new VH1 ... It 'll suck you in " . According to Abbey Konowitch , who worked on Madonna 's Maverick Records , the singer had a long history with MTV and VH1 , and hence was eager to participate in the campaign when asked by VH1 president John Sykes . For filming the commercial , the cloths worn in the video had to be flown in from the different designers . Madonna was also impressed by the technology used in the commercial for transposing the woman and herself together .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The music video begins with showing Madonna , the torero ( Muñoz ) , and the townspeople preparing for , then attending , a bullfight . A secondary staging in the video presents Madonna standing or sitting near a television set in a room ( lit by a single light source from above ) , while a third staging depicts Madonna writhing around on a bed in her underwear as she watches Muñoz on the television . In the bullring , the torero kills the bull and then comes home and physically and emotionally abuses Madonna . The video can be viewed as a statement on classicism , supposing the bullfighter feels threatened and angered by the aristocrat 's station , resulting in his physically abusing and then coldly abandoning her .
The style of the music video has been compared to Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar 's 1986 film Matador , starring Antonio Banderas . Madonna requested that Haussman give the video a Spanish theme because , at the time , she was lobbying for the role of Eva Perón in the film version of Evita . She subsequently sent a copy of the video to director Alan Parker as a way of " auditioning " for the role . Madonna eventually won the role of Perón . The music video for Madonna 's 1995 single " You 'll See " is considered a follow up to the " Take a Bow " music video , as Madonna and Emilio Muñoz reprise their roles . In that video Madonna 's character walks out on Munoz 's ( bullfighter ) character , leaving him behind in despair . Madonna 's character is then seen on the train and later on a plane , while Munoz 's character tries to catch up with her in vain .
The video generated controversy with animal rights activists who accused the singer of glorifying bullfighting . In Australia , music video program Video Hits ran a ticker along the bottom of the screen when the video was playing , stating that the producers of the program did not endorse the glorification of the sport portrayed in the video , while ABC TV video program Rage simply refused to play the video at all during their G @-@ rated Top 50 program . Madonna won Best Female Video honors at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards for the " Take a Bow " music video . It was also nominated for Best Art Direction in a Video , but lost to Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson 's " Scream " . The video also came in at number 27 on VH1 's 50 Sexiest Video Moments . In 2012 , the television program Extra included " Take a Bow " on their list of " The 10 Sexiest Madonna Music Videos . "
= = = Analysis and impact = = =
Like some of Madonna 's previous music videos , such as " La Isla Bonita " and " Like a Prayer " , religious imagery plays a big role in the music video . In the book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds the use of Catholic imagery in the video is discussed . Author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández points out that unlike Madonna 's previous music videos , much of the religious imagery is associated with the torero , not Madonna , due to the fact that religious images are a strong part of the bullfighting ritual . It has also been argued that in the video Madonna " subverts the gender structure and masculine subjectivity implicit in traditional bullfighting . " This is achieved through the " feminization of the matador and the emphasis on Madonna 's character " and also through Madonna 's " dominant gaze " as she watches the matador perform . " Roger Beebe , one of the authors of Medium Cool : Music Videos from Soundies to Cellphones , noted that the video was an example of " how music , image , and lyrics of a song possesses their own temporality " . He explained that the " graceful " nature of the song was contrast to the repetitive scenes in the video , which he felt indicated that the protagonist has long been engaging in the activities , including the " demoralizing sex scenes " . In Madonna as Postmodern Myth , author Georges @-@ Claude Guilbert felt the video " defied feminists of the Marilyn Frye and Adrienne Rich variety , who see in the video a disgusting example of passé female submissiveness . " Madonna responded to this criticism by stating " I don 't believe that any organization should dictate to me what I can and cannot do artistically . " Guilbert also noted the usage of religious iconography in the video , especially dubious representation of the Virgin . He explained that most of the times Madonna and the torero make love through the television screen , implying that " one of their purity had to be maintained always " .
When discussing " Take a Bow " , NPR Multimedia senior producer Keith Jenkins said the music video , with its " rich , sensually framed sepia tones " , doesn 't leave much to the imagination but rather , it becomes your imagination , with Madonna 's vision " drill [ ed ] into your brain , unlocking your waking eye . " Carol Vernallis , author of Experiencing Music Video : Aesthetics and Cultural Context , noted that the video exemplified the lyrics of the song . She clarified that the scenes featuring Madonna and Muñoz dressing up and putting on their gloves pointed to storyline and lyrics that appeared later , the lyrics being " all the world loves a clown " . During that line Muñoz as the torero is seen with a fatuous expression , which Vernallis deduced as " the beginning of the story of possession and fame " in the video . When Madonna sings " I 've always been in love with you " , she appeared in the video as sometimes adolescent and sometimes middle @-@ aged . For Vernallis it was not clear if the imagery was literal or figurative of the lyrics , " embodying a lasting affection , as separate parts of Madonna 's psyche , or as the exaggerated claims of a groupie . " The author also noted that the scene where Madonna pricks her hand with a needle makes her relationship with the torero as more ambiguous . The costumes and melody in the video reminded Vernallis of the 1904 opera Madame Butterfly by Giacomo Puccini although with an inverted plotline . The scenes showing Madonna in an enclosed room with a single light bulb also drew comparisons to Glenn Close 's character in the 1987 psychological thriller film , Fatal Attraction . Another observation by Vernallis was about the power struggle it showed in the video , with Madonna gradually losing and relegated to one corner of the room .
The " Take a Bow " video was a source of inspiration for Justin Timberlake 's music video for his 2006 single , " SexyBack " . According to Timberlake , he decided to work with director Michael Haussman on his " SexyBack " video because " Take a Bow " is one of his favorite Madonna videos . He went on to say " Even today , I still remember the visuals , the images , how he captured her . A lot of times , Madonna seems like she 's the person in control , and in that video , she seemed vulnerable . It was a cool thing to see . " According to director Dave Meyers , the music video for Britney Spears ' 2009 single " Radar " is a " tribute " to Madonna 's " Take a Bow " video . When speaking of Spears and the " Radar " video , Meyers explained , " [ we were ] looking for a way to take her into a contemporary , classy environment . I felt empowered by referencing Madonna 's [ ' Take a Bow ' ] video . Britney hasn 't done anything like that . "
= = Live performances , covers and usage in media = =
On February 18 , 1995 , Madonna arrived in Europe to promote Bedtime Stories . During the same day , she performed " Secret " and " Take a Bow " on German TV show Wetten , dass .. ? , while she was also interviewed on the program . Madonna went back to United States and performed " Take a Bow " on the American Music Awards of 1995 , accompanied by Babyface and a full orchestra . Babyface said the performance was terrifying for him : " I was nervous as hell . But you couldn 't actually see my legs shaking under the suit . When we finished , she told me she had never been that nervous before . That was crazy to me -- I was thinking , ' You 're Madonna , you 're on stage all the time ! ' " . She returned to Europe and sang the song Sanremo Music Festival . At the end of the performance , she thanked the audience in Italian language , and received standing ovation . Madonna did rehearse the song for 2004 's Re @-@ Invention World Tour , but it was ultimately cut from the setlist and not included in the show .
Madonna had never performed " Take a Bow " on any of her concert tours until February 4 , 2016 , when she performed the song during the Taipei stop of her Rebel Heart Tour . After the performance , she exclaimed " That was fun ! First time ever . Hit a few bad notes , but it felt good to sing it . " The singer subsequently performed the song in the other cities during the Asian and Oceanian legs of the Rebel Heart Tour . An acoustic version of " Take a Bow " was performed on Madonna 's one @-@ off concert in Sydney , Madonna : Tears of a Clown . The show started with Madonna appearing onstage , in a clown 's costume consisting of a billowing dress , pink and yellow stalkings , riding a tricycle and circled round it .
Hong Kong pop singer Sandy Lam recorded a version of the song for her 1997 English language covers album " Wonderful World ( 美妙世界 ) " . Serbian pop singer Bebi Dol released Serbian language @-@ cover literally titled " Pokloni se " , on her 1995 album Ritam srca . Philippine bossa nova singer Sitti recorded a cover of this song for her second album My Bossa Nova . Korean rock band Jaurim covered the song on their album The Youth Admiration . Trisha Yearwood and Babyface covered the song on CMT 's Crossroads , which aired on September 21 , 2007 . Melissa Totten did a Hi @-@ NRG cover for her 2008 dance album Forever Madonna . American pop folk singer Matt Alber plays an acoustic cover on his 2011 album Constant Crows . " Take a Bow " was featured in the final episode of the first season of Friends , " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " , when Rachel goes to the airport to tell Ross that she knows he is in love with her . " Take a Bow " was used in promos for the final season of Beverly Hills , 90210 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , record producer , vocals
Babyface – songwriter , producer , background vocals , drum programming
Dallas Austin – drum programming
Mark " Spike " Stent – recording engineer
Alvin Speights – audio mixing
Nellee Hooper – strings , conductor
Jessie Leavey – strings , conductor
Craig Armstrong – conductor
Susie Katiyama – conductor
Fabien Baron – art director
Patrick Demarchelier – cover art photographer
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Mountain nyala =
The mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni ) or balbok is an antelope found in high altitude woodland in a small part of central Ethiopia . It is a monotypic species ( without any identified subspecies ) first described by English naturalist Richard Lydekker in 1910 . The males are typically 120 – 135 cm ( 47 – 53 in ) tall while females stand 90 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) at the shoulder . Males weigh 180 – 300 kg ( 400 – 660 lb ) and females weigh 150 – 200 kg ( 330 – 440 lb ) . The coat is grey to brown , marked with two to five poorly defined white strips extending from the back to the underside , and a row of six to ten white spots . White markings are present on the face , throat and legs as well . Males have a short dark erect crest , about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) high , running along the middle of the back . Only males possess horns .
The mountain nyala are shy and elusive towards human beings . Four to five individuals may congregate for short intervals of time to form small herds . Males are not territorial . Primarily a browser , the mountain nyala may switch to grazing occasionally . Females start mating at two years of age , and males too become sexually mature by that time . Gestation lasts for eight to nine months , after which a single calf is born . The lifespan of a mountain nyala is around 15 to 20 years .
The typical habitat for the mountain nyala is composed of montane woodlands at an altitude of 3 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 400 m ( 9 @,@ 800 – 11 @,@ 200 ft ) . Human settlement and large livestock population have forced the animal to occupy heath forests at an altitude of above 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 200 ft ) . Mountain nyala are endemic to the Ethiopian highlands east of the Rift Valley , between 6 ° N and 10 ° N. Up to half of the total population of the mountain nyala occurs in the 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) area of Gaysay , in the northern part of the Bale Mountains National Park . The mountain nyala has been classified under the Endangered category of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . Their influence on Ethiopian culture is notable , with the mountain nyala being featured on the obverse of Ethiopian ten cents coins .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mountain nyala was first described by English naturalist Richard Lydekker in 1910 . Its scientific name is Tragelaphus buxtoni . The species has been classified under the genus Tragelaphus of the family Bovidae . The mountain nyala was first brought to England in 1908 by Major Ivor Buxton , after whom the species has been named . Major Buxton , who had returned from a hunting trip in Ethiopia , first presented a specimen he had shot to British taxidermist Rowland Ward , who later on notified Lydekker about the discovery . It was the last large antelope to be discovered in Africa . The spiral horns and white markings on the face and across the flanks established it as a species of Tragelaphus . Lydekker believed that the species was related more closely to the nyala ( T. angasii ) than to the two kudu species ( then placed under the genus Strepsiceros ) . In fact , mountain nyala 's similarity to both Tragelaphus and Strepsiceros led to the merger of the latter into the former genus .
In 2005 , Sandi Willows @-@ Munro of the University of KwaZulu @-@ Natal ( Durban ) carried out a mitochondrial analysis of the nine Tragelaphus species. mtDNA and nDNA data were compared . The results showed that the mountain nyala is sister taxon to kéwel ( T. scriptus ) , sitatunga ( T. spekii ) and bongo ( T. eurycerus ) in the mitochondrial tree ( phylogenetic relationships obtained using mitochondrial data ) . However , in the nuclear tree , kéwel , mountain nyala and sitatunga plus the bongo are three equal branches . Hence the mountain nyala forms a monophyletic clade with these three species . The greater kudu clade split from the clade formed by mountain nyala , bongo , sitatunga and kéwel approximately 8 @.@ 6 million years ago .
= = Description = =
The mountain nyala is a large sexually dimorphic bovid . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is approximately is 240 – 260 cm ( 94 – 102 in ) in males and 190 – 200 cm ( 75 – 79 in ) in females . The males are typically 120 – 135 cm ( 47 – 53 in ) tall while females stand 90 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) at the shoulder . Males weigh 180 – 300 kg ( 400 – 660 lb ) and females weigh 150 – 200 kg ( 330 – 440 lb ) . The bushy tail reaches the heel , and is 20 – 25 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) long . The sensitive ears are large and lined with white hair .
The coat is grey to brown , marked with two to five poorly defined white strips extending from the back to the underside , and a row of six to ten white spots . White markings are present on the face , throat and legs as well . The white chevron between the eyes and the white patch on the throat are among the most conspicuous markings . The chest and the rump are white . The lower part of the legs are pale on the inside and clear white spots are present just above the hooves . The coat is fawn brown in male juveniles , and grows darker with age , eventually becoming charcoal in old bulls . Males have a short dark erect crest , about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) high , running along the middle of the back , from the neck to the tail . Coat texture may vary from smooth to rough , probably by season . Females resemble the red deer hind in size and proportions . Female juveniles are a bright rufous , and old females are as grey as young males . Females have two pairs of inguinal nipples .
Only males possess horns , whose maximum recorded length is 188 cm ( 74 in ) . Horns appear as cream @-@ coloured nubs at around six months and start growing in a spiral pattern , reaching full growth by two years . The horns have only one or two spirals , though a few males have been reported to have two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half turns . The final form might vary in different males – the horns could form well @-@ defined spirals , or could diverge in a structure similar to a lyre , resembling the horns of an impala , but with the final spiral incomplete . Growth rings are visible on the horn sheaths , but the annual patterns might be difficult to comprehend . Though the horns might wear out with age , the cream colour of the tips persists .
The mountain nyala resembles the greater kudu in that both have an array of white spots along their flanks and possess spiral horns . However , the greater kudu can be told apart from the mountain nyala due to the former 's greater height and paler colour . Moreover , the horns in greater kudu have two to three spirals , and the tips are farther apart . Another species similar to the mountain nyala is the nyala , but the latter can be easily distinguished from the former due to its smaller size and a fringe of long hair along its throat and neck . The horns of nyala , though very similar , are slender and narrower .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The mountain nyala are shy and elusive towards human beings . They spend the night on the edges of forests , feeding part of the time . To avoid human disturbance , they choose to navigate at night . They come out in morning and late afternoon to browse in grasslands . They generally seek cover in woodlands and heather thickets when it is very hot or cold . Feeding may occur in midday , but is interspersed with resting intervals . They tend to come out when it is overcast or raining . In the dry season ( November to March ) , given the dilapidated state of grasslands , the mountain nyala travel up to the wooden areas rich in ericaceous heath .
Four to five individuals may congregate for short intervals of time to form small herds . However , groups containing as many as 100 individuals have been reported from the Bale Zone , composed of several family units moving in and out periodically . Size and longevity of such large herds depends upon the season , habitat type and the time of the day . Female and juvenile groups have adult females accompanied by a calf of her previous year and another of the current year . These groups are led by adult males , depending on the presence of oestrus . Bachelor herds are formed by non @-@ dominant adult bulls and young males , consisting of up to 13 individuals . Mixed sex groups may also be formed . Old bulls tend to lead a solitary life , though they may occasionally visit female herds looking for females in oestrus . Dominance hierarchies are observed in both sexes .
Males are not territorial , and have home ranges covering 15 – 20 km2 ( 5 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) in the wet season . Females and juveniles , on the other hand , occupy much smaller ranges of about 5 km2 ( 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) in the wet season . Dry season ranges are much larger than the wet season ones for both sexes . Males often wrestle using their horns . Though usually silent , the mountain nyala may " cough " noticing a potential threat , or utter a low bark if the threat is more serious . The leopard is the main predator of the mountain nyala .
= = = Diet = = =
Primarily a browser , the mountain nyala may switch to grazing occasionally . It feeds on low @-@ height herbs , bushes , shrubs and general foliage . They might even eat lichens , ferns and aquatic plants . Grasses are specially preferred during the early wet season . They pick up fallen leaves and use their horns to reach higher branches . Favoured species include Artemsia afra ( sage brush ) , Hypericum revolutum , Kniphofia foliosa , Solanum sessilistellatum and Hagenia abyssinica leaves . They prefer Alchemilla rotti , Helichrysum splendidum and lower foliage of Lobelia rynchopetalum .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females start mating at two years of age , and males too become sexually mature by that time . Sexual dimorphism , larger home ranges for males , and a female @-@ biased population indicate polygyny in the species . The mountain nyala breed throughout the year , but the peak occurs in December . Prior to and during the breeding season the adult males tend to get associated with mixed sex herds . Bulls continuously follow receptive females and test their vulvas . Three to four males may seek a single female , and , if equally ranked in hierarchy , may engage in circling displays . In these displays the males move very slowly and stiffly , with the crest on the back erect and the tail raised . They are less likely to engage in aggressive fights , which , if they happen , last only for a brief period . Flehmen follows vulva @-@ testing .
Gestation lasts for eight to nine months , after which a single calf is born . In the Bale Mountains National Park , births occur throughout the year , but peak from September to November . Calves remain in cover for the first few weeks after birth . The calves remain close to their mothers for nearly two years . The young females may get pregnant by then . The young males , as they mature by two years , are challenged by other males and driven out of their herds . The lifespan of a mountain nyala is around 15 to 20 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The typical habitat for the mountain nyala is composed of montane woodlands at an altitude of 3 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 400 m ( 9 @,@ 800 – 11 @,@ 200 ft ) . The vegetation generally includes Juniper , Podocarpus and Olea at lower levels and Haegenia , Juniper and Hypericum in the upper reaches . They often visit the edges of montane grasslands at 2 @,@ 800 – 3 @,@ 100 m ( 9 @,@ 200 – 10 @,@ 200 ft ) , which is covered with Artemesia afra , Kniphofia and evergreen Hypericum species .
Nowadays the continuous blocks of woodland habitat have been reduced to a series of pockets , interspersed in large cultivated lands . Human settlement and large livestock population have forced the animal to occupy heath forests at an altitude of above 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 200 ft ) rich in Erica , Phillippia , Hypericum , Euphorbia and Helichrysum species . They may even be forced into afromontane grasslands containing Alchemilla and Festuca species , at an altitude of up to 4 @,@ 300 m ( 14 @,@ 100 ft ) . In the eastern borders of its range , the mountain nyala has usually been observed to occupy areas at lower altitudes of about 1 @,@ 800 – 2 @,@ 400 m ( 5 @,@ 900 – 7 @,@ 900 ft ) .
Mountain nyala are endemic to the Ethiopian highlands east of the Rift Valley , between 6 ° N and 10 ° N. Their former range was from Mount Gara Muleta in the east to Shashamene and the northern Bale Zone to the south . Up to half of the total population of the mountain nyala occurs in the 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) area of Gaysay , in the northern part of the Bale Mountains National Park . Smaller relict populations occur in Chercher , mountains such as Chilalo in Arsi Zone , and the western Bale . A study identified an area of 39 @.@ 38 km2 ( 15 @.@ 20 sq mi ) on the southern escarpment of the Bale Mountains as the most sustainable habitat for the mountain nyala .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Major threats to the survival of the mountain nyala include illegal hunting , habitat destruction , encroachment by livestock , predation of calves by dogs , expansion of montane cultivation and construction at high altitudes . The animal is extensively hunted for its horns and meat . The meat is utilised in local medicine and for making nipples for traditional milk bottles . Impact of trophy hunting programs is obscure , and current trophy hunting quotas have been deemed unsustainable in the long term .
The mountain nyala has been classified under the Endangered category of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . It has not been listed under the Washington Convention ( CITES ) . Though legal protection has been fully ensured for the species , the implementation has not been so effective . In 1991 , there was widespread unrest in Ethiopia during which several mountain nyala were killed and the population in the Bale Mountains National Park fell to 150 . After the Bale Mountains National Park , the small Kuni @-@ Muktar Mountain Nyala Sanctuary was established in 1990 was established as a second protected area . But by 1996 the sanctuary had been so severely affected by deforestation , poaching , cultivation and gully erosion , that the populations soon disappeared from there .
In the 1960s , the population was estimated at 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 ( and perhaps up to 12 @,@ 500 ) . This declined sharply to 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 individuals in the 1980s . The population is decreasing even now . The mountain nyala is feared to be extinct in the eastern and southern extremes of its range , though a few probably survive in Chiro ( Asebe Teferi ) and the border between Bale and Sidamo , south of Kofele . Apart from Gaysay about 80 to 120 mountain nyala occur in the rest of the Bale Mountains National Park , and a few hundred occur in the areas in the vicinity of the national park .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The influence of the mountain nyala , as well as the nyala , on Ethiopian culture can not be ignored . Although nyala is a South African word , several prominent businesses such as Nyala Motors use it in their names . The nyala and mountain nyala often regularly appear on walls , commercial products and tourist curios . The mountain nyala is featured on the obverse of the Ethiopian ten cents coin .
Mountain nyala are hunted by humans , for instance , by the Oromo people . The Oromo do not hunt these animals in general , except for a day close to Easter , when all able @-@ bodied men set out on horses for a hunt .
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= Silent Civilian =
Silent Civilian is an American metalcore band originating from Los Angeles , California , United States . Following his departure from nu metal band Spineshank in 2004 , frontman Jonny Santos felt he wanted to move in a different direction musically and start from scratch . Silent Civilian was thus formed and the band faced trouble from the start after experiencing several line @-@ up changes and departing from their original record label Corporate Punishment Records .
The band signed with Mediaskare Records and released their debut record , Rebirth of the Temple , on May 2 , 2006 . Receiving generally positive reviews , the album has sold more than 25 @,@ 000 copies since its release in the United States . The band continues to tour supporting the record as Santos one day wants to establish the band as a headlining act . Their line @-@ up consists of Santos ( vocals and guitar ) , Matt Bredemeier ( guitar ) and Robbie Young ( bass ) .
Silent Civilian released their second album , Ghost Stories , on May 18 , 2010 . The band has plans to release a third studio album .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Jonny Santos , who is best known as the vocalist and song writer for the Grammy Award nominated industrial metal group Spineshank was displeased with the direction the band was going in and felt it had ' run its course ' . Santos felt it was time to move on and left Spineshank , although he was unsure what direction he wanted with his music career . He would play with local bands and friends , while performing production and engineering duties in studios to ' pay the bills ' . However , after leaving Spineshank , Santos lost everything and was basically homeless , ' couch surfing ' from friend ’ s house to friend ’ s house .
Realizing he wanted to start a band from scratch , Santos placed an ad for a drummer on the social networking website MySpace . After receiving a large number of e @-@ mails , Santos received an e @-@ mail from Chris Mora with a video of him drumming . Santos thought " You can ’ t be for real , dude " and asked Mora to come down for the first audition . 10 minutes into the audition Mora was hired as the drummer . Santos auditioned for an Australian band that moved to America called Cryogenic . Although he thought the band was not for him , he met the band 's bassist Henno . As Cryogenic and Mudrock , who were working together , had both lost their vocalists , Henno contacted Santos and asked him to join the band , to which Santos accepted . Ryan Ready , who Santos had known since high @-@ school , was recruited as the second guitarist . The band 's original name was announced as Silent Civilians , which originates from the world 's climate change by that people have opinions on life and politics and they do not voice their beliefs , living in a nation full of ' silent civilians ' .
= = = Label and line @-@ up changes = = =
Silent Civilians signed to Corporate Punishment Records in January , 2005 and began work on their debut album , Rebirth of the Temple . However , in May Santos announced they left CPR for reasons he was unable to discuss . The band began talking to several labels after this and pushed the release of their debut to late 2005 or early 2006 . The album was recorded at Undercity Recordings , with production duties handled by former Machine Head and Soulfly guitarist Logan Mader , and co @-@ production handled by his partner , Lucas Banker . The band also announced they had changed their name to Silent Civilian . In June , guitarist Ryan Ready left the band due to personal reasons , not relating to the band . Santos sought a replacement , and the following day to Ready 's departure set up auditions . Tim Mankowski , who Santos had known for 15 years and played in the band Basic Enigma with him , was hired as the new guitarist .
In November 2005 , the band signed with Mediaskare records and planned a tentative release for their debut album for February 21 , 2006 . At this time , the band had three demo versions of the songs " Lies in the House of Shame " , " Divided " and the title track , " Rebirth of the Temple " . Mora and Santos were involved in the writing process of the album . While Mora was at work , Santos was at home writing riffs and would create roughly three to four ' skeletons of songs ' a week . When Mora finished work , he would help Santos with arrangements , the body of the song , and track it that night and record the vocals and melodies the following day . 30 songs were primarily written for the album as Santos wanted fans to get their moneys worth . 16 songs were recorded that included two cover versions of the thrash metal band Slayer 's " War Ensemble ” and Death Angel 's " Seemingly Endless Time " . Although neither cover songs made it onto the album . The length of the CD is 64 minutes , which features the video of the album 's title track , and an exclusive 10 @-@ minute documentary on the creation process of the album .
= = = Rebirth of the Temple ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
Silent Civilian released their debut album Rebirth of the Temple on May 2 , 2006 . Blabbermouth.net reviewer , Scott Alisoglu , thought " on virtually every track , the group meshes attacking riffs , searing solos , brutal drumming , and melody @-@ drenched bombast " . Although he did not believe it was a ' grand slam ' , he thought it was a " pleasant surprise and strong first effort " . Charlie Steffens of KNAC described the album as " goddamn electric " , while Greg Maki of live @-@ metal.net awarded the album a perfect 10 out of 10 selecting it as his " best album I have heard so far in 2006 . " As of June 5 , 2007 , Rebirth of the Temple has sold 25 @,@ 000 copies .
The video for the first single , " Rebirth of the Temple " , was directed by Scott Culver and was filmed at Santos ' childhood home . Santos invited 50 friends over for a party and posted a bulletin that read " If you ’ re in the L.A. area , if you ’ re a Silent Civilian fan , show up at this address " two hours before filming . This resulted in another 30 people turning up . Static @-@ X front @-@ man Wayne Static , Stone Sour drummer Roy Mayorga and Logan make appearances in the video .
Tim Mankowski departed the band and Henno broke his ankle on an on @-@ stage mishap . The band continued to tour as a three @-@ piece as they sought for a replacement guitarist and bassist as soon as possible — Henno was able to perform on a bar stool temporarily . While touring with Nothingface and Crossbreed , Santos had met guitarist Marcus Rafferty , who he became friends with and recruited him to replace Mankowski after an audition . Touring partners Bleed the Sky assisted in replacing members for live shows . Bassist Disco Daylen took to the stage replacing Henno and guitarist Kyle Moorman assisted with the replacement of the guitarist by playing half the set and Rafferty would play the other . Santos asked Rafferty if he knew any bass players who were interested in a position , he contacted a friend of his , Stan Derby , who replaced Disco after one month .
In a July 2006 interview with Live @-@ Metal.net , Santos stated the band was planning on recording a tribute EP of cover versions on old Bay Area music , including such bands as Sacred Reich , Death Angel , Exodus and Testament . The band is touring on The Sweet Revenge Tour with Kittie , It Dies Today and Bring Me The Horizon and by the end of the year Santos hopes to establish the band as a headlining act . On December 28 , 2007 in a statement released to Blabbermouth.net , Mora explained his departure from the band was based on personal reasons .
= = = Ghost Stories ( 2008 – present ) = = =
As of November 12 , 2008 , their official Myspace page confirms that they are currently writing a new record . As of March 30 , 2009 , their Myspace ] page states that the new record will be called ' Ghost Stories ' . On June 11 , 2010 the band 's Myspace was updated with a new song titled " Ghost Stories " which would be featured on the upcoming album . Ryan Halpert ignited the band as Chris Mora 's replacement on drums in mid @-@ 2009 . Silent Civilian will be back on the road January 2010 with Blind Witness and Years of Red Skies . Their sophomore album Ghost Stories was released via Century Media on May 18 , 2010 . In 2013 , bassist Robbie Young launched his new project Atlas .
= = Members = =
Jonny Santos – vocals , guitar ( 2005 – present )
Robbie Young – bass ( 2009 – present )
Matt Bredemeier - guitar ( 2011 – present )
Zac Morris - drums ( 2012 @-@ present )
= = = Former = = =
Ryan Ready - guitar ( 2005 )
Tim Mankowski - guitar ( 2005 @-@ 2006 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " )
Marcus Rafferty - guitar ( 2006 – 2007 )
Henno – bass ( 2005 @-@ 2006 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " )
Shaun Feiler - bass ( 2008 - 2009 recorded " Ghost Stories " )
Chris " Mad Man " Mora - drums ( 2005 @-@ 2007 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " )
David Delacruz - lead guitar ( 2007 – 2010 recorded " Ghost Stories " )
Ryan Halpert - drums ( 2009 @-@ 2010 recorded " Ghost Stories " )
Rodolfo Perez " Rudy " - lead guitar
Jesse Nunn ( Saint ) - guitar ( 2005 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= SMS Augsburg =
SMS Augsburg was a Kolberg @-@ class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) during the First World War . She had three sister ships , SMS Kolberg , Mainz , and Cöln . The ship was built by the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel ; her hull was laid down in 1908 and she was launched in July 1909 . Augsburg was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in October 1910 . She was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) .
After her commissioning , Augsburg spent her peacetime career first as a torpedo test ship and then as a gunnery training ship . After the outbreak of World War I , she was assigned to the Baltic Sea , where she spent the entire war . On 2 August 1914 , she participated in an operation that saw the first shots of the war with Russia fired , and she later took part in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 and Operation Albion in October 1917 , as well as numerous smaller engagements throughout the war . She struck a mine , once , in January 1915 , though the ship was again operational in a few months . After the end of the war , Augsburg was ceded to Japan as a war prize , and was subsequently broken up for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Augsburg was ordered as a replacement for SMS Sperber under the contract name Ersatz Sperber and was laid down in 1908 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel . She was launched on 10 July 1909 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 October 1910 . The ship was 130 @.@ 50 meters ( 428 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 14 m ( 45 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 915 t ( 4 @,@ 837 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Parsons steam turbines driving four 2 @.@ 25 @-@ meter ( 7 ft 5 in ) propellers . They were designed to give 19 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 974 kW ; 18 @,@ 740 shp ) . These were powered by fifteen coal @-@ fired Marine water @-@ tube boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . Augsburg carried 940 t ( 930 long tons ; 1 @,@ 040 short tons ) of coal that gave her a range of approximately 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Augsburg had a crew of 18 officers and 349 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . These were replaced in 1916 – 1917 with six 15 cm SK L / 45 guns . She also carried four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns , though these were replaced with a pair of two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in 1918 . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . Two deck @-@ mounted 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tube launchers were added in 1918 She could also carry 100 mines . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Augsburg was used as a torpedo test ship . In 1912 , she was transferred to gunnery training . On the 20th of May 1914 she visited Dundee on a courtesy visit . Captain Fischer and his crew were welcomed by the Lord Provost and " the greatest friendliness was displayed " . Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was assigned to the Baltic Sea , under the command of Rear Admiral Robert Mischke . On 2 August , Augsburg laid a minefield outside the Russian harbor of Libau , while Magdeburg shelled the port . The Russians had in fact already left Libau , which was seized by the German Army . The minefield laid by Augsburg was poorly marked and hindered German operations more than Russian efforts . Augsburg and the rest of the Baltic light forces then conducted a series of bombardments of Russian positions . On 17 August , Augsburg , Magdeburg , three destroyers , and the minelayer Deutschland encountered a pair of powerful Russian armored cruisers , Admiral Makarov and Gromoboi . The Russian commander , under the mistaken assumption that the German armored cruisers Roon and Prinz Heinrich were present , did not attack and both forces withdrew .
In September , the light forces in the Baltic were reinforced with the IV Battle Squadron , composed of the older Braunschweig and Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , and the large armored cruiser Blücher . Starting on 3 September , the combined German force conducted a sweep into the Baltic . During the operation , Augsburg spotted the Russian cruisers Pallada and Bayan . She attempted to draw them closer to Blücher , but the Russians refused to take the bait and withdrew . On 7 September , Augsburg and the torpedo boat V25 steamed into the Gulf of Bothnia and sank a Russian steamer off Raumo . By the 9th , the German fleet had returned to port . On the night of 24 – 25 January , Augsburg ran into a Russian minefield off Bornholm and struck a mine . The crew kept the ship afloat , and she was towed back to port for repairs .
Augsburg was back in service by April 1915 , ready for a major operation against Libau . The German Army planned to seize the port as a distraction from the main Austro @-@ German effort at Gorlice – Tarnów . They requested naval support , and so the Navy organized a force comprising the coastal defense ship Beowulf , three armored cruisers , three light cruisers , including Augsburg , and a large number of torpedo boats and minesweepers . In addition , the IV Scouting Group , consisting of four light cruisers and twenty @-@ one torpedo boats , was sent from the North Sea to reinforce the operation . The German Army captured Libau in May , and it was subsequently turned into an advance base for the German Navy . Later that month , the Navy assigned a mine @-@ laying operation to Augsburg and Lübeck ; they were to lay a minefield near the entrance to the Gulf of Finland . A submarine attack on the cruiser Thetis , however , prompted the German naval command to cancel the operation .
On 1 June , Augsburg , Roon , Lübeck , and seven torpedo boats escorted the minelaying cruiser SMS Albatross while she laid a field off Bogskär . Augsburg served as the flagship of Commodore Johannes von Karpf , the commander of the operation . After finishing laying the minefield , Karpf sent a wireless transmission informing headquarters he had accomplished the mission , and was returning to port . This message was intercepted by the Russians , allowing them to intercept the Germans . Four Russian armored cruisers , with the powerful armored cruiser Rurik steaming in support , attempted to ambush the German squadron . Karpf dispersed his force shortly before encountering the Russians ; Augsburg , Albatross , and three torpedo boats steamed to Rixhöft while the remainder went to Libau . Shortly after 06 : 30 on 2 June , lookouts on Augsburg spotted the Russian force ; Karpf ordered the slower Albatross to seek refuge in neutral Swedish waters , while Augsburg and the torpedo boats used their high speed to escape the Russians . In the engagement that followed , Albatross was badly damaged and ran aground in Swedish waters . The Russians then turned to engage the second German force , but were low on ammunition after the engagement with Augsburg and Albatross and broke off the engagement .
The Russian Kasatka @-@ class submarine Okun fired two torpedoes at Augsburg on the night of 28 June , though both missed . Augsburg was assigned to the forces that took part in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . A significant detachment from the High Seas Fleet , including eight dreadnoughts and three battlecruisers , went into the Baltic to clear the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces . Augsburg participated in the second attack on 16 August , led by the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen . On the night of 19 August , Augsburg encountered a pair of Russian gunboats — Sivutch and Korietz ; Augsburg and Posen sank Sivutch , though Korietz managed to escape . The Russian surface forces had by this time withdrawn to Moon Sound , and the threat of Russian submarines and mines still in the Gulf prompted the Germans to retreat . On 13 October , an unknown submarine fired a torpedo at Augsburg , though it did not hit her . In September 1916 , Augsburg participated in an attempt to force the Irben Strait into the Gulf of Riga in September 1916 . Heavy Russian resistance , primarily from the old battleship Slava , forced the Germans to retreat from the Gulf .
In November 1917 , Augsburg participated in another attack on the Gulf of Riga , Operation Albion . By this point , she had been assigned to the VI Scouting Group along with Strassburg and her sister Kolberg . At 06 : 00 on 14 October 1917 , the three ships left Libau to escort minesweeping operations in the Gulf of Riga . They were attacked by Russian 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) coastal guns on their approach and were temporarily forced to turn away . By 08 : 45 , however , they had anchored off the Mikailovsk Bank and the minesweepers began to clear a path in the minefields . Two days later , Augsburg joined the dreadnoughts König and Kronprinz for a sweep of the Gulf of Riga . While the battleships engaged the Russian naval forces , Augsburg was tasked with supervising the occupation of Arensburg .
According to the Armistice that ended the war , Augsburg and the rest of the German fleet not interned in Scapa Flow were to be returned to the main German ports and disarmed . In the subsequent Treaty of Versailles that formally ended the conflict , Augsburg was listed as a warship to be surrendered to the Allied powers ; she was to be disarmed in accordance with the terms of the Armistice , but her guns were to remain on board . After the end of World War I , Augsburg was surrendered to Japan as a war prize on 3 September 1920 , under the name " Y " . The Japanese had no use for the ship , and so she was broken up in Dordrecht in 1922 .
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= 575 ( song ) =
" 575 " is a song recorded by Japanese recording girl group Perfume for their third studio album , JPN ( 2011 ) . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The song was included as a B @-@ side track for the group ’ s single , " Voice " . It was also released exclusively to Uta stores in Japan on July 14 , 2010 . Musically , " 575 " was described as a mellow Japanese pop song . It marks the first time that the group perform in a rap structure , delivered after the first chorus .
Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised the song ’ s composition and the rap delivery . Due to the song being released digitally and as a B @-@ side to " Voice " , it was ruled ineligible to chart on Japan ’ s Oricon Singles Chart . However , it peaked at number 73 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart , and number four on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for cellphone purchases of 100 @,@ 000 units . A music video was originally to debut on their JPN tour in 2012 , but the idea was scrapped . Instead , it was included on the live DVD .
= = Background and composition = =
" 575 " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . Alongside this , it was recorded , mixed , and mastered by him . The song was recorded in 2010 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . It was selected as a B @-@ side track to " Voice " , the second single to the groups album JPN ( 2011 ) . It also appeared on the album , listed at number 9 on the track list . The instrumental version appeared on the CD single and digital EP for the " Voice " single . The song was released exclusively to Uta stores in Japan on July 14 , 2010 .
Musically , the song has been described as a mellow Japanese pop song . It marks the first time that the group perform in a rap structure , delivered after the first chorus . Throughout a majority of the song , the girl ’ s vocals are heavily processed with post @-@ production tools such as vocoder and autotune . Only two English phrases are used in the song ; these being the lyrics , " Give it up " and " Good night " . Japanese music editor Random J reviewed the album on his personal blog , and commented about the songs composition , " ' 575 ' is Perfume 's equivalent of a slow jam ... And the girls even spit some bars on it . " Ian Martin from The Japan Times described the songs composition as , " a curiously mellow take on the 1990s ballad / rap hybrid J @-@ pop formula . " Perfume stated together that they were " very surprised , yet very anxious " about the rap section .
= = Critical response = =
" 575 " received favorable reviews from most music critics . Japanese music editor Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog , and gave it a positive remark . He described it as a " really nice , spaced out , mellow song " . Regarding the song ’ s rap section , he commented " Their flow won 't have Jay @-@ Z throwing in the towel , but they sound a damn earshot better than most dudes in the rap game right now . " A staff editor from CD Journal gave the song a positive review . They compared the composition and delivery to the groups song " Macaroni " , from their 2008 debut album Game . The reviewer praised the groups " brave " vocal delivery . Another editor from the same publication reviewed the album , and gave it a positive review . The reviewer complimented the song 's rap section and praised the " new grounded " compositions . Ian Martin from The Japan Times gave the song a mixed review ; despite his appreciate of the slow composition , he criticized , in general , the lack of " creativity " and " invention " through the second half of the album and felt these factors were presented throughout other projects by Nakata apart from Perfume .
= = Commercial performance = =
Due to the song being released digitally and as a B @-@ side to " Voice " , it was ineligible to chart on Japan ’ s Oricon Singles Chart because it does not count digital sales . However , it managed to chart on other record charts in Japan . It peaked at number 73 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart and is the highest charting non @-@ single track from JPN . It then charted on the RIAJ Digital Track Chart , peaking at number four and was the groups highest charting single on there . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for cell phone purchases of up to 100 @,@ 000 units . In conjunction with the sales of " Voice " and " 575 " on the CD Single , it was certified gold by the RIAJ for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
= = Music video and live performances = =
A music video was used as a backdrop projection for their Tokyo dome 2010 tour [ 12345678910 ] , projected on all the screens . Instead , it was released on the limited edition DVD . It featured the girls singing the song in front of the songs title . Inter cut scenes of the live performance , and the girls getting ready for the show , were included in the video .
The song has been performed on one concert tour , and has appeared on one commercial in Japan . The song was used as the theme song for the KDDI Light Pool commercial in Japan . Japanese rapper , Kreva , performed a cover version of the song on Music Japan Broadcast in early 2011 . The song was performed on their 2010 Tokyo Dome concert tour , where it was included during the second segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on February 9 , 2011 . The performance included the girls dancing around geometrical shapes and was positively received from music critics . Yuki Sugioka from Hot Express complimented the girls performance , alongside the stage production of the segment . The song was included on the group 's compilation box set , Perfume : Complete LP Box ( 2016 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the JPN album .
Ayano Ōmoto – vocals
Yuka Kashino – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
= = Chart and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas =
Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas is the third book of Maya Angelou 's seven @-@ volume autobiography series . Set between 1949 and 1955 , the book spans Angelou 's early twenties . In this volume , Angelou describes her struggles to support her young son , form meaningful relationships , and forge a successful career in the entertainment world . The work 's 1976 publication was the first time an African @-@ American woman had expanded her life story into a third volume . Scholar Dolly McPherson calls the book " a graphic portrait of the adult self in bloom " , while critic Lyman B. Hagen calls it " a journey of discovery and rebirth " .
In Singin ' and Swingin ' , Angelou examines many of the same subjects and themes in her previous autobiographies including travel , music , race , conflict , and motherhood . Angelou depicts the conflict she felt as a single mother , despite her success as a performer as she travels Europe with the musical Porgy and Bess . Her depictions of her travels , which take up 40 percent of the book , have roots in the African @-@ American slave narrative . Angelou uses music and musical concepts throughout Singin ' and Swingin ' ; McPherson calls it Angelou 's " praisesong " to Porgy and Bess . Angelou 's stereotypes about race and race relations are challenged as she interacts more with people of different races . During the course of this narrative , she changes her name from Marguerite Johnson to Maya Angelou for professional reasons . Her young son changes his name as well , from Clyde to Guy , and their relationship is strengthened as the book ends .
= = Background = =
Angelou followed her first two installations of her autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) and Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , with Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , published in 1976 . It marked the first time a well @-@ known African @-@ American woman writer had expanded her life story into a third autobiography . She also published two volumes of poetry entitled Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize , and Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well ( 1975 ) .
According to writer Hilton Als , Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Julian Mayfield , who calls I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings " a work of art that eludes description " , states that Angelou 's work set a precedent in describing " the black experience " and in African American literature as a whole .
Als calls Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , while Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and " be honest about it " . Through the writing of her life stories , however , Angelou has become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . It made her , as scholar Joanne Braxton stated , " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " .
= = Title = =
According to Angelou , the book 's title came from the rent parties of the 1920s and 1930s , where people would pay the host an inexpensive entry fee and then eat and drink throughout the weekend . As Angelou stated , people would " sing and swing and get merry like Christmas so one would have some fuel with which to live the rest of the week " . These parties , also called " parlor socials " , were attended by members of the working class who were unable to afford to go to Harlem 's more expensive clubs . As critic Mary Jane Lupton stated , " The concept of the rent party helps describe Angelou 's position ... She is a single mother from the South who goes to California and sings and swings for a living . She entertains others for little money as a singer , B @-@ girl , and dancer , without getting very merry at all " . Scholar Sondra O 'Neale described the phrase as " a folkloric title symbolic of the author 's long @-@ deserved ascent to success and fulfillment " .
Lupton insists that the title , one of the many similes Angelou used , is tied to the book 's themes . Lupton also considered the title " ironic " ; Angelou uses " old @-@ fashioned " and " positive " words — singin ' and swingin ' — that reflect several meanings related to the text . These words describe the beginnings of Angelou 's career as an entertainer , but the irony in the terms also depict the conflict Angelou felt about her son . The words gettin ' merry like Christmas are also ironic : " Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas was Angelou 's most unmerry autobiography " . Because music is one of the book 's themes , Angelou uses abbreviated verb endings in her title that reflect Black dialect and evoke the sound of a blues singer .
= = Plot summary = =
Singin ' and Swingin ' opens shortly after Angelou 's previous autobiography , Gather Together in My Name . Marguerite , or Maya , a single mother with a young son , is in her early twenties , struggling to make a living . Angelou writes in this book , like her previous works , about the full range of her own experiences . As scholar Dolly McPherson states , " When one encounters Maya Angelou in her story , one encounters the humor , the pain , the exuberance , the honesty , and the determination of a human being who has experienced life fully and retained her strong sense of self " . Many people around Angelou influence her growth and — as critic Lyman B. Hagen states — " propel Angelou ever forward " . The book 's opening chapters find Maya concerned with , as Hagen asserts , " apprehension about her son , a desire for a home , and facing racial conflicts , and seeking a career " . Maya is offered a job as a salesgirl in a record shop on Fillmore Street in San Francisco . At first she greets her boss ' offers of generosity and friendship with suspicion , but after two months of searching for evidence of racism , Maya begins to " relax and enjoy a world of music " . The job allows her to move back into her mother 's house and to spend more time with her son .
While working in the store , Maya meets Tosh Angelos , a Greek sailor . They fall in love , and he is especially fond of her son . Against her mother 's wishes , Maya marries Tosh in 1952 . At first , the marriage is satisfying , and it seems that Maya has fulfilled her dream of being a housewife , writing " My life began to resemble a Good Housekeeping advertisement . " Eventually , Maya begins to resent Tosh 's demands that she stay at home ; she is also bothered by her friends ' negative reaction to her interracial marriage . Maya is disturbed by Tosh 's atheism and his control of her life , but does little to challenge his authority . After Tosh tells her son Clyde that there is no God , Maya rebels by secretly attending Black churches . After three years the marriage disintegrates when Tosh announces to Maya that he is " tired of being married " . She goes into the hospital for an appendectomy , and after the operation , she announces her desire to return to her grandmother in Stamps , but Tosh informs her that Annie died the day of Maya 's operation .
A single mother once again , Maya begins to find success as a performer . She gets a job dancing and singing at The Purple Onion , a popular nightclub in San Francisco , and — on the recommendation of the club 's owners — she changes her name from Marguerite Johnson to the " more exotic " " Maya Angelou " . She gains the attention of talent scouts , who offer her a role in Porgy and Bess ; she turns down the part , however , because of her obligations to The Purple Onion . When her contract expires , Maya goes to New York City to audition for a part opposite Pearl Bailey , but she turns it down to join a European tour of Porgy and Bess .
Leaving Clyde with her mother , Maya travels to 22 countries with the touring company in 1954 and 1955 , expressing her impressions about her travels . She writes the following about Verona : " I was really in Italy . Not Maya Angelou , the person of pretensions and ambitions , but me , Marguerite Johnson , who had read about Verona and the sad lovers while growing up in a dusty Southern village poorer and more tragic than the historic town in which I now stood . "
Despite Maya 's success with Porgy and Bess , she is racked with guilt and regret about leaving her son behind . After receiving bad news about Clyde 's health , she quits the tour and returns to San Francisco . Both Clyde and Maya heal from the physical and emotional toll caused by their separation , and she promises never to leave him again . Clyde also announces that he wants to be called " Guy " . As Angelou writes : " It took him only one month to train us . He became Guy and we could hardly remember ever calling him anything else " .
Maya is true to her promise ; she accepts a job performing in Hawaii , and he goes with her . At the close of the book , mother and son express pride in each other . When he praises her singing , she writes : " Although I was not a great singer I was his mother , and he was my wonderful , dependently independent son " .
= = Style and genre = =
All seven of Angelou 's installments of her life story continue the tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Starting with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou makes a deliberate attempt while writing her books to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction . Angelou stated in a 1989 interview that she was the only " serious " writer to choose the genre to express herself . As critic Susan Gilbert states , Angelou reports not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agrees , and views Angelou as representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that spoke for an entire group of people .
Lupton insists that all of Angelou 's autobiographies conformed to the genre 's standard structure : they were written by a single author , they were chronological , and they contained elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou calls her books autobiographies . When speaking of her unique use of the genre , Angelou acknowledges that she has followed the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " .
Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to all her books ; she tended to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . Her approach parallel the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Author Lyman B. Hagen has placed Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insists that she has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . In a 1998 interview with journalist George Plimpton , Angelou discusses her writing process , and " the sometimes slippery notion of truth in nonfiction " and memoirs . When asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Although Angelou has never admitted to changing fact in her stories , she has used the facts to make an impact with the reader . As Hagen states , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " . Hagen also states that Angelou " fictionalizes , to enhance interest " . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis , agrees , stating that she could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader .
In Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , Angelou utilizes repetition as a literary technique . For example , she leaves her child in the care of his grandmother , just as her own mother left her and her older brother in the care of their grandmother in Caged Bird . Much of Singin ' and Swingin ′ delves into Angelou 's guilt about accepting work that forces her to separate from her young son . As Angelou 's friend , scholar Dolly McPherson states , " The saddest part of Singin ' and Swingin ' is the young Guy , who , though deeply loved by Angelou , seems to be shoved into the background whenever a need to satisfy her monetary requirements or theatrical ambitions arises " . Despite her great success traveling Europe with the Porgy and Bess tour , she is distressed and full of indecision . For every positive description of her European experiences , there is a lament about Guy that " shuts off " these experiences and prevents her from enjoying the fruit of her hard work .
= = Themes = =
= = = Travel = = =
Travel is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; as McPherson states , it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This is also the case for African American autobiography , which has its roots in the slave narrative . Like those narratives that focus on the writers ' search for freedom from bondage , modern African American autobiographers like Angelou seek to develop " an authentic self " and the freedom to find it in their community . As McPherson states , " The journey to a distant goal , the return home , and the quest which involves the voyage out , achievement , and return are typical patterns in Black autobiography " .
For Angelou , this quest takes her from her childhood and adolescence , as described in her first two books , into the adult world . McPherson sees Singin ' and Swingin ' as " a sunny tour of Angelou 's twenties " , from early years marked by disappointments and humiliation , into the broader world — to the white world and to the international community . This period describes " years of joy " , as well as the start of Angelou 's great success and fulfillment as an entertainer . Not all is " merry like Christmas " , however ; the book is also marked by negative events : her painful marriage and divorce , the death of her grandmother , and her long separation from her son .
In Angelou 's first two volumes , the setting is limited to three places ( Arkansas , Missouri , and California ) , while in Singin ' and Swingin ' , the " setting breaks open " to include Europe as she travels with the Porgy and Bess company . Lupton states that Angelou 's travel narrative , which takes up approximately 40 percent of the book , gives the book its organized structure , especially compared to Gather Together in My Name , which is more chaotic . Angelou 's observations about race , gender , and class serve to make the book more than a simple travel narrative . As a Black American , her travels around the world put her in contact with many nationalities and classes , expand her experiences beyond her familiar circle of community and family , and complicate her understandings of race relations .
= = = Race = = =
In Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , Angelou continues an examination of her experiences with discrimination , begun in her first two volumes . Critic Selwyn R. Cudjoe refers to " the major problem of her works : what it means to be Black and female in America " . Cudjoe divides Singin ' and Swingin ' into two parts ; in the first part , Angelou works out her relationships with the white world , and in the second part , she evaluates her interactions with fellow Black cast members in Porgy and Bess , as well as her encounters with Europe and Africa .
Angelou comes into intimate contact with whites for the first time — whites very different from the racist people she encountered in her childhood . She discovers , as Cudjoe puts it , that her stereotypes of Whites were developed to protect herself from their cruelty and indifference . As McPherson states , " Conditioned by earlier experiences , Angelou distrusts everyone , especially whites . Nevertheless , she is repeatedly surprised by the kindness and goodwill of many whites she meets , and , thus , her suspicions begin to soften into understanding " . Cudjoe states that in Singin ' and Swingin ' , Angelou effectively demonstrates " the inviolability of the African American personhood " , as well as her own closely guarded defense of it . In order for her to have any positive relationships with whites and people of other races , however , McPherson insists that Angelou " must examine and discard her stereotypical views about Whites " . Lyman agrees and points out that Angelou must re @-@ examine her lingering prejudices when faced with the broader world full of whites . As Hagen also states , however , this is a complex process , since most of Angelou 's experiences with whites are positive during this time . Cudjoe states that as the book 's main protagonist , Angelou moves between the white and Black worlds , both defining herself as a member of her community and encountering whites in " a much fuller , more sensuous manner " .
In her third autobiography , Angelou is placed in circumstances that force her to change her opinions about whites , not an easy change for her . Louise Cox , the co @-@ owner of the record store she frequents on Fillmore Street , generously offers Angelou employment and friendship . Angelou marries a white man , whose appreciation of Black music breaks her stereotype of whites . This is a difficult decision for Angelou , and she must justify it by rationalizing that Tosh is Greek , and not an American white . She was not marrying " one of the enemy " , but she could not escape the embarrassment and shame when they encountered other Blacks . Later , she has a friendship among equals with her white co @-@ workers , Jorie , Don , and Barrie , who assist her job quest at The Purple Onion . Cudjoe insists , " This free and equal relationship is significant to her in that it represents an important stage of her evolution toward adulthood " .
Angelou 's experiences with the Porgy and Bess tour expands her understanding of other races and race relations as she meets people of different nationalities during her travels . All these experiences are instrumental in Angelou 's " movement toward adulthood " and serve as a basis for her later acceptance and tolerance of other races . Porgy and Bess has had a controversial history ; many in the African American community consider it racist in its portrayal of Blacks . Angelou mentioned none of this controversy in Singin ' and Swingin ' , however .
= = = Music = = =
As Lupton states , there is " no doubt in the reader 's mind about the importance of music " in Singin ' and Swingin ' . Angelou 's use of opposition and her doubling of plot lines is similar to the polyphonic rhythms in jazz music . McPherson labels Angelou a " blues autobiographer " , someone who , like a blues musician , includes the painful details and episodes from her life .
Music appears throughout Angelou 's third autobiography , starting with the title , which evokes a blues song and references the beginnings of Angelou 's career in music and performance . She starts Singin ' and Swingin ' the same way she starts Caged Bird : with an epigraph to set the tone . Here , the epigraph is a quotation from an unidentified three @-@ line stanza in classic blues form . After the epigraph , " music " is the first word in the book . As the story opens , a lonely Angelou finds solace in Black music , and is soon hired as a salesgirl in a record store on Fillmore Street in San Francisco . She meets and falls in love with her first husband after she discovers their shared appreciation of Black music . After learning of her grandmother 's death , her reaction , " a dazzling passage three paragraphs long " according to Mary Jane Lupton , is musical ; not only does it rely upon gospel tradition , but is also influenced by African American literary texts , especially James Weldon Johnson 's " Go Down Death — A Funeral Sermon " .
After her divorce , Angelou earns a living for herself and her son with music and dance ; this decision marks a turning point in her life . Angelou 's new career seems , as Hagen asserts , to be propelled by a series of parties , evoking the title of this book . Hagen also calls her tour with Porgy and Bess " the biggest party by far of the book " . McPherson calls Singin ' and Swingin ' " Angelou 's praisesong " to the opera . Angelou has " fallen hopelessly in love with the musical " , even turning down other job offers to tour with its European company . McPherson also calls Porgy and Bess " an antagonist that enthralls Angelou , beckoning and seducing her away from her responsibilities " . As Lupton states , Porgy and Bess is Angelou 's " foundation for her later performances in dance , theater , and song " .
= = = Conflict = = =
Conflict , or Angelou 's presentation of opposites , is another theme in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas . As Lupton states , Angelou constructs a plot by mixing opposing incidences and attitudes - Angelou 's " dialectical method " . The book is full of conflicts : in Angelou 's marriage , her feelings between being a good mother and a successful performer , the stereotypes about other races , and her new experiences with whites . Lupton believes this presentation of conflict is what makes Angelou 's writing " brilliant " ; she finds that the strength of Singin ' and Swingin ' comes , in part , from Angelou 's duplication of conflicts underlying the plot , characters , and thought patterns in the book . Lupton adds , " Not many other contemporary autobiographers have been able to capture , either in a single volume or in a series , the opposition of desires that is found in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas and , to a lesser extent , in Angelou 's other volumes " . Even the closing sentence of the book ( " Although I was not a great singer I was his mother , and he was my wonderful , dependently independent son " ) demonstrates Angelou 's dialectical construction , sums up the contradictions of Angelou 's character , and alludes to mother / son patterns in her later books .
= = = Motherhood = = =
As Lupton states , motherhood is a " prevailing theme " throughout Angelou 's autobiographies : " Angelou presents a rare kind of literary model , the working mother " . Beginning in Caged Bird , when she gives birth to her son , the emphasis Angelou places on this theme increases in importance . Angelou finds herself in a situation " very familiar to mothers with careers " , and is forced to choose between being a loving mother or a " fully realized person " . As scholar Sondra O 'Neale puts it , in this book Angelou sheds the image of " unwed mother " with " a dead @-@ end destiny " that had followed her throughout her previous autobiography .
Angelou 's need for security for her young son motivates her choices in Singin ' and Swingin ' , especially her decision to marry Tosh Angelos . She feels a deep sense of guilt and regret when she has to leave her son to tour with Porgy and Bess , which prevents her from fully enjoying the experience . In spite of this , Singin ' and Swingin ' has been called " a love song to Angelou 's son " . Just as she changes her name as the story progresses , so does Guy , who becomes an intelligent , sensitive boy in the pages of this book . As Guy grows , so does his mother ; Hagen stated that this growth moves Angelou 's story forward . When Angelou discovers how deeply their separation injures Guy , she leaves the Porgy and Bess tour before it ends , at great personal cost . By the end of the book , their bond is deepened and she promises never to leave him again . As Hagen states , Maya embraces the importance of motherhood , just as she had done at the end of her previous autobiographies .
= = Critical reception = =
Like Angelou 's two previous autobiographies , Singin ' and Swingin ' received mostly positive reviews . Kathryn Robinson of the School Library Journal predicts that the book would be as enthusiastically received as the earlier installments in Angelou 's series , and that the author had succeeded in " sharing her vitality " with her audience . Linda Kuehl of the Saturday Review , although she prefers the rhythm of Caged Bird , found Singin ' and Swingin ' " very professional , even @-@ toned , and ... quite engaging " . Kuehl also finds that Angelou 's story translates smoothly to the printed page . R.E. Almeida of the Library Journal finds the book " a pleasant sequel " , one in which Angelou 's " religious strength , personal courage , and ... talent " was apparent in its pages .
One negative review was written by Margaret McFadden @-@ Gerber in Magill 's Literary Annual , who found the book disappointing and felt that it lacked the power and introspection of Angelou 's previous books . At least one reviewer expresses disappointment that Angelou did not use her status to effect any political change in Singin ' and Swingin ' . Critic Lyman B. Hagen responds to this criticism by stating that Angelou 's status during the events she describes in this autobiography did not lend itself to that kind of advocacy , and that as a person , Angelou had not evolved into the advocate that she would become later in her life . Reviewer John McWhorter finds many of the events Angelou describes throughout all of her autobiographies incoherent and confusing , and in need of further explanation as to her motives and reasons for her behavior . For example , McWhorter suggests that Angelou does a poor job of explaining her reasons for her marriage to Tosh Angelos , as well as their divorce . " In an autobiography in which a black woman marries outside of her race in the 1950s , we need to know more " .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= SMS Helgoland =
SMS Helgoland , the lead ship of her class , was a dreadnought battleship of the German Imperial Navy . Helgoland 's design represented an incremental improvement over the preceding Nassau class , including an increase in the bore diameter of the main guns , from 28 cm ( 11 in ) to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) . Her keel was laid down on 11 November 1908 at the Howaldtswerke shipyards in Kiel . Helgoland was launched on 25 September 1909 and was commissioned on 23 August 1911 .
Like most battleships of the High Seas Fleet , Helgoland saw limited action against Britain 's Royal Navy during World War I. The ship participated in several fruitless sweeps into the North Sea as the covering force for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . She saw some limited duty in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy , including serving as part of a support force during the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . Helgoland was present at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , though she was located in the center of the German line of battle and not as heavily engaged as the König- and Kaiser @-@ class ships in the lead . Helgoland was ceded to Great Britain at the end of the war and broken up for scrap in the early 1920s . Her coat of arms is preserved in the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
= = Construction = =
Helgoland was ordered by the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) under the provisional name Ersatz Siegfried , as a replacement for the old coastal defense ship Siegfried . The contract for the ship was awarded to Howaldtswerke in Kiel under construction number 500 . Work began on 24 December 1908 with the laying of her keel , and the ship was launched less than a year later , on 25 September 1909 . Fitting @-@ out , including completion of the superstructure and the installation of armament , lasted until August 1911 . Helgoland , named for the offshore islands seen as vital to the defense of the Kiel Canal , was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1911 , just under three years from when work commenced , at a cost of 46 @.@ 196 million gold marks .
The ship was 167 @.@ 2 m ( 548 ft 7 in ) long , had a beam of 28 @.@ 5 m ( 93 ft 6 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 94 m ( 29 ft 4 in ) , and displaced 24 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) at full load . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion steam engines , which produced a top speed of 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 23 @.@ 9 mph ) . Helgoland stored up to 3 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 100 long tons ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After 1915 the boilers were modified to burn oil ; the ship could carry up to 197 metric tons ( 194 long tons ) of fuel oil .
Helgoland was armed with a main battery of twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns in six twin gun turrets , with one turret fore , one aft , and two on each flank of the ship . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and sixteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns . After 1914 , two of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced by 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . Helgoland was also armed with six 50 cm ( 20 in ) submerged torpedo tubes .
= = Service history = =
Upon commissioning , Helgoland replaced the pre @-@ dreadnought Hannover in the I Battle Squadron . On 9 February 1912 , Helgoland 's crew beat the German record for loading coal , taking 1 @,@ 100 tons of coal on board in two hours ; the record was previously held by the crew of the Nassau @-@ class battleship Posen . Kaiser Wilhelm II congratulated the crew through a Cabinet order . In March , fleet training maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea , followed by another round of exercises in November . The fleet also trained in the Skagerrak and Kattegat during the November exercises . The next year followed a similar training pattern , though a summer cruise to Norway was instituted .
= = = 1914 summer training cruise = = =
On 10 July 1914 , Helgoland left the Jade Estuary to take part in the annual summer training cruise to Norway . The fleet , along with several German U @-@ boats , assembled at Skagen on 12 July to practice torpedo boat attacks , individual ship maneuvers , and searchlight techniques . The fleet arrived at the Fjord of Songe by 18 July , but Helgoland had to wait until after midnight for a harbor pilot to guide her into the confined waters of the fjord . Helgoland joined Friedrich der Grosse , the light cruiser Magdeburg , and the Kaiser 's yacht Hohenzollern in Balholm .
That same day , Helgoland took on 1250 tons of coal from a Norwegian collier . The following morning Helgoland was joined by her sister Oldenburg , and the two ships sailed back to Germany , arriving on the morning of 22 July . On the evening of 1 August , the captain announced to the crew that the Kaiser had ordered the navy to prepare for hostilities with the Russian Navy .
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
At the start of World War I , Helgoland was assigned to the I Division , I Battle Squadron . Helgoland was stationed off the heavily fortified island of Wangerooge on 9 August . Minefields and picket lines of cruisers , torpedo boats , and submarines were also emplaced there to defend Wilhelmshaven . Helgoland 's engines were kept running for the entirety of her deployment , so that she would be ready to respond at a moment 's notice . Four days later , on 13 August , Helgoland returned to Wilhelmshaven to refuel . The following day , naval reservists began arriving to fill out the wartime complements for the German battleships .
= = = Actions in the North Sea = = =
= = = = Battle of Helgoland Bight = = = =
The first major naval action in the North Sea , the Battle of Helgoland Bight , took place on 28 August 1914 . Helgoland was again stationed off Wangerooge . Despite her proximity to the battle , Helgoland was not sent to aid the beleaguered German cruisers , as she could not be risked in an unsupported attack against possibly superior British forces . Instead , the ship was ordered to drop anchor and await relief by Thüringen . By 04 : 30 , Helgoland received the order to join Ostfriesland and sail out of the harbor . At 05 : 00 , the two battleships met the battered cruisers Frauenlob and Stettin . By 07 : 30 , the ships had returned to port for the night . Three days later , on 31 August , Helgoland was put into drydock for maintenance . On the afternoon of 7 September , Helgoland and the rest of the High Seas Fleet conducted a training cruise to the main island of Heligoland .
= = = = Raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby = = = =
The first major operation of the war in which Helgoland took part was the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . The raid was conducted by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group ; Helgoland and the other dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet steamed in distant support of Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers . Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , decided to take up station in the middle of the North Sea , about 130 miles east of Scarborough .
The Royal Navy , which had recently received the German code books captured from the beached cruiser Magdeburg , was aware that an operation was taking place , but was not sure where the Germans would strike . Therefore , the Admiralty ordered David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , the six battleships of the 2nd Battle Squadron , and several cruisers and destroyers to intercept the German battlecruisers . However , Beatty 's task force nearly ran headlong into the entire High Seas Fleet . At 06 : 20 , Beatty 's destroyer screen came into contact with the German torpedo boat SMS V155 . This began a confused , 2 @-@ hour battle between the British destroyers and the German cruiser and destroyer screen , often at very close range . At the time of the first encounter , the Helgoland @-@ class battleships were less than 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) away from the six British dreadnoughts ; this was nearly within firing range , but in the darkness , neither British nor German admirals were aware of the composition of their opponents ' fleets . Admiral Ingenohl , aware of the Kaiser 's order not to risk the battle fleet without his express approval , concluded that his forces were engaging the screen of the entire Grand Fleet , and so , 10 minutes after the first contact , he ordered a turn to the southeast . Continued attacks delayed the turn , but by 06 : 42 , it had been carried out . For about 40 minutes , the two fleets were steaming on a parallel course . At 07 : 20 , Ingenohl ordered a further turn to port , which put his ships on a course for the safety of German bases .
= = = = Training in Kiel = = = =
On 17 January , Ingenohl ordered Helgoland to go back to the docks for more maintenance , but she did not enter the drydock until three days later , owing to difficulties getting through the canal locks . By the middle of the month , Helgoland left dock ; her berth was then filled by the armored cruiser SMS Roon . On 10 February , Helgoland and the rest of the I Squadron sailed out of Wilhelmshaven towards Cuxhaven , but heavy fog impeded movement for two days . The ships then anchored off Brunsbüttel before proceeding through the Kiel Canal to Kiel . The crews conducted gunnery training with the main and secondary guns and torpedo firing practice on 1 March . The following night the crews conducted night @-@ fighting training . On 10 March the squadron again passed through the locks to return to Wilhelmshaven . Fog again slowed progress , and the ships did not reach port until 15 March .
= = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = =
Helgoland , her three sister ships , and the four Nassau @-@ class battleships were assigned to the task force that was to cover the foray into the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . The German flotilla , which was under the command of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper , also included the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz , several light cruisers , 32 destroyers and 13 minesweepers . The plan called for channels in Russian minefields to be swept so that the Russian naval presence , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Slava , could be eliminated . The Germans would then lay minefields of their own to prevent Russian ships from returning to the gulf . Helgoland and the majority of the other big ships of the High Seas Fleet remained outside the gulf for the entirety of the operation . The dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen were detached on 16 August to escort the minesweepers and to destroy Slava , though they failed to sink the old battleship . After three days , the Russian minefields had been cleared , and the flotilla entered the gulf on 19 August , but reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted a German withdrawal from the gulf the following day .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Under the command of Captain von Kameke , Helgoland fought at the Battle of Jutland , alongside her sister ships in the I Battle Squadron . For the majority of the battle , the I Battle Squadron formed the center of the line of battle , behind Rear Admiral Behncke 's III Battle Squadron , and followed by Rear Admiral Mauve 's elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron .
Helgoland and her sisters first entered direct combat shortly after 18 : 00 . The German line was steaming northward and encountered the destroyers Nomad and Nestor , which had been disabled earlier in the battle . Nomad , which had been attacked by the Kaiser @-@ class ships at the head of the line , exploded and sank at 18 : 30 , followed five minutes later by the Nestor , sunk by main and secondary gunfire from Helgoland , Thüringen and several other German battleships . At 19 : 20 , Helgoland and several other battleships began firing on HMS Warspite , which , along with the other Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships of the 5th Battle squadron , had been pursuing the German battlecruiser force . The shooting stopped quickly though , as the Germans lost sight of their target ; Helgoland had fired only about 20 shells from her main guns .
At 20 : 15 , during the third Gefechtskehrtwendung , Helgoland was struck by a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell , from either Barham or Valiant , in the forward part of the ship . The shell hit the armored belt about 0 @.@ 8 m ( 32 in ) above the waterline , where the armor was only 15 cm thick . The 15 @-@ inch shell broke up on impact , but it still managed to tear a 1 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 7 in ) hole in the hull . It rained splinters on the foremost port side 15 cm gun , though it could still be fired . Approximately 80 tons of water entered the ship .
By 23 : 30 , the High Seas Fleet had entered its night cruising formation . The order had largely been inverted , with the four Nassau @-@ class ships in the lead , followed directly by the Helgolands , with the Kaisers and Königs astern of them . The rear was again brought up by the elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; the mauled German battlecruisers were by this time scattered . At around midnight on 1 June , the Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class ships in the center of the German line came into contact with the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla . The 4th Flotilla broke off the action temporarily to regroup , but at around 01 : 00 , unwittingly stumbled into the German dreadnoughts a second time . Helgoland and Oldenburg opened fire on the two leading British destroyers . Helgoland fired six salvos from her secondary guns at the destroyer Fortune before she succumbed to the tremendous battering . Shortly after , Helgoland shifted fire to an unidentified destroyer ; Helgoland fired five salvos from her 15 cm guns to unknown effect . The British destroyers launched torpedoes at the German ships , but they managed to successfully evade them with a turn to starboard .
Following the return to German waters , Helgoland and Thüringen , along with the Nassau @-@ class battleships Nassau , Posen , and Westfalen , took up defensive positions in the Jade roadstead for the night . During the battle , the ship suffered only minor damage ; Helgoland was hit by a single 15 @-@ inch shell , but sustained minimal damage . Nevertheless , dry @-@ docking was required to repair the hole in the belt armor . Work was completed by 16 June . In the course of the battle , Helgoland had fired 63 main battery shells , and 61 rounds from her 15 cm guns .
= = = Later actions = = =
After the Battle of Jutland , Admiral Scheer argued that the fleet could not break the British naval blockade , that only the resumption of unrestricted U @-@ boat warfare would be successful . As a result , the High Seas Fleet largely remained in port , with the exception of two abortive sorties in August and October 1916 . In April 1917 , Helgoland accidentally rammed the new battlecruiser Hindenburg , which was in the process of fitting @-@ out , as she left her berth . In October 1917 Helgoland , in company with Oldenburg , went to Amrum to receive the light cruisers Brummer and Bremse , which were returning from a raid on a British convoy to Norway . On 27 November the ship traversed the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal into the Baltic , but did not participate in the occupation of the islands in the Gulf of Riga . A third and final fleet advance took place in April 1918 , but was cut short when the battlecruiser Moltke developed engine problems and had to be towed back to port .
= = = Wilhelmshaven mutiny = = =
Helgoland and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war .
On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . Early on the 31st , the crew of Helgoland , which was directly behind Thüringen in the harbor , joined in the mutiny . The I Squadron commander sent boats to Helgoland and Thüringen to take off the ships ' officers , who were allowed to leave unharmed . He then informed the rebellious crews that if they failed to stand down , both ships would be torpedoed . After two torpedo boats arrived on the scene , both ships surrendered ; their crews were taken ashore and incarcerated . The rebellion then spread ashore ; on 3 November , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 sailors , dock workers , and civilians fought a battle in Kiel in an attempt to secure the release of the jailed mutineers . By 5 November , the red flag of the Socialists flew above every capital ship in Wilhelmshaven save König . The following day , a sailors ' council took control of the base , and a train carrying the mutineers from Helgoland and Thüringen was stopped in Cuxhaven , where the men escaped .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
According to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , all four Helgoland @-@ class battleships were disarmed and surrendered as prizes of war to the Allies as replacements for the ships scuttled in Scapa Flow . On 21 – 22 November 1918 , Helgoland steamed to Harwich to retrieve the crews of U @-@ boats that had been surrendered there . She was then removed from active service on 16 December 1918 . Helgoland and her sisters were stricken from the German navy on 5 November 1919 . Helgoland was formally handed over to the United Kingdom on 5 August 1920 . She was scrapped at Morecambe ; work began on 3 March 1921 . Helgoland 's coat of arms is currently preserved in the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
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= Razer ( robot ) =
Razer is a combat robot that competes on the British television series Robot Wars . It was constructed by Simon Scott and Ian Lewis from Bournemouth ; the team later expanded to include webmaster Vincent Blood . Razer was designed and constructed in 1998 to participate in the second series of Robot Wars , but subsequent modifications and improvements enabled it to remain competitive until its retirement after the second series of Robot Wars Extreme . Despite gaining a reputation for being unreliable , it was champion of the fifth series of Robot Wars , runner @-@ up in the sixth , and won the first two Robot Wars World Championships .
Razer 's weapon is a piercing arm which exerts approximately three tonnes of pressure per square inch ( 465 kg / cm2 , 45 @.@ 6 MPa ) at its tip . The arm was designed to pierce opponents ' armour plating and break their internal components , rendering them impaired or immobile . This weapon was inspired by the principle of the brake press — a piece of industrial machinery used to bend metal — and maximises damage through the use of hydraulics . The arm is also an integral element of Razer 's winged self @-@ righting mechanism , which rolls the robot back onto its wheels if inverted . In later series of Robot Wars , an interchangeable hook was attached to the arm to lift robots immune from being pierced . The popularity of crushing and piercing weaponry in robot combat events is attributed to Razer , which inspired many imitations .
With a record of 40 wins and 6 losses ( one through concession ) in the UK Robot Wars series , Razer is recognised as one of the most successful competitors in the programme 's history . It was featured on Robot Wars merchandise including a DVD and video games , and had a pull @-@ back toy created in its image — one of which was later modified by Ian Lewis to function as a fully radio controllable miniature version of the team 's original heavyweight machine . Razer also competed in the American television series BattleBots , winning three of its five head @-@ to @-@ head battles and the 1999 Gigabot Rumble . The team behind Razer later constructed a new combatant called Warhead specifically for this competition . After retirement , Razer appears in non @-@ combat demonstrations as part of Robo Challenge educational displays and events . It returned to active combat in the 2016 revival of Robot Wars .
= = Construction = =
= = = Origins = = =
Razer was designed and built by Ian Lewis and Simon Scott who , after watching the first series of Robot Wars , agreed that combat robots had potential to be considerably more destructive than the pioneering machines on display . Their choice of weapon was a piercing arm attached to a hydraulic ram and powered by a pump , itself powered by a motorcycle starter motor . This was based on the principle of the brake press , a piece of industrial machinery used to bend metal through progressive force .
Razer 's hydraulic system pumped pressurised liquid , as opposed to pneumatics where a force is generated by the controlled release of a pressurised gas . Razer 's arm was often said to exert nine tonnes of force ; however , it was the hydraulic ram which produced up to nine tonnes of pressure per square inch ( 1 @,@ 395 kg / cm2 , 137 MPa ) at its output , and this was geared down to three tonnes per square inch ( 465 kg / cm2 , 45 @.@ 6 MPa ) at the tip of the arm .
= = = Modifications = = =
This iteration of Razer competed in the second series of Robot Wars , successfully passing the Gauntlet and Trials stages of its heat before being defeated in battle by a robot called Inquisitor . The cause of Razer 's immobilisation in this fight was the shearing of nylon cush drives — cushioning blocks designed to prevent stress fractures — in the machine 's drive wheels ; these were replaced with more robust metal ones for future competitions . As the Robot Wars television series evolved and grew , Razer 's design was revised and refined to counter weaknesses and take advantage of rule changes ; by series four , Lewis estimated that Razer had taken 1 @,@ 500 hours to build , at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 600 .
Razer 's four @-@ wheeled drive train used a skid @-@ steering arrangement , whereby the wheels on one side of the robot rotated faster than those on the other to turn the machine . Also , the weight of the robot was biased towards the rear so that its weapon stayed facing its opponent as Razer turned . However , the solid rubber rear wheels used in series two provided too much traction and were reluctant to ' swing ' the machine . For the third series , Razer used custom @-@ made aluminium drive wheels which incorporated rollers , reducing the amount of force required for simultaneous forward and sideways movement . These wheels were later upgraded with a stronger titanium construction , whilst the level of oversteer in the drive system was reduced through the implementation of an electronic gyroscope . For the series Robot Wars Extreme II , Razer 's rubber front wheels were replaced with metal ones bearing small spiked protrusions .
Whereas competitors in the first series of Robot Wars had largely featured passive weapons , the second series saw a greater number of robots — including the series champion , Panic Attack — using lifting and flipping weapons designed to overturn an opponent . Lewis and Scott noted that when Razer was overturned with its piercing arm fully upright , the robot was more than halfway towards naturally rolling back onto its wheels . Therefore , rather than equipping Razer with a powered mechanism for righting itself when inverted , two wings were attached to the arm . Tensioned via cables , the wings opened when the arm was fully raised , levering Razer back onto its wheels . The unique design provided Razer with a " victory salute " — raising its claw and wings whilst standing on its tail — but had the downside of putting the machine over the weight limit of 79 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 175 lb ) . To redress the balance , approximately 450 holes were drilled in the robot 's metalwork .
From series five of Robot Wars onwards , the weight limit for heavyweight competitors was increased to 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) . This allowed for improvements to the chassis and bodywork of Razer including new titanium outriggers , and 2 @.@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 098 in ) thick armour panels versus 1 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) before . The most noticeable alteration to this version of Razer was a redesigned front scoop . This enclosed the front wheels to reduce side @-@ on impact damage , and greatly decreased the robot 's ground clearance to reduce its vulnerability to being flipped , whilst also making it easier to get underneath opponents to crush them . This iteration of Razer won the first Robot Wars Extreme All @-@ Stars championship and series five of Robot Wars , alongside mounting a successful defence of its World Champion title . By the time of Razer 's Robot Wars Extreme II appearances , the machine weighed 92 kilograms ( 203 lb ) , was 1 @.@ 14 metres ( 3 @.@ 7 ft ) long , and reached a top speed of 11 miles per hour ( 18 km / h ) .
= = Combat history = =
For details of the television series and their formats , see Robot Wars and BattleBots .
= = = Series 2 – 4 and BattleBots = = =
Razer made its debut in the fourth heat of series two of Robot Wars , which was viewed by almost six million people on BBC Two . It had been finished late the night before the recording . Radio interference caused Razer to be hard to control in the Gauntlet stage of the competition , but it successfully navigated the obstacle course and progressed to the Trial . This phase was a robotic football match , wherein Razer scored the first goal to reach the heat semi @-@ final . Its opponent for this one @-@ on @-@ one battle was Inquisitor , a box @-@ shaped robot equipped with a rotating flail . Whilst Razer made the stronger start , crumpling Inquisitor 's flail support , the cush drives in its motors sheared after an impact on the arena floor . This rendered Razer immobile and ended a promising run . Despite its relatively early exit from the competition , Razer won the Best Design award for series two . After series two , Vincent Blood joined the Razer team after being taken up on his offer to create a basic website for Razer .
Before series three of Robot Wars , Razer was entered into the American robot combat programme BattleBots in Los Angeles after the team won an international scholarship along with fellow British robots , Killerhurtz and Mortis . Razer 's first battle was against Voltarc . It flipped Razer , but Lewis self @-@ righted and Scott pierced Voltarc 's armour . Razer was given the victory on a crowd 's vote . Its next fight was against Agrippa , which Razer defeated by crushing through its opponent 's electrical system . Razer 's next adversary , Tazbot , beat it after flipping it onto the arena saws which severed a cable and left Razer unable to self @-@ right . Razer dropped into the " best of the rest " competition . Therein it faced Kill @-@ O @-@ Amp which was defeated after Razer pulled a wheel off before crushing its opponent 's battery . It then faced Rhino in the next round , losing after Rhino 's spike pierced Razer 's armour , breaking the starter solenoid and knocking the radio switch into the off position . This also sent Razer into an uncontrolled spin , requiring Lewis to enter the arena to manually power Razer down . Finally , Razer competed in the 13 robot Gigabot Rumble . After the time limit expired , five robots including Razer were still mobile and the result went to an audience vote . After the crowd voted in their favour , Razer became the 1999 Gigabot Rumble Champion .
From series three of Robot Wars , the Gauntlet and Trial stages of each heat were dropped , with the whole of the main competition formed around direct combat . Razer 's first battle of the series was against Backstabber . Scott lowered Razer 's arm into an extrusion on Backstabber , and Lewis pushed their opponent into the ' pit ' , an open hole in the arena floor . In the second round , despite causing damage to Aggrobot , Razer lost due to a mechanical failure : the valve which controls the direction of hydraulic fluid in the arm jammed , causing Razer 's arm to raise to its full height and refuse to lower . With its rear wheels off the ground , Razer was weaponless and immobile , and eliminated early from the main competition once more . Outside of the main UK championship , Razer won the concurrent Pinball Warrior Tournament side event and retained the Best Design award .
Immediately after filming series three , Razer participated in the International Championship . Following forfeiture by Prometheus , its scheduled first opponent , Razer beat the Dutch representative Techno @-@ Lease and Irish entrant Diotoir to win the tournament . Razer also fought in the direct @-@ to @-@ video First World Championship , representing England . Victories over the Scottish robot All Torque and fellow English entrants Chaos 2 , 101 and Behemoth saw Razer win the tournament and its associated title .
In the first round of its series four heat , Razer progressed alongside Robochicken from a three @-@ way battle in which Velocirippa was eliminated . In its next battle against Milly @-@ Ann Bug , Razer methodically removed all of its opponent 's wheels , rendering Milly @-@ Ann Bug unable to move . In a post @-@ battle interview with host Craig Charles , Blood likened this attack to " pulling the legs off a spider " . Early on in its heat final against Pussycat , Razer malfunctioned . Stuck in forward drive , it careered into the arena side wall with the rear wheels spinning but unable to steer . Pussycat severely damaged the back end and wheels of Razer , until Dead Metal of the house robots pitted the machine . Although Scott and Blood were gracious in defeat , Lewis turned his back on the fight , left the control booth immediately afterwards , and refused to be interviewed by Craig Charles . Lewis accused the Pussycat team of breaking a gentlemen 's agreement that both teams would not seriously damage the other 's machine . However , Team Pussycat were unaware that Razer was immobilised . Razer also took part in the Pinball Warrior and Sumo Basho side tournaments of series four ; its performances were underwhelming in both events , scoring 95 points in the former having abandoned the run partway through to attack Sir Killalot , and lasting less than five seconds in the latter .
= = = Southern Annihilator – Series 5 = = =
Razer 's next appearance came in a Robot Wars Christmas special called the Southern Annihilator . Six robots fought at the same time until one was eliminated , either through immobilisation or judges ' decision . The remaining five robots then fought again , eliminating another , and so on until one robot remained and was declared the winner . Razer outlasted Vercingetorix , Spawn of Scutter , Behemoth and Attila the Drum to set up a final against Onslaught . An attack by Razer 's arm on one of Onslaught 's rear wheels saw its adversary shed a tyre , lose grip , and drive into an area patrolled by Matilda . The house robot flipped Onslaught onto its side , rendering it immobile . Assured of victory , Razer attacked and badly damaged Matilda 's bodywork and rear shell .
It next took part in the All @-@ Stars tournament of Robot Wars Extreme , beating Gemini , Behemoth and Firestorm 3 to establish a grand final against Tornado . In their first competitive encounter , Razer repeatedly pierced Tornado 's low , flat body , eventually breaking their drive chain . Tornado was immobilised , and Razer won a second consecutive trophy . Its only other battle in Extreme was a grudge match with Pussycat , in response to the accusation that the Pussycat team had broken an agreement with the Razer team during their series four heat . Razer punctured Pussycat 's body and lifted it with the arm but Pussycat fell and escaped . In doing so , Pussycat impacted the front wheel of Razer and rendered it immobile . Ian Lewis of Team Razer competed in a seven @-@ way melee featuring antweight robots — miniature machines that weighed less than 150 grams ( 5 @.@ 3 oz ) and fitted into a four @-@ inch ( 10 @.@ 16 cm ) cube . Lewis 's robot for this battle was Razzler , a modified Razer toy .
Razer 's next tournament was the Second World Championship . Its title defence began with qualification from a melee against Diotoir , Flensburger Power and The Revolutionist . It then beat fellow English representative Tornado in the semi @-@ final before facing walking robot DrillZilla in the final . Unable to pierce DrillZilla 's 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick armour , Razer concentrated on inflicting cosmetic damage to its opponent 's legs . This proved enough to secure victory on a judges ' decision , enabling Razer to retain its World Champion title .
On a 12 @-@ battle victory streak , Razer fought in the eleventh heat of the fifth series of Robot Wars . Therein , it defeated Big Nipper , Widow 's Revenge — a machine reportedly constructed by the Razer team 's wives — and Rick to reach its first series semi @-@ final . Their next opponent was Spawn Again , which was armed with a pneumatic flipper . Equipped with a new lower front wedge , Razer was able to get underneath Spawn Again and crush it until it broke down . In the quarter finals , Razer faced S3 , a cylindrical robot with a vertical spinning blade . Razer 's arm sliced into S3 's weapon controls , stopping the disc , which allowed Razer to dominate the fight and win on a judges ' decision .
Team Razer faced Firestorm 3 in their first battle of the series grand final , in a rematch from the All @-@ Stars semi @-@ final from earlier that year . Whilst victory in that battle had been relatively straightforward , Firestorm 3 had increased the thickness of its armour for this battle to make it harder for Razer to inflict major damage . This tactic almost worked : Razer was unable to completely immobilise the robot . The fight ended in a close judges ' decision — in Razer 's favour . Victory handed Razer a place in the series five grand final against Bigger Brother , rebuilt after being heavily damaged by Hypno @-@ Disc in its previous battle . Razer gripped Bigger Brother early in the battle , causing damage to its opponent 's drive chain from which Bigger Brother never recovered . The final ended in a stalemate and went to the judges ; their decision came back in favour of Razer . Along with the UK Championship , Razer also took home a third Best Design award .
= = = Series 6 = = =
Coming into series six as reigning champion , Razer started its title defence by qualifying from a four @-@ way melee . It then defeated the pyramid @-@ shaped robot Cyrax on a judges ' decision to set up a heat final against Raging Reality . It pushed its opponent towards Matilda 's flywheel , which ripped off an entire side panel and caused Raging Reality to break down . This saw Razer reach the semi @-@ finals for a second consecutive series . Against Wild Thing , Razer damaged one of its opponent 's exposed drive wheels , hampering its movement . Subsequently , Razer grasped it with the arm and dropped Wild Thing into the pit . Razer next fought Dantomkia , which was armed with a pneumatic flipping arm . Although Razer was the early aggressor , Dantomkia retaliated by pushing Razer into the arena wall . The rest of the battle was similarly even , with Razer 's more potent attacks being matched by Dantomkia 's pushing power . The judges decided that Razer should move on to a second series final .
Reaching the grand final meant defeating the axe @-@ wielding robot Terrorhurtz . Razer avoided the axe and lowered its arm into Terrorhurtz 's polycarbonate armour panels . Terrorhurtz lined up for another strike , but Razer slid its wedge underneath Terrorhurtz 's chassis . It buried the arm into its opponent , carried Terrorhurtz to the pit release button , and dropped it into the pit . Only Tornado stood between Razer and a successful title defence . After twice losing to Razer that year , the developers of Tornado had constructed a large metal frame equipped with a rotating blade . Controversially qualifying as an " interchangeable weapon " , the size of this framework prevented Razer 's claw from reaching Tornado 's chassis . Team Razer responded by attaching a lifting hook to the front of the arm before the fight . Although Razer would still not be able to pierce Tornado , it could lift it by the framework . In the battle , Tornado used its superior pushing power to slam Razer into the arena wall and the house robots . Near the end of the fight , Razer managed to lift Tornado up and push it over the pit , but the size of the additional framework prevented Tornado from falling in . After a 45 minute discussion , the judges ruled in favour of Tornado becoming the new UK champion .
= = = Extreme II = = =
Although it had lost its UK title , Razer still reigned as champion of the Extreme All @-@ Stars tournament . Its first battle to defend this title was against twice UK champion Chaos 2 and dual @-@ spinner 13 Black . Razer and 13 Black joined forces to eliminate Chaos 2 , in what was its last ever fight on Robot Wars . Razer 's next battle against Spawn Again was a rematch from the series five semi @-@ finals . Razer was again the aggressor : it repeatedly punctured Spawn Again 's body panels , prompting its constructors to seek safety by driving themselves into the pit . Razer 's next battle was one @-@ on @-@ one versus 13 Black . Following an impact with the arena wall , 13 Black stopped spinning for long enough that Razer could lift it with the arm and lower it into the pit . In the All @-@ Stars grand final , Razer faced Firestorm 4 . Razer manoeuvred its wedge underneath Firestorm 4 , lowered the arm and immobilised its opponent . Razer was All @-@ Stars champion for a second time running .
The European Championship was Razer 's next — and final — televised tournament , for which it qualified as reigning World Champion . It defeated Dutch champions Pulveriser to set up a semi @-@ final against Tornado . Razer 's adversaries attached the anti @-@ crusher frame used in their previous meeting in the series six grand final ; the Razer team installed a revised version of the lifting hook . Tornado was the early aggressor , until Razer picked it up with the hook and dragged it towards the pit . The size of Tornado 's framework made it difficult for Razer to drop it in , and the strain of lifting Tornado burnt out Razer 's drive motors . Razer was immobile at the end of the match , but the result went to a judges ' decision . They awarded victory to Razer for being in control of the fight , but in a split decision the team decided this was unfair and conceded to Tornado , who beat Philliper 2 in the final to claim the European title .
= = Retirement = =
After five years of appearing on BBC channels , the seventh regular series of Robot Wars was broadcast by Five . Razer did not participate and , following the cancellation of the series , was retired from combat . The team then started to hire apprentices to help them in independent robotics demonstrations . Razer now appears in non @-@ combat demonstrations at displays and events organised by Robo Challenge , a robotics demonstration company .
Razer returned to action for the 2016 revival of Robot Wars , in which it was eliminated in the first round .
= = Impact = =
Team Razer was acknowledged for having devised and popularised the crushing and piercing arm weapon . Razer 's success spawned a number of imitations : Suicidal Tendencies , Ming 3 and Tiberius are amongst the other heavyweight robots to have adopted such a weapon , whilst the featherweight robot Venom is a scaled @-@ down replica of Razer . In 2001 , Razer appeared in cartoon form on the front cover of the seventeenth issue of Robot Wars Magazine . It was also included in the Robot Wars video games . The version of Razer which competed in the fourth series of Robot Wars was used as the model for a pull @-@ back toy powered by friction motors . This was sold alongside a model stunt ramp and barrels . A small metal toy based on Razer was available as part of the Robot Wars minibots range and , alongside Chaos 2 and Hypno @-@ Disc , Razer was one of three competitor robots chosen to appear on a personalised DVD as part of the Robot Wars Ultimate Warrior Collection series .
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= Bermuda at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Bermuda sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The games marked Bermuda 's twenty @-@ first Olympic appearance since its debut in 1936 . The 2008 delegation included six athletes : Tyrone Smith and Arantxa King in long jump , Jillian Terceira in individual jumping on horseback , Kiera Aitken and Roy @-@ Allan Burch in swimming ( Aitken in backstroke , and Burch in freestyle ) , and Flora Duffy in triathlon . Bermuda did not win any medals in the Beijing games .
= = Background = =
Bermuda 's debut in the Olympic Games began with the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin , Nazi Germany , when the Bermudian delegation included five athletes , all men . Bermuda had appeared in twenty @-@ one Olympic Games between 1936 and the 2008 Beijing Olympics , excluding the 1980 Summer Olympics . Of those twenty @-@ one games , sixteen of them were Summer Olympics . Bermuda had , prior to Beijing , earned one medal , when Clarence Hill won bronze in the 1976 Summer Olympics . The 2008 Bermudian delegation had fewer people than it usually sent abroad , prompting the president of the Bermudian Olympic Association Austin Woods to complain publicly that the year 's Olympic team lacked access to quality coaches , administrators , and facilities , and with the exception of several athletes , lacked the skill to be competitive .
Bermuda dispatched six athletes in total to the Beijing Olympics . Of the delegation , two of the athletes ( Roy @-@ Allen Burch and Tyrone Smith ) were men and four of the athletes ( Flora Duffy , Kiera Aitken , Arantxa King , and Jill Terceira ) were women . King was the youngest Bermudian participant during the 2008 Olympics , at 18 years of age , and Terceira was the oldest , at 37 . No Bermudian athlete advanced to a final round during the 2008 Games .
= = Athletics = =
Two people competed in track and field representing Bermuda : Tyrone Smith and Arantxa King . Smith participated in men 's long jump , while Arantxa King participated in women 's long jump . Neither advanced past the qualifying rounds in Beijing .
Former Missouri S & T student Tyrone " Sticks " Smith earned a spot on Bermuda 's team when he finished in third place at the long jump event that took place during the 2008 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Cali , Columbia . Smith 's appearance at the Beijing Olympics was his first at any of the Olympic games . During the course of the event at the Olympics , Smith was placed in Heat 2 of the August 16 qualifying rounds , set to compete against athletes that included Irving Jahir Saladino Aranda of Panama ( who won the gold medal in finals ) and Ngonidzashe Makusha of Zimbabwe ( who was fourth @-@ place runner @-@ up in finals ) . Out of twenty competitors , Smith ranked seventh with a distance of 7 @.@ 91 meters . He was 0 @.@ 1 meters ahead of Fabrice Lapierre of Australia , who placed eighth in the qualifying round , and 0 @.@ 13 meters behind heat leader Makusha . Tyrone Smith was three centimeters short of a distance that would have qualified him for finals , and did not progress .
Stanford first @-@ year student Arantxa King was chosen by the Bermuda Olympic Association on Wednesday , July 23 , 2008 through the use of its IAAF female at @-@ large selection . Her participation in the 2008 Beijing Olympics marked her Olympic debut . During the August 18 Qualifying rounds , King was placed in Heat 2 versus competitors that included Russia 's Tatiana Lebedeva and Nigeria 's Blessing Okhagbare , both of whom received medals in the event finals . King jumped a distance of 6 @.@ 01 meters , 0 @.@ 69 meters behind leading qualifier Lebedeva 's score , placing nineteenth ( out of twenty @-@ one ) in the event . She placed last in the heat , ahead of two disqualified athletes , and thirty @-@ sixth ( out of forty @-@ two ) athletes when considering all heats at once . Arantxa King did not progress to the next and final round on August 22 .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Equestrian = =
Jillian Terceira was not originally chosen to participate on Bermuda 's Olympic team , and was passed up for Patrick Nisbett and his horse , Antille 8 . This occurred when neither Terceira nor Nisbett qualified for an Olympic spot at the equestrian finals in Hong Kong , caused in part by the injury of Terceira 's horse , Navantus . Because Bermuda was allowed only one horse rider , the Bermuda Equestrian Federation awarded their one reserved Olympic spot to Nisbett because Terceira 's horse had been injured during the course of the event .
Terceira argued that she had a second horse , Chaka III , who should have been used in the injured Navantus ' place , was regularly faster than Nisbett 's Antille 8 and should have earned the qualification position . She also accused the Bermuda Equestrian Federation of making the decision based on political or racial motivations , which the organization denied . BEF president Mike Cherry explained that Chaka III did not qualify for the event until June 30 , the final day , which is the reason why the horse was not considered for Bermuda 's Olympic slot . The BEF organized a final day of competition between Nisbett 's Antille and Terceira 's Chaka to give Terceira one last opportunity to qualify for an Olympic position . Nisbett , however , withdrew from the Olympic position later that June . Terceira took his place .
Terceira competed in the August 15 preliminaries of individual equestrian jumping . As rankings are derived from the number of penalties that one accumulates , Terceira tied for 39th place with seven other horse riders , having accrued five penalties . Terceira also participated in the August 17th preliminary round , but was eliminated , and did not advance to the finals .
= = = Show jumping = = =
= = Swimming = =
Two swimmers represented Bermuda at the Beijing Olympics : Kiera Aitken and Roy @-@ Allan Burch . Aitken participated in the women 's 100 meter backstroke , and Burch swam the men 's 100 meter backstroke . Neither advanced past the preliminary round .
Former Dalhousie University student and national record holder Kiera Aitken participated on behalf of Bermuda for her second Olympic appearance after the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . Aitken participated in the August 10 preliminaries for the 100 meters women 's backstroke , where she was placed in Heat 1 with Paraguay 's Maria Virginia Baez and Panama 's Christie Marie Bodden Baca . With a time of 1 : 02 @.@ 62 , Aitken ranked first in her heat , defeating Baez by almost three seconds . However , her overall ranking placed her thirty @-@ third out of forty @-@ nine swimmers between Alana Dillette of the Bahamas ( 32nd ) and Hiu Wai Sherry Tsai of Hong Kong ( 34th ) . Aitken was 3 @.@ 62 seconds slower than Kirsty Coventry of Zimbabwe , who set an Olympic record during the preliminary round with a time of 59 @.@ 00 seconds . Aitken did not make the time necessary to progress to the next round .
Former Springfield College student and national record @-@ setter Roy @-@ Allan Burch , the only male swimmer who participated on behalf of Bermuda 's Olympic team , swam in the 100 meter freestyle event after undergoing an irregular training schedule with coach John Taffe necessitated by the recent death of his mother by cancer . During August 12 , Burch competed in the preliminaries for his event , and was placed in Heat 2 . He swam the event in 52 @.@ 65 seconds , placing fifth out of six athletes in the heat , immediately after Obaid Ahmed Aljesmi of the United Arab Emirates . The heat leader , Jan Roodzant of the Dutch colony Aruba , completed the event in 51 @.@ 69 seconds . Overall , Roy @-@ Allan Burch ranked sixty out of sixty @-@ four athletes . Eamon Sullivan of Australia , the leader of the preliminary times , was approximately four seconds ahead of Burch . Roy @-@ Allan Burch did not proceed to the semifinal rounds .
= = Triathlon = =
Flora Duffy was invited to participate in the Beijing Olympics based on her performance in the qualification competitions . Participating on the August 18 event , Duffy competed in the women 's triathlon . Duffy swam the 1 @.@ 5 kilometers portion of the distance in 20 : 26 minutes , ranking 41st out of 55 in that portion of the event , behind Luxembourg 's Liz May ( 40th ) by under a second and ahead of Hungary 's Zita Szabó by two seconds . In this portion of the event , Duffy was 37 seconds behind the United States ' Laura Bennett , who finished the swimming portion of the event first at 19 : 49 . Duffy took 33 seconds to make the transition from swim to cycling , the second part of the event , tying with Mak So Ning of Hong Kong at 52nd place out of 55 . Duffy , however , was lapped on the bike leg and was disqualified before reaching the running portion or completing the event .
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= The World Ends with You =
The World Ends with You , known in Japan as It 's a Wonderful World ( すばらしきこのせかい , Subarashiki Kono Sekai ) , is an action role @-@ playing game with urban fantasy elements developed by Square Enix 's Kingdom Hearts team and Jupiter for the Nintendo DS handheld console . Set in the modern @-@ day Shibuya shopping district of Tokyo , The World Ends with You features a distinctive art style inspired by Shibuya and its youth culture . Development was inspired by elements of Jupiter 's previous game , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . It was released in Japan in July 2007 , and in PAL regions and North America on April 22 , 2008 . An enhanced version for iOS devices , titled The World Ends With You -Solo Remix- , was released in August 2012 ( pulled in February 2015 due to incompatibility with iOS 8 ; restored in June 2015 ) and for Android devices in June 2014 . A social network spin @-@ off game titled The World Ends With You -Live Remix- was released in May 2013 for Japan 's Android and iOS Stores developed by Square Enix in collaboration with GREE . The spinoff was shut down in February 2014 due to an increasing lack of interest .
In the game , Neku Sakuraba and his allies are forced to participate in a game that will determine their fate . The battle system uses many of the unique features of the Nintendo DS , including combat that takes place on both screens , and attacks performed by certain motions on the touchscreen or by shouting into the microphone . Elements of Japanese youth culture , such as fashion , food , and cell phones , are key aspects of the missions .
The World Ends with You received positive reviews , which praised the graphics , soundtrack , and integration of gameplay into the Shibuya setting . The few common complaints were related to the steep learning curve of the battle system as well as the imprecise touch @-@ screen controls . In the week of its release , the game was the second best @-@ selling DS title in Japan , and the top selling DS title in North America . Shiro Amano , writer and artist of the Kingdom Hearts manga , later created a manga based on the video game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game takes place in a fictional version of the Shibuya shopping district in Tokyo , Japan . While everyday life goes on in the Realground ( RG ) , the chosen dead are brought to an alternate plane of existence called the Underground ( UG ) . The UG is also the venue for the Reapers ' Game . By offering their most treasured possession to enter the Game , the dead ( players ) gain the chance to contest for the prize : to be brought back to life or to transcend to a higher form of spiritual existence . Most of those who choose to transcend become Reapers , the opponents of players in future Games . Lasting a week , each Game is a contest to judge the worth of humanity . Players set out to accomplish objectives under the rules created by the Composer , who is a god @-@ like entity who maintains Shibuya . Another Reaper , the Conductor , tasks other Reapers to obstruct the players ' efforts . Failure to complete a mission will disperse the mind and spirit of the player or Reaper , thus erasing his or her existence .
A player in the UG is invisible to the living in the RG , though one can sometimes read and influence their thoughts . The UG is frequented by creatures called " Noise " , which are attracted by the negative feelings of the living . To progress in the Reapers ' Game , players are often required to defeat Noise by killing or " erasing " them . However , each Noise exists in two parallel universes ( or " zones " ) simultaneously , and can only be defeated by two players simultaneously fighting and defeating the Noise from these separate zones . In order to do this , Players are required to form a pact with another Player to survive the Noise . Players receive assignments via text messages sent to their cell phones , and their right hands are imprinted with a countdown indicating the time left in the mission . After a day 's mission is complete , the remaining players find themselves at the start of the next day 's mission , having no sense of the time that has passed in between .
= = = Characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Neku Sakuraba ( 桜庭 音操 , Sakuraba Neku , ネク Neku ) , an anti @-@ social teenage boy who claims he does not " get " people , and rarely interacts with others . Computer @-@ controlled characters make up the rest of the cast , which includes Players who are paired with Neku . In the first Game , Neku is paired with Shiki Misaki ( 美咲 四季 , Misaki Shiki , シキ Shiki ) , a teenage girl who takes on the form of her best friend , as her physical appearance was her price of entry for the Game . In the second Game , Neku 's partner is an intelligent and sly teenage boy , Yoshiya Kiryu ( 桐生 義弥 , Kiryū Yoshiya ) , who prefers to be called Joshua ( ヨシュア , Yoshua ) . Neku 's final partner is Daisukenojo Bito ( 尾藤 大輔之丞 , Bitō Daisukenojō ) , an ex @-@ Reaper who calls himself " Beat " ( ビイト , Biito ) . Beat became a Reaper to find a way to bring his younger sister , Raimu Bito ( 尾藤 来夢 , Bitō Raimu ) ( nicknamed " Rhyme " ( ライム , Raimu ) ) , back to life . Rhyme had sacrificed herself to save her brother from a Noise attack . Sanae Hanekoma ( 羽狛 早苗 , Hanekoma Sanae , ハネコマ Hanekoma ) , the Producer , bound her soul to a pin from which her Noise could be summoned , and gave it to Beat . The final Game Master , Mitsuki Konishi ( 虚西 充妃 , Konishi Mitsuki , コニシ Konishi ) , crushes her Noise form and transformed it back into a pin .
Besides the Composer and the Conductor , there are other high @-@ ranking Reapers . For each week of the Game , Game Masters are assigned by the Conductor to lead the opposition to the Players . Of the Game Masters opposing Neku , Sho Minamimoto ( 南師 猩 , Minamimoto Shō , ミナミモト Minamimoto ) is the most dangerous . He willingly circumvents the rules in an attempt to supplant the Composer . Participating in the Games with the aim of earning promotions for their performance , the Reapers ' goal is to ascend to the highest form of spiritual existence , the Angels . Angels supervise the Games and if the stakes of a Game are particularly high , they send down one of their own to serve as the Producer . For the three weeks of the game 's story , Sanae Hanekoma is the Producer . Disguised as a Shibuya cafe owner , he guides new players and narrates the " Secret Reports " that are obtained by completing additional missions after completing the game .
= = = Story = = =
The game 's story follows Neku over the course of the three weeks that he plays the Game , paired with partners Shiki , Joshua , and Beat for each week , respectively . Neku is confused at first , lacking knowledge of how he died or how he arrived at the UG . As he develops friendships with his partners , he starts to understand the rules of the Game . After the first week , only Shiki is allowed to return to the living , and she promises to meet Neku at the statue of Hachiko . He also recovers his entry fee , which was his memories , except for the events leading up to his death . However , Shiki has become what Neku values most , and she is used as his new entry fee for the second week . During the second week he recalls small details of his death ; eventually , he recognizes that he was shot at by Sho Minamimoto , one of the Reapers he faced during the Game . At the end of the second week , Joshua seemingly sacrifices himself to save Neku from an explosion created by Minamimoto .
However , because Joshua did not actually die , the Game was nullified and Neku is forced to replay the game a third time . His entry fee this time is all of the other players , meaning Neku cannot form any pacts and stands no chance against the Noise . However , Beat immediately defects from the Reapers and rejoins Neku . Neku and Beat find that the Reapers and the entire population of Shibuya are wearing special red pins that cause them to think the same harmonious thoughts . Without any missions to complete , the two venture to the fabled " Shibuya River " , which Joshua was looking for during the second week . At the river , they find Megumi Kitaniji ( 北虹 寵 , Kitaniji Megumi , キタニジ Kitaniji ) , the Game 's Conductor . Kitaniji explains that he created the red pins in an attempt to remake Shibuya , which the Composer challenged him to do . If he fails , both he ( as his price for losing the Game ) and Shibuya will be erased .
At that moment , Joshua reappears and reveals himself to be the Composer . Joshua returns the missing part of Neku 's memory of death : Joshua himself shot Neku , choosing him to be his proxy in his challenge with Kitaniji . Minamimoto , who had been trying to usurp the position of Composer , was trying to kill Joshua in his weakened state as a human . After failing to defeat Neku by using his friends against him , Joshua gives Neku one last challenge : To fire upon Joshua to determine the fate of Shibuya . Neku is too conflicted to make a choice , and is shot down by Joshua . Neku finds himself once again at the scramble crossing , confused by events , but alive this time .
The game 's credits show scenes seven days later in the RG . As Neku walks from Udagawa to Hachiko to meet Beat , Rhyme , and Shiki , he discusses how the past three weeks have changed him for the better . In a statement directed at an absent Joshua , Neku says that although he will not forgive him for what he has done , he trusts him . Neku then asks if Joshua will be present at Hachiko as well . Secret reports that can be obtained by completing additional missions after beating the game reveal that Joshua , after seeing the change in personality of Neku over the weeks of playing the game , decides to spare Shibuya , now believing the city to be ideal . The game ends with Neku abandoning his headphones , before a title card appears entitled " The World Begins with You " .
= = Gameplay = =
The World Ends with You is an action role @-@ playing game , arranged into three chapters based on the three weeks that Neku is involved in the Reaper 's Game , with each chapter further divided by each day of the week . The player controls Neku and his partner as they explore Shibuya to complete each day 's mission . Although most missions require completion within a certain time for Neku and his partner , this timer is not correlated to the passage of time for the player .
Shibuya is divided into several districts , some of which may be inaccessible on certain days or blocked by a wall that can only be removed by satisfying the request of a nearby Reaper , such as erasing Noise symbols , putting on a certain brand of clothing , or bringing an item . Neku can scan the area by activating a special pin . This scan reveals the thoughts of the non @-@ player characters in the Realground and memes , which may help to progress the plot . The scan also reveals random Noise symbols that drift about the area , or in some cases , float around a specific character . The player initiates a battle by touching Noise symbols ; each symbol constitutes one round of battle . Selecting more than one Noise symbol at a time results in a multi @-@ round battle ( referred to in @-@ game as multiple noise " reductions " ) that gradually increases in difficulty with each round , but conversely leads to greater rewards upon success . Altering the difficulty of the Noise and the amount of health for Neku and his partner also alter the benefits conferred .
Each district has fashion trends that affect gameplay . By wearing pins or clothing from the more popular brands in that district , items ' effects will be improved ; wearing the least fashionable items will do the opposite , and items from brands in between are not affected . However , the player can increase a brand 's popularity in one district by repeatedly fighting battles in that district while wearing items of that brand . The player can enter shops to buy new pins , clothes , and food items that are gradually consumed during battles to improve the characters ' basic attributes .
After completing the game , the player can return to any day in the story and play those events again , keeping the characters ' current statistics and inventory . " Secret Reports " , written segments that reveal background elements of the story , can be unlocked through this mode by completing specific missions during each day . Completing the game allows the player to access " Another Day " from the game 's menus , an additional day of missions that explains certain events related to the main storyline . The World Ends with You has one minigame called Tin Pin Slammer ( or Marble Slash ) that can be played against computer opponents or with up to 3 others via a wireless connection . Tin Pin Slammer is similar to the marble game ringer in that each player attempts to use their pins one at a time to knock the other players ' pins off the gameboard .
= = = Pins = = =
The World Ends with You features " psych pins " , decorative pins which possess powers that only Neku can activate while wearing them . Psych pins are used for combat , for " Tin Pin Slammer / Marble Slash " , or as trade value for money or equipment . Most pins , particularly those used in combat , can become more powerful as the player accumulates " Pin Points " ( PP ) which can also lead to evolution of the pins into more potent versions . Pin Points are commonly earned through battle , but can also be earned through a period of inactivity with the game , or by interacting with other DS players or randomly if none are found . Each of these methods influences the growth of pins within the game .
= = = Combat = = =
The game 's combat system is called the Stride Cross Battle System . The combat takes place across both screens on the DS , with Neku on the touchscreen and his partner on the top screen , representing the different " zones " of the same local area ; the two characters battle the same enemies that exist in both " zones " simultaneously . Neku and his partner are synchronized during battle ; they share the same health bar so that even if one character does not take any damage , the pair can fail in battle if the other takes too much . A green " light puck " will pass between the characters during battle ; by alternating battle between the character who possesses the puck , damage is increased . The movement of the light puck is determined by the " sync ratio " between Neku and his partner ; the puck stays longer with the character with higher ratios . The player can equip Neku and his partner with clothing that can alter the light puck 's speed . The light puck also has the ability to magnify Neku and his partner 's attacks as long as when they hold the puck , they are not attacked by an enemy and can continue this in a volley .
The player controls Neku by performing touchscreen actions based on the currently equipped pins . These actions may include slashing across an enemy , tapping the screen rapidly to fire bullets , holding down on an enemy to inflict damage or shouting into the microphone to cause a full screen attack . Other pins need to be touched to activate them , such as for health restoration . Each pin has a limited number of uses before it must recharge for a certain time . Other pins may only be used a fixed number of times during a series of battles , and do not recharge until the battle sequence is over . Neku can only be equipped with a maximum of two pins at the game 's start ; this can eventually be upgraded to a maximum of six .
Neku 's partner on the top screen can be controlled by the player using the face buttons , although players can use options to have the computer assist them . Each of Neku 's partners has a card game @-@ based mechanic ; for example , Shiki 's card game requires the player to match face @-@ down Zener cards . The partner can make a basic attack after the player navigates through a pathway of arrows to select one of several shown cards using the directional pad or face buttons . By navigating to a card that fits within the card game rules , the player earns a star . Once enough stars are collected , the player can launch a powerful " Fusion " attack using both Neku and his partner through the " Harmonizer Pin " that appears on the upper right of the touchscreen ( assuming that the player has not rearranged where it 's displayed ) . The player can also help the partner character dodge attacks .
= = Development = =
The World Ends with You was developed by the same team that created the Kingdom Hearts series , with input from Jupiter , the company that developed Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . The development of the game started two and a half years before its Japanese release , during the development of Kingdom Hearts II and the end of development of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . At that time , Nintendo had announced the DS , but it was not yet on the market ; Square Enix asked the team to make a game specifically for the handheld system . The creative team — consisting of Tatsuya Kando ( director ) , Tomohiro Hasegawa ( co @-@ director ) , Takeshi Arakawa ( planning director ) , and Tetsuya Nomura ( character design ) — were able to experience the DS during the " Touch DS " event in November 2004 . From this demonstration , they had envisioned a version of Chain of Memories in which the card game aspects would be present on the bottom screen and an action role @-@ playing game on the top . As they continued to work on the game , the developers realized that they wanted to use the touchscreen more , to make " a game that can only be played on the DS " . However , they also encountered the problem that by focusing heavily on the touchscreen , the top screen would be ignored . From this , the idea of the dual screen battle system arose . Several other options were explored for the top @-@ screen game , including command @-@ based battles or a music game , but once they reviewed the game from the eyes of the player , they ultimately settled on the card @-@ game approach with the player having the option to control the game if they wanted to . Even with the completion of the Japanese version of the game , the team felt the dual screen system was too much for overseas audiences , and attempted to change the card @-@ game mechanic into a special meter that would fill up with normal attacks from Neku , but this was not completed in time for release . However , the team was able to alter the " information overload " of the numerous tutorials at the start of the game in the North American release , reducing the amount of text presented as well as allowing the tutorials to be skipped . The " Active Encounter " system , the ability for the player to select when and how to go into battle , was developed specifically to avoid the issues of " grinding " that are common with most standard RPG systems . While they included the mechanics of being able to scan non @-@ playable characters to see their thoughts , the team was not able to integrate this mechanic more into the game .
In addition to creating unique gameplay , the designers wanted to build the game around a real location . Initially , they had planned to use a large number of locations across the entire world as the setting . They narrowed down the settings to specific cities due to practicality issues . Ultimately , Kando selected Shibuya as the main setting within the first year of development , despite concerns that overseas players would find the setting unfamiliar . The team wanted to make sure the city was represented accurately within the game , and went on " location hunts " onto building rooftops without permission to get photographs . The layout of Shibuya was duplicated for the game , retaining the real @-@ world landmarks while rebranding the names of stores and buildings for copyright reasons ; for example , the 109 Building was renamed to be the " 104 Building " , while one of the busiest Starbucks , adjacent to the scramble crossing , was renamed " Outback Cafe " . The success of the game has led to fans going on tours of the district to match physical locations in Shibuya with those in the game . The selection of Shibuya led to the incorporation of much of the game 's other features , including food , clothing , and cell phone usage . The team initially thought of the idea of using graffiti around Shibuya as the source of the player 's power in the game but had difficulty representing it ; this led to the creation of the psych pins used in the game .
The team decided to stay with two @-@ dimensional graphics instead of three @-@ dimensional graphics , believing it would help differentiate themselves from other Square Enix titles as well as better represent their vision for the game . When first approached with the task of creating the art for the game , background art director Takayuki Ohdachi thought the modern @-@ day setting would be too boring , and opted to use highly skewed and angular images of Shibuya to avoid this ; the rest of the creative team found this approach to fit the game quite well . For combat , the background of the top screen was selected for visual interest , while the bottom touchscreen background was designed to emphasize the gameplay . Ohdachi was also responsible for the artwork for the psych pins , and used a mix of pop art and tribal designs for the various graphics . Character designs were handled by Tetsuya Nomura and Gen Kobayashi . Character designs were made to match with the real @-@ world Tokyo setting , after which their outfits were designed based on the character 's personality . Kobayashi was also in charge of designing the game 's non @-@ player characters and noted how most designs made it to the final product . Hasegawa was responsible for creating the designs for the Noise creatures , and wanted to have them recognizable as creatures before they decay into skeletons . In keeping with the theme of human emotion in the game , Hasegawa selected creatures that conveyed such feelings , such as wolves and crows . Representation of the Noise in the game required drawing the 2D sprites from several angles to match the action on screen as well as using rotoscoping on pre @-@ rendered sprites , and took several iterations between Square Enix and Jupiter to make sure that the sprites ' art matched the style of game , with Kando making the two @-@ hour trip between Tokyo and Kyoto weekly to check on the progress .
The developers knew that for the story they wanted to " throw the player right in the action , with things he had to do without explanation " in addition to creating a sense of urgency and mystery for the player . They developed an initial draft of the game 's plot and gave it to script writer Sachie Hirano and scenario event planner Yukari Ishida to expand on . The returned version was very close to the initial vision for the game 's story . However , there were still difficulties in filling out the story , only achieving some smooth development about halfway through the process , and even then , there were still changes made just prior to creating the master image for the game . Several inconsistencies with the game 's story were found in the final quality checks that had to be resolved . The Square Enix localization team , while translating most of the dialog and interface items into English and other European languages , preserved many Japanese elements to avoid losing the culture of the game . The team was also limited by the size of the dialog balloons used within game , and took several steps to avoid losing the meaning of the story within the game .
As The World Ends with You focuses on the character of Neku Sakuraba , in order to create a believable story the developers put a lot of focus on his development , such as how he would feel , what thoughts lie behind his actions , how he interacted with other characters , and how the people around him feel about him . The developers included aspects and daily concerns , hoping that they could be things that players would have to deal with their personal lives and therefore would let them relate with Neku .
The Japanese title , translated as It 's a Wonderful World , was not used internationally due to copyright issues . Instead , the game was released in North America and Europe under the name The World Ends with You . The game was officially announced on September 13 , 2006 by Square Enix , and premiered at the 2006 Tokyo Game Show two weeks later . On December 5 , 2007 , Square Enix announced that the game would be released for Europe and Australia in April 2008 , while a similar announcement was made for a North American release on December 17 , 2007 .
A special " Wonderful World " edition of the " Gloss Silver " Nintendo DS Lite was created and sold as a bundle with the game as part of its Japanese release . The game 's early plot was adapted into a two @-@ chapter one @-@ shot manga by Shiro Amano , published over two issues of Monthly Shōnen Gangan . In North America , the manga has been released online via the Square Enix Members website , along with mobile phone ring tones . Both Nomura and Tatsuya Kando stated that they hoped they would be given the opportunity to create a sequel to the game . Neku , Shiki , Joshua , Beat , and Rhyme appear in the video game Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance as non @-@ playable characters who are challenged to a task similar to the Reapers ' Game . The cameos are the first non @-@ Disney and non @-@ Final Fantasy characters to appear in the Kingdom Hearts franchise .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack to The World Ends with You was composed and produced by Takeharu Ishimoto . The game 's music encompasses many genres , combining rock , hip hop , and electronica and was designed to fit the various moods of Shibuya . The song appearing during the credits of the game is " Lullaby for You " by Japanese pop artist , Jyongri . Vocal artists featured in the game include Sawa Kato , Makiko Noda , Leah , Ayuko Tanaka , Mai Matsuda , Wakako , Hanaeryca , Cameron Strother , Andy Kinlay , Nulie Nurly , and Londell " Taz " Hicks . The developers used CRI Middleware 's Kyuseishu Sound Streamer , a compression algorithm normally used for voice @-@ overs , to compress the soundtrack and fit more songs on the game media , while replacing full motion video cutscenes with Flash @-@ style animations to save more space . The ADX @-@ compressed soundtrack and cutscene audio on the final version of the game take up approximately one @-@ fourth ( 42 of 128 total MB ) of the game media .
The official soundtrack of the game , The World Ends with You Original Soundtrack ( すばらしきこのせかい ORIGINAL SOUNDTRACK , Subarashiki Kono Sekai Original Soundtrack , meaning " It 's a Wonderful World Original Soundtrack " ) was released in Japan on August 22 , 2007 and is on sale in most English @-@ language iTunes Stores . This release , however , does not include the four tracks unique to localizations outside Japan and is simply a digital version of the Japanese soundtrack . Three of the tracks , " Someday " , " Calling " and " Twister " , were later remixed for the 2012 Nintendo 3DS title , Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance . " Calling " and " Twister " were also remixed for downloadable tracks for Theatrhythm Final Fantasy : Curtain Call .
A revised soundtrack , The World Ends With You - Crossover , was released on September 20 , 2012 . It includes the original tracks from the DS game , remixes of " Calling " , " Someday " and " Twister " from Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , and the remixes from the iOS version .
Square Enix , however , released the digital 6 @-@ track EP Subarashiki Konosekai + The World Ends with You ( すばらしきこのせかい + The World Ends with You , Subarashiki Kono Sekai + The World Ends with You , meaning " It 's a Wonderful World + The World Ends with You " ) on June 25 , 2008 through the Japanese iTunes Store . This release contains the four songs unique to the international version of the game , along with the English version of " Owari @-@ Hajimari " and a remix of " Twister " . A 19 @-@ track version of the album was given a physical CD and iTunes release on July 30 , 2008 .
= = = Solo Remix = = =
A port for mobile devices , entitled The World Ends With You -Solo Remix- , was released on iOS on August 27 , 2012 , and on Android on June 26 , 2014 . The Solo Remix version of the game for iOS and Android systems maintains much of the core game features , but modifies the combat system for the single screen . Both Neku and his partner battle on the same screen . The player does not have direct control of their partner , but still must work with the sync puck between the two . As the two attack , the Fusion meter will build up , and eventually reveal a Fusion attack button . Upon striking this , the player is then given a mini @-@ game based on their partner that 's similar to the card @-@ matching game in the DS version : for example , with Shiki , the player is briefly shown the faces of several cards , and then must make matches as fast as possible . The success rate of the mini @-@ game influences the power of the subsequent Fusion attack .
In addition to combat changes , the Solo Remix includes redrawn high @-@ definition sprites and is optimized for the Retina display of iOS devices . The original soundtrack and additional remixes of these songs are included . Wireless and social media features are also included : the Tin Pin Slammer can be played with other players via wireless connections , and the game can connect with the player 's social media applications to display these as scanned thoughts from non @-@ player characters within the game . The Solo Remix version features a remixed soundtrack from the original DS release . New assets at the conclusion of the iOS game hint at a possible sequel , but no confirmation has been made by Square Enix . The iOS version of the game was pulled from the iOS App Store in February 2015 due to an issue that prevented the game from working with the iOS 8 operating system launched in September 2014 , though the Android version remains available . It has returned to the App Store in June 2015 .
= = Reception = =
The World Ends with You received positive reviews and has been commercially successful . Game Informer named the game its Handheld Game of the Month award for May 2008 . IGN gave The World Ends with You its Editors ' Choice Award , and named it the DS Game of the Month for April . In Japan , the game premiered as the second @-@ best selling DS title during the week of July 27 , 2007 . Nearly 193 @,@ 000 units were sold in Japan by the end of 2007 . The World Ends with You sold 43 @,@ 000 copies during April 2008 in North America . The first shipment of the game sold out mid @-@ May and a second shipment was made in mid @-@ June 2008 . The game was the top @-@ selling DS title the week of its release and again two weeks later . As of September 30 , 2008 , The World Ends With You has sold approximately 140 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 20 @,@ 000 copies in Europe .
Critics praised the departure from other popular titles such as Square Enix 's Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts series . Both the graphical presentation and the soundtrack were very well received . Reviews also commented that , initially , the character designs were too similar to previous Square Enix titles and may be off @-@ putting to some though in the Shibuya setting they were " absolutely in their element . " Some reviewers also complained that the Stride Cross Battle System was too complex for new players ; Eurogamer 's review felt the " sink or swim " reliance on learning the complex battle system was a significant stumbling block for the game . GamePro noted that the stylus input was imprecise , often mistaking movement and attack actions . On the other hand , the system was praised for its approach , and for the ability to alter the difficulty of the system within the game . Neku Sakuraba 's character arc was praised by several reviewers , such as G4TV editor Jonathan Hunt , who praised his growth from a " mute teenager " to a " civil human " . 1UP.com 's review summarized that the game is much more than the sum of its parts : " By all rights , The World Ends With You should be an annoying disaster , a bundle of tired gimmicks and trite clichés . Yet somehow all the things that should be unbearable fall into place and create a game that 's far more unique , interesting , and addictive than it has any right to be . "
The World Ends with You won several awards from IGN.com , including best Nintendo DS role @-@ playing game , best story for a Nintendo DS game , best new IP for the DS , as the best Nintendo DS game of the year . It was also nominated for other awards , including best original score for a Nintendo DS game and best artistic design for a Nintendo DS game . It was ranked as the tenth best game of the 2000s released on a Nintendo system by Nintendo Power .
The World Ends with You -Solo Remix- received a score of 9 @.@ 5 and an Editor 's Choice from IGN , who praised the port and its additions , although criticized its price point and lack of universal compatibility ( the iPhone / iPod Touch and iPad versions of the game must be purchased separately . ) Kotaku also criticized the high price and lack of universal compatibility as ' indefensible ' , though it praised the port for its controls , saying " in many ways , it feels more suited to ( the iPad ) than it ever did on the DS . "
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= Jeannette Expedition =
The Jeannette Expedition of 1879 – 81 , officially the U.S. Arctic Expedition , was an attempt led by George W. De Long to reach the North Pole by pioneering a route from the Pacific Ocean through the Bering Strait . The premise was that a temperate current , the Kuro Siwo , flowed northwards into the strait , providing a gateway to an Open Polar Sea and thus to the pole . This theory proved illusory ; the expedition 's ship , USS Jeannette , was trapped by ice and drifted for nearly two years before she was crushed and sunk , north of the Siberian coast . De Long then led his men on a perilous journey by boat and sled to the Lena Delta . During this journey , and in the subsequent weeks of wandering in the Arctic wastes before rescue , more than half the ship 's complement died , including De Long .
The chief exponent of the theory of a warm @-@ water gateway to the North Pole was the German cartographer , August Petermann . He encouraged James Gordon Bennett Jr . , the proprietor of the New York Herald , to finance a polar expedition based on the untried Pacific route . Bennett acquired a former Royal Navy gunboat , the Pandora , and changed her name to Jeannette . De Long , whom Bennett chose to lead the expedition , was a serving naval officer with previous Arctic experience . Although essentially a private venture , in which Bennett paid all the bills , the expedition had the full support of the U.S. Government . Before departure the ship was commissioned into the U.S. Navy , and sailed under navy laws and discipline .
Before its demise , the expedition discovered new islands — the Ostrova De @-@ Longa — and collected valuable meteorological and oceanographic data . Although Jeannette 's fate demolished the widely believed Open Polar Sea theory , the appearance in 1884 of debris from the wreck on the south @-@ west coast of Greenland indicated the existence of an ocean current moving the permanent Arctic ice from east to west . This discovery inspired Fridtjof Nansen to mount his Fram expedition nine years later . A monument to the Jeannette dead was erected at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , in 1890 .
= = Background = =
= = = Early Arctic exploration = = =
European exploration of the Arctic regions began in the 16th century , with searches for new routes to the Pacific via the Northeast and Northwest passages . The possibility of a third route , directly across the North Pole , was raised by early geographer Richard Hakluyt . The early explorers had little success in finding these routes , but made important geographical discoveries . In time , the search for trade routes became secondary to the prestige objective of reaching the North Pole itself , or at least of registering a " Farthest North " . In 1773 a British naval expedition under Captain Constantine Phipps sought a route to the pole from the Seven Islands , but found the way impassably blocked by ice . On May 28 , 1806 , the Whitby whaling captain William Scoresby achieved a new record northern latitude of 81 ° 30 ' to the north of Svalbard before being stopped by ice .
The prevalent theory of polar geography throughout this period was that of a temperate " Open Polar Sea " surrounding the North Pole . The observable southward drift of Arctic ice was thought to result from the " pushing " effect of this warmer water . According to the historian Hampton Sides , despite the lack of scientific evidence the theory " gathered a logic of its own ... No amount of contrary evidence could dislodge it from the collective imagination " . The fact that all northbound voyages had , sooner or later , been stopped by ice was rationalized through a belief that the undiscovered sea was encircled in a ring or " annulus " of ice which , it was thought , could be penetrated via one of several warm @-@ water gateways or portals . The initial quest for the North Pole thus became a search for one of these portals .
After British naval expeditions in 1818 and 1827 – 28 had probed north of Spitsbergen and found no sign of the supposed polar sea , the quest was in abeyance for 25 years . In the 1850s , the search for the lost Franklin expedition generated a rash of incursions into the Canadian Arctic . From these forays , particularly that of Edward Inglefield in 1852 , emerged the theory that Smith Sound , a northerly channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island , might be one of the fabled gateways to the polar sea . This brought a succession of expeditions to this area : Elisha Kent Kane in 1853 – 55 , Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860 – 61 , Charles Francis Hall in 1872 – 74 , and George Nares in 1875 – 76 . No gateway was found , although both Kane and Hayes claimed , mistakenly , to have seen the Open Polar Sea from a distance .
= = = August Petermann = = =
The Smith Sound route was not favored by everyone ; among those who rejected it was leading geographer and map @-@ maker August Petermann , from Gotha in Germany , widely known as the " Sage of Gotha " . A firm believer in the Open Polar Sea theory , he believed that the most likely portal would be found by following the Gulf Stream , which swept up the coast of Norway to the unexplored Arctic regions . Peterman thought the current would weaken or even penetrate the protective ice ring , and that a sturdily @-@ built steamer following the course of the stream might thus be able to break through into the supposed polar sea .
After two expeditions sponsored by Petermann — the German North Polar Expedition of 1869 led by Carl Koldewey , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian North Pole Expedition of 1872 under Karl Weyprecht and Julius von Payer — had followed separate branches of the Gulf Stream but ultimately failed to break through the ice , Petermann grew dispirited . In the year before he took his own life in 1878 he transferred his advocacy to the Kuro Siwo , a Pacific Ocean current analyzed in the 1850s by the hydrographer Silas Bent . Petermann followed Bent in believing that a branch of the Kuro Siwo flowed through the Bering Strait , and might be powerful enough to create a path to the polar sea . At the time no one had attempted to reach the polar sea by this route .
= = = George De Long = = =
In July 1873 the U.S. Navy dispatched USS Juniata to Greenland , to search for survivors from the Polaris expedition which had disintegrated after the death of its leader Charles Francis Hall . Juniata 's second @-@ in @-@ command was George De Long , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old graduate of the United States Naval Academy , making his first visit to the Arctic . Ice conditions prevented Juniata from advancing beyond Upernavik ; De Long volunteered to take the ship 's tender , a small steamer named the Little Juniata , in the hope of finding survivors at Cape York , a further 400 nautical miles ( 740 km ) north .
The attempt failed ; Little Juniata faced extreme weather conditions , and was forced to retreat a few miles from Cape York . De Long returned to Juniata in mid @-@ August , having found no trace of the Polaris crew ( who had meanwhile been rescued by the Scottish whaler Ravenscraig ) , but the experience had profoundly affected his outlook . Having earlier described the Greenland coast in a letter to his wife Emma as " a dreary land of desolation ... I hope I may never find myself cast away in such a perfectly God @-@ forsaken place " , he returned home captivated by the Arctic . Emma later wrote : " The polar virus was in his blood and would not let him rest " .
The abortive Little Juniata mission brought De Long to public notice , and he saw himself as a possible leader of the next U.S. Arctic expedition . He approached Henry Grinnell , the philanthropic shipping magnate who had funded several previous expeditions . Grinnell was not prepared to offer financial support , instead advising De Long to approach James Gordon Bennett Jr . , owner and publisher of the New York Herald and a known sponsor of bold schemes . De Long met Bennett in New York early in 1874 ; the newspaperman was impressed by De Long , and assured him that his Arctic ambitions would have the enthusiastic support of the Herald . In the meantime De Long had applied to the Navy Department for an Arctic command , a request that he was informed would " receive due attention " .
= = = James Gordon Bennett = = =
James Gordon Bennett Jr . , had succeeded his father as proprietor of the New York Herald in 1866 . He had won renown in 1872 , when his reporter Henry Morton Stanley , sent by Bennett to Africa in search of the British missionary @-@ explorer David Livingstone , cabled that Livingstone had been found . Bennett knew the news value of Arctic exploration ; two Herald reporters had accompanied Juniata , and in 1874 Bennett was helping to fund British sailor Allen Young and his decommissioned former gunboat Pandora , on one of the final Franklin searches .
Bennett was interested in Petermann 's theories , and in 1877 traveled to Gotha to discuss possible Arctic routes with the geographer . Petermann thought that as well as providing the best path to the pole , passage through the Bering Strait using the Kuro Siwo would enable investigation of the unexplored , barely glimpsed land mass known since 1867 as " Wrangel 's Land " . He theorized that this land might form part of a transpolar continent , connected to Greenland ; if so , it might provide an alternative , land @-@ based route to the pole should the expedition fail to find a portal to the polar sea . " My idea " , he told Bennett , " is that if one door will not open , try another " . He offered Bennett full use of his maps and charts .
Petermann 's advice convinced Bennett that a new American polar venture should go ahead . On his return from Gotha , he cabled De Long requesting him to seek leave of absence from the Navy , and to begin the search for a ship suitable for Arctic exploration using Petermann 's Bering Strait route .
= = Preparation = =
= = = Ship = = =
As no suitable ship was available in the United States , De Long went to England , where he found Young 's Pandora on offer at $ 6 @,@ 000 . The vessel 's Arctic pedigree made it seem ideal , but Young 's hesitancy about selling delayed the purchase until late 1877 . At Bennett 's instigation , Congress passed legislation that gave the Navy Department full control over the expedition ; it would fly the American flag , the crew would be engaged by the navy , and would be subject to naval discipline . Bennett remained responsible for financing the enterprise , and undertook to reimburse the government for all costs incurred . Meanwhile , De Long was released from active duty , to oversee Pandora 's refit in England .
In June 1878 , after a thorough overhaul at Deptford on the Thames Estuary , Pandora was sailed to Le Havre in France where , on July 4 , she was renamed Jeannette , after Bennett 's sister who performed the ceremony . On July 15 the ship , manned by De Long and a small crew , sailed from Le Havre to begin the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 33 @,@ 000 km ) voyage to San Francisco , the port from which the Arctic expedition was to sail . They arrived on 27 December 1878 , and transferred Jeannette to Mare Island Naval Shipyard to undergo further work in readiness for a prolonged journey in the Arctic ice .
De Long spent much of the early part of 1879 in Washington , D.C. , promoting the expedition among officials , searching for appropriate crew members , and harrying Navy Secretary Richard W. Thompson for practical support . His requests included the use of a supply ship to accompany Jeannette as far as Alaska . Among the less standard equipment acquired by De Long was an experimental arc lamp system devised by Thomas Edison , which would supposedly provide light equivalent to 3 @,@ 000 candles and thus transform the Arctic winter darkness . Having successfully undergone her sea trials , on June 28 , ten days before her scheduled departure , Jeannette was formally commissioned into the U.S. Navy as USS Jeannette .
= = = Crew = = =
In selecting his crew , De Long 's priority was men with Arctic experience . For his second @-@ in @-@ command he chose Lieutenant Charles Chipp , who had served with him on the Little Juniata adventure . Another veteran of the Polaris rescue mission , George Melville , was appointed as ship 's engineer . Other experienced Arctic hands were William Nindemann , a Polaris survivor , and the ice pilot William Dunbar , who had many years ' experience in whalers . The appointment of the expedition 's navigating officer was problematic ; John Wilson Danenhower , a young naval officer from a well @-@ connected Washington family , was recommended to Bennett by the former president Ulysses S. Grant . Such sponsorship won Danenhower his place , despite a history of depression that had seen him briefly incarcerated at the Government Hospital for the Insane . On Bennett 's request , Danenhower accompanied De Long on the voyage from Le Havre to San Francisco , during which he confided details of his medical history . The navigator 's competent performance persuaded De Long that such troubles were in the past .
The ship 's surgeon , James Ambler , was assigned to the expedition by the Navy 's Bureau of Medicine and Surgery , only because he was next on the list of medical officers available for sea duty . Ambler deduced from Danenhower 's medical records that a probable cause of the navigator 's medical lapses was syphilis , but Danenhower 's influential connections ensured that he kept his place on the expedition .
Two others from Jeannette 's voyage from Le Havre , carpenter Albert Sweetman and boatswain John Cole , were enlisted , as was the Herald 's meteorologist , Jerome Collins . Dubbed " chief scientist " , he was in charge of the Edison apparatus and of a rudimentary telephone system that De Long hoped to utilize . The remaining places were filled from a long list of applicants ; the cook and steward were recruited by Danenhower from San Francisco 's Chinatown .
= = = Problems = = =
De Long quickly found himself at odds with the naval engineers at Mare Island , whose estimates of the work required to prepare Jeannette for the Arctic greatly exceeded his own judgement of what was necessary . De Long spent much time negotiating on Bennett 's behalf with the Navy Department , in an effort to reduce costs . In this he was broadly successful , but in other areas he faced setbacks . In April he learned that the navy was unable to provide a supply ship to accompany Jeannette northward , a decision which , he thought , left the fate of the expedition " hanging by a thread " . Bennett eventually resolved this difficulty by chartering a schooner , the Frances Hyde , to carry extra coal and provisions as far as Alaska .
Late in his preparations , De Long received orders from Secretary Thompson that , before proceeding with his own Arctic mission he should enquire along the Siberian coast for news of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld and his ship Vega . The Swedish explorer was currently attempting the first navigation of the Northeast passage ; he was not overdue , and there was no evidence that he was in difficulty . Nevertheless , Bennett sensed the opportunity for a rescue story to equal his Stanley @-@ Livingstone scoop , and persuaded Thompson to issue the order . De Long , unaware that his patron was the originator , protested that this requirement would jeopardize his primary mission , but was forced to modify his plans .
De Long was unaware , as he prepared to sail , that the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey was studying the latest hydrographical and meteorological data obtained from its research ships in the Bering Sea . The material indicated conclusively that , contrary to Bent 's theories , the Kuro Siwo had no perceptible effect on the areas north of the Bering Strait . The survey 's report went on to dismiss the entire concept of " gateways " and the warm polar sea . By the time these conclusions were published , Jeannette had sailed , and De Long remained in ignorance of this information .
= = Voyage = =
= = = Towards the Arctic = = =
Jeannette 's departure from San Francisco , on July 8 , 1879 , was a popular spectacle , witnessed by large crowds who came from all quarters of the city . The army at Fort Point provided an eleven @-@ gun salute ; in contrast , De Long noted that none of the naval vessels in and around San Francisco made any formal acknowledgement of their sister @-@ ship 's departure , " [ not even ] the blast of a steam whistle " . Bennett , absent in Europe , cabled that he hoped to be present when Jeannette made its triumphant return .
The first weeks on the journey northwards were uneventful . On August 3 Jeannette reached Unalaska in the Aleutian Islands , where De Long sought information on Nordenskiöld from the crew of a revenue cutter , newly returned from the Bering Strait . The cutter had no news of him . On August 12 , Jeannette reached St. Michael , a small port on the Alaskan mainland , and waited for the Francis Hyde to arrive with extra provisions and coal .
At St Michael , De Long hired two experienced Inuit dog drivers , and took on board a number of sled dogs . On August 21 , after transferring provisions and fuel , Francis Hyde departed ; Jeannette set out for the Chukchi Peninsula on the Siberian coast , to enquire after Nordenskiöld . At Saint Lawrence Bay the Chukchi people reported that an unidentified steamer had recently passed by , going south . De Long then headed through the Bering Strait towards Cape Dezhnev , where he learned from locals that a ship had called at Cape Serdtse @-@ Kamen , further along the coast . Here , a shore party from Jeannette quickly established from artifacts left behind with villagers that this ship was Vega and that Nordenskiöld 's expedition had therefore safely completed the Northeast passage . De Long left a note of his findings for transmission to Washington . On August 31 Jeannette left , in the assumed direction of Wrangel 's Land , where De Long hoped to establish his winter quarters .
= = = Icebound = = =
Jeannette initially made good speed northward ; on September 2 she was about 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) from the charted position of Wrangel 's Land , but with ice thickening all around , movement became slow and erratic . On September 4 , from the crow 's nest , Dunbar sighted the known landmark of Herald Island , but the ice now presented an almost insuperable obstacle to progress . De Long raised steam and repeatedly charged the pack , seeking to batter a way forward . The thick plume of smoke from Jeanette 's stack , observed by whalers , was the final sighting of Jeannette by the outside world .
The next day , September 5 , the crew caught a brief glimpse of Wrangel 's Land — or perhaps , as De Long surmised , a mirage . Ice conditions now made it impossible to move closer to this tantalizing shore , and De Long made Herald Island his new objective . Shortly afterwards , Jeannette was sealed within the pack , " as tightly as a fly in amber " according to historian Leonard Guttridge . Herald Island was still about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) away ; a sled party under Chipp set off across the ice , to investigate the possibility of a winter harbor should the ship regain maneuverability . Chipp 's party was unable to get closer to the island than 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) , before the volatile ice conditions forced their return to the ship . De Long still hoped for a change in the weather that would release them from the ice , writing in his journal : " I am told that in the later part of September and early part of October there is experienced in these latitudes quite an Indian Summer " . The following weeks brought no increase in temperature , and De Long reluctantly accepted that Jeannette was trapped for the winter .
= = = Drifting = = =
The initial direction of the ship 's drift was haphazard , back and forth — on October 3 , nearly a month after Jeannette was first trapped , Herald Island was still in sight . As October developed , the direction of drift shifted to the northwest , and it became apparent to de Long that " Wrangel 's Land " was not after all a land mass , but was a relatively small island . At the same time , analyses of sea currents , salinity and temperature provided data confirming the Geodetic Survey 's findings , by then known in Washington , that the Kuro Siwo had no effect north of the Bering Strait . The vista of endless ice surrounding the ship raised profound doubts about the entire concept of the Open Polar Sea .
Amid the boredom of the largely eventless drift , the crew ate well ; ship 's stores were boosted by regular hunting parties which brought a harvest of seal and polar bear meat . In late October , as winter approached , De Long ordered the Edison arc lighting system erected , but the generating mechanism failed to produce even the dimmest of lights , and the apparatus was swiftly abandoned , along with the equally ineffective telephone system . Christmas 1879 , and the start of the new year , were celebrated without great joy ; De Long wrote of Christmas as " the dreariest day of my life , and it is certainly the dreariest part of the world " .
On January 19 , 1880 , Jeannette 's hull was breached by the ice , and she began to take in water rapidly . De Long prepared to abandon ship , but she was saved by the actions of Nindemann and Sweetman , who waded into the freezing water in the hold and staunched the inflow by stuffing whatever materials were available into the breaches . Melville used elements of the discarded Edison apparatus to build a mechanical pumping system , and the problem was largely resolved by the construction of a new watertight bulkhead . De Long noted in his journal that the efforts of Nindemann and Sweetman were worthy of recommendation for the Medal of Honor .
For months on end Jeannette hardly moved at all ; De Long recorded on March 2 that their position was almost precisely what it had been three months earlier . On May 5 , the ship passed to the west of the 180 ° meridian , but two months later had retreated back to the other side of the line . The summer brought no relief ; although it briefly seemed possible in August that Jeannette might break free and find open water , this proved a false hope . The condition of Danenhower was a further source of anxiety . His syphilis began to take toll of his body , particularly his left eye which , despite Ambler 's repeated operations — stoically endured , given the lack of anesthetic — left the navigator largely incapacitated and unable to perform his duties . On the last day of 1880 De Long wrote in his journal : " I begin the new year by turning over a new leaf , and I hope to God we are turning over a new leaf in our book of luck " .
= = = Crushed = = =
At the beginning of 1881 De Long noted that , after 16 months , Jeannette was still only 220 nautical miles ( 410 km ; 250 mi ) from the point where she had been trapped . He wrote : " We are drifting about like a modern Flying Dutchman ... thirty @-@ three people are wearing out their lives and souls " . On May 16 an island was sighted , followed almost immediately by another — the first land seen for well over a year . " There is something then beside ice in the world ! " , wrote De Long . They were in uncharted seas , so these islands were discoveries . De Long named the first " Henrietta Island " , after Bennett 's mother , and the second " Jeannette Island " . A sled party under Melville was despatched to Henrietta Island , to claim the territories for the United States .
At around this time , the revenue cutter Thomas L. Corwin was in Alaskan waters , seeking news of De Long 's expedition . Corwin 's captain , Calvin Hooper , heard stories of a shipwreck in the far north , and set off to investigate . For five weeks he circled the Bering Sea ; encounters with locals convinced him that the wreck was not that of Jeannette . On June 16 , 1881 , another relief vessel , USS Rodgers left San Francisco , but was destroyed by fire in Saint Lawrence Bay in November .
On board Jeannette , the discovery of the islands had raised De Long 's spirits — the expedition would , wherever the drift took it , have some concrete geographical achievement to its credit . The onset of the brief Arctic summer brought fresh hopes that Jeannette would at last be released from the ice , and on June 11 she was briefly free , afloat in a small pool . However , the next day the ice returned with renewed force , which battered the ship and finally penetrated the hull beyond repair . De Long supervised an orderly evacuation of men , dogs , equipment and provisions . On the evening of June 12 , 1881 , Jeannette sank , her final recorded position being 77 ° 15N , 155 ° E , around 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) from the Siberian coast .
= = = Ice journey = = =
De Long 's general plan was to march with dogs and sleds to the New Siberian Islands , somewhere to the south , and then use the boats to carry his party to the Siberian mainland . According to Petermann 's maps his intended landfall , the Lena Delta , was studded with settlements that would provide them with shelter and safety . By June 25 , after a week 's hard traveling on the ice , the northward drift had nullified their progress ; they were further from land then they had been when they set out . When the direction of the ice shifted , the party was finally able to advance in the right direction , but the going was slow and difficult . Part of the problem lay with the dogs who , after nearly two years of relative idleness , were either lethargic or quarrelsome , unable to work in harness . Some of the worst offenders were shot for food . On July 12 , land appeared to the south ; fleetingly , De Long thought this was part of the New Siberian Islands , but it was another uncharted island . When the party reached it on July 29 , De Long named it Bennett Island , and called the point of landing " Cape Emma " , after his wife . Meanwhile , hundreds of miles to the east , the Corwin had given up on its rescue mission . After months of searching vainly for definite news or traces of Jeannette , Hooper had concluded that the vessel was lost , and headed back to San Francisco .
After a week 's rest , the party departed Bennett Island on August 6 , leaving a message in a rock cairn . The ice was now too loose for sled travel , so the party transferred to the boats . Having no further use for the dogs , De Long ordered them shot . The general direction of the ice flow carried the party south @-@ west , and on August 20 the most easterly of the New Siberian Islands , Novaya Sibir , was in sight . For the first time since moving away from Herald Island nearly two years previously , they were in the charted world . De Long steered the boats through the channel between Novaya Sibir and Faddeyesvsky Island , before skirting the southern coast of Kotelny Island and beginning the final stage of the journey , across the open sea to the Lena Delta . Their last halt , on September 10 , was on the tiny Semyonovsky Island , less than 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) from the Siberian coast .
= = Lena Delta = =
= = = Storm and landfall = = =
The boats left Semenovsky Island early in the morning of September 12 , in fair weather . Thirteen men were with De Long in the large cutter , Chipp with seven others took the smaller cutter , while Melville and ten men sailed in the whaleboat . Danenhower , who outranked Melville , complained bitterly to De Long about being placed under the engineer 's command , but De Long replied that Danenhower was unfit for duty , a view confirmed by Ambler . De Long instructed that the boats should each aim for a point indicated as " Cape Barkin " on the Petermann map ; if they became separated , and landed in different areas , the parties should rendezvous at Bulun , a sizeable settlement about 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the coast .
The boats made good progress through the morning , and Melville initially thought they might strike land after a single night at sea . In the afternoon the weather worsened ; the boats separated and lost sight of each other . De Long used a sea anchor to stabilize his craft in the ferocious seas , and despite having his sail torn away by the wind , managed to hold a course to the west . The storm had largely subsided by the morning of September 14 , but progress was erratic in the absence of the sail , and it was three more days before the cutter ran aground at the most northerly limit of the Lena Delta . De Long and his crew waded ashore , carrying their provisions from the boat , and prepared for a long foot journey . Based on their map , the nearest settlement appeared to lie 95 miles ( 153 km ) away . De Long thought their rations would last for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half days .
In the whaleboat , Melville had , like De Long , ridden out the storm by means of a sea anchor . The boat 's course was far to the south of De Long 's ; they finally reached land at one of the main mouths of the Lena , and were able to navigate upriver . Within a few days they encountered a native fishing camp , and by September 25 had reached the settlement of Arrhu . Chipp 's cutter never reached land ; overwhelmed by the storm , it foundered , with the loss of all eight on board .
= = = De Long party = = =
The De Long party found no immediate sign at their landing @-@ place of any human habitation , and had only a sketchy idea of where they were — Petermann 's map provided few useful details . On September 19 , having buried their non @-@ essential possessions in a mound marked by a tent pole , they set out in search of settlements . Progress was hampered by the poor physical condition of the men , in particular Eriksen , who was badly affected by frostbite . On September 21 they halted at two empty huts , probably part of a hunting camp , where Alexey raised spirits by shooting a deer to replenish their dwindling food stocks . De Long allowed his exhausted party several days ' rest before resuming the march .
On September 28 the party found a large hut , with signs of recent occupation – edible food in the store , and moccasin tracks in the snow . When searches in the locality brought no sign of people , De Long decided to move on . By October 4 , Eriksen could not continue ; the party halted at another abandoned hut where , on October 6 , Eriksen died . On October 9 , with the condition of several men worsening , De Long decided to send two of the fittest in the group , Nindemann and Noros , to seek help . Ambler was offered the opportunity to go with them , but felt that his duty as a doctor required him to stay with the main body .
For the next week De Long 's party struggled on , sometimes making barely a mile a day . Although they jettisoned more of their possessions on the way , De Long insisted on carrying his maps and journals . His entry for October 10 recorded that there was " nothing for supper but a spoonful of glycerine " . A few days later Alexey , the group 's principal hunter , shot a ptarmigan which provided soup . But Alexey was weakening , and on October 17 he died . On October 20 , trapped by the weather and without supplies , the party came to a final halt . Throughout the march De Long had written up his journal each day , but after October 20 his entries became intermittent , largely limited to terse statements of the dying and the dead . He noted the deaths of Kaak and Lee on October 21 , Iverson on the 28th , Dressler on the 29th . His last entry , dated October 30 , records the deaths of Boyd and Görtz and ends " Mr Collins dying " .
= = = Melville , Nindemann , Noros = = =
After resting at Arrhu , Melville 's group moved out , aiming for the agreed rendezvous at Bulun . On September 19 they encountered native Tungus huntsmen , who led the party first to the tiny settlement of Little Borkhia , and then on to the larger village of Zemovialach . Here , locals advised them that they would have to wait for the river to freeze before attempting to reach Bulun .
After several weeks , Melville learned from a Russian traveler that two Americans were recuperating at Bulun . Weather conditions were now suitable for travel , so Melville hired a pair of expert local dog drivers to take him to Bulun . He left Danenhower in charge , with instructions to lead the party to Bulun as soon as practicable , and from there to proceed as best he could to Yakutsk , a large city hundreds of miles to the south . Melville arrived in Bulun on November 3 , where he found Nindemann and Noros , weak but recovering . From them , Melville learned of De Long 's plight and his urgent need for rescue . The pair had endured a harrowing experience since leaving De Long nearly a month previously . They had struggled for ten days , sleeping in improvised shelters and eating what they could catch or shoot . In this fashion they reached a small , abandoned camp which they later learned was named Bulcour . Here , they had been found by a nomadic band of Yakut hunters , who had taken them to a large camp at Kumakh @-@ Surt . To their great frustration they were unable to make the Yakuts understand that they were shipwrecked mariners whose comrades were in dire straits . They did manage to convey their desire to reach Bulun , and were taken there by sled , arriving on October 29 a few days before Melville joined them there .
= = = Searches = = =
From Bulun , Melville sent messages to Washington and the Herald , advising them of Jeannette 's loss and listing the survivors and missing parties . On November 5 he set out with two local guides , using rough maps supplied by Nindemann and Noros , to begin his search for De Long . At the village of North Bulun , natives brought him notes left by De Long 's party in cairns . One note directed Melville to the cache of logbooks and instruments that De Long had buried at his landing @-@ place . Although now convinced that De Long and his comrades must have died , Melville continued the search , but the encroaching Arctic winter meant that he could do no more that season . He returned to Bulun at the end of November , and then traveled on to Yakutsk to be reunited with the other Jeannette survivors .
In January 1882 , while most of the survivors began their long journey home , Melville , Nindemann and James Bartlett prepared to head a new search in the delta when weather allowed . They left Yakutsk on January 16 , and resumed their search when the thaw began in mid @-@ March . Beginning at the spot where Nindemann and Noros had left De Long the previous October , Melville began a systematic examination of the area . On March 23 he found Alexey 's hunting rifle and , nearby , the remains of a camp . The team found further artifacts , a frozen human arm protruding from the snow , and finally De Long 's journal . From this they learned the story of the party 's final days .
Soon , all the bodies except that of Alexey , which was never found , had been recovered . Those of the last three to die — De Long , Ambler and Ah Sam — were some distance from the rest , where they had evidently attempted to set up a final camp on higher ground . Melville 's party wrapped all the bodies in canvas , and carried them to a hill high enough to be safe from seasonal flooding . There they placed them in a large coffin improvised from driftwood , which they covered with rocks surmounted by a large wooden cross , inscribed with the names of the lost men . Melville 's group left the site on April 7 , 1882 , then spent a further month in the delta , searching without success for signs of Chipp and his crew .
= = Aftermath = =
Of the total expedition party of 33 men , 13 returned alive to the United States . The first group of survivors landed in New York in May 1882 , but celebrations were deferred until the arrival , on September 13 , of Melville , Nindemann and Noros . They were welcomed as heroes , given a civic reception , and treated to a banquet at the celebrated restaurant Delmonico 's . Public interest in the Jeannette story had been high since the first news of the ship 's fate had been received from Yakutsk . Bennett had dispatched several reporters to Russia , including John P. Jackson , who had reached the Lena Delta and found the tomb of De Long . In his zeal for a story , Jackson had opened the tomb to search for papers or other records , an act of desecration that Emma De Long described to Bennett as " the bitterest potion I had to swallow in my whole life " . Jackson had also interviewed Danenhower , who made allegations of discord within the party and of ill @-@ treatment of certain officers , particularly himself .
A naval inquiry into the loss of the Jeannette convened at the beginning of October , at which the survivors were the principal witnesses . In February 1883 the board announced its findings : Jeannette was a fit vessel for Arctic service ; difficulties such as the late start and the diversion to search for news of Vega were not De Long 's fault , nor was he to blame for the ship 's loss . He had conducted the subsequent retreat in an exemplary manner . Not everybody was satisfied ; relatives of Collins , who had heard during the evidence of trouble between De Long and the meteorologist , did not believe that the whole truth had been told , and termed the enquiry a " whitewash " . In April 1884 a United States House of Representatives Naval Affairs subcommittee reviewed the evidence , and confirmed the findings of the earlier enquiry .
In February 1882 Secretary Thompson had despatched naval lieutenants Giles Harber and William Schuetze to the delta to search for any traces of the lost explorers , particularly of Chipp 's party . They were unsuccessful , but in November received orders from the secretary to supervise the return of the bodies of De Long and his comrades to the United States . Weather and bureaucracy delayed them for a year ; finally , in November 1883 the bodies were taken from Yakutsk by train to Moscow , Berlin , and finally Hamburg . Here they were placed on board the U.S. steamer Frisia , which arrived in New York in February 1884 . The funeral cortège was escorted by naval and military detachments to the Church of the Holy Trinity on Madison Avenue for a memorial service . Afterwards the bodies of Ambler , Collins and Boyd were claimed for private burial ; those of De Long and six others were taken to Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx , and buried together there . In October 1890 a large monument to the expedition 's dead was unveiled at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis . Its design is based on the original cairn and cross raised at the burial site on the Lena Delta .
A mountain range in Alaska , and two naval ships , were named in De Long 's honor . The three Arctic islands discovered during the expedition bear the name Ostrova De Longa ; despite Melville 's planting of the American flag , the islands have always been accepted as Russian territory . Although the Open Polar Sea theory ended with Jeannette 's voyage , the ship 's meteorological and oceanographic records have provided 21st @-@ century climatologists with valuable data relating to climate change and the shrinking of the polar icecap . On June 18 , 1884 , wreckage from Jeannette was found on an ice floe near Julianehåb ( now Qaqortoq ) , near the south @-@ western corner of Greenland . This proved that a continuous ocean current flowed from east to west across the polar sea , and was the basis of Nansen 's Fram expedition of 1893 – 96 .
On 30 September 1890 Congress authorized that suitable medals be struck in commemoration of the perils encountered by the officers and men of the expedition . Alone of the main survivors in the Jeannette drama , Melville returned to the Arctic , where he helped rescue survivors of Adolphus Greely 's Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881 – 84 . Melville 's naval career prospered , and he eventually achieved the rank of rear admiral . He died in 1912 . Danenhower continued in the navy , but shot himself during a fit of depression in 1887 . Nindemann worked as a naval engineer until his death in 1913 . The last survivor of the expedition was Herbert Leach , who became a factory worker ; he lived until 1933 . Emma De Long died at the age of 91 , in 1940 .
In February 2015 the Russian adventurer Andrey Khoroshev announced that he proposed to locate and raise the wreck of the Jeannette . Khoroshev told The Siberian Times that the vessel was in a known location , in relatively shallow water , " not such a hard task " . The event would , he thought , boost Russia 's deteriorating relations with America .
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= New York State Route 270 =
New York State Route 270 ( NY 270 ) is a north – south state highway in western New York in the United States . It runs through rural and wooded areas of the town of Amherst in Erie County and the town of Pendleton in Niagara County . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 263 south of the hamlet of Getzville . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 31 and NY 93 west of the city of Lockport . The entirety of NY 270 is known as Campbell Boulevard .
NY 270 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The route once extended as far south as NY 5 and as far north as NY 104 ; however , it was gradually truncated to its current length as other routes were realigned or extended onto NY 270 's alignment .
= = Route description = =
NY 270 begins at an intersection with NY 263 ( Millersport Highway ) in the town of Amherst NY 270 proceeds north through Amherst as Campbell Boulevard , a two @-@ lane commercial street . The route quickly becomes residential and enters the hamlet of Getzville , where it intersects with County Route 45 ( CR 45 ; Dodge Road ) . After CR 45 , NY 270 continues north , immediately crossing under the lanes of I @-@ 990 ( Lockport Expressway ) . After I @-@ 990 , the route continues north along Campbell Boulevard as a two @-@ lane residential roadway through Amherst , entering an intersection with CR 299 ( North French Road ) .
After CR 299 , NY 270 bends northwest along Campbell Boulevard as the two @-@ lane residential street through Amherst , with the residences becoming less dense as the route proceeds north . Large fields begin to surround NY 270 through Amherst as the route bends northeast into an intersection with CR 2 ( Tonawanda Creek Road ) . Just east of that intersection is the Duane B. Rodke Memorial Athletic Field , where NY 270 crosses over Tonawanda Creek via a truss bridge . Now in the Niagara County town of Pendleton , NY 270 intersects with CR 60 ( North Tonawanda Creek Road ) . Through Pendleton , the route remains rural , passing homes and large fields as it proceeds north .
A distance to the north , NY 270 intersects with CR 96 ( Bear Ridge Road ) . After CR 96 , the route becomes residential once again , entering the hamlet of Pendleton Center , crossing over former railroad right @-@ of @-@ way near Pendleton Town Park . Continuing northward , NY 270 enters the center of the hamlet , intersecting with the termini of both CR 40 ( Beach Ridge Road ) and CR 121 ( Feigle Road ) at the same intersection . After Pendleton Center , NY 270 bends northeast running along Campbell Boulevard through the town of Pendleton as a two @-@ lane residential street . Serving the eastern terminus of CR 32 ( Mapleton Road ) , NY 270 begins bending north , intersecting with CR 6 ( Lockport Road ) .
Continuing northward , NY 270 enters the town of Cambria , where it intersects with NY 31 ( Saunders Settlement Road ) and NY 93 ( Junction Road ) . This intersection serves as the western terminus of the NY 31 / NY 93 concurrency and the northern terminus of NY 270 .
= = History = =
= = = Designation = = =
When NY 270 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at Main Street ( NY 5 ) in the hamlet of Eggertsville and followed Eggert Road north to Millersport Highway . Here , it turned to the northeast , utilizing what is now NY 263 to the modern campus of SUNY Buffalo . While today 's Millersport Highway veers east to bypass the college , the highway originally went straight through the grounds , partially by way of what is now St. Rita 's Lane . North of Ellicott Creek , NY 270 proceeded to Getzville via North Forest and Stahl Roads . At Getzville , NY 270 joined its modern alignment and followed it to Saunders Settlement Road ( now NY 31 ) , where it turned northeast onto Saunders Settlement Road for a short distance to Upper Mountain Road , where it ended at NY 3 outside of Lockport .
Both extents of NY 270 were realigned slightly by 1932 . In the vicinity of Eggertsville , the route was reconfigured to follow Bailey Avenue and Grover Cleveland Highway between Main Street and Eggert Road . Near Lockport , NY 270 was shifted southward onto Hinman Road and Ohio Street . The latter change was made as part of a larger realignment of NY 3 through central Niagara County . The realignment of NY 270 near Lockport was short @-@ lived as the route was moved back onto Campbell Boulevard c . 1935 ; however , it was also truncated to end at the junction of Campbell Boulevard and Saunders Settlement Road . NY 270 was truncated again in the mid @-@ 1930s after U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) and NY 18 were realigned to follow Bailey Avenue between Main Street and Sheridan Drive ( NY 324 ) .
= = = Truncations = = =
By 1935 , NY 270 was realigned to bypass North Forest and Stahl Roads by way of a new section of Millersport Highway . In the early 1940s , NY 270 was extended north over Junction Road to meet US 104 at Warrens Corners . Around the same time , NY 263 was extended southwest to Buffalo over NY 270 . Initially , NY 263 overlapped with NY 270 along Millersport Highway ; however , the overlap was eliminated in the late 1940s after NY 270 was truncated to begin at NY 263 in Getzville . Similarly , NY 270 initially overlapped with NY 93 along Junction Road from Lower Mountain Road to US 104 . At Lower Mountain Road , NY 93 left NY 270 and proceeded east toward Lockport on Lower Mountain and Gothic Hill Roads . NY 270 was truncated to the southern end of the overlap c . 1963 .
In the late 1970s , NY 93 was realigned to use Junction and Upper Mountain Roads instead . As a result , NY 270 was cut back to its junction with Upper Mountain Road . On November 1 , 2005 , the Niagara County Legislature voted on a measure that , if passed , would allow the county to ask the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to remove the NY 93 designation from Upper Mountain Road , a county @-@ maintained highway , and reassign it to Junction Road ( NY 270 ) and Saunders Settlement Road ( NY 31 ) . The change was intended to eliminate truck traffic on Upper Mountain Road while providing additional capacity to NY 93 . This part of the agenda was passed . NYSDOT obliged to the request in 2006 , rerouting NY 93 as proposed and truncating NY 270 southward to NY 31 .
= = = Other developments = = =
On December 1 , 2008 , the bridge carrying NY 270 over Tonawanda Creek ( also the Erie Canal ) was closed to traffic to allow construction to begin on a replacement bridge over the creek . The existing bridge was built in 1941 and considered to be structurally deficient . During construction , commuter traffic was detoured onto Tonawanda Creek and Bear Ridge Roads while trucks were instructed to follow NY 263 , NY 78 , and NY 93 around the closed bridge . The new bridge was opened to traffic in July 2009 . NY 270 's intersections with Tonawanda Creek Road ( Erie CR 2 ) and Tonawanda Creek Road North ( Niagara CR 60 ) on the north and south approaches to the bridge were reconstructed as part of the $ 10 @.@ 9 million project . The new bridge is similar to the former , two @-@ lane structure ; however , unlike the old one , it has wide shoulders for bicyclists and includes new sidewalks for pedestrians .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Sirius =
Sirius ( / ˈsɪriəs / ) is a star system and the brightest star in the Earth 's night sky . With a visual apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 46 , it is almost twice as bright as Canopus , the next brightest star . The name " Sirius " is derived from the Ancient Greek Σείριος ( Seirios ) , meaning " glowing " or " scorcher " . The system has the Bayer designation Alpha Canis Majoris ( α CMa ) . What the naked eye perceives as a single star is actually a binary star system , consisting of a white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A1V , termed Sirius A , and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA2 , called Sirius B. The distance separating Sirius A from its companion varies between 8 @.@ 2 and 31 @.@ 5 AU .
Sirius appears bright because of both its intrinsic luminosity and its proximity to Earth . At a distance of 2 @.@ 6 parsecs ( 8 @.@ 6 ly ) , as determined by the Hipparcos astrometry satellite , the Sirius system is one of Earth 's near neighbors . Sirius is gradually moving closer to the Solar System , so it will slightly increase in brightness over the next 60 @,@ 000 years . After that time its distance will begin to increase and it will become fainter , but it will continue to be the brightest star in the Earth 's sky for the next 210 @,@ 000 years .
Sirius A is about twice as massive as the Sun ( M ☉ ) and has an absolute visual magnitude of 1 @.@ 42 . It is 25 times more luminous than the Sun but has a significantly lower luminosity than other bright stars such as Canopus or Rigel . The system is between 200 and 300 million years old . It was originally composed of two bright bluish stars . The more massive of these , Sirius B , consumed its resources and became a red giant before shedding its outer layers and collapsing into its current state as a white dwarf around 120 million years ago .
Sirius is also known colloquially as the " Dog Star " , reflecting its prominence in its constellation , Canis Major ( Greater Dog ) . The heliacal rising of Sirius marked the flooding of the Nile in Ancient Egypt and the " dog days " of summer for the ancient Greeks , while to the Polynesians in the Southern Hemisphere the star marked winter and was an important reference for their navigation around the Pacific Ocean .
= = Observational history = =
Sirius , known in ancient Egypt as Sopdet ( Greek : Σῶθις Sothis ) , is recorded in the earliest astronomical records . During the era of the Middle Kingdom , Egyptians based their calendar on the heliacal rising of Sirius , namely the day it becomes visible just before sunrise after moving far enough away from the glare of the Sun . This occurred just before the annual flooding of the Nile and the summer solstice , after a 70 @-@ day absence from the skies . The hieroglyph for Sothis features a star and a triangle . Sothis was identified with the great goddess Isis , who formed a part of a triad with her husband Osiris and their son Horus , while the 70 @-@ day period symbolised the passing of Isis and Osiris through the duat ( Egyptian underworld ) .
The ancient Greeks observed that the appearance of Sirius heralded the hot and dry summer , and feared that it caused plants to wilt , men to weaken , and women to become aroused . Due to its brightness , Sirius would have been noted to twinkle more in the unsettled weather conditions of early summer . To Greek observers , this signified certain emanations which caused its malignant influence . Anyone suffering its effects was said to be astroboletos ( ἀστροβόλητος ) or " star @-@ struck " . It was described as " burning " or " flaming " in literature . The season following the star 's heliacal rising ( i.e. rising with the Sun ) came to be known as the Dog Days of summer . The inhabitants of the island of Ceos in the Aegean Sea would offer sacrifices to Sirius and Zeus to bring cooling breezes , and would await the reappearance of the star in summer . If it rose clear , it would portend good fortune ; if it was misty or faint then it foretold ( or emanated ) pestilence . Coins retrieved from the island from the 3rd century BC feature dogs or stars with emanating rays , highlighting Sirius ' importance . The Romans celebrated the heliacal setting of Sirius around April 25 , sacrificing a dog , along with incense , wine , and a sheep , to the goddess Robigo so that the star 's emanations would not cause wheat rust on wheat crops that year .
Ptolemy of Alexandria mapped the stars in Books VII and VIII of his Almagest , in which he used Sirius as the location for the globe 's central meridian . He curiously depicted it as one of six red @-@ coloured stars ( see the Red controversy section below ) . The other five are class M and K stars , such as Arcturus and Betelgeuse .
Bright stars were important to the ancient Polynesians for navigation between the many islands and atolls of the Pacific Ocean . Low on the horizon , they acted as stellar compasses to assist mariners in charting courses to particular destinations . They also served as latitude markers ; the declination of Sirius matches the latitude of the archipelago of Fiji at 17 ° S and thus passes directly over the islands each night . Sirius served as the body of a " Great Bird " constellation called Manu , with Canopus as the southern wingtip and Procyon the northern wingtip , which divided the Polynesian night sky into two hemispheres . Just as the appearance of Sirius in the morning sky marked summer in Greece , so it marked the chilly onset of winter for the Māori , whose name Takurua described both the star and the season . Its culmination at the winter solstice was marked by celebration in Hawaii , where it was known as Ka 'ulua , " Queen of Heaven " . Many other Polynesian names have been recorded , including Tau @-@ ua in the Marquesas Islands , Rehua in New Zealand , and Ta 'urua @-@ fau @-@ papa " Festivity of original high chiefs " and Ta 'urua @-@ e @-@ hiti @-@ i @-@ te @-@ tara @-@ te @-@ feiai " Festivity who rises with prayers and religious ceremonies " in Tahiti . The Hawaiian people had many names for Sirius , including Aa ( " glowing " ) , Hoku @-@ kauopae , Kau @-@ ano @-@ meha ( also Kaulanomeha ) , " Standing @-@ alone @-@ and @-@ sacred " , Hiki @-@ kauelia or Hiki @-@ kauilia ( the navigational name ) , Hiki @-@ kau @-@ lono @-@ meha ( " star of solitary Lono " , the astrological name ) , Kaulua ( also Kaulua @-@ ihai @-@ mohai , " flower of the heavens " ) , Hiki @-@ kauelia , Hoku @-@ hoo @-@ kele @-@ waa ( " star which causes the canoe to sail " , a marine navigation name ) , and Kaulua @-@ lena ( " yellow star " ) . The people of the Society Islands called Sirius variously Taurua @-@ fau @-@ papa , Taurua @-@ nui @-@ te @-@ amo @-@ aha , and Taurua @-@ e @-@ hiti @-@ i @-@ tara @-@ te @-@ feiai . Other names for Sirius included Palolo @-@ mua ( Futuna ) , Mere ( Mangaia ) , Apura ( Manihiki ) , Taku @-@ ua ( Marquesas Islands ) , and Tokiva ( Pukapuka ) . In the cosmology of the Tuamotus , Sirius had various names , including Takurua @-@ te @-@ upuupu , Te Kaha ( " coconut fiber " ) , Te Upuupu , Taranga , and Vero @-@ ma @-@ torutoru ( " flaming and diminishing " ) .
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria named Sirius as Warepil .
= = = Kinematics = = =
In 1718 , Edmond Halley discovered the proper motion of the hitherto presumed " fixed " stars after comparing contemporary astrometric measurements with those given in Ptolemy 's Almagest . The bright stars Aldebaran , Arcturus and Sirius were noted to have moved significantly , the last of which having progressed 30 arc minutes ( about the diameter of the Moon ) southwards in 1 @,@ 800 years .
In 1868 , Sirius became the first star to have its velocity measured . Sir William Huggins examined the spectrum of this star and observed a noticeable red shift . He concluded that Sirius was receding from the Solar System at about 40 km / s . Compared to the modern value of − 5 @.@ 5 km / s , this both was an overestimate and had the wrong sign ; the minus means it is approaching the Sun . However , it is notable for introducing the study of celestial radial velocities .
= = = Distance = = =
In his 1698 book Cosmotheoros , Christiaan Huygens estimated the distance to Sirius at 27664 times the distance of the earth to the sun ( about 0 @.@ 437 light years ) .
The parallax of Sirius was measured by Thomas Henderson using his observations made in 1832 @-@ 1833 and Maclear 's observations made in 1836 @-@ 1837 , and was published in 1839 . The value of the parallax was 0 @.@ 23 arcseconds , and error of the parallax was estimated not to exceed a quarter of a second .
Also , there were earlier attempts to measure the parallax of Sirius : by the second Cassini ( 6 seconds ) ; by some astronomers ( including Nevil Maskelyne ) using Lacaille 's observations made at the Cape of Good Hope ( 4 seconds ) ; by Piazzi ( the same amount ) ; using Lacaille 's observations made at Paris , more numerous and certain than those made at the Cape ( no sensible parallax ) ; by Bessel ( no sensible parallax ) .
= = = Discovery of a companion = = =
In 1844 the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel deduced from changes in the proper motion of Sirius that it had an unseen companion . Nearly two decades later , on January 31 , 1862 , American telescope @-@ maker and astronomer Alvan Graham Clark first observed the faint companion , which is now called Sirius B , or affectionately " the Pup " . This happened during testing of an 18 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 470 mm ) aperture great refractor telescope for Dearborn Observatory , which was the largest refracting telescope lens in existence at the time , and the largest telescope in the United States . Sirius B sighting was confirmed on March 8 with smaller telescopes as well .
The visible star is now sometimes known as Sirius A. Since 1894 , some apparent orbital irregularities in the Sirius system have been observed , suggesting a third very small companion star , but this has never been definitely confirmed . The best fit to the data indicates a six @-@ year orbit around Sirius A and a mass of only 0 @.@ 06 M ☉ . This star would be five to ten magnitudes fainter than the white dwarf Sirius B , which would account for the difficulty of observing it . Observations published in 2008 were unable to detect either a third star or a planet . An apparent " third star " observed in the 1920s is now confirmed as a background object .
In 1915 , Walter Sydney Adams , using a 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) reflector at Mount Wilson Observatory , observed the spectrum of Sirius B and determined that it was a faint whitish star . This led astronomers to conclude that it was a white dwarf , the second to be discovered . The diameter of Sirius A was first measured by Robert Hanbury Brown and Richard Q. Twiss in 1959 at Jodrell Bank using their stellar intensity interferometer . In 2005 , using the Hubble Space Telescope , astronomers determined that Sirius B has nearly the diameter of the Earth , 12 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 7 @,@ 500 mi ) , with a mass that is 98 % of the Sun .
= = = Red controversy = = =
Around 150 AD , the Greek astronomer of the Roman period Claudius Ptolemy described Sirius as reddish , along with five other stars , Betelgeuse , Antares , Aldebaran , Arcturus and Pollux , all of which are clearly of orange or red hue . The discrepancy was first noted by amateur astronomer Thomas Barker , squire of Lyndon Hall in Rutland , who prepared a paper and spoke at a meeting of the Royal Society in London in 1760 . The existence of other stars changing in brightness gave credence to the idea that some may change in color too ; Sir John Herschel noted this in 1839 , possibly influenced by witnessing Eta Carinae two years earlier . Thomas Jefferson Jackson See resurrected discussion on red Sirius with the publication of several papers in 1892 , and a final summary in 1926 . He cited not only Ptolemy but also the poet Aratus , the orator Cicero , and general Germanicus as coloring the star red , though acknowledging that none of the latter three authors were astronomers , the last two merely translating Aratus ' poem Phaenomena . Seneca , too , had described Sirius as being of a deeper red color than Mars . However , not all ancient observers saw Sirius as red . The 1st century AD poet Marcus Manilius described it as " sea @-@ blue " , as did the 4th century Avienus . It is the standard star for the color white in ancient China , and multiple records from the 2nd century BC up to the 7th century AD all describe Sirius as white in hue .
In 1985 , German astronomers Wolfhard Schlosser and Werner Bergmann published an account of an 8th @-@ century Lombardic manuscript , which contains De cursu stellarum ratio by St. Gregory of Tours . The Latin text taught readers how to determine the times of nighttime prayers from positions of the stars , and Sirius is described within as rubeola — " reddish " . The authors proposed this was further evidence Sirius B had been a red giant at the time . However , other scholars replied that it was likely St. Gregory had been referring to Arcturus instead .
The possibility that stellar evolution of either Sirius A or Sirius B could be responsible for this discrepancy has been rejected by astronomers on the grounds that the timescale of thousands of years is too short and that there is no sign of the nebulosity in the system that would be expected had such a change taken place . An interaction with a third star , to date undiscovered , has also been proposed as a possibility for a red appearance . Alternative explanations are either that the description as red is a poetic metaphor for ill fortune , or that the dramatic scintillations of the star when it was observed rising left the viewer with the impression that it was red . To the naked eye , it often appears to be flashing with red , white and blue hues when near the horizon .
= = Visibility = =
With an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 46 , Sirius is the brightest star system in the night sky , almost twice the brightness of the second brightest star , Canopus . However , it is not as bright as the Moon , Venus , or Jupiter ; at times , Mercury and Mars are also brighter than Sirius . Sirius can be seen from almost everywhere on the Earth 's surface , with only observers north of 73 degrees latitude unable to see it , and it does not rise very high when viewed from some northern cities , reaching only 13 ° above the horizon from Saint Petersburg . Sirius , along with Procyon and Betelgeuse , forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemisphere . Due to its declination of roughly − 17 ° , Sirius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73 ° S. From the Southern Hemisphere in early July , Sirius can be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun , and in the morning where it rises before the Sun . Due to precession ( and slight proper motion ) , Sirius will move further south in the future . Starting in the year 9000 , Sirius will not be visible any more from northern and central Europe , and in 14000 its declination will be -67 ° and thus it will be circumpolar throughout South Africa and in most parts of Australia .
Sirius can even be observed in daylight with the naked eye under the right conditions . Ideally , the sky should be very clear , with the observer at a high altitude , the star passing overhead , and the Sun low down on the horizon . These observing conditions are more easily met in the southern hemisphere , due to the southerly declination of Sirius .
The orbital motion of the Sirius binary system brings the two stars to a minimum angular separation of 3 arcseconds and a maximum of 11 arcseconds . At the closest approach , it is an observational challenge to distinguish the white dwarf from its more luminous companion , requiring a telescope with at least 300 mm ( 12 in ) aperture and excellent seeing conditions . A periastron occurred in 1994 and the pair have since been moving apart , making them easier to separate with a telescope .
At a distance of 2 @.@ 6 parsecs ( 8 @.@ 6 ly ) , the Sirius system contains two of the eight nearest stars to the Solar System ( not including the Sun ) , and is the fifth closest stellar system to ours ( again not including the Sun ) . This proximity is the main reason for its brightness , as with other near stars such as Alpha Centauri and in stark contrast to distant , highly luminous supergiants such as Canopus , Rigel or Betelgeuse . However , it is still around 25 times more luminous than the Sun . The closest large neighbouring star to Sirius is Procyon , 1 @.@ 61 parsecs ( 5 @.@ 24 ly ) away . The Voyager 2 spacecraft , launched in 1977 to study the four Jovian planets in the Solar System , is expected to pass within 4 @.@ 3 light @-@ years ( 1 @.@ 3 pc ) of Sirius in approximately 296 @,@ 000 years .
= = System = =
Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU ( roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus ) and a period of 50 @.@ 1 years . The brighter component , termed Sirius A , is a main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A1V , with an estimated surface temperature of 9 @,@ 940 K. Its companion , Sirius B , is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf . Currently 10 @,@ 000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum , Sirius B was once the more massive of the two . The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years . Early in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9 @.@ 1 years . The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation , as measured by IRAS space @-@ based observatory . This may be an indication of dust in the system , and is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star . The Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as it is a brighter X @-@ ray source .
In 2015 , Vigan and colleagues used the VLT to search for evidence of substellar companions , and were able to rule out the presence of giant planets 11 times more massive than Jupiter at 0 @.@ 5 au distance from Sirius A , 6 – 7 times the mass of Jupiter at 1 – 2 au distance , and down to around 4 times the mass of Jupiter at 10 au distance .
= = = Sirius A = = =
Sirius A has a mass of 2 M ☉ . The radius of this star has been measured by an astronomical interferometer , giving an estimated angular diameter of 5 @.@ 936 ± 0 @.@ 016 mas . The projected rotational velocity is a relatively low 16 km / s , which does not produce any significant flattening of its disk . This is at marked variance with the similar @-@ sized Vega , which rotates at a much faster 274 km / s and bulges prominently around its equator . A weak magnetic field has been detected on the surface of Sirius A.
Stellar models suggest that the star formed during the collapsing of a molecular cloud , and that after 10 million years , its internal energy generation was derived entirely from nuclear reactions . The core became convective and utilized the CNO cycle for energy generation . It is predicted that Sirius A will have completely exhausted the store of hydrogen at its core within a billion ( 109 ) years of its formation . At this point it will pass through a red giant stage , then settle down to become a white dwarf .
Sirius A is classed as an Am star because the spectrum shows deep metallic absorption lines , indicating an enhancement in elements heavier than helium , such as iron . When compared to the Sun , the proportion of iron in the atmosphere of Sirius A relative to hydrogen is given by <formula> , which is equivalent to 100 @.@ 5 , meaning it has 316 % of the proportion of iron in the Sun 's atmosphere . The high surface content of metallic elements is unlikely to be true of the entire star , rather the iron @-@ peak and heavy metals are radiatively levitated towards the surface .
= = = Sirius B = = =
With a mass nearly equal to the Sun 's , Sirius B is one of the more massive white dwarfs known ( 0 @.@ 98 M ☉ ) ; it is almost double the 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 6 M ☉ average . Yet that same mass is packed into a volume roughly equal to the Earth 's . The current surface temperature is 25 @,@ 200 K. However , because there is no internal heat source , Sirius B will steadily cool as the remaining heat is radiated into space over a period of more than two billion years .
A white dwarf forms only after the star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red @-@ giant stage . This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age , around 120 million years ago . The original star had an estimated 5 M ☉ and was a B @-@ type star ( roughly B4 – 5 ) when it still was on the main sequence . While it passed through the red giant stage , Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its companion .
This star is primarily composed of a carbon – oxygen mixture that was generated by helium fusion in the progenitor star . This is overlaid by an envelope of lighter elements , with the materials segregated by mass because of the high surface gravity . Hence the outer atmosphere of Sirius B is now almost pure hydrogen — the element with the lowest mass — and no other elements are seen in its spectrum .
= = = Sirius star cluster = = =
In 1909 , Ejnar Hertzsprung was the first to suggest that Sirius was a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group , based on his observations of the system 's movements across the sky . The Ursa Major Group is a set of 220 stars that share a common motion through space and were once formed as members of an open cluster , which has since become gravitationally unbound . However , analyses in 2003 and 2005 found Sirius 's membership in the group to be questionable : the Ursa Major Group has an estimated age of 500 ± 100 million years , whereas Sirius , with metallicity similar to the Sun 's , has an age that is only half this , making it too young to belong to the group . Sirius may instead be a member of the proposed Sirius Supercluster , along with other scattered stars such as Beta Aurigae , Alpha Coronae Borealis , Beta Crateris , Beta Eridani and Beta Serpentis . This is one of three large clusters located within 500 light @-@ years ( 150 pc ) of the Sun . The other two are the Hyades and the Pleiades , and each of these clusters consists of hundreds of stars .
= = Etymology and cultural significance = =
The most commonly used proper name of this star comes from the Latin Sīrius , from the Ancient Greek Σείριος ( Seirios , " glowing " or " scorcher " ) , although the Greek word itself may have been imported from elsewhere before the Archaic period , one authority suggesting a link with the Egyptian god Osiris . The name 's earliest recorded use dates from the 7th century BC in Hesiod 's poetic work Works and Days . Sirius has over 50 other designations and names attached to it . In Geoffrey Chaucer 's essay Treatise on the Astrolabe , it bears the name Alhabor , and is depicted by a hound 's head . This name is widely used on medieval astrolabes from Western Europe . In Sanskrit it is known as Mrgavyadha " deer hunter " , or Lubdhaka " hunter " . As Mrgavyadha , the star represents Rudra ( Shiva ) . The star is referred as Makarajyoti in Malayalam and has religious significance to the pilgrim center Sabarimala . In Scandinavia , the star has been known as Lokabrenna ( " burning done by Loki " , or " Loki 's torch " ) . In the astrology of the Middle Ages , Sirius was a Behenian fixed star , associated with beryl and juniper . Its astrological symbol was listed by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa .
Many cultures have historically attached special significance to Sirius , particularly in relation to dogs . Indeed , it is often colloquially called the " Dog Star " as the brightest star of Canis Major , the " Great Dog " constellation .
It was classically depicted as Orion 's dog . The Ancient Greeks thought that Sirius 's emanations could affect dogs adversely , making them behave abnormally during the " dog days , " the hottest days of the summer . The Romans knew these days as dies caniculares , and the star Sirius was called Canicula , " little dog . " The excessive panting of dogs in hot weather was thought to place them at risk of desiccation and disease . In extreme cases , a foaming dog might have rabies , which could infect and kill humans whom they had bitten . Homer , in the Iliad , describes the approach of Achilles toward Troy in these words :
In Iranian mythology , especially in Persian mythology and in Zoroastrianism , the ancient religion of Persia , Sirius appears as Tishtrya and is revered as the rain @-@ maker divinity ( Tishtar of New Persian poetry ) . Beside passages in the sacred texts of the Avesta , the Avestan language Tishtrya followed by the version Tir in Middle and New Persian is also depicted in the Persian epic Shahnameh of Ferdowsi . Due to the concept of the yazatas , powers which are " worthy of worship " , Tishtrya is a divinity of rain and fertility and an antagonist of apaosha , the demon of drought . In this struggle , Tishtrya is beautifully depicted as a white horse .
In Chinese astronomy the star is known as the star of the " celestial wolf " ( Chinese and Japanese : 天狼 Chinese romanization : Tiānláng ; Japanese romanization : Tenrō ; ) in the Mansion of Jǐng ( 井宿 ) . Farther afield , many nations among the indigenous peoples of North America also associated Sirius with canines ; the Seri and Tohono O 'odham of the southwest note the star as a dog that follows mountain sheep , while the Blackfoot called it " Dog @-@ face " . The Cherokee paired Sirius with Antares as a dog @-@ star guardian of either end of the " Path of Souls " . The Pawnee of Nebraska had several associations ; the Wolf ( Skidi ) tribe knew it as the " Wolf Star " , while other branches knew it as the " Coyote Star " . Further north , the Alaskan Inuit of the Bering Strait called it " Moon Dog " .
Several cultures also associated the star with a bow and arrows . The ancient Chinese visualized a large bow and arrow across the southern sky , formed by the constellations of Puppis and Canis Major . In this , the arrow tip is pointed at the wolf Sirius . A similar association is depicted at the Temple of Hathor in Dendera , where the goddess Satet has drawn her arrow at Hathor ( Sirius ) . Known as " Tir " , the star was portrayed as the arrow itself in later Persian culture .
Sirius is mentioned in Surah , An @-@ Najm ( " The Star " ) , of the Qur 'an , where it is given the name الشِّعْرَى ( transliteration : aš @-@ ši ‘ rā or ash @-@ shira ; the leader ) . The verse is : " وأنَّهُ هُوَ رَبُّ الشِّعْرَى " , " That He is the Lord of Sirius ( the Mighty Star ) . " ( An @-@ Najm : 49 ) Ibn Kathir said in his commentary " that it is the bright star , named Mirzam Al @-@ Jawza ' ( Sirius ) , which a group of Arabs used to worship . " The alternate name Aschere , used by Johann Bayer , is derived from this .
In Theosophy , it is believed the Seven Stars of the Pleiades transmit the spiritual energy of the Seven Rays from the Galactic Logos to the Seven Stars of the Great Bear , then to Sirius . From there is it sent via the Sun to the god of Earth ( Sanat Kumara ) , and finally through the seven Masters of the Seven Rays to the human race .
= = = Dogon = = =
The Dogon people are an ethnic group in Mali , West Africa , reported by some researchers to have traditional astronomical knowledge about Sirius that would normally be considered impossible without the use of telescopes . According to Marcel Griaule 's books Conversations with Ogotemmêli and The Pale Fox they knew about the fifty @-@ year orbital period of Sirius and its companion prior to western astronomers . They also refer to a third star accompanying Sirius A and B. Robert Temple 's 1976 book The Sirius Mystery , credits them with knowledge of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the rings of Saturn . This has been the subject of controversy and speculation .
Doubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule and Dieterlein 's work . In a 1991 article in Current Anthropology anthropologist Walter van Beek concluded after his research among the Dogon that , " Though they do speak about sigu tolo [ which is what Griaule claimed the Dogon called Sirius ] they disagree completely with each other as to which star is meant ; for some it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu [ festival ] , for another it is Venus that , through a different position , appears as sigu tolo . All agree , however , that they learned about the star from Griaule . "
Noah Brosch explained in his book Sirius Matters that the cultural transfer of relatively modern astronomical information could have taken place in 1893 , when a French expedition arrived in Central West Africa to observe the total eclipse on April 16 .
= = = Serer religion = = =
In the religion of the Serer people of Senegal , The Gambia and Mauritania , Sirius is called Yoonir from the Serer language ( and some of the Cangin language speakers , who are all ethnically Serers ) . The star Sirius is one of the most important and sacred stars in Serer religious cosmology and symbolism . The Serer high priests and priestesses , ( Saltigues , the hereditary " rain priests " ) chart Yoonir in order to forecast rain fall and enable Serer farmers to start planting seeds . In Serer religious cosmology , it is the symbol of the universe .
= = = Modern significance = = =
Sirius is a frequent subject of science fiction , and has been the subject of poetry . Dante and John Milton reference the star , while Tennyson 's poem The Princess wonderfully describes the star 's scintillation :
Several pop songs reference Sirius directly or using the ' Dog Star ' name :
The Grateful Dead mention the dog star in the song " Lost Sailor " .
The The Alan Parsons Project song " Eye in the Sky " is preceded by an instrumental titled " Sirius " .
Sting references the ' dog star ' in many of his songs , including :
Why Should I Cry For You - " Under the Dog Star sail , over the reefs of moonshine "
Valpariso - " Chase the dog star , over the sea "
This Cowboy Song - " You 'll be my dog @-@ star shining tonight "
French progressive metal band Gojira has produced an album titled From Mars to Sirius , the title track of which describes a spiritual journey to the speculative third star " Sirius C " .
Other modern references :
Sirius is featured on the coat of arms of Macquarie University , and is the name of its alumnae journal .
The name of the North American satellite radio company , Satellite CD Radio , Inc . , was changed to Sirius Satellite Radio in November 1999 , being named after " the brightest star in the night sky " .
Composer Karlheinz Stockhausen , who wrote a piece called Sirius , has been claimed to have said on several occasions that he came from a planet in the Sirius system . To Stockhausen , Sirius stood for ' the place where music is the highest of vibrations ' and where music had been developed in the most perfect way .
Astronomer Noah Brosch has speculated that the name of the character Sirius Black from the Harry Potter stories , who owns a unique ability to transform into a black dog , might have been inspired by " Sirius B " .
Sirius is one of the 27 stars on the flag of Brazil , where it represents the state of Mato Grosso .
Vehicles :
Seven ships of Great Britain 's Royal Navy have been called HMS Sirius since the 18th century , with the first being the flagship of the First Fleet to Australia in 1788 .
The Royal Australian Navy subsequently named a vessel HMAS Sirius in honor of the flagship .
American vessels include the USNS Sirius as well as a monoplane model — the Lockheed Sirius , the first of which was flown by Charles Lindbergh . The name was also adopted by Mitsubishi Motors for the Mitsubishi Sirius engine in 1980 .
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= Brisingr =
Brisingr is the third novel in the Inheritance Cycle by Christopher Paolini . It was released on September 20 , 2008 . Originally , Paolini intended to conclude the then Inheritance Trilogy in three books , but during writing the third book he decided that the series was too complex to conclude in one book , the reason being is that the single book would be close to 1 @,@ 500 pages long . A deluxe edition of Brisingr , which includes removed scenes and previously unseen art , was released on October 13 , 2009 .
Brisingr focuses on the story of Eragon and his dragon Saphira as they continue their quest to overthrow the corrupt ruler of the Empire , Galbatorix . Eragon is one of the last remaining Dragon Riders , a group that governed the fictional nation of Alagaësia , where the series takes place . Brisingr begins almost immediately after the preceding novel Eldest concludes .
Published by Alfred A. Knopf Books for Young Readers , an imprint of Random House Children 's Books , the book sold 550 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of sale , a record for a Random House children 's book . The novel debuted at number one on USA Today 's top 150 bestsellers list . Reviewers criticized the book for its length , while commenting on Paolini 's growing maturity in his treatment of characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Brisingr begins about three days after the events in Eldest conclude . It continues the story of the Inheritance Cycle and takes place on the fictional continent of Alagaësia during a struggle for power as the small country Surda and a rebel group called the Varden attempts to overthrow the larger Empire . They are supported mainly by elves , dwarves , and Urgals , but the Empire is populated with large numbers of humans , who far outnumber Surda and its allies . The Inheritance Cycle focuses on the story of a teenage boy named Eragon and his dragon Saphira . Eragon is one of the few remaining Dragon Riders , a group that governed Alagaësia in past times but were almost destroyed by a Rider named Galbatorix , who took control of the land . Galbatorix 's greatest fear is that a new Rider will rise up and usurp his position as king of the Empire , so when he finds out about Eragon and his dragon , he sends his servants after them in an effort to capture them . Eragon and Saphira are forced to flee from their home , and decide to join the Varden .
Brisingr is told in third @-@ person from the perspectives of multiple primary protagonists . These characters include the humans Eragon , Roran , and Nasuada , and the dragons Saphira and Glaedr . The humans Galbatorix and Murtagh return as antagonists , along with Murtagh 's dragon , Thorn . The Ra 'zac return for a minor antagonist role , and Varaug , a Shade , also appears for a main antagonist role . Many minor characters reprise their roles in Brisingr from previous installments of the Inheritance Cycle , including the elves Arya , Islanzadí , and Oromis ; the dwarf Orik ; the humans Angela , Katrina and Elva ; and the dragon Glaedr .
= = = Plot summary = = =
Brisingr begins as Eragon , Saphira , and Roran travel to Helgrind , the home of the Ra 'zac , the creatures that had killed Eragon 's uncle , Garrow . There they rescue Roran 's betrothed , Katrina , who was being held prisoner , and kill one of the Ra 'zac . Saphira , Roran , and Katrina return to the Varden , while Eragon stays behind to kill the remaining Ra 'zac and dole out a suitable punishment to Sloan , Katrina 's father who was imprisoned in Helgrind . ( Eragon was reluctant to kill him ) . While he is fighting the remaining Ra 'zac , it mentions that Galbatorix has discovered the name of all names . Eragon doesn 't understand , and ignores the Ra 'zac after it pleads for mercy , and kills him . After consulting the elven Queen Islazadi , they come to an agreement on how to punish Sloan . Sloan is condemned to never meet his daughter again . Eragon arranges affairs so that Sloan will regain eyesight in the future , should he repent for his crimes . As Eragon travels back to the Varden , he confronts a hermit in the name Of Tenga ( He is later revealed to be a teacher of the herbalist , Angela ) . Arya the elf had come in order to protect Eragon , as he traveled through the Empire . They have a conflict with a group of Soldiers , meet some spirits as they travel to the Varden . Arya reveals about her association with Faolin and crafts a boat made of grass , whilst Eragon sings a flower for her . Once they return to the Varden , Eragon discovers that Katrina is pregnant with Roran 's child and a wedding is arranged , which Eragon is to conduct . Just before it begins , a small force of enchanted troops attack alongside Murtagh and his dragon , Thorn . The enchanted soldiers had spells cast by Galbatorix that couldn 't allow them to feel pain . King Orrin , King of Surda , discovers a method to kill the soldiers , behead them . Elven spell @-@ casters aid Eragon and Saphira and cause Murtagh and Thorn to flee back to the Empire , winning the battle . After the fight , Roran marries Katrina . The leader of the Varden , Nasuada , then orders Eragon to attend the election of the new dwarf king in the Beor Mountains . He leaves with much reluctance as Nasuada forced Saphira to remain in the Varden , in order to protect the Varden from Murtagh and Thorn . Eragon travels with Nar Garzhvog , Leader of the Urgals to Bergan Hold , ancestral home of the Durmigst Ingentium . They see a Shrrg , Nagra and an enormous bear , which Eragon regarded as a threat even for Saphira , on the way . After staying for a brief period in Bergan Hold , where he is shown the forest of stone , Eragon heads to Farthen Dur where the new dwarf king is to be elected . Once among the dwarves in Farthen Dur , Eragon is the target of a failed assassination , found to be the work of the dwarf clan Az Sweldn rak Anhûin , whom the dwarf Orik then forces into exile . Having earned the sympathies of the dwarves , Orik is elected the new king . Saphira arrives to Farthen Dur for Orik 's coronation and reconstructs Isidar Mithrim , the star rose which was destroyed in the battle of Farthen Dur .
After Orik 's coronation , Eragon and Saphira return to the elven capital Ellesméra to train . There , Saphira revealed from a memory that Eragon 's deceased mentor , Brom , is Eragon 's father ; which Brom asked her to show him when the time was right . Oromis and Glaedr too justify Saphira 's revelation . Glaedr also reveals the source of Galbatorix 's power : Eldunari , or heart of hearts . An Eldunarí allows the holder to communicate with or draw energy from the dragon it belongs to , even if the dragon is deceased , or a great distance away . Galbatorix spent years collecting Eldunari , and forcing the deceased dragons to channel their energy to him through their Eldunari . Saphira is delighted to learn of the existence of the dragons , although imprisoned by Galbatorix 's dark magics . After training , Eragon visits Rhunön , the elven blacksmith who forges swords for Riders . But Rhunön wouldn 't create a weapon for him because long ago she swore an oath never to create a weapon again after the Fall of the Riders . Also her stocks of the metal , required to forge rider 's swords was completely exhausted . But by deciphering the werecat Solembum 's instructions Eragon is able to acquire the metal he requires , from under the roots of the Menoa Tree . After Eragon 's repeated requests , Rhunön creates a weapon by controlling Eragon 's body . Eragon gives a name to the sword , " Brisingr . " As Eragon 's body itself forged the sword , a special bond between the sword and Eragon had been created , thus making the sword burst into flames whenever Eragon utters Brisingr , even when he does not intend to use magic . Oromis suspects that " Brisingr " is part of the sword 's true name . Before Eragon and Saphira depart for the Varden , Oromis says that the time has come for him and Glaedr to openly oppose the Empire in combat alongside the Queen of the Elves , Islanzadí . Thus , Glaedr gives his own Eldunari to Eragon . If anything should happen to Glaedr , Eragon would still be able to get advice from him . Then Glaedr and Oromis fly to Gil 'ead , while Eragon and Saphira fly to Feinster , the city that the Varden are laying siege to .
Meanwhile , Roran is sent on various missions as part of the military force of the Varden . One of the targets is a convoy of supply wagons guarded by enchanted soldiers that can 't feel pain . The unit suffers extreme casualties , and the commander Martland Redbeard is replaced after losing his hand . During a mission to attack a large enemy force raiding a village , plans made by the new commander , Captain Edric almost cause the operation to fail , but Roran gives new orders and kills one hundred and ninety @-@ three enemy soldiers by himself , leading the Varden to victory . Despite saving the mission , Roran is charged with insubordination and is flogged as a punishment . After the public whipping , Nasuada promotes Roran to commander and sends his unit on a mission . He leaves in command of a group of both men and Urgals to enforce the idea of men and Urgals working together . When an Urgal , Yarbog , challenges Roran for leadership of the unit , he wrestles the Urgal and forces him to submit . After returning to the Varden , his squad joins the siege of Feinster , a city in the Empire . As the siege begins , Eragon rescues the elf Arya and departs to find the leader of the city , but discovers that three magicians are attempting to create a Shade . While racing to kill the magicians , Eragon has a vision through Glaedr 's Eldunarí showing Oromis and Murtagh fighting . Murtagh is using power of several Eldunari , and Glaedr and Thorn fight in the sky . Soon Glaedr is badly wounded . In the midst of the fighting , Galbatorix possesses Murtagh and tries to lure Oromis to his side : when he fails , and after Oromis suffers a seizure , Galbatorix uses Murtagh to kill him and Glaedr is killed shortly after . After the vision , the magicians have managed to create the Shade Varaug . Eragon and Arya fight desperately to slay Varaug . Eragon then distracts Varaug by battling him through the mind . Arya then stabs Varaug in the heart . After the successful siege , Nasuada tells Eragon the Varden 's plans for invading the Empire . Arya and Eragon are now both known as Shadeslayers .
= = Background = =
= = = Writing = = =
The first two books in the Inheritance Cycle , Eragon and Eldest , sold over 15 million copies worldwide together . Alfred A. Knopf Books for Young Readers , an imprint of Random House Children 's Books and the publisher of the books , prepared Brisingr 's release by printing 2 @.@ 5 million copies in advance , Random House 's biggest initial print run of a children 's book . Paolini said he tried not to let the expectations surrounding Brisingr affect him , stating that " As an author , I found that I can 't really allow myself to think about those things . I actually fell into that trap with the first part of Brisingr . I sat there and I started obsessing about every single word . " He turned away from his computer and began writing on parchment paper instead . The pages were rewritten on a computer document afterwards by his mother .
Unlike Eragon , Brisingr features multiple points of view . Parts of the book are written in Saphira 's perspective for the first time in the series . Paolini based the dragon 's behavior and attitude on the pets and animals he grew up around , particularly his pet cats : " I thought a dragon would be like a cat in some ways , that same sort of self @-@ satisfied attitude . " He added that it was challenging to depict scenes from the standpoint of a dragon , but he enjoyed doing it because Saphira " has so many interesting thoughts and opinions . "
The Ancient Language used by the elves in the Inheritance Cycle is partly based on Old Norse . The word brisingr is an ancient Old Norse word meaning " fire " , which Paolini found while reading through a dictionary of word origins . Paolini said he " loved it so much , he decided to base the rest of [ the Ancient Language ] on Old Norse . To find more words , I went online and dug up dictionaries and guides to the language . I invented more words based on what I learned and then formed a system of grammar and a pronunciation guide to fit my world . Developing this has probably been the most difficult part of writing the books . " The languages used by the dwarves and Urgals in the book were created from scratch by Paolini .
When asked by Sci Fi Wire what kind of challenges he faced while writing the book , Paolini said it was trying to avoid any references to modern items or actions . Brisingr takes place long before the industrial revolution , which Paolini said " limits not only the things my characters use and do , but it also informs their worldview . This constraint extends to more recent words and phrases as well . For example , in Brisingr , I was going to use the description short @-@ order . When I researched its origins , however , I discovered that it was coined to describe modern cooking : a short @-@ order cook . "
= = = Split and editing = = =
According to its author , Brisingr features a complex story with " weighty moral dilemmas " and " a sheer number of events that gives it a rich narrative . " Halfway through the writing of the book , Paolini realized the story was so complex that it was going to end up being 2 @,@ 000 pages . He decided to split it into two books , and thus the Inheritance Trilogy became the Inheritance Cycle . Paolini revealed this decision in an October 2007 press release , and stated that his development as a writer since Eragon is what caused the book to become so complex .
The decision to bring in and then kill a Shade at the end of the book was made when Paolini realized he needed a new ending for the book after it was split up . He was in need of plot points that were strong enough to keep the reader interested through the ending of the book . The point of view of Glaedr and Oromis ' confrontation with Thorn and Murtagh was combined with the Shade battle to further keep the reader interested .
The first draft of the book was finished in April 2008 . In a newsletter sent out that month , Paolini said he was busy " chewing [ his ] way through the editing , which has been a surprisingly enjoyable experience this time around . " The hardest part of editing was having to excise material that he spent days and weeks working on . " However , as most any writer will tell you , just because you spent ten days slaving over a certain scene is no reason to keep it in the final manuscript . The only question that matters is whether the scene contributes to the book as a whole , " he said . Michelle Frey , executive editor at Alfred A. Knopf who worked with Paolini on Eragon and Eldest , assisted Paolini as the editor of Brisingr .
= = = Title , cover , and audio book = = =
Paolini said " Brisingr " was one of the first words he thought of for the book 's title , as it was the first Ancient Language word that Eragon learned in the series , and it holds a particular significance for him . Unlike the first two books in the series , Brisingr has a subtitle : The Seven Promises of Eragon Shadeslayer and Saphira Bjartskular . Paolini revealed it in a newsletter at his official website , in which he said that it was added " because I felt it suited the story , and also because , in a way , I still view Brisingr and Book Four as two halves of the same volume ; the subtitle is merely the name of the first of these two sections . "
John Jude Palencar illustrated the English cover featuring the golden dragon Glaedr . The content of the cover was one of the few things initially confirmed by Paolini before he wrote the book . He had originally planned for it to feature a green dragon , but later indicated that this was affected by the expansion of the series to a four @-@ book cycle . Paolini liked the cover because it reflects that Brisingr is the longest and " most intense entry in the series so far . " The Japanese translation of Brisingr was so large that the publisher split it into two volumes . Since the Japanese did not want the same cover on two volumes , they commissioned Palencar to paint one of the Lethrblaka for the second volume . The Lethrblaka are the Ra 'zac 's steeds and parents . Paolini made drawings based on the book for the deluxe edition of Brisingr , including one with Eragon 's arm and hand holding the sword he receives in the book . The sword , named Brisingr , has flames around its blade .
Gerard Doyle provided the voice for the English audio book of Brisingr . In order to help Doyle with this , Paolini recorded the pronunciation of every invented name and word in Brisingr from a list over nine pages long . It was tricky even for Paolini to do this because he cannot " roll [ his ] r 's " properly . Doyle said he prepared for narrating Brisingr by going " largely by physical description . If there are specific details about the voices , I latch onto those as best I can . But if a creature ’ s anatomical features are described , I try to imagine , for example , how the jaw might work ... and then try and adapt that and attach it to something that sounds okay to the ear and is still slightly stranger than normal . "
= = Promotion and release = =
In March 2008 , a spoiler about the book was released on the Inheritance Cycle 's official website , stating that " In Brisingr , Eragon will meet a god . " In May 2008 , Paolini posted a video message on his website stating that in the book , Eragon will meet " a new , rather terrifying enemy " that " likes to laugh , but not in a good way . " A third and final spoiler was released by Paolini in July 2008 , stating that one of the characters will become pregnant in the book . Excerpts from Brisingr were released both on the official Inheritance Cycle website and on MSNBC , which held an interview with Paolini the day before the release of the book . Paolini toured across ten cities in the North America to promote the book ; his first visit was to New York City on September 19 , 2008 , and his last was to Bozeman on November 22 , 2008 .
Brisingr was released in the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Singapore , and the United Kingdom on September 20 , 2008 , though it was originally supposed to be released on September 23 , 2008 . Nancy Hinkel , publishing director of Alfred A. Knopf Books for Young Readers , said the company received " an outpouring of requests from booksellers hoping to host midnight launch parties . We have responded to their enthusiasm by advancing the date , and we know fans will welcome the opportunity to celebrate the publication together . " More than 2 @,@ 500 midnight party events were held in the United States for the September 20 release . A deluxe edition of Brisingr was released on October 13 , 2009 , including deleted scenes , foldout posters , never @-@ before @-@ seen art by the author , and a guide to dwarf runes .
Brisingr sold 550 @,@ 000 copies in North America on its first day of an initial print run of 2 @.@ 5 million copies . Both the initial print run and first @-@ day sales were the largest ever for the Random House Children 's Book division . Brisingr sold 45 @,@ 000 copies on its first day in the United Kingdom and was the fastest @-@ selling children 's book in the country in 2008 . In Australia , the book sold 141 @,@ 000 copies in 2008 , making it one of the country 's top ten best @-@ selling books of the year . Brisingr debuted at number one on USA Today 's top 150 bestsellers list . It stayed on the list for 25 consecutive weeks until March 3 , 2009 .
= = Critical reception = =
Brisingr received mixed to positive reviews , with critical reviewers commenting on the book 's length and Paolini 's growing maturity in his treatment of characters . David Durham of the Washington Post gave the novel a moderately negative review , praising Paolini for his streamlined prose , but said the novel loses focus in the middle . He added , though , that Brisingr " reconnects with the core elements that animate Eragon 's tale " toward the end of the book , and Paolini shows growing maturity during some " quiet " moments in Brisingr , although Durham noted these parts could bore younger readers . Durham also found that Paolini 's new characters are original , and that Paolini added depth to some characters from the previous novels in the Inheritance Cycle . In contrast , Sheena McFarland of The Salt Lake Tribune said that Paolini " hasn 't learned how to create characters that readers can relate to , " although she praised him for strong female characters in Brisingr such as Arya and Nasuada . McFarland calls the last fifty pages " riveting " , but says they are a " paltry reward for trudging through the 700 preceding pages . "
Publishers Weekly gave Brisingr a negative review , criticizing the novel for relying on " classic fantasy tropes " , and noting that Brisingr might appeal to younger readers , but older readers might be unimpressed . Voice of Youth Advocates ( VOYA ) reviewer Kathleen Beck criticized the length of the book , accusing Paolini of " plainly [ enjoying ] wandering around in his fantasy world " and urging him to provide a cleaner finish to the series . She further criticized the content of the book , asserting that " there is a lot of action in [ Brisingr ] but paradoxically not much forward motion . " Haley Keeley of The Buffalo News , however , commented that with alternating points of views every few chapters , Paolini " manages to convey the complexity of the situation while offering refreshing new perspectives . " Children 's Literature writer Jamie Hain gave the book a positive review , praising the action scenes , as well as the appeal to both male and female readers . She asserts that it is a " long read " , but it is " worth it for those who reach the end . "
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= 2003 – 04 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2003 – 04 season was the 106th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . It began on 1 July 2003 and concluded on 30 June 2004 , with competitive matches played between August and May . The club ended the Premier League campaign as champions without a single defeat – a record of 26 wins and 12 draws . Arsenal fared below par in the cups , eliminated in the FA Cup and League Cup semi @-@ finals to Manchester United and Middlesbrough respectively , and at the quarter @-@ final stage of the UEFA Champions League to Chelsea .
Arsenal did little business in the transfer market early in the season due to the financial demands that came with the club 's new stadium project . The main addition to the first team was goalkeeper Jens Lehmann for £ 1 @.@ 5 million ; striker José Antonio Reyes was later purchased in the winter transfer window . Arsenal retained their best players and successfully negotiated new contracts for captain Patrick Vieira and midfielder Robert Pirès . The stability of the squad meant Arsenal were considered front @-@ runners for the Premier League , along with Manchester United , and Chelsea who were taken over by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich .
A strong start to the season saw Arsenal top the league table after four matches . The team 's draw at Manchester United in September marked an unsavoury episode between both clubs : several Arsenal players were charged and fined accordingly by The Football Association for their part in a mass brawl that occurred after the match . In November , Arsenal beat Dynamo Kyiv by a single goal and more impressively scored five past Inter Milan at the San Siro – two results which kick @-@ started their Champions League campaign . At the turn of the year , the team won nine league matches in a row to consolidate first position . In the first week of April , they were eliminated from the FA Cup and Champions League , but by the end of the month had secured their status as league champions , with a 2 – 2 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur .
34 different players represented the club in five competitions and there were 15 different goalscorers . Arsenal 's top goalscorer for the third year running was Thierry Henry , who scored 39 goals in 51 games . The Frenchman was given the accolade of PFA Players ' Player of the Year by his fellow peers and the FWA Footballer of the Year by football writers . Although the Arsenal team were unsuccessful in cup competitions , their dominance in the league was regarded by many commentators as a standalone achievement . They acquired the nickname " The Invincibles " , much like the Preston North End team that went unbeaten in the inaugural Football League season . The club was awarded a golden replica trophy by the Premier League once the season concluded and they remained unbeaten for 49 games , setting a new record . In 2012 , the Arsenal team of 2003 – 04 won the " Best Team " category in the Premier League 20 Seasons Awards .
= = Background = =
Arsenal had finished the previous season as runners @-@ up in the Premier League , overhauled by Manchester United in the final ten weeks of the season . The club did , however , retain the FA Cup , with a 1 – 0 win against Southampton . Such was Arsenal 's effective start to the 2002 – 03 campaign , manager Arsène Wenger suggested his team could remain the whole season undefeated in all competitions : " It 's not impossible as AC Milan once did it but I can 't see why it 's so shocking to say it . Do you think Manchester United , Liverpool or Chelsea don 't dream that as well ? They 're exactly the same . They just don 't say it because they 're scared to look ridiculous , but nobody is ridiculous in this job as we know anything can happen . " The team lost to Everton a month after Wenger 's proclamation ; teenager Wayne Rooney scored the match winner , which ended a run of 30 league games without defeat . By February 2003 , Arsenal moved five points clear of Manchester United at the top of the league table , but injuries to key players , not least captain Patrick Vieira , had destabilised the team . Draws in April , coupled with a defeat to Leeds United at home , mathematically ended Arsenal 's chances of retaining the title . Wenger refuted opinions from the media that their season was a failure and said :
Of course we want to win the league , but I think the most difficult thing for the club is to be consistent and we have been remarkably consistent . We lose the league to a team [ Manchester United ] who spends 50 % more money every year – last year they bought a player for £ 30m pounds when they lost the championship . They will do the same next year and we [ have ] done miracles just to fight with them .
In the close season , Chelsea was sold to Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich for £ 140 million , the biggest takeover in British football history at the time . The takeover was welcomed by journalist Daniel King , who commented the club were better able to " break the Manchester United @-@ Arsenal duopoly " in the league . Arsenal vice @-@ chairman David Dein however was displeased , and quipped that Abramovich had " parked his Russian tanks on our lawn and is firing £ 50 notes at us " , Abramovich was said to have placed a bid for Arsenal striker Thierry Henry , which was turned down at once .
Arsenal 's transfer activity in the summer was relatively quiet , given the financial constraints that came with the club 's new stadium project . The club were able to keep the core of its team , successfully negotiating new contracts for Vieira and winger Robert Pirès . German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was the only major addition to the first team ; he replaced David Seaman who joined Manchester City . Ukrainian defender Oleh Luzhnyi ended his four @-@ year association with the club by joining Wolverhampton Wanderers on a free transfer , while striker Graham Barrett moved to Coventry City . Striker Francis Jeffers , who found opportunities limited in the first team , joined his former club Everton on a season @-@ long loan . Giovanni van Bronckhorst moved to Barcelona on a similar deal , with a view to a permanent transfer at the end of the season . Several young players were acquired from academies abroad , namely Gaël Clichy from Cannes and Johan Djourou , formerly of Étoile Carouge . In January 2004 , Arsenal signed Spanish striker José Antonio Reyes from Sevilla and in April agreed a deal with Feyenoord for winger Robin van Persie .
Wenger at the start of the season prioritised regaining the league title : " I feel it is very important in our minds to do this and I know the hunger is strong to do it , " and named Newcastle United and Liverpool , along with Manchester United and Chelsea to be Arsenal 's main rivals for the Premier League . Former Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson asserted that his old club were favourites because they had the " best players … If they all remain fit week @-@ in week @-@ out then they will not be beaten . " Glenn Moore of The Independent wrote of Arsenal 's chances : " They will be thereabouts , but unless Wenger finally puts his faith in youth , and the likes of Jérémie Aliadière , Jermaine Pennant and Phillipe Senderos repay him , they may lack the depth to sustain a title campaign . " Defender Sol Campbell however believed the squad was " strong enough for the league and FA Cup " , but doubted their chances of winning the UEFA Champions League .
The club 's home strip remained unchanged from the previous season ; a red jersey with white sleeves , shorts and socks . The new away kit , a retro yellow jersey with a blue collar trim and shorts , was based on the Arsenal strip worn in the 1979 FA Cup Final .
= = = Transfers = = =
= = Pre @-@ season = =
In preparation for the forthcoming season , Arsenal played a series of friendles across Western Europe . Their first match ended in defeat against Peterborough United of the Second Division ; goalkeeper Stuart Taylor was forced to come off the field after colliding with Peterborough substitute Lee Clarke in the second half . Arsenal then played out a draw against Barnet , where trialist Yaya Touré – the brother of Kolo , was included in the team . In a 2011 interview , Wenger recalled Yaya 's performance as being " completely average on the day " and noted his impatience stopped him from joining Arsenal ; Touré went on to play for Barcelona before joining Manchester City in 2010 . Arsenal undertook a tour in Austria , a year after crowd troubles forced their match in Eisenstadt to be abandoned . Wenger was absent with a stomach upset so assistant manager Pat Rice took charge of Arsenal against SC Ritzing on 22 July 2003 ; the team came from two goals down to draw their second consecutive friendly . Rice was pleased with Philippe Senderos cameo in defence and said : " Still some rough edges but he will only get better working with Martin Keown and Sol Campbell . "
Arsenal recorded their first win of the pre @-@ season against Austria Wien . Bergkamp capped off a " superb individual display " by scoring the first goal and setting up the second for Jeffers . The final match of the tour was against Beşiktaş , which required security to be tightened given the history between English and Turkish football supporters . Bergkamp scored the only goal of the match in the second half , " a cheeky effort through keeper Óscar Córdoba 's legs " . An Arsenal XI in England two days later faced St Albans City , where they won 3 – 1 . The main squad then travelled to Scotland to play Celtic on 2 August 2003 . Both goals in the one @-@ all draw came in the second half ; the match marked the return of Vieira after three months out with a knee problem . Wenger revealed afterwards that he intended to use the pre @-@ season as an experiment for his defence . He parterned centre back Campbell with Touré , who for much of last season played in midfield . Wenger was pleased with Touré 's performance against Celtic and said : " He has quality . He was originally a central defender and , because we have kept a few clean sheets recently and he 's played well , I thought we 'd keep him there . " An Arsenal XI travelled to Belgium for a game against Beveren and conceded two goals in the final five minutes to draw the match 2 – 2 . Arsenal rounded off their pre @-@ season preparations with a 3 – 0 win against Rangers on 5 August 2003 .
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = FA Community Shield = =
The 2003 edition of the FA Community Shield , an annual English football match , was contested between Manchester United and Arsenal at Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium on August 10 . Lehmann made his first competitive start for Arsenal and Touré continued to partner Campbell in central defence . United took a 15th @-@ minute lead through Mikaël Silvestre , but Henry equalised for Arsenal soon after , from a free @-@ kick . Jeffers was sent off in the second half for kicking out at Phil Neville and no further goals scored meant the outcome of the match was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . Goalkeeper Tim Howard saved Van Bronckhorst and Pirès ' spot kicks as United won the game 4 – 3 on penalties . Wenger made reference to Arsenal 's low crowd turnout after the match and suggested it meant there was " less and less appetite " for the Shield . He was unhappy with the league season commencing on the following Saturday : " I would have preferred to have had two more weeks , especially for the French players who were in the Confederations Cup . We certainly were not as fit as Manchester United and know many of our players were behind them fitness @-@ wise . "
= = Premier League = =
A total of 20 teams competed in the Premier League in the 2003 – 04 season . Each team played 38 matches ; two against every other team and one match at each club 's stadium . Three points were awarded for each win , one point per draw , and none for defeats . At the end of the season the top two teams qualified for the group stages of the UEFA Champions League ; teams in third and fourth needed to play a qualifier .
The provisional fixture list was released on 19 June 2003 , but was subject to change in the event of clashes with other competitions , international football , inclement weather , or matches chosen for television coverage . Five of Arsenal 's first eight fixtures were broadcast on Sky Sports , three of which on the network 's flagship programme Ford Super Sunday .
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal hosted Everton at Highbury on the opening weekend of the season . Campbell was sent off in the 25th minute , for a professional foul on Everton midfielder Thomas Gravesen . Arsenal , despite their man disadvantage , went two goals up after 58 minutes , before Tomasz Radzinski scored for the visitors late on . A trip to the Riverside Stadium to face Middlesbrough a week after ended in a 4 – 0 win ; the first three goals , scored by Henry , Gilberto Silva and Sylvain Wiltord all came in the first half . Three days later , Campbell and Henry each scored as Aston Villa were beaten by two goals . Arsenal continued their perfect start to the season , with an away win against Manchester City on 31 August 2003 . As Campbell was suspended , Martin Keown came into the first team to partner Touré . Although Arsenal conceded first – a " comical " own goal by Lauren and played " the worst 45 minutes that any of their fans could remember " according to journalist Matt Dickinson , Wiltord equalised in the second half , before Fredrik Ljungberg had taken advantage of a Seaman error to score the winning goal . After four matches , Arsenal stood in first position , three points clear of Manchester United .
Due to international fixtures , Arsenal did not play another game for two weeks . On the resumption of club football , they faced newly promoted Portsmouth at home . Striker Teddy Sheringham gave the visitors a deserved lead , before Arsenal were awarded a penalty when Pirès was adjudged to have been fouled in the penalty area by Dejan Stefanović . Henry scored , and though their performance noticeably improved in the second half , the game ended in a draw . Portsmouth manager Harry Redknapp complained about the penalty decision post @-@ match and felt Pirès " … was going to get a yellow card [ for diving ] . " The player himself denied accusations that he deceived the referee : " I did not dive and I am not a cheat . That is not the way I play . "
A week later , Arsenal travelled to face Manchester United at Old Trafford . Pirès and Wiltord were dropped by Wenger in favour of Ray Parlour and Ljungberg ; Campbell did not travel due to family bereavement . In the 80th minute , Vieira was sent off for a second bookable offence ; he attempted to kick out at striker Ruud van Nistelrooy , which was seen by referee Steve Bennett . With the score 0 – 0 , United were awarded a penalty in the 90th minute , but Van Nistelrooy 's spot kick hit the bar and rebounded back into play . At the final whistle , Van Nistelrooy was immediately confronted by several Arsenal players , which escalated into an altercation between both teams . Six of Arsenal 's players ( Ashley Cole , Lauren , Keown , Parlour , Lehmann , Vieira ) were later charged with improper conduct by The Football Association ( FA ) , while the club were fined £ 175 @,@ 000 , the largest ever given to a club by the FA . Lauren received a four @-@ game ban , whereas Vieira and Parlour were given a one @-@ match suspension .
In their next match , Arsenal defeated Newcastle United by three goals to two ; the winner was a penalty scored by Henry . Vieira suffered an injury during the game ; this commenced a period of him being in and out of the side , for two months . Arsenal then faced Liverpool on the first weekend of October at Anfield . In the absence of Vieira , Parlour was on duty as captain , while Campbell replaced Keown in defence . Aliadière was paired alongside Henry in attack . Arsenal went a goal down after 11 minutes , but equalised when Sami Hyypiä unintentionally diverted Edu 's header , from an Arsenal free @-@ kick . Pirès in the second half scored the winner , which maintained the team 's lead at the top of the league table . The Times correspondent Oliver Kay described Arsenal 's comeback as " spirited " and noted a difference with the team , in comparison to the previous season :
… recent events have taught them to place substance ahead of style . It may be less attractive to the purists , but there is no doubt that their new rugged approach has given them a more fearsome look . A year ago , they were producing football of a splendour rarely witnessed in this country or elsewhere . This season , with such fluency proving elusive , they have been grinding out results with an efficiency bordering on the Teutonic .
A tightly @-@ fought match against Chelsea at home was settled by a second half error by goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini , which presented Henry with his seventh league goal in nine matches . Both teams up until that point were level on points at the top of the table and unbeaten . Wenger noted after the match that Chelsea 's bigger squad would serve them well as the season progressed , but stressed his smaller squad had stability : " We have been together for years and have the comfort of knowing we have won things before . When we are challenged , we become even more united . " Arsenal ended October with a 1 – 1 draw against Charlton Athletic . After 10 games , Arsenal garnered 24 points . The point earnt at Charlton was enough for the team to move back into first position , which had been occupied by Chelsea .
= = = November – December = = =
Arsenal began November with a trip to Elland Road to face Leeds United . There were no changes to the team from the Charlton game ; for Leeds , Pennant started against his parent club after being granted permission by Wenger . Arsenal 's victory by four goals to one was identical to the scoreline in the corresponding fixture of last season . In a match report for the News of the World , journalist Martin Samuel picked Henry as the man of the match and asserted Arsenal remained the team to beat . Attention soon turned to the North London derby , where Arsenal played Tottenham Hotspur on 8 November 2003 . Tottenham had not beaten their rivals since November 1999 and their last win at Highbury came a decade ago . Kanu was brought into the starting line @-@ up to partner Henry , as Wiltord was ruled out with a calf strain . Arsenal conceded an early goal after Darren Anderton capitalised on a defensive mix @-@ up , but they scored two late goals in what was described as " another stuttering " performance in The Observer . The result put Arsenal four points clear in first , albeit temporary as Chelsea 's win at home to Newcastle United 24 hours later cut their gap to one point .
Arsenal did not play another game for a fortnight because of the international football break . On the resumption of club football , they played Birmingham City away from home . As suspensions came into action and there were injuries to first @-@ team players , Wenger was forced to reshuffle his team . Clichy was handed his full debut and Pascal Cygan made his first start of the season , partnering Campbell . Ljungberg opened the scoring for Arsenal inside four minutes and further goals by Bergkamp and Pirès ensured the team won their third straight match of November . By extending their unbeaten run from the start of the season to 13 league matches , Arsenal set a new record . They were then held by Fulham to a goalless draw who became the first team to deny Arsenal from scoring in 46 league matches at Highbury . The Guardian correspondent David Lacey summarised Arsenal 's football on the day as " strong in the string section but short on percussion " and noted they reverted to the pattern of scoring a perfect goal , instead of being efficient . Chelsea 's 1 – 0 win over Manchester United meant Arsenal moved down to second place on the final day of November .
Two more points were dropped in Arsenal 's next match , away to Leicester City on the first weekend of December . Henry was absent from the starting team as was captain Vieira . Arsenal had taken the lead at the hour mark through a Gilberto header , but conceded the equaliser in stoppage time . What made matters worse was the dismissal of Cole for a two @-@ footed lunge on Ben Thatcher ; he missed the team 's next three fixtures as a result . Wenger said afterwards : " It looked like Ashley wanted to get the ball but it was a two @-@ footed tackle that was too high , it was a red card and we have to accept it . " A goal from Bergkamp earned Arsenal a 1 – 0 win the following week , at home to Blackburn Rovers . Chelsea 's defeat a day before meant the win for Arsenal was enough to take them back top , a point clear of Manchester United who now lay in second place .
Arsenal then travelled to the Reebok Stadium to play Bolton on 20 December 2003 , the setting for where their title challenge " derailed " eight months ago . Although they again picked up just a point , Wenger believed it was a useful one : " Provided Bolton keep playing like that , we will look back at this result and feel very happy . They are as good as a team as we have played . " On Boxing Day , Henry scored twice for Arsenal in a 3 – 0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers . Three days later , the team played Southampton . The only goal of the match came in the first half : Henry 's through pass found Pirès " who slid the ball beneath the exposed Antti Niemi " . The win meant Arsenal had gone half the season without losing and the team according to The Times had begun to " establish an aura of invincibility " . Arsenal ended the calendar year in second place , with 45 points from 19 matches . They were one point behind leaders Manchester United and three ahead of Chelsea .
= = = January – February = = =
On 7 January 2004 , Arsenal played Everton at Goodison Park . Wenger made a host of changes : Cygan was recalled in central defence , which meant Touré was shifted onto the right and Lauren was dropped , while Parlour started in place of Gilberto in midfield . Kanu had given Arsenal the lead in the first half , only for Radzinski to score a " richly deserved late equaliser " for Everton with fifteen minutes remaining . Manchester United 's victory at Bolton on the same night increased the champions ' lead at the top to three points . Three days after the Everton match , Arsenal hosted Middlesbrough and put on a display Wenger reflected as being one of the best of the season . The 4 – 1 win meant Arsenal moved back top of the league , albeit alphabetically as their points , goal difference and goals scored were identical to that of Manchester United . A week later Arsenal beat Aston Villa by two goals to nil ; both of the team 's goals were scored by Henry . Controversy surrounded the Frenchman 's first goal , a quickly taken free @-@ kick which prompted confusion amongst Villa 's players and brought about a reaction towards referee Mark Halsey , who signalled it was permissible . After 22 games played , Arsenal stood in first spot – two points clear of Manchester United .
Arsenal remained unbeaten throughout February , winning five out of five matches . In a home match against Manchester City , Reyes made his first appearance for the club , coming on as a substitute in the second half . He had no part in the winning goal , a " crunching , beautifully judged 25 @-@ yarder " scored by Henry . Arsenal recorded an away win at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 7 February 2004 , their 24th league match , which eclipsed a club record set by George Graham 's team of 1990 – 91 . Wenger in his pre @-@ match press conference played down the record " unless they guarantee [ d ] trophies " . Henry reached a personal landmark against Southampton three days later , scoring his 100th and 101st Premier League goals . The victory moved Arsenal five points clear at the top , although they played one more game than Manchester United .
A Saturday lunchtime kick @-@ off against Chelsea saw the return of Henry ; he was absent in Arsenal 's FA Cup fifth round win against the same opposition . Arsenal found themselves a goal down after 27 seconds , but responded with an equaliser in the 15th minute – Bergkamp 's " delicately curving pass " found Vieira on the left side to shoot the ball past goalkeeper Neil Sullivan . The winner came six minutes later : Sullivan misjudged a corner taken by Henry , which allowed Edu to shoot into an empty net . Arsenal 's lead was now seven and it represented " a stronger position than any they held last season " according to Wenger . Touré 's transition into a defender was highlighted in The Times football supplement :
Combined with Manchester United 's loss of Rio Ferdinand , Kolo Touré 's emergence as a capable centre half has probably represented a ten @-@ point swing in the Premiership . If Touré and Campbell stay fit , Arsenal should be more than capable of holding on to their seven @-@ point advantage and in Gaël Clichy , they have a promising replacement for Ashley Cole .
The final match of the month was against Charlton at Highbury . Arsenal scored twice in the space of the opening four minutes , but by the end were " clinging to their lead like nervous kittens " . After 27 games , the team stood in first position and had accumulated 67 points . They were nine points clear of both Chelsea and Manchester United .
= = = March – May = = =
Arsenal carried their good form into March ; Henry and Pirès scored in the defeat of Blackburn Rovers . It was a laboured performance from the league leaders , one which served a " … reminder of the old maxim that championships are won by teams who can pick up points when they are not playing well . " Arsenal then played Bolton Wanderers at home ; Wenger made one change from the previous match – Bergkamp replaced Reyes upfront . The blustery conditions forced the game to be delayed by 15 minutes , approximately the same amount of time it took Pirès to score Arsenal 's opening goal . By the 24th minute , it was 2 – 0 : Henry 's cross found Bergkamp who shot the ball past Jussi Jääskeläinen at the first attempt . Although Bolton 's performance improved after scoring just before half time , the result was a ninth straight league win for Arsenal and kept them nine points clear at the top .
The visit of Manchester United on 28 March 2004 provided a stern test for Arsenal ; it was both clubs ' first meeting since the fiasco at Old Trafford . Cole , injured in the midweek Champions League game against Chelsea was replaced by Clichy in the starting line @-@ up , while Bergkamp was dropped for Reyes . Henry gave Arsenal the lead , with a long range shot that swerved past goalkeeper Roy Carroll . With five minutes of the game left , Louis Saha evaded the Arsenal defence and scored the equaliser for Manchester United . Arsenal came close to a winner in injury time , but for Lauren to have his shot saved . The draw was no good for Sir Alex Ferguson , the manager of Manchester United , who afterwards conceded his team 's chances : " They 'll ( Arsenal ) go on to win the league now – I 'm sure of that . They are playing with great determination … a very strong team , so should win the league really " . In avoiding defeat , Arsenal set a league record of 30 matches unbeaten from the start of the season . They remained in first position at the end of March and were seven points in front of Chelsea , with eight matches remaining .
After two cup exits in the space of a week , Arsenal faced Liverpool on Good Friday at Highbury . Hyypiä opened the scoring for the visitors after five minutes , and in spite of Henry 's equaliser just after the half @-@ hour mark , Liverpool led again before the interval . Arsenal responded to what was described as a " pivotal moment " in their season by scoring twice in a minute ; Henry 's second goal saw the player hold off Dietmar Hamann in midfield , weave through defender Jamie Carragher and place the ball past Jerzy Dudek . The striker completed his hat @-@ trick in the 78th minute , after good work by Bergkamp . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier likened Arsenal to a " wounded animal " after the match and believed Henry was " the man who made the difference … he set the tempo " . Arsenal played out a goalless draw with Newcastle United on Bank Holiday Monday , and five days later faced Leeds United . On a night where Henry scored four goals and was described by his manager as " the best striker in the world " , Arsenal moved to within two wins of regaining the league title .
With Chelsea unable to garner maximum points in their next two matches , Arsenal knew before their game away at Tottenham that a draw would guarantee their status as champions . Cole returned for the derby , after sitting out the Leeds match with an ankle injury . Arsenal took an early lead when Vieira finished off a counter @-@ attacking move . Incisive football brought about the second goal , ten minutes before the break . Bergkamp passed the ball to a moving Vieira , who cut it back for Pirès to sidefoot . Tottenham replied in the second half by scoring twice – the equaliser a penalty , but it did not stop the Arsenal players celebrating at the final whistle " in front of their supporters ' White Hart Lane enclave " . This marked the second time the club had been crowned league champions at their rivals ' ground , the first in 1971 . Wenger praised his team for their success , telling the BBC : " We 've been remarkably consistent , haven 't lost a game and we have played stylish football . We have entertained people who just love football . "
In May , successive draws at home to Birmingham City and Portsmouth left Arsenal with 84 points from 36 games . Reyes scored the only goal of the match against Fulham ; he profited from a mistake by goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar : " The Dutchman tried to go past the Arsenal forward , but instead gifted possession and with it the easiest of open goals . " Arsenal 's final game of the league season was against Leicester City . They conceded the opening goal , but turned the match around in the second half through goals from Henry and Vieira . With 26 wins , 12 draws and no defeats , the team became the first since Preston North End in 1888 – 89 to go through a league season undefeated . Reviewing the match and overall season , Amy Lawrence of The Observer wrote : " Arsenal 's achievement may not make them ' great ' in everyone 's opinion – those who define greatness only by European Cups , back @-@ to @-@ back titles , and triple cartwheels on the way to every goal – but it is staggering in its own right . "
= = = Matches = = =
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = League table = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A |
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D |
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W |
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
The FA Cup is English football 's primary cup competition . It was first held in 1871 – 72 with only 15 teams entering ; the growth of the sport and changes to the competition 's structure meant by the 2002 – 03 season , more than 600 teams took part . Clubs in the Premier League enter the FA Cup in the third round and are drawn randomly out of a hat with the remaining clubs . If a match is drawn , a replay comes into force , ordinarily at the ground of the team who were away for the first game . As with league fixtures , FA Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage and this often can be influenced by clashes with other competitions . In the case of Arsenal , all but one of their ties ( fourth round ) was televised to the British audience .
Arsenal entered the 2003 – 04 edition as holders of the cup . The team were undefeated in 14 cup ties since their 2 – 1 loss to Liverpool in the 2001 FA Cup Final , and aimed to win the competition for a third season in succession , something last achieved by Blackburn Rovers from 1884 to 1886 . Henry believed Arsenal 's good cup form showed they were " interested " in the competition and hoped their success would continue . The FA Cup was not high in Wenger 's priority list – " The [ Premier League ] and the Champions League are more important , " but he clarified this never meant Arsenal intended to neglect the competition : " You win what you can and go as far as you can . "
Arsenal were drawn to face Leeds United away in the third round ; the match was played on the first weekend of January . Wenger made six changes to the team which started at Southampton in the league , one of which Cole replacing Clichy at left @-@ back after serving his three @-@ match suspension . After eight minutes , Leeds went ahead when Lehmann 's goal clearance hit striker Mark Viduka and rebounded into the net . Arsenal equalised through Henry , who converted Ljungberg 's cross from the right on a volley . Additional goals from Edu , Pirès and Touré inflicted a third consecutive 4 – 1 defeat for Leeds against Arsenal at Elland Road . At home to Middlesbrough in the fourth round , Bergkamp opened the scoring for Arsenal , following good play from Parlour . Joseph @-@ Désiré Job however equalised for the away team four minutes after . Ljungberg restored Arsenal 's lead with a shot outside the penalty box and scored a second , direct from a corner . George Boateng was sent off for the visitors in the 86th minute for two bookable offences and substitute David Bentley added a fourth goal for Arsenal , chipping the ball over goalkeeper Schwarzer in the last minute of normal time .
In the fifth round , Arsenal played Chelsea at Highbury . Five minutes before the end of the first half , striker Adrian Mutu gave Chelsea the lead , with a shot from 20 yards . Reyes , who replaced Henry in the starting eleven for the tie , levelled the scoreline with a long range effort . He beat goalkeeper Sullivan for pace to score his second , which later proved to be the winning goal of the match . The quarter @-@ final pitted Arsenal against Portsmouth at Fratton Park on 6 March 2004 . Henry opened the scoring in the 25th minute and further goals from himself , Ljungberg and Touré secured the team 's passage into the last four of the competition . Edu was singled out for praise by The Guardian correspondent Kevin McCarra , who enthused over the visitors ' performance : " Arsenal echoed the Ajax philosophy as players swapped position and kept changing the point of attack before the mesmerised eyes of the opposition . "
Manchester United were Arsenal 's opponents for the semi @-@ final , staged at Villa Park on 3 April 2004 . Both teams settled for a draw in the league the previous Sunday and given this was for a place in the final , the stakes were much higher . United defender Gary Neville described the game as his team 's " most important " of the season after they were eliminated from the Champions League and he deemed them " too far behind " in the Premier League . Wenger rested Henry to a place on the substitutes ' bench , in mind of the team 's upcoming fixture congestion . Although Arsenal started the better of the two teams , it was United midfielder Paul Scholes who scored the only goal of the game which ensured their progress into the final .
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Red =
opponents win .
= = Football League Cup = =
The Football League Cup is a cup competition open to clubs in the Premier League and Football League . Like the FA Cup it is played on a knockout basis , with the exception of the semi @-@ finals , which are contested over a two @-@ legged tie . Wenger 's tenure at Arsenal has seen him use the competition to field younger and lesser known players , something he and Ferguson were initially criticised for in 1997 . While Ferguson felt it was an unwanted distraction at the time , Wenger said : " If the competition wants to survive it must offer the incentive of a European place . " The winners of the League Cup in the 2003 – 04 season earnt entry into the UEFA Cup , unless they qualified for the UEFA Champions League through their league position . League Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage , inclement weather and potential competition clashes . All rounds up until the final are played in midweek .
Arsenal entered the League Cup in the third round and were drawn at home to Rotherham United . Wenger handed midfielder Cesc Fàbregas his debut at 16 years and 177 days ; he as of 2013 is still the youngest player to turn out for the club . Arsenal led from the 11th minute through an Aliadière goal , but conceded an equaliser late on which forced extra time . Rotherham goalkeeper Mike Pollitt was sent off for handling the ball in his penalty area ; his substitute Gary Montgomery denied Wiltord from scoring the winner . As there were no further goals , the match was decided on penalties which Arsenal won 9 – 8 in the shootout . Fellow divisional opponents Wolverhampton Wanderers were defeated 5 – 1 by Arsenal in the fourth round ; Vieira , absent through injury in September and October , made his first team return and played the full match .
In the fifth round , Arsenal travelled to The Hawthorns to play West Brom . Wenger added experience to the side to complement youth , with Parlour , Edu , Kanu and Keown all featuring . Arsenal took the lead in the 25th minute through Kanu . Lauren 's cross from the right @-@ hand side deflected in the direction of the striker . His header was saved by goalkeeper Russell Hoult , who was unable to deny Kanu shooting the rebounded ball into the net . Aliadière scored Arsenal 's second goal of the match following Hoult 's poor clearance .
Arsenal exited the competition in the semi @-@ finals against Middlesbrough . At Highbury , the setting for the first leg , Juninho scored the only goal of the tie . Arsenal ’ s task of progressing was made more difficult after Keown was sent off in the second leg and Boudewijn Zenden doubled Middlesbrough ’ s aggregate scoreline . Though Edu equalised for Arsenal on the night , Reyes ’ own goal earnt Middlesbrough the win . Wenger opined of the result : " I don 't think we deserved to lose ; even when we were down to 10 men we were running the game . "
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal were drawn in Group B , along with Italian club Inter Milan , Lokomotiv Moscow of Russia and Ukraine 's Dynamo Kyiv . Wenger believed the trips to Eastern Europe threatened his team 's chances of winning the Premier League : " The other English teams have more comfortable groups than we do . It is tough to go to Russia – I always say that if you have to travel more than two hours it is difficult . Sometimes the players pay a high price in the games that follow the Champions League matches . "
Arsenal opened their Champions League campaign with a 3 – 0 defeat against Inter Milan . Goals from Julio Ricardo Cruz , Andy van der Meyde and Obafemi Martins all in the first half extended Arsenal ’ s run of six home games in the competition without a win . Wenger said afterwards : " We can complain and cry the whole night but that will not change the result . The only thing we can do is to respond . " The team , without Campbell and Vieira , earned a draw away to Lokomotiv Moscow , but remained bottom of the group . Arsenal lost to Dynamo Kyiv in late October ; Wenger ’ s decision to shift from his preferred 4 – 4 – 2 formation caused the team to play more narrow than usual . Cole scored the winning goal in the reverse fixture at Highbury . A cross by Wiltord was flicked on by Henry in the direction of an incoming Cole , who dived to head the ball past goalkeeper Oleksandr Shovkovskiy .
The team scored four goals in the second half against Inter Milan and won 5 – 1 . Wenger felt the result showed there was " … a special mental strength in the team " , while Cole compared it to England ’ s victory against Germany in 2001 but added " this was even better . " Arsenal won 2 – 0 against Lokomotiv Moscow to top Group B. Jacob Lekgetho 's dismissal in the eighth minute meant the visitors played the remainder of the match with ten men .
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = Knockout phase = = =
= = = = Round of 16 = = = =
Arsenal were paired up against Celta Vigo in the last 16 stage and the first leg was held at the Balaídos . Although they conceded two goals from set pieces , Arsenal scored three times to win the game which put the team in a favourable position given the away goals rule . Their passage was secured with a 2 – 0 win on 10 March 2004 ; Henry scored both goals for the team .
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = = Quarter @-@ finals = = = =
In the quarter @-@ finals , Arsenal met fellow English club Chelsea . The draw disappointed vice @-@ chairman Dein : “ One of the joys of playing in Europe is playing teams from overseas – and having played Chelsea three times , it is a bit anti @-@ climactic . ” The first leg , played at Stamford Bridge ended in a draw with Guðjohnsen and Pirès scoring for their respective clubs . Arsenal were unable to take advantage of Marcel Desailly ’ s dismissal in the second half , but Wenger felt his team were in a good position to progress : " Our main aim will be to win the game at Highbury and we know we can do that . ”
Henry , rested for the FA Cup semi @-@ final match , started alongside Reyes for the second leg . It was the latter forward who gave Arsenal the lead in the first half of injury time , but Frank Lampard equalised for Chelsea in the 51st minute . With three minutes remaining of the match , defender Wayne Bridge scored to eliminate Arsenal from the competition .
Colour key : Green |
= Arsenal win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = Player statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 34 players during the 2003 – 04 season and there were 15 different goalscorers . There were also three squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation throughout the season , with two wide midfielders . Touré featured in 55 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign and Lehmann started in all 38 league matches .
The team scored a total of 114 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Henry , with 39 goals , followed by Pirès who scored 19 goals . Three of Arsenal 's goals in the 2003 – 04 season ( Henry against Manchester City and Liverpool , Vieira against Tottenham Hotspur ) were shortlisted for Goal of the Season by viewers of ITV 's The Premiership . Five Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Jeffers , Vieira , Campbell , Cole and Keown .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with name struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= = Awards = =
In recognition of the team 's achievement , Wenger was awarded the Barclaycard Manager of the Year . A spokesperson of the awards panel said of the decision : " Arsène Wenger is a very worthy recipient of this accolade and has sent his team into the history books . Arsenal have played exciting attacking football throughout the season and finishing it unbeaten is a feat that may not be repeated for another 100 years . " Henry was given the accolade of PFA Players ' Player of the Year by his fellow peers and the FWA Footballer of the Year by football writers for the second consecutive season . He came runner @-@ up in both the 2003 FIFA World Player of the Year and the Ballon d 'Or 2003 .
Three Arsenal players received the Premier League Player of the Month award – Henry twice in January and April 2004 , and Bergkamp and Edu shared the accolade in February 2004 after the judges " felt it was appropriate that we make a joint award " . Wenger was the Premier League Manager of the Month in August 2003 and February 2004 .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
A day after the Leicester City match , Arsenal paraded the Premier League trophy on an open @-@ top bus , in front of more than 250 @,@ 000 fans . The victory parade commenced at Highbury and ended at Islington Town Hall . At the town hall balcony , Vieira addressed the crowd : " It has been a fantastic season . We achieved something unbelievable but we couldn 't have done it without the fans . " In an interview with the BBC , Dein added : " We 've seen history made and I 'd be surprised if it happens again . It 's just been a privilege to watch Arsenal this season . "
Arsenal 's achievement of going through the league season unbeaten received considerable praise from those involved in football . Derek Shaw , the chairman of Preston North End offered his congratulations as they equalled Preston 's record of completing a league season without defeat , set 115 years previously . Brazilian Roberto Carlos likened Arsenal 's style of play to " samba football " while Michel Platini applauded the team 's " great flair and spirit " . Former Arsenal manager George Graham pinpointed the success to defensive improvements , which rued them a year ago and former striker Alan Smith felt the team were " certainly the best Highbury 's ever seen " .
The British press unanimously praised Arsenal 's feat once the season drew to a close ; the News of the World branded the team as " Immortals " , while The Sunday Times led with the headline " Arsenal the New Invincibles " . In an otherwise positive reflection of Arsenal 's season , Glenn Moore wrote for The Independent : " There may thus have been some truth in Arsène Wenger 's declaration that Arsenal 's achievement was a greater triumph than winning the Champions ' League . Arsenal 's prolonged celebrations reflected the scale of this landmark and yet , when they reflect in the summer break , how many players will agree with Wenger ? " .
A one @-@ off golden replica trophy was commissioned by the Premier League thereafter ; it was awarded to Arsenal before their first home game of the following season . The team eclipsed the league record of 42 matches without defeat ( set by Nottingham Forest ) against Blackburn Rovers and went seven more matches unbeaten until they lost – away to Manchester United in October 2004 . Although Arsenal regained the FA Cup – on penalties against United , they finished second to Chelsea in the league . The move to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 coincided with a transitional phase for the club . Several experienced first teamers were displaced in favour of youth and the style of football became shifted more towards ball retention . Arsenal have since failed to regain the league title ; they nevertheless remain a fixture in the Champions League under Wenger 's stewardship as of 2016 .
The title win at White Hart Lane came third in a list of Arsenal 's Greatest 50 Moments , whereas the performance at the San Siro was ranked tenth . In 2012 , the Arsenal team of 2003 – 04 won the " Best Team " category in the Premier League 20 Seasons Awards .
|
= Buildings of Jesus College , Oxford =
The main buildings of Jesus College , one of the colleges of the University of Oxford , are located in the centre of the city of Oxford , England , between Turl Street , Ship Street , Cornmarket Street , and Market Street . Jesus College was founded in 1571 by Elizabeth I upon the petition of a Welsh clergyman , Hugh Price , who was treasurer of St David 's Cathedral . Her foundation charter gave to the college the land and buildings of White Hall , a university hall that had experienced a decline in student numbers . Price added new buildings to those of White Hall , and construction work continued after his death in 1574 . The first of the college 's quadrangles , which includes the hall , chapel , and principal 's lodgings was completed between 1621 and 1630 . Construction of the second quadrangle began in the 1630s , but was interrupted by the English Civil War and was not completed until about 1712 . Further buildings were erected in a third quadrangle during the 20th century , including science laboratories ( now closed ) , a library for undergraduates , and additional accommodation for students and fellows . In addition to the main site , the college owns flats in east and north Oxford , and a sports ground .
The chapel , which was dedicated in 1621 and extended in 1636 , was extensively altered in 1864 under the supervision of the architect George Edmund Street . The alterations have had their supporters and their critics ; one historian of the college ( Ernest Hardy , principal from 1921 to 1925 ) described the work as " ill @-@ considered " . The hall 's original hammerbeam roof was hidden by a plaster ceiling in 1741 when rooms were installed in the roofspace . The principal 's lodgings , the last part of the first quadrangle to be constructed , contain wooden panelling from the early 17th century . The Fellows ' Library in the second quadrangle dates from 1679 and contains 11 @,@ 000 antiquarian books ; it was restored at a cost of £ 700 @,@ 000 in 2007 . A new Junior Common Room , about twice the size of its predecessor , was completed in the third quadrangle in 2002 . Further student and teaching rooms were added in Ship Street , opposite the college , in 2010 .
Eleven parts of the college are listed buildings , including all four sides of the first and second quadrangles . Nine parts , including the chapel , hall , and principal 's lodgings , have the highest Grade I designation , given to buildings of exceptional interest . Two other parts ( an external wall and an early 20th @-@ century addition in the third quadrangle ) have a Grade II designation , given to buildings of national importance and special interest . The architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner described the first quadrangle as " small and pretty " , and said that the reredos behind the chapel altar was " heavily gorgeous " ; he was , however , critical of the Old Members ' Building in the third quadrangle , opened in 1971 , describing it as a " mannered and modish design " . The historian John Julius Norwich said that the first quadrangle had " a curious charm " , while the second quadrangle had " a strong feeling of unity owing to the somewhat relentless succession of ogival gables " . The poet Sir John Betjeman said that the clear planning of the first and second quadrangles , coupled with the relationship of their size to the heights of the buildings around them , " make what would be undistinguished buildings judged on their detail , into something distinguished " . However , he regarded the early 20th @-@ century additions in the third quadrangle as " dull " .
= = Layout = =
The college buildings on the main site are arranged in three quadrangles , the first quadrangle containing the oldest college buildings and the third quadrangle the newest . The quadrangles are often referred to as " First Quad " , " Second Quad " and " Third Quad " for short . As is often the case in Oxford colleges , the rooms in the older buildings are connected to the quadrangles by a series of staircases , rather than horizontally to each other by internal corridors . The staircases are numbered ( sometimes using Roman numerals ) : staircases 1 to 5 are in the first quadrangle ; staircases 6 to 13 in the second quadrangle ; and staircases 14 to 21 in the third quadrangle . The stairs on staircase 3 were replaced with stone steps in 1878 , setting what one historian of the college ( J. N. L. Baker , a fellow of the college from 1939 to 1971 ) termed " an unfortunate precedent " , since the " ugly pattern " of staircase 3 was adopted when repairs were carried out to staircase 13 after a fire in 1882 .
= = Foundation and buildings in 1571 = =
The foundation charter of the college , issued by Elizabeth I on 27 June 1571 upon the petition of Hugh Price ( treasurer of St David 's Cathedral ) , gave to the college a site located between the present @-@ day Market Street ( to the south ) and Ship Street ( to the north ) ; this remains part of the college 's site . The charter also gave the buildings of White Hall , one of a number of university halls in this location . Halls provided lodgings and meals for students at the university , and sometimes lectures and tuition as well . As the system of colleges grew , however , halls declined in popularity and their sites and buildings tended to be taken over by colleges . White Hall itself had previously belonged to St Frideswide 's Priory and dated back to the 13th century ; it was described as " a large tenement with a great stone gate " and was sometimes known as Great White Hall . Over time , it seems to have absorbed neighbouring halls , including Little White Hall on Ship Street from about 1450 , which was at one time owned by Osney Abbey . By 1571 , however , White Hall was either completely or virtually deserted by students , making it possible for Price to secure the site for the new college . The college paid a quit @-@ rent for the land upon which White Hall stood to Christ Church , Oxford , which had acquired the assets of St Frideswide 's Priory . This was initially 26 shillings and 8 pence , but it had been reduced to 8 pence before 1631 ; it was paid until 1866 , when the charge was redeemed . The land was described in Christ Church 's records as extending " from the Street to the Walnut tree ; & in breadth from the Bowling @-@ Alley to the mud @-@ wall " , although no measurements were given .
The college also acquired the sites of other former halls in the vicinity , including Laurence Hall , previously owned by Lincoln College . The last principal of White Hall , James Charnock , had taken a lease on Laurence Hall , but was unable to attract sufficient students to satisfy Lincoln College and so he transferred the lease to Griffith Lloyd , who was principal of Jesus College from 1572 until his death in 1586 ; Lloyd bequeathed the lease to the college in his will . Part of the college chapel was later erected on the site , which measured 32 by 30 yards ( 29 by 27 m ) .
= = First quadrangle = =
= = = Construction = = =
The first quadrangle is smaller than the later second quadrangle , measuring 93 feet 6 inches by 77 feet ( 28 @.@ 50 by 23 m ) . The buildings that now surround the first quadrangle were erected in stages between 1571 and the 1620s ; the principal 's lodgings were the last to be built . Progress was slow because the new college lacked the " generous endowments " that earlier colleges enjoyed . Before new buildings were completed , the students lived in the old buildings of White Hall . Between 1571 and his death in 1574 , Price spent about £ 1 @,@ 500 on the construction of buildings that were two storeys high . These ran from Turl Street ( on the east of the site ) south towards the corner of Cheyney Lane ( as Market Street was then known ) and then west along Cheyney Lane to the buildings of the old Great White Hall . Land at the corner of Turl Street and Cheyney Lane was leased and built upon , and then purchased in 1580 . There is a college tradition , recorded in the college 's first book of benefactors in the 17th century , that Elizabeth I gave " all kind of timber " from Shotover and Stow Wood for buildings erected by Price . Until the later building works of Griffith Powell and Sir Eubule Thelwall ( principals from 1613 to 1620 and 1621 to 1630 respectively ) , the college site consisted of " a number of smallish , mainly detached buildings with nothing resembling a formal garden layout in between " .
Ralph Agas 's 1578 map of Oxford shows the extent of the buildings at that time . Laurence Hall is the " isolated group of buildings " on the corner of Turl Street and Ship Street . There is then a gap along Turl Street before a building positioned south of the current entrance with glazed windows facing Turl Street and a large window or loft door at its north end ; another building then runs to the old White Hall buildings . The Turl Street entrance appears from Agas 's map to date from after Price 's death , and the north side of the building on Turl Street may have been integrated into an extension early in the 17th century , although the date of such work is unclear ; Price is nevertheless sometimes given the credit for the archway on the inside of the entrance on the first quadrangle . Overall , whilst the structure of the buildings erected by Price remains , only a little of his work can be seen from the outside , after various alterations in the intervening centuries ; nevertheless , his buildings have been said to retain " much of their original character " .
Some land in Ship Street to the west of the college was leased from Exeter College in 1590 , and further construction work took place after Powell was appointed principal in 1613 . Powell raised money from donors in Oxford , London , and Wales , collecting £ 838 12s 2d in what has been described as " an elaborate fundraising scheme " , with efforts to attract donations from old members of the college . Ann Lloyd , the widow of Griffith Lloyd ( principal from 1572 to 1586 ) gave £ 100 . Richard Parry , the Bishop of St Asaph , gave £ 66 13s 4d out of the total from Welsh clergy of £ 78 7s 4d . The old Great White Hall buildings were demolished around 1620 and replaced , and a kitchen and buttery were constructed . Work also started on building the hall and the chapel under Powell ; both were completed after his death in 1620 . Sir Eubule Thelwall , who became principal in 1621 , raised £ 465 15s 6d from donors , including Sir Julius Caesar , the Master of the Rolls , and Edward Littleton , the Recorder of London . This was used for " the perfecting of the Quadrangle of the building and furnishing of the library " . The college then had a complete quadrangle of buildings , save for a gap between the chapel and the hall that would later be filled by the principal 's lodgings , built by Thelwall at his own expense ; the library ( later demolished ) was outside the quadrangle , to the west of the north end of the lodgings .
The walls of the college were built using rubble from Oxfordshire dressed with local stone . The remaining parts of the 17th @-@ century walls are dressed with Headington stone , which was a common building material in Oxford at that time : the geologist W. J. Arkell wrote that it was used for every building in Oxford constructed during this century for which records exist . Areas of Headington stone can be seen in the first quadrangle on the wall of the hall . It was only discovered towards the end of the 18th century that it did not weather well : the surface of the stone develops a hard crust , which blisters , bursts and comes off . Much of it has subsequently been replaced with other materials as a result .
= = = Later work = = =
Further work was carried out to the east side of the college , fronting onto Turl Street , in 1756 under Thomas Pardo ( principal from 1727 to 1763 ) . A new doorway replaced the previous Elizabethan one , and the front of the college was remodelled in the Palladian style – oblong sash windows were inserted at all levels and the original gables on the Turl Street side of the building were removed . Pardo himself gave £ 157 10s towards this work , although this only met the mason 's bill of £ 156 18s 11d and not the other large bills for the work . In the opinion of Ernest Hardy , a college fellow who wrote a history of the college in 1899 and who served as principal from 1921 to 1925 , this " complete transformation " gave the college a " somewhat incongruous appearance " . The result was also said to resemble a " prison " . One writer at the time , however , thought that the changes had not gone far enough . Thomas Warton , the Oxford Professor of Poetry , wrote a letter about architecture in Oxford to Jackson 's Oxford Journal in 1766 . He included Pardo 's alterations to Jesus College in his list of improvements , but advocated replacing the chapel window with one in another design :
The Front of Jesus College , within these few years , has been cleared from the Bronze of Antiquity , and beautified with a modern Portico . But , with due Submission , I am of Opinion , that the contiguous Eastern Window of the Chapel , which is still absurdly suffered to remain with its antique Mullions and Ramifications , is by no means of a piece with the rest . I would therefore humbly suggest in it 's [ sic ] stead , a spacious Venetian @-@ Window .
Joseph Hoare ( principal from 1768 to 1802 ) gave £ 200 in total in 1791 and 1792 for repairs in the first quadrangle , part of a general pattern of expenditure upon repair of the older college buildings in the 18th century . In 1815 , the original gables in the first quadrangle were removed and replaced with a third storey and battlements , matching the lodgings where battlements had been erected between 1733 and 1740 . The height of the chapel wall was increased , and many of the windows were altered . The college received advice from the architect John Nash about this work ; he requested that , instead of paying him , the college should commission a portrait of him from Sir Thomas Lawrence to hang in the hall . Lawrence depicted Nash in his house in Regent Street , London ; the portrait has been described by Lawrence 's biographer , the art historian Sir Michael Levey , as " pungently vivid " .
In 1853 , under the direction of John Chessell Buckler ( architect to the college from 1852 to 1882 ) , the south front of the buildings was restored ; the exterior of the buildings on Turl Street was re @-@ faced in Bath stone in 1856 , with the tower over the gateway being built at the same time . The total cost of this work was £ 3 @,@ 349 . Pardo 's changes from the 18th century were removed . The Gentleman 's Magazine in 1856 complimented Buckler on " resisting the stream " and following the style of the 15th century . Peter Howell , a writer on Victorian architecture , referred to Buckler 's work as " [ providing ] Jesus with an attractive new front which represents the beau idéal of an Oxford college " . The poet John Betjeman said that the front of the college opposite Exeter College was " a good specimen " of Gothic Revival work . In contrast , the architectural historian Geoffrey Tyack noted that the refacing came not long after the two other colleges in Turl Street ( Exeter and Lincoln ) had been refaced , and commented that Buckler 's work , in " Collegiate Gothic " style , " completed a process whereby the façades of the colleges in Turl Street acquired a somewhat lifeless homogeneity which they had never possessed in the past " . W. J. Arkell wrote that " some of the worst horrors of the Gothic revival " cluster on either side of Turl Street . When writing a history of the college in 1891 , the vice @-@ principal Llewellyn Thomas said that the work was " admitted to be very well done " , but that there were those who thought that " the old Jacobean gateway was more in harmony with the domestic architecture of the College , and more suitable to its position in a narrow street " . The stonework on the front of the college was last cleaned in 2000 , when the porters ' lodge by the Turl Street entrance was also rebuilt , to provide better office accommodation for the porters , individual post boxes for students , and greater security . Four grass plots were added to the centre of the quadrangle in 1896 , crossed by Yorkstone paths ; before that , it had been gravelled since 1662 .
The architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner described the first quadrangle as " small and pretty , especially because of the variety of its ranges " . He noted the part @-@ Elizabethan and part @-@ Jacobean architecture on the south side , where Price 's building stops – the join between the two , he pointed out , is " easily visible " in Market Street . The windows in the first quadrangle , he noted , were Elizabethan in style , with mullioned windows and arched lights , arranged symmetrically , whereas the hall windows were Gothic in style . The historian John Julius Norwich wrote that the first quadrangle had " a curious charm , due partly to its size and partly due to its several small eccentricities " , including the curved path crossing the quadrangle from the entrance to the hall . The architect and designer Sir Hugh Casson , though , thought that the " crooked off @-@ axis line " of the path was the college 's oddest feature . All four sides of the first quadrangle are Grade I listed buildings ( the highest grade , for buildings of exceptional importance and international interest ) : the lodgings and chapel on the north side , the hall on the west side , and the buildings on the east and south sides .
= = = Chapel = = =
= = = = Construction and fittings = = = =
Construction of the chapel began when Griffith Powell was Principal ( 1613 – 1620 ) . It was finished under Sir Eubule Thelwall ( who took office in 1621 ) , with the Bishop of Oxford leading the dedication ceremony on 28 May 1621 . Thelwall 's portrait , displayed in the hall , shows him holding a roll enscribed " A plan of the Chappell in Jesus Coll . , Oxford built by Sir Eubule Thelwall " , reflecting the fact that he was the main donor towards the chapel 's construction . There are four windows facing the quadrangle in the Perpendicular style . Seats were added in 1633 , and it was extended in two directions in 1636 . The east end was moved to reach Turl Street , a new east window was added and the previous window was converted into an arch ; at the other end , the entrance was moved further to the west . Sir Charles Williams of Monmouthshire , south Wales , paid £ 200 towards the final bill of £ 211 .
The architectural historian Giles Worsley has described the chapel 's east window as an instance of Gothic Revival architecture , rather than Gothic Survival , since a choice was made to use an outdated style – classical architecture had become accepted as " the only style in which it was respectable to build " . The window has seven main sections ( " lights " ) topped with five @-@ headed flower shapes , or cinquefoils , and tracery running vertically . The chapel is one of various buildings at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge from the first half of the 17th century where Gothic designs were deliberately chosen in preference to Classical ; other examples are the chapel of Lincoln College , Oxford , the chapel windows and hall roof at Wadham College , Oxford , and the library of St John 's College , Cambridge , where the library of 1624 was built with Gothic windows since " some men of judgement " preferred the old fashion as it was " most meet for such a building " . Similarly , the artist and art historian Aymer Vallance , writing in 1908 , said that Gothic architecture , though " ailing and doomed " , " lingered longest " at Oxford University , adding that the chapel windows of Jesus and Wadham were " almost as astonishing for their period " as the " magnificent " 1640 fan @-@ vaulted entrance to the hall of Christ Church , Oxford , built nearly three hundred years after fan vaulting had been used in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral . The only examples of classical style in Oxford before the Civil War were Archbishop Laud 's Canterbury Quad at St John 's and a few gateways such as those at the Botanic Garden by Nicholas Stone ; Cambridge had even less . The chapel has not been universally appreciated , however : the antiquarian and archivist Rowley Lascelles wrote in 1821 that " excepting that it was built by private contributions from the gentry of Wales , it would be cruel to say any thing about it " .
The chancel measures 16 feet 6 inches by 22 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 03 by 6 @.@ 93 m ) , and the main body of the chapel measures 52 feet 6 inches by 22 feet ( 16 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) . A London merchant , Lewis Roberts , gave " some hundreds of white and black marble stones ... towards ye paving of the upper part of the chapel " , according to Francis Mansell in his inventory of 1648 . It is unclear when these were added to the floor ; some are still in position , although others were removed in the 1864 renovation . The oak pulpit dates from the early 17th century , and has moulded rectangular panels . There is a bell turret on the west end of the roof , which has trefoil @-@ shaped openings on the west and east sides , and panels decorated with trefoils on the other two sides . It was built in about 1915 , replacing an earlier turret of similar shape .
The porch at the chapel entrance was moved to its present position when the chapel was extended in 1636 . The door jambs are moulded , as are the tops of the columns . The arch is divided into segments , with a rose in the left spandrel and a thistle in the right spandrel . The use of the rose and thistle ( national emblems of England and Scotland respectively ) in this way dates the porch to the reign of King James I , who used these flowers , halved , as his badge after his accession to the English throne in 1603 . Moulded brackets support the entablature , within which the pediment contains palms and cherub @-@ heads in the tympanum . The Latin inscription above the archway is Ascendat oratio descendat Gratia ( " Let prayers ascend , and grace descend " ) . The original entrance was covered up when the chapel was extended ; it was only re @-@ discovered when the chapel was refaced in Bath stone in 1869 .
Jonathan Edwards ( principal from 1686 to 1712 ) is reported to have spent £ 1 @,@ 000 during his lifetime on the interior of the chapel , particularly in the chancel ( at the east end ) , but also including the addition of a screen separating the main part of the chapel from the ante @-@ chapel ( at the west end ) in 1693 . The screen bears the coat of arms of Sir Leoline Jenkins ( principal 1661 – 1673 ) and , until 1899 , also bore Thelwall 's coat of arms . His arms were moved to a position above the door ( where , says one writer , " they can scarcely be seen " ) when an organ by J. J. Binns was installed in the ante @-@ chapel in 1899 . The current organ , by William Drake , was installed in 1994 to replace the Binns organ . The screen has open ovals rather than blank ovals – an example , said Pevsner , of " the importance given to openwork carving " in the later 17th century . After the installation of the screen , little changed in the chapel until the middle of the 19th century , save for some donations of items such as a brass desk and two silver candlesticks .
= = = = Victorian changes = = = =
In 1853 , Henry Foulkes ( principal 1817 – 1857 ) , the fellows of the college and the incumbents of most of the livings within its gift donated £ 350 10s for stained glass by George Hedgeland to be added to the east window ; the final cost was £ 399 . It shows various biblical episodes , including three instances of Christ raising people from the dead : the daughter of Jairus , the son of the widow of Nain , and Lazarus . There are also pairs of scenes from the New Testament and the Old Testament to demonstrate the typological relationship between them : for example , the Passover is paired with the Last Supper , Jonah escaping from the whale with the Resurrection of Jesus , and the ascension of Elijah with the ascension of Jesus . Pevsner described it as " a busy , somewhat gloomy piece with many small scenes " . A copy of Guido Reni 's painting St Michael subduing the dragon , which had been presented to the college by Thomas Bulkeley , 7th Viscount Bulkeley ( a student who matriculated at the university in 1769 ) , had previously been hung in front of the east window . When the stained glass was installed , the painting was moved to the ante @-@ chapel ; it was moved to the south wall of the chancel when the Binns organ was installed . The panels of Hedgeland 's window were removed and cleaned in the summer of 2000 , while maintenance was being carried out to the Turl Street stonework .
On 15 June 1863 , the principal Charles Williams ( principal 1857 – 1877 ) and fellows agreed to renovate the chapel . One of the prime movers behind the decision was the vice @-@ principal , Lewis Gilbertson , as part of his unsuccessful attempt to move the college towards Anglo @-@ Catholicism . The architect George Edmund Street was appointed , and had almost free rein in his work . In 1863 , he said to the bursar that the chapel was " so good in style considering its late date " that it would be " very inadvisable to alter it in any respect , save one , the old features of the walls and roofing " . However , he later said that the fittings were " incongruous " , with the seats being " so thoroughly uncomfortable that kneeling is rendered all but impossible , and sitting even is concerted into a sort of penance " . His work was completed in 1864 , at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 679 18s 10d . The arch of the chancel was widened and the memorials to Sir Eubule Thelwell and Francis Mansell , which had been on each side of the arch , were moved to the north wall of the chancel . The original Jacobean woodwork was removed , with the exception of the screen donated by Edwards and the pulpit , new seats were installed and new paving was placed in the main part of the chapel . A stone reredos was added behind the altar , although the design originally submitted by Street was not approved and he was asked to make changes . The reredos as finally installed has three marble panels : a crucifixion scene ( centre ) , Christ carrying his cross ( right ) and Christ on the knees of St Mary ( left ) . The altar has a slab and six pillars , all made from granite .
Views of Street 's alterations have differed . On 21 October 1864 , Building News reported that the restoration was nearing completion and was of " a very spirited character " . It said that the new " handsome " arch showed the east window " to great advantage " , with " other improvements " including a " handsome reredos " and an " exceedingly beautiful " pavement of marble , alabaster and Minton 's encaustic tiles . Llewellyn Thomas said that there might be two opinions as to the success of the restoration , but there was " no doubt " that widening the arch was a mistake , since " it has permanently dwarfed the proportions of the building " . He said that the new woodwork , " though good of its kind " , presented " too violent a contrast " with the ante @-@ chapel screen . Hardy was also critical , calling the work " ill @-@ considered " . He complained that the Jacobean woodwork had been sold for too little , saying that it had been " ruthlessly torn up and sold for a mere song to a passing stranger " , and described the reredos as " somewhat tawdry " . William Stride , writing at about the same time as Hardy , said that the " beautiful " Jacobean interior of the chapel had been " destroyed " , and Oxford had " narrowly escaped other irreparable losses " . Norwich said that the restoration was " good in individual details " but was " sadly damaging to its character and atmosphere " .
In contrast , Pevsner called the reredos " heavily gorgeous " . One chaplain in the 20th century covered up the reredos with curtains , describing the brown and white marbling as looking like " corned beef " . Betjeman , however , was heard when showing a group around the college to describe the altar as " delicious " ; he also wrote that the chapel 's " fine classic screen " had " somehow survived a fearful ' restoration ' " . The curtains around the altar and a carpet covering the tiling in the aisle were removed when the new organ was installed in 1994 , following the organ builder 's advice that these items detracted from the chapel acoustics . The work proved to be Street 's only commission at the university , although he built or restored a number of churches in the city . In his biography of his father , Arthur Street said that it was possible that George Street 's " very decided adherence to the earlier phase of Gothic , and the eagerness with which he argued that Oxford had already enough of debased types , and should revert to the purity of the early forms , may have frightened the authorities " . Casson , although referring to the chapel and other parts of the college from the Victorian era as " mostly pretty dull " , thought that the " sturdy pews with their flatly modelled leafy finials hold their own " .
The woodwork removed by Street was sold for a nominal sum , with a condition that it could only be used for a hall , chapel or library . Some pieces ended up in the library and chapel of Forest School in Walthamstow , east London ( an institution that previously had no link to the college ) . Panels under the communion rail were also removed from the chapel , even though Street had reported to the college that these carvings were the only portion of the chapel woodwork with any real value , and had suggested at one point reusing them in connection with the ante @-@ chapel screen and the adjoining seats . Some of the woodwork was transferred to St Edern 's Church , Bodedern , in Anglesey , which had links with the college from 1648 until the Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 . Some of the panels may also have been re @-@ used in the Fellows ' Library ( in the second quadrangle ) ; other panelling at Bodedern came from the college , but not apparently from the chapel , and so may have been from a disused library gallery .
= = = = Memorials = = = =
The chapel contains monuments to several former principals . In addition to those of Sir Eubule Thelwell and Francis Mansell relocated to the north wall of the chancel , there are monuments to Sir Leoline Jenkins ( who is buried in the chapel ) , William Jones , Jonathan Edwards , Thomas Pardo , Joseph Hoare , Henry Foulkes , Charles Williams and Daniel Harper . Thelwall 's monument is one of the few in Oxford to include kneeling figures . There are painted glass windows in memory of Llewellyn Thomas ( by Charles Kempe ) , of Charles Williams ( by Clayton and Bell ) , of Samuel Morris , a victim of the sinking of HMS Eurydice in 1878 ( by Westlake and Lavers ) , and of Lewis Gilbertson . The Garter banner of Harold Wilson ( who studied at the college in the 1930s , and was twice Prime Minister ) hangs on the south wall ; it was donated by his widow after his death in 1995 . Formerly displayed in the chapel was a bust of T. E. Lawrence ( better known as " Lawrence of Arabia " ) by the sculptor Eric Kennington , which is a copy of the one in St Paul 's Cathedral . Lawrence was a student at the college , graduating in 1910 .
= = = Principal 's lodgings = = =
The principal of the college resides in the lodgings , a Grade I listed building , on the north side of the first quadrangle between the chapel ( to the east ) and the hall ( to the west ) . They were the last part of the first quadrangle to be built . Sir Eubule Thelwall , principal from 1621 to 1630 , built the lodgings at his own expense , to include ( in the words of the antiquarian Anthony Wood ) " a very fair dining @-@ room adorned with wainscot curiously engraven " . Tyack said that " the carved wooden panelling of the main rooms [ set ] a new standard of luxury for the heads of colleges " . Pevsner commented that the panelling , set in three tiers with ovals placed vertically rather than horizontally , " looks both dignified and splendid " . In 1637 , the lodgings were considerably changed with the installation of five " studyes " . The shell @-@ hood over the doorway ( which Pevsner and Casson both called " beautiful " ) was added at some point between 1670 and 1740 ; Pevsner dates it to about 1700 . It is elaborately carved on the inside with a decorated cartouche and a cherub @-@ head . Casson called it the college 's " most engaging " feature . The original gables over the front of the lodgings were removed and replaced with battlements between 1733 and 1740 .
John Nash drew up plans to alter the lodgings in 1802 . His plans were not used immediately ( although other work was carried out at that time ) but they were partly implemented in 1884 when a north wing was added , using Milton stone . This extension was later converted into general college accommodation . An oriel window on the west side of the lodgings , overlooking the second quadrangle , was also added in 1884 . Much of the lodgings were refaced between 1927 and 1935 , using Clipsham stone on the side facing the front quadrangle in place of the original Headington stone .
In 1654 , when Michael Roberts was principal , the college accounts record payment for construction of a ball court . This was to the west of the principal 's garden ( which is to the north of the lodgings , alongside Ship Street ) , between a privy , stables , and the wall of the garden . Ball courts , bowling greens and groves were often added within the precincts of colleges during the 17th century so that undergraduates could amuse themselves under the watchful eyes of their tutors , rather than indulge in forbidden pursuits such as drinking in alehouses . In 1757 , principal Thomas Pardo added the area of the ball court to the garden of the lodgings and had a coach @-@ house built there , which was reached from an entrance on the corner of Turl Street and Ship Street along a driveway across the north of the garden .
The garden and the ball court are depicted in David Loggan 's 1675 engraving of the college , which shows an " attractive pleasure garden with box @-@ edged paths and dense patterns of formal beds " . In 1826 , the garden was renovated and a Bath stone gateway installed on the corner of Turl Street and Ship Street . The size of the garden has been reduced at the west end by the 1884 extension to the lodgings ( which was built on the area of the old ball court ) and at the east end by the construction of a bicycle shed and garage . The boundary wall that runs from the north of the chapel along Turl Street and along Ship Street to the north of the garden is a Grade II listed building ( a designation given to buildings of national importance and special interest ) .
= = = Hall = = =
The hall , like the chapel , was largely built by Griffith Powell between 1613 and 1620 , and was finally completed soon after his death in 1620 . The panelling , three tables and two benches date from Powell 's time . It measures 54 by 25 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 by 7 @.@ 6 m ) and is a Grade I listed building . The fireplace was set in an enclosed hearth with a large projecting chimney @-@ breast , in contrast to the traditional method of heating the hall , which was by a brazier on an open hearth . A screen was installed in 1634 at a cost of £ 3 1s . Pevsner noted the screen 's " elaborately decorated columns " and the dragons along the frieze , and said that it was one of the earliest examples in Oxford of panelling using four " L " shapes around a centre . Norwich said that the dragons on the screen were " rather lovable " , and Tyack said that they underlined the Welsh connections of the college : the red dragon is one of the national symbols of Wales . The stone steps from the first quadrangle to the hall were added in 1637 . During the 17th century , changes were made to the interior of the hall . Windows painted with various coats of arms were removed and a bay window was added on the west side . Pevsner commented that " the hall windows themselves are different from all other 17th @-@ century Gothic windows in Oxford except for the exactly contemporary hall bay @-@ window of Exeter " .
In 1741 and 1742 , a total of £ 423 17s 4d was spent on the hall , which included the cost of covering the oak @-@ beamed roof with plaster and making rooms in the original roof space . Writing in 1891 , Llewellyn Thomas noted that the plaster roof was added to create attic rooms to increase the accommodation of the lodgings . He expressed the hope that the hall might soon regain its original proportions , following the enlargement of the lodgings a few years previously . This has not happened , and the plaster ceiling remains . However , in 2003 , partitions between the rooms were knocked through to convert them into teaching rooms and the renovations enabled the upper part of the hall 's hammerbeam roof to be seen from inside the rooms . Pevsner described the 1741 cartouche on the north wall , which contains the college crest , as " large [ and ] rich " . Tyack noted the " lively Rococo plasterwork " of the flat ceiling . In the early 19th century the east and west sides of the hall were crenellated , and the roof was re @-@ slated . A clock was installed on the external wall of the hall in 1831 by the principal Henry Foulkes . There is a college tradition that students aim a champagne cork at the clock after finishing their final university examinations ; hitting it is supposed to mean that the student will obtain a first class honours degree . An extensive fire on 4 December 1913 threatened to destroy the hall before it was brought under control . In the rebuilding work that followed , a gallery was added to the hall , with the balustrade joining the 1634 screen . The hall contains a portrait of Elizabeth I , as well as portraits of former principals and benefactors . There are also portraits by court artists of two other monarchs who were college benefactors : Charles I ( by Anthony van Dyck ) and Charles II ( by Sir Peter Lely ) . It has been said to be " among the most impressive of all the Oxford college halls " , with its " fine panelling , austere ceiling , and its notable paintings " .
= = Second quadrangle = =
= = = Expansion and the Civil War = = =
Francis Mansell , who was appointed principal in 1630 , raised hundreds of pounds from donors towards the building of a second quadrangle in 1640 . Buildings along part of the north and south sides were completed at this time , and in 1638 he purchased some land known as Coggan 's Garden adjoining Market Street for £ 90 , upon which much of the west side of the second quadrangle was later built . The college also unsuccessfully proposed to the city council in 1638 that it should be permitted to expand to the north by closing Ship Street and purchasing the council 's properties there . According to his successor and biographer , Sir Leoline Jenkins , Mansell had sufficient benefactors to be able to complete the quadrangle , including the construction of a library on the west side , but the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1641 put paid to his plans . Welsh tenants who supported Charles I refused to pay rent to the college after Michael Roberts was installed as principal in 1648 by the puritan regime , leaving the college " on the verge of financial collapse " . Overall , the college was " reduced ... to administrative chaos " and in 1660 it was said to be in a " shatter 'd condition " , having suffered " a decade of corruption and internal strife quite unique in Oxford during the revolutionary period " . The college obtained further land on Market Street in 1675 , and building work began again in 1676 . Sir Leoline Jenkins built the library on the west side , which was completed by 1679 . After further land was obtained to link the Market Street and Ship Street sides of the college , further rooms , including what is now known as the Senior Common Room ( SCR ) , were built at the instigation of Jonathan Edwards ( principal from 1688 to 1712 ) to complete the inner quadrangle ; the project was completed just after his death in 1712 . Work to add a ceiling and wainscotting in the SCR took place in 1736 , at a cost of £ 52 4s 5d , with the walls to the west of the college placed further back to enlarge the common room 's garden and increase the light . Some minor work to repair and restore the walls has been carried out using Doulting stone .
The second quadrangle is larger than the first quadrangle , measuring 103 feet 6 inches by 94 feet 6 inches ( 31 @.@ 55 by 28 @.@ 80 m ) . The central plot of the quadrangle was filled with gravel from at least 1695 ; grass was laid in 1859 . All four sides of the quadrangle are Grade I listed buildings . Pevsner described the second quadrangle as " a uniform composition " , noting the " regular fenestration by windows with round @-@ arched lights , their hood @-@ moulds forming a continuous frieze " . The Dutch gables have ogee sides and semi @-@ circular pediments . Norwich described the second quadrangle as having " a strong feeling of unity owing to the somewhat relentless succession of ogival gables " , adding that " One is grateful for the projecting bay , oriel , chimneybreast and clock on the east side for breaking the monotony " . He pointed out that it was " almost a carbon copy " of the front quadrangle of University College , Oxford , which was begun in 1634 : in describing University College , he wrote that " There are the same two @-@ light windows , the same continuous rising and falling head @-@ moulds on the three storeys , even the same oddly shaped gables " as in Jesus College . Tyack , too , said that the gables were " clearly influenced " by University College . The writer Simon Jenkins said that the quadrangle has " the familiar Oxford Tudor windows and decorative Dutch gables , crowding the skyline like Welsh dragons ' teeth and lightened by exuberant flower boxes " . Betjeman , describing the first and second quadrangles , said that they had " what look like Cotswold manors on all sides " , adding that " The clearness of the planning of Jesus College and the relation of the heights of the buildings to the size of the quadrangles make what would be undistinguished buildings judged on their detail , into something distinguished " . The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Rowley Lascelles , however , described the ogee gables as " dismal " and called for them to be cut down into " battlements " ( crenellations ) to match those on the hall bay window ; he went further , saying that " this whole College requires to be gothicised , as it is called ; that is , mannered into the pointed style . It is a good subject for it " . Casson said that the second quadrangle was " much the same mixture " as the first , but looked " a bit cramped and stiff " .
= = = Fellows ' Library = = =
What is now called the Fellows ' Library , on the west side of the second quadrangle , dates from 1679 ; it was built by Sir Leoline Jenkins ( appointed principal in 1661 ) , one of the project 's donors . It replaced the college 's first purpose @-@ built library , built by Sir Eubule Thelwall to the west of the hall , in line with the lodgings , on the north side of what is now the college 's second quadrangle . Until that time , the books had been kept in rooms above the kitchen and buttery . Thelwall 's library appears to have been built over a covered walkway , with rooms for students above it . It fell into a " ruinous condition " and was pulled down by 1640 when Francis Mansell ( principal since 1630 ) erected further buildings on the north and south sides of the quadrangle . After a long delay in building work caused by the effects of the civil war , the college purchased three properties on Market Street adjoining Coggan 's Garden in 1675 , and development of the south @-@ west corner of the second quadrangle took place between 1676 and 1678 at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 439 14s 13d .
The library , which is 65 feet ( 20 m ) long and 21 feet 9 inches ( 6 @.@ 63 m ) wide , was built on the first floor of a free @-@ standing building , above common rooms for students and fellows , and largely followed the layout of Thelwall 's earlier library . The books were moved to their new location in 1679 . The library contains bookcases dating from about 1628 , which are decorated with strapwork and were used in the earlier library . The bookcases are 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) long , with hinged desks . Some of the books were secured with chains ; these were removed at an unknown date , although some payments for chains were made until 1765 . A gallery storey was added , probably in 1691 , and a wood @-@ panelled gallery runs the length of the east side . It is reached by " an ingenious and graceful spiral staircase " . On the west side of the library , there are nine windows on two levels ; on the east side , there are now six on the lower level and four ( blocked by gallery bookcases ) on the upper level . The layout of the library , as well as the position of an exposed timber , suggests that there was previously a gallery on the west side . If so , it was not used after 1800 , when the library was re @-@ arranged . It may have been removed and transferred to St Edern 's , Bodedern , along with some woodwork from the chapel after Street 's renovations , with other sections of the chapel woodwork re @-@ used in the east gallery – some of the carved patterns in the gallery are identical to those in Bodedern , and some of the gallery panels have been cut to fit their position , or are loose @-@ fitting or upside down , suggestive of repositioning from a previous location .
Hardy 's opinion was that , " if only it had an open timber roof instead of the plain ceiling , it would be one of the most picturesque College Libraries " . Another author said ( in 1914 , after the provision of a library for undergraduates elsewhere in the quadrangle ) that it was " one of the most charming of Oxford libraries , and one of the least frequented " . The window at the south end has four lights ; Pevsner noted that it was Gothic in style , despite the date of construction . Simon Jenkins said that the library is " a delight " . Betjeman wrote in 1938 that " The woodwork , the brown leather of the books , the clear windows and the slim height of the room make it one of the best little @-@ known sights of Oxford " .
The library holds 11 @,@ 000 antiquarian printed books and houses many of the college 's rare texts , including a Greek bible dating from 1545 and signed by Philipp Melanchthon and others , much of the library of the scholar and philosopher Lord Herbert of Cherbury and 17th @-@ century volumes by Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton . The library also holds the undergraduate thesis of T. E. Lawrence ( " Lawrence of Arabia " ) , entitled " The Influence of the Crusades on European Military Architecture to the end of XIIth Century " . The college launched a restoration appeal in 2007 for work that was anticipated to cost £ 700 @,@ 000 . The roof was leaking , the floorboards had been affected by dry rot and death watch beetle , and new heating and ultra @-@ violet light controls were needed to help preserve the books . The work to remedy these problems , and others , was completed in 2008 .
= = Third quadrangle = =
= = = Expansion in the 20th century = = =
The long but narrow third quadrangle adjoins Ship Street , on the north of the site and to the west of the garden of the principal 's lodgings , where the college has owned some land since its foundation . In the 18th century , this was home to the college stables . A fire in 1904 led to the demolition of the stables and the gateway to Ship Street . The fire also caused considerable damage to another building , about 80 metres ( 260 ft ) long , owned by the college . The ground floor had been rented out to the Oxford Electric Light Company – the fire originated in their premises when cables overheated – and the first floor had been used as a carpenter 's shop and a bookseller 's stores . This building was also demolished , along with houses occupied by the college porter and the college butler . Some stones from the demolished building were used to build a house in Kennington , Oxfordshire .
Replacement buildings adjoining Ship Street , effectively creating a third quadrangle for the college , were constructed between 1906 and 1908 . These were designed by the college architect and surveyor ( Reuben England ) and built in Doulting stone with Clipsham stone dressings , experience having shown that Doulting stone lasts longer when used in combination with a harder stone . The buildings , which have been given a Grade II listing , have been said to be keeping with the medieval look of the college as refaced by Buckler in the 19th century . However , Howell 's description of England 's work on Ship Street is that the design was " in an almost comically ' traditional ' style " , and Betjeman thought that the buildings were " dull " . Casson described the third quadrangle as " a long , narrow court with a jumble of nineteenth- and twentieth @-@ century buildings trying a bit too hard to be interesting " . The extension cost £ 13 @,@ 656 . It contained the college 's science laboratories and a new gate @-@ tower , as well as further living accommodation and a library for students , known as the Meyricke Library , after a major donor – there had been an undergraduate library in the second quadrangle since 1865 , known as the Meyricke Library from 1882 onwards . A small block of toilets and bathrooms was also built in the third quadrangle in 1908 ; it was nicknamed the " fourth quad " . Until then , students had had to use tin baths in their rooms to wash . It was not until 1946 that the college began to install baths and wash @-@ basins on each staircase in the quadrangles . The " fourth quad " was demolished as part of the work to erect the Old Members ' Building in 1971 . The third quadrangle also contains the bar ( in the basement beneath the library ) , the computer room , and student laundry facilities .
= = = Laboratories = = =
The laboratories , which were in use from 1907 to 1947 , occupied three floors . They were overseen ( for all but the last three years ) by the physical chemist David Chapman , a college fellow from 1907 to 1944 . At the time of their closure , they were the last college @-@ based science laboratories at the university . They were named the Sir Leoline Jenkins laboratories , after the former principal of the college . The laboratories led to scientific research and tuition ( particularly in chemistry ) becoming an important part of the college 's academic life . The brochure produced for the opening ceremony noted that the number of science students at the college had increased rapidly in recent years , and that provision of college laboratories would assist the tuition of undergraduates , as well as attracting to Jesus College graduates of the University of Wales who wished to continue their research at Oxford . The laboratories became unnecessary when the university began to provide centralised facilities for students ; they were closed in 1947 . The college then converted the laboratories ( along with other rooms in the buildings adjoining Ship Street ) into further accommodation for students and fellows , as well as relocating the Meyricke Library and providing a separate library for Celtic studies . The total cost was £ 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = Old Members ' Building and Junior Common Room = = =
The Old Members ' Building , which contains a music room , 24 study @-@ bedrooms and some lecture rooms , was built between 1969 and 1971 , and designed by John Fryman of the Architects ' Design Partnership . It was built after a fundraising appeal to Old Members to mark the college 's quatercentenary , and was opened by Charles , Prince of Wales , in 1971 . When the plans for the building were being drawn up , the college stated that it was " prepared to sacrifice some accommodation to obtain a scheme of architectural merit " . The result is a concrete building , faced with grit @-@ blasted concrete and , as elsewhere in the third quadrangle , Clipsham limestone . Part of the ground floor is an extension at the rear of W. H. Smith on Cornmarket Street , and so access is at first @-@ floor level . The windows , which project from the bedrooms in a V @-@ shape , were said to have been intended to " reflect the intricacy of the older building " , and to help improve the views from within .
Pevsner was critical of the use of canting in the design . He wrote that the entrance was reached by staircases set diagonally , which is " typical of the building " , and that Fryman had " succumbed to the canting fashion of today : canted back , canted exposed supports on the entrance floor , canted base to the two upper floors " . He called it a " mannered and modish design " . Tyack referred to the building 's " brutalism " . Norwich said that it displays " an antipathy to the right @-@ angle that makes the Front Quad look positively Pythagorean " . Another reviewer , though , said that whilst the building tried too hard to be " Oxford " with " quirky and derivative details " , the design made " ingenious use of minimal space " and filled a " drab " corner with " something lively and intimate " ; overall , the review concluded , the virtues of the building overcame its faults .
A conference room , known as the Habakkuk Room after a former principal , was added in 1989 . The Old Members ' Building is connected by a bridge ( Pevsner adding , " Of course it runs diagonally " ) to further college rooms above shops on Ship Street . These were added in 1908 – 1909 and were also designed by England . Pevsner noted the " four symmetrically grouped gables " . There are also some student rooms above the shops in Cornmarket Street , some of which were refurbished in 2000 .
In 2002 , a two @-@ year project to rebuild the property above the shops on Ship Street was completed . As part of the work , carried out by the architects Maguire & Co . , the bottom floor was converted from rooms occupied by students and fellows into a new Junior Common Room ( JCR ) , to replace the common room in the second quadrangle , which was by then too small to cope with the increased numbers of students . The new JCR , about twice the size of the previous one , can be partitioned into smaller rooms or kept open for large meetings ; there is also a kitchen , a student committee room and a glazed conservatory extending onto the adjoining terrace . Above the JCR are three floors of new student rooms . The two rooms of the old JCR , each of which contain war memorials , have been converted into seminar and meeting rooms , and are now known as the Harold Wilson Room and the Memorial Room .
= = = Fellows ' Garden = = =
The Fellows ' Garden runs behind the west side of the second quadrangle , behind the SCR ; it can be reached from there or from the third quadrangle . It dates from 1683 , when 3s 6d was spent on making a garden ; it would have been about 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and between 10 to 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide , but a further purchase of land in 1735 extended its length to about 170 feet ( 52 m ) . It is now overshadowed by adjoining buildings ( including the Old Members ' Building ) . The college archivist , Brigid Allen , has described it as " a kind of gated tunnel between high buildings , paved , scattered with seats and tables , and filled with gloomy foliage of the purple @-@ leaved plum " .
= = Other buildings = =
The college purchased 10 acres ( 0 @.@ 040 km2 ; 0 @.@ 016 sq mi ) of land in east Oxford ( near the Cowley Road ) in 1903 for use as a sports ground . The 1905 pavilion was replaced in 1998 by a new pavilion on the opposite side of the sports ground ; the old pavilion is now used as a table @-@ tennis room ( ground floor ) with a three @-@ bedroomed flat for graduates above . Residential accommodation was first built at the sports ground in 1967 ( Thelwall House , rebuilt in 1998 ) , with additions between 1988 and 1990 ( Hugh Price House and Leoline Jenkins House ) . Writing in 1974 , Pevsner said that Thelwall House was one of the recent college buildings that deserved note .
A further development , known as Hazel Court ( after Alfred Hazel , principal 1925 – 1944 ) , was built in 2000 , bringing the total number of students who can be housed at the sports ground to 135 . Writing in the Royal Institute of British Architects Journal in 2002 , Jeremy Melvin praised the architects of Hazel Court , Maguire & Co . , for their " crispness of detail " and " richness of composition " ; he said that " the sense of ordered space ... recalls the way in which the traditional collegiate quads gave architectural expression to the then @-@ new idea of a university " . He noted that , whilst the first impression of the houses was Elizabethan with the air of a courtyard garden , " closer inspection reveals a contemporary design sensibility " ; there was , he wrote , " the impression of an order that comes from making the construction explicit whils combining sensitivity to function and use " . However , he commented that whilst there was plenty of space inside , the furniture " would not look out of place in a motorway hotel " .
Donations from Edwin Stevens , an Old Member of the college , enabled the construction in 1974 of student flats at a site in north Oxford on the Woodstock Road , named " Stevens Close " in his honour . The flats were opened by Elizabeth II in 1976 . The college also owns a number of houses on Ship Street , which are used for student accommodation . It has purchased a further site in Ship Street at a cost of £ 1.8M , which will be converted at a projected cost of £ 5.5M to provide 31 student rooms with en @-@ suite facilities , a 100 @-@ seat lecture theatre and other teaching rooms . The site includes a bastion from the Oxford city wall , which is a scheduled ancient monument . The plans provide for the inner curve of the bastion to be used as a featured alcove in the ground floor reception area and for study bedrooms on the upper floors . The Ship Street Centre was officially opened by the Chancellor of the University of Oxford , Lord Patten of Barnes , on 25 September 2010 .
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= What If ? : Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions =
What If ? : Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions is a non @-@ fiction book by Randall Munroe in which he answers hypothetical science questions sent to him by readers of his webcomic , xkcd . The book contains a selection of questions and answers originally published on his blog What If ? , along with several new ones . The book is divided into several dozen chapters , most of which are devoted to answering a unique question . What If ? was released in September 2 , 2014 and was received positively by critics .
= = Conception of the blog = =
In the introduction section of the book , Randall Munroe recounts wondering as a child whether " there were more hard things or soft things in the world , " concluding that " the world contained about three billion soft things and five billion hard things . " The conversation that was produced by this question impressed Munroe 's mother to such a degree that she wrote it down . Though Munroe later stated this his question was rather meaningless , he used it as an example of how " thoroughly answer [ ing ] a stupid question can take you to some pretty interesting places " .
Since 2012 , Munroe has been answering unusual questions sent in by readers of xkcd on his blog What If ? . The concept was inspired by a weekend program organized by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in which volunteers can teach classes to groups of high school students on any chosen subject . Munroe signed up after hearing about it from a friend and decided to teach a class on energy . Though the lecture felt " dry " at first , once Munroe started bringing up examples from Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings , the students became more excited . The entire second half of the class was eventually spent solving mathematical and physics problems . Munroe wrote the first entries a few years before the start of the blog , based on questions he was asked that day .
Because he was delayed in getting the website online , Munroe had a lot of time thinking about the design of the blog . He eventually chose to display his entries as individual pages rather than using an infinite scrolling page , as he considers the latter more difficult to digest . Munroe usually chooses questions he already knows something interesting about , or after reading a scientific paper , he keeps an eye out for questions in which he can bring it up . Munroe has said that the volume of questions has been high enough that it is impossible to read all of them . Answering a question and writing a post takes him about a day of solid work .
= = Production = =
Munroe announced in March , 2014 that he had signed a deal with publisher Houghton Mifflin Harcourt to compile a large number of his What If ? entries into a book . What If ? : Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions would eventually be released in September that year .
The What If ? book contains a selection of questions and answers from the original blog , as well as nineteen new ones . Furthermore , Munroe selected a few unanswered questions from his inbox and collected those in separate sections in the book . Alt text , which was commonly used for illustrations on the original blog , was omitted from the book in many cases , though is sometimes included as small captions underneath the images . Instead , Munroe has added footnotes to the essays in the book to inform or entertain the reader . The cover of the book depicts a Tyrannosaurus rex being lowered into a Sarlacc from Star Wars , a topic not covered in the book .
What If ? is Munroe 's second published book , his first being XKCD : Volume 0 , a curated collection of xkcd comics released in 2009 . Munroe released a third book , titled Thing Explainer , in 2015 .
= = Content = =
What If ? is mainly composed of answers Munroe gives to readers ' hypothetical questions on various scientific topics . The questions tend to be rather unusual , assuming an improbable scenario and inquiring a logical conclusion to the situation . The first question Munroe answered for the blog was the following :
What would happen if you tried to hit a baseball pitched at 90 % the speed of light ?
Using mathematics and physics , Munroe concluded such a situation would result in a large explosion . What If ? approaches its subject matter with a sense of wit and sometimes makes use of approximations to answer questions that seem impossible to solve . Most questions demand assumptions and cross @-@ disciplinary science skills to answer , resulting in " back @-@ of @-@ the @-@ envelope " calculations . What If ? is interspersed with " charmingly @-@ amateur " stick figure illustrations .
The book also features periodic sections titled " Weird ( and Worrying ) Questions from the What If ? Inbox " , which are short collections of questions Munroe had not answered because he " don 't want to think about that " . In an interview , Munroe stated that he " never got past the initial mental image " of the question " How cold would your teeth have to get in order for a cup of hot coffee to make them shatter on contact ? "
= = Reception = =
The book was received positively by critics . Ethan Gilsdorf of the Boston Globe stated that " it ’ s fun to watch as Munroe tackles each question and examines every possible complication . " According to Gilsdorf , What If ? gives a view into " Munroe ’ s playful yet existentially @-@ tinged worldview " by contrasting cataclysmic scenarios with more heady ideas , such as examining the effects of a magnitude minus @-@ 7 Richter scale earthquake . The Huffington Post remarked that " What makes Munroe 's work so fantastic is a combination of two elements : his commitment to trying to answer even the weirdest question with solid science , and his undeniable sense of humor . " Rhett Allain of Wired praised What If ? because even his 12 @-@ year old son was able to enjoy it , though he found a minor error in one of the sections .
Sam Hewitt of Varsity and Marla Desat of The Escapist noted that the first print run had some issues processing mathematical symbols , as a square box was displayed where a delta is supposed to be printed .
What If ? was released on September 2 , 2014 and reached the top of the New York Times bestsellers list on September 21 , while getting featured as the " Amazon Best Book of the Month " . The book was a Goodreads Choice Awards " Best Nonfiction " nominee in 2014 as well .
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= Andrew Johnson =
Andrew Johnson ( December 29 , 1808 – July 31 , 1875 ) was the 17th President of the United States , serving from 1865 to 1869 . Johnson became president as he was vice president at the time of President Abraham Lincoln 's assassination . A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket , Johnson came to office as the Civil War concluded . The new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union . His plans did not give protection to the former slaves , and he came into conflict with the Republican @-@ dominated Congress , culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives . The first American president to be impeached , he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote .
Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh , North Carolina . Apprenticed as a tailor , he worked in several frontier towns before settling in Greeneville , Tennessee . He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835 . After brief service in the Tennessee Senate , Johnson was elected to the federal House of Representatives in 1843 , where he served five two @-@ year terms . He became Governor of Tennessee for four years , and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857 . In his congressional service , he sought passage of the Homestead Bill , which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862 .
As Southern slave states , including Tennessee , seceded to form the Confederate States of America , Johnson remained firmly with the Union . He was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his state 's secession . In 1862 , Lincoln appointed him as military governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken . In 1864 , Johnson , as a War Democrat and Southern Unionist , was a logical choice as running mate for Lincoln , who wished to send a message of national unity in his re @-@ election campaign ; their ticket easily won . When Johnson was sworn in as vice president in March 1865 , he gave a rambling speech . He later secluded himself to avoid public ridicule . Six weeks later , the assassination of Lincoln made him president .
Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to re @-@ form their civil governments . When Southern states returned many of their old leaders , and passed Black Codes to deprive the freedmen of many civil liberties , Congressional Republicans refused to seat legislators from those states and advanced legislation to overrule the Southern actions . Johnson vetoed their bills , and Congressional Republicans overrode him , setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency . Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment , which gave citizenship to former slaves . In 1866 , Johnson went on an unprecedented national tour promoting his executive policies , seeking to destroy his Republican opponents . As the conflict between the branches of government grew , Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act , restricting Johnson 's ability to fire Cabinet officials . When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , he was impeached by the House of Representatives , and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office . Returning to Tennessee after his presidency , Johnson sought political vindication , and gained it in his eyes when he was elected to the Senate again in 1875 ( the only former president to serve there ) , just months before his death . Many historians rank Johnson among the worst American presidents for his strong opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans , while some historians admire Johnson for his strict constitutionalism .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh , North Carolina , on December 29 , 1808 , to Jacob Johnson ( 1778 – 1812 ) and Mary ( " Polly " ) McDonough ( 1783 – 1856 ) , a laundress . He was of English , Scottish , and Irish ancestry . He had a brother William , four years his senior , and an older sister Elizabeth , who died in childhood . Johnson 's birth in a log cabin was a political asset in the mid @-@ 19th century , and he would frequently remind voters of his humble origins . Jacob Johnson was a poor man , as had been his father , William Johnson , but he became town constable of Raleigh before marrying and starting a family . He died of an apparent heart attack while ringing the town bell , shortly after rescuing three drowning men , when his son Andrew was three . Polly Johnson worked as a washerwoman and became the sole support of her family . Her occupation was then looked down on , as it often took her into other homes unaccompanied . There were even rumors that Andrew , who did not resemble his brother or sister , had been fathered by another man . Polly Johnson eventually remarried , to Turner Doughtry , who was as poor as she was .
Johnson 's mother apprenticed her son William to a tailor , James Selby . Andrew also became an apprentice in Selby 's shop at age ten and was legally bound to serve until his 21st birthday . Johnson lived with his mother for part of his service , and one of Selby 's employees taught him rudimentary literacy skills . His education was augmented by citizens who would come to Selby 's shop to read to the tailors as they worked . Even before he became an apprentice , Johnson came to listen . The readings caused a lifelong love of learning , and one of his biographers , Annette Gordon @-@ Reed , suggests that Johnson , later a gifted public speaker , learned the art as he threaded needles and cut cloth .
Andrew Johnson was not happy at James Selby 's , and after about five years , both he and his brother ran away . Selby responded by placing a reward for their return : " Ten Dollars Reward . Ran away from the subscriber , two apprentice boys , legally bound , named William and Andrew Johnson ... [ payment ] to any person who will deliver said apprentices to me in Raleigh , or I will give the above reward for Andrew Johnson alone . " The brothers went to Carthage , North Carolina , where Andrew Johnson worked as a tailor for several months . Fearing he would be arrested and returned to Raleigh , Johnson moved to Laurens , South Carolina . He found work quickly , met his first love , Mary Wood , and made her a quilt as a gift . However , she rejected his marriage proposal . He returned to Raleigh , hoping to buy out his apprenticeship , but could not come to terms with Selby . Unable to stay in Raleigh , where he risked being apprehended for abandoning Selby , he decided to move west .
= = = Move to Tennessee = = =
Johnson left North Carolina for Tennessee , traveling mostly on foot . After a brief period in Knoxville , he moved to Mooresville , Alabama . He then worked as a tailor in Columbia , Tennessee , but was called back to Raleigh by his mother and stepfather , who saw limited opportunities there and who wished to emigrate west . Johnson and his party traveled through the Blue Ridge Mountains to Greeneville , Tennessee . Andrew Johnson fell in love with the town at first sight , and when he became prosperous purchased the land where he had first camped and planted a tree in commemoration .
In Greeneville , Johnson established a successful tailoring business in the front of his home . In 1827 , at the age of 18 , he married 16 @-@ year @-@ old Eliza McCardle , the daughter of a local shoemaker . The pair were married by Justice of the Peace Mordecai Lincoln , first cousin of Thomas Lincoln , whose son would become president . The Johnsons were married for almost 50 years and had five children : Martha ( 1828 ) , Charles ( 1830 ) , Mary ( 1832 ) , Robert ( 1834 ) , and Andrew Jr . ( 1852 ) . Though she suffered from Tuberculosis , Eliza supported her husband 's endeavors . She taught him mathematics skills and tutored him to improve his writing . Shy and retiring by nature , Eliza Johnson usually remained in Greeneville during Johnson 's political rise . She was not often seen during her husband 's presidency ; their daughter Martha usually served as official hostess .
Johnson 's tailoring business prospered during the early years of the marriage , enabling him to hire help and giving him the funds to invest profitably in real estate . He later boasted of his talents as a tailor , " my work never ripped or gave way . " He was a voracious reader . Books about famous orators aroused his interest in political dialogue , and he had private debates on the issues of the day with customers who held opposing views . He also took part in debates at Greeneville College .
= = Political rise = =
= = = Tennessee politician = = =
Johnson helped organize a mechanics ' ( working men 's ) ticket in the 1829 Greeneville municipal election . He was elected town alderman , along with his friends Blackston McDannel and Mordecai Lincoln . Following the 1831 Nat Turner slave rebellion , a state convention was called to pass a new constitution , including provisions to disenfranchise free people of color . The convention also wanted to reform real estate tax rates , and provide ways of funding improvements to Tennessee 's infrastructure . The constitution was submitted for a public vote , and Johnson spoke widely for its adoption ; the successful campaign provided him with statewide exposure . On January 4 , 1834 , his fellow aldermen elected him mayor of Greeneville .
In 1835 , Johnson made a bid for election to the " floater " seat which Greene County shared with neighboring Washington County in the Tennessee House of Representatives . According to his biographer , Hans L. Trefousse , Johnson " demolished " the opposition in debate and won the election with almost a two to one margin . Soon after taking his seat , Johnson purchased his first slave , Dolly , aged 14 . Dolly had three children over the years . Johnson had the reputation of treating his slaves kindly , and the fact that Dolly was dark @-@ skinned , and her offspring much lighter , led to speculation both during and after his lifetime that he was the father . During his Greeneville days , Johnson joined the Tennessee Militia as a member of the 90th Regiment . He attained the rank of colonel , though while an enrolled member , Johnson was fined for an unknown offense . Afterwards , he was often addressed or referred to by his rank .
In his first term in the legislature , which met in the state capital of Nashville , Johnson did not consistently vote with either the Democratic or the newly formed Whig Party , though he revered President Andrew Jackson , a Democrat and Tennessean . The major parties were still determining their core values and policy proposals , with the party system in a state of flux . The Whig Party had organized in opposition to Jackson , fearing the concentration of power in the Executive Branch of the government ; Johnson differed from the Whigs as he opposed more than minimal government spending and spoke against aid for the railroads , while his constituents hoped for improvements in transportation . After Brookins Campbell and the Whigs defeated Johnson for re @-@ election in 1837 , Johnson would not lose another race for thirty years . In 1839 , he sought to regain his seat , initially as a Whig , but when another candidate sought the Whig nomination , he ran as a Democrat and was elected . From that time he supported the Democratic party and built a powerful political machine in Greene County . Johnson became a strong advocate of the Democratic Party , noted for his oratory , and in an era when public speaking both informed the public and entertained it , people flocked to hear him .
In 1840 , Johnson was selected as a presidential elector for Tennessee , giving him more statewide publicity . Although Democratic President Martin Van Buren was defeated by former Ohio senator William Henry Harrison , Johnson was instrumental in keeping Tennessee and Greene County in the Democratic column . He was elected to the Tennessee Senate in 1841 , where he served a two @-@ year term . He had achieved financial success in his tailoring business , but sold it to concentrate on politics . He had also acquired additional real estate , including a larger home and a farm ( where his mother and stepfather took residence ) , and among his assets numbered eight or nine slaves .
= = = Congressman ( 1843 – 1853 ) = = =
Having served in both houses of the legislature , Johnson saw election to Congress as the next step in his political career . He engaged in a number of political maneuvers to gain Democratic support , including the displacement of the Whig postmaster in Greeneville , and defeated Jonesborough lawyer John A. Aiken by 5 @,@ 495 votes to 4 @,@ 892 . In Washington , he joined a new Democratic majority in the House of Representatives . Johnson advocated for the interests of the poor , maintained an anti @-@ abolitionist stance , argued for only limited spending by the government and opposed protective tariffs . With Eliza remaining in Greeneville , Congressman Johnson shunned social functions in favor of study in the Library of Congress . Although a fellow Tennessee Democrat , James K. Polk , was elected president in 1844 , and Johnson had campaigned for him , the two men had difficult relations , and President Polk refused some of his patronage suggestions .
Johnson believed , as did many Southern Democrats , that the Constitution protected private property , including slaves , and thus prohibited the federal and state governments from abolishing slavery . He won a second term in 1845 against Wiliam G. Brownlow , presenting himself as the defender of the poor against the aristocracy . In his second term , Johnson supported the Polk administration 's decision to fight the Mexican War , seen by some Northerners as an attempt to gain territory to expand slavery westward , and opposed the Wilmot Proviso , a proposal to ban slavery in any territory gained from Mexico . He introduced for the first time his Homestead Bill , to grant 160 acres ( 65 ha ) to people willing to settle the land and gain title to it . This issue was especially important to Johnson because of his own humble beginnings .
In the presidential election of 1848 , the Democrats split over the slavery issue , and abolitionists formed the Free Soil Party , with former president Van Buren as their nominee . Johnson supported the Democratic candidate , former Michigan senator Lewis Cass . With the party split , Whig nominee General Zachary Taylor was easily victorious , and carried Tennessee . Johnson 's relations with Polk remained poor ; the President recorded of his final New Year 's reception in 1849 that
Among the visitors I observed in the crowd today was Hon. Andrew Johnson of the Ho . Repts . [ House of Representatives ] Though he represents a Democratic District in Tennessee ( my own State ) this is the first time I have seen him during the present session of Congress . Professing to be a Democrat , he has been politically , if not personally hostile to me during my whole term . He is very vindictive and perverse in his temper and conduct . If he had the manliness and independence to declare his opposition openly , he knows he could not be elected by his constituents . I am not aware that I have ever given him cause for offense .
Johnson , due to national interest in new railroad construction and in response to the need for better transportation in his own district , also supported government assistance for the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad .
In his campaign for a fourth term , Johnson concentrated on three issues : slavery , homesteads and judicial elections . He defeated his opponent , Nathaniel G. Taylor , in August 1849 , with a greater margin of victory than in previous campaigns . When the House convened in December , the party division caused by the Free Soil Party precluded the formation of the majority needed to elect a Speaker . Johnson proposed adoption of a rule allowing election of a Speaker by a plurality ; some weeks later others took up a similar proposal , and Democrat Howell Cobb was elected .
Once the Speaker election had concluded and Congress was ready to conduct legislative business , the issue of slavery took center stage . Northerners sought to admit California , a free state , to the Union . Kentucky 's Henry Clay introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions , the Compromise of 1850 , to admit California and pass legislation sought by each side . Johnson voted for all the provisions except for the abolition of slavery in the nation 's capital . He pressed resolutions for constitutional amendments to provide for popular election of senators ( then elected by state legislatures ) and of the president ( chosen by the Electoral College ) , and limiting the tenure of federal judges to 12 years . These were all defeated .
A group of Democrats nominated Landon Carter Haynes to oppose Johnson as he sought a fifth term ; the Whigs were so pleased with the internecine battle among the Democrats in the general election that they did not nominate a candidate of their own . The campaign included fierce debates : Johnson 's main issue was the passage of the Homestead Bill ; Haynes contended it would facilitate abolition . Johnson won the election by more than 1600 votes . Though he was not enamored of the party 's presidential nominee in 1852 , former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce , Johnson campaigned for him . Pierce was elected , but he failed to carry Tennessee . In 1852 , Johnson managed to get the House to pass his Homestead Bill , but it failed in the Senate . The Whigs had gained control of the Tennessee legislature , and , under the leadership of Gustavus Henry , redrew the boundaries of Johnson 's First District to make it a safe seat for their party . The Nashville Union termed this " Henry @-@ mandering " ; lamented Johnson , " I have no political future . "
= = = Governor of Tennessee ( 1853 – 57 ) = = =
If Johnson considered retiring from politics upon deciding not to seek re @-@ election , he soon changed his mind . The congressman 's political friends began to maneuver to get him the nomination for governor . The Democratic convention unanimously named him , though some party members were not happy at his selection . The Whigs had won the past two gubernatorial elections , and still controlled the legislature . That party nominated Henry , making the " Henry @-@ mandering " of the First District an immediate issue . The two men debated in county seats the length of Tennessee before the meetings were called off two weeks before the August 1853 election due to illness in Henry 's family . Johnson won the election by 63 @,@ 413 votes to 61 @,@ 163 ; some votes for him were cast in return for his promise to support Whig Nathaniel Taylor for his old seat in Congress .
Tennessee 's governor had little power — Johnson could propose legislation but not veto it , and most appointments were made by the Whig @-@ controlled legislature . Nevertheless , the office was a bully pulpit that allowed him to publicize himself and his political views . He succeeded in getting the appointments he wanted in return for his endorsement of John Bell , a Whig , for one of the state 's U.S. Senate seats . In his first biennial speech , Johnson urged simplification of the state judicial system , abolishment of the Bank of Tennessee and establishment of an agency to provide uniformity in weights and measures ; the last was passed . Johnson was critical of the Tennessee common school system and suggested funding be increased via taxes , either statewide or county by county — a mixture of the two was passed . Reforms carried out during Johnson 's time as governor included the foundation of the State 's public library ( making books available to all ) and its first public school system , and the initiation of regular State fairs to benefit craftsmen and farmers .
Although the Whig Party was on its final decline nationally , it remained strong in Tennessee , and the outlook for Democrats there in 1855 was poor . Feeling that re @-@ election as governor was necessary to give him a chance at the higher offices he sought , Johnson agreed to make the run . Meredith P. Gentry received the Whig nomination . A series of more than a dozen vitriolic debates ensued . The issues in the campaign were slavery , the prohibition of alcohol , and the nativist positions of the Know Nothing Party . Johnson favored the first , but opposed the others . Gentry was more equivocal on the alcohol question , and had gained the support of the Know Nothings , a group Johnson portrayed as a secret society . Johnson was unexpectedly victorious , albeit with a narrower margin than in 1853 .
When the presidential election of 1856 approached , Johnson hoped to be nominated ; some Tennessee county conventions designated him a favorite son . His position that the best interests of the Union were served by slavery in some areas made him a practical compromise candidate for president . He was never a major contender ; the nomination fell to former Pennsylvania senator James Buchanan . Though he was not impressed by either , Johnson campaigned for Buchanan and his running mate , John C. Breckinridge , who were elected .
Johnson decided not to seek a third term as governor , with an eye towards election to the U.S. Senate . In 1857 , while returning from Washington , his train derailed , causing serious damage to his right arm . This injury would trouble him in the years to come .
= = = United States Senator = = =
= = = = Homestead Bill advocate = = = =
The victors in the 1857 state legislative campaign would , once they convened in October , elect a United States Senator . Former Whig governor William B. Campbell wrote to his uncle , " The great anxiety of the Whigs is to elect a majority in the legislature so as to defeat Andrew Johnson for senator . Should the Democrats have the majority , he will certainly be their choice , and there is no man living to whom the Americans and Whigs have as much antipathy as Johnson . " The governor spoke widely in the campaign , and his party won the gubernatorial race and control of the legislature . Johnson 's final address as governor gave him the chance to influence his electors , and he made proposals popular among Democrats . Two days later the legislature elected him to the Senate . The opposition was appalled , with the Richmond Whig newspaper referring to him as " the vilest radical and most unscrupulous demagogue in the Union . "
Johnson gained high office due to his proven record as a man popular among the small farmers and self @-@ employed tradesmen who made up much of Tennessee 's electorate . He called them the " plebians " ; he was less popular among the planters and lawyers who led the state Democratic Party , but none could match him as a vote @-@ getter . After his death , one Tennessee voter wrote of him , " Johnson was always the same to everyone ... the honors heaped upon him did not make him forget to be kind to the humblest citizen . " Always seen in impeccably tailored clothing , he cut an impressive figure , and had the stamina to endure lengthy campaigns with daily travel over bad roads leading to another speech or debate . Mostly denied the party 's machinery , he relied on a network of friends , advisers , and contacts . One friend , Hugh Douglas , stated in a letter to him , " you have been in the way of our would be great men for a long time . At heart many of us never wanted you to be Governor only none of the rest of us Could have been elected at the time and we only wanted to use you . Then we did not want you to go to the Senate but the people would send you . "
The new senator took his seat when Congress convened in December 1857 ( the term of his predecessor , James C. Jones , had expired in March ) . He came to Washington as usual without his wife and family ; Eliza would visit Washington only once during Johnson 's first time as senator , in 1860 . Johnson immediately set about introducing the Homestead Bill in the Senate , but as most senators who supported it were Northern ( many associated with the newly founded Republican Party ) , the matter became caught up in suspicions over the slavery issue . Southern senators felt that those who took advantage of the provisions of the Homestead Bill were more likely to be Northern non @-@ slaveholders . The issue of slavery had been complicated by the Supreme Court 's ruling earlier in the year in Dred Scott v. Sandford that slavery could not be prohibited in the territories . Johnson , a slaveholding senator from a Southern state , made a major speech in the Senate the following May in an attempt to convince his colleagues that the Homestead Bill and slavery were not incompatible . Nevertheless , Southern opposition was key to defeating the legislation , 30 – 22 . In 1859 , it failed on a procedural vote when Vice President Breckinridge broke a tie against the bill , and in 1860 , a watered @-@ down version passed both houses , only to be vetoed by Buchanan at the urging of Southerners . Johnson continued his opposition to spending , chairing a committee to control it .
He argued against funding to build Washington , D.C. ' s infrastructure , stating that it was unfair to expect state citizens to pay for the city 's streets , even if it was the seat of government . He opposed spending money for troops to put down the revolt by the Mormons in Utah Territory , arguing for temporary volunteers as the United States should not have a standing army .
= = = = Secession crisis = = = =
In October 1859 , abolitionist John Brown and sympathizers raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry , Virginia ( today West Virginia ) . Tensions in Washington between pro- and anti @-@ slavery forces increased greatly . Johnson gave a major speech in the Senate in December , decrying Northerners who would endanger the Union by seeking to outlaw slavery . The Tennessee senator stated that " all men are created equal " from the Declaration of Independence did not apply to African @-@ Americans , since the Constitution of Illinois contained that phrase — and that document barred voting by African @-@ Americans .
Johnson hoped that he would be a compromise candidate for the presidential nomination as the Democratic Party tore itself apart over the slavery question . Busy with the Homestead Bill during the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston , South Carolina , he sent two of his sons and his chief political adviser to represent his interests in the backroom deal @-@ making . The convention deadlocked , with no candidate able to gain the required two @-@ thirds vote , but the sides were too far apart to consider Johnson as a compromise . The party split , with Northerners backing Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas while Southerners , including Johnson , supported Vice President Breckinridge for president . With former Tennessee senator John Bell running a fourth @-@ party candidacy and further dividing the vote , the Republican Party elected its first president , former Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln . The election of Lincoln , known to be against the spread of slavery , was unacceptable to many in the South . Although secession from the Union had not been an issue in the campaign , talk of it began in the Southern states .
Johnson took to the Senate floor after the election , giving a speech well received in the North , " I will not give up this government ... No ; I intend to stand by it ... and I invite every man who is a patriot to ... rally around the altar of our common country ... and swear by our God , and all that is sacred and holy , that the Constitution shall be saved , and the Union preserved . " As Southern senators announced they would resign if their states seceded , he reminded Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis that if Southerners would only hold to their seats , the Democrats would control the Senate , and could defend the South 's interests against any infringement by Lincoln . Gordon @-@ Reed points out that while Johnson 's belief in an indissoluble Union was sincere , he had alienated Southern leaders , including Davis , who would soon be the president of the Confederate States of America , formed by the seceding states . If the Tennessean had backed the Confederacy , he would have had small influence in its government .
Johnson returned home when his state took up the issue of secession . His successor as governor , Isham G. Harris , and the legislature , organized a referendum on whether to have a constitutional convention to authorize secession ; when that failed , they put the question of leaving the Union to a popular vote . Despite threats on Johnson 's life , and actual assaults , he campaigned against both questions , sometimes speaking with a gun on the lectern before him . Although Johnson 's eastern region of Tennessee was largely against secession , the second referendum passed , and in June 1861 , Tennessee joined the Confederacy . Believing he would be killed if he stayed , Johnson fled through the Cumberland Gap , where his party was in fact shot at . He left his wife and family in Greeneville .
As the only member from a seceded state to remain in the Senate and the most prominent Southern Unionist , Johnson had Lincoln 's ear in the early months of the war . With most of Tennessee in Confederate hands , Johnson spent congressional recesses in Kentucky and Ohio , trying in vain to convince any Union commander who would listen to conduct an operation into East Tennessee .
= = = Military Governor of Tennessee = = =
Johnson 's first tenure in the Senate came to a conclusion in March 1862 when Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee . Much of the central and western portions of that seceded state had been recovered . Although some argued that civil government should simply resume once the Confederates were defeated in an area , Lincoln chose to use his power as commander in chief to appoint military governors over Union @-@ controlled Southern regions . The Senate quickly confirmed Johnson 's nomination along with the rank of brigadier general . In response , the Confederates confiscated his land and his slaves , and turned his home into a military hospital . Later in 1862 , after his departure from the Senate and in the absence of most Southern legislators , the Homestead Bill was finally enacted . Along with legislation for land @-@ grant colleges and for the transcontinental railroad , the Homestead Bill has been credited with opening the American West to settlement .
As military governor , Johnson sought to eliminate rebel influence in the state . He demanded loyalty oaths from public officials , and shut down all newspapers owned by Confederate sympathizers . Much of eastern Tennessee remained in Confederate hands , and the ebb and flow of war during 1862 sometimes brought Confederate control again close to Nashville . However , the Confederate allowed his wife and family to pass through the lines to join him . Johnson undertook the defense of Nashville as best he could , though the city was continually harassed by cavalry raids led by General Nathan Bedford Forrest . Relief from Union regulars did not come until William S. Rosecrans defeated the Confederates at Murfreesboro in early 1863 . Much of eastern Tennessee was captured later that year .
When Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 , declaring freedom for all slaves in Confederate @-@ held areas , he exempted Tennessee at Johnson 's request . The proclamation increased the debate over what should become of the slaves after the war , as not all Unionists supported abolition . Johnson finally decided that slavery had to end . He wrote , " If the institution of slavery ... seeks to overthrow it [ the Government ] , then the Government has a clear right to destroy it " . He reluctantly supported efforts to enlist former slaves into the Union Army , feeling that African @-@ Americans should perform menial tasks to release white Americans to do the fighting . Nevertheless , he succeeded in recruiting 20 @,@ 000 black soldiers to serve the Union .
= = Vice President ( 1865 ) = =
In 1860 , Lincoln 's running mate had been Maine Senator Hannibal Hamlin . Vice President Hamlin had served competently , was in good health , and was willing to run . Nevertheless , Johnson emerged as running mate for Lincoln 's re @-@ election bid in 1864 .
Lincoln considered several War Democrats for the ticket in 1864 , and sent an agent to sound out General Benjamin Butler as a possible running mate . In May 1864 , the President dispatched General Daniel Sickles to Nashville on a fact @-@ finding mission . Although Sickles denied he was there either to investigate or interview the military governor , Johnson biographer Hans L. Trefousse believes Sickles 's trip was connected to Johnson 's subsequent nomination for vice president . According to historian Albert Castel in his account of Johnson 's presidency , Lincoln was impressed by Johnson 's administration of Tennessee . Gordon @-@ Reed points out that while the Lincoln @-@ Hamlin ticket might have been considered geographically balanced in 1860 , " having Johnson , the southern War Democrat , on the ticket sent the right message about the folly of secession and the continuing capacity for union within the country . " Another factor was the desire of Secretary of State William Seward to frustrate the vice @-@ presidential candidacy of his fellow New Yorker , former senator Daniel S. Dickinson , a War Democrat , as Seward would probably have had to yield his place if another New Yorker became vice president . Johnson , once he was told by reporters the likely purpose of Sickles ' visit , was active on his own behalf , giving speeches and having his political friends work behind the scenes to boost his candidacy .
To sound a theme of unity , Lincoln in 1864 ran under the banner of the National Union Party , rather than the Republicans . At the party 's convention in Baltimore in June , Lincoln was easily nominated , although there had been some talk of replacing him with a Cabinet officer or one of the more successful generals . After the convention backed Lincoln , former Secretary of War Simon Cameron offered a resolution to nominate Hamlin , but it was defeated . Johnson was nominated for vice president by C.M. Allen of Indiana with an Iowa delegate as seconder . On the first ballot , Johnson led with 200 votes to 150 for Hamlin and 108 for Dickinson . On the second ballot , Kentucky switched to vote for Johnson , beginning a stampede . Johnson was named on the second ballot with 491 votes to Hamlin 's 17 and eight for Dickinson ; the nomination was made unanimous . Lincoln expressed pleasure at the result , " Andy Johnson , I think , is a good man . " When word reached Nashville , a crowd assembled and the military governor obliged with a speech contending his selection as a Southerner meant that the rebel states had not actually left the Union .
Although it was unusual at the time for a national candidate to actively campaign , Johnson gave a number of speeches in Tennessee , Kentucky , Ohio , and Indiana . He also sought to boost his chances in Tennessee while re @-@ establishing civil government by making the loyalty oath even more restrictive , in that voters would now have to swear they opposed making a settlement with the Confederacy . The Democratic candidate for president , George McClellan , hoped to avoid additional bloodshed by negotiation , and so the stricter loyalty oath effectively disenfranchised his supporters . Lincoln declined to override Johnson , and their ticket took the state by 25 @,@ 000 votes . Congress refused to count Tennessee 's electoral votes , but Lincoln and Johnson did not need them , having won in most states that had voted , and easily secured the election .
Now Vice President @-@ elect , Johnson was anxious to complete the work of re @-@ establishing civilian government in Tennessee , although the timetable for the election of a new governor did not allow it to take place until after Inauguration Day , March 4 . He hoped to remain in Nashville to complete his task , but was told by Lincoln 's advisers that he could not stay , but would be sworn in with Lincoln . In these months , Union troops finished the retaking of eastern Tennessee , including Greeneville . Just before his departure , the voters of Tennessee ratified a new constitution , abolishing slavery , on February 22 , 1865 . One of Johnson 's final acts as military governor was to certify the results .
Johnson traveled to Washington to be sworn in , although according to Gordon @-@ Reed , " in light of what happened on March 4 , 1865 , it might have been better if Johnson had stayed in Nashville . " He may have been ill ; Castel cited typhoid fever , though Gordon @-@ Reed notes that there is no independent evidence for that diagnosis . On the evening of March 3 , Johnson attended a party in his honor ; he drank heavily . Hung over the following morning at the Capitol , he asked Vice President Hamlin for some whiskey . Hamlin produced a bottle , and Johnson took two stiff drinks , stating " I need all the strength for the occasion I can have . " In the Senate Chamber , Johnson delivered a rambling address as Lincoln , the Congress , and dignitaries looked on . Almost incoherent at times , he finally meandered to a halt , whereupon Hamlin hastily swore him in as vice president . Lincoln , who had watched sadly during the debacle , was sworn in , and delivered his acclaimed Second Inaugural Address .
In the weeks after the inauguration , Johnson only presided over the Senate briefly , and hid from public ridicule at the Maryland home of a friend , Francis Preston Blair . When he did return to Washington , it was with the intent of leaving for Tennessee to re @-@ establish his family in Greeneville . Instead , he remained after word came that General Ulysses S. Grant had captured the Confederate capital of Richmond , Virginia , presaging the end of the war . Lincoln stated , in response to criticism of Johnson 's behavior , that " I have known Andy Johnson for many years ; he made a bad slip the other day , but you need not be scared ; Andy ain 't a drunkard . "
= = President ( 1865 – 69 ) = =
= = = Accession = = =
On the afternoon of April 14 , 1865 , Lincoln and Johnson met for the first time since the inauguration . Trefousse states that Johnson wanted to " induce Lincoln not to be too lenient with traitors " ; Gordon @-@ Reed agrees .
That night , President Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth , a Confederate sympathizer . The shooting of the President was part of a conspiracy to assassinate Lincoln , Johnson , and Seward the same night . Seward barely survived his wounds , while Johnson escaped attack as his would @-@ be assassin , George Atzerodt , got drunk instead of killing the vice president . Leonard J. Farwell , a fellow boarder at the Kirkwood House , awoke Johnson with news of Lincoln 's shooting at Ford 's Theatre . Johnson rushed to the President 's deathbed , where he remained a short time , on his return promising , " They shall suffer for this . They shall suffer for this . " Lincoln died at 7 : 22 am the next morning ; Johnson 's swearing in occurred between 10 and 11 am with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding in the presence of most of the Cabinet . Johnson 's demeanor was described by the newspapers as " solemn and dignified " . Some Cabinet members had last seen Johnson , apparently drunk , at the inauguration . At noon , Johnson conducted his first Cabinet meeting in the Treasury Secretary 's office , and asked all members to remain in their positions .
The events of the assassination resulted in speculation , then and subsequently , concerning Johnson and what the conspirators might have intended for him . In the vain hope of having his life spared after his capture , Atzerodt spoke much about the conspiracy , but did not say anything to indicate that the plotted assassination of Johnson was merely a ruse . Conspiracy theorists point to the fact that on the day of the assassination , Booth came to the Kirkwood House and left one of his cards . This object was received by Johnson 's private secretary , William A. Browning , with an inscription , " Are you at home ? Don 't wish to disturb you . J. Wilkes Booth . "
Johnson presided with dignity over Lincoln 's funeral ceremonies in Washington , before his predecessor 's body was sent home to Springfield , Illinois , for burial . Shortly after Lincoln 's death , Union General William T. Sherman reported he had , without consulting Washington , reached an armistice agreement with Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston for the surrender of Confederate forces in North Carolina in exchange for the existing state government remaining in power , with private property rights to be respected . This did not even acknowledge the freedom of those in slavery . This was not acceptable to Johnson or the Cabinet who sent word for Sherman to secure the surrender without making political deals , which he did . Further , Johnson placed a $ 100 @,@ 000 bounty ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) on Confederate President Davis , then a fugitive , which gave him the reputation of a man who would be tough on the South . More controversially , he permitted the execution of Mary Surratt for her part in Lincoln 's assassination . Surratt was executed with three others , including Atzerodt , on July 7 , 1865 .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Upon taking office , Johnson faced the question of what to do with the Confederacy . President Lincoln had authorized loyalist governments in Virginia , Arkansas , Louisiana , and Tennessee as the Union came to control large parts of those states and advocated a ten percent plan that would allow elections after ten percent of the voters in any state took an oath of future loyalty to the Union . Congress considered this too lenient ; its own plan , requiring a majority of voters to take the loyalty oath , passed both houses in 1864 , but Lincoln pocket vetoed it .
Johnson had three goals in Reconstruction . He sought a speedy restoration of the states , on the grounds that they had never truly left the Union , and thus should again be recognized once loyal citizens formed a government . To Johnson , African @-@ American suffrage was a delay and a distraction ; it had always been a state responsibility to decide who should vote . Second , political power in the Southern states should pass from the planter class to his beloved " plebians " . Johnson feared that the freedmen , many of whom were still economically bound to their former masters , might vote at their direction . Johnson 's third priority was election in his own right in 1868 , a feat no one who had succeeded a deceased president had managed to accomplish , attempting to secure a Democratic anti Congressional Reconstruction coalition in the South .
The Republicans had formed a number of factions . The Radical Republicans sought voting and other civil rights for African @-@ Americans . They believed that the freedmen could be induced to vote Republican in gratitude for emancipation , and that black votes could keep the Republicans in power and Southern Democrats , including former rebels , out of influence . They believed that top Confederates should be punished . The Moderate Republicans sought to keep the Democrats out of power at a national level , and prevent former rebels from resuming power . They were not as enthusiastic about the idea of African @-@ American suffrage as their Radical colleagues , either because of their own local political concerns , or because they believed that the freedman would be likely to cast his vote badly . Northern Democrats favored the unconditional restoration of the Southern states . They did not support African @-@ American suffrage , which might threaten Democratic control in the South .
= = = = Presidential Reconstruction = = = =
Johnson was initially left to devise a Reconstruction policy without legislative intervention , as Congress was not due to meet again until December 1865 . Radical Republicans told the President that the Southern states were economically in a state of chaos and urged him to use his leverage to insist on rights for freedmen as a condition of restoration to the Union . But Johnson , with the support of other officials including Seward , insisted that the franchise was a state , not a federal matter . The Cabinet was divided on the issue .
Johnson 's first Reconstruction actions were two proclamations , with the unanimous backing of his Cabinet , on May 29 . One recognized the Virginia government led by provisional Governor Francis Pierpont . The second provided amnesty for all ex @-@ rebels except those holding property valued at $ 20 @,@ 000 or more ; it also appointed a temporary governor for North Carolina and authorized elections . Neither of these proclamations included provisions regarding black suffrage or freedmen 's rights . The President ordered constitutional conventions in other former rebel states .
As Southern states began the process of forming governments , Johnson 's policies received considerable public support in the North , which he took as unconditional backing for quick reinstatement of the South . While he received such support from the white South , he underestimated the determination of Northerners to ensure that the war had not been fought for nothing . It was important , in Northern public opinion , that the South acknowledge its defeat , that slavery be ended , and that the lot of African @-@ Americans be improved . Voting rights were less important — after all , only a handful of Northern states ( mostly in New England ) gave African @-@ American men the right to vote on the same basis as whites , and in late 1865 , Connecticut , Wisconsin , and Minnesota voted down African @-@ American suffrage proposals by large margins . Northern public opinion tolerated Johnson 's inaction on black suffrage as an experiment , to be allowed if it quickened Southern acceptance of defeat . Instead , white Southerners felt emboldened . A number of Southern states passed Black Codes , binding African @-@ American laborers to farms on annual contracts they could not quit , and allowing law enforcement at whim to arrest them for vagrancy and rent out their labor . Most Southerners elected to Congress were former Confederates , with the most prominent being Georgia Senator @-@ designate and former Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens . Congress assembled in early December 1865 ; Johnson 's conciliatory annual message to them was well received . Nevertheless , Congress refused to seat the Southern legislators and established a committee to recommend appropriate Reconstruction legislation .
Northerners were outraged at the idea of unrepentant Confederate leaders , such as Stephens , rejoining the federal government at a time when emotional wounds from the war remained raw . They saw the Black Codes placing African @-@ Americans in a position barely above slavery . Republicans also feared that restoration of the Southern states would return the Democrats to power . In addition , according to David O. Stewart in his book on Johnson 's impeachment , " the violence and poverty that oppressed the South would galvanize the opposition to Johnson " .
= = = = Break with the Republicans : 1866 = = = =
Congress was reluctant to confront the President , and initially only sought to fine @-@ tune Johnson 's policies towards the South . According to Trefousse , " If there was a time when Johnson could have come to an agreement with the moderates of the Republican Party , it was the period following the return of Congress " . The President was unhappy about the provocative actions of the Southern states , and about the continued control by the antebellum elite there , but made no statement publicly , believing that Southerners had a right to act as they did , even if it was unwise to do so . By late January 1866 , he was convinced that winning a showdown with the Radical Republicans was necessary to his political plans – both for the success of Reconstruction and for re @-@ election in 1868 . He would have preferred that the conflict arise over the legislative efforts to enfranchise African @-@ Americans in the District of Columbia , a proposal that had been defeated overwhelmingly in an all @-@ white referendum . A bill to accomplish this passed the House of Representatives , but to Johnson 's disappointment , stalled in the Senate before he could veto it .
Illinois Senator Lyman Trumbull , leader of the Moderate Republicans and Chairman of the Judiciary Committee , was anxious to reach an understanding with the President . He ushered through Congress a bill extending the Freedmen 's Bureau beyond its scheduled abolition in 1867 , and the first Civil Rights Bill , to grant citizenship to the freedmen . Trumbull met several times with Johnson , and was convinced the President would sign the measures ( Johnson rarely contradicted visitors , often fooling those who met with him into thinking he was in accord ) . In fact , the President opposed both bills as infringements on state sovereignty . Additionally , both of Trumbull 's bills were unpopular among white Southerners , whom Johnson hoped to include in his new party . Johnson vetoed the Freedman 's Bureau bill on February 18 , 1866 , to the delight of white Southerners and the puzzled anger of Republican legislators . He considered himself vindicated when a move to override his veto failed in the Senate the following day . Johnson believed that the Radicals would now be isolated and defeated , and that the Moderate Republicans would form behind him ; he did not understand that Moderates too wanted to see African @-@ Americans treated fairly .
On February 22 , 1866 , Washington 's Birthday , Johnson gave an impromptu speech to supporters who had marched to the White House and called for an address in honor of the first president . In his hour @-@ long speech , he instead referred to himself over 200 times . More damagingly , he also spoke of " men ... still opposed to the Union " to whom he could not extend the hand of friendship he gave to the South . When called upon by the crowd to say who they were , Johnson named Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens , Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner , and abolitionist Wendell Phillips , and accused them of plotting his assassination . Republicans viewed the address as a declaration of war , while one Democratic ally estimated Johnson 's speech cost the party 200 @,@ 000 votes in the 1866 congressional midterm elections .
Although strongly urged by Moderates to sign the Civil Rights Bill , Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27 . In his veto message , he objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when 11 out of 36 states were unrepresented in the Congress , and that it discriminated in favor of African @-@ Americans and against whites . Within three weeks , Congress had overridden his veto , the first time that had been done on a major bill in American history . The veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , often seen as a key mistake of Johnson 's presidency , convinced Moderates there was no hope of working with him . Historian Eric Foner in his volume on Reconstruction views it as " the most disastrous miscalculation of his political career " . According to Stewart , the veto was " for many his defining blunder , setting a tone of perpetual confrontation with Congress that prevailed for the rest of his presidency " .
Congress also proposed the Fourteenth Amendment to the states . Written by Trumbull and others , it was sent for ratification by state legislatures in a process in which the president plays no part , though Johnson opposed it . The amendment was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution , but also went further . The amendment extended citizenship to every person born in the United States ( except Indians on reservations ) , penalized states that did not give the vote to freedmen , and most importantly , created new federal civil rights that could be protected by federal courts . It also guaranteed that the federal debt would be paid and forbade repayment of Confederate war debts . Further , it disqualified many former Confederates from office , although the disability could be removed — by Congress , not the president . Both houses passed the Freedmen 's Bureau Act a second time , and again the President vetoed it ; this time , the veto was overridden . By the summer of 1866 , when Congress finally adjourned , Johnson 's method of restoring states to the Union by executive fiat , without safeguards for the freedmen , was in deep trouble . His home state of Tennessee ratified the Fourteenth Amendment despite the President 's opposition . When Tennessee did so , Congress immediately seated its proposed delegation , embarrassing Johnson .
Efforts to compromise failed , and a political war ensued between the united Republicans on one side , and on the other , Johnson and his allies in the Democratic Party , North and South . He called a convention of the National Union Party . Republicans had returned to using their previous identifier ; Johnson intended to use the discarded name to unite his supporters and gain election to a full @-@ term , in 1868 . The battleground was the election of 1866 ; Southern states were not allowed to vote . Johnson campaigned vigorously , undertaking a public speaking tour , known as the " Swing Around the Circle " . The trip , including speeches in Chicago , St. Louis , Indianapolis and Columbus , proved politically disastrous , with the President making controversial comparisons between himself and Christ , and engaging in arguments with hecklers . These exchanges were attacked as beneath the dignity of the presidency . The Republicans won by a landslide , increasing their two @-@ thirds majority in Congress , and made plans to control Reconstruction . Johnson blamed the Democrats for giving only lukewarm support to the National Union movement .
= = = = Radical Reconstruction = = = =
Even with the Republican victory in November 1866 , Johnson considered himself in a strong position . The Fourteenth Amendment had been ratified by none of the Southern or border states except Tennessee , and had been rejected in Kentucky , Delaware , and Maryland . As the amendment required ratification by three @-@ quarters of the states to become part of the Constitution , he believed the deadlock would be broken in his favor , leading to his election in 1868 . Once it reconvened in December 1866 , an energized Congress began passing legislation , often over a presidential veto ; this included the District of Columbia voting bill . Congress admitted Nebraska to the Union over a veto , and the Republicans gained two senators , and a state that promptly ratified the amendment . Johnson 's veto of a bill for statehood for Colorado Territory was sustained ; enough senators agreed that a district with a population of 30 @,@ 000 was not yet worthy of statehood to win the day .
In January 1867 , Congressman Stevens introduced legislation to dissolve the Southern state governments and reconstitute them into five military districts , under martial law . The states would begin again by holding constitutional conventions . African @-@ Americans could vote for or become delegates ; former Confederates could not . In the legislative process , Congress added to the bill that restoration to the Union would follow the state 's ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment , and completion of the process of adding it to the Constitution . Johnson and the Southerners attempted a compromise , whereby the South would agree to a modified version of the amendment without the disqualification of former Confederates , and for limited black suffrage . The Republicans insisted on the full language of the amendment , and the deal fell through . Although Johnson could have pocket vetoed the First Reconstruction Act as it was presented to him less than ten days before the end of the Thirty @-@ Ninth Congress , he chose to veto it directly on March 2 , 1867 ; Congress overruled him the same day . Also on March 2 , Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act over the President 's veto , in response to statements during the Swing Around the Circle that he planned to fire Cabinet secretaries who did not agree with him . This bill , requiring Senate approval for the firing of Cabinet members during the tenure of the president who appointed them and for one month afterwards , was immediately controversial , with some senators doubting that it was constitutional or that its terms applied to Johnson , whose key Cabinet officers were Lincoln holdovers .
= = = Impeachment = = =
Secretary of War Edwin Stanton was an able and hard @-@ working man , but difficult to deal with . Johnson both admired and was exasperated by his War Secretary , who , in combination with General of the Army Grant , worked to undermine the president 's Southern policy from within his own administration . Johnson considered firing Stanton , but respected him for his wartime service as secretary . Stanton , for his part , feared allowing Johnson to appoint his successor and refused to resign , despite his public disagreements with his president .
The new Congress met for a few weeks in March 1867 , then adjourned , leaving the House Committee on the Judiciary behind , charged with reporting back to the full House whether there were grounds for Johnson to be impeached . This committee duly met , examining the President 's bank accounts , and summoning members of the Cabinet to testify . When a federal court released former Confederate president Davis on bail on May 13 ( he had been captured shortly after the war ) , the committee investigated whether the President had impeded the prosecution . It learned that Johnson was eager to have Davis tried . A bipartisan majority of the committee voted down impeachment charges ; the committee adjourned on June 3 .
Later in June , Johnson and Stanton battled over the question of whether the military officers placed in command of the South could override the civil authorities . The President had Attorney General Henry Stanbery issue an opinion backing his position that they could not . Johnson sought to pin down Stanton either as for , and thus endorsing Johnson 's position , or against , showing himself to be opposed to his president and the rest of the Cabinet . Stanton evaded the point in meetings and written communications . When Congress reconvened in July , it passed a Reconstruction Act against Johnson 's position , waited for his veto , overruled it , and went home . In addition to clarifying the powers of the generals , the legislation also deprived the President of control over the Army in the South . With Congress in recess until November , Johnson decided to fire Stanton and relieve one of the military commanders , General Philip Sheridan , who had dismissed the governor of Texas and installed a replacement with little popular support . He was initially deterred by a strong objection from Grant . On August 5 , the President demanded Stanton 's resignation ; the secretary refused to quit with Congress out of session . Johnson then suspended him pending the next meeting of Congress as permitted under the Tenure of Office Act ; Grant agreed to serve as temporary replacement while continuing to lead the Army .
Grant , under protest , followed Johnson 's order transferring Sheridan and another of the district commanders , Daniel Sickles , who had angered Johnson by firmly following Congress 's plan . The President also issued a proclamation pardoning most Confederates , exempting those who held office under the Confederacy , or who had served in federal office before the war and had breached their oaths . Although Republicans expressed anger with his actions , the 1867 elections generally went Democratic . No seats in Congress were directly elected in the polling , but the Democrats took control of the Ohio General Assembly , allowing them to defeat for re @-@ election one of Johnson 's strongest opponents , Senator Benjamin Wade . Voters in Ohio , Connecticut , and Minnesota turned down propositions to grant African @-@ Americans the vote . The adverse results momentarily put a stop to Republican calls to impeach Johnson , who was elated by the elections . Nevertheless , once Congress met in November , the Judiciary Committee reversed itself and passed a resolution of impeachment against Johnson . After much debate about whether anything the President had done was a high crime or misdemeanor , the standard under the Constitution , the resolution was defeated by the House of Representatives on December 7 , 1867 , by a vote of 57 in favor to 108 opposed .
Johnson notified Congress of Stanton 's suspension and Grant 's interim appointment . In January 1868 , the Senate disapproved of his action , and reinstated Stanton , contending the President had violated the Tenure of Office Act . Grant stepped aside over Johnson 's objection , causing a complete break between them . Johnson then dismissed Stanton and appointed Lorenzo Thomas to replace him . Stanton refused to leave his office , and on February 24 , 1868 , the House impeached the President for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act , by a vote of 128 to 47 . The House subsequently adopted eleven articles of impeachment , for the most part alleging that he had violated the Tenure of Office Act , and had questioned the legitimacy of Congress .
On March 5 , 1868 , the impeachment trial began in the Senate and lasted almost three months ; Congressmen George S. Boutwell , Benjamin Butler and Thaddeus Stevens acted as managers for the House , or prosecutors , and William M. Evarts , Benjamin R. Curtis and former Attorney General Stanbery were Johnson 's counsel ; Chief Justice Chase served as presiding judge . The defense relied on the provision of the Tenure of Office Act that made it applicable only to appointees of the current administration . Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton , the defense maintained Johnson had not violated the act , and also argued that the President had the right to test the constitutionality of an act of Congress . Johnson 's counsel insisted that he make no appearance at the trial , nor publicly comment about the proceedings , and except for a pair of interviews in April , he complied .
Johnson maneuvered to gain an acquittal ; for example , he pledged to Iowa Senator James W. Grimes that he would not interfere with Congress 's Reconstruction efforts . Grimes reported to a group of Moderates , many of whom voted for acquittal , that he believed the President would keep his word . Johnson also promised to install the respected John Schofield as War Secretary . Kansas Senator Edmund G. Ross received assurances that the new , Radical @-@ influenced constitutions ratified in South Carolina and Arkansas would be transmitted to the Congress without delay , an action which would give him and other senators political cover to vote for acquittal . One reason senators were reluctant to remove the President was that his successor would have been Ohio Senator Wade , the president pro tempore of the Senate . Wade , a lame duck who left office in early 1869 , was a Radical who supported such measures as women 's suffrage , placing him beyond the pale politically in much of the nation . Additionally , a President Wade was seen as an obstacle to Grant 's ambitions .
With the dealmaking , Johnson was confident of the result in advance of the verdict , and in the days leading up to the ballot , newspapers reported that Stevens and his Radicals had given up . On May 16 , the Senate voted on the 11th article of impeachment , accusing Johnson of firing Stanton in violation of the Tenure of Office of Act once the Senate had overturned his suspension . Thirty @-@ five senators voted " guilty " and 19 " not guilty " , thus falling short by a single vote of the two @-@ thirds majority required for conviction under the Constitution . Seven Republicans — Senators Grimes , Ross , Trumbull , William Pitt Fessenden , Joseph S. Fowler , John B. Henderson , and Peter G. Van Winkle — voted to acquit the President . With Stevens bitterly disappointed at the result , the Senate then adjourned for the Republican National Convention ; Grant was nominated for president . The Senate returned on May 26 and voted on the second and third articles , with identical 35 – 19 results . Faced with those results , Johnson 's opponents gave up and dismissed proceedings . Stanton " relinquished " his office on May 26 , and the Senate subsequently confirmed Schofield . When Johnson renominated Stanbery to return to his position as Attorney General after his service as a defense manager , the Senate refused to confirm him .
Allegations were made at the time and again later that bribery dictated the outcome of the trial . Even when it was in progress , Representative Butler began an investigation , held contentious hearings , and issued a report , unendorsed by any other congressman . Butler focused on a New York – based " Astor House Group " , supposedly led by political boss and editor Thurlow Weed . This organization was said to have raised large sums of money from whiskey interests through Cincinnati lawyer Charles Woolley to bribe senators to acquit Johnson . Butler went so far as to imprison Woolley in the Capitol building when he refused to answer questions , but failed to prove bribery .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Soon after taking office as president , Johnson reached an accord with Secretary of State William H. Seward that there would be no change in foreign policy . In practice , this meant that Seward would continue to run things as he had under Lincoln . Seward and Lincoln had been rivals for the nomination in 1860 ; the victor hoped that Seward would succeed him as president in 1869 . At the time of Johnson 's accession , the French had intervened in Mexico , sending troops there . While many politicians had indulged in saber @-@ rattling over the Mexican matter , Seward preferred quiet diplomacy , warning the French through diplomatic channels that their presence in Mexico was not acceptable . Although the President preferred a more aggressive approach , Seward persuaded him to follow his lead . In April 1866 , the French government informed Seward that its troops would be brought home in stages , to conclude by November 1867 .
Seward was an expansionist , and sought opportunities to gain territory for the United States . By 1867 , the Russian government saw its North American colony ( today Alaska ) as a financial liability , and feared losing control as American settlement reached there . It instructed its minister in Washington , Baron Eduard de Stoeckl , to negotiate a sale . De Stoeckl did so deftly , getting Seward to raise his offer from $ 5 million ( coincidentally , the minimum that Russia had instructed de Stoeckl to accept ) to $ 7 million , and then getting $ 200 @,@ 000 added by raising various objections . This sum of $ 7 @.@ 2 million is equivalent to $ 122 million in present @-@ day terms . On March 30 , 1867 , de Stoeckl and Seward signed the treaty , working quickly as the Senate was about to adjourn . Johnson and Seward took the signed document to the President 's Room in the Capitol , only to be told there was no time to deal with the matter before adjournment . The President summoned the Senate into session to meet on April 1 ; that body approved the treaty , 37 – 2 . Emboldened by his success in Alaska , Seward sought acquisitions elsewhere . His only success was staking an American claim to uninhabited Wake Island in the Pacific , which would be officially claimed by the U.S. in 1898 . He came close with the Danish West Indies as Denmark agreed to sell and the local population approved the transfer in a plebiscite , but the Senate never voted on the treaty and it expired .
Another treaty that fared badly was the Johnson @-@ Clarendon convention , negotiated in settlement of the Alabama Claims , for damages to American shipping from British @-@ built Confederate raiders . Negotiated by the United States Minister to Britain , former Maryland senator Reverdy Johnson , in late 1868 , it was ignored by the Senate during the remainder of the President 's term . The treaty was rejected after he left office , and the Grant administration later negotiated considerably better terms from Britain .
= = = Administration and Cabinet = = =
= = = = Judicial appointments = = = =
Johnson appointed nine Article III federal judges during his presidency , all to United States district courts ; he did not appoint a justice to serve on the Supreme Court . In April 1866 , he nominated Henry Stanbery to fill the vacancy left with the death of John Catron , but Congress eliminated the seat to prevent the appointment , and to ensure that he did not get to make any appointments eliminated the next vacancy as well , providing that the court would shrink by one justice when one next departed from office . Johnson appointed his Greeneville crony , Samuel Milligan , to the United States Court of Claims , where he served from 1868 until his death in 1874 .
= = = Reforms initiated = = =
In June 1866 , Johnson signed the Southern Homestead Act into law , believing that the legislation would assist poor whites . Around 28 @,@ 000 land claims were successfully patented , although few former slaves benefitted from the law , fraud was rampant , and much of the best land was off @-@ limits ; reserved for grants to veterans or railroads . In June 1868 , Johnson signed an eight @-@ hour law passed by Congress that established an eight @-@ hour workday for laborers and mechanics employed by the Federal Government . Although Johnson told members of a Workingmen ’ s party delegation in Baltimore that he could not directly commit himself to an eight @-@ hour day , he nevertheless told the same delegation that he greatly favoured the “ shortest number of hours consistent with the interests of all . ” According to Richard F. Selcer , however , the good intentions behind the law were “ immediately frustrated ” as wages were cut by 20 % .
= = = Completion of term = = =
Johnson sought nomination by the 1868 Democratic National Convention in New York in July 1868 . He remained very popular among Southern whites , and boosted that popularity by issuing , just before the convention , a pardon ending the possibility of criminal proceedings against any Confederate not already indicted , meaning that only Davis and a few others still might face trial . On the first ballot , Johnson was second to former Ohio representative George H. Pendleton , who had been his Democratic opponent for vice president in 1864 . Johnson 's support was mostly from the South , and fell away as the ballots passed . On the 22nd ballot , former New York governor Horatio Seymour was nominated , and the President received only four votes , all from Tennessee .
The conflict with Congress continued . Johnson sent Congress proposals for amendments to limit the president to a single six @-@ year term and make the president and the Senate directly elected , and for term limits for judges . Congress took no action on them . When the President was slow to officially report ratifications of the Fourteenth Amendment by the new Southern legislatures , Congress passed a bill , again over his veto , requiring him to do so within ten days of receipt . He still delayed as much as he could , but was required , in July 1868 , to report the ratifications making the amendment part of the Constitution .
Seymour 's operatives sought Johnson 's support , but he long remained silent on the presidential campaign . It was not until October , with the vote already having taken place in some states , that he mentioned Seymour at all , and he never endorsed him . Nevertheless , Johnson regretted Grant 's victory , in part because of their animus from the Stanton affair . In his annual message to Congress in December , Johnson urged the repeal of the Tenure of Office Act and told legislators that had they admitted their Southern colleagues in 1865 , all would have been well . He celebrated his 60th birthday in late December with a party for several hundred children , though not including those of President @-@ elect Grant , who did not allow his to go .
On Christmas Day 1868 , Johnson issued a final amnesty , this one covering everyone , including Davis . He also issued , in his final months in office , pardons for crimes , including one for Dr. Samuel Mudd , controversially convicted of involvement in the Lincoln assassination ( he had set Booth 's broken leg ) and imprisoned in Fort Jefferson on Florida 's Dry Tortugas .
On March 3 , the President hosted a large public reception at the White House on his final full day in office . Grant had made it known that he was unwilling to ride in the same carriage as Johnson , as was customary , and Johnson refused to go to the inauguration at all . Despite an effort by Seward to prompt a change of mind , he spent the morning of March 4 finishing last @-@ minute business , and then shortly after noon rode from the White House to the home of a friend .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
After leaving the presidency , Johnson remained for some weeks in Washington , then returned to Greeneville for the first time in eight years . He was honored with large public celebrations along the way , especially in Tennessee , where cities hostile to him during the war hung out welcome banners . He had arranged to purchase a large farm near Greeneville to live on after his presidency .
Some expected Johnson to seek to be Tennessee 's governor again or to attempt a return to the Senate , others that he would become a railroad executive . Johnson found Greeneville boring , and his private life was embittered by the suicide of his son Robert in 1869 . Seeking vindication for himself , and revenge against his political enemies , he launched a Senate bid soon after returning home . Tennessee had gone Republican , but court rulings restoring the vote to some whites and the violence of the Ku Klux Klan kept down the African @-@ American vote , leading to a Democratic victory in the legislative elections in August 1869 . Johnson was seen as a likely victor in the Senate election , although hated by Radical Republicans , and also by some Democrats because of his wartime activities . Although he was at one point within a single vote of victory in the legislature 's balloting , the Republicans eventually elected Henry Cooper over Johnson , 54 – 51 . In 1872 , there was a special election for an at @-@ large congressional seat for Tennessee ; Johnson initially sought the Democratic nomination , but when he saw that it would go to former Confederate general Benjamin F. Cheatham , decided to run as an independent . The former president was defeated , finishing third , but the split in the Democratic Party defeated Cheatham in favor of an old Johnson Unionist ally , Horace Maynard .
In 1873 Johnson contracted cholera during an epidemic but recovered ; that year he lost about $ 73 @,@ 000 , when the First National Bank of Washington went under , though he was eventually repaid much of the sum . He began looking towards the next Senate election , to take place in the legislature in early 1875 . Johnson began to woo the farmers ' Grange movement ; with his Jeffersonian leanings , he easily gained their support . He spoke throughout the state in his final campaign tour . Few African @-@ Americans outside the large towns were now able to vote as Reconstruction faded in Tennessee , setting a pattern that would be repeated in the other Southern states ; the white domination would last almost a century . In the Tennessee legislative elections in August , the Democrats elected 92 legislators to the Republicans ' eight , and Johnson went to Nashville for the legislative session . When the balloting for the Senate seat began on January 20 , 1875 , he led with 30 votes , but did not have the required majority as three former Confederate generals , one former colonel , and a former Democratic congressman split the vote with him . Johnson 's opponents tried to agree on a single candidate who might gain majority support and defeat him , but failed , and he was elected on January 26 on the 54th ballot , with a margin of a single vote . Nashville erupted in rejoicing ; remarked Johnson , " Thank God for the vindication . "
Johnson 's comeback garnered national attention , with the St. Louis Republican calling it , " the most magnificent personal triumph which the history of American politics can show " . At his swearing @-@ in in the Senate on March 5 , 1875 , he was greeted with flowers and sworn in with his predecessor as vice president , Hamlin , by that office 's current incumbent , Henry Wilson , who as senator had voted for his ousting . Many Republicans ignored Senator Johnson , though some , such as Ohio 's John Sherman ( who had voted for conviction ) , shook his hand . Johnson remains the only former president to serve in the Senate . He spoke only once in the short session , on March 22 lambasting President Grant for his use of federal troops in support of Louisiana 's Reconstruction government . The former president asked , " How far off is military despotism ? " and concluded his speech , " may God bless this people and God save the Constitution . "
Johnson returned home after the special session concluded . In late July , convinced some of his opponents were defaming him in the Ohio gubernatorial race , he decided to travel there to give speeches . He began the trip on July 28 , and broke the journey at his daughter Mary 's farm near Elizabethton , where his daughter Martha was also staying . That evening he suffered a stroke , but refused medical treatment until the next day , when he did not improve and two doctors were sent for from Elizabethton . He seemed to respond to their ministrations , but suffered another stroke on the evening of July 30 , and died early the following morning at the age of 66 . President Grant had the " painful duty " of announcing the death of the only surviving past president . Northern newspapers , in their obituaries , tended to focus on Johnson 's loyalty during the war , while Southern ones paid tribute to his actions as president . Johnson 's funeral was held on August 3 in Greeneville . He was buried with his body wrapped in an American flag and a copy of the U.S. Constitution placed under his head , according to his wishes . The burial ground was dedicated as the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery in 1906 , and with his home and tailor 's shop , is part of the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site .
= = Historical view and legacy = =
According to Castel , " historians [ of Johnson 's presidency ] have tended to concentrate to the exclusion of practically everything else upon his role in that titanic event [ Reconstruction ] " . Through the remainder of the 19th century , there were few historical evaluations of Johnson and his presidency . Memoirs from Northerners who had dealt with him , such as former vice president Henry Wilson and Maine Senator James G. Blaine , depicted him as an obstinate boor who tried to favor the South in Reconstruction , but who was frustrated by Congress . According to historian Howard K. Beale in his journal article about the historiography of Reconstruction , " Men of the postwar decades were more concerned with justifying their own position than they were with painstaking search for truth . Thus [ Alabama congressman and historian ] Hilary Herbert and his corroborators presented a Southern indictment of Northern policies , and Henry Wilson 's history was a brief for the North . "
The turn of the 20th century saw the first significant historical evaluations of Johnson . Leading the wave was Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian James Ford Rhodes , who wrote of the former president :
Johnson acted in accordance with his nature . He had intellectual force but it worked in a groove . Obstinate rather than firm it undoubtedly seemed to him that following counsel and making concessions were a display of weakness . At all events from his December message to the veto of the Civil Rights Bill he yielded not a jot to Congress . The moderate senators and representatives ( who constituted a majority of the Union party ) asked him for only a slight compromise ; their action was really an entreaty that he would unite with them to preserve Congress and the country from the policy of the radicals ... His quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy ... His pride of opinion , his desire to beat , blinded him to the real welfare of the South and of the whole country .
Rhodes ascribed Johnson 's faults to his personal weaknesses , and blamed him for the problems of the postbellum South . Other early 20th @-@ century historians , such as John Burgess , Woodrow Wilson ( who later became president himself ) and William Dunning , all Southerners , concurred with Rhodes , believing Johnson flawed and politically inept , but concluding that he had tried to carry out Lincoln 's plans for the South in good faith . Author and journalist Jay Tolson suggests that Wilson " depict [ ed Reconstruction ] as a vindictive program that hurt even repentant southerners while benefiting northern opportunists , the so @-@ called Carpetbaggers , and cynical white southerners , or Scalawags , who exploited alliances with blacks for political gain " .
Even as Rhodes and his school wrote , another group of historians was setting out on the full rehabilitation of Johnson , using for the first time primary sources such as his papers , provided by his daughter Martha before her death in 1901 , and the diaries of Johnson 's Navy Secretary , Gideon Welles , first published in 1911 . The resulting volumes , such as David Miller DeWitt 's The Impeachment and Trial of President Andrew Johnson ( 1903 ) , presented him far more favorably than they did those who had sought to oust him . In James Schouler 's 1913 History of the Reconstruction Period , the author accused Rhodes of being " quite unfair to Johnson " , though agreeing that the former president had created many of his own problems through inept political moves . These works had an effect ; although historians continued to view Johnson as having deep flaws which sabotaged his presidency , they saw his Reconstruction policies as fundamentally correct . A series of highly favorable biographies in the late 1920s and early 1930s that " glorified Johnson and condemned his enemies " accelerated this trend .
Beale wondered in 1940 , " is it not time that we studied the history of Reconstruction without first assuming , at least subconsciously , that carpetbaggers and Southern white Republicans were wicked , that Negroes were illiterate incompetents , and that the whole white South owes a debt of gratitude to the restorers of ' white supremacy ' ? " Despite these doubts , the favorable view of Johnson survived for a time . In 1942 , Van Heflin portrayed the former president as a fighter for democracy in the Hollywood film Tennessee Johnson . In 1948 , a poll of his colleagues by historian Arthur M. Schlesinger deemed Johnson among the average presidents ; in 1956 , one by Clinton L. Rossiter named him as one of the near @-@ great Chief Executives . Foner notes that at the time of these surveys , " the Reconstruction era that followed the Civil War was regarded as a time of corruption and misgovernment caused by granting black men the right to vote " .
Earlier historians , including Beale , believed that money drives events , and had seen Reconstruction as an economic struggle . They also accepted , for the most part , that reconciliation between North and South should have been the top priority of Reconstruction . In the 1950s , historians began to focus on the African @-@ American as central to Reconstruction . They rejected completely any claim of black inferiority , which had marked many earlier historical works , and saw the developing Civil Rights Era as a second Reconstruction ; some writers stated they hoped their work on the postbellum era would advance the cause of civil rights . These authors sympathized with the Radical Republicans for their desire to help the African @-@ American , and saw Johnson as callous towards the freedman . In a number of works from 1956 onwards by such historians as Fawn Brodie , the former president was depicted as a successful saboteur of efforts to better the freedman 's lot . These volumes included major biographies of Stevens and Stanton . Reconstruction was increasingly seen as a noble effort to integrate the freed slaves into society .
In the early 21st century , Johnson is among those commonly mentioned as the worst presidents in U.S. history . According to historian Glenn W. Lafantasie , who believes Buchanan the worst president , " Johnson is a particular favorite for the bottom of the pile because of his impeachment ... his complete mishandling of Reconstruction policy ... his bristling personality , and his enormous sense of self @-@ importance . " Tolson suggests that " Johnson is now scorned for having resisted Radical Republican policies aimed at securing the rights and well @-@ being of the newly emancipated African @-@ Americans " . Gordon @-@ Reed notes that Johnson , along with his contemporaries Pierce and Buchanan , are generally listed among the five worst presidents , but states , " there have never been more difficult times in the life of this nation . The problems these men had to confront were enormous . It would have taken a succession of Lincolns to do them justice . "
Trefousse considers Johnson 's legacy to be " the maintenance of white supremacy . His boost to Southern conservatives by undermining Reconstruction was his legacy to the nation , one that would trouble the country for generations to come . " Gordon @-@ Reed states of Johnson :
We know the results of Johnson 's failures — that his preternatural stubbornness , his mean and crude racism , his primitive and instrumental understanding of the Constitution stunted his capacity for enlightened and forward @-@ thinking leadership when those qualities were so desperately needed . At the same time , Johnson 's story has a miraculous quality to it : the poor boy who systematically rose to the heights , fell from grace , and then fought his way back to a position of honor in the country . For good or ill , ' only in America , ' as they say , could Johnson 's story unfold in the way that it did .
In 2002 , historian Castel took a stern view of Johnson 's presidency , saying Johnson " suffered from serious defects of mind and character . " According to Castel , Johnson " lacked flexibility and adroitness " and made hasty decisions without foresight . Castel said Johnson 's presidency failed because Johnson was a Democrat who led a government controlled by Northern Republicans . Since Johnson was not elected President , he lacked political and moral authority over Congress . Johnson never realized that the Civil War was a revolution and that federal power had superseded state rights . Additionally Johnson believed blacks were inferior to whites , a common view for most white Americans during his presidency . Although Johnson had gained the highest office " he proved incapable of using it in an effective and beneficial manner . "
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= M @-@ 136 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 136 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from Brockway to Fort Gratiot in the lower part of The Thumb of the Lower Peninsula . The highway serves as a connector between M @-@ 19 on the west and M @-@ 25 northwest of Port Huron . In between , the highway runs through rural St. Clair County through farm fields and along a creek and river . The trunkline uses roads that were part of the state highway system in 1919 . The M @-@ 136 designation was assigned in 1931 and extended to its current length in 1961 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 136 begins at a junction with M @-@ 19 just south of Brockway on the north side of Mill Creek . The highway heads eastward through farm fields on Metcalf Road for about two @-@ thirds mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) before bending to the southeast on Beard Road , parallel to the creek . The road then turns eastward on Avoca Road near Tackaberry Airport and heads toward Avoca . The trunkline continues in this direction through farm fields and the community of Avoca before turning southward on Glyshaw Road near the Black River . M @-@ 136 turns east , returning to Beard Road , and running through a wooded area to cross the river . From here , it continues through farm fields again on a generally east @-@ southeast track on N and Keewahdin roads as it heads towards Gardendale . The highway then branches southeastward on Pine Grove Avenue to connect with M @-@ 25 two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 and their international border crossing on the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 136 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 6 @,@ 070 vehicles used the highway daily on the eastern segment along Beard Road and 1 @,@ 894 vehicles did so each day near the western terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 136 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , the westernmost section of today 's M @-@ 136 was designated as part of M @-@ 19 . In 1927 , that section of highway was redesignated as M @-@ 13 and extended through Avoca . During 1929 , the trunkline was extended eastward to terminate at the contemporary M @-@ 51 near Gardendale .
M @-@ 136 was commissioned in 1931 to replace M @-@ 13 between what was M @-@ 19 and M @-@ 51 . The highway was fully paved in 1940 as the last section of gravel road was hard @-@ surfaced through Avoca that year . In 1961 , M @-@ 136 was extended further east to replace the section of M @-@ 51 between Gardendale and Fort Gratiot on present day Pine Grove Avenue .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in St. Clair County .
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= Itchy & Scratchy & Marge =
" Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 20 , 1990 . In the episode , which is a satire of censorship issues , Maggie attacks Homer with a mallet and Marge blames The Itchy & Scratchy Show for Maggie 's actions . It was written by John Swartzwelder and was the first episode to be directed by Jim Reardon . Alex Rocco makes his first of three guest appearances as Roger Meyers , Jr .
= = Plot = =
Homer clumsily attempts to build Marge a spice rack . While he is doing so , Maggie sneaks up behind Homer and hits him on the head with a mallet , similar to the famed stabbing scene in the movie Psycho . Marge is initially clueless as to what would motivate Maggie to do such a deed , but then notices that , when Maggie sees an episode of The Itchy & Scratchy Show , a cartoon which is known for its violence , she mimics its content . As a result , Marge immediately blames the makers of the show for Maggie 's actions and bans Bart and Lisa from watching the show , but the two still manage to watch Itchy & Scratchy at their friends ' houses . Marge writes a letter to the producers of the show asking them to tone down their violence , but in response , Roger Meyers , Jr . — the chairman of Itchy & Scratchy International — writes a letter to Marge , telling her one @-@ person can not make a difference and calls her a " screwball " . In response , Marge decides to " show what one screwball can do " .
Marge forms " Springfieldians for Nonviolence , Understanding , and Helping " ( SNUH as acronym ) , and forces the family to picket outside the Itchy & Scratchy Studios . Marge 's protest gains momentum and soon more people join the group and even start to picket The Krusty the Klown Show , on which Itchy & Scratchy is shown . Marge appears on Kent Brockman 's show , Smartline where she confronts Roger Meyers over the violence and suggests that concerned parents send letters to Meyers . Many angry letters are sent to the Studio and Roger Meyers concedes defeat , and agrees to eliminate violence in Itchy & Scratchy . Eventually , a new short in which Itchy & Scratchy sit on a porch drinking lemonade airs , but Bart , Lisa , and other kids across Springfield reject the cleaned @-@ up show . A lengthy montage follows , in which the children of Springfield go outside and engage in various wholesome activities and that night Bart and Lisa brag about their various outdoor activities while Marge listens happily .
Meanwhile , Michelangelo 's David goes on a coast @-@ to @-@ coast tour of the United States , and Springfield is one of its scheduled destinations . The members of SNUH try to urge Marge to protest the sculpture , insisting that it is offensive and unsuitable . However , Marge , being an artist herself , reveals that she believes that the sculpture is a masterpiece . While appearing on Smartline , Marge admits that it is wrong to censor one form of art but not another , and sadly concludes that while one person can make a difference , at the end of the day they probably should not . Freed from public protest , Itchy & Scratchy immediately returns to its old form and Springfield 's children abandon their wholesome activities and return to spending every day indoors watching the violent Itchy & Scratchy cartoons . Homer and Marge go to see David and Marge expresses her disappointment that the kids are at home watching " a cat and mouse disembowel each other " rather than seeing the sculpture . She cheers up when Homer tells her that the school will be forcing them to see the sculpture on a school trip .
= = Production = =
" Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " is an acclaimed episode which dealt with censorship issues and allowed the writers to have a lot of Itchy & Scratchy cartoons , which many fans had been clamoring for . The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , who loved Itchy & Scratchy and wrote several episodes that have them at the center . The episode was partially inspired by Terry Rakolta , who protested the Fox network over the show Married ... with Children . For the episode , which handles a large issue , the writers tried not to have a point of view and looked at both sides , despite what the writers personally felt . During the original airing of the episode , the Fox satellite blew out and the entire West coast of the United States missed the first act of the episode .
This was the first episode directed by Jim Reardon , who had previously made a student film called " Bring Me the Head of Charlie Brown " which was very violent and the experience served him well for this episode . There are several characters who work at I & S studios who are caricatures of real people : the cartoonist who draws the Marge / Squirrel is based on Eddie Fitzgerald , who worked at Filmation and the three people with Meyers when he is asking Marge for suggestions are caricatures of Rich Moore , David Silverman and Wes Archer .
Alex Rocco makes his first of three appearances as Roger Meyers . Many people behind The Simpsons were huge fans of The Godfather and Jim Reardon looked for a way to shoot him in the eye as a reference to Rocco 's character , Moe Greene .
The long montage of the Kids of Springfield playing was directed by Bob Anderson and is making a satirical point by saying the opposite of what the writers believed . The segment was written by John Swartzwelder and the idea of using Beethoven 's 6th Symphony was in the original script . James L. Brooks had wanted the episode to end with the montage , but the writers disagreed . Roger Meyers , Jr. makes his first appearance in this episode , as does Sideshow Mel , although he does not have any lines until the later episode " Black Widower " .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene where Maggie hits Homer over the head with a mallet is an extensive parody of the shower scene from Psycho , in which the music and camera angles are almost identical . The music heard while the children play outside is the first movement of Beethoven 's Pastoral Symphony , and is similar to a segment of the Disney film Fantasia .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " was watched by 22 @.@ 2 million viewers , finishing 34th in ratings for the week of December 17 – 23 , 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide praised the episode , stating that " Homer 's doomed attempt to build a spice rack is only the start of another great episode , which works as a superb debate about television violence and politically inspired censorship . " As well as noting that " the ending is especially poignant , as the pedagogues of Springfield swoop on Michelangelo 's David as an example of filth and degradation " . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club praised the episode for its satire . He wrote , " [ The episode ] contains one of my favorite sequences not just in The Simpsons but in television as a whole . In it , a censorship @-@ happy Marge has neutered Itchy & Scratchy to the point where the children of Springfield are moved to do the unthinkable : stop watching television . [ ... ] A dystopia instantly becomes a small @-@ town paradise , a happy realm of frolicking children and sunny innocence as kids wake up from a TV fog and embrace life 's rich pageantry . It ’ s a lovely , lyrical , even beautiful sequence even if it ’ s light on gags . It presents , then ruthlessly yanks back , an alternate universe Springfield ruled by dewy innocence rather than greed and mob mentality . " He also felt that the episode " got to make a relevant point in line with writer John Swartzwelder ’ s libertarianism without sacrificing the momentum of the episode or losing track of the characters and turning them into mere sounding boards for their creator ’ s beliefs . "
Empire named the Psycho parody as the second best film parody in the show . " The best throwaway gags blindside the unsuspecting viewer in episodes that are nominally about something else [ ... ] Hitchcock is ripped off more than any other director but this is the most lovingly rendered reference . " The Psycho parody was named the 22nd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
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= Northern bald ibis =
The northern bald ibis , hermit ibis , or waldrapp ( Geronticus eremita ) is a migratory bird found in barren , semi @-@ desert or rocky habitats , often close to running water . This 70 – 80 cm ( 28 – 31 in ) glossy black ibis , which , unlike other members of the ibis family , is non @-@ wading , has an unfeathered red face and head , and a long , curved red bill . It breeds colonially on coastal or mountain cliff ledges , where it typically lays two to three eggs in a stick nest , and feeds on lizards , insects , and other small animals .
The northern bald ibis was once widespread across the Middle East , northern Africa , southern and central Europe , with a fossil record dating back at least 1 @.@ 8 million years . It disappeared from Europe over 300 years ago , and is now considered critically endangered . There are believed to be about 500 wild birds remaining in southern Morocco , and fewer than 10 in Syria , where it was rediscovered in 2002 . To combat this ebb in numbers , recent reintroduction programs have been instituted internationally , with a semi @-@ wild breeding colony in Turkey , as well as sites in Austria , Spain , and northern Morocco .
The reasons for the species ' long @-@ term decline are unclear , but hunting , loss of foraging habitat , and pesticide poisoning have been implicated in the rapid loss of colonies in recent decades .
= = Taxonomy = =
The ibises are gregarious , long @-@ legged wading birds with long down @-@ curved bills . Along with the spoonbills they form one subfamily within the Threskiornithidae family . The northern bald ibis ' closest relative , and the only other member of the genus , is the southern bald ibis , G. calvus , of southern Africa . The two Geronticus species differ from other ibises in that they have unfeathered faces and heads , breed on cliffs rather than in trees , and prefer arid habitats to the wetlands used by their relatives .
The northern bald ibis was described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium in 1555 , and given the binomial name Upupa eremita by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 Systema Naturae . It was moved to its current genus by the German herpetologist Johann Georg Wagler in 1832 . This species has an interesting history of description , oblivion and rediscovery .
The species probably split into two distinct populations at least 400 years ago and , since then , the two populations have been diverging morphologically , ecologically , and genetically ; nevertheless , the Turkish and Moroccan populations of this ibis are not currently classed as separate subspecies . One consistent difference between the eastern and western birds is a single mutation in the cytochrome b gene of their mitochondrial DNA .
Fossils of the northern bald ibis have been found at a Holocene ( c . 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) site in southern France , in middle Pleistocene ( c . 900 @,@ 000 years ago ) strata in Sicily , and in Pliocene @-@ Pleistocene boundary ( c . 1 @.@ 8 million years ago ) deposits on the Mediterranean coast of Spain . What appears to be an ancestral form , Geronticus balcanicus , was found in the late Pliocene of Bulgaria , further illustrating the early widespread presence of this genus in Europe , and suggesting that Geronticus eremita may have originated in south @-@ eastern Europe or the Middle East .
The genus name , Geronticus , is derived from the Ancient Greek γέρων , meaning old man and refers to the bald head of the aged . Eremita is Late Latin for hermit , from the Greek ἐρημία , meaning desert , and refers to the arid habitats inhabited by this species . The alternative common name waldrapp is German for forest crow , the equivalent of the Latin Corvo sylvatico of Gesner , adapted as Corvus sylvaticus by Linnaeus .
= = Description = =
The northern bald ibis is a large , glossy black bird , 70 – 80 cm ( 28 – 31 in ) long with a 125 – 135 cm ( 49 – 53 in ) wingspan and an average weight of 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 kg ( 35 – 46 oz ) . The plumage is black , with bronze @-@ green and violet iridescence , and there is a wispy ruff on the bird 's hind neck . The face and head are dull red and unfeathered , and the long , curved bill and the legs are red . In flight , this bird has powerful , shallow , and flexible wing beats . It gives guttural hrump and high , hoarse hyoh calls at its breeding colonies , but is otherwise silent .
The sexes are similar in plumage , although males are generally larger than females , and , as with other ibises that breed in colonies , have longer bills . The longer @-@ billed males are more successful in attracting a mate . The downy chick has uniformly pale brown plumage , and the fledged juvenile resembles the adult except that it has a dark head , light grey legs , and a pale bill . The unfeathered areas of the young bird 's head and neck gradually become red as it matures . Moroccan birds have a significantly longer bill than Turkish birds of the same sex .
If the eastern and western populations are considered to be separable subspecies , it is unclear which should be considered to be the nominate ( first @-@ named ) form , since the first description of this species was based on a now @-@ extinct population from Switzerland which is of unknown race .
The northern bald ibis is readily distinguished from its close relative , the southern bald ibis of Southern Africa , by the southern species ' whitish face . The northern bald can also be confused with the similarly dark @-@ plumaged glossy ibis , which overlaps its range , but it is larger and stockier than that species . In flight , when the bill and face colouration may not be visible , the bald ibis ' less rounded wings and shorter neck give it a different profile from glossy ibis , and its relatively short legs mean that its feet do not project beyond the tail , unlike those of the glossy ibis .
= = Habitat and range = =
Unlike other ibises , which nest in trees and feed in wetlands , the northern bald ibis breeds on undisturbed cliff ledges , and forages for food in irregularly cultivated , grazed dry areas such as semi @-@ arid steppes , and fallow fields . The close proximity of adequate steppe feeding areas to breeding cliffs is an important habitat requirement .
The northern bald ibis was once widespread across the Middle East , northern Africa , and southern and central Europe ; it bred along the Danube and Rhone Rivers , and in the mountains of Spain , Italy , Germany , Austria and Switzerland ( Gesner 's original description was of a Swiss bird ) , and most probably also in the Upper Adriatic region . It used castle battlements as well as cliff ledges for nesting before vanishing from Europe at least three centuries ago . It is also extinct over most of its former range , and now almost the entirety of the wild breeding population of just over 500 birds is in Morocco , at Souss @-@ Massa National Park , where there are three documented colonies , and near the mouth of the Oued Tamri ( north of Agadir ) , where there is a single colony containing almost half the Moroccan breeding population . There is some movement of birds between these two sites .
Religious traditions helped this species to survive in one Turkish colony long after the species had disappeared from Europe , since it was believed that the ibis migrated each year to guide Hajj pilgrims to Mecca . The ibis was protected by its religious significance , and a festival was held annually to celebrate its return north . The Turkish ibis population was centred near the small town of Birecik in the south @-@ east of the country , and during the first half of the 20th century , the Birecik colony maintained a relatively stable population of about 500 breeding pairs , reaching an estimated total population of about 3 @,@ 000 around 1930 . By the 1970s , numbers had drastically declined and a captive breeding program was initiated in 1977 with one adult pair and nine chicks taken from the wild . This program largely failed to revert the decline ; there were 400 birds in 1982 , five pairs in 1986 , and seven pairs in 1987 . Only three birds returned from their wintering grounds in 1989 , and just one in 1990 . The returning birds died before they could reproduce , thus rendering the species extinct in the wild in Turkey as of 1992 . Once the wild Turkish population became non @-@ viable , the colony was maintained as a flock which was free @-@ flying for most of the year but caged in autumn to prevent migration .
After the demise of the migratory Turkish colony , the northern bald ibis was known to survive in the wild only at the Moroccan sites , although occasional sightings of birds in Yemen , Eritrea , Saudi Arabia , and Israel during the 1980s and 1990s suggested that there was still a colony somewhere in the Middle East . Intensive field surveys in spring 2002 , based on the knowledge of Bedouin nomads and local hunters , revealed that the species had never become completely extinct on the Syrian desert steppes . Following systematic searches , 15 old nesting sites were found , one , near Palmyra , was still hosting an active breeding colony of seven individuals . Although the ibis had been declared extinct in Syria more than 70 years earlier , the bird appears to have been relatively common in the desert areas until 20 years ago , when a combination of overexploitation of its range lands and increasing hunting pressures initiated a dramatic decline .
The Moroccan breeding birds are resident , dispersing along the coast after the nesting season . It has been suggested that coastal fog provides extra moisture for this population , and enables the ibises to remain year @-@ round . In the rest of its former range , away from the Moroccan coastal locations , the northern bald ibis migrated south for the winter , and formerly occurred as a vagrant to Spain , Iraq , Egypt , the Azores , and Cape Verde .
Satellite tagging of 13 Syrian birds in 2006 showed that the three adults in the group , plus a fourth untagged adult , wintered together from February to July in the highlands of Ethiopia , where the species had not been recorded for nearly 30 years . They travelled south on the eastern side of the Red Sea via Saudi Arabia and Yemen , and returned north through Sudan and Eritrea .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The northern bald ibis breeds in loosely spaced colonies , nesting on cliff ledges or amongst boulders on steep slopes , usually on the coast or near a river . Volunteer climbers have created extra ledge spaces in the Souss @-@ Massa colonies to ensure that breeding population is not limited by the availability of nest ledges , and artificial nest boxes are used in the managed colony at Birecik . In the past , the birds also nested in buildings .
This ibis starts breeding at three to five years of age , and pairs for life . The male chooses a nest site , cleans it , and then advertises for a female by waving his crest and giving low rumbling calls . Once the birds have paired , the bond is reinforced through bowing displays and mutual preening . The nest is a loose construction of twigs lined with grass or straw . G. eremita normally lays two to four rough @-@ surfaced eggs , which weigh an average of 50 @.@ 16 g ( 1 @.@ 769 oz ) , and are initially blue @-@ white with brown spots , becoming brown during incubation . An egg in the collection of the British Museum was marked more thickly at the broad end , with " spots and very small blotches of yellowish brown and pale rufous " . It was 0 @.@ 93 in long and 0 @.@ 68 in wide ( 2 @.@ 37 × 1 @.@ 73 cm ) . The clutch is incubated for 24 – 25 days to hatching , the chicks fledge in another 40 – 50 days , and the first flight takes place at about two months . Both parents incubate and feed the chicks .
The northern bald ibis lives for an average of 20 to 25 years in captivity ( oldest recorded male 37 years , oldest recorded female 30 years ) . The average age in the wild has been estimated as 10 to 15 years .
= = = Feeding = = =
This gregarious species commutes in flocks from the cliff breeding sites or winter roosts to its feeding areas , flying in a V formation . The flocks may contain up to 100 birds in winter . During the breeding season , the ibises regularly forage up to 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the colony , and , although steppe not in current cultivation is preferred for feeding , they will also use fallow ground , and occasionally even actively cultivated fields .
The northern bald ibis consumes a very wide variety of mainly animal food ; faecal analysis of the Moroccan breeding population has shown that lizards and tenebrionid beetles predominate in the diet , although small mammals , ground @-@ nesting birds , and invertebrates such as snails , scorpions , spiders , and caterpillars are also taken . Males will sometimes " scrounge " food from females . As the flock moves across the ground , the ibis uses its long bill to feel for food items in the loose , sandy soil . Since this bird hunts mainly by probing , a soft surface seems to be vital , and it is important that any vegetation is sparse , and not more than 15 – 20 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) high .
= = Conservation status = =
Although the northern bald ibis was long extinct in Europe , many colonies in Morocco and Algeria survived until the early 20th century , when they began to decline more rapidly , the last colony in Algeria disappearing in the late 1980s . In Morocco there were about 38 colonies in 1940 and 15 in 1975 , but the last migratory populations in the Atlas Mountains had vanished by 1989 . The species is now officially critically endangered according to the IUCN scale , with an estimated population in 2008 of around 500 in the wild and over 1 @,@ 000 in captivity . The northern bald ibis is one of the key species to which the draft Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies , and it has a detailed , internationally agreed conservation action plan under the agreement . As a species that is threatened with extinction , it is listed on Appendix 1 of CITES ( the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ) , which means that trade in wild @-@ caught birds is illegal , and may be licensed only in exceptional circumstances .
The northern bald ibis has declined for several centuries , at least partly as a consequence of unidentified natural causes . The more rapid decline in the past hundred years , with a loss of 98 % of the population between 1900 and 2002 , is the result of a combination of factors . These include significant human persecution , especially hunting , and also the loss of steppe and non @-@ intensive agricultural areas ( particularly in Morocco ) , pesticide poisoning , disturbance , and dam construction . The discovery in Jordan of three dead adults from the Turkish colony confirmed that the overuse of pesticides is still a cause of death on migration . These birds were tracked by satellite after leaving Birecik ; they stopped off briefly at the Syrian colony , and were later found dead in the Jordanian desert . Although the cause of death was initially thought to have been from poison , probably laid by chicken farmers to kill rodents , the autopsy revealed that they had actually been electrocuted whilst standing on electricity pylons
= = = Wild populations = = =
= = = = Morocco = = = =
Monitoring of Moroccan wild population is guaranteed by BirdLife International partners , especially by RSPB , SEO / BirdLife and , recently GREPOM in cooperation with Souss @-@ Massa National Park administration and the support of institutions like Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation which is the Species Champion for Northern Bald Ibis . For the first time in the species ' recorded history , there is now evidence of population growth in the wild , and the population in Morocco increased to 100 breeding pairs in the decade prior to 2008 and reached a record of 113 breeding pairs in 2013 . Simple site and species protection has facilitated this growth . Quantitative assessments of the importance of sites for breeding , roosting , and foraging have guided actions to prevent disturbance and the loss of key areas to mass tourism development . Wardening by members of the local community has reduced human intrusion and increased the perceived value of the birds . The provision of drinking water and the removal and deterrence of predators and competitors enhances breeding prospects , and monitoring has confirmed that steppe and two @-@ year fallows are key feeding habitats .
Maintaining such non @-@ intensive land uses in the future may present major management challenges , and the recovery in the Souss @-@ Massa region remains precarious because the population is concentrated in just a few places . However , it could provide opportunities for natural extension of the range to formerly occupied sites further north in Morocco .
The main cause of breeding failure at the Souss @-@ Massa National Park is the loss of eggs to predators , especially the common raven which nest monitoring has shown to have had a serious impact at one sub @-@ colony . The effects of predators on adult birds have not been studied , but the very similar southern bald ibis , Geronticus calvus , is hunted by large raptors , particularly those that share its breeding cliffs . There is evidence of chick starvation in some years , but the main threats to breeding birds are human disturbance and the loss of feeding habitat . There was a dramatic mortality incident at the Moroccan colonies in May 1996 , when 40 adults died or disappeared over a period of nine days . Although analyses have not identified the cause , an obscure virus , a toxin , or botulism are thought to be the most likely causes of the deaths .
= = = = Syria = = = =
The Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform has now put protection measures in place to protect the tiny breeding population in that country , and Yemen and Ethiopia , which provide migration stop @-@ offs and wintering areas , have a good record for conservation . However , young birds do not winter nor return with the adults and their wintering grounds are still unknown . Although the wild Syrian population is very small , the discovery that semi @-@ wild Turkish birds on a migration trial visited the Palmyra colony has led to hopes that some migrants may join the Syrian breeding population and boost the numbers in that country .
An intensive community @-@ based protection program in Palmyra under an FAO / Italian cooperation project during 2002 – 2004 recorded an average breeding performance that was higher than in Turkey and in Morocco . From 2005 to 2010 the protection program , under BirdLife Middle East management , had a much lower effort and lack of constant external scientific and technical assistance to local authorities . This resulted in a very variable breeding performance ; two fatal and predictable breeding failures occurred in 2005 and 2008 . During 2004 – 2007 , due to prior high breeding performance , four subadults returned to the colony and three recruited successfully , compensating the natural mortality of adults . The unsustainably high mortality of young ibises outside the breeding grounds ( an estimated 85 % ) and the breeding failures in 2009 and 2010 ( due to unknown causes ) meant that the colony reached its lowest size ever in 2010 , only one pair , and three adults . In summer 2012 , amidst the ongoing Syrian civil war , only one pair returned to the site and did not breed . Four adults had been observed in January 2013 at their wintering grounds in Ethiopia , but none of these birds returned to the breeding grounds by summer , and all of their tracking devices stopped working . A lone adult was sighted in Palmyra that summer . Extinction at this point seems unavoidable .
= = = Turkey = = =
With the loss of the genuinely wild Turkish population , the Ministry of Environment and Forestry 's Directorate of Natural Preservation and National Parks established a new semi @-@ wild colony at Birecik . This was heavily managed , with birds taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent migration . The program was successful , with numbers at 205 as of March 2016 . The intent is to allow the birds to migrate once the population reaches a stable 100 pairs , excluding young .
The birds are released in late January or early February to breed outside the cages on ledges and , mainly , in the nest boxes in the breeding station compound . The ibises are free flying and forage around the Birecik area in forest nurseries , agricultural fields , and along the Euphrates , but supplementary food is also provided . Following the end of the breeding season , the birds are taken into cages in late July or early August to prevent migration . A trial migration using tagged birds confirmed the risks presented to travelling birds by pesticides . Later on the Syrian Civil War added one more reason to keep preventing migration .
= = = Reintroductions = = =
The guidelines for the conservation and reintroduction of the northern bald ibis were established in 2003 at an International Advisory Group for Northern Bald Ibis ( IAGNBI ) conference in Innsbruck at the Alpenzoo , which maintains the European studbook for the northern bald ibis .
Decisions taken at the meeting included :
There should be no augmenting of the wild populations at Souss @-@ Massa or in Palmyra using zoo @-@ bred ibises .
There are two distinctive populations of northern bald ibis , and the separate ranges of the eastern and western forms should be respected .
In order to prepare birds for release , groups of chicks should be hand @-@ reared by human " parents " .
Migration routes and stop @-@ over points will have to be taught to young birds , since it is unlikely that they will discover this information by themselves .
A second conference in Spain in 2006 stressed the need to survey potential and former sites in north @-@ west Africa and the Middle East for currently undetected colonies . The need to raise the standards of hygiene and husbandry in the Birecik aviaries was reiterated , and the prevalence of skin problems in a number of zoos reinforced the view that no zoo birds should be used for any free @-@ flying trials . In future captive breeding and releasing programmes , only birds of known origin should be used .
= = = = Zoo populations = = = =
There are 850 northern bald ibises in European zoos and a further 250 in captivity in Japan and North America . The 49 European zoos keeping this species produce 80 to 100 young birds per year , and earlier attempts at releasing captive @-@ bred birds included close to 150 birds between 1976 and 1986 from an aviary at Birecik , 75 from Tel Aviv Zoo in 1983 , and an unspecified number from a project in Almería , Spain , from 1991 to 1994 ; all these attempts were unsuccessful . All northern bald ibises in zoos , other than those in Turkey , are of the western population , and were imported from Morocco . Three bloodlines exist ; the earliest relates to importations to Zoo Basel , Switzerland in the 1950s and 1960s , the next is the descendants of birds taken in the 1970s to stock Rabat Zoo , and the last captured wild birds were those taken to the Naturzoo , Rheine , in 1976 and 1978 . Captive birds have a high incidence of skin problems , and 40 % of those birds that had to be put down suffered from chronic ulcerative dermatitis , characterised by feather loss , rawness , and ulceration on the back , neck , and the undersides of the wings . The cause of this disease is unknown . Other major disease problems reported in zoo collections have been avian tuberculosis , gastric foreign bodies , bone disease , and heart problems . An outbreak of West Nile virus in Bronx Park , New York , involved northern bald ibises amongst many other species of birds and mammals .
= = = = Europe = = = =
In 1504 , a decree by Archbishop Leonhard of Salzburg made the northern bald ibis one of the world 's earliest officially protected species . Despite the decree , it died out in Austria as elsewhere in Europe . There are now two ibis reintroduction projects in the country , at Grünau and Waldrapp . A research station at Grünau has a breeding colony managed , like the Turkish population , as a free @-@ flying flock which is caged at migration time . The aim here is to investigate flock interactions and hormonal status , behavioural and ecological aspects of natural foraging , and the establishment of traditions via social learning .
The Scharnstein Project is an attempt to establish a migratory waldrapp colony by using ultralight planes to teach a migration route . The scheme builds on the Grünau research by developing a method to control and guide the autumn migration of a founder population , which then can pass this migration tradition to subsequent generations . In May 2002 , 11 birds from the Vienna Zoo and the Grünau colony were trained to follow two microlight planes , and in 2003 , a first attempt was made to lead a group of birds from Scharnstein to southern Tuscany . Due to adverse weather and technical problems , the birds had to be transported by road over a considerable part of the distance . The subsequent releases were more successful , with birds wintering in Tuscany , and , from 2005 , returning to northern Austria . In 2008 , a female ibis named Aurelia flew 930 km ( 580 mi ) back to Austria for her fourth return to the breeding site . The hazards of the journey are shown by the loss of her two offspring and her mate while on the southern journey in the autumn of 2007 .
Proyecto Eremita is a Spanish reintroduction involving the release of nearly 30 birds in the Ministry of Defence training ground in La Janda district , Barbate , Cádiz Province . It had its first success in 2008 , when a pair laid two eggs . This is probably the first attempt to breed in the wild in Spain for 500 years as the last definite reference to the northern bald ibis breeding in Spain is from a 15th @-@ century falconry book . This effort has been undertaken by the Andalusian government 's Environmental Ministry , the Spanish Ministry of Defence , and the Zoobotánico de Jeréz ( Jerez Zoo and Botanical Gardens ) , with the assistance of the Doñana Biological Station , CSIC and volunteers from the Cádiz Natural History Society . Previously , two birds left the area in 2005 and 14 in 2006 , but nothing is known of their whereabouts other than that a ringed bird from Spain was seen in the Middle Atlas , Morocco in 2005 . Internet pictures of this species taken near Armacao da Pera , Algarve , Portugal in 2009 and later , may be related to those releases in Spain . In the interim , the Spanish colony has been growing very well , from 9 breeding pairs in 2011 , 10 in 2012 and 15 in 2013 to 23 breeding pairs in 2014 , which successfully raised 25 chicks in 2014 ( Quercus 349 ( 2015 ) : 14 @-@ 23 ) . In 2014 the total population of this colony was 78 wild birds split into two colonies , originally along the cliffs of the Atlantic coast and in 2012 with a second colony of 5 @-@ 6 breeding pairs that started at the cliffs 10 km inland next to a country road at La Barca de Vejer ( Vejer de la Frontera ) .
= = = = Northern Morocco = = = =
There is a planned reintroduction of the ibis at Ain Tijja @-@ Mezguitem in the north @-@ east of Morocco . Since the wild populations further south remain vulnerable , and the porous sandstone of their breeding ledges is exposed to erosion , the intention is to establish a non @-@ migratory population ( stocked from German , Swiss , and Austrian zoos ) in an area where this species was known to have bred up to about 1980 . The station in the Rif mountains was built in 2000 , and stocked with the first group of zoo @-@ bred birds . A second importation of zoo @-@ bred birds and the construction of an information centre took place in 2004 . Six pairs bred in 2006 subsequent to a change in the birds ' diet , and six offspring from five nests were successfully reared . In 2007 there were 19 birds ( 13 adults and six juveniles ) in the aviary .
The rock walls of the mountains have many potential breeding ledges , and an artificial lake provides water to the birds and to the local human population . Steppe pasture which is not exposed to herbicides or pesticides gives good foraging . Once the population reaches around 40 birds , a release will be initiated , subject to international agreement . The reintroduction site is 760 km ( 470 mi ) from Agadir on the other side of the Atlas Mountains , so accidental contamination of the wild colonies is unlikely .
= = In culture = =
According to local legend in the Birecik area , the northern bald ibis was one of the first birds that Noah released from the Ark as a symbol of fertility , and a lingering religious sentiment in Turkey helped the colonies there to survive long after the demise of the species in Europe , as described above .
This ibis was revered as a holy bird and a symbol of brilliance and splendour in Ancient Egypt , where , together with the sacred ibis , it was regarded as a reincarnation of Thoth , scribe of the gods , who was usually depicted with a man 's body and the head of an ibis . The Old Egyptian word akh , " to be resplendent , to shine " , was denoted in hieroglyphs by a bald ibis , presumably as a reference to its glossy plumage . In a more abstract sense , akh stood for excellence , glory , honour , and virtue . It has also been used to signify the soul or spirit , one of five elements constituting personality .
Herodotus wrote of the man @-@ eating Stymphalian birds , which had wings of brass and sharp metallic feathers they could fire at their victims . Ridding Lake Stymphalia in Arcadia of these creatures was one of the twelve labours of Heracles . These mythical birds are sometimes considered to be based on the northern bald ibis , but since they were described as marsh birds , and usually depicted without crests , the legendary species is more likely to be derived from the sacred ibis . Some depictions , such as the 6th @-@ century BC Athenian black @-@ figure amphora in the British Museum , clearly show the black head and white body of the latter species . After the bald ibis became extinct in Central Europe , some later writers thought that Gesner 's description was itself one of several in his book depicting mythical creatures .
The bird painted in 1490 in one of the Gothic frescoes in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje ( now south @-@ western Slovenia ) in the Karst by John of Kastav was most probably the northern bald ibis . It is believed that it had also been depicted at other places in Istria and Dalmatia , where it was presumably endemic in the Middle Ages , e.g. in the local church in Gradišče pri Divači and in the coat of arms of the noble family Elio from Koper . The portal of Lukovec Castle in Lukovica pri Brezovici ( central Slovenia ) also features this species .
Several countries have produced postage stamps which depict the northern bald ibis . They include Algeria , Morocco , Sudan , Syria , Turkey , and Yemen , which are breeding or migration locations ; Austria , which is seeking to reintroduce the bird ; and Jersey , which has a small captive population .
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= Jacob L. Devers =
Jacob Loucks Devers ( / ˈdɛvərz / ; 8 September 1887 – 15 October 1979 ) was a general in the United States Army who commanded the 6th Army Group in the European Theater during World War II . He was involved in the development and adoption of numerous weapons , including the M4 Sherman and M26 Pershing tanks , the DUKW amphibious truck , the Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux helicopter and the M16 rifle .
A graduate of the U.S. Military Academy , Devers was commissioned in the field artillery in 1909 . During World War I , he was an instructor at the School of Fire at Fort Sill , Oklahoma , and did not serve in France until after the November 11 armistice ended the fighting , when he attended the French artillery school at Treves . Between the two world wars he was a staunch advocate of mechanization at a time when the idea of phasing out horses met strong resistance from conservative gunners .
When World War II broke out in Europe , Devers was stationed in Panama . He was promoted to major general in October 1940 and took command of the newly formed 9th Infantry Division at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , a base whose construction he oversaw . Appointed Chief of the Armored Force in August 1941 , he supervised its expansion from four armored divisions to sixteen . He was an articulate proponent of the emerging tactical doctrine of combined arms , and rejected the American doctrine that held that tanks were for exploitation , not for fighting other tanks . He pressed American industry to produce more powerful engines , and , often against the views of his superiors , pushed the development of the M4 Sherman , a medium tank with a 75mm gun . Not satisfied with the Sherman , he called for still more heavily armed and armored tanks . He wanted 250 of the new M26 Pershing tanks for Operation Overlord , but was overruled .
In May 1943 , Devers became European Theater of Operations , United States Army ( ETOUSA ) commander . His principal tasks were overseeing preparation of detailed plans and the buildup of men and materiel for Overlord , and supporting the Combined Bomber Offensive . He clashed with General Dwight D. Eisenhower over the diversion of ETOUSA resources to Eisenhower 's North African Theater of Operations . Eisenhower succeeded him at ETOUSA in January 1944 , and Devers went to the Mediterranean as Commander North African Theater of Operations , United States Army ( NATOUSA ) , and Deputy Supreme Allied Commander , Mediterranean Theater , to British General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson . Devers was involved in the organization , planning and leadership of Operation Dragoon , the invasion of southern France in August 1944 . He led the 6th Army Group in France and Germany through the advance to the Rhine , the German counterattack in Operation Northwind , the operations to reduce the Colmar Pocket and the Western Allied invasion of Germany . After the war he commanded the Army Ground Forces .
= = Early life and education = =
Jacob Loucks Devers was born on 8 September 1887 , in York , Pennsylvania , a small industrial town in the southeastern corner of the state . His parents were Philip Devers , a watchmaker and partner in a jewellery store , and Ella Kate Loucks Devers , a homemaker . He was the first of the couple 's four children . He had two younger brothers , Frank and Phillip , and a younger sister , Catherine , known as Kitts . The Devers , of Irish and German @-@ Alsatian ancestry , were strict , hardworking and religious . The family belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran Church , which did not believe in smoking or drinking . While providing a comfortable middle @-@ class life for their children , the couple taught them to value dependability , integrity and industriousness .
Growing up in the heart of Pennsylvania Dutch country , young Jamie Devers ( as he was called by his family ) enjoyed the outdoors : camping , fishing and hunting . He played all the usual boyhood sports and made friends easily with his engaging smile and cheerful personality . In addition to his household chores , he did odd jobs around the neighborhood and worked on his maternal grandfather Jacob Loucks ' farm . Initially , he was educated at Garfield Elementary School in York . He entered York High School in September 1901 . A popular student , he was elected Class President . He had an excellent academic record , earning high marks in mathematics and science . Always competitive though slightly built , the 120 @-@ pound ( 54 kg ) 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) Devers captained the basketball team , played defensive quarterback in football and starred in baseball .
Devers graduated from York High School in May 1905 . He applied to , and was accepted by , Lehigh University , with the intention of studying engineering , but then Congressman Daniel F. Lafean offered him an appointment to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point , New York . He entered the Academy in June with the class of 1909 . Among his classmates were George S. Patton , William Hood Simpson , and Robert L. Eichelberger , who would also become four @-@ star generals in World War II , and John C. H. Lee , who would become a three @-@ star general . He did well in his studies , and excelled in sports , playing shortstop on the Army baseball team and guard on the Army Black Knights ' basketball squad . He also played polo . He graduated from West Point on 11 June 1909 , ranking 39th in his class of 103 , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in his chosen branch : the field artillery . There were only nine positions available , but enough of the higher @-@ ranking cadets chose other branches for Devers to secure his first preference .
= = World War I = =
Devers ' first posting was to the 1st Battalion , 4th Mountain Artillery , based at Vancouver Barracks in Washington state . This was a pack artillery unit , meaning that its howitzers , ammunition and equipment were all carried by mules . It was equipped with the obsolescent QF 2 @.@ 95 @-@ inch mountain gun . Three months after Devers joined , the unit moved to Fort David A. Russell , Wyoming , where it rejoined the 2nd Battalion , returning from the Philippines . The post also hosted the 11th Infantry and the African @-@ American 9th Cavalry . Devers was assigned to Battery C. Soon afterwards , First Lieutenant Leslie J. McNair became the battery commander . On 11 October 1911 , Devers married Georgie Hayes Lyon of Arlington , Virginia , visiting niece of Major LeRoy S. Lyon , his battalion commander , in a ceremony at her parents ' home in Arlington , Virginia .
For his next assignment in December , 1912 , Devers was sent back to West Point to teach mathematics . He also managed the baseball program and coached the Cadet basketball team . His ballplayers included Dwight D. Eisenhower and Omar N. Bradley . On 1 April 1916 , he was promoted to first lieutenant . That August he was transferred to the newly activated 9th Field Artillery at Schofield Barracks , in what was then the Territory of Hawaii . His only child , daughter Frances Lyon , was born there on 20 July 1917 . The 9th Field Artillery had a battalion of 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns and one of 155mm guns . Medium artillery was new in the United States Army , and the 9th was its first artillery tractor @-@ drawn regiment . Devers was given command of Battery F.
The United States entered World War I against Germany on 6 April 1917 . Devers was promoted to captain on May 15 , and major on August 5 , but he did not see action . He was posted to the School of Fire at Fort Sill , Oklahoma , on December 10 as an instructor . He received promotions to lieutenant colonel on 30 July 1918 , and colonel on 24 October 1918 . He became Executive Officer of the 9th Field Artillery Regiment , his former unit from Hawaii now at Fort Sill , on 15 October 1918 . In September he was nominated to command the 60th Field Artillery , which was under orders to move to the Western Front in France , but never took up the post . The armistice of 11 November 1918 ended the fighting , and the orders were cancelled . A disappointed Devers instead became commanding officer of the 1st Field Artillery at Fort Sill on 5 March 1919 . In May 1919 , Devers was sent on a three @-@ month temporary duty assignment to Europe with the American Army of Occupation . He attended the French artillery school at Treves to study guns , ammunition , equipment and tactics used by the Allies and the Germans during the war .
= = Between the wars = =
Returning to the United States , Devers began a second tour of duty at West Point , serving as Senior Field Artillery Instructor and Commander , Field Artillery Detachment . He reverted from colonel to his substantive rank of captain on taking up the appointment on 20 August 1919 . He was promoted to major again on 1 July 1920 . At the time , the superintendent was Brigadier General Douglas MacArthur . MacArthur fought an uphill and unpopular battle to bring the curriculum up to date , and Devers defended MacArthur and his methods , but his own department was unaffected .
After five years at West Point , Devers was selected to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . He began his studies there on 3 September 1924 , and finished as a Distinguished Graduate on 28 June 1925 . He was ranked 42nd in the class of 258 , which was topped by Dwight Eisenhower . He was then posted once again to Fort Sill , this time as the director the Field Artillery School 's Gunnery Department until 31 August 1929 . Among the officers he worked with was Captain Edward H. Brooks . During his tour , Devers was credited with making a number of innovative artillery tactical and technical improvements , including advanced fire @-@ support techniques that would later be successfully used during World War II . He remained a staunch advocate of mechanization throughout the inter @-@ war period . The idea of phasing out horses met strong resistance from conservative gunners .
In September 1929 , Devers was ordered to Washington , D.C. , to serve on the staff of the Chief of Field Artillery . Chosen to attend the Army War College in Washington , he began his studies there on 15 August 1932 , and graduated on 29 June 1933 . This was followed by a one @-@ year assignment to Fort Hoyle , Maryland , as executive officer of the 1st Field Artillery Brigade , and then as commander of the 2nd Battalion , 6th Field Artillery . After 14 years as a major , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel again on 26 February 1934 . On 15 June 1934 , he was sent to Fort Myer , Virginia , near the District of Columbia , as commander of the 1st Battalion , 16th Field Artillery . Young regimental officers like Second Lieutenant Alexander Graham were surprised when Devers had them fire their 75mm guns . Graham , who married Devers ' daughter Frances on 30 July 1935 , was impressed that Devers had them do so at every opportunity .
Devers returned to the Military Academy for the third time , this time as graduate manager of athletics . The superintendent was now Major General William Durward Connor , an officer renowned for his sharp tongue . Devers later recalled that " A lot of people were afraid of General Connor . He called me a moron once a week " . The responsibility had grown considerably since the days when Devers was a cadet . Then there were only six varsity team sports ; by 1936 there were eighteen . Despite the Great Depression , the Athletic Boards , which Devers ran , had accumulated considerable funds . His major task was the construction of new playing fields where there did not appear to be any available land . He came up with a plan to move the right of way of the West Shore Railroad . He found the railroad welcoming of the plan , as a shorter , straighter route saved them money . The new fields were completed in December 1936 . He was promoted to full colonel on 1 July 1938 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Emergency = = =
In August 1939 , Devers and his wife Georgie boarded the Army transport Leonard Wood bound for the Panama Canal Zone . There was at the time genuine fear that a hostile nation might strike at the United States with an attack on the Panama Canal , thereby preventing the movement of ships between the Pacific and Atlantic . The outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939 led to an escalation of fears . Reinforcements including the 5th and 13th Infantry were sent to Panama . Devers became Chief of Staff to Major General David L. Stone , and then to Daniel Van Voorhis , who replaced Stone in December . He supervised construction projects and other improvements to the Panama Canal Zone defenses .
On the recommendation of the new Chief of Staff of the Army , General George C. Marshall , and with the approval of Secretary of War Henry H. Woodring , Devers was advanced in rank to brigadier general on 1 May 1940 . His promotion over 474 other colonels made him at age 52 the youngest brigadier general in the Army . In July Devers was recalled to Washington from the Panama Canal Zone to assume command of the Provisional Brigade in the District of Columbia area . That September Marshall , with the approval of new Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , named Devers Senior U.S. Army representative to the Presidential Board tasked with surveying bases in the Caribbean and Newfoundland to be leased from the British as part of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement . When Devers said he could use an Air Corps officer , Marshall told him to take the one outside his door , who happened to be Lieutenant Colonel Townsend E. Griffiss .
Devers was promoted to major general on 1 October 1940 , and sent to command the newly formed 9th Infantry Division at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , replacing Brigadier General Francis W. Honeycutt , who had been killed in an air crash . He would supervise training of the 9th while managing Bragg 's huge base expansion program . Devers directed basic and advanced infantry training at Bragg for the thousands of troops under his command , regular army , national guard , reservists and draftees . Among his colonels was Alexander M. ( Sandy ) Patch , the commander of the 47th Infantry . During Devers ' tour Fort Bragg 's strength grew from 5 @,@ 400 to 67 @,@ 000 soldiers . At the same time , he pushed forward immense construction projects for base housing , training facilities and roads on the overcrowded post . By working closely and cooperatively with engineers , local contractors , quartermasters and staff — and by cutting through red tape — in six months Devers oversaw completion of 2 @,@ 500 buildings and 93 miles ( 150 km ) of roads .
= = = Armored Force = = =
On 1 August 1941 , General Marshall named Devers Chief of the Armored Force , which was headquartered at Fort Knox , Kentucky . Devers replaced a mechanized cavalry legend , the terminally ill Major General Adna R. Chaffee , Jr . , who had been appointed the first Chief just a year earlier . Devers reported directly to Marshall . He was responsible for inspecting , organizing and training the Army 's armored divisions and separate non @-@ divisional tank battalions , including all non @-@ tank personnel assigned . McNair 's Army General Headquarters ( GHQ ) was in tactical charge of all U.S. ground forces , but GHQ specifically did not control the semi @-@ autonomous Armored Force , which was considered a " quasi @-@ arm " . The Armored Force had complete control of its own training , doctrine and organization . In a major reorganization of the War Department in March 1942 , McNair was named Commander of a new component , Army Ground Forces ( AGF ) , which replaced GHQ . Relations between GHQ / AGF and the Armored Force were distant and lines of authority and responsibility were often unclear . McNair seemed to prefer leaving Devers alone .
At the time Devers took command , the Armored Force had two operational armored divisions : the 1st Armored Division at Fort Polk , Louisiana , and the 2nd Armored Division at Fort Knox , and one independent tank battalion , the 70th Tank Battalion at Fort George G. Meade , Maryland . Both divisions participated in the large @-@ scale war games of the Louisiana Maneuvers in August and September 1941 , and the Carolina Maneuvers in November 1941 . Despite some successes , the maneuvers revealed armored unit and equipment operational deficiencies , plus a general lack of combat readiness . Devers attributed much of the poor performance to poorly @-@ trained junior and staff officers , but also saw doctrinal deficiencies that hampered the coordination of tanks , infantry and artillery .
In particular , post @-@ maneuver reports emphasized the vulnerability of tanks to antitank fire . This bolstered the pro @-@ antitank philosophy strongly held by McNair . Devers differed , countering that the number of tank " kills " credited to antitank gunners was unrealistic and biased , feeling that " we were licked by a set of umpires ' rules " . McNair continued to push for an independent tank destroyer force , while Devers argued that " the weapon to best the tank is a better tank " . Nevertheless , in November Marshall authorized creation of a tank destroyer force . The Tank Destroyer Center was created , and the War Department ordered the activation of 53 tank destroyer battalions . Battlefield experience would prove that Devers was right . In combat most tanks were knocked out by other tanks while tank destroyers were mainly used as mobile artillery support . The tank destroyer program was scaled back , and tank destroyer battalions were deactivated . At the end of the war , the tank destroyer quasi @-@ arm was disbanded .
Before Devers ' arrival , Armored Force doctrine emphasized light tanks weighing no more than 15 short tons ( 14 t ) . American doctrine held that tanks were for exploitation , not fighting other tanks . He rejected the M6 heavy tank and recommended to McNair that it be cancelled , citing its tremendous weight and concerns about its mobility and reliability . This was seen as support for this position , but Devers wanted a medium tank , preferably mounting something like a 105mm howitzer . He was appalled to find that the Armored Force 's tanks were armed with nothing heavier than a 37mm gun . A new medium tank was beginning to come off the production line : the M3 Lee . Devers observed testing of one just days after taking command , and was unimpressed . American industry was unable to cast a turret large enough to hold a 75mm gun , so the M3 carried a 37mm gun , with a 75mm in a sponson . This gave it a limited traverse , rendering it difficult to engage moving targets . To make matters worse , the designers shortened the barrel to improve the M3 's mobility , which Devers realized also reduced the gun 's muzzle velocity , and hence its effectiveness against armor . In practice , M3 crews attempted to engage German armor with the 75mm , as the 37mm was ineffective against it . It was found that the 75mm could penetrate the frontal armor of German tanks at 400 yards ( 370 m ) , but German tanks destroyed M3s at up to 1 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) . Devers pronounced the M3 " overweight , underpowered , and insufficiently armed " .
Often against the views of his superiors , Devers lobbied for a still more heavily armored and better armed medium tank , the M4 Sherman . He played an important role in the M4 's design , development and manufacturing , particularly its engine and armament . Throughout his tour as Chief of the Armored Force he worked closely with the Ordnance Department , manufacturers and the Armored Force Board at Fort Knox on the research and testing of tanks , guns , armored vehicles and ammunition . The biggest obstacle was engines . Those of pre @-@ war tanks were rated at 250 horsepower ( 190 kW ) , which was insufficient for a 35 short tons ( 32 t ) medium tank . Devers wanted an 800 horsepower ( 600 kW ) engine , but this was beyond the ability of the American automotive industry to produce . Extraordinary efforts resulted in the development of a number of 400 horsepower ( 300 kW ) engines . He controversially rejected the General Motors 6046 diesel engine in favor of gasoline engines . Battlefield experience would demonstrate that the diesel engine was superior . The quest for a better engine eventually settled on the Ford GAA engine , but there was a persistent shortage of tank engines . Some 49 @,@ 234 of the reliable , versatile , low @-@ cost M4 Sherman and its variants would be produced .
After the GHQ Maneuvers , the Army expected to have a period of " remedial training " to fix problems . The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor 7 December 1941 , shattered those expectations and plunged a not fully prepared United States into the war . At the beginning of 1942 , two armored divisions were operational and three were in training ; the 6th Armored Division was activated in February , followed by the 7th Armored Division in March . McNair recommended that one division in five be an armored division ; that meant up to fifty armored divisions by the end of 1943 . Increased pressure was on Devers , promoted to lieutenant general ( equal in rank to McNair ) on 6 September 1942 , to push more armored units through the pipeline even faster . Training was sometimes neglected because of the pressing need to get units ready for overseas deployment . Initially the Armored Force trained all the components of the armored division , but after March 1942 it became restricted to tank personnel , with other personnel coming from their own branch training centers . Devers sent Patton , now commander of I Armored Corps , to set up the Desert Training Center ( DTC ) in the California @-@ Arizona Mojave Desert , where soldiers could train for desert warfare . By the time it closed in 1944 , 20 infantry and armored divisions had trained there , although none fought in the desert , and five of them were sent to the Pacific .
Devers was an articulate proponent of the Army 's now @-@ emerging tactical doctrine of combined arms : infantry @-@ artillery @-@ armor @-@ close air support . He carried a translation of a German manual on the components of the panzer division . Devers was neither the first nor the only general to embrace combined arms as the doctrinal solution to the problem of how best to employ tanks , but he was well @-@ placed to act upon it . At his direction an updated , comprehensive ( 460 pages ) Armed Force Field Manual : Tactics and Technique FM 17 – 10 was written , published and distributed in March 1942 . A German manual on tank platoon tactics , with a foreword by Heinz Guderian , was translated into English and issued as an Armored Force publication . March 1942 saw a reorganization of the armored divisions in the wake of the 1941 maneuvers . Devers added an artillery headquarters to the armored division , and reorganized the artillery component into three battalions , each of three batteries of six M7 Priest self @-@ propelled guns . A division trains headquarters was added to coordinate logistical activities . In a first , at Devers ' insistence , a flight of light aircraft to be used for artillery spotting and reconnaissance were included in the new Table of Organization and Equipment ( TO & E ) for each division . He was a strong and early supporter of the development of the DUKW , an amphibious truck . Vannevar Bush later recalled that in the early stages of its development , Devers was the only man in the Army who fully appreciated its possibilities . Its value would be demonstrated during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 .
From 14 December 1942 to 28 January 1943 , Devers went on an inspection tour of the battlefields in North Africa , taking with him Brigadier Generals Edward H. Brooks and Williston B. Palmer from the Armored Force , and Gladeon M. Barnes from the Ordnance Department . He spoke with key British generals including Harold Alexander , Bernard Montgomery and Richard McCreery , and American commanders including Eisenhower , Patton , Thomas B. Larkin and Orlando Ward . Eisenhower was defensive , suspicious that Marshall may have sent Devers to replace him , and nervous when Devers had critical comments about the handling of the 1st Armored Division . Devers and his party received a great deal of feedback , both positive and negative about American equipment . Devers noted that the M4 Sherman was superior to the M3 Lee that the 1st Armored Division was equipped with , but urged the development of the more powerful 76mm gun .
In 1943 , McNair took an axe to the armored division organization , dramatically downsizing it . For all but the 2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions , the number of armored battalions was reduced to three . Devers favored the older , larger organization . The surplus armored battalions were utilized as separate armored battalions , so by the end of 1943 there were 54 armored battalions in armored divisions and 65 non @-@ divisional battalions . By this time , the planned number of Army Ground Force divisions had been dramatically cut to 90 , and McNair considered that only ten armored divisions were required , and he suggested that six of the sixteen armored divisions already active be broken up . This proposal was not accepted , and the number of armored divisions was frozen at sixteen .
= = = European Theater of Operations , United States Army ( ETOUSA ) = = =
On 3 May 1943 , while on an aerial inspection tour , Lieutenant General Frank M. Andrews , European Theater of Operations , United States Army ( ETOUSA ) commander since replacing Eisenhower on 5 February 1943 , was killed in an aircraft crash in Iceland . Marshall appointed Devers to take command of ETOUSA in his place . Devers arrived in England on 9 May 1943 . His principal tasks were overseeing preparation of detailed plans and the buildup of men and materiel for Operation Overlord , and supporting the Combined Bomber Offensive . At the end of May 1943 , there were 133 @,@ 000 US troops in the United Kingdom , of which 19 @,@ 000 were in the ground forces , 74 @,@ 000 in the air forces , and 34 @,@ 000 in the services of supply . By the end of the year , their numbers had grown to 774 @,@ 000 , of which 265 @,@ 000 were in the ground forces , 286 @,@ 000 in the air forces , and 220 @,@ 000 in the services of supply . In preparing the plans for Overlord , he worked closely with the chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( COSSAC ) , British Lieutenant General Frederick E. Morgan , with whom he had a good working relationship . Devers ' main objection to the COSSAC plan was that he did not want American units smaller than corps directly subordinated to British command , based on what he called " the Pershing Principle " .
Devers clashed with Eisenhower over the diversion of ETOUSA resources to Eisenhower 's North African Theater of Operations . On 28 July 1943 , Eisenhower and Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz asked that four groups of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers be sent to the North African Theater to help support Operation Avalanche , the Allied invasion of Italy . The planned assault area at Salerno was at the extreme range of Allied fighters based in Sicily , and long @-@ range bombers were needed to isolate the battlefield . Eisenhower and Spaatz felt that their theater should have priority . However , the four groups represented about a third of the Eighth Air Force 's heavy bombers , and their departure would greatly impact the Combined Bomber Offensive , so Devers turned down the request . Devers and Eighth Air Force 's commander , Brigadier General Ira C. Eaker , spoke to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee , who agreed with them . When Eisenhower appealed to Washington , Marshall and General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of Army Air Forces , also supported Devers . In August , Eisenhower asked for permission to retain three groups of Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers in the North African Theater . Devers again turned down his request , and Marshall and Arnold again supported him . In September though , when Avalanche came under severe pressure from German counterattacks , Devers readily acceded to a request for the return of the three groups . Stephen Ambrose later noted that " Eisenhower was not accustomed to having his requests to Marshall turned down and found it difficult to accept . "
In September 1943 , AGF representatives met with Devers to discuss his needs , and he asked for 250 of the new T26E1 tanks ( later redesignated the M26 Pershing ) to be produced and shipped as a matter of urgency . The Ordnance Department concurred , but added on 1 @,@ 000 T23 series tanks , an advanced design handicapped by problems with the reliability of its electric transmission . McNair disapproved the request , writing that " the M4 tank , particularly the M4A3 , has been widely hailed as the best tank on the battlefield today ... Other than this particular request , which represents the British view — there has been no call from any theater for a 90mm tank gun . There appears to be no fear on the part of our forces of the German Mark VI ( Tiger ) tank ... there can be no basis for the T26 tank other than the conception of a tank versus tank duel — which is believed unsound and unnecessary ... there is no indication that the 76mm antitank gun is inadequate against the Mark VI ( Tiger ) tank . "
= = = North African Theater of Operations , United States Army ( NATOUSA ) = = =
At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 , President Roosevelt named Eisenhower as the Supreme Allied Commander for Overlord . Devers hoped that he would be appointed commander of the First Army Group , but instead was sent to the Mediterranean as Commander North African Theater of Operations , United States Army ( NATOUSA ) , primarily a logistical administrative organization . American formations in the theater included Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark 's Fifth Army and Patton 's Seventh Army ; the Twelfth Air Force , led by Major General John K. Cannon ; the Fifteenth Air Force , commanded by Major General Nathan Twining ; and the NATOUSA Services of Supply headed by Lieutenant General Thomas B. Larkin . Eaker went with Devers as Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces . Devers , who arrived at Allied Force Headquarters ( AFHQ ) in Algiers on 4 January 1944 , was also deputy to the Supreme Allied Commander , Mediterranean Theater , British General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson . Devers and Wilson worked well together , and despite the administrative nature of his position , Devers spent most of his time at the front . Wilson often had Devers deal with difficult cases like the French and the Poles , and Devers was later decorated by the Polish government in exile for allowing Poles captured in German uniform to join the Polish II Corps in Italy .
At the beginning of 1944 , Allied ground forces fighting on the Italian Front were bogged down south of Rome in front of the German Gustav Line . This chain of strong defensive positions in mountainous terrain was anchored in the middle at Monte Cassino . Operation Shingle , Clark 's plan for a surprise end run to outflank the German Winter Line , called for Allied landings at Anzio on Italy 's west coast thirty miles south of Rome . On 7 January 1944 , just days after he had become Wilson 's deputy , Devers attended a conference in Marrakesh to discuss Shingle . In attendance was Winston Churchill , General Wilson , General Alexander , Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham and Major General Walter Bedell Smith . Devers wondered why such a high @-@ level conference was required for what he saw as a simple military decision , but noted in his diary that " the individuals present all favored an amphibious operation at Anzio . "
Devers clashed with Smith over the latter 's attempt to obtain officers for Eisenhower 's command . He tried to be accommodating , and consented to release a number of officers , including Patton and Major General Everett Hughes , but declined to give up others , including Larkin , Brigadier General Clarence Adcock and , in particular , Major General Lucian Truscott . Eisenhower wanted Truscott to command a corps in the assault in Operation Overlord ; Devers foresaw him doing the same in southern France . Eisenhower appealed to Marshall , who supported him ; but Devers protested that Truscott was about to lead the 3rd Infantry Division ashore at Anzio in a few days ' time . Not wanting to deprive Devers of a key subordinate on the eve of battle , Marshall backed down . Soon after the landing , Devers flew to the beachhead to see Truscott , but was dismayed to find that the advance had halted on Clark 's orders . Major General John P. Lucas ' VI Corps did not achieve the desired result at Anzio , and Clark 's attempted crossing of the Rapido River was a disaster .
At Monte Cassino the historic abbey overlooked Allied positions below . Ground commanders were sure the monastery was being used by the Germans as an observation post . Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard C. Freyberg , commander of the New Zealand Corps preparing for a new assault on the mountain , had repeatedly requested that the abbey be bombed . Taking advantage of the German practice of not giving away their positions by firing on small planes , Devers and Eaker flew low over the monastery , and saw what they believed to be a radio aerial and enemy soldiers moving in and out . Wilson reluctantly agreed to its bombing . On 15 February Devers watched waves of American bombers level the monastery with Alexander , Clark , Freyberg and Eaker . But follow @-@ up attacks that day , and over the next eight days , failed to take the position , much less break the Gustav Line . Devers visited Anzio on 16 February , and agreed with Alexander that Lucas should be relieved . Clark did so on 22 February .
The continuing failure to advance in Italy prompted the Combined Chiefs of Staff to postpone Operation Anvil , the on @-@ again @-@ off @-@ again proposal for Allied landings along the coast of southern France coinciding with Overlord . Clark told Devers that another attack on the Gustav Line could not be mounted until May , and VI Corps could not be withdrawn from Anzio until it succeeded . But planning for Anvil , begun in mid @-@ January by AFHQ 's Force 163 in Algiers continued . Initially Clark was to lead the assault , with Lucas taking over Fifth Army . Devers did not have much faith in either of them , even before Lucas ' relief . Lyman Lemnitzer later recalled that Fifth Army staff feared that Devers would relieve Clark every time the two met .
Marshall insisted that Anvil required an experienced commander , and with Patton gone , Clark was the only one in the theater . Then Devers received a cable that IV Corps headquarters was on its way to the theater . It was commanded by Sandy Patch , who had a distinguished combat record leading the soldiers and marines of XIV Corps in the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific . With Marshall 's concurrence , Devers appointed Patch to replace Patton as commander of the Seventh Army and Force 163 on 2 March . While Patch and his staff planned the operation , Devers ensured that the supplies accumulated for it were not dissipated .
A successful Allied offensive in May finally broke through the Gustav Line , and Rome fell to Clark 's army on 4 June . On 13 June , Devers ordered Larkin to shift priority for supplies from Fifth Army in Italy to Seventh Army . Two days later , Wilson ordered VI Corps to be withdrawn from the front line in preparation for Anvil . Virtually all the material needed for the assault was on hand , on the way , or promised , thanks to Devers ' efforts to preserve the stockpile of Anvil stores and supplies even when the operation was in doubt . To command the assault , he created a special headquarters on Corsica called Advanced Detachment AFHQ , with Devers in command .
Devers sent a cable to Marshall on 1 July proposing that an army group be formed , with himself as commander . Eisenhower concurred with this on 12 July . While it would have been easy enough to add the Seventh Army to Bradley 's 12th Army Group , this would have meant that Eisenhower would have to deal with the French , and after his experience in Operation Torch , Eisenhower preferred to let Devers do it . Marshall made the appointment on 16 July . Thus , Devers wore four " hats " for the operation : Deputy Supreme Allied Commander , Mediterranean Theater ; Commanding General NATOUSA ; Commander , Advanced Detachment AFHQ , which was activated on 29 July ; and Commanding General , 6th Army Group , which Devers activated on 1 August .
= = = France and Germany 1944 – 45 = = =
Operation Anvil was a crushing success . In a few short weeks , the French and American forces drove the Germans from southeastern France and captured major ports including Marseille on 28 August . On 15 September 1944 , the 6th Army Group became operational , assuming control of Patch 's Seventh Army and General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny 's French First Army ( as it became on 19 September ) . The French First Army was the largest French force ever amassed under a foreign military leader . Eisenhower 's SHAEF assumed operational control of the 6th Army Group , although Devers retained his own logistical system via the Mediterranean . The campaign was not without cost , and concurrent combat in Normandy and Italy created a shortage of replacements , especially infantry , that left VI Corps about 5 @,@ 200 men short .
Devers remained in command of NATOUSA , so he sent Clark a message on 19 October suggesting that units be rested in order to keep casualties down . Devers had written to McNair on 4 February 1944 , noting that when divisions were left in the line for more than 30 to 40 days , fatigue , carelessness and exposure resulted in increased casualty and sickness rates . Clark replied that " your radio indicates a lack of appreciation of our tactical situation , the terrain , enemy resistance , and my mission . " Devers noted in his diary that Clark 's response " shows quite well his lack of judgment and tact and indicate definitely that he is not a team player " , and he recommended to Marshall that Eaker and not Clark be his successor in the Mediterranean . Marshall chose to appoint Lieutenant General Joseph T. McNarney on 22 October .
The activation of the French First Army left Seventh Army with only one corps . Devers asked for IV Corps to be transferred from Italy , but Wilson argued that this would adversely affect operations in Italy against the Gothic Line , and the Combined Chiefs agreed . Instead , Devers proposed on 26 September that Major General Wade H. Haislip 's XV Corps to be transferred from Patton 's Third Army , which had severe logistical difficulties , to the Seventh Army . Devers argued that they could better be supported over the 6th Army Group 's line of communications from the Mediterranean . Eisenhower agreed , and further ordered that three more divisions scheduled to join Bradley 's 12th Army Group in northern France , but unlikely to do so until the supply and transport situation improved , be diverted to Marseilles , and join the 6th Army Group . Haislip was a good choice for the 6th Army Group . He spoke French fluently , having fought in France during World War I and attended the Ecole Superieure de Guerre from 1925 to 1927 , and was attuned to French sensibilities . Above all , Haislip got along well with Major General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque , the mercurial commander of the French 2nd Armored Division . Devers was shocked when Leclerc informed him that he and his men wanted to serve with the American Army , not the French First Army , which he considered dominated by Vichy French traitors .
Devers may have oversold the benefits of the southern line of communications . Marseille had been captured , but the harbor entrance was blocked with 75 sunken ships ; the harbor basin had been sown with naval mines ; the quays , jetties and cranes had been demolished ; and the surrounding area had been mined and booby trapped . While the US Navy cleared the harbor , the 1051st Port Construction and Repair Group undertook the rehabilitation of the port . Ships were able to discharge in the stream from 5 September , and the first Liberty ship docked on 15 September . Beyond the port , there were numerous breakages in the rail network , and many bridges were down . To get the railroad from Marseille working , Devers turned to Brigadier General Carl R. Gray , Jr . , the commander of the 1st Military Railway Service . By 25 September , the railroad reached Lyon with a capacity of 3 @,@ 000 short tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) per day . Devers pressed Gray for 15 @,@ 000 short tons ( 14 @,@ 000 t ) . By 1 October , when Devers had promised Eisenhower that he could support ten divisions by rail , sufficient supplies were arriving for just one . The rest had to be supported by road . Not until the third week in October could all of the Seventh Army 's needs , including those of XV Corps , be met .
Devers conceded that he would only be able to supply Patton with 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) per day from 15 November , which only increased Eisenhower 's resolve to give priority to opening the port of Antwerp in the north . Devers was ordered to clear the Germans from the west bank of the Rhine in his sector . His offensive went well ; the French 1st Armored Division reached the Rhine on 19 November , and Leclerc captured Strasbourg on 23 November . Devers inflicted a crushing defeat on General Friedrich Wiese 's Nineteenth Army , nearly destroying six of its eight divisions . A large German presence remained west of the Rhine , which came to be called the Colmar Pocket . When Eisenhower and Bradley visited 6th Army Group on 24 November , they were astonished to find Devers , Patch and Haislip energetically planning a crossing of the Rhine in early December . Bradley drew attention to the formidable defenses on the far bank , and Devers told him that he had spoken to patrols that had found them empty . Eisenhower would have none of it . His strategy remained to destroy the German forces on the west bank before attempting a crossing . The official historians described this decision as " difficult to understand " .
An attempt to reduce the Colmar Pocket on 15 December was called off by Eisenhower when Bradley was hit by the German Ardennes Offensive , which Brigadier General Garrison H. Davidson , the Seventh Army Engineer , felt might have been avoided entirely if Devers had been allowed to proceed with the Rhine crossing . In response to the crisis , Eisenhower ordered Devers to cease offensive operations and assume responsibility for much of Patton 's front , allowing the Third Army to turn north . This left the Seventh Army holding a 126 @-@ mile ( 203 km ) front with six infantry and two armored divisions . Eisenhower ordered Devers to effect a major withdrawal to a shorter line , but Devers baulked at this , and there was a violent French reaction to the prospect of abandoning Strasbourg . On 31 December 1944 , the Seventh Army was struck by Operation Nordwind . Between 5 and 25 January 1945 , there were four more major German attacks against the 6th Army Group by Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler 's Army Group Oberrhein . Seventh Army suffered some 14 @,@ 000 casualties , but the Germans did not break through and Strasbourg was held . In Devers ' estimation Brooks , the commander of VI Corps , " fought one of the great defensive battles of all times with very little " .
Devers now turned his attention to the Colmar Pocket . He had expected the Germans to withdraw , and thought that the French First Army would be able to eliminate the pocket . He later admitted that he had underestimated both the German determination to hold it , and the strength of the French First Army . Eisenhower regarded it as a " sore " , and sent five additional American divisions to 6th Army Group to help clean it out . After the Ardennes Offensive and Northwind , Devers regarded it as petty of Bradley to begrudge him the additional divisions . French and American troops finally eliminated the Colmar Pocket on 5 February 1945 . Against Eisenhower 's preference , Devers was promoted to general on 8 March 1945 ahead of Spaatz , Bradley and Patton . He therefore remained the second @-@ highest ranking American officer in Europe after Eisenhower .
Seventh Army crossed the Rhine on 26 March , and began its final advance into Germany . On 5 May 1945 , General Hermann Foertsch surrendered Army Group G unconditionally to Devers . Patch , Haislip and other American generals were present , but no representative of the French First Army . This caused a final diplomatic tussle with the French over the status of the General Hans Schmidt 's Twenty @-@ Fourth Army , which de Lattre insisted should surrender to him . Devers refused to hand Schmidt over to de Lattre . Two days later , Eisenhower accepted a general surrender of the German armed forces at his headquarters at Rheims .
= = = Army Ground Forces = = =
The Seventh Army was transferred to the 12th Army Group , and the French First Army reverted to national control , leaving the 6th Army Group with little to do , although Devers acted as commander of the 12th Army Group in Bradley 's absence . In June 1945 , Devers was appointed Chief of Army Ground Forces , in succession to General Joseph Stilwell , who had left to command the Tenth United States Army on Okinawa . Army Ground Forces still controlled schools and training centers in the United States , but its focus was demobilization and coordinating the redeployment of units from Europe to the Pacific , where the war with Japan continued until it too surrendered on 14 August 1945 . Devers hired a civilian secretary , Dorothy Benn , a widow whose husband , an Army Air Forces pilot , had been listed as missing in action in New Guinea in 1943 and was presumed dead until his body was found in 1957 .
The Army Service Forces was abolished on 14 May 1946 , on the recommendation of War Department 's Simpson Board , but the Army Ground Forces remained . Devers ' November 1945 testimony before the board had urged that the Army Service Forces be retained . Army Ground Forces was given control of the six armies in the United States , but as demobilization gathered pace , the strength of the army shrank dramatically . Devers was faced with the unpleasant task of informing many officers that they were being demoted . One reform that he did achieve was to reduce the number of combat branches to just three : infantry , armor and artillery .
McNair had established Army Ground Forces headquarters at the Army War College campus , where Devers lived , but Stilwell had moved the headquarters into the Pentagon . Eisenhower , as the new Chief of Staff of the Army , decided that the Army Ground Forces headquarters should be co @-@ located with the Army Air Forces ' Tactical Air Command , so it was moved to Fort Monroe , Virginia , not far from Langley Field . Devers opened his headquarters there on 1 October 1946 . Further reorganization occurred on 10 March 1948 , when Army Ground Forces was renamed Army Field Forces . Control of the armies was transferred to the Department of the Army , and Army Field Forces was reduced to a coordinating staff agency .
As a member of the Joint Research and Development Committee with Spaatz , Devers took an interest in the development of helicopters , taking rides in different machines . He met with Larry Bell , the founder of Bell Aircraft . Bell 's company was in a poor financial situation , and he was hoping that the Army would buy fifty of his new Bell 47 helicopters . Devers was impressed with the aircraft , and agreed to do so , although for $ 25 @,@ 000 each rather than the $ 35 @,@ 000 Bell was asking for , and found the money from Army Ground Forces funds . The Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux would go on to become one of the world 's most recognizable helicopters .
= = Retirement and post @-@ military career = =
Under the rules of the time , Devers was given mandatory retirement on his 62nd birthday on 30 September 1949 . Devers and his wife Georgie decided to buy a farm in Herndon , West Virginia , although they retained their " Yellow House " in Georgetown , Virginia , where Georgie had resided during the war . Devers settled into the role of a cattle rancher . He hired Curtis and Beatrix Murphy as handyman and cook . When he discovered that they owed $ 2 @,@ 000 in hospital bills , he paid it for them , and never accepted repayment . They continued working for him until his death .
Finding that the life of a rancher did not sufficiently hold his interest , Devers accepted a job as managing director of the American Automobile Association Foundation for Traffic Safety . He hired Dorothy Benn as his executive assistant . The job mostly involved fund @-@ raising , which Devers did not enjoy , and he left when a better opportunity as technical assistant to the president of Fairchild Aircraft presented itself in 1950 . He successfully lobbied the United States Air Force to buy the Fairchild C @-@ 123 Provider . He was also a strong advocate of Fairchild 's AR @-@ 15 rifle , which he maintained was a much better weapon that the Army 's M14 rifle , which Devers described as " obsolescent " . As the M16 rifle , the AR @-@ 15 would ultimately supplant the M14 .
Devers also served briefly in 1951 as military advisor to Frank P. Graham , the United Nations mediator in the dispute between India and Pakistan over the status of Kashmir . Eisenhower , now president , had Devers represent the United States at tenth anniversary ceremonies for the invasion of southern France in 1954 , for the dedication of Epinal American Cemetery and Memorial and the Rhone American Cemetery and Memorial in France , and for that of the Sicily – Rome American Cemetery and Memorial in Italy . In 1960 , as Devers was leaving Fairchild , Eisenhower asked him to replace Marshall as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission . He would remain in this role until 1969 . In May 1964 , he joined a number of other retired generals , including Eaker , Clyde Eddleman and Merrill B. Twining , for Joint Exercise Desert Strike , a major military exercise .
The farm was sold , and Devers and Georgie moved back to the Yellow House in 1957 . Her health declined in the 1960s , and she died on 8 February 1967 , and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Dorothy Benn 's second husband , a Harvard economics professor who worked for the Department of Agriculture , died in 1973 , and she married Devers on 28 May 1975 . He died at Walter Reed Army Medical Center on 15 October 1979 , and was buried with Georgie at Arlington National Cemetery . He was survived by wife Dorothy , who died in 2007 , and his daughter Frances , who died in 1986 , his sister Catherine , stepdaughter Bonnie Benn Stratton , and her sons Troy DuVal Stratton and W. Benn Stratton , who graduated with the West Point class of 1983 . Alex Graham died in 1977 ; Alex and Frances are buried at Arlington near Devers and Georgie . Devers ' papers are at the York County Heritage Trust in York .
= = Dates of rank = =
= = Awards and decorations = =
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= Washington Metro =
The Washington Metro , commonly called Metro and branded Metrorail , is the rapid transit system serving the Washington , D.C. metropolitan area in the United States . It is administered by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority ( WMATA ) , which also operates Metrobus service under the Metro name . Besides the District , Metro serves several jurisdictions in Maryland and Virginia . In Maryland , Metro provides service to Montgomery and Prince George 's counties ; in Virginia , to Arlington and Fairfax counties and the independent city of Alexandria . Combined with its ridership in the independent Virginia cities of Falls Church and Fairfax , the Metro service area is largely coextensive with the inner ring of the Washington metropolitan area . The system is currently being expanded into Loudoun County , Virginia . It operates mostly as a subway in the District itself , while most of the suburban tracks are at surface level or elevated .
Opened in 1976 , the network now includes six lines , 91 stations , and 117 miles ( 188 km ) of route .
Metro is the second @-@ busiest rapid transit system in the United States in number of passenger trips , after the New York City Subway . There were 215 @.@ 3 million trips , or 712 @,@ 843 trips per weekday , on Metro in fiscal year 2015 . In June 2008 , Metro set a monthly ridership record with 19 @,@ 729 @,@ 641 trips , or 798 @,@ 456 per weekday . Fares vary based on the distance traveled , the time of day , and the type of card used by the passenger . Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card called SmarTrip . Metro also has the distinction of having the longest , single @-@ tier escalator in the Western Hemisphere in the Wheaton station ( 230 feet long ) .
= = History = =
During the 1960s , plans were laid for a massive freeway system in Washington . Harland Bartholomew , who chaired the National Capital Planning Commission , thought that a rail transit system would never be self @-@ sufficient because of low density land uses and general transit ridership decline . But the plan met fierce opposition , and was altered to include a Capital Beltway system plus rail line radials . The Beltway received full funding ; funding for the ambitious Inner Loop Freeway system was partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system .
In 1960 , the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rapid rail system . In 1966 , a bill creating WMATA was passed by the federal government , the District of Columbia , Virginia , and Maryland , with planning power for the system being transferred to it from the NCTA .
WMATA approved plans for a 98 @-@ mile ( 158 km ) regional system in 1968 . Construction began after a groundbreaking ceremony on December 9 , 1969 , when Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe , District Mayor Walter Washington , and Maryland Governor Marvin Mandel tossed the first spade of dirt at Judiciary Square . The first portion of the system opened March 27 , 1976 , with 4 @.@ 6 miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) available on the Red Line with five stations from Rhode Island Avenue to Farragut North , all in the District of Columbia . Arlington County , Virginia was linked to the system on July 1 , 1977 ; Montgomery County , Maryland , on February 6 , 1978 ; Prince George 's County , Maryland , on November 20 , 1978 ; and Fairfax County , Virginia , and Alexandria , Virginia , on December 17 , 1983 . Underground stations were built with cathedral @-@ like arches of concrete , highlighted by soft , indirect lighting . The name Metro was suggested by Massimo Vignelli , who designed the subway maps for the New York City Subway .
The 103 @-@ mile ( 166 km ) , 83 @-@ station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to Branch Avenue on January 13 , 2001 . This did not mean the end of the growth of the system : a 3 @.@ 22 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 18 km ) extension of the Blue Line to Largo Town Center and Morgan Boulevard opened on December 18 , 2004 . The first in @-@ fill station , NoMa – Gallaudet University ( at the time called the New York Ave – Florida Ave – Gallaudet University station ) on the Red Line between Union Station and Rhode Island Ave @-@ Brentwood , opened November 20 , 2004 . Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases and opening in 2014 and 2018 . The first phase , five stations connecting East Falls Church to Tysons Corner and Wiehle Avenue in Reston , opened on July 26 , 2014 .
Metro construction required billions of federal dollars , originally provided by Congress under the authority of the National Capital Transportation Act of 1969 ( Public Law 91 @-@ 143 ) . The cost was paid with 67 % federal money and 33 % local money . This act was amended on January 3 , 1980 by Public Law 96 @-@ 184 , " The National Capital Transportation Amendment of 1979 " ( also known as the Stark @-@ Harris Act ) , which authorized additional funding of $ 1 @.@ 7 billion to permit the completion of 89 @.@ 5 miles ( 144 @.@ 0 km ) of the system as provided under the terms of a full funding grant agreement executed with WMATA in July 1986 , which required 20 % to be paid from local funds . On November 15 , 1990 , Public Law 101 @-@ 551 , " The National Capital Transportation Amendments of 1990 " , authorized an additional $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in federal funds for construction of the remaining 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) of the 103 @-@ mile ( 166 km ) system , completed via the execution of full funding grant agreements , with a 63 % federal / 37 % local matching .
The highest ridership for a single day was on the day of the inauguration of Barack Obama , January 20 , 2009 , with 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 riders . It broke the previous record , set the day before , of 866 @,@ 681 riders . June 2008 set several ridership records : it set the single @-@ month ridership record of 19 @,@ 729 @,@ 641 total riders , the record for highest average weekday ridership with 1 @,@ 044 @,@ 400 weekday trips , had five of the ten highest ridership days , and had 12 weekdays in which ridership exceed 800 @,@ 000 trips .
In February 2006 , Metro officials chose Randi Miller , a car dealership employee from Woodbridge , Virginia , to record new " doors opening " , " doors closing " , and " please stand clear of the doors , thank you " announcements after winning an open contest to replace the messages recorded by Sandy Carroll in 1996 . The " Doors Closing " contest attracted 1 @,@ 259 contestants from across the country .
On October 30 , 2010 , the crowd at the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear broke a 19 @-@ year record in Saturday ridership , with 825 @,@ 437 trips . The previous record had been set on June 8 , 1991 at 786 @,@ 358 trips during the Desert Storm rally .
= = = Opening dates = = =
= = Architecture = =
Many Metro stations were designed by Chicago architect Harry Weese and are examples of late @-@ 20th century modern architecture . With their heavy use of exposed concrete and repetitive design motifs , Metro stations display aspects of brutalist design . The stations also reflect the influence of Washington 's neoclassical architecture in their overarching coffered ceiling vaults . Weese worked with Cambridge , Massachusetts @-@ based lighting designer Bill Lam for the indirect lighting used throughout the system . All of Metro 's original Brutalist stations are found in Downtown Washington , D.C. and neighboring urban corridors of Arlington , Virginia , with newer stations incorporating simplified cost @-@ efficient designs .
In 2007 , the design of the Metro 's vaulted @-@ ceiling stations was voted number 106 on the " America 's Favorite Architecture " list compiled by the American Institute of Architects ( AIA ) , and was the only brutalist design to win a place among the 150 selected by this public survey .
In January 2014 , the AIA announced that it would present its Twenty @-@ five Year Award to the Washington Metro system for " an architectural design of enduring significance " that " has stood the test of time by embodying architectural excellence for 25 to 35 years " . The announcement cited the key role of Weese , who conceived and implemented a " common design kit @-@ of @-@ parts " , which continues to guide the construction of new Metro stations over a quarter @-@ century later , albeit with designs modified slightly for cost reasons .
= = System = =
Since opening in 1976 , the Metro network has grown to include six lines , 91 stations , and 118 miles ( 190 km ) of route . The rail network is designed according to a spoke @-@ hub distribution paradigm , with rail lines running between downtown Washington and its nearby suburbs . The system makes extensive use of interlining – running more than one service on the same track . There are six operating lines . The system 's iconic official map was designed by noted graphic designer Lance Wyman and Bill Cannan while they were partners in the design firm of Wyman & Cannan in New York City .
About 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Metro 's track is underground , as are 47 of the 91 stations . Track runs underground mostly within the District and high @-@ density suburbs . Surface track accounts for about 46 miles ( 74 km ) of the total , and aerial track makes up 9 miles ( 14 km ) .
In an effort to gain revenues , WMATA has started to allow retail ventures in Metro stations . WMATA has authorized DVD @-@ rental vending machines and ticket booths for the Old Town Trolley Tours and is seeking additional retail tenants .
= = = Financing = = =
Metro relies extensively on passenger fares and appropriated financing from the Maryland , Virginia , and Washington DC governments , which are represented on Metro 's board of directors . The system does not have a dedicated revenue stream as other city 's mass transit systems do . Critics allege that this has contributed to Metro 's recent history of maintenance and safety problems .
For Fiscal Year 2015 , the estimated farebox recovery ratio ( fare revenue divided by operating expenses ) was 66 percent , based on the WMATA approved budget .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
= = = = Stations = = = =
There are 40 stations in the District of Columbia , 15 in Prince George 's County , 11 in Montgomery County , 11 in Arlington County , 11 in Fairfax County , and three in the City of Alexandria . The second phase of the Silver Line will add 6 new stations — three more in Fairfax County and three in Loudoun County , Virginia — in 2019 or 2020 .
At 196 feet ( 60 m ) below the surface , the Forest Glen station on the Red Line is the deepest in the system . There are no escalators ; high @-@ speed elevators take 20 seconds to travel from the street to the station platform . The Wheaton station , next to Forest Glen station on the Red Line , has the longest continuous escalator in the USA and in the Western Hemisphere , at 230 feet ( 70 m ) . The Rosslyn station is the deepest station on the Orange / Blue Line , at 117 feet ( 36 m ) below street level . The station features the second @-@ longest continuous escalator in the Metro system at 194 feet ( 59 m ) ; an escalator ride between the street level and the mezzanine level takes nearly two minutes .
The system is not centered on any single station , but Metro Center is at the intersection of the Red , Orange , Blue , and Silver Lines . The station is also the location of WMATA 's main sales office . Metro has designated five other " core stations " that have high passenger volume , including : Gallery Place , transfer station for the Red , Green and Yellow Lines ; L 'Enfant Plaza , transfer station for the Orange , Blue , Silver , Green and Yellow Lines ; Union Station , the busiest station by passenger boardings ; Farragut North ; and Farragut West .
In order to deal with the high number of passengers in transfer stations , Metro is studying the possibility of building pedestrian connections between nearby core transfer stations . For example , a 750 @-@ foot ( 230 m ) passage between Metro Center and Gallery Place stations would allow passengers to transfer between the Orange / Blue / Silver and Yellow / Green Lines without going one stop on the Red Line . Another tunnel between Farragut West and Farragut North stations would allow transfers between the Red and Orange / Blue / Silver lines , decreasing transfer demand at Metro Center by an estimated 11 % . The Farragut pedestrian tunnel has yet to be physically implemented , but was added in virtual form effective October 28 , 2011 . The SmarTrip system now interprets an exit from one Farragut station and entrance to the other as part of a single trip , allowing card holders to transfer on foot without having to pay a second full fare .
= = = = Rolling stock = = = =
Metro ’ s fleet consists of 1 @,@ 126 rail cars , each 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 86 m ) long . Trains have a maximum speed of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , and average 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) including stops . Operating rules presently limit their top speed to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) . All cars operate as married pairs ( consecutively numbered even @-@ odd ) , with systems shared across the pair . Metro currently operates 850 cars during rush hours . 814 cars are in active service , four cars have been permanently removed from revenue service for use as the " money train " , and the remaining 36 cars compose gap trains to serve as backup should a train experience problems .
Metro 's rolling stock was acquired in six phases , and each version of car is identified with a separate series number . The original order of 300 rail cars ( 290 of which are in operation as of June 2009 ) was manufactured by Rohr Industries , with final delivery in 1978 . These cars are numbered 1000 – 1299 and were rehabilitated in the mid @-@ 1990s . Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie ( Breda ) , now AnsaldoBreda , manufactured the second order of 76 cars delivered in 1983 and 1984 . These cars , numbered 2000 – 2075 , were rehabilitated in the early 2000s by Alstom in Hornell , New York . A third order of 288 cars , also from Breda , were delivered between 1984 and 1988 . These cars are numbered 3000 – 3291 and were rehabilitated by Alstom in the early 2000s . An order of 100 cars from Breda , numbered 4000 – 4099 , were delivered between 1992 and 1994 . A fifth order of 192 cars was manufactured by Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles ( CAF ) of Spain . These cars are numbered 5000 – 5191 and were delivered from 2001 through 2004 . A sixth order of 184 cars from Alstom Transportation , are numbered 6000 @-@ 6183 and were delivered between 2005 and 2007 . The cars have body shells built in Barcelona , Spain with assembly completed in Hornell , New York .
The 7000 series of cars , currently being built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries Rolling Stock Company of Kobe , Japan are being delivered for on @-@ site testing during winter 2013 , and first entered service April 14 , 2015 on the Blue Line . The new cars are different from previous models in that while still operating as married pairs , the cab in one car can be removed , essentially turning it into a B car . The new design allows for increased passenger capacity , elimination of redundant equipment , greater energy efficiency , and lower maintenance costs . Metro plans to eventually purchase up to 748 cars to increase system capacity and replace its older rolling stock . The National Transportation Safety Board investigation of the fatal June 22 , 2009 , accident led it to conclude that the 1000 series cars are unsafe and unable to protect customers in a crash .
As a result , on July 26 , 2010 , Metro voted to purchase 300 7000 series cars to replace the remaining 1000 series cars . An additional 128 7000 series cars were also ordered to serve the new Silver Line to Dulles Airport ( 64 for each phase ) . In May 2013 , Metro placed another order for 100 7000 series cars , which will replace all of the 4000 series cars . By June 2015 WMATA plans to exercise their remaining options to purchase an additional 220 7000 series railcars for fleet expansion , bringing the total number of 7000 series railcars on order to 748 .
In May , 2015 , WMATA 's plan to replace 192 of the chronically problematic 5000 @-@ series cars built in the early 2000s with 220 new 7000 @-@ series cars was at risk because the older cars were funded by federal money and requires FTA approval .
= = = = Signaling and operation = = = =
During normal passenger operation on revenue tracks , trains are designed to be controlled by an integrated Automatic Train Operation ( ATO ) and Automatic Train Control ( ATC ) system that accelerates and brakes trains automatically without operator intervention . All trains are still manned with train operators who open and close the doors , make station announcements , and supervise their trains . The system was designed so that an operator could manually operate a train when necessary .
Since June 2009 , when two Red Line trains collided and killed nine people due in part to malfunctions in the ATC system , all Metro trains have been manually operated . The current state of manual operation has led to heavily degraded service , with new manual requirements such as absolute blocks , speed restrictions , and end @-@ of @-@ platform stopping leading to increased headways between trains , increased dwell time , and worse on @-@ time performance . Metro will begin phasing back in ATC in October 2014 .
The train doors were originally designed to be opened and closed automatically and the doors would re @-@ open if an object blocked them , much as elevator doors do . Almost immediately after the system opened in 1976 Metro realized these features were not conducive to safe or efficient operation and they were disabled . At present the doors may be opened automatically or manually . If a door tries to close and it meets an obstruction , the operator must re @-@ open the door .
= = = Hours and headways = = =
Metrorail begins service at 5 am Monday through Friday and at 7 am Saturdays and Sundays ; it ends service at midnight seven nights a week , although the last trains leave the end stations inbound about half an hour before these times . Trains run more frequently during rush hours on all lines , with scheduled peak hour headways of 3 minutes on the Red Line and 6 minutes on all other lines . Headways are much longer during midday and evening on weekdays and all weekend . The midday six @-@ minute headways are based on a combination of two Metrorail lines ( Orange / Blue and Yellow / Green ) as each route can run every 12 minutes ; in the case of the Red Line , every other train bound for Glenmont terminates at Silver Spring instead . Night and weekend service varies between 8 and 24 minutes , with trains generally scheduled only every 20 minutes . As of 2012 , the WMATA board of directors was considering adopting a new policy that would codify maximum acceptable headways as 15 minutes during peak hours and 30 minutes during off @-@ peak .
Other service truncations also occur in the system during rush hour service only . On the Red Line , every other train bound for Shady Grove terminates at Grosvenor @-@ Strathmore , in addition to the alternating terminations at Silver Spring mentioned above . For the Yellow Line , all non @-@ Rush + trains ( that is , all trains originating from Huntington , not Franconia @-@ Springfield ) bound for Fort Totten terminate at Mount Vernon Square . These are primarily instituted due to a limited supply of rail cars and the locations of pocket tracks throughout the system .
Until 1999 , Metro ended service at midnight every night , and weekend service began at 8 am . That year , WMATA began late night service on Fridays and Saturdays until 1 am . By 2007 , with encouragement from businesses , that closing time had been pushed back to 3 am . There were plans floated to end late night service due to costs in 2011 , but they were met with resistance by riders . WMATA discontinued late night rail service on May 30 , 2016 , so that Metro can conduct an extensive track rehabilitation program in an effort to improve the system 's reliability .
= = = = Special service patterns = = = =
Metro runs special service patterns on holidays and when events in Washington may require additional service . Independence Day activities require Metro to adjust service to provide extra capacity to and from the National Mall . WMATA makes similar adjustments during other events , such as presidential inaugurations . Metro has altered service and used some stations as entrances or exits only to help manage congestion .
= = = = Rush Plus = = = =
In 2012 , WMATA announced enhanced rush period service that was implemented on June 18 , 2012 under the name Rush + ( or Rush Plus ) . Rush Plus service occurs only during portions of peak service : 6 : 30 @-@ 9 AM and 3 : 30 @-@ 6 PM , Monday through Friday .
The Rush + realignment was intended to free up space in the Rosslyn Portal ( the tunnel between Rosslyn and Foggy Bottom ) , which operates at full capacity already . When Silver Line service began , those trains would be routed through the tunnel , and so some of what were Blue Line trains to Largo Town Center were now diverted across the Fenwick Bridge to become Yellow Line trains running all the way up the Green Line to Greenbelt . Select Yellow Line trains running south diverted along the Blue Line to Franconia @-@ Springfield ( as opposed to the normal Yellow line terminus at Huntington ) . Until the start of Silver Line service , excess Rosslyn Tunnel capacity was used by additional Orange Line trains that traveled along the Blue Line to Largo ( as opposed to the normal Orange Line terminus at New Carrollton ) . Rush + had the additional effect of giving some further number of passengers transfer @-@ free journeys , though severely increasing headways for the portion of the Blue Line running between Pentagon and Rosslyn .
= = = Passenger information systems = = =
A Passenger Information Display System ( PIDS ) was installed in all Metrorail stations in 2000 . Displays are located on all track platforms and at the mezzanine entrances of stations , and provide real @-@ time information on next train arrivals , delayed trains , emergency announcements , and related information . WMATA also provides current train and related information to customers with conventional web browsers , as well as users of smartphones and other mobile devices . In 2010 Metro began sharing its PIDS data with outside software developers , for use in creating additional real @-@ time applications for mobile devices . Free apps are available to the public on major mobile device software platforms ( iPhone / iPad , Android , Windows Phone , Palm ) . WMATA also began providing real @-@ time train information by phone in 2010 .
= = Fare structure = =
Riders enter and exit the system using a stored @-@ value card in the form of a paper magnetic stripe farecard or a proximity card known as SmarTrip . The fare is deducted from the balance of the card ; on paper farecards , the new balance is printed upon exiting the system . Farecards are purchased primarily at vending machines in each station . Paper farecards can hold up to $ 45 in value and are reused until the value of the card reaches zero . If the card contains the exact fare needed to exit , leaving the card at a zero balance , the card is not returned by the exit gate . SmarTrip cards can be purchased at station vending machines , online or at retail outlets , and can store up to $ 300 in value .
Metro fares vary based on the distance traveled and the time of day at entry . During peak hours ( weekdays from opening until 9 : 30 a.m. and 3 – 7 p.m. , and Friday and Saturday nights from midnight to closing ) , fares ( effective 2014 ) range from $ 2 @.@ 15 to $ 5 @.@ 90 , depending on distance traveled . At all other times , fares range from $ 1 @.@ 75 to $ 3 @.@ 60 based on distance traveled . Customers using a paper farecard must add an additional $ 1 @.@ 00 fee for each ride . Discounted fares are available for school children , the disabled , and the elderly . Metro charges reduced fares on all federal holidays .
Passengers may purchase passes at most farecard vending machines . The passes are used the same way as farecards but grant riders unlimited travel within the system for a certain period of time . All the passes are gate @-@ activated , with the period of validity starting with the first use of the pass , and for the paper versions , the expiration date of the pass is printed on the pass when exiting the system at the end of the first trip . Four types of passes are currently sold :
A One Day Pass for $ 14 @.@ 50 , valid for one day of unlimited Metrorail travel . The pass expires at the end of the operating day . Since July 1 , 2012 , this pass has been available on SmarTrip as well as a paper pass . Prior to that time the cost of the pass was much less ( $ 9 vs. $ 14 ) , but it was not valid for the morning peak period on weekdays . Since June 1 , 2013 , this has been the only pass available on a paper card .
A 7 @-@ Day Short Trip Pass for $ 36 , valid for seven consecutive days for Metrorail trips costing up to $ 3 @.@ 60 ( the maximum off @-@ peak fare ) during peak fare times and any trip during off @-@ peak hours . ( The $ 1 paper farecard surcharge is not applicable . ) If the trip costs more than $ 3 @.@ 60 the difference had to be paid at the Exitfare machine ( for paper passes ) before leaving , or is deducted from the cash balance of a SmarTrip card . A positive stored value is required to enter the Metrorail system . It became available on SmarTrip on May 20 , 2013 , and has not been sold as a paper pass after May 31 , 2013 .
A 7 @-@ Day Fast Pass for $ 59 @.@ 25 , valid for seven consecutive days of unlimited Metrorail travel . Since April 16 , 2012 , users have been able to purchase the Fast Pass on a SmarTrip card . The 7 @-@ Day Fast Pass has not been sold as a paper pass since September 1 , 2012 , and has not been accepted on a paper pass after December 31 , 2012 .
Since July 1 , 2012 , a 28 @-@ Day Metrorail Fast Pass available on SmarTrip only for $ 237 . Like the version of this pass offered years ago on a thin plastic mag @-@ stripe farecard , this is for convenience only , offering no savings over four uses of the 7 @-@ Day Fast Pass .
Users can add value to any farecard , but riders must pay an exit fare if the cost of a trip is higher than their card ’ s balance . Riders may transfer for free , provided they do not exit through the faregates . SmarTrip users receive a $ 0 @.@ 50 discount on bus @-@ to @-@ rail and rail @-@ to @-@ bus transfers . On October 28 , 2011 Metro launched Farragut Crossing , a “ virtual tunnel ” between Farragut West and Farragut North stations that allows SmarTrip customers to transfer above ground for free , provided that they do so within 30 minutes .
The contract for Metro 's fare collection system was awarded in 1975 to Cubic Transportation Systems . The current electronic fare collection started on July 1 , 1977 , a little more than a year after the first stations opened . Prior to electronic fare collection , exact change fareboxes were used . Metro 's paper farecard system is also shared by Bay Area Rapid Transit , which Cubic won a contract for in 1974 . In May 2014 , Metro announced plans to retrofit more than 500 fare vending machines throughout the system to dispense SmarTrip cards , rather than paper fare cards , and eventually eliminate magnetic fare cards entirely . This was completed in early December 2015 when the last paper farecard was sold . The faregates stopped accepting paper farecards on March 6 , 2016 .
Students at District of Columbia public schools ride both Metrobus and Metrorail for free .
= = Safety and security = =
= = = Security = = =
Metro planners designed the system with passenger safety and order maintenance as primary considerations . The open vaulted ceiling design of stations and the limited obstructions on platforms allow few opportunities to conceal criminal activity . Station platforms are built away from station walls to limit vandalism and provide for diffused lighting of the station from recessed lights . Metro 's attempts to reduce crime , combined with how the station environments were designed with crime prevention in mind , has contributed to Metro being among the safest and cleanest subway systems in the United States . There are nearly 6 @,@ 000 video surveillance cameras used across the system to enhance security .
Metro is patrolled by its own police force , which is charged with ensuring the safety of passengers and employees . Transit Police officers patrol the Metro system and Metrobuses , and they have jurisdiction and arrest powers throughout the 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) Metro service area for crimes that occur on or against transit authority facilities , or within 150 feet ( 46 m ) of a Metrobus stop . The Metro Transit Police Department is one of two U.S. police agencies that has local police authority in three " state " -level jurisdictions ( Maryland , Virginia , and the District of Columbia ) , the U.S. Park Police being the other .
Each city and county in the Metro service area has similar ordinances that regulate or prohibit vending on Metro @-@ owned property , and which prohibit riders from eating , drinking , or smoking in Metro trains , buses , and stations ; the Transit Police have a reputation for enforcing these laws rigorously . One widely publicized incident occurred in October 2000 when police arrested 12 @-@ year @-@ old Ansche Hedgepeth for eating french fries in the Tenleytown @-@ AU station . In a 2004 opinion by John Roberts , now Chief Justice of the United States , the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Hedgepeth 's arrest . By then WMATA had answered negative publicity by adopting a policy of first issuing warnings to juveniles , and arresting them only after three violations within a year .
Metro 's zero @-@ tolerance policy on food , trash and other sources of disorder embodies the " broken windows " philosophy of crime reduction . This philosophy also extends to the use of station restroom facilities . A longstanding policy , intended to curb unlawful and unwanted activity , has been to only allow employees to use Metro restrooms . Station managers may make exceptions for passengers with small children , the elderly , or the disabled . Metro now allows the use of restrooms by passengers who gain a station manager 's permission , except during periods of heightened terror alerts .
= = = = Random bag searches = = = =
On October 27 , 2008 , the Metro Transit Police Department announced plans to immediately begin random searches of backpacks , purses , and other bags . Transit police would search riders at random before boarding a bus or entering a station . It also explained its intent to stop anyone acting suspiciously . Metro claims that the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit decision in MacWade v. Kelly , which upheld random searches on the New York City Subway , allows Metro Transit Police to take similar action . Metro Transit Police Chief Michael Taborn stated that , if someone were to turn around and simply enter the system through another escalator or elevator , Metro has " a plan to address suspicious behavior " . Security expert Bruce Schneier characterized the plan as " security theater against a movie plot threat " and does not believe random bag searches actually improve security .
The Metro Riders ' Advisory Council recommended to WMATA ’ s board of directors that Metro hold at least one public meeting regarding the search program . As of December 2008 , Metro had not conducted a single bag search .
In 2010 Metro once again announced that it would implement random bag searches , and conducted the first such searches on December 21 , 2010 . The searches consist of swabbing bags and packages for explosive residue , and X @-@ raying or opening any packages which turned up positive . On the first day of searches , at least one false positive for explosives was produced , which Metro officials indicated could occur for a variety of reasons including if a passenger had recently been in contact with firearms or been to a firing range . The DC Bill of Rights Coalition and the Montgomery County Civil Rights Coalition circulated a petition against random bag searches , taking the position that the practice violates the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and would not improve security . On January 3 , 2011 Metro held a public forum for the searches at a Metro Riders ' Advisory Council meeting , at which more than 50 riders spoke out , most of them in opposition to the searches . However at the meeting Metro officials called random bag inspections a " success " and claimed that few riders had complained .
= = = Safety = = =
= = = = Accidents and incidents = = = =
Several collisions have occurred on Washington Metro , resulting in injuries and fatalities , along with numerous derailments with few or no injuries . WMATA has been criticized for disregarding safety warnings and advice from experts . The Tri @-@ State Oversight Committee oversees WMATA , but has no regulatory authority . Metro 's safety department is usually in charge of investigating incidents , but cannot require other Metro departments to implement its recommendations .
= = = = = Collisions = = = = =
During the Blizzard of 1996 , on January 6 , a Metro operator was killed when a train failed to stop at the Shady Grove station . The four @-@ car train overran the station platform and struck an unoccupied train that was awaiting assignment . The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigation found that the crash was a result of a failure in the train 's computer @-@ controlled braking system . The NTSB recommended that Metro grant train operators the ability to manually control the braking system , even in inclement weather , and recommended that Metro prohibit parked rail cars on tracks used by incoming outbound trains .
On November 3 , 2004 , an out @-@ of @-@ service Red Line train rolled backwards into the Woodley Park station , hitting an in @-@ service train stopped at the platform . The rear car ( 1077 ) was telescoped by the first car of the standing train ( 4018 ) . No one was killed , but 20 people were injured . A 14 @-@ month investigation concluded that the train operator was most likely not alert as the train rolled backwards into the station . Safety officials estimated that had the train been full , at least 79 people would have died . The train operator was dismissed and Metro officials agreed to add rollback protection to more than 300 rail cars .
On June 22 , 2009 at 5 : 02 pm , two trains on the Red Line collided . A southbound train heading toward Shady Grove stopped on the track short of the Fort Totten station , and another southbound train collided with its rear . The front car of the moving train ( 1079 ) was telescoped by the rear car of the standing train ( 5066 ) , and passengers were trapped . Nine people died and more than 70 were injured , dozens of whom were described as " walking wounded " . Red Line service was suspended between the Fort Totten and Takoma stations , and New Hampshire Avenue was closed . One of the dead was the operator of the train that collided with the stopped train .
On November 29 , 2009 , at 4 : 27 am , two trains collided at the West Falls Church train yard . One train pulled in and collided into the back of the other train . No customers were aboard , and only minor injuries to the operators and cleaning staff were reported . However , three cars ( 1106 , 1171 , and 3216 ) were believed to be damaged beyond repair .
= = = = = Derailments = = = = =
On January 13 , 1982 , a train derailed at a malfunctioning crossover switch south of the Federal Triangle station . In attempting to restore the train to the rails , supervisors failed to notice that another car had also derailed . The other rail car slid off the track and hit a tunnel support , killing three people and injuring 25 . Coincidentally , this accident occurred about 30 minutes after Air Florida Flight 90 crashed into the nearby 14th Street Bridge during a major snowstorm .
On January 20 , 2003 , during construction of a new canopy at the National Airport station , Metro began running trains through the center track even though it had not been constructed for standard operations , and a Blue Line train derailed at the switch . No injuries resulted , but the accident delayed construction by a number of weeks .
On January 7 , 2007 , a Green Line train carrying approximately 120 people derailed near the Mount Vernon Square station in downtown Washington . Trains were single @-@ tracking at the time , and the derailment of the fifth car occurred where the train was switching from the south to northbound track . The accident injured at least 18 people and prompted the rescue of 60 people from a tunnel . At least one person had a serious but non @-@ life @-@ threatening injury .
The Mount Vernon Square accident was one of a series of five derailments involving 5000 @-@ Series cars , with four of those occurring on side tracks and not involving passengers .
On June 9 , 2008 , an Orange Line train ( 2000 @-@ series ) derailed between the Rosslyn and Court House stations .
On February 12 , 2010 , a Red Line train derailed at about 10 : 13 am as it left the Farragut North station in downtown Washington . After leaving the station , the train entered the pocket track north of the station . As it continued , an automatic derailer at the end of the pocket track intentionally derailed the train as a safety measure . If the train had continued moving forward on the pocket track , it would have entered the path of an oncoming train . The wheels of the first two cars in the six @-@ car , White @-@ Flint @-@ bound train were forced off the tracks , stopping the train . Almost all of the estimated 345 passengers were evacuated from the damaged train by 11 : 50 am and the NTSB arrived on the accident scene by noon . Two minor injuries were reported , and a third passenger was taken to George Washington University Hospital . The NTSB ruled the accident was due to the train operator 's failure to follow standard procedures , and WMATA management for failure to provide proper supervision of the train operator which resulted in the incomplete configuration of the train identification and destination codes leading to the routing of the train into the pocket track .
On April 24 , 2012 , around 7 : 15 pm , a Blue Line train bound for Franconia – Springfield derailed near Rosslyn . No injuries were reported .
On July 6 , 2012 , around 4 : 45 pm , a Green Line train bound for downtown Washington , DC and Branch Avenue derailed near West Hyattsville . No injuries were reported . A heat kink , due to the hot weather , was identified as the probable cause of the accident .
On August 6 , 2015 , a non @-@ passenger train derailed outside Smithsonian station . The track condition that caused the derailment had been detected a month earlier but was not repaired .
= = = = Safety measures = = = =
On July 13 , 2009 , WMATA adopted a " zero tolerance " policy for train or bus operators found to be texting or using other hand @-@ held devices while on the job . This new and stricter policy came after investigations of several mass @-@ transit accidents in the U.S. found that operators were texting at the time of the accident . The policy change was announced the day after a passenger of a Metro train videotaped the operator texting while operating the train .
= = = = = Smoke incidents = = = = =
On January 12 , 2015 , during early evening rush , a Yellow Line train stopped in the tunnel and filled with smoke just after departing L 'Enfant Plaza for Pentagon due to " an electrical arcing event " ahead in the tunnel . Everyone on board was evacuated ; 84 people were taken to hospitals and one person died .
On March 14 , 2016 , an electrified rail caught fire between McPherson Square and Farragut West , causing significant disruptions on the Blue , Orange , and Silver lines . On March 15 , a decision was made to close the entire rail network the following day to inspect the network 's entire electric rail power grid .
= = Future expansion = =
WMATA expects an average of one million riders daily by 2030 . The need to increase capacity has renewed plans to add 220 cars to the system and reroute trains to alleviate congestion at the busiest stations . Population growth in the region has also revived efforts to extend service , build new stations , and construct additional lines .
= = = Silver Line = = =
The most prominent expansion is the Dulles Corridor Metrorail Project , dubbed the Silver Line , a 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) extension from the Orange Line into Loudoun County , Virginia , by way of Tysons Corner and Washington Dulles International Airport . Rail to Dulles has been discussed since the system opened in 1976 . The current Silver Line project was formally proposed in 2002 and initially approved by the Federal Transit Administration in 2004 . After several delays , federal funding for Phase 1 was secured in December 2008 and construction began in March 2009 . The line will be constructed in two phases ; the first phase to Wiehle – Reston East in Reston , Virginia opened July 26 , 2014 , and the second phase to Virginia Route 772 , beyond Dulles Airport , is projected for completion in 2019 or 2020 .
= = = Blue Line realignment = = =
Blue Line trains share a single tunnel with Orange Line and Silver Line trains to cross the Potomac River . The current tunnel limits service in each direction , creating a choke point . A 2001 proposal would have rerouted the Blue Line between the Rosslyn and Stadium – Armory stations by building a bridge or tunnel from Virginia to a new station in Georgetown . The proposal was later rejected due to cost , but Metro again started considering a similar scenario in 2011 .
= = = Orange Line extension = = =
The Virginia Department of Transportation ( VDOT ) announced on Jan 18 , 2008 that it and the Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation ( VDPRT ) had begun work on a draft environmental impact statement ( EIS ) for the I @-@ 66 corridor in Fairfax and Prince William counties . According to VDOT the EIS , officially named the I @-@ 66 Multimodal Transportation and Environment Study , would focus on improving mobility along I @-@ 66 from the Capital Beltway ( I @-@ 495 ) interchange in Fairfax County to the interchange with U.S. Route 15 in Prince William County . The EIS also allegedly includes a four station extension of the Orange Line past Vienna . The extension would continue to run in the I @-@ 66 median and would have stations at Chain Bridge Road , Fair Oaks , Stringfellow Road and Centreville near Virginia Route 28 and U.S. Route 29 . In its final report published June 8 , 2012 , the study and analysis revealed that an " extension would have a minimal impact on Metrorail ridership and volumes on study area roadways inside the Beltway and would therefore not relieve congestion in the study corridor . "
= = = Fort Belvoir and Fort Meade extensions = = =
In 2005 , the Defense Department announced that it would be shifting 18 @,@ 000 jobs to Fort Belvoir in Virginia and at least 5 @,@ 000 jobs to Fort Meade in Maryland by 2012 , as part of that year 's Base Realignment and Closure plan . In anticipation of such a move , local officials and the military proposed extending the Blue and Green Lines to service each base . The proposed extension of the Green Line could cost $ 100 million per mile ( $ 60 million per kilometer ) , and a light rail extension to Fort Belvoir was estimated to cost up to $ 800 million . Neither proposal has established timelines for planning or construction .
= = = Potomac Yard station = = =
In 2008 , officials began to explore the possibility of adding an infill station called Potomac Yard in the Potomac Yard area of Alexandria , on the Blue and Yellow Lines between the National Airport and Braddock Road stations . In 2010 , the Alexandria City Council approved a portion of the proposed $ 240 million construction of the station . If the council approves the final budget , construction would start in 2017 and the station would be scheduled to open in late 2018 or early 2019 .
= = = Other new rail lines = = =
In 2011 , Metro began studying the needs of the system through 2040 . New Metro rail lines and extensions under consideration as part of this long term plan include : a new line which parallels the Capital Beltway ; a new line from the Friendship Heights Metro station to White Oak , Maryland , which would pass through the District and Silver Spring ; an extension of the Green Line to National Harbor in Maryland ; and re @-@ routing the Blue Line in the District between the Orange Line and Green Line . None of these lines are yet funded for planning or construction .
= = = Related non @-@ WMATA projects = = =
A number of light rail and urban streetcar projects have been proposed to extend or supplement service provided by Metro . Like the Silver Line in Virginia , the proposed Purple Line has been in planning since the 1980s . The project was originally envisioned as a circular heavy rail line connecting the outer stations on each branch of the Metrorail system , in a pattern roughly mirroring the Capital Beltway . The current proposal would create a light rail system in Maryland between the Bethesda and New Carrollton stations by way of Silver Spring and College Park . Such a plan would connect both branches of the Red Line to the Green and Orange Lines , and would decrease the travel time between suburban Metro stations .
The Corridor Cities Transitway ( CCT ) is a proposed 15 miles ( 24 km ) bus rapid transit line that would link Clarksburg , Maryland in northern Montgomery County with the Shady Grove station on the Red Line . Assuming that the anticipated federal , state , and local government funds are provided , construction of the first 9 miles ( 14 km ) of the system would begin in 2018 .
In 2005 , a Maryland lawmaker proposed a light rail system to connect areas of Southern Maryland , especially the rapidly growing area around the town of Waldorf , to the Branch Avenue station on the Green Line . The project is still in the planning stages .
The District of Columbia Department of Transportation is building the new DC Streetcar system to improve transit connectivity within the District . A tram line to connect Bolling Air Force Base to the Anacostia station and was originally expected to open in 2010 . Streetcar routes have been proposed in the Atlas District , Capitol Hill , and the K Street corridor . After seven years of construction , the Atlas District route , known as the H / Benning Street route , opened on February 27 , 2016 .
= = = Official websites = = =
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority Official site
MetroForward channel on YouTube – official WMATA videos
Metro Transit Police Official site
Dulles Corridor Metrorail Project
= = = Transit enthusiast sites = = =
world.nycsubway.org Washington Metro
The Schumin Web Transit Center ( WMATA )
Oren 's Transit Page ( Washington , D.C. )
Washington @-@ DC @-@ Metro.com – A retired WMATA employee reflects on 27 years of insider experiences .
UrbanRail.net Washington Metro
John R. Cambron . " Various Documents , Pictures and Maps of Washington Metro " . Archived from the original on April 9 , 2007 .
" Home Page of John R Cambron " . Archived from the original on 2014 @-@ 09 @-@ 02 .
" The Pipeshaft : Infrastructure of the D.C. Metrorail " . Archived from the original on April 17 , 2007 .
GP Bus Gallery
MetroSongs , folksongs about the DC Metro by Jason Mendelson
= = = Maps = = =
DCRails.com Google Maps representation of Metrorail with address lookup .
An alternate Google Maps representation showing all lines drawn in
Archived versions : [ 1 ] [ 2 ] of a track map on nycsubway.org that was removed post @-@ 9 / 11 at the request of WMATA . Wheaton and Forest Glen stations are shown with a single island platform when they actually have two separate inside platforms connected by a passageway . The flying junction at Rosslyn is shown with the incorrect track on top ( although the platforms are shown correctly ) . It fails to show the tail tracks at Huntington station .
Track schematic of 106 Mile System
" Track schematic of 129 mile system ( Dulles Corridor Metrorail Project " . Archived from the original on 2015 @-@ 04 @-@ 20 .
Proposed 2030 Track schematic
Proposed 2040 Track schematic
Stationmasters , map of the Washington Metro with 360 @-@ degree photos of each station 's surroundings and highly detailed local maps
Washington Metro daily rail operations visualized ( Java applet , unofficial )
= = = Equipment = = =
" Document describing line nomenclature , operation and signaling " . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2007 .
" On Track With Added Value " . Engineered Casting Solutions . November – December 2005 . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2006 .
= = = Other websites = = =
Dulles Corridor Rail Association
StationMasters Online Neighborhood maps and panoramic photographs of each station
MetroRiders.Org Metro Passenger Advocacy Group
Building the Washington Metro
How ’ s Metro ? Live Metrorail status display
Zachary M. Schrag ( 2006 ) . The Great Society Subway : A History of the Washington Metro . JHU Press .
Unsuck DC Metro Metro rider discussion forum .
Metro Documentary produced by WETA @-@ TV
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= My Worlds Acoustic =
My Worlds Acoustic is the first remix album by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . It was released on November 26 , 2010 and was initially sold exclusively at Walmart retail stores and Sam 's Club . The album features nine acoustic versions of songs from his debut extended play , My World , and first album My World 2 @.@ 0 , as well as a new song " Pray . " The new versions of the songs were produced by Bieber 's music director , Dan Kanter , his vocal producer Kuk Harrell , and also producer Rob Wells . Internationally , the set is included as a part of the compilation album , My Worlds : The Collection , which included songs from the previous two releases . My Worlds Acoustic was released to iTunes , on February 8 , 2011 .
According to Bieber , he wanted to release the album for the naysayers who critiqued his actual singing ability . The singer said that he wanted to have an acoustic album , to reflect the effect of production on his vocals . Although labeled as an acoustic album , the songs still include subtle usages of electronic sounds such as synthesizers . The album received generally favorable reviews from critics , however most critics were not satisfied that the album was not genuinely acoustic . In Canada , the song debuted at number five , and later peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart and certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . My Worlds Acoustic debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 , selling 115 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , becoming Bieber 's third consecutive top ten album .
= = Background and marketing = =
On October 18 , 2010 , Bieber announced on his Twitter plans for an acoustic album in time for the holiday season , and that it would feature unplugged versions of his songs , as well as a new song . Days later , on October 24 , 2010 , he revealed that the album was set for release on November 26 , 2010 . In an interview with MTV News , Bieber said that the album was for the " haters " who say he cannot sing and saying his voice was auto @-@ tuned , and that " stripping it down and having it kind of really mellow and being able to hear my voice " was his purpose . The singer said he wanted to do the acoustic set because the Electronic Music production sometimes " drowns out your voice " and " takes away from the singer , over the synths and everything . " According to Kyle Anderson of MTV News the album might not have been " just another project " , but rather the purpose could be " to prove the he has the skills to sustain a long and fulfilling career . " In the same interview he confirmed that " Baby " and other My World 2 @.@ 0 songs were re @-@ recorded , as well as a new song .
It was later confirmed that the song was an inspirational song entitled , " Pray . " According to Bieber , the song is a gift to his fans . The song 's arrangement is set to reflect Bieber 's music before he was discovered , but also includes instrumentation from a string quartet , congas , and a cajón drum , the latter to represent Bieber 's worldy travels , specifically to Africa . While Bieber was being interviewed by Ryan Seacrest on his radio show , Bieber talked about the song 's initial writing stating that it was influenced by Michael Jackson , and he thought of Jackson 's " Man in the Mirror " when writing the song . Vocally , Bieber 's vocals are sung in a lower key compared to previous singles . Bieber plays guitar on the album , along with his guitarist and musical director Dan Kanter . The new versions of the other songs on the album were produced by Kanter , Bieber 's vocal producer Kuk Harrell , and also producer Rob Wells .
To promote the album as well as draw interest for Bieber 's then @-@ upcoming 3D film , Justin Bieber : Never Say Never , Bieber shot an alternate music video for the acoustic version of the song , " Never Say Never . " The video premiered during Game 3 of the 2010 World Series , and in the clip , the singer dons apparel from both teams . Bieber performed " Pray " for the first time at the 2010 American Music Awards . The performance opened with Bieber sitting playing the piano while singing . Midway through the performance Bieber arose from the piano and took center stage ; he was accompanied by a choir singing background vocals . The performance was ended with Bieber kneeling singing the song 's title , the performance was greeted by standing ovation from the audience . After originally being sold only at Walmart and Sam 's Club first , the album was released on iTunes on February 11 , 2011 , accompanying the release of Justin Bieber : Never Say Never , and preceding the release of Never Say Never – The Remixes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Lucy Jones of The Daily Telegraph said that " with catchy choruses , soulful key changes and cute hooks laid bare , these are undeniably brilliant pop songs . " Jones further commented that " finger clicks , bongos and mellow guitars are a welcome change from the squealing synths and pounding beats favoured by Bieber and his peers , " and that the album had the ability to connect with audiences beyond his demographic . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B- " rating , stating that the album doesn 't change Bieber 's beloved " kiddie @-@ soul vocals " calling it " perfunctory " , but said that acoustic renditions such as " Baby " , " One Time " and new song " Pray " deliver their " saccharine payload . " Thomas Conneron of Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that " calming down several of the pop tunes with slower tempos and patient singing " was not bad and that slowing everything down made listeners hear how the singer 's voice had matured .
Calling it " the sugariest acoustic album in history , " Allison Stewart of The Washington Post said " its arrangements and melodies – the best parts of any Bieber record - are stripped down but otherwise little changed , demonstrating just how great most of these songs were to begin with . " Stewart also said that urban numbers such as " Baby , " " survive their makeovers without a hitch . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic gave the album 2 and a half out of 5 stars saying that the album was " an enticement . " Dan Savoie of Rockstar Weekly gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , saying that it is " the perfect showcase for a talented young artist who 's on his way to the Grammy Awards this year . " Although she commented that the " acoustic " labeling was a bit misleading , Monica Hererra of Billboard said that the album " succeeds " , calling songs like the live version of " Favorite Girl " the album 's saving grace and " truly acoustic . " On the former , Herrera said , " It 's the one moment where you can hear all of the young artist 's strengths falling in line @-@ raw talent , maturing vocals and , of course , an all @-@ too @-@ valuable connection with his fans . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In Canada , My Worlds Acoustic it debuted at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart , then rose to number four the following week . The album was subsequently certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association the same month it was released , shifting over 80 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 with 115 @,@ 000 copies sold in the first week released . My Worlds Acoustic became Bieber 's second top ten album in a little over a year , following the extended play My World and debut studio album , My World 2 @.@ 0 . After fluctuating on the chart for weeks , due to the album being available for digital download on iTunes , the album returned to the top ten of the Billboard on the week of February 26 , 2011 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from My Worlds Acoustic liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= French ironclad Marengo =
Marengo was a wooden @-@ hulled , armored frigate of the Océan class , built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s . The ship was running her sea trials in July 1870 when the Franco @-@ Prussian War began and was immediately placed in reserve until after the war was over . Marengo participated in the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 and was flagship of the Northern Squadron in 1891 when it made port visits in Britain and Russia . She was sold for scrap in 1896 .
= = Design and description = =
The Océan @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as an improved version of the Provence @-@ class ironclads . The ships were central battery ironclads with the armament concentrated amidships . For the first time in a French ironclad three watertight iron bulkheads were fitted in the hull . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ship measured 87 @.@ 73 meters ( 287 ft 10 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 52 meters ( 57 ft 6 in ) . Marengo had a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 09 meters ( 29 ft 10 in ) and displaced 7 @,@ 749 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 627 long tons ) . Her crew numbered between 750 and 778 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ship was very low , between 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Océan @-@ class ships had one horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engines were powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 3 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 700 kW ) and Marego reached 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . She carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Océan @-@ class ships were barque or barquentine @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
These ships had their main armament mounted in four barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery , with the remaining guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . Marengo 's armament was upgraded , before she commissioned , to four 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in the barbettes , and on the battery deck , four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) and seven 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns . By 1885 two more 274 @-@ millimeter guns had been added and all of the 138 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns .
The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modéle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modele 1870 gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
At some point the ship received a dozen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . The hull was not recessed to enable any of the guns on the battery deck to fire forward or aft . However , the guns mounted in the barbettes sponsoned out over the sides of the hull did have some ability to fire fore and aft . Late in the ship 's career four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added .
= = = Armor = = =
The Ocean @-@ class ships had a complete 178 – 203 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 in ) wrought iron waterline belt . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbette armor was 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates . Gardiner says that the barbette armor was later removed to improve their stability , but this is not confirmed by any other source .
= = Service = =
Marengo was laid down at Brest in July 1865 and launched on 15 October 1868 . The ship began her sea trials on 1 July 1870 and was running them when the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 began . She was immediately put in reserve and not commissioned until 1872 for service with the Mediterranean Squadron . Marengo remained with the squadron until 1876 when she was again placed in reserve . On 2 October 1880 the ship was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron . Marengo was transferred to the Levant Squadron ( French : Division Navale du Levant ) on 13 February 1881 and bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . She remained in the Mediterranean until 1886 when she was assigned to the Reserve Squadron . In 1888 Marengo became the flagship of the Northern Squadron and led the squadron during its port visits to Osborne Bay and Spithead in August 1891 and to Kronstadt in September 1891 . She was reduced to reserve the following year and sold on 7 March 1896 .
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= Central London Railway =
The Central London Railway ( CLR ) , also known as the Twopenny Tube , was a deep @-@ level , underground " tube " railway that opened in London in 1900 . The CLR 's tunnels and stations form the central section of the London Underground 's Central line .
The railway company was established in 1889 , funding for construction was obtained in 1895 through a syndicate of financiers and work took place from 1896 to 1900 . When opened , the CLR served 13 stations and ran completely underground in a pair of tunnels for 9 @.@ 14 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 68 mi ) between its western terminus at Shepherd 's Bush and its eastern terminus at the Bank of England , with a depot and power station to the north of the western terminus . After a rejected proposal to turn the line into a loop , it was extended at the western end to Wood Lane in 1908 and at the eastern end to Liverpool Street station in 1912 . In 1920 , it was extended along a Great Western Railway line to Ealing to serve a total distance of 17 @.@ 57 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 92 mi ) .
After initially making good returns for investors , the CLR suffered a decline in passenger numbers due to increased competition from other underground railway lines and new motorised buses . In 1913 , it was taken over by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) , operator of the majority of London 's underground railways . In 1933 the CLR was taken into public ownership along with the UERL .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Origin , 1889 – 92 = = =
In November 1889 , the CLR published a notice of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the 1890 parliamentary session . The bill proposed an underground electric railway running from the junction of Queen 's Road ( now Queensway ) and Bayswater Road in Bayswater to King William Street in the City of London with a connection to the then @-@ under construction , City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) at Arthur Street West . The CLR was to run in a pair of tunnels under Bayswater Road , Oxford Street , New Oxford Street , High Holborn , Holborn , Holborn Viaduct , Newgate Street , Cheapside , and Poultry . Stations were planned at Queen 's Road , Stanhope Terrace , Marble Arch , Oxford Circus , Tottenham Court Road , Southampton Row , Holborn Circus , St. Martin 's Le Grand and King William Street .
The tunnels were to be 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 35 m ) in diameter , constructed with a tunnelling shield , and would be lined with cast iron segments . At stations , the tunnel diameter would be 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 71 m ) or 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 84 m ) depending on layout . A depot and power station were to be constructed on a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) site on the west side of Queen 's Road . Hydraulic lifts from the street to the platforms were to be provided at each station .
The proposals faced strong objections from the Metropolitan and District Railways ( MR and DR ) whose routes on the Inner Circle , to the north and the south respectively , the CLR route paralleled ; and from which the new line was expected to take passengers . The City Corporation also objected , concerned about potential damage to buildings close to the route caused by subsidence as was experienced during the construction of the C & SLR . The Dean and Chapter of St Paul 's Cathedral objected , concerned about the risks of undermining the cathedral 's foundations . Sir Joseph Bazalgette objected that the tunnels would damage the city 's sewer system . The bill was approved by the House of Commons , but was rejected by the House of Lords , which recommended that any decision be postponed until after the C & SLR had opened and its operation could be assessed .
In November 1890 , with the C & SLR about to start operating , the CLR announced a new bill for the 1891 parliamentary session . The route was extended at the western end to run under Notting Hill High Street ( now Notting Hill Gate ) and Holland Park Avenue to end at the eastern corner of Shepherd 's Bush Green , with the depot and power station site relocated to be north of the terminus on the east side of Wood Lane . The westward extension of the route was inspired by the route of abandoned plans for the London Central Subway , a sub @-@ surface railway that was briefly proposed in early 1890 to run directly below the roadway on a similar route to the CLR . The eastern terminus was changed to Cornhill and the proposed Southampton Row station was replaced by one in Bloomsbury . Intermediate stations were added at Lansdowne Road , Notting Hill Gate , Davies Street ( which the CLR planned to extend northwards to meet Oxford Street ) and at Chancery Lane . The earlier plan to connect to the C & SLR was dropped and the diameter of the CLR 's tunnels was increased to 11 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 51 m ) . This time the bill was approved by both Houses of Parliament and received Royal Assent on 5 August 1891 as the Central London Railway Act , 1891 . In November 1891 , the CLR publicised another bill . The eastern end of the line was re @-@ routed north @-@ east and extended to end under the Great Eastern Railway 's ( GER 's ) terminus at Liverpool Street station with the Cornhill terminus dropped and a new station proposed at the Royal Exchange . The proposals received assent as the Central London Railway Act , 1892 on 28 June 1892 .
The money to build the CLR was obtained through a syndicate of financiers including Ernest Cassel , Henry Oppenheim , Darius Ogden Mills , and members of the Rothschild family . On 22 March 1894 , the syndicate incorporated a contractor to construct the railway , the Electric Traction Company Limited ( ETCL ) , which agreed a construction cost of £ 2 @,@ 544 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 261 million today ) plus £ 700 @,@ 000 in 4 per cent debenture stock . When the syndicate offered 285 @,@ 000 CLR company shares for sale at £ 10 each in June 1895 , only 14 per cent was bought by the British public , which was cautious of such investments following failures of similar railway schemes . Some shares were sold in Europe and the United States , but the unsold remainder was bought by members of the syndicate or by the ETCL .
= = = Construction , 1896 – 1900 = = =
To design the railway , the CLR employed the engineers James Henry Greathead , Sir John Fowler , and Sir Benjamin Baker . Greathead had been the engineer for the Tower Subway and the C & SLR , and had developed the tunnelling shield used to excavate those companies ' tunnels under the River Thames . Fowler had been the engineer on the Metropolitan Railway , the world 's first underground railway opened in 1863 , and Baker had worked on New York 's elevated railways and on the Forth Railway Bridge with Fowler . Greathead died shortly after work began and was replaced by Basil Mott , his assistant during the construction of the C & SLR .
Like most legislation of its kind , the act of 1891 imposed a time limit for the compulsory purchase of land and the raising of capital . The original date specified for completion of construction was the end of 1896 , but the time required to raise the finance and purchase station sites meant that construction had not begun by the start of that year . To give itself extra time , the CLR had obtained an extension of time to 1899 by the Central London Railway Act , 1894 . Construction works were let by the ETCL as three sub @-@ contracts : Shepherd 's Bush to Marble Arch , Marble Arch to St Martin 's Le Grand and St Martin 's Le Grand to Bank . Work began with demolition of buildings at the Chancery Lane site in April 1896 and construction shafts were started at Chancery Lane , Shepherd 's Bush , Stanhope Terrace and Bloomsbury in August and September 1896 .
Negotiations with the GER for the works under Liverpool Street station were unsuccessful , and the final section beyond Bank was only constructed for a short distance as sidings . To minimise the risk of subsidence , the routing of the tunnels followed the roads on the surface and avoided passing under buildings . Usually the tunnels were bored side by side 60 – 110 feet ( 18 – 34 m ) below the surface , but where a road was too narrow to allow this , the tunnels were aligned one above the other , so that a number of stations have platforms at different levels . To assist with the deceleration of trains arriving at stations and the acceleration of trains leaving , station tunnels were located at the tops of slight inclines .
Tunnelling was completed by the end of 1898 , and , because a planned concrete lining to the cast iron tunnel rings was not installed , the internal diameter of the tunnels was generally 11 feet 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 3 @.@ 56 m ) . For Bank station , the CLR negotiated permission with the City Corporation to construct its ticket hall beneath a steel framework under the roadway and pavements at the junction of Threadneedle Street and Cornhill . This involved diverting pipework and cables into ducts beneath the subways linking the ticket hall to the street . Delays on this work were so costly that they nearly bankrupted the company . A further extension of time to 1900 was obtained through the Central London Railway Act , 1899 .
Apart from Bank , which was completely below ground , all stations had buildings designed by Harry Bell Measures . They were single @-@ storey structures to allow for future commercial development above and had elevations faced in beige terracotta . Each station had lifts manufactured by the Sprague Electric Company in New York . The lifts were provided in a variety of sizes and configurations to suit the passenger flow at each station . Generally they operated in sets of two or three in a shared shaft . Station tunnel walls were finished in plain white ceramic tiles and lit by electric arc lamps . The electricity to run the trains and the stations was supplied from the power station at Wood Lane at 5,000V AC which was converted at sub @-@ stations along the route to 550V DC to power the trains via a third rail system .
= = Opening = =
The official opening of the CLR by the Prince of Wales took place on 27 June 1900 , one day before the time limit of the 1899 Act , although the line did not open to the public until 30 July 1900 . The railway had stations at :
Shepherd 's Bush
Holland Park
Notting Hill Gate
Queen 's Road ( now Queensway )
Lancaster Gate
Marble Arch
Bond Street ( opened 24 September 1900 )
Oxford Circus
Tottenham Court Road
British Museum ( closed 1933 )
Chancery Lane
Post Office ( now St. Paul 's )
Bank
The CLR charged a flat fare of two pence for a journey between any two stations , leading the Daily Mail to give the railway the nickname of the Twopenny Tube in August 1900 . The service was very popular , and , by the end of 1900 , the railway had carried 14 @,@ 916 @,@ 922 passengers . By attracting passengers from the bus services along its route and from the slower , steam @-@ hauled , MR and DR services , the CLR achieved passenger numbers around 45 million per year in the first few years of operation , generating a high turnover that was more than twice the expenses . From 1900 to 1905 , the company paid a dividend of 4 per cent to investors .
= = Rolling stock = =
Greathead had originally planned for the trains to be hauled by a pair of small electric locomotives , one at each end of a train , but the Board of Trade rejected this proposal and a larger locomotive was designed which was able to pull up to seven carriages on its own . Twenty @-@ eight locomotives were manufactured in America by the General Electric Company ( of which syndicate member Darius Ogden Mills was a director ) and assembled in the Wood Lane depot . A fleet of 168 carriages was manufactured by the Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron Company and the Brush Electrical Engineering Company . Passengers boarded and left the trains through folding lattice gates at each end of the carriages ; these gates were operated by guards who rode on an outside platform . The CLR had originally intended to have two classes of travel , but dropped the plan before opening , although its carriages were built with different qualities of interior fittings for this purpose .
Soon after the railway opened , complaints about vibrations from passing trains began to be made by occupiers of buildings along the route . The vibrations were caused by the heavy , largely unsprung locomotives which weighed 44 tons ( 44 @.@ 7 tonnes ) . The Board of Trade set up a committee to investigate the problem , and the CLR experimented with two solutions . For the first solution , three locomotives were modified to use lighter motors and were provided with improved suspension , so the weight was reduced to 31 tons ( 31 @.@ 5 tonnes ) , more of which was sprung to reduce vibrations ; for the second solution , two six @-@ carriage trains were formed that had the two end carriages converted and provided with driver 's cabs and their own motors so they could run as multiple units without a separate locomotive . The lighter locomotives did reduce the vibrations felt at the surface , but the multiple units removed it almost completely and the CLR chose to adopt that solution . The committee 's report , published in 1902 , also found that the CLR 's choice of 100 lb / yard ( 49 @.@ 60 kg / m ) bridge rail for its tracks rather than a stiffer bullhead rail on cross sleepers contributed to the vibration .
Following the report , the CLR purchased 64 driving motor carriages for use with the existing stock ; together , these were formed into six- or seven @-@ carriage trains . The change to multiple unit operation was completed by June 1903 and all but two of the locomotives were scrapped . Those two were retained for shunting use in the depot .
= = Extensions = =
= = = Reversing loops , 1901 = = =
The CLR 's ability to manage its high passenger numbers was constrained by the service interval that it could achieve between trains . This was directly related to the time taken to turn around trains at the termini . At the end of a journey , a locomotive had to be disconnected from the leading end of the train and run around to the rear , where it was reconnected before proceeding in the opposite direction ; an exercise that took a minimum of 2 ½ minutes . Seeking to shorten this interval , the CLR published a bill in November 1900 for the 1901 parliamentary session . The bill requested permission to construct loops at each end of the line so that trains could be turned around without disconnecting the locomotive . The loop at the western end was planned to run anti @-@ clockwise under the three sides of Shepherd 's Bush Green . For the eastern loop the alternatives were a loop under Liverpool Street station or a larger loop running under Threadneedle Street , Old Broad Street , Liverpool Street , Bishopsgate and returning to Threadneedle Street . The estimated cost of the loops was £ 800 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 78 @.@ 1 million today ) , most of which was for the eastern loop with its costly wayleaves .
The CLR bill was one of more than a dozen tube railway bills submitted to Parliament for the 1901 session , To review the bills on an equal basis , Parliament established a joint committee under Lord Windsor , but by the time the committee had produced its report , the parliamentary session was almost over and the promoters of the bills were asked to resubmit them for the following 1902 session . Among the committee 's recommendations were the withdrawal of the CLR 's City loop , and that a quick , tube route from Hammersmith to the City of London would benefit London 's commuters .
= = = Loop line , 1902 – 05 = = =
Rather than resubmit its 1901 bill , the CLR presented a much more ambitious alternative for the 1902 parliamentary session . The reversing loops were dropped , and the CLR instead proposed to turn the whole railway into a single large loop by constructing a new southern route between the two existing end points , adopting the committee 's recommendation for a Hammersmith to City route . At the western end , new tunnels were to be extended from the dead @-@ end reversing siding west of Shepherd 's Bush station and from the depot access tunnel . The route was to pass under Shepherd 's Bush Green and run under Goldhawk Road as far as Hammersmith Grove where it was to turn south . At the southern end of Hammersmith Grove a station was to be provided on the corner of Brook Green Road ( now Shepherd 's Bush Road ) to provide an interchange with the three stations already located there .
From Hammersmith , the CLR 's route was to turn eastwards and run under Hammersmith Road and Kensington High Street with interchange stations at the DR 's Addison Road ( now Kensington Olympia ) and High Street Kensington stations . From Kensington High Street , the route was to run along the south side of Kensington Gardens beneath Kensington Road , Kensington Gore and Knightsbridge . Stations were to be constructed at the Royal Albert Hall and the junction of Knightsbridge and Sloane Street , where the Brompton & Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) already had permission to build a station . From Sloane Street , the CLR 's proposed route ran below that approved for the B & PCR under the eastern portion of Knightsbridge , under Hyde Park Corner and along Piccadilly to Piccadilly Circus . At Hyde Park Corner , a CLR station was to be sited close to the B & PCR 's station and the CLR 's next station at St James 's Street was a short distance to the east of the B & PCR 's planned Dover Street station . At Piccadilly Circus , the CLR planned an interchange with the partially completed station of the stalled Baker Street and Waterloo Railway . The CLR route was then to turn south @-@ east beneath Leicester Square to a station at Charing Cross and then north @-@ east under Strand to Norfolk Street to interchange with the planned terminus of the Great Northern & Strand Railway .
The route was then to continue east under Fleet Street to Ludgate Circus for an interchange with the South Eastern and Chatham Railway 's ( SECR 's ) Ludgate Hill station , then south under New Bridge Street , and east into Queen Victoria Street where a station was planned to connect to the District Railway 's Mansion House station . The route was then to continue under Queen Victoria Street to reach the CLR 's station at Bank , where separate platforms below the existing ones were to be provided . The final section of the route developed on the proposed loop from the year before with tunnels winding under the City 's narrow , twisting streets . The tunnels were to run east , one below the other , beneath Cornhill and Leadenhall Street , north under St Mary Axe and west to Liverpool Street station , then south under Blomfield Street , east under Great Winchester Street , south under Austin Friars and Old Broad Street and west under Threadneedle Street where the tunnels were to connect with the existing sidings back into Bank . Two stations were to be provided on the loop ; at the south end of St Mary Axe and at Liverpool Street station . To accommodate the additional rolling stock needed to operate the longer line , the depot was to be extended northwards . The power station was also to be enlarged to increase the electricity supply . The CLR estimated that its plan would cost £ 3 @,@ 781 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 370 million today ) : £ 2 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 for construction , £ 873 @,@ 000 for land and £ 798 @,@ 000 for electrical equipment and trains .
The CLR bill was one of many presented for the 1902 parliamentary session ( including several for the Hammersmith to City route ) and it was examined by another joint committee under Lord Windsor . The proposal received support from the mainline railway companies the route interchanged with and from the C & SLR , which had a station at Bank . The London County Council and the City Corporation also supported the plan . The Metropolitan Railway opposed , seeing further competition to its services on the Inner Circle . Questions were raised in Parliament about the safety of tunnelling so close to the vaults of many City banks and the risk that subsidence might cause vault doors to jam shut . Another concern was the danger of undermining the foundations of the Dutch Church in Austin Friars . The Windsor committee rejected the section between Shepherd 's Bush and Bank , preferring a competing route from the J. P. Morgan @-@ backed Piccadilly , City and North East London Railway ( PC & NELR ) . Without the main part of its new route , the CLR withdrew the City loop , leaving a few improvements to the existing line to be approved in the Central London Railway Act , 1902 on 31 July 1902 .
In late 1902 , the PC & NELR plans collapsed after a falling out between the scheme 's promoters led to a crucial part of the planned route coming under the control of a rival , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) , which withdrew it from parliamentary consideration . With the PC & NELR scheme out of the way , the CLR resubmitted its bill in 1903 , although consideration was again held up by Parliament 's establishment of a Royal Commission on London Traffic tasked to assess the manner in which transport in London should be developed . While the Commission deliberated , any review of bills for new lines and extensions was postponed , so the CLR withdrew the bill . The CLR briefly re @-@ presented the bill for the 1905 parliamentary session but withdrew it again , before making an agreement with the UERL in October 1905 that neither company would submit a bill for an east – west route in 1906 . The plan was then dropped as the new trains with driving positions at both ends made it possible for the CLR to reduce the minimum interval between trains to two minutes without building the loop .
= = = Wood Lane , 1906 – 08 = = =
In 1905 , the government announced plans to hold an international exhibition to celebrate the Entente cordiale signed by France and Britain in 1904 . The location of the Franco @-@ British Exhibition 's White City site was across Wood Lane from the CLR 's depot . To exploit the opportunity to carry visitors to the exhibition , the CLR announced a bill in November 1906 seeking to create a loop from Shepherd 's Bush station and back , on which a new Wood Lane station close to the exhibition 's entrance would be built . The new work was approved on 26 July 1907 in the Central London Railway Act , 1907 .
The new loop was formed by constructing a section of tunnel joining the end of the dead @-@ end reversing tunnel to the west of Shepherd 's Bush station and the north side of the depot . From Shepherd 's Bush , trains ran anti @-@ clockwise around the single track loop , first through the original depot access tunnel , then passed the north side of the depot and through the new station before entering the new section of tunnel and returning to Shepherd 's Bush . Changes were also made to the depot layout to accommodate the new station and the new looped operations . Construction work on the exhibition site had started in January 1907 , and the exhibition and new station opened on 14 May 1908 . The station was on the surface between the two tunnel openings and was a basic design by Harry Bell Measures . It had platforms both sides of the curving track – passengers alighted on to one and boarded from the other ( an arrangement now known as the Spanish solution ) .
= = = Liverpool Street , 1908 – 12 = = =
With the extension to Wood Lane operational , the CLR revisited its earlier plan for an eastward extension from Bank to Liverpool Street station . This time , the Great Eastern Railway agreed to allow the CLR to build a station under its own main line terminus , provided that no further extension would be made north or north @-@ east from there – territory served by the GER 's routes from Liverpool Street . A bill was announced in November 1908 , for the 1909 parliamentary session and received Royal Assent as the Central London Railway Act , 1909 on 16 August 1909 . Construction started in July 1910 and the new Liverpool Street station was opened on 28 July 1912 . Following their successful introduction at the DR 's Earl 's Court station in 1911 , the station was the first underground station in London to be built with escalators . Four were provided , two to Liverpool Street station and two to the North London Railway 's adjacent Broad Street station .
= = = Ealing Broadway , 1911 – 20 = = =
The CLR 's next planned extension was westward to Ealing . In 1905 , the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) had obtained parliamentary approval to construct the Ealing and Shepherd 's Bush Railway ( E & SBR ) , connecting its main line route at Ealing Broadway to the West London Railway ( WLR ) north of Shepherd 's Bush . From Ealing , the new line was to curve north @-@ east through still mostly rural North Acton , then run east for a short distance parallel with the GWR 's High Wycombe line , before curving south @-@ east . The line was then to run on an embankment south of Old Oak Common and Wormwood Scrubs before connecting to the WLR a short distance to the north of the CLR 's depot .
Construction work did not begin immediately , and , in 1911 , the CLR and GWR agreed running powers for CLR services over the line to Ealing Broadway . To make a connection to the E & SBR , the CLR obtained parliamentary permission for a short extension northward from Wood Lane station on 18 August 1911 in the Central London Railway Act , 1911 . The new E & SBR line was constructed by the GWR and opened as a steam @-@ hauled freight only line on 16 April 1917 . Electrification of the track and the start of CLR services were postponed until after the end of World War I , not starting until 3 August 1920 when a single intermediate station at East Acton was also opened .
Wood Lane station was modified and extended to accommodate the northward extension tracks linking to the E & SBR . The existing platforms on the loop were retained , continuing to be used by trains that were turning back to central London , and two new platforms for trains running to or from Ealing were constructed at a lower level on the new tracks , which connected to each side of the loop . Ealing Broadway station was modified to provide additional platforms for CLR use between the existing but separate sets of platforms used by the GWR and the DR.
To provide services over the 6 @.@ 97 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 33 mi ) extension , the CLR ordered 24 additional driving motor carriages from the Brush Company , which , when delivered in 1917 , were first borrowed by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway for use in place of carriages ordered for its extension to Watford Junction . The new carriages were the first for tube @-@ sized trains that were fully enclosed , without gated platforms at the rear , and were provided with hinged doors in the sides to speed @-@ up passenger loading times . To operate with the new stock the CLR converted 48 existing carriages , providing a total of 72 carriages for twelve six @-@ car trains . Modifications made while in use on the Watford extension meant that the new carriages were not compatible with the rest of the CLR 's fleet and they became known as the Ealing stock .
The E & SBR remained part of the GWR until nationalisation at the beginning of 1948 , when ( with the exception of Ealing Broadway station ) it was transferred to the London Transport Executive . Ealing Broadway remained part of British Railways , as successors to the GWR .
= = = Richmond , 1913 and 1920 = = =
In November 1912 , the CLR announced plans for an extension from Shepherd 's Bush on a new south @-@ westwards route . Tunnels were planned under Goldhawk Road , Stamford Brook Road and Bath Road to Chiswick Common where a turn to the south would take the tunnels under Turnham Green Terrace for a short distance . The route then was to head west again to continue under Chiswick High Road before coming to the surface east of the London and South Western Railway 's ( L & SWR 's ) Gunnersbury station . Here a connection would be made to allow the CLR 's tube trains to run south @-@ west to Richmond station over L & SWR tracks that the DR shared and had electrified in 1905 . Stations were planned on Goldhawk Road at its junctions with The Grove , Paddenswick Road and Rylett Road , at Emlyn Road on Stamford Brook Road , at Turnham Green Terrace ( for a connection with the L & SWR 's / DR 's Turnham Green station ) and at the junction of Chiswick High Road and Heathfield Terrace . Beyond Richmond , the CLR saw further opportunities to continue over L & SWR tracks to the commuter towns of Twickenham , Sunbury and Shepperton , although this required the tracks to be electrified . The CLR received permission for the new line to Gunnersbury on 15 August 1913 in the Central London Railway Act , 1913 , but World War I prevented the works from commencing and the permission expired .
In November 1919 , the CLR published a new bill to revive the Richmond extension , but using a different route that required only a short section of new tunnel construction . The new proposal was to construct tunnels southwards from Shepherd 's Bush station , which would come to the surface to connect to disused L & SWR tracks north of Hammersmith Grove Road station that had closed in 1916 . From Hammersmith , the disused LS & WR tracks continued westwards , on the same viaduct as the DR 's tracks through Turnham Green to Gunnersbury and Richmond . The plan required electrification of the disused tracks , but avoided the need for costly tunnelling and would have shared the existing stations on the route with the DR. The plan received assent on 4 August 1920 as part of the Central London and Metropolitan District Railway Companies ( Works ) Act , 1920 , although the CLR made no attempt to carry out any of the work . The disused L & SWR tracks between Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green were eventually used for the westward extension of the Piccadilly line from Hammersmith in 1932 .
= = Competition , co @-@ operation and sale , 1906 – 13 = =
From 1906 the CLR began to experience a large fall in passenger numbers caused by increased competition from the DR and the MR , which electrified the Inner Circle in 1905 , and from the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) which opened its rival route to Hammersmith in 1906 . Road traffic also offered a greater challenge as motor buses began replacing the horse drawn variety in greater numbers . In an attempt to maintain income , the company increased the flat fare for longer journeys to three pence in July 1907 and reduced the fare for shorter journeys to one penny in March 1909 . Multiple booklets of tickets , which had previously been sold at face value , were offered at discounts , and season tickets were introduced from July 1911 .
The CLR looked to economise through the use of technological developments . The introduction in 1909 of dead @-@ man 's handles to the driver controls and " trip cocks " devices on signals and trains meant that the assistant driver was no longer required as a safety measure . Signalling automation allowed the closure of many of the line 's 16 signal boxes and a reduction in signalling staff . From 1911 , the CLR operated a parcel service , making modifications to the driving cars of four trains to provide a compartment in which parcels could be sorted . These were collected at each station and distributed to their destinations by a team of tricycle riding delivery boys . The service made a small profit , but ended in 1917 because of wartime labour shortages .
The problem of declining revenues was not limited to the CLR ; all of London 's tube lines and the sub @-@ surface DR and MR were affected by competition to some degree . The reduced income from the lower passenger numbers made it difficult for the companies to pay back borrowed capital , or to pay dividends to shareholders . The CLR 's dividend payments fell to 3 per cent from 1905 , but those of the UERL 's lines were as low as 0 @.@ 75 per cent . From 1907 , the CLR , the UERL , the C & SLR , and the Great Northern & City Railway companies began to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . In November 1912 , after secret take @-@ over talks , the UERL announced that it was purchasing the CLR , swapping one of its own shares for each of the CLR 's . The take @-@ over took effect on 1 January 1913 , although the CLR company remained legally separate from the UERL 's other tube lines .
= = Improvements and integration , 1920 – 33 = =
Following the takeover , the UERL took steps to integrate the CLR 's operations with its own . The CLR 's power station was closed in March 1928 with power instead being supplied from the UERL 's Lots Road Power Station in Chelsea . Busier stations were modernised ; Bank and Shepherd 's Bush stations received escalators in 1924 , Tottenham Court Road and Oxford Circus in 1925 and Bond Street in 1926 , which also received a new entrance designed by Charles Holden . Chancery Lane and Marble Arch stations were also rebuilt to receive escalators in the early 1930s .
On 5 November 1923 new stations were opened on the Ealing extension at North Acton and West Acton . They were built to serve residential and industrial developments around Park Royal and , like East Acton , the station buildings were basic structures with simple timber shelters on the platforms . The poor location of British Museum station and the lack of an interchange with the GNP & BR 's station at Holborn had been a considered a problem by the CLR almost since the opening of the GNP & BR in 1906 . A pedestrian subway to link the stations was considered in 1907 , but not carried out . A proposal to enlarge the tunnels under High Holborn to create new platforms at Holborn station for the CLR and to abandon British Museum station was included in a CLR bill submitted to parliament in November 1913 . This was given assent in 1914 , but World War I prevented any works taking place , and it was not until 1930 that the UERL revived the powers and began construction work . The new platforms , along with a new ticket hall and escalators to both lines , opened on 25 September 1933 , British Museum station having closed at the end of traffic the day before .
Between March 1926 and September 1928 , the CLR converted the remaining gate stock carriages in phases . The end platforms were enclosed to provide additional passenger accommodation and two sliding doors were inserting in each side . The conversions increased capacity and allowed the CLR to remove gatemen from the train crews , with responsibility for controlling doors moving to the two guards who each managed half the train . Finally , the introduction of driver / guard communications in 1928 allowed the CLR to dispense with the second guard , reducing a train crew to just a driver and a guard . The addition of doors in the sides of cars caused problems at Wood Lane where the length of the platform on the inside of the returning curve was limited by an adjacent access track into the depot . The problem was solved by the introduction of a pivoted section of platform which usually sat above the access track and allowed passengers to board trains as normal , but which could be moved to allow access to the depot .
= = Move to public ownership , 1923 – 33 = =
Despite closer co @-@ operation and improvements made to the CLR stations and to other parts of the network , the Underground railways continued to struggle financially . The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole UERL group .
To protect the UERL group 's income , its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the MR and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , ownership of the assets of the CLR and the other Underground companies transferred to the LPTB .
= = Legacy = =
For a history of the line after 1933 see Central line
In 1935 the LPTB announced plans as part of its New Works Programme to extend the CLR at both ends by taking over and electrifying local routes owned by the GWR in Middlesex and Buckinghamshire and by the LNER in east London and Essex . Work in the tunnels to lengthen platforms for longer trains and to correct misaligned tunnel sections that slowed running speeds was also carried out . A new station was planned to replace the cramped Wood Lane . The service from North Acton through Greenford and Ruislip to Denham was due to open between January 1940 and March 1941 . The eastern extension from Liverpool Street to Stratford , Leyton and Newbury Park and the connection to the LNER lines to Hainault , Epping and Ongar were intended to open in 1940 and 1941 . World War II caused works on both extensions to be halted and London Underground services were extended in stages from 1946 to 1949 , although the final section from West Ruislip to Denham was cancelled . Following the LPTB take over , the Harry Beck @-@ designed tube map began to show the route 's name as the " Central London Line " instead of " Central London Railway " . In anticipation of the extensions taking its services far beyond the boundaries of the County of London , " London " was omitted from the name on 23 August 1937 ; thereafter it was simply the " Central line " . The CLR 's original tunnels form the core of the Central line 's 72 @.@ 17 @-@ kilometre ( 44 @.@ 84 mi ) route .
During World War II , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) of completed tube tunnels built for the eastern extension between Gants Hill and Redbridge were used as a factory by Plessey to manufacture electronic parts for aircraft . Other completed tunnels were used as air @-@ raid shelters at Liverpool Street , Bethnal Green and between Stratford and Leyton , as were the closed parts of British Museum station At Chancery Lane , new tunnels 16 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 03 m ) in diameter and 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) long were constructed below the running tunnels during 1941 and early 1942 . These were fitted out as a deep level shelter for government use as a protected communications centre . Work on a similar shelter was planned at Post Office station ( renamed St Paul 's in 1937 ) but was cancelled ; the lift shafts that were made redundant when the station was given escalators in January 1939 were converted for use as a protected control centre for the Central Electricity Board .
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= Condemnations of 1210 – 1277 =
The Condemnations at the medieval University of Paris were enacted to restrict certain teachings as being heretical . These included a number of medieval theological teachings , but most importantly the physical treatises of Aristotle . The investigations of these teachings were conducted by the Bishops of Paris . The Condemnations of 1277 are traditionally linked to an investigation requested by Pope John XXI , although whether he actually supported drawing up a list of condemnations is unclear .
Approximately sixteen lists of censured theses were issued by the University of Paris during the 13th and 14th centuries . Most of these lists of propositions were put together into systematic collections of prohibited articles . Of these , the Condemnations of 1277 are considered particularly important by those historians who consider that they had a side effect of encouraging scholars to question the tenets of Aristotelian science . From this perspective , some revisionist historians maintain that the condemnations had positive effects on the development of science , perhaps even representing the beginnings of modern science .
= = Condemnation of 1210 = =
The Condemnation of 1210 was issued by the provincial synod of Sens , which included the Bishop of Paris as a member ( at the time Peter of Nemours ) . The writings of a number of medieval scholars were condemned , apparently for pantheism , and it was further stated that : " Neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy or their commentaries are to be read at Paris in public or secret , and this we forbid under penalty of excommunication . " However , this had only local force , and its application was further restricted to the Arts faculty at the University of Paris . Theologians were therefore left free to read the prohibited works , the titles of which were not even specified . Alexander of Aphrodisias was probably among the Aristotelian commentators whose influence was targeted .
The University of Toulouse ( founded in 1229 ) tried to capitalise on the situation by advertising itself to students : " Those who wish to scrutinize the bosom of nature to the inmost can hear the books of Aristotle which were forbidden at Paris . " However , whether the prohibition had actually had an effect on the study of the physical texts in Paris is unclear . English scholars , including Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon , studied at Paris , when they could have chosen to study at the University of Oxford , where the works could still be discussed in public . It is assumed that at the least they continued to be read in Paris in private , and there are also signs that their discussion had become public by 1240 .
= = Condemnation of 1270 = =
By 1270 , the ban on Aristotle 's natural philosophy was a dead letter . Nevertheless , the Bishop of Paris , Étienne Tempier , convened a meeting of conservative theologians and in December 1270 banned the teaching of certain Aristotelian and Averroist doctrines at Paris . Thirteen propositions were listed as false and heretical , some relating to Averroes ' doctrine of the soul and the doctrine of monopsychism , and others directed against Aristotle 's theory of God as a passive Unmoved Mover . The banned propositions included :
" That there is numerically one and the same intellect for all humans " .
" That the soul separated [ from the body ] by death cannot suffer from bodily fire " .
" That God cannot grant immortality and incorruption to a mortal and corruptible thing " .
" That God does not know singulars " ( i.e. , individual objects or creatures ) .
" That God does not know things other than Himself " .
" That human acts are not ruled by the providence of God " .
" That the world is eternal " .
" That there was never a first human " .
Those who " knowingly " taught or asserted them as true would suffer automatic excommunication , with the implied threat of the medieval Inquisition if they persisted . It is not known which of these statements were " taught knowingly " or " asserted " by teachers at Paris , although Siger of Brabant and his radical Averroist colleagues at the Faculty of Arts were targets . Evidently , the radical masters had taught that Aristotle put forward controversial propositions — which according to the Averroists would have been true at least in philosophy , even if rejected in theology - the doctrine of two truths — and questions such as free will and the immortality of the soul were doubtless subject to scholarly debate between masters and students . However , it seems " inconceivable " that any teacher would deny God 's Providence or present the Aristotelian " Unmoved Mover " as the true God .
= = Condemnation of 1277 = =
The chain of events leading up to Bishop Tempier 's condemnation of 1277 is still not entirely clear . The Catholic Encyclopedia records that the theologians of the University of Paris had been very uneasy due to the antagonism that existed between Christian dogmas and certain Peripatetic doctrines . According to the historian Edward Grant , the theologians desired to condemn Aristotle 's teachings on the eternity of the world and the unicity of the intellect .
On 18 January 1277 , Pope John XXI instructed Bishop Tempier to investigate the complaints of the theologians . " Not only did Tempier investigate but in only three weeks , on his own authority , he issued a condemnation of 219 propositions drawn from many sources , including , apparently , the works of Thomas Aquinas , some of whose ideas found their way onto the list . " The list published on 7 March condemned a great number of " errors " , some of which emanated from the astrology , and others from the philosophy of the Peripatetics . These included :
9 . " That there was no first man , nor will there be a last ; on the contrary , there always was and always will be generation of man from man . "
49 . " That God could not move the heavens with rectilinear motion ; and the reason is that a vacuum would remain . "
87 . " That the world is eternal as to all the species contained in it ; and that time is eternal , as are motion , matter , agent , and recipient ; and because the world is from the infinite power of God , it is impossible that there be novelty in an effect without novelty in the cause . "
The penalty for anyone teaching or listening to the listed errors was excommunication , " unless they turned themselves in to the bishop or the chancellor within seven days , in which case the bishop would inflict proportionate penalties . " The condemnation sought to stop the Master of Arts teachers from interpreting the works of Aristotle in ways that were contrary to the beliefs of the Church . In addition to the 219 errors , the condemnation also covered Andreas Capellanus 's De amore , and unnamed or unidentified treatises on geomancy , necromancy , witchcraft , or fortunetelling .
The condemnation of 1277 was later partially annulled " insofar as the teachings of Thomas Aquinas would seem to be implied . "
= = = Assessment = = =
The long list has often been labelled as not being particularly organised , and that it is " broad in scope to the point of confusion . " However , the order on the roll has been attributed to factors such as the order in which the errors appeared in the examined works . The list was reorganised shortly after 1277 , possibly to facilitate its use in the academic community . In the 20th century , the articles were once again reorganised by Pierre Mandonnet , numbering and distinguishing the 179 philosophical theses from the 40 theological ones . The list was summarised into groupings and further explained by John F. Wippel . It has also been emphasised by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy that " Tempier 's theses express positions that cannot be maintained in light of revealed truth , and for this reason are each followed by the qualification ' error ' . "
Another problem was that Tempier did not identify the targets of his condemnation , merely indicating that it was directed against unspecified members of the Arts Faculty in Paris . Siger of Brabant and Boethius of Dacia have been singled out as the most prominent targets of the 1277 censure , even though their names are not found in the document itself , appearing instead in the rubrics of only two of the many manuscripts that preserve the condemnation . These two scholars were important proponents of the Averroist movement . The ground @-@ breaking study by the historian Roland Hissette has shown that many of the censured propositions appear to have come from Aristotle , from Arab philosophers , or from " the philosophers " ( i.e. other Greek philosophers ) .
The role that Pope John XXI played in the lead up to the condemnations is a more recent point of discussion . Because the papal letter preceded Tempier 's condemnation by only about six weeks , the traditional assumption was that Tempier had acted on papal initiative , and in an overzealous and hasty way . However , more than forty days after Tempier produced his list , another papal letter gives no indication that the Pope was as yet aware of Tempier 's action , and seems to suggest otherwise . It is therefore possible that Tempier had already been preparing his condemnations prior to receiving the Pope 's first letter . The Pope himself had not played any direct role in the condemnations , having merely requested an investigation , and one scholar has argued that there was " less than enthusiastic papal approval of the bishop of Paris ' actions . "
= = = Effects = = =
Pierre Duhem considered that these condemnations " destroyed certain essential foundations of Peripatetic physics " . Although the Aristotelian system viewed propositions such as the existence of a vacuum to be ridiculously untenable , belief in Divine Omnipotence sanctioned them as possible , whilst waiting for science to confirm them as true . From at least 1280 onward , many masters at Paris and Oxford admitted that the laws of nature are certainly opposed to the production of empty space , but that the realisation of such a space is not , in itself , contrary to reason . These arguments gave rise to the branch of mechanical science known as dynamics .
Pierre Duhem and Edward Grant state this caused a break from Aristotle ’ s work and forced the teachers of the time to believe Aristotle ’ s work imperfect . According to Duhem , " if we must assign a date for the birth of modern science , we would , without doubt , choose the year 1277 when the bishop of Paris solemnly proclaimed that several worlds could exist , and that the whole of heavens could , without contradiction , be moved with a rectilinear motion . "
Duhem 's view has been extremely influential in the historiography of medieval science , and opened it up as a serious academic discipline . " Duhem believed that Tempier , with his insistence of God 's absolute power , had liberated Christian thought from the dogmatic acceptance of Aristotelianism , and in this way marked the birth of modern science . " The condemnations certainly had a positive effect on science , but scholars disagree over their relative influence . Historians in the field no longer fully endorse his view that modern science started in 1277 . Edward Grant is probably the contemporary historian of science who comes closest to Duhem 's vision . What historians do agree upon is that the condemnations allowed science " to consider possibilities that the great philosopher never envisioned . " According to the historian of science Richard Dales , they " seem definitely to have promoted a freer and more imaginative way of doing science . "
Others point out that in philosophy , a critical and skeptical reaction followed on from the Condemnations 1277 . Since the theologians had asserted that Aristotle had erred in theology , and pointed out the negative consequences of uncritical acceptance of his ideas , scholastic philosophers such as Duns Scotus and William of Ockham ( both Franciscan friars ) believed he might also be mistaken in matters of philosophy . The Scotist and Ockhamist movements set Scholasticism on a different path from that of Albert the Great and Aquinas , and the theological motivation of their philosophical arguments can be traced back to 1277 . They stressed the traditional Franciscan themes of Divine Omnipotence and Divine Freedom , which formed part of Ockham 's first thesis .
Ockham 's second thesis was the principle of parsimony : also known as Ockham 's razor . This developed a new form of logic , based on an empiricist theory of knowledge . " While Scholastic in setting , " as David Lindberg writes , it was " thoroughly modern in orientation . Referred to as the via moderna , in opposition to the via antiqua of the earlier scholastics , it has been seen as a forerunner of a modern age of analysis . " Other , even more skeptical thinkers in the mid @-@ 14th century included John of Mirecourt and Nicholas of Autrecourt . It has been suggested that the new philosophy of nature that emerged from the rise of Skepticism following the Condemnations , contained " the seeds from which modern science could arise in the early seventeenth century . "
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= Olivia Manning =
Olivia Mary Manning CBE ( 2 March 1908 – 23 July 1980 ) was a British novelist , poet , writer and reviewer . Her fiction and non @-@ fiction , frequently detailing journeys and personal odysseys , were principally set in England , Ireland , Europe and the Middle East . She often wrote from her personal experience , though her books also demonstrate strengths in imaginative writing . Her books are widely admired for her artistic eye and vivid descriptions of place .
Manning 's youth was divided between Portsmouth and Ireland , giving her what she described as " the usual Anglo @-@ Irish sense of belonging nowhere " . She attended art school , and moved to London , where her first serious novel , The Wind Changes , was published in 1937 . In August 1939 she married R. D. Smith ( " Reggie " ) , a British Council lecturer posted in Bucharest , Romania , and subsequently in Greece , Egypt and Palestine as the Nazis overran Eastern Europe . Her experiences formed the basis for her best known work , the six novels making up The Balkan Trilogy and The Levant Trilogy , known collectively as Fortunes of War . The overall quality of her output was considered uneven by critics , but this series , published between 1960 and 1980 , was described by Anthony Burgess as " the finest fictional record of the war produced by a British writer " .
Manning returned to London after the war and lived there until her death , writing poetry , short stories , novels , non @-@ fiction , reviews , and drama for the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) . Both Manning and her husband had affairs , but they never contemplated divorce . Her relationships with writers such as Stevie Smith and Iris Murdoch were difficult , as an insecure Manning was jealous of their greater success . Her constant grumbling about all manner of subjects is reflected in her nickname , " Olivia Moaning " , but Reggie never wavered in his role as his wife 's principal supporter and encourager , confident that her talent would ultimately be recognised . As she had feared , real fame only came after her death in 1980 , when an adaptation of Fortunes of War was televised in 1987 .
Manning 's books have received limited critical attention ; as during her life , opinions are divided , particularly about her characterisation and portrayal of other cultures . Her works tend to minimise issues of gender , and are not easily classified as feminist literature . Nevertheless , recent scholarship has highlighted Manning 's importance as a woman writer of war fiction and of the British Empire in decline . Her works are critical of war , racism , colonialism and imperialism , and examine themes of displacement and physical and emotional alienation .
= = Early years = =
Olivia Manning was born in North End , Portsmouth on 2 March 1908 . Her father , Oliver Manning , was a naval officer who rose from naval trainee to lieutenant @-@ commander despite a lack of formal schooling . At the age of 45 , while visiting the port of Belfast , he met Olivia Morrow , a publican 's daughter fourteen years his junior ; they married less than a month later in December 1904 , in the Presbyterian church in her home town of Bangor , County Down .
Manning adored her lively , handsome , womanising father who entertained others by singing Gilbert and Sullivan and reciting poetry he had memorised during long sea voyages . In contrast , her mother was bossy and domineering , with a " mind as rigid as cast @-@ iron " , and there were constant marital disputes . The initially warm relationship between mother and daughter became strained after the birth of Manning 's brother Oliver in 1913 ; delicate and frequently ill , he was the centre of his mother 's attention , much to the displeasure of Manning , who made several childish attempts to harm him . This unhappy , insecure childhood left a lasting mark on her work and personality .
Manning was educated privately at a small dame school before moving to the north of Ireland in 1916 , the first of several extended periods spent there while her father was at sea . In Bangor she attended Bangor Presbyterian School , and while in Portsmouth Lyndon House School , and subsequently Portsmouth Grammar School , developing , as she recalled , " the usual Anglo @-@ Irish sense of belonging nowhere " . Schoolmates described her as shy and prone to tantrums ; her tendency to tell boastful tall @-@ tales about her family led to ostracism by her peers . Supported by her father , Manning read and wrote extensively , preferring novels , especially those by H. Rider Haggard . Her mother discouraged such pursuits , and confiscated material she thought unsuitable ; when she found her daughter reading the Times Literary Supplement she scolded that " young men do not like women who read papers like that " , and that Manning should focus on marketable job skills , such as typing .
Indeed , when financial circumstances forced Manning to leave school at sixteen , she worked as a typist , and spent some time as a junior in a beauty salon . A talented artist , she took evening classes at the Portsmouth Municipal School of Art , where a fellow student described her as intellectual and aloof . In May 1928 , she had a painting selected for an exhibition at Southsea , and was subsequently offered a one @-@ woman show of her works . Manning seemed to be poised for a career as an artist , but she had meanwhile continued her interest in literature , and at the age of twenty determined instead to be a writer . Her artist 's eye is apparent in her later intense descriptions of landscapes .
= = Early career = =
Manning 's first published works were three serialised detective novels , Rose of Rubies , Here is Murder and The Black Scarab which appeared in the Portsmouth News beginning in 1929 under the pseudonym Jacob Morrow . Manning did not acknowledge these books until the 1960s ; their publication dates might have given away her age , a secret she kept even from her husband . Between 1929 and 1935 she wrote about 20 short stories , including a ghost story that was the first work to be published under her own name , though using initials to obscure her gender . Manning also wrote two literary novels , neither of which was accepted for publication . However , her second manuscript sufficiently impressed Edward Garnett , a literary editor at Jonathan Cape , that he asked his assistant Hamish Miles to write her a note of encouragement . Miles , a respected and well @-@ connected literary adviser and translator in his late thirties , invited Manning to visit if she were ever in London . Manning , feeling stifled in Portsmouth , had already made efforts to move to the capital , but her meeting with Miles made her more determined . She succeeded in obtaining a typing job at Peter Jones , the department store , and , despite opposition from her mother , moved into a run @-@ down bed @-@ sitting room in Chelsea .
Short of food and money , Manning spent long hours writing after work . Miles took Manning under his wing , dazzling her with dinners , literary conversation and gossip , and providing unaccustomed support . A married man with two children , he told Manning that his wife was an invalid and no longer able to tolerate sex ; they soon became lovers . Manning later recalled that " sex for both of them was the motivating charm of life . "
A case of mistaken identity involving an artist with a similar name led Manning to a better @-@ paid job antiquing furniture , at which she worked for more than two years , still writing in her spare time . She recalled this as " one of the happiest seasons " of her life . With Miles ' encouragement she completed a novel , The Wind Changes , and saw it published by Jonathan Cape in April 1937 . The novel , set in Dublin in June 1921 during the Irish War of Independence , revolved around a woman torn between an Irish patriot and an English writer with pro @-@ Republican sympathies . It was well received , with one reviewer commenting that " the novel shows unusual promise " . Soon after , however , Miles learnt that he had an inoperable brain tumour , and disappeared from Manning 's life . Since the affair had been kept secret she had difficulty obtaining information about him , and could not afford to visit him in the Edinburgh hospital where he lay dying . She lost her job at Peter Jones , moved to a well @-@ paid job at the Medici Society , but was sacked when she refused her boss 's order to give up novel @-@ writing in the evening so as to conserve her energy for the day job . Manning obtained other work assessing new novels for their potential as films for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , but by the time she had saved sufficient money for a trip to Edinburgh , Miles was too ill to see her . He died in December 1937 .
Miles did not normally introduce his literary friends to each other , but before his death he had been forced by circumstance to introduce Manning to the poet Stevie Smith . The two developed an immediate rapport and enjoyed exploring London 's backstreets , with regular outings to museums , cinema , and visits to the Palmers Green home that Smith shared with an eccentric aunt . According to a mutual friend , Manning found in Smith 's home " an atmosphere of security and comfort which must have made her room in Oakley Street seem even chillier and more threadbare . " The novelist and critic Walter Allen met Manning in 1937 and observed that she had a " devastating " wit " and was as formidable a young woman as any in London " . Manning and Smith , he added , were a malicious pair of snobs .
= = Marriage and Romania = =
In July 1939 , Walter Allen introduced Manning to the charming Marxist R. D. " Reggie " Smith . Reggie was a large , energetic man , possessed of a constant desire for the company of others . The son of a Manchester toolmaker , he had studied at Birmingham University , where he had been coached by the left @-@ wing poet Louis McNeice and founded the Birmingham Socialist Society . According to the British intelligence organisation MI5 , Reggie had been recruited as a communist spy by Anthony Blunt on a visit to Cambridge University in 1938 .
When he met Manning , Reggie was on leave from his British Council position as a lecturer in Romania . He had diligently prepared himself for the introduction to Manning by reading her works , and felt that her book The Wind Changes showed " signs of genius " . He described Manning as a jolie laide , possessing lovely hair , hands , eyes and skin though an overlong nose , and fell in love at first sight . When he borrowed a half @-@ crown from her on their first meeting , and repaid it the next day , he knew they would marry . Manning was less certain of the relationship , but Reggie quickly moved into her flat , proposing in bed a few weeks later . They were married at Marylebone Registry Office on 18 August 1939 , with Stevie Smith and Louis McNeice as witnesses . The bridegroom , unconventionally and true to form , did not produce a ring for the ceremony . A few days after the wedding , the couple received word that Reggie had been recalled to Bucharest . They left within a matter of hours ; Manning later wrote to Stevie Smith from Romania asking her to find out what had happened to their flat and to take care of her books while she was away . The couple travelled by train to Bucharest , arriving on 3 September 1939 , the day Britain declared war on Germany . Between the two world wars , Romania had looked to France to guarantee its security against German territorial aspirations . However , the impact of the Munich Agreement ( 1938 ) , the German @-@ Soviet Non @-@ Aggression Pact ( 1939 ) , and the Fall of France ( 1940 ) increased German influence and control over the country , and included demands that Romania cede territory and resources . The couple 's time in Bucharest coincided with the rise of fascist and totalitarian power within ostensibly neutral Romania , while war threatened from without , driving thousands of refugees within its borders .
The Smiths initially rented a flat , but later moved in with the diplomat Adam Watson , who was working with the British Legation . Those who knew Manning at the time described her as a shy , provincial girl who had little experience with other cultures . She was both dazzled and appalled by Romania . The café society , with its wit and gossip , appealed to her , but she was repelled by the peasantry and the aggressive , often mutilated , beggars . Her Roumanian experiences were captured in the first two volumes of The Balkan Trilogy ( The Great Fortune and The Spoilt City ) , considered one of the most important literary treatments of Romania during the war . In her novels , Manning described Bucharest as being on the margins of European civilisation , " a strange , half @-@ Oriental capital " that was " primitive , bug @-@ ridden and brutal " , whose citizens were peasants , whatever their wealth or status .
Manning spent her days writing ; her main project was a book about Henry Morton Stanley and his search for Emin Pasha , but she also maintained an intimate correspondence with Stevie Smith , which was full of Bloomsbury gossip and intrigue . She undertook a dangerous journalistic assignment to interview the former Romanian Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu in Cluj , Transylvania , at the time full of German troops , and soon to be transferred by Romania to Hungary as part of the Second Vienna Award of August 1940 , imposed by the Germans and Italians . Like many of her experiences , the interview was to be incorporated into a future work ; others included her impromptu baptism of Reggie with cold tea because she feared being separated from him after death , and Reggie 's production of a Shakespeare play , in which she was promised a prime role that was given to another .
Reggie was relentlessly gregarious , and throughout his life his warmth , wit and friendliness earned him many friends and drinking companions . In contrast , Manning was reticent and uncomfortable in social settings , and remained in the background . She acted , in her own words , as a " camp @-@ follower " , trailing after Reggie as he went from bar to bar , often choosing to go home early and alone . While Manning remained faithful to Reggie during the war , their friend Ivor Porter was to report that Reggie had numerous affairs .
The approaching war and rise of fascism and the Iron Guard in Romania disconcerted and frightened Manning . The abdication of King Carol and the advance of the Germans in September 1940 increased her fears , and she repeatedly asked Reggie " But where will the Jews go ? " . Just before German troops entered Romania on 7 October at the invitation of the new dictator Ion Antonescu , Manning flew to Greece , followed a week later by Reggie .
= = Greece and Egypt = =
Manning was subject to anxieties bordering on paranoia throughout her life . She had good reason to be concerned about Reggie , however , who travelled from Romania to Greece on the German Lufthansa airline – Lufthansa planes were sometimes diverted to Axis countries . He arrived safely , however , bringing a rucksack , a suitcase full of books , but no appropriate clothes for work . Reggie relaunched his hectic social life , but his wife interacted little with the expatriate community , focussing instead on her writing . Nevertheless , this was a happy time for Manning ; " Romania is abroad , " said Manning , " but Greece is home " . Manning had her admirers , including Terence Spencer , a British Council lecturer who acted as her companion while Reggie was busy with other activities – he later appeared as the character Charles Warden in Friends and Heroes , the third book of The Balkan Trilogy . Soon after their arrival , Greece entered the war against the Axis .
In spite of early successes against invading Italian forces , by April 1941 the country was at risk of invasion from the Germans ; in a later poem Manning recalled the " horror and terror of defeat " of a people she had grown to love . The British Council advised its staff to evacuate , and on 18 April Manning and Reggie left Piraeus for Egypt on the Erebus , the last civilian ship to leave Greece .
For the three dangerous days of the passage to Alexandria the passengers subsisted on oranges and wine . On board with the Smiths were the novelist Robert Liddell , the Welsh poet Harold Edwards , and their wives – the Smiths shared a cramped cabin with the Edwardses . Mrs. Edwards had brought with her a hat box full of expensive Parisian hats , which Manning kept placing in the passageway outside the cabin , and from whence Mrs. Edwards kept returning it . The two were not on speaking terms by the end of the voyage , but Manning had the last word : when Mrs. Edwards later opened her hatbox she found that Manning had crushed the hats with a chamberpot .
Arriving in Alexandria , the refugees gratefully devoured the food provided by the British military , but learned that the swastika was now flying over the Acropolis . Manning 's first impressions of Egypt were of squalor and unreality : " For weeks we lived in a state of recoil " . From Alexandria they went by train to Cairo , where they renewed contact with Adam Watson , who was now Second Secretary at the British Embassy . He invited them to stay at his Garden City flat that overlooked the embassy .
Though nominally an independent country , Egypt had been effectively under British control since the late nineteenth century . With the outbreak of war , and under the terms of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty of 1936 , the country was under virtual occupation by the British . At this stage in the war , the Germans were advancing apparently unstoppably across the desert towards Egypt , and Cairo was rife with rumours and alarms . Manning was jittery and fearful . She was constantly anxious about illness , and was indeed frequently unwell . Concerned , Reggie suggested that it might be best if she returned to England , but she retorted " Wherever we go , we go together . If we return home , we both go . I won 't have the war separating us . End of story . " Her father had made her a firm believer in the British Empire and the benefits it had brought the world , and Manning was a patriotic Briton , confident of ultimate Allied success . In Egypt , however , she confronted the fact that British occupation had never been popular . Reggie quickly discovered the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Union in Zamalek , where he drank and talked politics and poetry . As usual he was well liked , and according to Lawrence Durrell often had a string of disreputable friends with him . Manning was much less popular . Durrell described her as a " hook @-@ nosed condor " , whose critical manner was unappreciated by many who knew her .
Manning was incensed that the British Council did not immediately find a job for Reggie , whom she considered one of their most brilliant teachers . She took her revenge by writing scurrilous verse about the Council 's representative , C.F.A. Dundas , later immortalised as the ineffectual Colin Gracey in Fortunes of War . Manning 's characters were often based on real people though she never drew precisely from life . Her mocking portrait of the British Council lecturer Professor Lord Pinkrose was loosely based on Lord Dunsany , sent to occupy the Byron Chair of English at Athens University in 1940 . She also resented that Amy Smart , wife of Walter Smart and frequent patron of artists , poets and writers in Cairo , paid so little attention to her and Reggie ; she later took revenge in a similar way .
In October 1941 , Reggie was offered a post as lecturer at Farouk University in Alexandria . The couple moved from Cairo to share a flat with fellow teacher Robert Liddell . The Germans regularly bombed the city , and the raids terrified Manning , who irritated Reggie and Liddell by insisting that all three descend to the air raid shelter whenever the sirens wailed . Almost immediately after her arrival in Alexandria came devastating news of her brother Oliver 's death in a plane crash . The emotional upset this caused prevented her from writing novels for several years .
The air raids became intolerable to Manning , and she soon moved back to Cairo , where in the winter of 1941 she became press attaché at the United States Legation . In her spare time , she worked on Guests at the Marriage , an unpublished prototype for The Balkan Trilogy , as well as short stories and poetry , some of which she sent to Stevie Smith in the hope of getting them published . Over the years , Stevie had brooded over Manning 's desertion of their friendship to marry Reggie , and around this time her jealousy took an overt form ; in 1942 she wrote a poem entitled " Murder " , in which a man stands beside a grave and admits , " My hand brought Reggie Smith to this strait bed – / Well , fare his soul well , fear not I the dead " . In subsequent reprintings , the name " Reggie Smith " was replaced by " Filmer Smith " , veiling the allusion , but Manning found out and was furious .
During her time in Egypt , Manning became a contributor to two Middle East @-@ based literary magazines , " Desert Poets " and " Personal Landscapes " , founded by Bernard Spencer , Lawrence Durrell , and Robin Fedden . The latter sought to explore the " personal landscapes " of writers experiencing exile during the war . The founders , like Manning , maintained a strong attachment to Greece rather than an artistic and intellectual engagement with Egypt . In remembering the departure from Greece , Manning wrote " We faced the sea / Knowing until the day of our return we would be / Exiles from a country not our own . " During their time in Egypt and Palestine , Manning and her husband maintained close links with refugee Greek writers , including translating and editing the work of George Seferis and Elie Papadimitriou . Manning described her impressions of the Cairo poetry scene in " Poets in Exile " in Cyril Connolly 's magazine Horizon . She defended the writers from the claim of a London reviewer that they were " out of touch " , suggesting that their work was strengthened by their access to other cultures , languages and writers . Her review was much critiqued by those featured , including Durrell who objected to Spencer 's poetry being praised at his expense .
In 1942 , Reggie was appointed as Controller of English and Arabic Programming at the Palestine Broadcasting Service in Jerusalem ; the job was to begin in the fall , but in early July , with the German troops rapidly advancing on Egypt , he persuaded Manning to go ahead to Jerusalem to " prepare the way " .
= = Palestine = =
The couple were to spend three years in Jerusalem . On arrival , Manning approached the Palestine Post for a job , and was soon appointed a reviewer . Between 1943 and 1944 she served as press assistant at Jerusalem 's Public Information office , and then moved to the same position at the British Council office in Jerusalem . Manning continued to work on her book about Stanley and Emin Pasha , and took advantage of army drivers who were willing to give lifts to civilians ; she visited Palestine , Petra and Damascus , gathering material for future works .
In 1944 , Manning became pregnant ; the couple were overjoyed and Manning relaxed , becoming less critical of others , including her own mother , with whom she had long had a difficult relationship . Uncharacteristically , she rested , walked , painted and even knitted . In the seventh month , however , the baby died in utero , and as was the practice at the time , Manning was obliged to wait two difficult months to deliver her dead child . " I am like a walking cemetery " , she sorrowfully repeated during this period . Grief @-@ stricken , Manning became paranoid , constantly afraid that Reggie would be assassinated . Reggie decided that she was having a nervous breakdown , and in October 1944 accompanied her to Cyprus for a month 's holiday . Returning to Jerusalem , she was still far from well , and the poet Louis Lawler noticed the discontent of this " strange and difficult woman " , and Reggie 's " wonderfully patient " behaviour , despite Manning calling her husband by his last name throughout the period . Manning never fully recovered from her loss , and was rarely to talk or write of it . She was unable to have further children and in the future directed her maternal feelings towards animals , especially cats .
During her time in the Middle East , Manning had picked up amoebic dysentery , which led to several admissions to hospitals in Cairo and Palestine . When the war in Europe ended in May 1945 , her state of health led the couple to decide that Manning should return to England earlier than Reggie . They travelled to Suez together , where she sailed for home alone .
= = Post @-@ war England = =
After a brief stay with her still grieving parents in heavily bombed Portsmouth , Manning moved into a London flat . Reggie arrived during the summer of 1945 , and found a job in the Features Department of the BBC . He was identified as a Communist spy by MI5 in 1947 , and placed under surveillance . According to his file , Reggie had been working to increase Soviet influence in Romania and the Middle East throughout the war . Manning did not share her husband 's political beliefs , but was quite aware that their phone was being tapped and feared that his open support for Communism would lead to him being sacked from the BBC . Reggie was soon transferred away from Features to the less politically sensitive Drama department . The surveillance stopped when he resigned from the Communist Party after the Russian invasion of Hungary in 1956 .
Manning also worked for the BBC ; she wrote scripts for including adaptations of novels by George Eliot , Arnold Bennett and Ada Leverson . She completed her book on Stanley and Emin Pasha , titled The Remarkable Expedition in the UK and The Reluctant Rescue in the US , which was published in 1947 , and subsequently reissued in 1985 . The book received generally good reviews , but remains comparatively unknown . In 1948 , her book of short stories , Growing Up , was published by Heinemann , with the title story a fictionalised account of her affair with Hamish Miles . Manning was to remain with the publisher until 1974 .
After living in a series of rented flats , in 1951 the couple moved to a house in St. John 's Wood , where they sublet rooms to lodgers such as the actors Julian Mitchell and Tony Richardson . Fuelled by plenty of gin and tonic to cover her shyness , Manning could be a witty participant in London 's literary scene ; as in childhood she was given to making boastful inventions , such as claiming a family relationship to Marie Belloc Lowndes and that she had received a marriage proposal from Anthony Burgess the morning after his wife 's death . Her insecurities also showed in other ways : she was very anxious about finances , and always alert for ways to make and save money . After the war both she and Reggie were unfaithful . At parties , Reggie would regularly ask other women if they were interested in extramarital encounters , while Manning claimed to have had affairs with both William Gerhardie and Henry Green , and engaged in an unrequited pursuit of her lodger , Tony Richardson . Jerry Slattery , her doctor , became her long @-@ term lover ; her affair came as a shock to Reggie , who felt he must have disappointed his wife . However , after a difficult start , Reggie adjusted and soon became a close friend of Jerry . Manning 's adultery in some ways made it easier for Reggie to justify his own frequent affairs , including his longstanding relationship with Diana Robson , who was to become his second wife . Manning never paid undue attention to his infidelities , usually responding , " you know what Reggie 's like " . The two never contemplated divorce , believing that marriage was a lifelong commitment .
Manning 's first post @-@ war novel , Artist Among the Missing , an evocative account of life in the Middle East , was published in 1949 , and received mixed reviews . She worked on an Irish travel book , The Dreaming Shore , which drew on her Anglo @-@ Irish upbringing , but proved " a millstone " as it required multiple expensive journeys to Ireland . The book was notable for her view that Ireland would one day be united . Manning continued the series of publications with A School for Love , published in 1951 . The novel concerned a boy growing up in Palestine during the Second World War . With its publication , Reggie , on whom Manning relied heavily for literary judgment , help and support , boasted that " My Olivia is what might be called an established author " . The novel was generally well @-@ received , but faced the possibility of a libel suit from Clarissa Graves , sister of Robert on whom Miss Bohun , one of the novel 's characters , may have been based .
Manning supplemented her book writing by reviewing for The Spectator , The Sunday Times , The Observer , Punch and others , as well as making occasional contributions to the Palestine Post . Her fourth novel , A Different Face , was published in 1953 . Set in a drab city based on Manning 's hometown of Portsmouth , it chronicled the main character 's attempts to leave his birthplace . The book was not well @-@ reviewed , and as was frequently the case , Manning felt slighted , feeling that she did not get the reviews she deserved . Neurotic self @-@ doubt and perfectionism made her difficult and easily offended , and she was very aware of younger writers outstripping her . Such an author was Iris Murdoch , with whom Manning shared an interest in flying saucers and an uneasy friendship that was tinged with jealousy at the younger Murdoch 's greater success . Manning knew that she was spiteful , but could not help herself , frequently critiquing writer friends to others . However , she consistently praised and admired Ivy Compton @-@ Burnett to whom she had been introduced in 1945 , and whose friendship she greatly valued . She complained about her publisher Heinemann and her lack of recognition from her peers : Anthony Powell called her " the world 's worst grumbler " , and the publisher remembered that she was " never an easy author to handle . " A friend gave her the nickname " Olivia Moaning " , which was picked up by others , much to Manning 's annoyance .
In 1955 Manning published The Doves of Venus , which drew on her experiences in London in the 1930s ; the two friends , Ellie Parsons and Nancy Claypole , bore similarities to Manning and Stevie Smith . In the book , an isolated Ellie seeks to escape a stultifying mother . The reviews were generally favourable , but Manning was not satisfied . Perhaps annoyed at her depiction in the novel , Stevie Smith wrote what Manning described as a " bitchy review " ; the two great friends barely spoke thereafter , despite Smith 's efforts at a rapprochement . Eventually , however , Manning grudgingly forgave her : learning of Smith 's final illness , she remarked that " Well , if she 's really ill , we 'll have to let bygones be bygones . "
Much time and focus were given to animals , especially the Siamese cats of which Manning was especially fond . She was very concerned about the health and comfort of her pets , taking them on visits to friends , along with hot water bottles for them in case the temperature dropped . She frequently sacked vets – telling one " I do not pay you to tell me that there is nothing wrong with my animal " – and trying animal faith healers at times . Additionally , she was a committed supporter of organisations combating animal cruelty . Her love and interest in cats was illustrated in her book Extraordinary Cats , published in 1967 .
In December 1956 , Manning published My Husband Cartwright , a series of twelve sketches about Reggie that had originally appeared in Punch . It was not widely reviewed , and as usual Manning was frustrated and annoyed . The book was to be a precursor of her portrait of her husband in Fortunes of War , detailing comic episodes that highlighted Reggie 's character , including his gregarious nature and interest in social issues : " My husband Cartwright is a lover of his fellow @-@ men . Lovers of their fellow @-@ men can be maddening ... While lecturing abroad he suddenly conceived a resentment of ' sights ' especially ' useless ' sights , such as ruins or tombs . You might suppose that were it not for such distractions as Tiberias , the Valley of the Kings or Hadrian 's Villa , tourists abroad would occupy themselves solely in alleviating poverty . "
= = The Balkan Trilogy and other works = =
Between 1956 and 1964 Manning 's main project was The Balkan Trilogy , a sequence of three novels based on her experiences during the Second World War ; as usual she was supported and encouraged by Reggie . The books describe the marriage of Harriet and Guy Pringle as they live and work in Romania and Greece , ending with their escape to Alexandria in 1941 just ahead of the Germans . Guy , a man at once admirable and unsatisfactory , and Harriet , a woman alternately proud and impatient , move from early passion to acceptance of difference . Manning described the books as long chapters of an autobiography , and early versions were written in the first person . There was significant fictionalisation , however . While Manning had been 31 and Reggie 25 at the outset of war , Manning 's alter ego Harriet Pringle was a mere 21 , and her husband a year older . Manning was a writer by profession , while her creation was not .
The first book in the trilogy , The Great Fortune , received mixed reviews , but subsequent volumes , The Spoilt City and Friends and Heroes were generally well @-@ received ; Anthony Burgess announced that Manning was " among the most accomplished of our women novelists " and comparisons were made to Lawrence Durrell , Graham Greene , Evelyn Waugh and Anthony Powell . There were a few carping voices , and as usual , they ignited Manning 's ire .
Following the publication of the final volume of The Balkan Trilogy in 1965 , Manning worked on her cat memoir and a collection of short stories , A Romantic Hero and Other Stories , both of which were published in 1967 . Another novel , The Play Room ( published as The Camperlea Girls in the US ) , appeared in 1969 . The book of short stories and The Play Room both contained homosexual themes , a topic which interested Manning . The latter was a less than successful exploration of the lives and interests of adolescents , though the reviews were generally encouraging . A film version was proposed , and Ken Annakin asked her to write the script . The movie , with more explicit lesbian scenes than the book , was all but made before the money ran out ; a second version , with a very different script , was also developed but came to nothing . " Everything fizzled out " , she said . " I wasted a lot of time and that is something which you cannot afford to do when you are sixty " ; in keeping with her obfuscations about her age , she was actually sixty @-@ two .
= = The Levant Trilogy = =
The 1970s brought a number of changes to the household : the couple moved to a smaller apartment following Reggie 's early retirement from the BBC and 1972 appointment as a lecturer at the New University of Ulster in Coleraine . The couple subsequently lived apart for long periods , as Manning rejected the idea of moving to Ireland .
Manning was always a close observer of life , and gifted with a photographic memory . She told her friend Kay Dick that " I write out of experience , I have no fantasy . I don 't think anything I 've experienced has ever been wasted . However , her 1974 novel The Rain Forest showed off her creative skills in her portrayal of a fictional island in the Indian Ocean and its inhabitants . Set in 1953 , the novel 's central characters are a British couple ; the book examines their personal experiences and tragedies against the background of a violent end to colonial British rule . The book is one of Manning 's lesser @-@ known books , and she was disappointed that it was not shortlisted for the Booker prize .
Early in 1975 Manning began The Danger Tree , which for a time she described as " The Fourth Part of the Balkan Trilogy " ; in the event , it became the first novel in The Levant Trilogy , continuing the story of the Pringles in the Middle East . The first book proved " a long struggle " to write , in part because of Manning 's lack of confidence in her powers of invention : the book juxtaposes the Desert War experiences of a young officer , Simon Boulderstone , with the securer lives of the Pringles and their circle . Manning , fascinated by sibling relationships , and remembering the death of her own brother , also examined the relationship between Simon and his elder brother , Hugo . She felt inadequate in her ability to write about soldiers and military scenes ; initial reviewers agreed , finding her writing unconvincing and improbable , though subsequent reviewers have been considerably kinder .
While some parts of the book were inventions , she also made use of real @-@ life incidents . The opening chapter of The Danger Tree describes the accidental death of the young son of Sir Desmond and Lady Hooper . The incident was based on fact : Sir Walter and Lady Amy Smart 's eight @-@ year @-@ old boy was killed when he picked up a stick bomb while on a desert picnic in January 1943 . Just as described in the novel , his grief @-@ stricken parents had tried to feed the dead boy through a hole in his cheek . Manning had long been resentful at the Smarts ' failure to include her and Reggie in their artistic circle in Cairo . However , the scene was considered in poor taste even by Manning 's friends , who were also outraged that the quiet and faithful Lady Smart was associated with Manning 's very different Lady Hooper . Though both Sir Walter and his wife had died by the time of publication , Manning 's publisher received a solicitor 's letter written on behalf of the Smart family , objecting to the scene and requiring that there should be no further reference to the incident or to the couple in future volumes . Manning ignored both requests . She based the character of Aidan Pratt on the actor , writer and poet Stephen Haggard , whom she had known in Jerusalem . Like Pratt , Haggard committed suicide on a train from Cairo to Palestine , but in Haggard 's case it followed the end of a relationship with a beautiful Egyptian woman , rather than unrequited homosexual love . After years of complaints about her publisher Heinemann , Manning moved to Weidenfeld & Nicolson , and remained with them until the end of her life . The Danger Tree was a considerable critical success , and though Manning was disappointed yet again that her novel was not shortlisted for the Booker prize , the Yorkshire Post selected it as their Best Novel of 1977 . This award followed her 1976 appointment to the Order of the British Empire .
With Field Marshal Montgomery 's Memoirs as her guide , Manning found battle scenes easier to write in the second volume of the trilogy , The Battle Lost and Won . After a slow start , Manning wrote with certainty and speed ; the book was completed in a record seven months , and published in 1978 . The book follows the Pringles as Rommel and the Afrika Korps approach Alexandria , where Guy is teaching . Egypt remains a place of privilege and sexual exchange for the non @-@ combatants and the Pringles ' marriage slowly disintegrates .
= = Final years = =
Manning was deeply affected by the sudden death in 1977 of Jerry Slattery , her lover and confidant for more than a quarter of a century . Manning 's last years were also made difficult by physical deterioration ; arthritis increasingly affected her , leading to hip replacements in 1976 and in 1979 and she suffered poor health related to amoebic dysentery caught in the Middle East . Manning began work on the final novel in The Levant Trilogy , The Sum of Things , in which Harriet agrees to sail home to the UK , but having said goodbye to Guy , changes her mind . The novel describes Harriet 's travels in Syria , Lebanon and Palestine , observes Guy 's supposed widowerhood in Cairo after he hears of the sinking of Harriet 's ship , and follows Simon Boulderstone 's injury during the battle of El Alamein and recovery .
The Sum of Things was published posthumously , for on 4 July 1980 Manning suffered a severe stroke while visiting friends in the Isle of Wight . She died in hospital on 23 July ; somewhat typically , Reggie , having been recalled from Ireland , was not present when she died . He could not bear to see her " fade away " and had gone to London to keep himself busy . Manning had long predicted that the frequently tardy Reggie would be late for her funeral , and he almost was . In addition , his mourning period , characterised by abrupt transitions from weeping to almost hysterical mirth , was precisely how Manning had imagined Guy Pringle 's reaction to Harriet 's supposed death in The Sum of Things . Manning was cremated and her ashes buried at Billingham Manor on the Isle of Wight .
Manning had long complained about the lack of recognition she had received as a writer , and was not consoled when her husband and friends responded that her talent would be recognised , and her works read for years to come . " I want to be really famous now , Now " , she retorted . As it happened , her renown and readership developed substantially after her death ; a television serialisation of Fortunes of War starring Emma Thompson and Kenneth Branagh finally came to fruition in 1987 , bringing her work to a wider audience .
= = Work = =
= = = Reception = = =
The posthumous popularity of Fortunes of War notwithstanding , most of Manning 's books are rarely read and have received little critical attention . Of her books , only Fortunes of War , School for Love , The Doves of Venus , The Rain Forest and A Romantic Hero remain in print . Some of her novels , most often Fortunes of War , have been translated into French , German , Finnish , Swedish , Danish , Spanish , Greek , Romanian and Hebrew . As in her lifetime , opinions are divided ; some assert that her books are " flawed by self @-@ indulgence and a lack of self @-@ judgment " , and criticise portrayals of ethnic and religious groups as stereotyped and caricatured . Others praise tight , perceptive and convincing narratives and excellent characterisation . Her plots are often described as journeys , odysseys and quests in both literal and metaphorical senses . Manning 's talent for " exquisite evocations of place " , including physical , cultural and historical aspects have been widely admired , and the critic Walter Allen complimented her " painter 's eye for the visible world " .
= = = = Fortunes of War = = = =
Manning 's best known works , the six books comprising Fortunes of War , have been described as " the most underrated novels of the twentieth century " and the author as " among the greatest practitioners of 20th @-@ century roman @-@ fleuve " . Written during the Cold War more than sixteen years after the period described , The Balkan Trilogy , set in Romania and Greece , is considered one of the most important literary treatments of the region in wartime , while criticised for the Cold War era images of Balkanism , and for Manning 's inability to " conceal her antipathy towards all things Romanian . " The Levant Trilogy , set in the Middle East , is praised for its detailed description of Simon Boulderstone 's desert war experience and the juxtaposition of the Pringles and their marriage with important world events . Excerpts from the novels have been reprinted in collections of women 's war writing . Theodore Steinberg argues for the Fortunes of War to be seen as an epic novel , noting its broad scope and the large cast of interesting characters set at a pivotal point of history . As with other epic novels , the books examine intertwined personal and national themes . There are frequent references to the Fall of Troy , including Guy Pringle 's production of Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida in which British expatriates play themselves while Romania and Europe mirror the doomed Troy . In Steinberg 's perspective , the books also challenge the typically male genre conventions of the epic novel by viewing the war principally through the eyes of a female character " who frequently contrasts her perceptions with those of the men who surround her " . In contrast , Adam Piette views the novel sequence as a failed epic , the product of a Cold War desire to repress change as illustrated by " Harriet 's self @-@ pityingly dogged focus on their marriage " without dealing with the radicalism of the war , and fate of its victims as represented by Guy and his political engagement .
= = = = Other works = = = =
Manning 's other works have largely been described as precursors to the two trilogies . Her pre @-@ war novel , The Wind Changes ( 1937 ) , set in Ireland , anticipates the future works in its " subtle exploration of relationships against a backdrop of war . " Her post @-@ war works , which are alternately set at home and abroad , are considered first , less than successful steps in clarifying her ideas about an expatriate war and how to write about it . Novels and stories set in England and Ireland are permeated by staleness and discontent , while those set abroad highlight the excitement and adventure of her later works . Two books set in Jerusalem , The Artist Among the Missing ( 1949 ) and School for Love ( 1951 ) , her first commercial and critical success , are also first steps in exploring themes such war , colonialism and British imperialism .
Manning wrote reviews , radio adaptations and scripts and several non @-@ fiction books . Her book The Remarkable Expedition ( 1947 ) about Emin Pasha and Henry Stanley was generally well reviewed , and when reissued in 1985 was praised for its humour , story telling and fairness to both subjects . Her travel book about Ireland , The Dreaming Shore ( 1950 ) , received a mixed review even from her old friend Louis MacNeice , but extracts from this and other of Manning 's Irish writing have subsequently been admired and anthologised . Manning 's book Extraordinary cats ( 1967 ) proved to be chiefly about her own well @-@ loved pets , and Stevie Smith 's review in the Sunday Times complained that the book was " more agitated than original . " She also published two collections of short stories , the well @-@ reviewed Growing Up ( 1946 ) and A Romantic Hero and Other Stories ( 1967 ) ; the latter included eight stories from the earlier volume , and is imbued with a sense of mortality .
= = = Themes = = =
= = = = War = = = =
In contrast to other women 's war fiction of the period , Manning 's works do not recount life on the home front . Instead , her Irish and Second World War fiction observe combatants and non @-@ combatants at the front and behind the lines . Wars , in Manning 's view , are battles for place and influence , and " with her range of images and illusions , Manning reminds us that wars over land have been a constant . " Her books do not celebrate British heroism nor the innocence of civilians , emphasising instead that the causes and dangers of war come as much from within as from without , with the gravest threats coming from fellow Britons . Military men are far from heroic , and official British responses are presented as farcical . In the Fortunes of War , the conflict is viewed largely from the perspective of a civilian woman , an observer , though later books include Simon Boulderstone 's soldier 's view of battle . Views differ on her success in the Fortunes of War battlescenes ; initial reviews by Auberon Waugh and Hugh Massie criticised them as implausible and not fully realised , but later commentators have describing her depiction of battle as vivid , poignant and largely convincing . Her books serve as an indictment of war and its horrors ; William Gerhardie noted in 1954 of Artist among the Missing that " it is war seen in a compass so narrowed down that the lens scorches and all but ignites the paper . " There is a strong focus of the impermanence of life ; death and mortality are a constant presence and preoccupation for civilian and soldier alike , and repetition – of stories , events and deaths – used to give " the impression of lives trapped in an endless war " for which there is no end in sight .
= = = = Colonialism and imperialism = = = =
A major theme of Manning 's works is the British empire in decline . Her fiction contrasts deterministic , imperialistic views of history with one that accepts the possibility of change for those displaced by colonialism . Manning 's works take a strong stance against British imperialism , and are harshly critical of racism , anti @-@ Semitism and oppression at the end of the British colonial era . " British imperialism is shown to be a corrupt and self @-@ serving system , which not only deserves to be dismantled but which is actually on the verge of being dismantled " , writes Steinberg . The British characters in Manning 's novels almost all assume the legitimacy of British superiority and imperialism and struggle with their position as oppressors who are unwelcome in countries they have been brought up to believe welcome their colonising influence . In this view , Harriet 's character , marginalised as an exile and a woman , is both oppressor and oppressed , while characters such as Guy , Prince Yakimov and Sophie seek to exert various forms of power and authority over others , reflecting in microcosm the national conflicts and imperialism of the British Empire . Phyllis Lassner , who has written extensively on Manning 's writing from a colonial and post @-@ colonial perspective , notes how even sympathetic characters are not excused their complicity as colonisers ; the responses of the Pringles assert " the vexed relationship between their own status as colonial exiles and that of the colonised " and native Egyptians , though given very little direct voice in The Levant Trilogy , nevertheless assert subjectivity for their country .
In The Artist Among the Missing ( 1949 ) , Manning illustrates the racial tensions that are created when imperialism and multiculturalism mix , and , as in her other war novels , evaluates the political bind in which the British seek to defeat racist Nazism while upholding British colonial exploitation . The School for Love ( 1951 ) is the tale of an orphaned boy 's journey of disillusionment in a city that is home to Arabs , Jews and a repressive , colonial presence represented in the novel by the cold , self @-@ righteous , and anti @-@ Semitic character of Miss Bohun .
Manning explores these themes not only in her major novels set in Europe and the Middle East , but also in her Irish fiction , The Wind Changes ( 1937 ) and eight short stories which were mostly written early in her career . In these works , colonialist attitudes are reproduced by Manning 's stereotyping of Catholic southerners as wild , primitive and undisciplined , while northerners live lives of well @-@ ordered efficiency . Displaced principal characters struggle to find their place in social groups whose values they no longer accept . Manning has also been noted for her direct and early focus on the impact of the end of colonial rule . The Rain Forest ( 1974 ) presents a later , highly pessimistic view , satirising British expatriate values on a fictional island . It also critiques those involved in the independence movement , expressing a disillusioned view of the island 's future post @-@ independence prospects .
= = = = Displacement and " Otherness " = = = =
Displacement and alienation are regular themes in Manning 's books . Characters are often isolated , physically and emotionally removed from family and familiar contexts and seeking a place to belong . This crisis of identity may reflect that of Manning herself as the daughter of an Irish mother and a British naval officer . " I 'm really confused about what I am , never really feeling that I belong in either place " , she told an interviewer in 1969 . In Manning 's war fiction , conflict creates additional anxiety , emotional displacement and distance , with characters unable to communicate with each other . Eve Patten notes the " pervasive sense of liminality " and the recurrent figure of the refugee in Manning 's work . Early literary interest in displacement was reinforced by Manning 's own terrifying and disorientating experiences as a refugee during the war . Her travels also brought her into direct contact with the far worse plight of other war refugees , including Jewish asylum @-@ seekers who were leaving Romania aboard the Struma . Exile had its rewards for literary refugees such as Manning , offering exposure to different cultures and " the sense of a greater , past civilisation " , as she described in her 1944 review of British poetry . Her writing , however , reflects her deep concern for the realities of most refugees , who are portrayed as " a degraded and demoralised Other " , challenging complacent Western notions of stability and nationality .
Manning has been classified as an Orientalist writer , whose depictions of cultures frequently emphasise exoticism and alien landscape . This feature has been most closely examined in her novels set in Romania . In these , scholars note Manning 's positioning of Romania as an exotic " Other " , a legacy of the Ottoman Empire located at the limits of civilised Europe and on the frontier with the uncivilised Orient . Her negative perceptions of Romanian " Otherness " include a childlike population living decadent lives , passive and immoral women , corruption , and a wild , untamed environment . These are contrasted with more positive reactions to Greece and Western Europe as the centre of civilising and orderly life in other books . In keeping with colonial construction of exoticism in Western literature , however , " otherness " is increasingly domesticated as characters recognise , with greater exposure to the country , links to Western culture . Her depiction of Romania led to Fortunes of War being restricted as seditious writing under Romania 's Communist government .
= = = = Gender and feminism = = = =
Manning 's books are not easily classified as a part of the feminist canon . While Manning supported the rights of women , particularly equal literary fees , she had no sympathy for the Women 's Movement , writing that " [ t ] hey make such an exhibition of themselves . None can be said to be beauties . Most have faces like porridge . " In Manning 's books , the word " feminine " is used in a derogatory sense , and tends to be associated with female complacency , foolishness , artifice and deviousness , and fulfilment for women comes in fairly conventional roles of wife , mother and the private domain . Elizabeth Bowen remarked that Manning had " an almost masculine outfit in the way of experience " that influenced her writing about women and the war . Manning viewed herself not as a female writer , but as a writer who happened to be a woman , and early in her career she obscured her gender using a pseudonym and initials . Manning found it easier to create male characters , and in general her novels tend to minimise differences in gender , writing about people rather than women in particular . Harriet Pringle , for example , moves through processes of self @-@ discovery and empowerment as an individual rather than in feminist solidarity with her sex . In Manning 's The Doves of Venus ( 1960 ) , based on Manning 's friendship with Stevie Smith , female characters display " the 1950s anger more often associated ... with young men . " Treglown comments on how Manning 's early books generally took a forthright approach to sex , often initiated by female characters . Her approach became more nuanced in later volumes , with a subtler depiction of sex , sensuality and sexual frustration in Fortunes of War . The Jungian critic Richard Sugg interpreted Manning 's female characters as punishing themselves for breaching society 's gender norms , including for having erotic feelings . In contrast , Treglown hypothesised that it reflected Manning 's ongoing grieving for her stillborn child .
= = Works = =
Rose of Rubies ( 1929 ) – as Jacob Morrow
Here is Murder ( 1929 ) – as Jacob Morrow
The Black Scarab ( 1929 ) – as Jacob Morrow
The Wind Changes ( UK : 1937 , 1988 ; US : 1938 )
Remarkable Expedition : The Story of Stanley 's Rescue of Emin Pasha from Equatorial Africa ( The Reluctant Rescue in the US ) ( UK : 1947 , 1991 ; US : 1947 , 1985 )
Growing Up ( UK : 1948 )
Artist Among the Missing ( UK : 1949 , 1950 , 1975 )
The Dreaming Shore ( UK : 1950 )
School for Love ( UK : 1951 , 1959 , 1974 , 1982 , 1983 , 1991 , 2001 , 2004 ; US : 2009 )
A Different Face ( UK : 1953 , 1975 ; US : 1957 )
The Doves of Venus ( UK : 1955 , 1959 , 1974 , 1984 , 1992 , 2001 ; US : 1956 )
My Husband Cartwright ( UK : 1956 )
The Great Fortune ( The Balkan Trilogy ; UK : 1960 , 1961 , 1967 , 1968 , 1969 , 1973 , 1974 , 1980 , 1988 , 1992 , 1994 , 1995 2000 ; US : 1961 )
The Spoilt City ( The Balkan Trilogy ; UK : 1962 , 1963 , 1967 , 1968 , 1974 , 1980 , 1988 , 1994 , 2000 ; US : 1962 )
Friends and Heroes ( The Balkan Trilogy ; UK : 1965 , 1974 , 1987 , 1988 , 1994 ; US : 1966 )
Collected as Fortunes of War : the Balkan Trilogy ( UK : 1981 , 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 2004 ; US : 1988 , 2005 , 2010 )
Extraordinary Cats ( UK : 1967 )
A Romantic Hero , and other stories ( UK : 1967 , 1992 , 2001 )
The Play Room ( The Camperlea Girls in the US ) ( UK : 1969 , 1971 , 1976 , 1984 ; US : 1969 )
The Rain Forest ( UK : 1974 , 1977 , 1983 , 1984 , 1986 , 1991 , 2001 , 2004 )
The Danger Tree ( The Levant Trilogy ; UK : 1977 , 1979 , US : 1977 )
The Battle Lost and Won ( The Levant Trilogy ; UK : 1978 , 1980 ; US : 1979 )
The Sum of Things ( The Levant Trilogy ; UK : 1980 , 1982 ; US : 1981 )
Collected as Fortunes of War : the Levant Trilogy ( UK : 1982 , 1983 , 1985 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1996 , 2001 , 2003 , ; US : 1982 , 1988 , 1996 )
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= Trevor Hoffman =
Trevor William Hoffman ( born October 13 , 1967 ) is an American former baseball relief pitcher who played 18 years in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1993 to 2010 . A long @-@ time closer , Hoffman pitched for the Florida Marlins , San Diego Padres , and the Milwaukee Brewers , including more than 15 years for the Padres . He was the major leagues ' first player to reach the 500- and 600 @-@ save milestones , and was the all @-@ time saves leader from 2006 until 2011 . He currently serves as senior advisor for baseball operations for the Padres .
Hoffman played shortstop collegiately at the University of Arizona and was drafted in the 11th round by the Cincinnati Reds . After not having much success batting , Hoffman was converted to a pitcher , as he was able to throw up to 95 miles per hour ( mph ) . The Marlins acquired him in the 1992 expansion draft , and he pitched in Florida until he was traded to the Padres mid @-@ season in 1993 in a deal that sent star Gary Sheffield to the Marlins . Hoffman recorded 20 saves in 1994 in his first season as Padres closer , and in the following years , he became the face of the franchise after Tony Gwynn retired . He collected at least 30 saves each year for the next 14 years , except for 2003 when he missed most of the year recovering from shoulder surgery . After San Diego did not re @-@ sign him following the 2008 season , Hoffman pitched for two years with the Brewers before retiring after the 2010 season .
Hoffman was selected for the All @-@ Star team seven times , and twice he was the runner @-@ up for the National League ( NL ) Cy Young Award , given annually to the top pitcher in the league . He retired with MLB records of fifteen 20 @-@ save seasons , fourteen 30 @-@ save seasons ( including eight consecutive ) , and nine 40 @-@ save seasons ( including two streaks of four consecutive ) . He also retired with the highest career strikeout rate of any reliever . Though he entered the majors with a powerful fastball , an injury after the 1994 season permanently sapped Hoffman 's fastball velocity and forced him to reinvent his pitching style ; he subsequently developed one of the best changeups in baseball . Hoffman 's entrance at home games accompanied by the song " Hells Bells " was popular with fans . He became eligible for consideration for Baseball Hall of Fame induction starting in 2016 .
After retiring as a player , Hoffman returned to the Padres as a special assistant in the front office . In 2014 , he became the team 's pitching coordinator at their upper minor league levels , which included working with the Padres general manager . The following year , his role expanded to overseeing pitching instruction at all levels in the minors .
= = Early life = =
Hoffman was born in Bellflower , California . When he was six weeks old , Hoffman had to have a damaged kidney removed because an arterial blockage had formed there . His father , Ed , who stood at 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) , was a Marine and a veteran of the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II . He later became a professional singer before he quit being on the road and got a job at the post office . He was also an usher at California Angels games ; he was known as the Singing Usher , leading the crowd in the singing of " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " in the seventh @-@ inning and filling in if the designated national anthem singer did not show up . Ed would often bring Trevor to the games with him . Hoffman 's mother , Mikki , was a ballerina and came from an athletic family . Her father was a professional soccer player before World War II . She taught Hoffman to take responsibility . " Bad workmen always blame their tools " , Mikki would say .
Hoffman 's older brother , Glenn , was nine years older and played shortstop in the Boston Red Sox organization . During summer vacation when Hoffman was 10 years old , he joined Glenn while he was playing in Pawtucket . His oldest brother , Greg , was 14 years Hoffman 's senior and a mentor to his two younger brothers . After Hoffman 's first Little League game , Greg asked him how he did . Hoffman responded , " I went 2 @-@ for @-@ 4 , double , RBI . " to which Greg replied , " That 'll be the last ( blanking ) time you tell me how you did . When I ask you how you did , it 's how the team did . " Hoffman never forgot that . Given their age difference , Hoffman considered his brothers more role models than playmates . " [ Glenn ] was the guide while Greg was the drill instructor " , said Hoffman .
Because of his damaged kidney , Hoffman was not allowed to play football or wrestle . Hoffman went to Savanna High School as had Glenn , which put pressure on Hoffman following his more talented older brother . Ed , who did not trust that coaches would protect Hoffman 's arm , stopped allowing his son to pitch after he was 12 years old . Standing at just 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) and 130 pounds ( 59 kg ) , Hoffman played shortstop at Savanna , but nobody offered him a scholarship out of high school . He grew three inches over the summer and continued playing at Cypress College , and later for the University of Arizona from 1988 through 1989 . Arizona was afraid of the liability if Hoffman 's remaining kidney got hit by a baseball . " I told them the one kidney I have is on my right side . That 's not the side that faces the pitcher when I hit , so it was O.K. They bought it " , said Hoffman . He led Arizona in hitting in 1988 with a .371 batting average , 35 points better than teammate J. T. Snow . Other notable teammates included Scott Erickson and Kevin Long . Hoffman exhibited a strong throwing arm playing shortstop .
= = Professional playing career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Hoffman was selected by the Cincinnati Reds in the 11th round with the 288th overall selection of the 1989 MLB draft , and he signed for $ 3 @,@ 000 . Prior to the draft , Reds scout Jeff Barton talked to Hoffman about playing another position . Hoffman was open to anything that might advance his career , and they talked about catching or pitching with his exceptional arm . Barton ranked Hoffman 's arm an 80 on a 20 – 80 scale , where 60 was above average and 80 was a rarity . Hoffman played shortstop and third base for the Reds ' Single @-@ A affiliate Charleston . In his first 103 games , he only batted .212 with 23 runs batted in . Not showing much batting potential , Hoffman was converted to pitcher in 1991 at the suggestion of Charleston manager Jim Lett , who also grew tired of Hoffman overthrowing first base . Hoffman threw 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) and recorded a 2 @.@ 90 ERA with 169 strikeouts in 142 2 ⁄ 3 minor league innings over two seasons while alternating between relieving and starting at Single @-@ A Cedar Rapids , Double @-@ A Chattanooga and Triple @-@ A Nashville .
= = = Major leagues ( 1993 – 2010 ) = = =
= = = = 1993 – 1995 = = = =
Left unprotected by Cincinnati in the 1992 MLB Expansion Draft , Hoffman was selected by the Florida Marlins with the eighth pick in the first round . In his first major league season in 1993 , Hoffman learned by observing Marlins closer Bryan Harvey 's balanced demeanor . After earning two saves in 29 appearances with the Marlins as an unknown rookie , Hoffman was traded midseason to the San Diego Padres during San Diego 's 1993 fire sale . The Padres sent third baseman Gary Sheffield and pitcher Rich Rodriguez to the Marlins for Hoffman and pitching prospects José Martínez and Andrés Berumen . Padres general manager Randy Smith said at the time , " The only way to acquire quality players is to give up quality . " The year before , Sheffield had won the NL batting title and made a run at the Triple Crown . Smith insisted that Florida include Hoffman in the deal . Padres fans , upset at the trade , booed Hoffman during his first several appearances . He allowed three runs in his one @-@ inning debut with San Diego , eight runs over his first three outings , and blew his first save opportunity as a Padre . He pitched 39 games for San Diego , who finished the season with 101 losses , and ended his rookie season with 79 strikeouts in 90 innings with a 3 @.@ 90 ERA and five saves .
During the strike @-@ shortened 1994 season , Hoffman took over closer duties from an injured and ineffective Gene Harris in mid @-@ April . Hoffman recorded 20 saves and a 2 @.@ 57 ERA while averaging 10 @.@ 9 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ( K / 9 ) . The weekend after the strike began , Hoffman , playing Nerf football at Del Mar Beach near San Diego , dived for a pass and landed awkwardly on his right shoulder . He later played volleyball and landed on the shoulder again while going for a dig . He heard a strange sound .
In 1995 , he had a 3 @.@ 88 ERA and 31 saves and averaged 8 @.@ 8 K / 9 . Hoffman pitched hurt from spring training through the season and finally had off @-@ season rotator cuff surgery . " [ Hoffman ] never bitched about his arm , which was killing him from Day One ... He was out there when most guys wouldn 't have been " , said Smith . This is also the year during which he developed his changeup .
= = = = 1996 – 1998 = = = =
In both 1996 and 1997 , Hoffman pitched over 80 innings , with 111 strikeouts , averaged approximately 40 saves , and had ERAs of 2 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 66 . In 1996 , the Padres entered the last three games of the season in Los Angeles trailing the division @-@ leading Dodgers by two games . Hoffman recorded saves in each of the final three games against the Dodgers , as the Padres won the NL West for their first division title in 12 years . After finishing the season with 18 straight saves , Hoffman was named The Sporting News NL Fireman of the Year in 1996 , and received votes for both the Cy Young Award and the NL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award . The Padres played the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1996 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) and were swept in the series 3 – 0 . Hoffman entered Game 2 with the score tied and one out and inherited runners on second and third . A run scored as he retired the only two batters he faced , and the Padres lost 5 – 4 . In Game 3 , Hoffman recorded the loss as he came into the tie game and allowed a 2 @-@ run homer to Brian Jordan for a 7 – 5 loss . The following season on June 23 , 1997 , he came in with the bases loaded in the ninth inning and struck out J. T. Snow to save the 11 – 6 win over the San Francisco Giants and became the Padres ' career saves leader with 109 , passing Hall of Famer Rollie Fingers . San Diego won only 76 games that year , but Hoffman ranked second in the NL with 37 saves .
During the 1998 season , Hoffman began entering save situations in Padres home games to the entrance music of AC / DC 's " Hells Bells " playing over the public address system , an event that came to be known as " Trevor Time " . The tradition began July 25 , 1998 , and the song was chosen by a Padres salesman . The crowd was excited by the tolling of the bells from the song , and the scoreboard showing Hoffman running in from the bullpen . Hoffman preserved a 6 – 5 win against the Houston Astros by striking out Moisés Alou to end that game and converted his 41st consecutive save opportunity , tying an MLB record at the time . The following night , Hoffman 's streak ended on an Alou home run , though the Padres ended up winning the game . It was Hoffman 's only blown save of the regular season . On September 1 , he saved a 9 – 8 victory over the New York Mets for his 45th save , breaking the club record set by Mark Davis in 1989 when he won the Cy Young Award . On September 12 , the Padres clinched their second division title in three years after Hoffman saved an 8 – 7 win over the Dodgers . In a 4 – 3 win over the Chicago Cubs on September 14 , he worked a perfect ninth inning and became the fourth reliever in MLB history to reach the 50 @-@ save mark . Hoffman had a career @-@ high 53 saves and a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 48 ERA . His saves tied the NL single @-@ season record set in 1993 by the Cubs ' Randy Myers . Opponents batted .165 against him , and the first hitters he faced hit .129 . His ERA in save situations was 0 @.@ 49 , and he struck out 10 @.@ 6 hitters per nine innings . The Padres were 62 – 4 in games he pitched . Hoffman was runner @-@ up in the Cy Young Award race that year to Tom Glavine of the Atlanta Braves , despite receiving 13 first @-@ place votes to Glavine 's 11 . Hoffman was left off of six ballots . Hoffman and Adam Wainwright in 2009 are the only two pitchers to ever receive the most first @-@ place votes and not win the Cy Young . Hoffman won the Rolaids Relief Man of the Year Award and captured another Fireman of the Year Award . He finished seventh in NL MVP voting .
Facing the Houston Astros in the 1998 NLDS , the Padres won the series 3 – 1 . Hoffman earned two saves , both in 2 – 1 wins . In Game 1 against Atlanta in the 1998 National League Championship Series , Hoffman entered to stop a rally in the eighth inning with a 2 – 1 lead . He allowed a run in the ninth , tying the game 2 – 2 , after converting 53 of 54 save attempts during the regular season . After Padre Ken Caminiti hit a home run in the top of the 10th , Hoffman got two outs but ran into trouble and was taken out after throwing 43 pitches . He was credited with a win as the Padres held on , 3 – 2 . Hoffman entered Game 3 with the bases loaded and two out in the eighth , and he struck out Javy López on three pitches to end the inning and would save the Padres ' 4 – 1 victory . San Diego was up 3 – 0 in the series and would go on to win 4 – 2 . The Padres reached the 1998 World Series , but lost the series 4 – 0 against the New York Yankees , who finished with an MLB @-@ record 125 combined regular season and playoff victories and the third @-@ best overall winning percentage ( .714 ) for a World Series champion . In his only appearance in the series in Game 3 , Hoffman entered in the eighth with a runner on and no outs and a 3 – 2 lead . Later in the inning , he surrendered a three @-@ run homer to Scott Brosius , the eventual World Series MVP , and the Padres lost the game 5 – 4 .
= = = = 1999 – 2002 = = = =
Hoffman signed a $ 32 million contract extension with San Diego in March 1999 for the 2000 – 03 seasons . At the time , it was the richest contract ever given any Padre or any relief pitcher . The Padres held an option for $ 10 million for 2004 . Hoffman 's contract included a no @-@ trade clause , the first the Padres had ever granted . Following their World Series appearance in 1998 , the Padres lost key players to begin the 1999 season and finished under .500 each season from 1999 through 2002 , while finishing either fourth or fifth in the five @-@ team NL West each year . Hoffman saved 56 % of the team 's wins during that span . He set MLB records with his fifth overall and fourth consecutive 40 @-@ save season in 2001 , as well as his seventh consecutive 30 @-@ save campaign . In 2002 , he extended his MLB record with his eighth straight 30 @-@ save season . Hoffman was named to the All @-@ Star game in 1999 , 2000 , and 2002 . On June 10 , 1999 , Hoffman struck out the side in the ninth inning in a 2 – 1 Padres victory over the Oakland Athletics for his 200th career save . On August 15 , 2001 , Hoffman recorded his 300th save in a 2 – 1 home win over the Mets . Hoffman broke Dennis Eckersley 's record for most saves with one team ( 320 ) in 2002 . Sports Illustrated placed Hoffman on the cover of their May 13 , 2002 issue with the headline " The Secret of San Diego : Why Trevor Hoffman of the Padres is the best closer ( ever ) " .
= = = = 2003 – 2006 = = = =
Hoffman sat out most of the 2003 season while recovering from two offseason shoulder surgeries , including one that trimmed the tip of his scapula . It marked the first time he had been on the disabled list after 10 major league seasons . In his absence , Rod Beck closed for the Padres . Hoffman pitched his first game in 2003 on September 2 with a perfect seventh inning in a 6 – 3 win over the Arizona Diamondbacks . He pitched in nine games in 2003 , all non @-@ save situations , with an ERA of 2 @.@ 00 and 11 strikeouts in 9 innings . Coming off the injury , the Padres bought out their $ 10 million option on Hoffman for 2004 for $ 2 million and agreed to a new deal with a $ 2 @.@ 5 million salary for 2004 including $ 500 @,@ 000 in incentives and an option for 2005 . In the Padres inaugural season at their new home in Petco Park in 2004 , Hoffman returned to the closer role and finished with 41 saves with a 2 @.@ 30 ERA , his lowest since 1998 . He passed Jeff Reardon ( 367 ) and Hall of Famer Dennis Eckersley ( 390 ) to end the season third on the all @-@ time saves list . The new park provide an upgrade over Qualcomm Stadium for " Trevor Time " with a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art sound system and new scoreboards with enhanced visuals allowing for animated flames and live fan shots .
On May 6 , 2005 , Hoffman saved a 6 – 5 win over the St. Louis Cardinals as the Padres won two straight in St. Louis for the first time since 1977 . It was Hoffman 's 400th save , and he became the third pitcher in MLB history to reach the milestone , following John Franco ( 424 ) and Lee Smith ( 478 ) . Hoffman was named both the NL Pitcher of the Month and Delivery Man of the Month in May after a perfect 12 for 12 in save opportunities while posting a 0 @.@ 82 ERA ( 1 ER / 11 @.@ 0 IP ) in 12 games as the Padres went 22 – 6 for their best month in franchise history . On August 24 , Hoffman converted his 29th consecutive save opportunity in a 7 – 4 win over the Houston Astros . He passed Franco for second place on the all @-@ time saves list with his 425th save , and the Padres maintained a six @-@ game lead in the NL West with a 63 – 63 record . The Padres won the NL West with an 82 – 80 record , and Hoffman finished the season 43 for 46 in save opportunities , the second most saves in the NL . The Padres were swept 3 – 0 in the playoffs by the Cardinals , who had a majors @-@ best 100 – 62 record in the regular season . Hoffman did not get into any save situations as the Padres never led through any of the 27 innings in the series .
As a free agent after the 2005 season , Hoffman re @-@ signed with the Padres after negotiating with the Cleveland Indians . Hoffman signed a $ 13 @.@ 5 million , two @-@ year contract that included a club option for 2008 . " It came down to me making a decision for my family and not disrupting what we have going on " , said Hoffman . " This is probably the most significant signing that I 've had " , said then @-@ Padres general manager Kevin Towers . " This guy is the face of our organization . I can 't put into words what he means to our community . "
In 2006 , Hoffman was named to his fifth All @-@ Star game , but was the losing pitcher in the game after having two strikes with two outs to Michael Young , who was later named the All @-@ Star Game Most Valuable Player . His All @-@ Star performance bothered him , and he suffered two of his five blown saves that year in the week that followed . August 20 marked Hoffman 's 776th outing for the Padres , breaking the Pirates Elroy Face 's major league record for most relief appearances with one club . On September 24 in the Padres last home game of the year , Hoffman retired eventual 2006 NL batting champion Freddy Sanchez for the final out of a 2 – 1 win over the Pittsburgh Pirates , keeping the Padres 1 1 ⁄ 2 game lead atop the NL West with seven games left to play . With the save , Hoffman became the all @-@ time Major League saves leader , surpassing Lee Smith 's record of 478 . As the Padres celebrated on the mound with Hoffman , the Pirates remained in the dugout watching in respectful salute . " I 've never seen a crowd get into one inning for one guy like that before " , said Pirates reliever John Grabow . " You get goose bumps even if you are on the other team . " The Padres presented Hoffman with a golden bell trophy , a reference to " Hells Bells " .
Hoffman saved a 3 – 1 win over the Diamondbacks on September 30 as the Padres to clinched a playoff berth . The next day in the last regular season game , two home runs were hit off Hoffman before he saved a 7 – 6 win over the Diamondbacks , earning the Padres their second consecutive NL West title . He was named MLB Delivery Man of the Month for September after being 10 for 11 in save opportunities and striking out 13 batters over 12 @.@ 0 innings and allowing only seven hits . Hoffman saved 46 of 51 save chances on the year , and led the NL in saves for the second time . His 11th 30 @-@ save season set an MLB record , while his eighth 40 @-@ save season extended his record . His season save total was the second highest in his career . Hoffman won the Rolaids Relief Award for the second time in his career , was awarded The Sporting News NL Reliever of the Year for the third time , and finished as the runner @-@ up for the Cy Young Award for the second time . In the playoffs , the Padres faced the Cardinals in the NLDS again . Down 2 – 0 in the series , Hoffman saved Game 3 in a 3 – 1 win to avoid elimination . However , the Padres lost the series 3 – 1 as their offense managed only six runs in the four games against the eventual 2006 World Series champions .
= = = = 2007 – 2008 = = = =
On April 28 , 2007 in a 3 – 2 win over the Dodgers , Hoffman earned a save and pitched in his 803rd game for the Padres , breaking the MLB record for games pitched for one team . The record was previously held by both Walter Johnson of the Washington Senators and Elroy Face of the Pittsburgh Pirates . On June 6 against the Dodgers , Hoffman became the first pitcher in MLB history to log 500 saves after the Padres ' 5 – 2 victory . Hoffman was awarded the MLB Delivery Man of the Month for May after converting all 11 of his save opportunities and allowing no earned runs in 13 games . On July 1 , Hoffman was named to the NL All @-@ Star Team for the sixth time in his career . On September 8 against the Colorado Rockies , Hoffman struck @-@ out Todd Helton swinging on a 74 @-@ mph change @-@ up for his 1,000th career strikeout , becoming the eighth reliever to reach the mark . On September 27 , Hoffman picked up his 40th save of the 2007 season , marking his ninth season with 40 saves , a Major League record . On September 29 , one strike away from clinching the Padres third consecutive playoff berth , Hoffman surrendered a tying , two @-@ out triple in the ninth inning to Tony Gwynn , Jr . , son of legendary Padres Hall of Famer Tony Gwynn . The Padres would lose 4 – 3 in the 11th inning to the Milwaukee Brewers . On October 1 , in the Padres ' wild card tie @-@ breaker game against the Rockies , Hoffman blew his second straight save opportunity and his team 's 8 – 6 lead in the 13th inning . He took the loss when he allowed the game @-@ winning run to score on a sacrifice fly . For the season , he converted 42 saves in 49 opportunities while posting a 4 @-@ 5 mark and 2 @.@ 98 ERA . His 42 saves were the third most in the NL . A couple of weeks after the end of the season , Hoffman had minor arthroscopic surgery on his pitching elbow to remove bone chips . He said it was unrelated to his pitching performance at the end of the season .
Hoffman surrendered a home run but recorded his 550th save on August 14 , 2008 in a 3 – 2 victory over the Brewers . On September 19 , 2008 , Hoffman finished an 11 – 6 14 @-@ inning win over the Washington Nationals for his 900th career MLB game . Hoffman 's 30th and last save of the season , a 3 – 2 win over the Pirates , ensured the Padres would not lose 100 games that season . The Padres finished with a 63 – 99 record after being projected by the team and analysts to win 87 – 90 games . Hoffman ended the 2008 season 3 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 77 ERA and 30 in 34 save opportunities . He tied for sixth in the NL in saves . Hoffman reached 20 or more saves for the 14th time to set a new MLB record . He had a 5 @.@ 14 ERA through his first 29 appearances and a 1 @.@ 56 ERA in his last 19 appearances of the season .
Hoffman , eligible for free agency , realized he was decreasing his leverage when he declared he wanted to return to play for San Diego in 2009 and did not want to move his family . Meanwhile , Padres owner John Moores , who was in the midst of a divorce and in the process of selling the team , ordered the team to reduce its payroll from its 2008 budget of $ 73 @.@ 6 million to $ 40 million . It was announced on November 10 , 2008 , that Hoffman would not return to San Diego in 2009 . With his struggles during the season , the cost @-@ cutting Padres lowballed a $ 4 million offer with an option for 2010 and later retracted that , ending his tenure with the team . It was not an amicable parting for Hoffman , who was the face of the franchise after Tony Gwynn 's retirement following the 2001 season . His 902 career appearances as a Padre extended his own MLB record for games pitched with one team .
= = = = 2009 – 2010 = = = =
On January 13 , 2009 , Hoffman signed a one @-@ year , $ 6 million deal with the Milwaukee Brewers . He suffered a strained muscle on the right side of his rib cage in Spring training , and started the season on the DL . He made his Brewers debut on April 27 , 2009 . Hoffman recorded his first save for Milwaukee the next day , and the Brewers continued with his " Trevor Time " entrance . He was named NL Pitcher of the Month as well as MLB Delivery Man of the Month in May after recording 11 saves in 12 scoreless appearances in the month . He started the season with 18 scoreless innings before entering in a tie game on June 14 and surrendering a run in a 5 – 4 loss against the Chicago White Sox .
Hoffman was selected as an All @-@ Star in 2009 as a late replacement , making his seventh appearance . On September 3 , he struck out Albert Pujols on three pitches for his 30th save in the 4 – 3 win over St. Louis . The save extended Hoffman 's record to 14 seasons with at least 30 saves . He had already increased his record of 20 or more saves to 15 . Hoffman appeared in 55 games with the Brewers , recording 37 saves in 41 attempts with a 1 @.@ 83 ERA and a .183 BAA . It was second lowest ERA of his career behind 1 @.@ 48 in 1998 in San Diego , and he ranked fifth in the NL in saves . In the offseason , he re @-@ signed with the Brewers for $ 8 million for 2010 with a mutual option for the 2011 season .
With less control on his changeup , Hoffman struggled in 2010 . In April , Hoffman pitched nine innings and allowed 13 earned runs and six home runs — surpassing his totals in both categories from all of the previous season — and he blew four of his seven save opportunities . Historically though , Hoffman had blown 20 of 84 save attempts in April for his career , a 76 @.@ 1 percent success rate , while converting 90 @.@ 6 percent the rest of the season . On May 1 , Hoffman earned his first save at Petco Park as a visitor , as the Brewers beat the Padres 2 – 1 . After saving just five of his first 10 chances with an ERA over 12 @.@ 00 in mid @-@ May , Hoffman 's struggles prompted Brewers manager Ken Macha to remove him as closer and move him into middle relief to work on his mechanics . Hoffman insisted that there was nothing physically wrong with him , and he served as a mentor for his replacement , John Axford . Stuck at 596 career saves before his demotion , Hoffman eventually returned to a setup role , and occasionally pitched in save situations . On September 7 , 2010 , he recorded his 600th save , and he was carried off the field by his teammates . " To be a part of it was great because of how much admiration we all have for Trevor " , said teammate Craig Counsell . Hoffman finished the season win a 2 – 7 win – loss record , 10 saves in 15 chances , and a 5 @.@ 89 ERA in 50 appearances , but he allowed just nine earned runs in his final 33 appearances dating back to June 3 . He and the Brewers parted ways on November 2 when the club declined to exercise a $ 7 million mutual option on his contract .
= = = = Retirement = = = =
In the offseason , Hoffman expressed interest in taking over the closer role for a team near his home in San Diego , but he did not wish to return as a setup pitcher and diminish his accomplishments . The Arizona Diamondbacks , where old friend and former Padres general manager Kevin Towers was the GM , considered Hoffman a backup option as their closer had they not managed to sign J. J. Putz . Hoffman believed he could still pitch in the big leagues , but with all of the closer roles for West Coast teams filled , He elected to retire , announcing his decision on January 11 , 2011 . He revealed that elbow tendinitis plagued him for most of the first half of 2010 , though he never used it as an excuse for his performance . Hoffman had received three cortisone injections that year with the Brewers . Hoffman retired with 601 saves as the all @-@ time saves leader in MLB history . He had no desire to sign a ceremonial one @-@ day player contract to retire as a Padre . " I don 't believe that 's the right way [ to retire ] " , said Hoffman .
The Padres retired Hoffman 's No. 51 at Petco Park in a pre @-@ game ceremony on August 21 , 2011 , against the Florida Marlins . San Diego Mayor Jerry Sanders declared it " Trevor Hoffman Day . " The ceremony was patterned after the show This Is Your Life , featuring over 40 of Hoffman 's former teammates and coaches . Brian Johnson , the lead singer on AC / DC 's " Hells Bells " , paid tribute in a video to Hoffman for " rocking the mound . " In a nod to Hoffman 's late father , Ed , the Padres presented Hoffman with a mint condition 1958 Cadillac convertible ; his father loved driving his family in a convertible . For the National Anthem , the Padres played a video of Ed singing " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at Fenway Park on Opening Day in 1981 when Hoffman 's brother , Glenn , was the starting shortstop for the Red Sox .
On August 30 , 2014 , Hoffman became the ninth inductee into the San Diego Padres Hall of Fame .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Pitching style = = =
Hoffman is known for his high leg kick , the menacing glare through his cap pulled down almost to his eyes , and his deceptive changeup . When Hoffman first came into the league , he could throw up to 95 mph . He would also throw a slider and only an occasional changeup . His original changeup was a conventional circle changeup taught to him by Cincinnati scout Larry Barton . Hoffman learned a different changeup , which he throws with a palmball grip , from teammate Donnie Elliott in 1994 . He began using the new changeup in 1995 when his fastball had dropped to 88 – 90 mph after his offseason injury on the beach . With the decrease in velocity , Hoffman knew he could not rely as much on his fastball . He played through 1995 and had surgery the following offseason for a torn rotator cuff . When he returned the following year , Hoffman 's fastball was at 87 – 88 mph , but he had more experience with his new changeup . His fastball reached back as high as 91 mph in 1998 , but by sometime after 2000 it dropped down to 83 – 88 mph . His repertoire by then included primarily of his changeup , a four @-@ seam fastball , a slower cut fastball that moves in towards a left @-@ handed batter , and the occasional slider and a curveball .
Hoffman explained the key to his changeup was how he pinched the seam of the ball with his thumb and index finger as he released it . He threw the changeup with the arm speed used to throw a fastball , and the spin and movement of the ball looked the same to the batter . His changeup ranged from 73 – 76 mph . Bruce Bochy , who managed Hoffman for over a decade with the Padres , said of Hoffman 's changeup : " He pitched so well off his fastball [ opponents ] couldn 't just sit on it every pitch . " " You could be sitting on [ his changeup ] and still not be successful with it " , says former player Mark Sweeney . It was the arm action on the change up and the late sink just before it reached the plate that allowed Hoffman to stay successful over the years . With opponents flailing to slow down their swings , teammates nicknamed Hoffman 's changeup The Bugs Bunny Pitch after a famous Bugs Bunny cartoon episode . " Some [ pitchers ] fool you . Some guys overpower you . Hoffman embarrasses you " , said former rival and later teammate Mike Piazza . After striking out on a changeup to end the game against Hoffman , Dodger catcher Paul Lo Duca said , " It 's like it has a parachute on it . " As Hoffman lost velocity on his fastball throughout his career , he compensated by maintaining a notable speed differential between that pitch and his changeup . He initially kept the grip of his changeup a secret . " I was a little weird about it " , Hoffman said . " I didn 't like talking about how I threw the change . I didn 't want people to see how I gripped the ball . I thought I 'd be giving away something to the hitters . " Later in his career , he posed for pictures of his grip , figuring everyone had seen it .
= = = Work ethic = = =
Padres general manager Kevin Towers said Hoffman was the first one in and the last one out of the ballpark everyday . Hoffman adhered to a daily conditioning program . When pitcher Jeremy Fikac was promoted to the majors in 2001 , Hoffman invited him to join him on his usual afternoon run . " I remember sitting in the bullpen that night , and my legs were still trembling from the run " , Fikac recalled . " I 'd run before , but not at that pace ... I was thinking , I hope they don 't call on me because I can 't feel my legs under me ... His work ethic is unbelievable . " Bochy said , " [ Hoffman 's ] one of those guys like Tony Gwynn — they never feel like they 've arrived . Tony never thought , ' Well , I 'm hitting .360 ... ' He was never content . And Trevor 's the same way . They just keep working and make sure that they 've got goals they want to reach . " After every save opportunity , whether he converted it or blew it , Hoffman would sit in the dugout for up to five minutes after his teammates had cleared out . Whether it was the euphoria from success or the sting of failure , he would sit there and drain all the emotion out of himself , put the game behind him , and move on . Tracy Hoffman said , " He 's all about order . That 's the foundation to what he does . You see it when he 's on the field . He 's always the same , win or lose . He doesn 't smile , doesn 't show any emotion . " Padres manager Bud Black marveled at Hoffman 's regimen . " The daily preparation for his job , that focus and dedication each day to prepare for the ninth inning ... It was incredible to see live " , said Black . " I played with George Brett , a Hall of Famer who was a great worker . But Trevor took it to a level and a commitment and Hall of Fame caliber . " After Hoffman resurrected his final season and recorded his 600th save , Macha said Hoffman 's " work ethic and perseverance paid off ... He had to grind it out to get there . "
= = = Character = = =
Hoffman was long regarded as one of the great teammates in baseball . He was known as a leader in the clubhouse and a tutor to younger players . He mentored his successor in San Diego , Heath Bell , and the pitcher who supplanted him in Milwaukee , John Axford . " Just watching him go about his business was a big thing to me " , Bell said . In his first game pitching setup to Axford after losing his closer role , Hoffman stayed in the dugout to watch Axford finish . Many relievers retire back to the clubhouse after being removed from a game . Hoffman 's teammates noticed that he stayed supporting Axford through a bases @-@ loaded jam . Axford spent the season absorbing Hoffman 's advice , and the two bonded . " He took young players under his wing , especially relief pitchers " , said former Padres teammate Brad Ausmus . Hoffman regularly organized team dinners on the road or had team family gatherings at his home , whether it was with the Padres or the Brewers . " It 's very unusual for a pitcher , especially a relief pitcher , to be the team leader " , Padres first baseman Phil Nevin said in 2002 , " but everybody here looks to Trevor . This is his team . "
According to Ausmus , Hoffman wanted his teams to feel like a family . He felt like he let his family down if he did not do his job on a particular night . Still , he was accessible and held himself accountable on the rare occasions that he failed . Hoffman was more accommodating for interviews after blown saves than he was after successful ones . " The people asking the questions are not responsible for the ball flying out of the park " , he explained . Both Towers and Black best remember Hoffman for his accountability after his blown save in the 2007 Wild Card tie @-@ breaker .
" My greatest memory of Trevor is from game No. 163 in 2007 . Seeing his passion for the Padres , his love for his teammates , and his devastation over the loss and then handling each reporter 's question with the utmost class and professionalism ranks as my greatest sports memory . How he handled that incredible loss says more about him than any save could . Life is about how you handle adversity and what he demonstrated that night was just remarkable .
Baseball people revere Hoffman for how he treats people . Ausmus says Hoffman goes out of his way to engage fans . Beyond shaking hands or signing autographs , he has extended conversations with fans who want to talk baseball . When Hoffman passed on the Indians in free agency to stay with the Padres , he still sent an autographed jersey as a baby gift to then @-@ Indians manager Eric Wedge . After Hoffman saved the game to clinch the NL West on the last day of the 1996 season , he called Randy Smith , who traded for Hoffman as Padre GM before moving on to the Detroit Tigers . " Randy , I wish you were here " , Hoffman said . " You 're a part of this . " While celebrating his record setting 479th save against the Pirates , Hoffman tipped his cap to the Pittsburgh dugout , particularly Pirates manager Jim Tracy , who managed Hoffman in Cincinnati 's Double @-@ A Chattanooga farm team in 1991 after he was converted to a pitcher . Despite losing his role as a closer in his final season , Hoffman took pleasure in supporting his teammates and " not being a cancer just because I was having trouble . "
= = Legacy = =
Hoffman dominated his position at a consistent level while enjoying incredible longevity over almost two decades . After an 18 @-@ year career , the seven @-@ time NL All @-@ Star retired as MLB 's all @-@ time leader in saves with 601 . He was the first pitcher to reach not only the 500 save milestone , but also 600 . He converted 88 @.@ 8 percent of his save opportunities , the third @-@ highest rate among players with 300 or more saves . Barry Bloom of MLB.com called Hoffman " the best National League closer of his era . " Hoffman is one of only three pitchers who have had streaks of four straight seasons with at least 40 saves ; he achieved it twice . His nine seasons of 40 or more saves are tied for the most all @-@ time . His 15 @-@ year stint as Padres closer was rare for a baseball role that exhibited a high turnover rate .
Hoffman had 12 seasons with at least 37 saves , 13 seasons with a sub @-@ 3 @.@ 00 ERA and 14 with an ERA + of at least 130 ( indicating that he was at least 30 percent better than the league average in ERA those years ) . Four times he was in the top six in voting for the Cy Young Award , including twice as a runner @-@ up . Among pitchers to debut since 1969 , he is one of only two ranked in the top 10 for lowest opponents ' batting average against facing both lefties and righties . Hoffman retired ranked first with 856 games finished , ninth with 1 @,@ 035 games pitched , seventh @-@ lowest in hits per nine innings ( H / 9 ) at 6 @.@ 99 , and seventh @-@ best in strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio ( K / BB ) of 3 @.@ 69 . He had a 2 @.@ 87 ERA and 1 @.@ 06 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) for his career .
Though he was not a power pitcher , Hoffman was a strikeout pitcher . His 9 @.@ 36 K / 9 was the fifth @-@ highest in MLB history , and highest ever among relievers . Sports journalist Fran Zimniuch wrote in Fireman : The Evolution of the Closer in Baseball that Hoffman was " a thinking man 's closer , using guile rather than heat . " As the velocity of his fastball decreased , he compensated with a devastating changeup that is as synonymous a pitch with Hoffman as the splitter is with Bruce Sutter or the cutter is with Mariano Rivera . " It 's a tough situation throwing a change @-@ up in the ninth inning , unless you 've got Trevor 's changeup " , closer Billy Wagner said . " There 's not many guys who have a changeup that 's dominating " , All @-@ Star third basemen Scott Rolen said . " But his is dominating . It 's a weapon . That 's not usually a word you use with a changeup . " Robb Nen , a retired closer , was amazed at how Hoffman got better after he lost velocity on his fastball . " I don 't think I could do it , to just lose the ability to throw 95 and still be one of the best . I have tremendous respect for him " , Nen said . Another retired closer , Troy Percival , concurred about the difficulty in transforming from a power pitching style . " It 's not easy to do . Guys who throw 95 , 96 [ mph ] have an ego about being able to do that . [ Hoffman ] just went right into , ' Hey , you know , I throw 87 now . This is what I 've got . ' And he goes out there and gets it done just as well as he ever did . "
[ Hoffman is ] unique in the sense that what he does , closing , is usually a power pitcher 's game . His change @-@ up isn 't just great , but dominating . What he does puts things in perspective . It 's pitching , not just throwing , and using whatever stuff you have . He throws a pitch that looks so tempting that you can 't lay off it . ... I feel vulnerable when I throw 93 @-@ 96 mph . He 's throwing 81 and doing it with full confidence .
During the time Hoffman held the career record for saves , many still considered Rivera the best closer of all time . Like many other relievers of his era , Hoffman was compared to Rivera and his success in the playoffs . While Hoffman had 601 regular @-@ season saves , he only had four in the playoffs . Jayson Stark of ESPN wrote after Hoffman 's retirement announcement , " Not everybody can have his team deliver him an October save opportunity to protect 47 different times . " His last postseason save was in 2006 , which was also his first postseason save in eight years . Though the Padres were in the playoffs three other times in that span , they never took a single lead . Hoffman , however , did blow a save opportunity in his only World Series appearance and also failed on save tries twice in the final three days of the 2007 season as the Padres vied for the playoffs . John Delcos of The Journal News , who covered the New York Yankees for eight years , believes the Yankees would have been just as successful with Hoffman instead of Rivera . David Wells , who played with both Hoffman and Rivera , said , " [ Rivera ] has the better postseason record because the Yankees go to the postseason more than the Padres do , and he 's had more opportunities there . The way they go about it , they 're the best in the game . Trevor 's the best in the West and [ Mariano ] is the best in the East . " Rivera , however , broke Hoffman 's career save record in 2011 .
In 2014 , Major League Baseball introduced the Trevor Hoffman National League Reliever of the Year Award , which is awarded annually to the top reliever in the NL . Hoffman became eligible for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame starting in 2016 . In his debut , he fell short of the 75 percent of votes required for entry , but the 67 @.@ 3 percent he received in his first year was promising for possible induction in the future . No career reliever has reached Cooperstown on the first ballot , and only six relievers have been inducted as of 2016 . Lee Smith , the all @-@ time saves leader for 12 years before he was surpassed by Hoffman , was not inducted in 2016 after 14 years on the ballot . Buster Olney of ESPN says any discussion of Hoffman 's deficiencies in the postseason and All @-@ Star Games are small samples compared to his incredible body of work over 18 years . Zimniuch wrote that Hoffman and Rivera are " the best of the best of the one @-@ inning closers " . Less than 10 percent of Hoffman 's saves were over one inning . Closers as a whole have been criticized for pitching almost exclusively in the ninth inning with no runners on base , while star relievers previously were called firemen , entering games in the middle of innings with runners on base and capable of pitching multiple innings . Saves arguably became overrated as firemen gave way to closers . However , Joe Strauss of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch in 2007 proposed that 500 saves ( let alone 600 ) would be enough for him to validate Hoffman 's induction if Sutter was invited with his 300 career saves . Moreover , Hoffman might have accumulated much more than 601 saves had he played for more successful teams . During his tenure in San Diego , the Padres won at least 90 games only twice and had nine losing seasons , including five with no more than 70 wins . Hall of Fame voter Dan Graziano of the Newark Star @-@ Ledger said , " I don 't think much of the save as a stat , but I 'm looking at a guy who 's been a lockdown closer for more than a decade . Closers are a real and important part of the game , and either he or Rivera has been the best one for the past decade . " Some opponents of Hoffman 's induction , including Jeff Passan of Yahoo ! Sports and Keith Law of ESPN.com , maintain that his limited innings mitigate his impact compared to starting pitchers who have not been inducted , while Joe Posnanski of NBC Sports and writer Joe Sheehan posit that those starters could have excelled as closers , but Hoffman would not have succeeded as a starter . Hoffman pitched 1 @,@ 089 1 ⁄ 3 innings in his career , which tops only Sutter ( 1 @,@ 042 ) among pitchers already inducted in the Hall of Fame .
Hoffman 's entrance into games , accompanied by the playing of " Hells Bells " , became popular among fans after it was introduced in 1998 . Tom Verducci of Sports Illustrated wrote that Hoffman 's " signature moment is one of the most electrically charged in sports : Padres fans rising and roaring , in Pavlovian fashion , upon hearing the first bell toll , the foreboding bonging like something out of Hitchcock as Hoffman enters slowly , stage right . " Opposing closer Jason Isringhausen said , " ' Hells Bells ' in San Diego is Trevor . It 's like when you go there , you want to [ win ] two out of three so you can hear it once . " The initial introduction of Hoffman 's entrance music was a forerunner in the heavy metal closer theme songs used throughout home stadiums . The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune initially noted , " [ Hoffman 's ] entrance was more suited to the World Wrestling Federation than the national pastime . " By the end of Hoffman 's career , San Jose Mercury News and ESPN.com wrote that the song should be honored by the Baseball Hall of Fame . Other teams contacted the Padres for videos of the " Trevor Time " production . Yankees executives witnessing Hoffman 's entrance in 1998 were inspired to use the song " Enter Sandman " for Rivera 's entrance starting the following season .
= = Accomplishments = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
= = = Active records = = =
Statistics as of 2011 season
= = = Former records = = =
= = = Other MLB rankings = = =
Most saves , career : 601 ( 2nd )
Lowest H / 9 , career : 6 @.@ 99 ( 7th )
Highest K / BB , career : 3 @.@ 69 ( 7th )
Most games pitched , career : 1 @,@ 035 ( 9th )
= = Post playing career = =
Coinciding with his retirement from playing in 2011 , Hoffman returned to San Diego as a special assistant to Padres team president and COO Tom Garfinkel . " There 's been a turnover of people [ in the Padres front office ] who wanted to reconcile and I 've been cool with it . A couple of years definitely makes a big difference " , said Hoffman . In addition to his front office role , he also served as an instructor during spring training . In 2014 , Hoffman became San Diego 's upper @-@ level pitching coordinator , essentially an additional pitching coach for the Padres at their Double @-@ A and Triple @-@ A levels . His new role also involved assisting San Diego general manager Josh Byrnes . Under General Manager A. J. Preller in 2015 , Hoffman became senior advisor for baseball operations , overseeing pitching instruction at all levels of the Padres ' minor league system .
= = Personal life = =
Hoffman met his wife , Tracy , in Buffalo , New York in 1992 where she was a real estate agent and a member of the National Football League 's Buffalo Bills cheerleading squad . He asked her to marry him in 1993 while she was on the field during Super Bowl XXVII , which the Buffalo Bills lost to the Dallas Cowboys , 52 – 17 . Hoffman has three sons : Brody , Quinn , and Wyatt .
Hoffman 's father died of cancer on Super Bowl Sunday in 1995 .
Hoffman donated $ 200 for every save to the National Kidney Foundation . In honor of his father , a former Marine , Hoffman annually paid for game tickets and meals for 1 @,@ 000 members of the military and their families .
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= It 's Alive ! ( Dexter ) =
" It 's Alive ! " is the second season premiere and thirteenth overall episode of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on September 30 , 2007 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Daniel Cerone and was directed by Tony Goldwyn . In the episode , which takes place five weeks after the first season finale , Sgt. James Doakes ( Erik King ) is following Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) at all times , but when he gets his first opportunity Dexter finds himself unable to kill . Meanwhile , his sister Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) returns to work after her ex @-@ fiancé Brian tried to kill her , and his girlfriend Rita Bennett ( Julie Benz ) refuses to believe that Dexter sent her ex @-@ husband Paul ( Mark Pellegrino ) to prison in spite of the evidence in front of her .
Although Dexter 's first season was adapted from Jeff Lindsay 's novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter , the show 's writers decided not to follow Lindsay 's second novel , Dearly Devoted Dexter , in the second season . Filming of the episode began in May in Los Angeles , California , marking the show 's permanent move from Miami , Florida , where the show takes place . A small crew flew to Miami to film short pieces of Dexter which were integrated into " It 's Alive ! " and other episodes , but the bulk of filming took place in San Pedro and Long Beach . With 1 @.@ 09 million viewers , Dexter became the first Showtime series to attract over a million viewers with a season premiere . The episode received mostly positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
In the five weeks after murdering his brother Brian , the " Ice Truck Killer " , Dexter has been followed by suspicious Sgt. Doakes and thus cannot satisfy his urge to kill . Trying to act " relentlessly normal " , Dexter goes bowling almost nightly with his co @-@ workers . He is finally left alone when Doakes gives up and takes a night off ; Dexter pursues a blind voodoo priest , Jimmy ( Glenn Plummer ) , but finds himself uneasy and ultimately unable to kill the man , and lets him go . At a homicide scene , the victim 's mother ( Anna Maganini ) pleads with Dexter to kill her son 's murderer , gang lord " Little Chino " ( Matthew Willig ) . He sees the woman 's young daughter , Marissa ( Jillian Bruno ) , and is reminded of himself as a boy , having witnessed his mother 's brutal death . He leads Doakes to believe that he is bowling for the night but instead brings Chino to Jimmy 's killing room . Chino wakes up in the middle of Dexter 's procedure and manages to break out of the duct tape and escape .
Debra , who is staying at Dexter 's apartment , is exercising incessantly and barely able to sleep as she struggles with memories of Brian , her ex @-@ fiancé , trying to kill her . She returns to work at the police station ; Sgt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) expresses concern about her emotional stability , but Debra is determined to resume a normal lifestyle . When she takes Rita out to a bar , a man recognizes Debra as the fiancée of the Ice Truck Killer . He touches her on the shoulder and she instinctively punches him in the nose , certain that he was trying to grab her .
Rita takes her children Astor ( Christina Robinson ) and Cody ( Preston Bailey ) to see Paul ( Mark Pellegrino ) in prison . He insists that he was framed by Dexter — that Dexter dragged him out of Rita 's house before drugging him and tipping off the police — and that if she could find his missing shoe it would prove his innocence . Rita tells him that there is no shoe , despite having found it over a month ago . She later admits that she found the shoe , but refuses to acknowledge that Dexter is involved . That night , she receives a call from Paul 's prison and learns that he was killed in an inmate altercation .
Flashbacks throughout the episode show the attempts of a teenage Dexter ( Devon Graye ) to feel his heart pound . At the end of the episode , Debra turns on the television in Dexter 's apartment and shows him the news : a team of scuba divers in Biscayne Bay has uncovered over 30 garbage bags , each containing parts of Dexter 's mutilated victims . As he watches , his heart races .
= = Production = =
The first season of Dexter followed the same storyline of Jeff Lindsay 's novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter , the first in the series of novels on which the television show is based , albeit with many additional elements and altered characters . When writing the second season , Daniel Cerone said that the writers " didn 't see the opportunity in the second book " to continue on the path that they hoped to go down and chose to depart from Lindsay 's second Dexter novel , Dearly Devoted Dexter . Instead , they chose " to turn our biggest card up - " What if Dexter 's bodies were discovered ? " - and just chart that course throughout the season . " According to executive producer Clyde Phillips , they decided to resume the second season storyline five weeks after season one 's finale " so all of the emotional resonance of what each [ character ] went through [ ... ] will continue as if that were the actual passage of time , so they 're still dented and rocked by what has happened . " Cerone added that " The nice thing with Dexter is it 's actually the lack of emotional resonance . " Speaking about Dexter 's situation at the beginning of the second season , Hall said , " I think his world is pretty rocked . He encountered [ his brother ] , a person he never anticipated encountering , someone who sees him for who he is , accepts him as such , and he really has no choice but to do him in ... he 's still reeling from that , and any footing he 's able to establish for himself is pretty much immediately pulled out from under him . "
With filming beginning on May 21 , 2007 , " It 's Alive ! " marked the permanent relocation of production from Miami to Los Angeles . Five episodes of the first season were shot on location in Miami , which Cerone said was " a bigger hassle than it was worth " . Showtime programming chief Robert Greenblatt said that " It just became impossible , production @-@ wise , to shoot the whole show [ in Miami ] " , because of the overlap between Dexter 's production window and Florida 's hurricane season , making property insurance costly . A small crew flew to Miami with Hall and filmed , according to producer Sara Colleton , " a lot of pieces — not just Dexter walking in and out of his door or car , but also scenes that we know we 'll need and can use " , which the writers then worked into the episode and others . For the episode , Biscayne Bay was substituted with a set in Los Angeles , while most on location scenes were filmed in and around San Pedro and Long Beach , California .
= = Reception = =
" It 's Alive ! " brought in 1 @.@ 09 million viewers in the United States , making Dexter the first Showtime series to attract over a million viewers with a season premiere , while an additional 414 @,@ 000 people watched the late @-@ night encore . The ratings were 67 percent higher than the series pilot and 40 percent above the first season 's average . The episode attracted 471 @,@ 000 Australian viewers on its first free @-@ to @-@ air broadcast . In the United Kingdom , the episode drew 348 @,@ 000 viewers , an increase of 50 @,@ 000 from the pilot . Production sound mixer Patrick Hanson and re @-@ recording sound mixers Elmo Ponsdomenech and Joe Earle , received a Creative Arts Primetime Emmy Award nomination , in the category Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( One @-@ Hour ) , but lost to the sound mixers of the Lost episode " Meet Kevin Johnson " . Stewart Schill , the editor of " It 's Alive ! " , received an Eddie Award nomination for Best Edited One @-@ Hour Series for Non @-@ Commercial Television . However , the eventual recipient of the award was Sidney Wolinsky , for The Sopranos .
The episode was positively received . Writing for Variety , Brian Lowry called the second season 's opening " a bloody winner " and said that Hall 's performance " remains a towering achievement " . IGN 's Eric Goldman thought that the episode 's biggest problem was " having to follow up such a great first season " , but called " It 's Alive ! " " a solid episode " . He praised Dexter 's flashbacks and Dexter and Debra 's storylines , though he said that Doakes ' following Dexter was " ridiculous " and that LaGuerta 's overhearing Lt. Esmee Pascal 's private conversation was " a bit contrived " . Keith McDuffee of TV Squad " love [ d ] the flashbacks to a young Dexter and living Harry " . Regarding the episode 's end , he wrote that " just as Dexter 's heart beats out of his chest , as does ours . " Paula Paige , writing for TV Guide , said that the episode " made for some exciting , heart @-@ pounding fear " and called the discovery of Dexter 's corpses " a fantastic storyline " . She commended Benz for " develop [ ing ] her character , Rita , into a person instead of just the shell of one she appeared to be " . Blogcritics ' Ray Ellis commented , " If [ ' It 's Alive ! ' ] is any indication , Dexter 's second season looks to delve deeper into the psyches of its characters . It certainly sets up a number of plot complexities [ ... ] and new devices that offer a myriad of new developments . " The A.V. Club critic Scott Tobias stated that " the writers have done a solid job setting the table for season two " .
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= 1876 FA Cup Final =
The 1876 FA Cup Final was a football match between Wanderers and Old Etonians on 11 March 1876 at Kennington Oval in London . It was the fifth final of the world 's oldest football competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) . Wanderers had won the Cup on two previous occasions . The Etonians were playing in their second consecutive final , having lost in the 1875 final . Both teams had conceded only one goal in the four rounds prior to the final . In the semi @-@ finals Wanderers defeated Swifts and the Etonians beat the 1874 FA Cup winners Oxford University .
The match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , the second time an FA Cup Final had finished all @-@ square . John Hawley Edwards scored for Wanderers , but the Etonians equalised with a goal credited in modern publications to Alexander Bonsor , although contemporary newspaper reports do not identify him as the scorer . A week later , the replay took place at the same venue . The Etonians were forced to make a number of changes due to players being unavailable , and the revised team was no match for the Wanderers , who won 3 – 0 . Charles Wollaston and Thomas Hughes scored a goal apiece in a five @-@ minute spell before half @-@ time , and Hughes added the third early in the second half .
= = Route to the final = =
Old Etonians , the team for former pupils of Eton College , had reached the 1875 final but been defeated by Royal Engineers . Wanderers had won the competition in both 1872 and 1873 but had not progressed beyond the quarter @-@ finals in the subsequent two seasons . Both teams entered the 1875 – 76 competition at the first round stage and were allocated matches at home . Wanderers defeated a team from the 1st Surrey Rifles regiment 5 – 0 , and the Etonians overcame Pilgrims 4 – 1 . In the second round Wanderers defeated Crystal Palace ( not the modern club ) 3 – 0 and the Etonians had an easy win over Maidenhead , scoring eight goals without reply .
At the quarter @-@ final stage , Wanderers took on the world 's oldest football club , Sheffield and won 2 – 0 , and the Etonians gained a 1 – 0 victory over Clapham Rovers . Both semi @-@ final matches took place at Kennington Oval in London , as stipulated in the original rules of the competition . The Etonians beat the 1874 FA Cup winners Oxford University 1 – 0 in the first semi @-@ final , and a week later Wanderers clinched their place in the final , defeating the Slough @-@ based club Swifts 2 – 1 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Three sets of brothers played in the match . Francis and Hubert Heron lined up for the Wanderers , while the Etonians ' team included Hon. Edward Lyttelton and his brother Hon. Alfred Lyttelton and Albert Meysey @-@ Thompson and his brother Charles . The latter pair 's surname had been simply Thompson until it was changed in 1874 , and for the final Albert played under the name Thompson and Charles under the name Meysey . This is the only occasion that two or more pairs of brothers have played in the same FA Cup Final . Later that year , Francis Birley married Margaret , sister of his team @-@ mate Jarvis Kenrick . The Etonian team also included Julian Sturgis , who had been born in the USA and was the first foreign @-@ born player to appear in the Cup Final ( discounting those born to British parents in the British Empire ) , as well as Arthur Kinnaird , who had captained Wanderers to victory in the 1873 FA Cup Final . Wanderers began the match with two full @-@ backs , two half @-@ backs and six forwards , while the Etonians opted for one full @-@ back , two half @-@ backs and seven forwards .
Wanderers won the coin toss and chose to start the game defending the Harleyford Road end of The Oval . The crowd was estimated at 3 @,@ 500 , the largest for an FA Cup Final up to that point . The match was played in a strong wind , to the extent that when Frederick Maddison took a corner kick for Wanderers , the gale blew the ball back out of play . The Wanderers dominated the early stages of the game , but the Etonians kept them at bay for around 35 minutes until Charles Wollaston eluded Thompson and passed the ball to John Hawley Edwards , who kicked it narrowly under the crossbar of the Etonians ' goal to give Wanderers the lead . In the second half the Old Etonians had the wind in their favour and had the better of the play . Around five minutes after the interval , a corner kick to the Etonians led to a " scrimmage " ( a term in common use at the time to describe a group of players struggling to gain possession of the ball ) in front of their opponents ' goal , which resulted in the ball and a number of players being forced over the goal @-@ line , uprooting the goalposts in the process . Modern sources credit the goal to Alexander Bonsor , but contemporary newspaper reports in The Sporting Life and Bell 's Life in London do not mention his name , merely noting that the goal was scored " from a scrimmage " . Neither team could manage to score another goal , and the game finished with the scores level , meaning that for the second successive season a replay would be needed to determine the winners of the competition .
= = = Details = = =
Match rules :
90 minutes normal time .
30 minutes extra @-@ time if scores are level , at captains ' discretion .
Replay if scores still level .
No substitutes .
= = Replay = =
= = = Summary = = =
The replay took place one week later at the same venue . The Wanderers fielded an unchanged team , but the Etonians had to make a number of changes , as Meysey was injured and three other players were unavailable due to other commitments . One of the replacements , Edgar Lubbock , had not long recovered from a bout of illness and was noted as being out of practice , and Kinnaird was still suffering the after @-@ effects of an injury sustained in the original match .
The weather on the day of the match was extremely cold , with the threat of snow . The Etonians began the match playing in a rough manner , and there were also many appeals from the players for handball , which disrupted play . After around half an hour , the Wanderers ' forwards surged towards their opponents ' goal and Charles Wollaston got the final kick which sent the ball past goalkeeper Quintin Hogg , one of the replacement players brought in for the replay . Almost immediately afterwards , another massed attack by the Wanderers led to Thomas Hughes doubling the lead .
Soon after half @-@ time , Hawley Edwards , Francis Heron and Jarvis Kenrick combined in a skilful attack and set up Hughes to score his second goal of the game . Although the Wanderers ' goalkeeper , W. D. O. Greig , was called into action several times , the Etonians were unable to get the ball past him , and the match finished 3 – 0 to the Wanderers . The winning team 's captain Francis Birley was praised for his performance by the press , as were both Lyttleton brothers for the Etonians .
= = = Details = = =
Match rules :
90 minutes normal time .
30 minutes extra @-@ time if scores are level , at captains ' discretion .
Replay if scores still level .
No substitutes .
= = Post @-@ match = =
As occurred each year until 1882 , the winning team did not receive the trophy at the stadium on the day of the match , but later in the year at their annual dinner . In addition to receiving the Cup , the winning team each received a gold medal from the committee of Surrey County Cricket Club . A week after the replay , four of the victorious Wanderers were chosen to represent London in a match against an equivalent team from Sheffield . Despite their presence , the London XI lost the game 6 – 0 .
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= 2009 Big Ten Conference football season =
The 2009 Big Ten Conference football season was the 114th for the conference , and saw Ohio State conclude the regular season as Big Ten Conference champion for the 5th consecutive time , their 34th Big Ten title . This earned them the conference 's automatic selection to a Bowl Championship Series game in which it emerged victorious in the January 1 , 2010 Rose Bowl against Oregon Ducks . Co @-@ runner @-@ up , Iowa , earned the conference 's at @-@ large BCS invitation to the January 5 , 2010 Orange Bowl . The season started on Thursday , September 3 , as conference member Indiana hosted Eastern Kentucky . The conference ’ s other 10 teams began their respective 2009 season of NCAA Division I FBS ( Football Bowl Subdivision ) competition two days later . All teams started their season at home except Illinois who started their season on neutral turf for the third consecutive season against Missouri and Minnesota who traveled to Syracuse .
Although several players had post season All @-@ star games remaining , the season concluded for Big Ten teams with the 2010 Orange Bowl in which Iowa defeated Georgia Tech . This was the seventh bowl game for the conference which compiled a 4 – 3 record . Over the course of 77 home games , the conference set a new attendance record . During the season , Minnesota opened a new athletic stadium , TCF Bank Stadium , and Purdue welcomed a new head coach , Danny Hope .
The season saw John Clay selected as offensive player of the year by both the coaches and the media . Jared Odrick and Greg Jones won defensive player of the year awards from the coaches and media , respectively . Chicago Tribune Silver Football recipients as the Big Ten co @-@ MVPs were Daryll Clark and Brandon Graham . Jones was the conferences only consensus 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team representative . The Big Ten Conference enjoyed two national statistical championships . Graham led the nation in tackles for a loss ( TFL ) . Ray Fisher earned the national statistical championship in kickoff return average and established a new Big Ten single @-@ season record with his performance . The Big Ten led the nation with six first team Academic All @-@ Americans . After the season , 34 athletes were selected in the 2010 NFL Draft including three in the first round and six each by Iowa and Penn State .
= = Previous season = =
During the 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season , Ohio State won its fourth consecutive Big Ten championship while co @-@ champion Penn State won its second in four years . Although the two teams tied with 7 – 1 conference records , Penn State earned the conference 's automatic Bowl Championship Series selection due to a head @-@ to @-@ head victory . The two teams have been the only teams from the conference to win a Big Ten championship in the past four seasons .
During the season , every home game was televised nationally and 98 percent of the Big Ten 's games were nationally aired far exceeding all other conferences , none of whom had even 75 percent of their games televised .
= = Preseason = =
In a given year , each Big Ten team will play eight of the other Big Ten teams . Thus for any given team in a given year , there are two others which will not be competed against . Below is the breakdown of each team and its two " no @-@ plays " for 2009 :
Illinois : Iowa , Wisconsin
Indiana : Michigan State , Minnesota
Iowa : Illinois , Purdue
Michigan : Minnesota , Northwestern
Michigan State : Indiana , Ohio State
Minnesota : Indiana , Michigan
Northwestern : Michigan , Ohio State
Ohio State : Michigan State , Northwestern
Penn State : Purdue , Wisconsin
Purdue : Iowa , Penn State
Wisconsin : Illinois , Penn State
The Big Ten Conference announced on July 27 that the big ten media had elected Ohio State as the preseason favorite for the 2009 football season . It had ranked Penn State second and Michigan State third . It chose Ohio State quarterback Terrelle Pryor the Preseason Offensive Player of the Year and Michigan State linebacker Greg Jones the Preseason Defensive Player of the Year .
In the Preseason Coaches ' Poll released on August 7 , the Big Ten was one of only three conferences with multiple teams ranked in the top ten .
The College Football Hall of Fame has selected Iowa 's Larry Station ( 1982 – 85 ) , Ohio State 's Chris Spielman ( 1984 – 87 ) and Penn State 's Curt Warner ( 1979 – 82 ) for December induction . 28 Big Ten athletes were selected in the 2009 National Football League Draft in late April , including four first @-@ round picks . Two additional players were selected in the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft .
= = Watchlists = =
According to the Big Ten Conference at the beginning of the season : " The Big Ten now features 51 student @-@ athletes on preseason watch lists for 19 different national awards . Among the honored conference players , 27 appear on more than one list and five Big Ten standouts lead the way by appearing on five different lists . Every Big Ten team has at least one player appearing on a watch list . Iowa , Ohio State and Penn State top all Big Ten schools with seven different players appearing on watch lists , followed by six nominees from Illinois and Michigan and five selections for Michigan State and Wisconsin .
On the offensive side of the ball , returning first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten quarterback Daryll Clark of Penn State appears on the watch lists for the Walter Camp Player of the Year , Manning , Maxwell , Davey O 'Brien and Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Awards . Illinois signal caller Juice Williams , a second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten choice last year , appears on four different lists for the Manning , Maxwell , Davey O 'Brien and Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Awards . Illini wideout Arrelious Benn ( Biletnikoff , Walter Camp Player of the Year , Maxwell ) and Ohio State quarterback Terrelle Pryor ( Manning , Maxwell , Davey O 'Brien ) appear on three different watch lists . Players appearing on two lists include Iowa offensive tackle Bryan Bulaga , Michigan running back Brandon Minor and offensive lineman David Molk , Michigan State center Joel Nitchman , Minnesota wideout Eric Decker and quarterback Adam Weber , Northwestern center Ben Burkett , Ohio State center Mike Brewster , Penn State running back Evan Royster and offensive lineman Stefan Wisniewski and the Wisconsin trio of running back John Clay , tight end Garrett Graham and center John Moffitt .
On the defensive side of the ball , four standouts appear on five different watch lists . Big Ten Preseason Defensive Player of the Year and returning first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten linebacker Greg Jones of Michigan State has been named to the watch lists for the Bednarik , Butkus and Rotary Lombardi Awards and the Lott and Nagurski Trophies . Fellow linebacker Sean Lee of Penn State , who missed last season due to injury after earning second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten accolades in 2007 , appears on the same five watch lists as Jones . Defensive ends Brandon Graham of Michigan and Corey Wootton of Northwestern were both tabbed for the Bednarik , Ted Hendricks , Rotary Lombardi , Lott and Nagurski watch lists . Wootton was a first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten choice last year while Graham was named to the second team . Two more Nittany Lion standouts were named to four watch lists in linebacker Navorro Bowman ( Bednarik , Butkus , Lombardi , Nagurski ) and defensive tackle Jared Odrick ( Bednarik , Lombardi , Nagurski , Outland ) . Other defensive standouts to appear on multiple lists include Illinois linebacker Martez Wilson , Indiana defensive end Jammie Kirlew , Iowa linebacker Pat Angerer and Ohio State safety Kurt Coleman . "
= = = Award watch lists = = =
Lott Trophy , Bronko Nagurski Trophy , and Jim Thorpe Award watchlist candidate Kurt Coleman of Ohio State , was suspended by the Big Ten Conference for one game . The suspension was for a violation of the new 2009 NCAA football playing rule that required mandatory conference video review of an act where a player initiates helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet contact and targets a defenseless opponent . The incident occurred during the September 26 game against Illinois .
= = = Midseason = = =
Obi Ezeh , Jones and Lee were among the sixteen selected to the midseason Butkus watchlist and Clark was named as one of ten finalists for the Unitas award . Eight Big Ten athletes were named as semifinalists for the Campbell Trophy : Illinois ' Jon Asamoah , Indiana 's Jammie Kirlew , Michigan 's Zoltan Mesko , Minnesota 's Eric Decker , Northwestern 's Andrew Brewer , Ohio State 's Jim Cordle , Penn State 's Josh Hull and Wisconsin 's Mickey Turner on October 1 . Four Big Ten Players midseason watch list for the John Mackey Award : Moeaki , Gantt , Quarless and Graham . Three were quarterfinalists for the Lott Award : Angerer , Jones and Coleman . The Big Ten had two O 'Brien Award semifinalists : Stanzi and Clark . Eric Decker was named one of 10 semifinalists for the Biletnikoff Award . Jones has been selected as a semifinalists for the Bednarik Award along with Angerer , Bowman and Wisconsin defensive end O 'Brien Schofield . Hawkeyes ' Tyler Sash was chosen as a semifinalist for the Jim Thorpe Award . Swenson and Northwestern 's Stefan Demos were named semifinalists for the Groza Award . Mesko , Blair White , and Andrew Brewer were among the 12 finalists for the Wuerffel Trophy . Mesko , and Donahue were among 10 semifinalists for the Guy Award . Mesko was named one of three finalists for the Ray Guy Award . Michigan 's Graham was a finalist for the Henricks Award .
= = Rankings = =
Unlike most sports , college football 's governing body , the NCAA , does not bestow a National Championship title . That title is bestowed by one or more of four different polling agencies . There are two main weekly polls that begin in the preseason : the AP Poll and the Coaches Poll . Two additional polls are released midway through the season ; the Harris Interactive Poll is released after the fourth week of the season and the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) Standings is released after the seventh week . The Harris Poll and Coaches Poll are factors in the BCS Standings .
= = Spring games = =
April 11
Michigan
April 18
Indiana
Purdue
Wisconsin
April 25
Illinois
Michigan State
Minnesota
Northwestern
Ohio State
Penn State
Did not have spring game this year
Iowa
= = Season = =
Purdue head coach Danny Hope began his first season in West Lafayette . On September 12 , Minnesota opened the 2009 season its new 50 @,@ 720 @-@ seat home field , TCF Bank Stadium when the team hosted the Air Force Falcons . For the third straight year , each Big Ten home game during the first three weeks of the season was broadcast nationally on ABC , ESPN , ESPN2 or the Big Ten Network , which televised more than 20 contests altogether in the opening weeks , including all nine home games in Week 1 . Every ABC afternoon telecast was broadcast nationally , either on ABC or simultaneously on ESPN or ESPN2 . Note that although the Big Ten is a regional conference the Big Ten Network , which was available in 19 of the 20 largest U.S. media markets , was available to approximately 73 million homes in the U.S. and Canada through agreements with more than 250 cable television or satellite television affiliates .
The season began amidst allegations that Michigan was working its players beyond the extent permissible by the NCAA . Nonetheless , the conference had its fifth ten @-@ win week during the opening weekend . During week 3 , the Ohio State @-@ USC game became the most @-@ viewed college football game in ESPN history . After three weeks , the Big Ten Conference was the only Football Bowl Subdivision conference with five 3 – 0 teams .
= = = Homecoming games = = =
September 26
Michigan 36 , Indiana 33 ( Michigan 's record in homecoming games is 83 @-@ 26 ) †
October 3
Northwestern 27 , Purdue 21 ( Purdue 's record in homecoming games is 48 @-@ 35 @-@ 4 ) †
October 10
Michigan State 24 , Illinois 14 ( Illinois 's record in homecoming games is 42 @-@ 55 @-@ 2 ) †
Iowa 30 , Michigan 28 ( Iowa 's record in homecoming games is 52 @-@ 41 @-@ 5 ) †
Minnesota 35 , Purdue 20 ( Minnesota 's record in homecoming games is 54 @-@ 33 @-@ 3 ) †
October 17
Indiana 27 , Illinois 14 ( Indiana 's record in homecoming games is 43 @-@ 48 @-@ 6 ) †
Michigan State 24 , Northwestern 14 ( Michigan State 's record in homecoming games is 61 @-@ 30 @-@ 3 ) †
Penn State 20 , Minnesota 0 ( Penn State 's record in homecoming games is 65 @-@ 20 @-@ 5 ) †
Iowa 20 , Wisconsin 10 ( Wisconsin 's record in homecoming games is 52 @-@ 45 @-@ 5 ) †
October 24
Northwestern 29 , Indiana 28 11 : 00 a.m. CT
Ohio State 38 , Minnesota 7 ( Ohio State 's record in homecoming games is 64 @-@ 19 @-@ 5 ) †
† denotes record after the game
= = Schedule = =
= = = Week one = = =
= = = Week two = = =
= = = Week three = = =
= = = Week four = = =
= = = Week five = = =
= = = Week six = = =
= = = Week seven = = =
= = = Week eight = = =
= = = Week nine = = =
= = = Week ten = = =
= = = Week eleven = = =
= = = Week twelve = = =
= = = Week thirteen = = =
= = = Week fourteen = = =
= = Records against other conferences = =
The following summarizes the Big Ten 's record this season vs. other conferences .
= = = Big Ten vs. BCS matchups = = =
During the season , Big Ten teams played several games against BCS conference opponents . Some of these games are regularly contested rivalry games .
= = = Bowl games = = =
On December 6 , the Bowl matchups were announced . It marked the fifth consecutive season that at least seven Big Ten teams earned bowl game invitations and the ninth time in twelve @-@ year history of the Bowl Championship Series that the conference was awarded two BCS invitations .
( * ) denotes BCS game
Big Ten team and score in bold
Winning team and score listed first in italics
= = Players of the week = =
Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named offensive , defensive and special teams players of the week each Sunday .
= = Big Ten Conference football individual honors = =
At the conclusion of week 12 , the coaches and media made Big Ten Conference football individual honors selections . John Clay was selected as offensive player of the year by both the coaches and the media . Jared Odrick and Greg Jones won defensive player of the year awards from the coaches and media , respectively . Bryan Bulaga and Odrick were selected as offensive and defensive linemen of the year . Chris Borland was freshman of the year and Kirk Ferentz was Coach of the Year . The Chicago Tribune Silver Football recipients as the Big Ten co @-@ MVPs were Daryll Clark and Brandon Graham , marking the first time the award has been shared .
= = = All @-@ Conference = = =
The following players were selected as All @-@ Big Ten at the conclusion of the season .
Additional honorees due to ties
= = = Position key = = =
= = = All @-@ Americans = = =
The following players were chosen as All @-@ Americans for the Associated Press , American Football Coaches Association , ESPN , Football Writers Association of America , CBS Sports , Sports Illustrated , Rivals.com , Scout.com , College Football News , Walter Camp Football Foundation or the Pro Football Weekly teams .
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
The following players were selected to play in post season All @-@ Star Games :
January 23 , 2010 East @-@ West Shrine Game
Jim Cordle
Doug Worthington
Daryll Clark
Jeremy Boone
Andrew Quarless
Mike Neal
Kyle Calloway
O 'Brien Schofield
Blair White
Rodger Saffold
Kafka earned offensive MVP ; Shofield was named defensive MVP , and White led all receivers with seven catches for 93 yards .
January 30 2010 Senior Bowl
Kurt Coleman
A. J. Edds
Brandon Graham
Garrett Graham
Mike Hoomanawanui
Zoltan Mesko
Mike Neal
Jared Odrick
Brett Swenson
Brandon Graham earned MVP honors with five tackles , two sacks , one forced fumble .
February 6 , 2010 Texas vs. The Nation Game
Dennis Landolt
A.J. Wallace
Simoni Lawrence
Nick Polk
Josh Hull
Nathan Triplett
Aaron Pettrey
All Big Ten Players represented the nation .
= = Statistics = =
The Big Ten had two national statistical leaders : Brandon Graham led the nation with 2 @.@ 17 tackles for a loss per game ahead of national second @-@ place finisher O 'Brien Schofield and Ray Fisher led the nation in kickoff return average with 37 @.@ 35 . Greg Jones ranked third nationally in tackles per game at 11 @.@ 85 followed closely by Pat Angerer who finished fourth . Ryan Kerrigan finished third in quarterback sacks per game with 1 @.@ 08 .
The Big Ten saw several career and single @-@ season Big Ten records fall . Mike Kafka broke Drew Brees 1998 record for single @-@ season offensive plays ( 642 vs. 638 ) . Fisher 's return average was a Big Ten single @-@ season record , surpassing the 1965 record . Troy Stoudermire accumulated 43 kickoff returns , which tied Earl Douthitt 's 1973 single @-@ season total . David Gilreath 's 108 career kickoff returns surpassed the 106 set by Brandon Williams ( 2002 – 05 ) and Derrick Mason ( 1993 – 96 ) . Other near single @-@ season records were Tyler Sash 's 203 interception return yards , which fell short of the 207 set in 2003 by Alan Zemaitis and Ryan Kerrigan 's 7 forced fumbles , which was short of the 8 set by Jonal Saint @-@ Dic in 2007 . Jim Tressel became the second head coach to secure five consecutive Big Ten championships .
= = Attendance = =
In 2009 , the Big Ten established a new overall conference attendance record with 5 @,@ 526 @,@ 237 fans attending 77 home games . This surpassed the previous record set in 2002 when a total of 5 @,@ 499 @,@ 439 was reached in 78 contests . Below is a table of home game attendances .
= = Academic honors = =
26 Big Ten student @-@ athletes were named to the Academic All @-@ District teams presented by ESPN The Magazine , including 18 first @-@ team selections : Illinois ' Jon Asamoah , Indiana 's Brandon Bugg , Trea Burgess and Ben Chappell , Michigan 's Zoltan Mesko , Michigan State 's Blair White , Minnesota 's Eric Decker and Jeff Tow @-@ Arnett , Northwestern 's Doug Bartels , Stefan Demos and Zeke Markshausen , Penn State 's Jeremy Boone , Josh Hull , Andrew Pitz and Stefen Wisniewski , Purdue 's Joe Holland and Ryan Kerrigan and Wisconsin 's Brad Nortman . The Nittany Lions were one of only six schools nationwide with four or more first @-@ team selections . Second @-@ team picks included the Hawkeyes ' Julian Vandervelde , the Wolverines ' Jon Conover , the Spartans ' Adam Decker and Andrew Hawken and the Buckeyes ' Bryant Browning , Todd Denlinger , Andrew Moses and Marcus Williams . To be eligible for the award , a player must be in at least his second year of athletic eligibility , be a first @-@ team or key performer and carry a cumulative 3 @.@ 30 grade point average . First @-@ team selections will be added to the national ballot and are eligible for Academic All @-@ America honors to be announced on November 24 . Penn State 's Hull and Pitz are looking to earn Academic All @-@ America accolades for the second straight year .
For the fifth consecutive season the Big Ten had more ( 8 ) student @-@ athletes named to the ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ America first or second teams in football than any other conference whether they be a member of the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) or the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . The Big Ten also had six of the fifteen first @-@ team selections , which led the nation . FCS ' Missouri Valley Conference was second with five first or second team selections and the FBS ' Big 12 Conference had four honorees . Only the Big 12 and Southeastern Conference had two first team selections . The Academic All @-@ America first @-@ team honorees from the Big Ten include Zoltan Mesko , Blair White , Zeke Markshausen , Josh Hull , Andrew Pitz and Stefen Wisniewski . Second @-@ team honors went to Northwestern 's Stefan Demos and Purdue 's Ryan Kerrigan . Hull and Pitz were repeat first @-@ team selections . The Big Ten conference also recognized 193 football players as fall term 2009 @-@ 10 Academic All @-@ Conference honorees , including Purdue 's Joe Holland who has maintained a 4 @.@ 0 Grade Point Average . The student @-@ athletes honorees were letterwinners in at least their second academic year at their institution and who carry a cumulative grade point average of 3 @.@ 0 or higher .
= = 2010 NFL Draft = =
The 2010 saw 34 Big Ten athletes selected . This included at least one representative from each member school , making the Big Ten one of only two conferences to have each of its members repreented among the draft selections . Iowa and Penn State each had six selections . The Big Ten had three first round selections : Big Ten Silver Football co @-@ winner Brandon Graham was selected 13th overall by Philadelphia . Big Ten Offensive Lineman of the Year Bryan Bulaga 23rd by Green Bay , while Big Ten Defensive Player and Lineman of the Year Jared Odrick was chosen 28th overall by Miami .
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= Manuel I Komnenos =
Manuel I Komnenos ( or Comnenus ; Greek : Μανουήλ Α ' Κομνηνός , Manouēl I Komnēnos ; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180 ) was a Byzantine Emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history of Byzantium and the Mediterranean . His reign saw the last flowering of the Komnenian restoration , during which the Byzantine Empire had seen a resurgence of its military and economic power , and had enjoyed a cultural revival .
Eager to restore his empire to its past glories as the superpower of the Mediterranean world , Manuel pursued an energetic and ambitious foreign policy . In the process he made alliances with the Pope and the resurgent West . He invaded the Norman Kingdom of Sicily , although unsuccessfully . The passage of the potentially dangerous Second Crusade was adroitly managed through his empire . Manuel established a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader states of Outremer . Facing Muslim advances in the Holy Land , he made common cause with the Kingdom of Jerusalem and participated in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reshaped the political maps of the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean , placing the kingdoms of Hungary and Outremer under Byzantine hegemony and campaigning aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east .
However , towards the end of his reign Manuel 's achievements in the east were compromised by a serious defeat at Myriokephalon , which in large part resulted from his arrogance in attacking a well @-@ defended Seljuk position . Although the Byzantines recovered and Manuel concluded an advantageous peace with Sultan Kilij Arslan II , Myriokephalon proved to be the final , unsuccessful effort by the empire to recover the interior of Anatolia from the Turks .
Called ho Megas ( ὁ Μέγας , translated as " the Great " ) by the Greeks , Manuel is known to have inspired intense loyalty in those who served him . He also appears as the hero of a history written by his secretary , John Kinnamos , in which every virtue is attributed to him . Manuel , who was influenced by his contact with western Crusaders , enjoyed the reputation of " the most blessed emperor of Constantinople " in parts of the Latin world as well . Modern historians , however , have been less enthusiastic about him . Some of them assert that the great power he wielded was not his own personal achievement , but that of the dynasty he represented ; they also argue that , since Byzantine imperial power declined catastrophically after Manuel 's death , it is only natural to look for the causes of this decline in his reign .
= = Accession to the throne = =
Manuel Komnenos was the fourth son of John II Komnenos and Piroska of Hungary , so it seemed very unlikely that he would succeed his father . His maternal grandfather was St. Ladislaus . Having distinguished himself in his father 's war against the Seljuk Turks , in 1143 Manuel was chosen as his successor by John , in preference to his elder surviving brother Isaac . After John died on 8 April 1143 , his son , Manuel , was acclaimed emperor by the armies . Yet his succession was by no means assured : At his father 's deathbed in the wilds of Cilicia far from Constantinople , he recognised that it was vital he should return to the capital as soon as possible . He still had to take care of his father 's funeral , and tradition demanded he organise the foundation of a monastery on the spot where his father died . Swiftly , he dispatched the megas domestikos John Axouch ahead of him , with orders to arrest his most dangerous potential rival , his brother Isaac , who was living in the Great Palace with instant access to the imperial treasure and regalia . Axouch arrived in the capital even before news of the emperor 's death had reached it . He quickly secured the loyalty of the city , and when Manuel entered the capital in August 1143 , he was crowned by the new Patriarch , Michael Kourkouas . A few days later , with nothing more to fear as his position as emperor was now secure , Manuel ordered the release of Isaac . Then he ordered 2 golden pieces to be given to every householder in Constantinople and 200 pounds of gold ( including 200 silver pieces annually ) to be given to the Byzantine Church .
The empire that Manuel inherited from his father had undergone great changes since its foundation by Constantine , eight centuries before . In the time of his predecessor Justinian I ( 527 – 565 ) , parts of the former Western Roman Empire had been recovered including Italy , Africa and part of Spain . However , the empire had diminished greatly following this , the most obvious change had occurred in the 7th century : the soldiers of Islam had taken Egypt , Palestine and much of Syria away from the empire irrevocably . They had then swept on westwards into what in the time of Constantine had been the western provinces of the Roman Empire , in North Africa and Spain . In the centuries since , the emperors had ruled over a realm that largely consisted of Asia Minor in the east , and the Balkans in the west . In the late 11th century the Byzantine Empire entered a period of marked military and political decline , which had been arrested and largely reversed by the leadership of Manuel 's grandfather and father . Yet the empire that Manuel inherited was a polity facing formidable challenges . At the end of the 11th century , the Normans of Sicily had removed Italy from the control of the Byzantine Emperor . The Seljuk Turks had done the same with central Anatolia . And in the Levant , a new force had appeared – the Crusader states – who presented the Byzantine Empire with new challenges . Now , more than at any time during the preceding centuries , the task facing the emperor was daunting indeed .
= = Second Crusade and Raynald of Châtillon = =
= = = Prince of Antioch = = =
The first test of Manuel 's reign came in 1144 , when he was faced with a demand by Raymond , Prince of Antioch for the cession of Cilician territories . However , later that year the crusader County of Edessa was engulfed by the tide of a resurgent Islamic jihad under Imad ad @-@ Din Atabeg Zengi . Raymond realized that immediate help from the west was out of the question . With his eastern flank now dangerously exposed to this new threat , there seemed little option but for him to prepare for a humiliating visit to Constantinople . Swallowing his pride , he made the journey north to ask for the protection of the Emperor . After submitting to Manuel , he was promised the support that he had requested , and his allegiance to Byzantium was secured .
= = = Expedition against Konya = = =
In 1146 Manuel assembled his army at the military base Lopadion and set out on a punitive expedition against Masud the Sultan of Rûm , who had been repeatedly violating the frontiers of the Empire in western Anatolia and Cilicia . There was no attempt at a systematic conquest of territory , but Manuel 's army defeated the Turks at Acroënus , before capturing and destroying the fortified town of Philomelion , removing its remaining Christian population . The Byzantine forces reached Masud 's capital , Konya , and ravaged the area around the city , but could not assault its walls . Among Manuel 's motives for mounting this razzia there included a wish to be seen in the West as actively espousing the crusading ideal ; Kinnamos also attributed to Manuel a desire to show off his martial prowess to his new bride . While on this campaign Manuel received a letter from Louis VII of France announcing his intention of leading an army to the relief of the crusader states .
= = = Arrival of the Crusaders = = =
Manuel was prevented from following up his early successes in the east , for events to the west meant that his presence was urgently required in the Balkans . In 1147 he granted a passage through his dominions to two armies of the Second Crusade under Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France . At this time , there were still members of the Byzantine court who remembered the passage of the First Crusade , a defining event in the collective memory of the age that had fascinated Manuel 's aunt , Anna Komnene .
Many Byzantines feared the Crusade , a view endorsed by the numerous acts of vandalism and theft practiced by the unruly armies as they marched through Byzantine territory . Byzantine troops followed the Crusaders , attempting to police their behaviour , and further troops were assembled in Constantinople , ready to defend the capital against any acts of aggression . This cautious approach was well advised , but still the numerous incidents of covert and open hostility between the Franks and the Greeks on their line of march , for which it seems both sides were to blame , precipitated conflict between Manuel and his guests . Manuel took the precaution – which his grandfather had not taken – of making repairs to the city walls , and he pressed the two kings for guarantees concerning the security of his territories . Conrad 's army was the first to enter the Byzantine territory in the summer of 1147 , and it figures more prominently in the Byzantine sources , which imply that it was the more troublesome of the two . Indeed , the contemporary Byzantine historian Kinnamos describes a full @-@ scale clash between a Byzantine force and part of Conrad 's army , outside the walls of Constantinople . The Byzantines defeated the Germans and , in Byzantine eyes , this reverse caused Conrad to agree to have his army speedily ferried across to Damalis on the Asian shore of the Bosphoros .
After 1147 , however , the relations between the two leaders became friendlier . By 1148 Manuel had seen the wisdom of securing an alliance with Conrad , whose sister @-@ in @-@ law Bertha of Sulzbach he had earlier married ; he actually persuaded the German king to renew their alliance against Roger II of Sicily . Unfortunately for the Byzantine emperor , Conrad died in 1152 , and despite repeated attempts , Manuel could not reach an agreement with his successor , Frederick I Barbarossa .
= = = Cyprus invaded = = =
Manuel 's attention was again drawn to Antioch in 1156 , when Raynald of Châtillon , the new Prince of Antioch , claimed that the Byzantine emperor had reneged on his promise to pay him a sum of money and vowed to attack the Byzantine province of Cyprus . Raynald arrested the governor of the island , John Komnenos , who was a nephew of Manuel , and the general Michael Branas . The Latin historian William of Tyre deplored this act of war against fellow Christians and described the atrocities committed by Raynald 's men in considerable detail . Having ransacked the island and plundered all its wealth , Raynald 's army mutilated the survivors before forcing them to buy back their flocks at exorbitant prices with what little they had left . Thus enriched with enough booty to make Antioch wealthy for years , the invaders boarded their ships and set sail for home . Raynald also sent some of the mutilated hostages to Constantinople as a vivid demonstration of his disobedience and his contempt for the Byzantine emperor .
Manuel responded to this outrage in a characteristically energetic way . In the winter of 1158 – 59 , he marched to Cilicia at the head of a huge army ; the speed of his advance ( Manuel had hurried on ahead of the main army with 500 cavalry ) was such that he managed to surprise the Armenian Thoros of Cilicia , who had participated in the attack on Cyprus . Thoros fled into the mountains , and Cilicia swiftly fell to Manuel .
= = = Manuel in Antioch = = =
Meanwhile , news of the advance of the Byzantine army soon reached Antioch . Realising that he had no hope of defeating Manuel , Raynald also knew that he could not expect any help from king Baldwin III of Jerusalem . Baldwin did not approve of Raynald 's attack on Cyprus , and in any case had already made an agreement with Manuel . Thus isolated and abandoned by his allies , Raynald decided that abject submission was his only hope . He appeared before the Emperor , dressed in a sack with a rope tied around his neck , and begged for forgiveness . Manuel at first ignored the prostrate Raynald , chatting with his courtiers ; William of Tyre commented that this ignominious scene continued for so long that all present were " disgusted " by it . Eventually , Manuel forgave Raynald on condition that he would become a vassal of the Empire , effectively surrendering the independence of Antioch to Byzantium .
Peace having been restored , a grand ceremonial procession was staged on 12 April 1159 for the triumphant entry of the Byzantine army into the city , with Manuel riding through the streets on horseback , while the Prince of Antioch and the King of Jerusalem followed on foot . Manuel dispensed justice to the citizens and presided over games and tournaments for the crowd . In May , at the head of a united Christian army , he started on the road to Edessa , but he abandoned the campaign when he secured the release by Nur ad @-@ Din , the ruler of Syria , of 6 @,@ 000 Christian prisoners captured in various battles since the second Crusade . Despite the glorious end of the expedition , modern scholars argue that Manuel ultimately achieved much less than he had desired in terms of imperial restoration .
Satisfied with his efforts thus far , Manuel headed back to Constantinople . On their way back , his troops were surprised in line of march by the Turks . Despite this , they won a complete victory , routing the enemy army from the field and inflicting heavy losses . In the following year , Manuel drove the Turks out of Isauria .
= = Italian campaign = =
= = = Roger II of Sicily = = =
In 1147 Manuel was faced with war by Roger II of Sicily , whose fleet had captured the Byzantine island of Corfu and plundered Thebes and Corinth . However , despite being distracted by a Cuman attack in the Balkans , in 1148 Manuel enlisted the alliance of Conrad III of Germany , and the help of the Venetians , who quickly defeated Roger with their powerful fleet . In 1149 , Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared to take the offensive against the Normans , while Roger II sent George of Antioch with a fleet of 40 ships to pillage Constantinople 's suburbs . Manuel had already agreed with Conrad on a joint invasion and partition of southern Italy and Sicily . The renewal of the German alliance remained the principal orientation of Manuel 's foreign policy for the rest of his reign , despite the gradual divergence of interests between the two empires after Conrad 's death .
Roger died in February 1154 and was succeeded by William I , who faced widespread rebellions against his rule in Sicily and Apulia , leading to the presence of Apulian refugees at the Byzantine court . Conrad 's successor , Frederick Barbarossa , launched a campaign against the Normans , but his expedition stalled . These developments encouraged Manuel to take advantage of the multiple instabilities on the Italian peninsula . He sent Michael Palaiologos and John Doukas Kamateros , both of whom held the high imperial rank of sebastos , with Byzantine troops , ten ships , and large quantities of gold to invade Apulia in 1155 . The two generals were instructed to enlist the support of Frederick , but he declined because his demoralised army longed to get back north of the Alps as soon as possible . Nevertheless , with the help of disaffected local barons , including Count Robert of Loritello , Manuel 's expedition achieved astonishingly rapid progress as the whole of southern Italy rose up in rebellion against the Sicilian Crown and the untried William I. There followed a string of spectacular successes as numerous strongholds yielded either to force or the lure of gold .
= = = Papal @-@ Byzantine alliance = = =
The city of Bari , which had been the capital of the Byzantine Catapanate of Southern Italy for centuries before the arrival of the Normans , opened its gates to the Emperor 's army , and the overjoyed citizens tore down the Norman citadel . After the fall of Bari , the cities of Trani , Giovinazzo , Andria , Taranto , and Brindisi were also captured . William arrived with his army , including 2 @,@ 000 knights , but was heavily defeated .
Encouraged by the success , Manuel dreamed of restoration of the Roman Empire , at cost of union between the Orthodox and the Catholic Church , a prospect which would frequently be offered to the Pope during negotiations and plans for alliance . If there was ever a chance of reuniting the eastern and western churches , and coming to reconciliation with the Pope permanently , this was probably the most favourable moment . The Papacy was never on good terms with the Normans , except when under duress by the threat of direct military action . Having the " civilised " Eastern Roman Empire on its southern border was infinitely preferable to the Papacy than having to constantly deal with the troublesome Normans of Sicily . It was in the interest of Pope Hadrian IV to reach a deal if at all possible , since doing so would greatly increase his own influence over the entire Orthodox Christian population . Manuel offered a large sum of money to the Pope for the provision of troops , with the request that the Pope grant the Byzantine emperor lordship of three maritime cities in return for assistance in expelling William from Sicily . Manuel also promised to pay 5 @,@ 000 pounds of gold to the Pope and the Curia . Negotiations were hurriedly carried out , and an alliance was formed between Manuel and Hadrian .
At this point , just as the war seemed decided in his favour , events turned against Manuel . Byzantine commander Michael Palaiologos alienated allies with his attitude , stalling the campaign as Count Robert III of Loritello refused to speak to him . Although the two were reconciled , the campaign had lost some of its momentum : Michael was soon recalled to Constantinople , and his loss was a major blow to the campaign . The turning point was the Battle for Brindisi , where the Sicilians launched a major counterattack by both land and sea . At the approach of the enemy , the mercenaries that had been hired with Manuel 's gold demanded huge increases in their pay . When this was refused , they deserted . Even the local barons started to melt away , and soon John Doukas was left hopelessly outnumbered . The arrival of Alexios Komnenos Bryennios with some ships failed to retrieve the Byzantine position . The naval battle was decided in favour of the Sicilians , while John Doukas and Alexios Bryennios ( along with four Byzantine ships ) were captured . Manuel then sent Alexios Axouch to Ancona to raise another army , but by this time William had already retaken all of the Byzantine conquests in Apulia . The defeat at Brindisi put an end to the restored Byzantine reign in Italy ; in 1158 the Byzantine army left Italy and never returned again . Both Nicetas Choniates and Kinnamos , the major Byzantine historians of this period , agree , however , that the peace terms Axouch secured from William allowed Manuel to extricate himself from the war with dignity , despite a devastating raid by a Sicilian fleet of 164 ships ( carrying 10 @,@ 000 men ) on Euboea and Almira in 1156 .
= = = Failure of the Church union = = =
During the Italian campaign , and afterwards , during the struggle of the Papal Curia with Frederick , Manuel tried to seduce the Popes with hints of a possible union between the Eastern and Western churches . Although in 1155 Pope Hadrian had expressed his eagerness to prompt the reunion of the churches , hopes for a lasting Papal @-@ Byzantine alliance came up against insuperable problems . Pope Adrian IV and his successors demanded recognition of their religious authority over all Christians everywhere and sought superiority over the Byzantine Emperor ; they were not at all willing to fall into a state of dependence from one emperor to the other . Manuel , on the other hand , wanted an official recognition of his secular authority over both East and West . Such conditions would not be accepted by either side . Even if a pro @-@ western Emperor such as Manuel agreed , the Greek citizens of the empire would have rejected outright any union of this sort , as they did almost three hundred years later when the Orthodox and Catholic churches were briefly united under the Pope . In spite of his friendliness towards the Roman Church and his cordial relations with all the Popes , Manuel was never honoured with the title of Augustus by the Popes . And although he twice sent embassies to Pope Alexander III ( in 1167 and 1169 ) offering to reunite the Greek and Latin churches , the Pope refused , under pretext of the troubles that would follow union . Ultimately , a deal proved elusive , and the two churches have remained divided .
The final results of the Italian campaign were limited in terms of the advantages gained by the Empire . The city of Ancona became a Byzantine base in Italy , accepting the Emperor as sovereign . The Normans of Sicily had been damaged and now came to terms with the Empire , ensuring peace for the rest of Manuel 's reign . The Empire 's ability to get involved in Italian affairs had been demonstrated . However , given the enormous quantities of gold which had been lavished on the project , it also demonstrated the limits of what money and diplomacy alone could achieve . The expense of Manuel 's involvement in Italy must have cost the treasury a great deal ( probably more than 2 @,@ 160 @,@ 000 hyperpyra or 30 @,@ 000 pounds of gold ) , and yet it produced only limited solid gains .
= = = Byzantine policy in Italy after 1158 = = =
After 1158 , under the new conditions , the aims of the Byzantine policy changed . Manuel now decided to oppose the objective of the Hohenstaufen dynasty to directly annex Italy , which Frederick believed should acknowledge his power . When the war between Frederick I Barbarossa and the northern Italian communes started , Manuel actively supported the Lombard League with money subsidies , agents , and , occasionally , troops . The walls of Milan , demolished by the Germans , were restored with the aid of the Byzantine Emperor . Frederick 's defeat at the Battle of Legnano , on 29 May 1176 , seemed rather to improve Manuel 's position in Italy . According to Kinnamos , Cremona , Pavia , and a number of other " Ligurian " cities went over to Manuel ; his relations were also particularly favourable in regard to Genoa and Pisa , but not to Venice . In March 1171 Manuel had suddenly broken with Venice , ordering all 20 @,@ 000 Venetians on imperial territory to be arrested and their property confiscated . Venice , incensed , sent a fleet of 120 ships against Byzantium . Due to an epidemic , and pursued by 150 Byzantine ships , the fleet was forced to return without great success . In all probability , friendly relations between Byzantium and Venice were not restored in Manuel 's lifetime .
= = Balkan frontier = =
On his northern frontier Manuel expended considerable effort to preserve the conquests made by Basil II over one hundred years earlier and maintained , sometimes tenuously , ever since . Due to distraction from his neighbours on the Balkan frontier , Manuel was kept from his main objective , the subjugation of the Normans of Sicily . Relations had been good with the Serbs and Hungarians since 1129 , so the Serb rebellion came as a shock . The Serbs of Rascia , being so induced by Roger II of Sicily , invaded Byzantine territory in 1149 .
Manuel forced the rebellious Serbs , and their leader , Uroš II , to vassalage ( 1150 – 1152 ) . He then made repeated attacks upon the Hungarians with a view to annexing their territory along the Sava . In the wars of 1151 – 1153 and 1163 – 1168 Manuel led his troops into Hungary and a spectacular raid deep into enemy territory yielded substantial war booty . In 1167 , Manuel sent 15 @,@ 000 men under the command of Andronikos Kontostephanos against the Hungarians , scoring a decisive victory at the Battle of Sirmium and enabling the Empire to conclude a very advantageous peace with the Hungarian Kingdom by which Syrmia , Bosnia , and Dalmatia were ceded . By 1168 nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel 's hands .
Efforts were also made towards a diplomatic annexation of Hungary . The Hungarian heir Béla , younger brother of the Hungarian king Stephen III , was sent to Constantinople to be educated in the emperor 's court . Manuel intended the youth to marry his daughter , Maria , and to make him his heir , thus securing the union of Hungary with the Empire . At court Béla assumed the name Alexius and received the title of Despot , which had previously been applied only to the Emperor himself . However , two unforeseen dynastic events drastically altered the situation . In 1169 , Manuel 's young wife gave birth to a son , thus depriving Béla of his status as heir of the Byzantine throne ( although Manuel would not renounce the Croatian lands he had taken from Hungary ) . Then , in 1172 , Stephen died childless , and Béla went home to take his throne . Before leaving Constantinople , he swore a solemn oath to Manuel that he would always " keep in mind the interests of the emperor and of the Romans " . Béla III kept his word : as long as Manuel lived , he made no attempt to retrieve his Croatian inheritance , which he only afterwards reincorporated into Hungary .
= = Relations with Russia = =
Manuel Komnenos attempted to draw the Russian principalities into his net of diplomacy directed against Hungary , and to a lesser extent Norman Sicily . This polarised the Russian princes into pro- and anti @-@ Byzantine camps . In the late 1140s three princes were competing for primacy in Russia : prince Iziaslav II of Kiev was related to Géza II of Hungary and was hostile to Byzantium ; Prince Yuri Dolgoruki of Suzdal was Manuel 's ally ( symmachos ) , and Vladimirko of Galicia is described as Manuel 's vassal ( hypospondos ) . Galicia was situated on the northern and northeastern borders of Hungary and , therefore , was of great strategic importance in the Byzantine @-@ Hungarian conflicts . Following the deaths of both Iziaslav and Vladimirko , the situation became reversed ; when Yuri of Suzdal , Manuel 's ally , took over Kiev and Yaroslav , the new ruler of Galicia , adopted a pro @-@ Hungarian stance .
In 1164 @-@ 65 Manuel 's cousin Andronikos , the future emperor , escaped from captivity in Byzantium and fled to the court of Yaroslav in Galicia . This situation , holding out the alarming prospect of Andronikos making a bid for Manuel 's throne sponsored by both Galicia and Hungary , spurred the Byzantines into an unprecedented flurry of diplomacy . Manuel pardoned Andronikos and persuaded him to return to Constantinople in 1165 . A mission to Kiev , then ruled by Prince Rostislav , resulted in a favourable treaty and a pledge to supply the Empire with auxiliary troops ; Yaroslav of Galicia was also persuaded to renounce his Hungarian connections and return fully into the imperial fold . As late as 1200 the princes of Galicia were providing invaluable services against the enemies of the Empire , at that time the Cumans .
The restoration of relations with Galicia had an immediate benefit for Manuel when , in 1166 , he dispatched two armies to attack the eastern provinces of Hungary in a vast pincer movement . One army crossed the Walachian Plain and entered Hungary through the Transylvanian Alps ( Southern Carpathians ) , while the other army made a wide circuit to Galicia and , with Galician aid , crossed the Carpathian Mountains . Since the Hungarians had most of their forces concentrated on the Sirmium and Belgrade frontier , they were caught off guard by the Byzantine invasion ; this resulted in the Hungarian province of Transylvania being thoroughly ravaged by the Byzantine armies .
= = Invasion of Egypt = =
= = = Alliance with the Kingdom of Jerusalem = = =
Control of Egypt was a decades @-@ old dream of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem , and king Amalric I of Jerusalem needed all the military and financial support he could get for his policy of military intervention in Egypt . Amalric also realised that if he were to pursue his ambitions in Egypt , he might have to leave Antioch to the hegemony of Manuel who had paid 100 @,@ 000 dinars for the release of Bohemond III . In 1165 , he sent envoys to the Byzantine court to negotiate a marriage alliance ( Manuel had already married Amalric 's cousin Maria of Antioch in 1161 ) . After a long interval of two years , Amalric married Manuel 's grandniece Maria Komnene in 1167 , and " swore all that his brother Baldwin had sworn before . " A formal alliance was negotiated in 1168 , whereby the two rulers arranged for a conquest and partition of Egypt , with Manuel taking the coastal area , and Amalric the interior . In the autumn of 1169 Manuel sent a joint expedition with Amalric to Egypt : a Byzantine army and a naval force of 20 large warships , 150 galleys , and 60 transports , under the command of the megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos , joined forces with Amalric at Ascalon . William of Tyre , who negotiated the alliance , was impressed in particular by the large transport ships that were used to transport the cavalry forces of the army .
Although such a long @-@ range attack on a state far from the centre of the Empire may seem extraordinary ( the last time the Empire had attempted anything on this scale was the failed invasion of Sicily over one hundred and twenty years earlier ) , it can be explained in terms of Manuel 's foreign policy , which was to use the Latins to ensure the survival of the Empire . This focus on the bigger picture of the eastern Mediterranean and even further afield thus led Manuel to intervene in Egypt : it was believed that in the context of the wider struggle between the crusader states and the Islamic powers of the east , control of Egypt would be the deciding factor . It had become clear that the ailing Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt held the key to the fate of the crusader states . If Egypt came out of its isolation and joined forces with the Muslims under Nur ad @-@ Din , the crusader cause was in trouble .
A successful invasion of Egypt would have several further advantages for the Byzantine Empire . Egypt was a rich province , and in the days of the Roman Empire it had supplied much of the grain for Constantinople before it was lost to the Arabs in the 7th century . The revenues that the Empire could have expected to gain from the conquest of Egypt would have been considerable , even if these would have to be shared with the Crusaders . Furthermore , Manuel may have wanted to encourage Amalric 's plans , not only to deflect the ambitions of the Latins away from Antioch , but also to create new opportunities for joint military ventures that would keep the King of Jerusalem in his debt , and would also allow the Empire to share in territorial gains .
= = = Failure of the expedition = = =
The joined forces of Manuel and Amalric laid siege to Damietta on 27 October 1169 , but the siege was unsuccessful due to the failure of the Crusaders and the Byzantines to co @-@ operate fully . According to Byzantine forces , Amalric , not wanting to share the profits of victory , dragged out the operation until the emperor 's men ran short of provisions and were particularly affected by famine ; Amalric then launched an assault , which he promptly aborted by negotiating a truce with the defenders . On the other hand , William of Tyre remarked that the Greeks were not entirely blameless . Whatever the truth of the allegations of both sides , when the rains came , both the Latin army and the Byzantine fleet returned home , although half of the Byzantine fleet was lost in a sudden storm .
Despite the bad feelings generated at Damietta , Amalric still refused to abandon his dream of conquering Egypt , and he continued to seek good relations with the Byzantines in the hopes of another joined attack , which never took place . In 1171 Amalric came to Constantinople in person , after Egypt had fallen to Saladin . Manuel was thus able to organise a grand ceremonial reception which both honoured Amalric and underlined his dependence : for the rest of Amalric 's reign , Jerusalem was a Byzantine satellite , and Manuel was able to act as a protector of the Holy Places , exerting a growing influence in the Kingdom of Jerusalem . In 1177 , a fleet of 150 ships was sent by Manuel I to invade Egypt , but returned home after appearing off Acre due to the refusal of Count Philip of Flanders and many important nobles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to help .
= = Kilij Arslan II and the Seljuk Turks = =
Between 1158 – 1162 , a series of Byzantine campaigns against the Seljuk Turks of the Sultanate of Rûm resulted in a treaty favourable to the Empire . According to the agreement , certain frontier regions , including the city of Sivas , should be handed over to Manuel in return for some quantity of cash , while it also obliged the Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II to recognize his overlordship . When it became clear to the Byzantines that the Seljuks had no intention of honouring their side of the bargain , as Kilij Arslan II had used the entente over time to enlargen his authority over the Danishmends , Manuel decided that it was time to deal with the Turks once and for all . Therefore , he assembled the full imperial army and marched against the Seljuk capital , Iconium ( Konya ) . Manuel 's strategy was to prepare the advanced bases of Dorylaeum and Sublaeum , and then to use them to strike as quickly as possible at Iconium .
Yet Manuel 's army of 35 @,@ 000 men was large and unwieldy – according to a letter that Manuel sent to King Henry II of England , the advancing column was ten miles ( 16 km ) long . Manuel marched against Iconium via Laodicea , Chonae , Lampe , Celaenae , Choma , and Antioch . Just outside the entrance to the pass at Myriokephalon , Manuel was met by Turkish ambassadors , who offered peace on generous terms . Most of Manuel 's generals and experienced courtiers urged him to accept the offer . The younger and more aggressive members of the court urged Manuel to attack , however , and he took their advice and continued his advance .
Manuel made serious tactical errors , such as failing to properly scout out the route ahead . These failings caused him to lead his forces straight into a classic ambush . On 17 September 1176 Manuel was decisively defeated by Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II at the Battle of Myriokephalon ( in highlands near the Tzibritze pass ) , in which his army was ambushed while marching through the narrow mountain pass . The Byzantines were too dispersed , and were surrounded . The army 's siege equipment was quickly destroyed , and Manuel was forced to withdraw – without siege engines , the conquest of Iconium was impossible . According to Byzantine sources , Manuel lost his nerve both during and after the battle , fluctuating between extremes of self @-@ delusion and self @-@ abasement ; according to William of Tyre , he was never the same again .
The terms by which Kilij Arslan II allowed Manuel and his army to leave were that he should remove his forts and armies on the frontier at Dorylaeum and Sublaeum . Since the Sultan had already failed to keep his side of the earlier treaty of 1162 , however , Manuel only ordered the fortifications of Sublaeum to be dismantled , but not the fortifications of Dorylaeum . Nevertheless , defeat at Myriokephalon was an embarrassment for both Manuel personally and also for his empire . The Komnenian emperors had worked hard since the Battle of Manzikert , 105 years earlier , to restore the reputation of the empire . Yet because of his over @-@ confidence , Manuel had demonstrated to the whole world that Byzantium still could not defeat the Seljuks , despite the advances made during the past century . In western opinion , Myriokephalon cut Manuel down to a humbler size : not that of Emperor of the Romans but that of King of the Greeks .
The defeat at Myriokephalon has often been depicted as a catastrophe in which the entire Byzantine army was destroyed . Manuel himself compared the defeat to Manzikert ; it seemed to him that the Byzantine defeat at Myriokephalon complemented the destruction at Manzikert . In reality , although a defeat , it was not too costly and did not significantly diminish the Byzantine army . Most of the casualties were borne by the right wing , largely composed of allied troops commanded by Baldwin of Antioch , and also by the baggage train , which was the main target of the Turkish ambush . The limited losses inflicted on native Byzantine troops were quickly recovered , and in the following year Manuel 's forces defeated a force of " picked Turks " . John Komnenos Vatatzes , who was sent by the Emperor to repel the Turkish invasion , not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way , allowing him to score a victory over the Turks at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful . After the victory on the Meander , Manuel himself advanced with a small army to drive the Turks from Panasium , south of Cotyaeum . In 1178 , however , a Byzantine army retreated after encountering a Turkish force at Charax , allowing the Turks to capture many livestock . The city of Claudiopolis in Bithynia was besieged by the Turks in 1179 , forcing Manuel to lead a small cavalry force to save the city , and then , even as late as 1180 , the Byzantines succeeded in scoring a victory over the Turks .
The continuous warfare had a serious effect upon Manuel 's vitality ; he declined in health and in 1180 succumbed to a slow fever . Furthermore , like Manzikert , the balance between the two powers began to gradually shift – Manuel never again attacked the Turks , and after his death they began to move further west , deeper into Byzantine territory .
= = Doctrinal controversies ( 1156 – 1180 ) = =
Three major theological controversies occurred during Manuel 's reign . In 1156 – 1157 the question was raised whether Christ had offered himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the world to the Father and to the Holy Spirit only , or also to the Logos ( i.e. , to himself ) . In the end a synod held at Constantinople in 1157 adopted a compromise formula , that the Word made flesh offered a double sacrifice to the Holy Trinity , despite the dissidence of Patriarch of Antioch @-@ elect Soterichus Panteugenus .
Ten years later , a controversy arose as to whether the saying of Christ , " My Father is greater than I " , referred to his divine nature , to his human nature , or to the union of the two . Demetrius of Lampe , a Byzantine diplomat recently returned from the West , ridiculed the way the verse was interpreted there , that Christ was inferior to his father in his humanity but equal in his divinity . Manuel , on the other hand , perhaps with an eye on the project for Church union , found that the formula made sense , and prevailed over a majority in a synod convened on 2 March 1166 to decide the issue , where he had the support of the patriarch Luke Chrysoberges and later Patriarch Michael III . Those who refused to submit to the synod 's decisions had their property confiscated or were exiled . The political dimensions of this controversy are apparent from the fact that a leading dissenter from the Emperor 's doctrine was his nephew Alexios Kontostephanos .
A third controversy sprung up in 1180 , when Manuel objected to the formula of solemn abjuration , which was exacted from Muslim converts . One of the more striking anathemas of this abjuration was that directed against the deity worshipped by Muhammad and his followers :
And before all , I anathematize the God of Muhammad about whom he [ Muhammad ] says , " He is God alone , God made of solid , hammer @-@ beaten metal ; He begets not and is not begotten , nor is there like unto Him any one . "
The emperor ordered the deletion of this anathema from the Church 's catechetical texts , a measure that provoked vehement opposition from both the Patriarch and bishops .
= = Chivalric narrations = =
Manuel is representative of a new kind of Byzantine ruler who was influenced by his contact with western Crusaders . He arranged jousting matches , even participating in them , an unusual and discomforting sight for the Byzantines . Endowed with a fine physique , Manuel has been the subject of exaggeration in the Byzantine sources of his era , where he is presented as a man of great personal courage . According to the story of his exploits , which appear as a model or a copy of the romances of chivalry , such was his strength and exercise in arms that Raymond of Antioch was incapable of wielding his lance and buckler . In a famous tournament , he is said to have entered the lists on a fiery courser , and to have overturned two of the stoutest Italian knights . In one day , he is said to have slain forty Turks with his own hand , and in a battle against the Hungarians he allegedly snatched a banner , and was the first , almost alone , who passed a bridge that separated his army from the enemy . On another occasion , he is said to have cut his way through a squadron of five hundred Turks , without receiving a wound ; he had previously posted an ambuscade in a wood and was accompanied only by his brother and Axouch .
= = Family = =
Manuel had two wives . His first marriage , in 1146 , was to Bertha of Sulzbach , a sister @-@ in @-@ law of Conrad III of Germany . She died in 1159 . Children :
Maria Komnene ( 1152 – 1182 ) , wife of Renier of Montferrat .
Anna Komnene ( 1154 – 1158 ) .
Manuel 's second marriage was to Maria of Antioch ( nicknamed Xene ) , a daughter of Raymond and Constance of Antioch , in 1161 . By this marriage , Manuel had one son :
Alexios II Komnenos , who succeeded as emperor in 1180 .
Manuel had several illegitimate children :
By Theodora Vatatzina :
Alexios Komnenos ( born in the early 1160s ) , who was recognised as the emperor 's son , and indeed received a title ( sebastokrator ) . He was briefly married to Eirene Komnene , illegitimate daughter of Andronikos I Komnenos , in 1183 – 1184 , and was then blinded by his father @-@ in @-@ law . He lived until at least 1191 and was known personally to Choniates .
By Maria Taronitissa , the wife of protovestiarios John Komnenos , whose legitimate children included Maria Komnene , Queen consort of Jerusalem :
Alexios Komnenos , a pinkernes ( " cupbearer " ) , who fled Constantinople in 1184 and was a figurehead of the Norman invasion and the siege of Thessalonica in 1185 .
By other lovers :
A daughter whose name is unknown . She was born around 1150 and married Theodore Maurozomes before 1170 . Her son was Manuel Maurozomes , and some of her descendants ruled the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm .
A daughter whose name is unknown , born around 1155 . She was the maternal grandmother of the author Demetrios Tornikes .
= = Assessments = =
= = = Foreign and military affairs = = =
As a young man , Manuel had been determined to restore by force of arms the predominance of the Byzantine Empire in the Mediterranean countries . By the time he died in 1180 , 37 years had passed since that momentous day in 1143 when , amid the wilds of Cilicia , his father had proclaimed him emperor . These years had seen Manuel involved in conflict with his neighbours on all sides . Manuel 's father and grandfather before him had worked patiently to undo the damage done by the battle of Manzikert and its aftermath . Thanks to their efforts , the empire Manuel inherited was stronger and better organised than at any time for a century . While it is clear that Manuel used these assets to the full , it is not so clear how much he added to them , and there is room for doubt as to whether he used them to best effect .
Manuel had proven himself to be an energetic emperor who saw possibilities everywhere , and whose optimistic outlook had shaped his approach to foreign policy . However , in spite of his military prowess Manuel achieved but a slight degree of his object of restoring the Byzantine Empire . Retrospectively , some commentators have criticised some of Manuel 's aims as unrealistic , in particular citing the expeditions he sent to Egypt as proof of dreams of grandeur on an unattainable scale . His greatest military campaign , his grand expedition against the Turkish Sultanate of Iconium , ended in humiliating defeat , and his greatest diplomatic effort apparently collapsed , when Pope Alexander III became reconciled to the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Peace of Venice . Historian Mark C. Bartusis argues that Manuel ( and his father as well ) tried to rebuild a national army , but his reforms were adequate for neither his ambitions nor his needs ; the defeat at Myriokephalon underscored the fundamental weakness of his policies . According to Edward Gibbon , Manuel 's victories were not productive of any permanent or useful conquest .
His advisors on western church affairs included the Pisan scholar Hugh Eteriano .
= = = Internal affairs = = =
Choniates criticised Manuel for raising taxes and pointed to Manuel 's reign as a period of excession ; according to Choniates , the money thus raised was spent lavishly at the cost of his citizens . Whether one reads the Greek encomiastic sources , or the Latin and oriental sources , the impression is consistent with Choniates ' picture of an emperor who spent lavishly in all available ways , rarely economising in one sector in order to develop another . Manuel spared no expense on the army , the navy , diplomacy , ceremonial , palace @-@ building , the Komnenian family , and other seekers of patronage . A significant amount of this expenditure was pure financial loss to the Empire , like the subsidies poured into Italy and the crusader states , and the sums spent on the failed expeditions of 1155 – 1156 , 1169 , and 1176 .
The problems this created were counterbalanced to some extent by his successes , particularly in the Balkans ; Manuel extended the frontiers of his Empire in the Balkan region , ensuring security for the whole of Greece and Bulgaria . Had he been more successful in all his ventures , he would have controlled not only the most productive farmland around the Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic seas , but also the entire trading facilities of the area . Even if he did not achieve his ambitious goals , his wars against Hungary brought him control of the Dalmatian coast , the rich agricultural region of Sirmium , and the Danube trade route from Hungary to the Black Sea . His Balkan expeditions are said to have taken great booty in slaves and livestock ; Kinnamos was impressed by the amount of arms taken from the Hungarian dead after the battle of 1167 . And even if Manuel 's wars against the Turks probably realised a net loss , his commanders took livestock and captives on at least two occasions .
This allowed the Western provinces to flourish in an economic revival that had begun in the time of his grandfather Alexios I and continued till the close of the century . Indeed , it has been argued that Byzantium in the 12th century was richer and more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasion during the reign of Herakleios , some five hundred years earlier . There is good evidence from this period of new construction and new churches , even in remote areas , strongly suggesting that wealth was widespread . Trade was also flourishing ; it has been estimated that the population of Constantinople , the biggest commercial center of the Empire , was between half a million and one million during Manuel 's reign , making it by far the largest city in Europe . A major source of Manuel 's wealth was the kommerkion , a customs duty levied at Constantinople on all imports and exports . The kommerkion was stated to have collected 20 @,@ 000 hyperpyra each day .
Furthermore , Constantinople was undergoing expansion . The cosmopolitan character of the city was being reinforced by the arrival of Italian merchants and Crusaders en route to the Holy Land . The Venetians , the Genoese , and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce , shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with Byzantium via Constantinople . These maritime traders stimulated demand in the towns and cities of Greece , Macedonia , and the Greek Islands , generating new sources of wealth in a predominantly agrarian economy . Thessaloniki , the second city of the Empire , hosted a famous summer fair that attracted traders from across the Balkans and even further afield to its bustling market stalls . In Corinth , silk production fuelled a thriving economy . All this is a testament to the success of the Komnenian Emperors in securing a Pax Byzantina in these heartland territories .
= = = Legacy = = =
To the rhetors of his court , Manuel was the " divine emperor " . A generation after his death , Choniates referred to him as " the most blessed among emperors " , and a century later John Stavrakios described him as " great in fine deeds " . John Phokas , a soldier who fought in Manuel 's army , characterised him some years later as the " world saving " and glorious emperor . Manuel would be remembered in France , Italy , and the Crusader states as the most powerful sovereign in the world . A Genoese analyst noted that with the passing of " Lord Manuel of divine memory , the most blessed emperor of Constantinople ... all Christendom incurred great ruin and detriment . " William of Tyre called Manuel " a wise and discreet prince of great magnificence , worthy of praise in every respect " , " a great @-@ souled man of incomparable energy " , whose " memory will ever be held in benediction . " Manuel was further extolled by Robert of Clari as " a right worthy man , [ ... ] and richest of all the Christians who ever were , and the most bountiful . "
A telling reminder of the influence that Manuel held in the Crusader states in particular can still be seen in the church of the Holy Nativity in Bethlehem . In the 1160s the nave was redecorated with mosaics showing the councils of the church . Manuel was one of the patrons of the work . On the south wall , an inscription in Greek reads : " the present work was finished by Ephraim the monk , painter and mosaicist , in the reign of the great emperor Manuel Porphyrogennetos Komnenos and in the time of the great king of Jerusalem , Amalric . " That Manuel 's name was placed first was a symbolic , public recognition of Manuel 's overlordship as leader of the Christian world . Manuel 's role as protector of the Orthodox Christians and Christian holy places in general is also evident in his successful attempts to secure rights over the Holy Land . Manuel participated in the building and decorating of many of the basilicas and Greek monasteries in the Holy Land , including the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem , where thanks to his efforts the Byzantine clergy were allowed to perform the Greek liturgy each day . All this reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states , with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch , and Amalric , King of Jerusalem respectively . Manuel was also the last Byzantine emperor who , thanks to his military and diplomatic success in the Balkans , could call himself " ruler of Dalmatia , Bosnia , Croatia , Serbia , Bulgaria and Hungary " .
Byzantium looked impressive when Manuel died in 1180 , having just celebrated the betrothal of his son Alexios II to the daughter of the king of France . Thanks to the diplomacy and campaigning of Alexios , John , and Manuel , the empire was a great power , economically prosperous , and secure on its frontiers ; but there were serious problems as well . Internally , the Byzantine court required a strong leader to hold it together , and after Manuel 's death stability was seriously endangered from within . Some of the foreign enemies of the Empire were lurking on the flanks , waiting for a chance to attack , in particular the Turks in Anatolia , whom Manuel had ultimately failed to defeat , and the Normans in Sicily , who had already tried but failed to invade the Empire on several occasions . Even the Venetians , the single most important western ally of Byzantium , were on bad terms with the empire at Manuel 's death in 1180 . Given this situation , it would have taken a strong Emperor to secure the Empire against the foreign threats it now faced , and to rebuild the depleted Imperial Treasury . But Manuel 's son was a minor , and his unpopular regency government was overthrown in a violent coup d 'état . This troubled succession weakened the dynastic continuity and solidarity on which the strength of the Byzantine state had come to rely .
= = Ancestors = =
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= Conclusion of the American Civil War =
This is a timeline of the conclusion of the American Civil War which includes important battles , skirmishes , raids and other events of 1865 . These led to additional Confederate surrenders , key Confederate captures , and disbandments of Confederate military units that occurred after Gen. Robert E. Lee ’ s surrender on April 9 , 1865 .
The fighting of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War between Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant ’ s Army of the Potomac and Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia was reported considerably more often in the newspapers than the battles of the Western Theater . Reporting of the Eastern Theater skirmishes largely dominated the newspapers as the Appomattox Campaign developed .
Lee ’ s army fought a series of battles in the Appomattox Campaign against Grant that ultimately stretched thin his lines of defense . Lee 's extended lines were mostly on small sections of thirty miles of strongholds around Richmond and Petersburg , Virginia . His troops ultimately became exhausted defending this line because they were too thinned out . Grant then took advantage of the situation and launched attacks on this thirty mile long poorly defended front . This ultimately led to the surrender of Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox .
The Army of Northern Virginia surrendered on April 9 around noon followed by General St. John Richardson Liddell 's troops some six hours later . Mosby 's Raiders disbanded on April 21 , General Joseph E. Johnston and his various armies surrendered on April 26 , the Confederate departments of Alabama , Mississippi and East Louisiana surrendered on May 4 , and the Confederate District of the Gulf , commanded by Major General Dabney Herndon Maury , surrendered on May 5 . Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured on May 10 and the Confederate Departments of Florida and South Georgia , commanded by Confederate Major General Samuel Jones , surrendered the same day . Thompson 's Brigade surrendered on May 11 , Confederate forces of North Georgia surrendered on May 12 , and Kirby Smith surrendered on May 26 ( officially signed June 2 ) . The last battle of the American Civil War was the Battle of Palmito Ranch in Texas on May 12 and 13 . The last significant Confederate active force to surrender was the Confederate allied Cherokee Brigadier General Stand Watie and his Indian soldiers on June 23 . The last Confederate surrender occurred on November 6 , 1865 , when the Confederate warship CSS Shenandoah surrendered at Liverpool , England . President Andrew Johnson formally declared the end of the war on August 20 , 1866 .
= = Surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia ( April 9 ) = =
General Robert E. Lee commanded the Army of Northern Virginia , while Major General John Brown Gordon commanded its Second Corps . Early in the morning of April 9 , Gordon attacked , aiming to break through Federal lines at the Battle of Appomattox Court House , but failed , and the Confederate Army was then surrounded . At 8 : 30 A.M. that morning , Lee requested a meeting with Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant to discuss surrendering the Army of Northern Virginia . Shortly after twelve o 'clock , Grant 's reply reached Lee , and in it Grant said he would accept the surrender of the Confederate Army under certain conditions . Lee then rode into the little hamlet of Appomattox Court House , where the Appomattox county court house stood , and waited for Grant 's arrival to surrender his army .
= = Surrender of General St. John Richardson Liddell 's troops ( April 9 ) = =
The Confederates lost the city of Spanish Fort in Alabama at the Battle of Spanish Fort , which took place between March 27 and April 8 , 1865 in Baldwin County . After losing Spanish Fort , the Confederates went on to lose Fort Blakely to Union forces at the Battle of Fort Blakely , between April 2 and 9 , 1865 . This is considered to be the last major battle of the American Civil War involving large numbers of United States Colored Troops .
The Battle of Fort Blakely happened six hours after Lee 's surrender to Grant at Appomattox . In the course of the battle , Brigadier General St. John Richardson Liddell was captured and surrendered his men . Out of 4 @,@ 000 soldiers originally , Liddell lost 3 @,@ 400 that were captured in this battle . About 250 were killed and only some 200 men escaped . The successful Union assault can be attributed in large part to African @-@ American forces .
= = Union Capture of Columbus , Georgia ( Easter Sunday , April 16 ) = =
Unaware of Lee 's surrender on April 9 and the assassination of President Lincoln on April 14 , General James H. Wilson 's Raiders continued their march through Alabama into Georgia . On April 16 , the Battle of Columbus , Georgia was fought . This battle - erroneously - has been argued to be the " last battle of the Civil War " and equally erroneously asserted to be " widely regarded " as such . Columbus fell to Wilson 's Raiders about midnight on April 16 , and most of its manufacturing capacity was destroyed on the 17th . Confederate Colonel John Stith Pemberton , the inventor of Coca @-@ Cola , was wounded in this battle which resulted in his obsession with pain @-@ killing formulas , ultimately ending in the recipe for his celebrated drink .
= = Disbanding of Mosby 's Raiders ( April 21 ) = =
Mosby 's Rangers , also known as the 43rd Battalion Virginia Cavalry , were a special force of Confederate military troops who opposed the Union control of the Loudoun Valley area . Under the command of General Robert E. Lee , John S. Mosby had formed the battalion on June 10 , 1863 , at Rector 's Cross Roads near Rectortown , Virginia . Mosby practiced psychological and guerrilla warfare techniques to disrupt the Union stronghold . Mosby 's men never formally surrendered and were disbanded on April 21 , 1865 , almost two weeks after Lee had surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant . On the last day of Mosby 's striking force , a letter from him was read aloud to his men :
Soldiers !
I have summoned you together for the last time . The vision we have cherished of a free and independent country , has vanished , and that country is now the spoil of a conqueror . I disband your organization in preference to surrendering it to our enemies . I am no longer your commander . After association of more than two eventful years , I part from you with a just pride , in the fame of your achievements , and grateful recollections of your generous kindness to myself . And now at this moment of bidding you a final adieu accept the assurance of my unchanging confidence and regard .
Farewell .
John S. Mosby , Col.
With no formal surrender , however , Union Major General Winfield S. Hancock offered a reward of $ 2 @,@ 000 for Mosby 's capture , later raised to $ 5 @,@ 000 . On June 17 , Mosby surrendered to Major General John Gregg in Lynchburg , Virginia .
= = Surrender of General Joseph E. Johnston and his various armies ( April 26 ) = =
The next major stage in the peace making process concluding the American Civil War was the surrender of General Joseph E. Johnston and his armies to Major General William T. Sherman on April 26 , 1865 , at Bennett Place . Johnston 's Army of Tennessee was among nearly one hundred thousand Confederate soldiers that were surrendered from North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida . The conditions of surrender were in a document called " Terms of a Military Convention " signed by Sherman , Johnston , and Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant at Raleigh , North Carolina .
The first major stage in the peace making process was when Lee 's surrender occurred at Appomattox on April 9 , 1865 . This , coupled with Lincoln 's assassination induced Johnston to act , believing : " With such odds against us , without the means of procuring ammunition or repairing arms , without money or credit to provide food , it was impossible to continue the war except as robbers . " On April 17 Sherman and Johnston met at Bennett Place , and the following day an armistice was arranged , when terms were discussed and agreed upon . Grant had authorized only the surrender of Johnston 's forces , but Sherman exceeded his orders by providing very generous terms . These included : that the warring states be immediately recognized after their leaders signed loyalty oaths ; that property and personal rights be returned to the Confederates ; the reestablishment of the Federal court system ; and that a general amnesty would be given . On April 24 the authorities in Washington rejected Sherman 's proposed terms , and two days later Johnston agreed to the same terms Lee had received previously on April 9 .
General Johnston surrendered the following commands under his direction on April 26 , 1865 : the Department of Tennessee and Georgia ; the Army of Tennessee ; the Department of South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida ; and the Department of North Carolina and Southern Virginia . In doing so , Johnston surrendered to Sherman around 30 @,@ 000 men . On April 27 his adjutant announced the terms to the Army of Tennessee in General Orders # 18 , and on May 2 he issued his farewell address to the Army of Tennessee as General Orders # 22 . The remaining parts of the Florida " Brigade of the West " surrendered with the rest of Johnston ’ s forces on May 4 , 1865 , at Greensboro , North Carolina .
There is a historical marker at the farm house in Durham , North Carolina , where Johnston surrendered his departments and armies .
= = Surrender of the Confederate departments of Alabama , Mississippi and East Louisiana regiments ( May 4 ) = =
The documentation of the surrender of Lieutenant General Richard Taylor 's small force in Alabama was another stage in the process of concluding the American Civil War . The son of former U.S. President Zachary Taylor , Richard Taylor commanded the Confederate troops in the Department of Alabama , Mississippi and East Louisiana of about ten thousand troops . On May 4 Taylor 's subordinate Col. J.Q. Chenowith surrendered the Department to Union officer Col. John A. Hottenstein .
Mobile , Alabama , had fallen to Union control on April 12 , 1865 . Reports reached Taylor of the meeting between Johnston and Sherman about the terms of Johnston 's surrender of his armies . Taylor agreed to meet with Major General Edward R. S. Canby for a conference north of Mobile , and they settled on a 48 hour 's truce on April 30 . Taylor agreed to a surrender after this time elapsed , which he did on May 4 at Citronelle , Alabama .
Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest surrendered on May 9 at Gainesville , Alabama . His troops were included with Taylor 's . The terms stated that Taylor could retain control of the railway and river steamers to be able to get his men as near as possible to their homes . Taylor stayed in Meridian , Mississippi , until the last man was sent on his way . He was paroled May 13 and then went to Mobile to join Canby . Canby took him to his home in New Orleans by boat .
= = Surrender of the Confederate District of the Gulf ( May 5 ) = =
The Confederate District of the Gulf was commanded by Major General Dabney Herndon Maury . On April 12 Maury retreated with his troops after the two major Confederate forts of Spanish Fort and Fort Blakely were lost to the Union forces . He declared Mobile , Alabama , an open city after these battles . Maury went to Meridian , Mississippi , with his remaining men . He wanted to join the remains of the Army of Tennessee in North Carolina . However , hearing of Johnston 's surrender to Sherman on April 26 he soon ran out of options . Ultimately Maury surrendered Mobile 's about four thousand men to the Union army on May 5 at Citronelle , Alabama .
= = Andrew Johnson 's May 9 Declaration ( May 9 ) = =
Despite the fact that there were still small pockets of resistance in the South , the president declared that the armed resistance was " virtually " ended and that nations or ships still harboring fugitives would be denied entry into U.S. ports . Persons found aboard such vessels would no longer be given immunity from prosecution of their crimes .
= = Capture of President Davis ( May 10 ) = =
On May 10 , Union cavalrymen , under Major General James H. Wilson , captured Confederate President Jefferson Davis after he fled Richmond , Virginia , following its evacuation in the early part of April 1865 . On May 5 , 1865 , in Washington , Georgia , Davis had held the last meeting of his Cabinet . At that time , the Confederate Government was declared dissolved .
The sequence of events that led to Davis ' capture began early in May 1865 , when the 4th Michigan Cavalry was set up in an encampment of tents at Macon , Georgia . The military unit of several battalions was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin D. Pritchard . On May 7 , he was given orders to join many other units searching for the Confederate president . Pritchard 's troops scouted through the country along the Ocmulgee River , and by the next day the Michiganders had come to Hawkinsville , Georgia , about fifty miles south of Macon , from where they continued along the river to Abbeville , Georgia . There , Pritchard learned from Lieutenant Colonel Henry Harnden that his First Wisconsin Cavalry was hot on Davis 's trail . After a meeting between the two colonels , Harnden and his men headed off towards Irwinville , some twenty miles south of their position .
Pritchard received word from local residents that on the night before a party , probably including the Confederate President , had crossed the Ocmulgee River just north of Abbeville . Since there were two roads to Irwindale , one of which had been taken by Harnden and his men , Pritchard decided to take the other , to see if he could capture Davis . He took with him about a hundred and forty men and their horses , while the balance of the Michiganders stayed on the Ocmulgee River near Abbeville . Some seven hours later , at 1 A.M. on May 10 , Pritchard arrived at Irwindale . There was no evidence of Harnden 's men being there yet .
Pritchard learned from local residents that about a mile and a half to the north there was a military camp . Not knowing whether this was Davis and his group or the 1st Wisconsin Cavalry , he approached cautiously . He soon identified the camp as Davis 's . At first dawn , Pritchard charged the camp , which was so surprised and overwhelmed that it offered no resistance and yielded immediately .
About ten minutes after the surrender , Pritchard heard rapid gunfire to the north . He left Davis and the captured men in the hands of his 21 @-@ year @-@ old adjutant . Once he had approached the gunfire , he realized it was the 4th Michigan and the 1st Wisconsin shooting at each other with Spencer repeating carbines , neither realizing who they were shooting at . Pritchard immediately ordered his men to stop and shouted to the 1st Wisconsin to identify the parties . In the five @-@ minute skirmish , the 1st Wisconsin Cavalry had suffered eight men wounded , while the 4th Michigan Cavalry had lost two men killed and one wounded .
Back at camp , Pritchard 's adjutant was almost fooled into letting Davis escape by a ruse . Davis 's wife had persuaded the adjutant to let her " old mother " go to fetch some water . The adjutant allowed this , and walked away from their tent . Mrs. Davis and a person dressed as an old woman then left the tent to go for the water . One of the other ranking officers noticed the " old woman " was wearing men 's riding boots with spurs . Immediately , they were stopped and the woman 's overcoat and black head shawl were removed , to reveal Davis himself . The plan of escape thus failed . The Confederate president was subsequently held prisoner for two years in Fort Monroe , Virginia .
= = Surrender of the Confederate Department of Florida and South Georgia ( May 10 ) = =
In 1864 , Major General Samuel Jones commanded the Departments of Florida , South Carolina , and South Georgia , with his headquarters in Pensacola , Florida . His primary orders were to guard the coastal areas of these states and to destroy Union gunboats . He also destroyed all the machinery and sawmills that would be beneficial to the Union armies .
In the early part of 1865 , Jones was transferred to Tallahassee , soon after Savannah had fallen to Sherman and the Union forces in December 1864 . There , Jones headquartered the District of Florida . On May 10 , at Tallahassee , he surrendered about eight thousand troops to Brigadier General Edward M. McCook . In military action east of the Mississippi River , the city of Tallahassee was the only Confederate state capital not captured during the Civil War .
= = Surrender of the Northern Sub @-@ District of Arkansas ( May 11 ) = =
Confederate Brigadier General " Jeff " Meriwether Thompson commanded Thompson 's Brigade . Wittsburg , Arkansas ( the county seat of Cross County from 1868 through 1886 ) , would witness one of the final acts in the American Civil War . This happened after the collapse of Confederate forces east of the Mississippi . Major General Grenville M. Dodge sent Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Davis of the 51st Illinois Infantry on April 30 , 1865 , to Arkansas to seek the surrender of Thompson , commander of Confederate troops in the northeast portion of Arkansas . Davis , arriving at Chalk Bluff ( now non @-@ extant ) in Clay County , Arkansas , on the St. Francis River , sent communications to Thompson asking that they have a conference . These two officers met on May 9 to negotiate a surrender .
Thompson requested from Davis two days to work out the details of the surrender with his officers . The Confederates under the command of Thompson agreed to surrender all the troops in the area on May 11 . They picked Wittsburg and Jacksonport , Arkansas , as the sites where Thompson 's five thousand military troops would gather to receive their paroles . Ultimately Thompson surrendered about seventy @-@ five hundred men all total that were under his command consisting of 1 @,@ 964 enlisted men with 193 officers paroled at Wittsburg in May 1865 and 4 @,@ 854 enlisted men with 443 officers paroled at Jacksonport on June 6 , 1865 .
= = Surrender of Confederate forces of North Georgia ( May 12 ) = =
The surrender of between 3000 and 4000 soldiers under Brigadier General William T. Wofford 's command took place at Kingston , Georgia , and was received by Brig. Gen. Henry M. Judah on May 12 , 1865 . There were several letters between the various generals involved in the negotiation of this surrender , including Wofford , Judah , William D. Whipple and Robert S. Granger .
Colonel Louis Merrill kept the Headquarters Department of the Cumberland in Nashville , Tennessee informed and according to a letter he wrote on May 4 , 1865 , there were about 10 @,@ 000 soldiers under Wofford 's command , " on paper . " These consisted of all the Confederate troops in northwestern Georgia , however only about a third could actually be collected as the rest were deserters . From this group there were a number of soldiers that resisted General Wofford 's efforts to make them follow his commands .
There is a Georgia historical marker in Kingston , Georgia , in Bartow County at the intersection of West Main Street and Church Street to denote where this surrender took place . It further explains that the Confederate soldiers were given rations after their release .
= = Disbandment after the Battle at Palmito Ranch ( May 13 ) = =
The last land battle of the Civil War took place near Brownsville , Texas , and it was won by the Confederates . The Confederates held the city of Brownsville in the early part of 1865 . In January or February Major General Lew Wallace was sent by the Union government to Texas . On March 11 Wallace had a meeting with the two major Confederate commanders of the region , Brigadier General James Slaughter and Colonel John " Rip " Ford , under the premise that the official purpose was the " rendition of criminals . " The real reason was to agree that any fighting in the region would be pointless and negotiate an unofficial indefinite cease fire . Slaughter and Ford , at this point in time , occupied Fort Brown near Brownsville .
In May Colonel Theodore H. Barrett was in temporary command of Union troops at Brazos Santiago Island . He had little military field experience and desired , it is surmised , " to establish for himself some notoriety before the war closed . " Barrett knew that an attack on Fort Brown was in violation of orders from headquarters , since the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia already surrendered by Lee at Appomattox on April 9 and many other Confederate forces had surrendered or disbanded by then . In spite of these known facts Barrett decided anyway to go ahead with his plans .
On May 12 , Barrett instructed Colonel David Branson of the 34th Indiana Veteran Volunteer Infantry to attack the Confederate encampment at Brazos Santiago Depot near Fort Brown . Barrett commanded the 62nd United States Colored Infantry and the 2nd Texas Cavalry , and advanced towards Fort Brown with the intention of reoccupying Brownsville with Union forces thinking they would not encounter any problems , assuming all the Confederates surely had heard of Lee 's surrender by this time . To their surprise they encountered Confederates that did not know of Lee 's surrender .
A ferocious battle erupted at Palmito Ranch , about 12 miles outside Brownsville . The battle was lost by Barrett 's Union regiments mainly because they were outmaneuvered and overrun . Of the original 300 Union troops that fought at Palmito Ranch , they lost over one third , mostly to capture with a few killed or seriously injured .
= = Surrender of Kirby Smith ( May 26 ) = =
General Kirby Smith tried to send reinforcements from his Army of the Trans @-@ Mississippi east of the Mississippi River to relieve Vicksburg , Mississippi , in the spring of 1864 following the Battle of Mansfield and the Battle of Pleasant Hill . This was not practicable due to the Union naval control of the Mississippi River . Smith instead dispatched Major General Sterling Price and his cavalry on an invasion of Missouri that was ultimately not successful . Thereafter the war west of the Mississippi River was principally one of small raids . By May 26 a representative of Smith 's negotiated and signed surrender documents with a representative of Major General Edward Canby . Canby in Shreveport , Louisiana , then took custody of Smith 's force of 43 @,@ 000 soldiers when they surrendered , by then the only significant Confederate forces left west of the Mississippi River . With this ended all organized Southern military resistance to the Union forces . Smith signed the surrender papers on June 2 on board the U.S.S. Fort Jackson just outside Galveston Harbor .
= = Surrender of Cherokee chief Stand Watie ( June 23 ) = =
Cherokee Brigadier General Stand Watie commanded the Confederate Indians when he surrendered on June 23 . This was the last significant Confederate active force . Watie formed the Cherokee Mounted Rifles . He was a guerrilla fighter commanding Cherokee , Seminole , Creek , and Osage Indian soldiers . They earned a notorious reputation for their bold and brave fighting . Yearly , Federal troops all over the western United States hunted for Watie , but they never captured him . He surrendered June 23 at Fort Towson in the Choctaw Nations area at the village of Doaksville ( now a ghost town ) of the Indian Territory , being the last Confederate general to surrender in the American Civil War .
= = Surrender of CSS Shenandoah ( November 6 ) = =
The CSS Shenandoah was commissioned as a commerce raider by the Confederacy to interfere with Union shipping and hinder their efforts in the American Civil War . A Scottish @-@ built merchant ship originally called the Sea King , it was secretly purchased by Confederate agents in September 1864 . Captain James Waddell renamed the ship Shenandoah after she was converted to a warship off the coast of Spain on October 19 , shortly after leaving England . William Conway Whittle , Waddell 's right @-@ hand man , was the ship 's executive officer .
The Shenandoah , sailing south then east across the Indian Ocean and into the South Pacific , was in Micronesia at the Island of Ponape ( called Ascension Island by Whittle ) at the time of the surrender of Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia to the Union forces on April 9 , 1865 . Waddell had already captured and disposed of thirteen Union merchantmen .
The Shenandoah destroyed one more prize in the Sea of Okhotsk , north of Japan , then continued to the Aleutians and into the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean , crossing the Arctic Circle on June 19 . Continuing then south along the coast of Alaska the Shenandoah came upon a fleet of Union ships whaling on June 22 . She opened continuous fire , destroying a major portion of the Union whaling fleet . Capt. Waddell took aim at a fleeing whaler , Sophia Thornton , and at his signal , the gunner jerked a wrist strap and fired the last two shots of the American Civil War . Shenandoah had so far captured and burned eleven ships of the American whaling fleet while in Arctic waters .
Waddell finally learned of Lee 's surrender on June 27 when the captain of the prize Susan & Abigail produced a newspaper from San Francisco . The same paper contained Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's proclamation that the " war would be carried on with re @-@ newed vigor " . Shenandoah proceeded to capture a further ten whalers in the following seven hours . Wadell then steered Shenandoah south , intending to raid the port of San Francisco which he believed to be poorly defended . En route they encountered an English barque , Barracouta , on August 2 from which Wadell learned of the final collapse of the Confederacy including the surrenders of Johnston 's , Kirby Smith 's , and Magruder 's armies and the capture of President Davis . The long log entry of the Shenandoah for August 2 , 1865 , begins " The darkest day of my life . " Captain Waddell realized then in his grief that they had taken innocent unarmed Union whaling ships as prizes when the rest of the country had ended hostilities .
Waddell immediately converted the warship back to a merchant ship , storing her cannon below and repainting the hull . At this point all Waddell wanted to do was surrender the Shenandoah and the proper place to do this , in his mind , was at a European port . Surrendering in an American port carried the certainty of facing a court with a Union point of view and the very real risk of a trial for piracy , for which he and the crew could be hanged . Sailing south around Cape Horn and staying well off shore to avoid shipping that might report Shenandoah 's position , they saw no land for another 9 @,@ 000 miles until they arrived back in England , having logged a total of over 58 @,@ 000 miles around the world in a year 's travel — the only Confederate ship to circumnavigate the globe .
The last Confederate surrender did not occur until November 6 , 1865 , when the notorious ship under Capt. Waddell 's command surrendered at Liverpool to Capt. R. N. Paynter , commander of HMS Donegal of the British Royal Navy . The Shenandoah was surrendered by letter to the British Prime Minister , the Earl Russell . Ultimately , after an investigation by the British Admiralty court , Waddell and his crew were exonerated of doing anything that violated the laws of war and were unconditionally released . Shenandoah herself was sold to Sultan Majid bin Said of Zanzibar in 1866 and renamed El Majidi .
= = Great Dismal Swamp = =
According to one source , a detachment of three Confederate soldiers who had been posted to defend the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia didn 't surrender until the summer of 1866 .
= = Presidential proclamation ending the war = =
On August 20 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson signed a Proclamation — Declaring that Peace , Order , Tranquillity , and Civil Authority Now Exists in and Throughout the Whole of the United States of America . It cited the end of the insurrection in Texas , and declared
... that the insurrection which heretofore existed in the State of Texas is at an end and is to be henceforth so regarded in that State as in the other States before named in which the said insurrection was proclaimed to be at an end by the aforesaid proclamation of the 2d day of April , 1866 .
And I do further proclaim that the said insurrection is at an end and that peace , order , tranquillity , and civil authority now exist in and throughout the whole of the United States of America .
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= Pretty Baby .... =
" Pretty Baby .... " is an episode of the British television soap opera EastEnders , broadcast on BBC One on 31 January 2008 . It is the only EastEnders episode to feature just one character and the first of its kind in soap . It was written by Tony Jordan , directed by Clive Arnold and produced by Diederick Santer . The episode features Dot Branning , played by June Brown , recording a message for her husband Jim Branning ( John Bardon ) , who is in hospital recovering from a stroke , reflecting Bardon 's real @-@ life stroke , which saw him written out of the show and allowed the opportunity for the single @-@ hander to arise . Jordan 's scripting was inspired by Samuel Beckett 's Krapp 's Last Tape .
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 86 million viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Brown 's acting attracted praise , with both Nancy Banks @-@ Smith of The Guardian and Mark Wright of The Stage doubting that any other actress would have been capable of carrying Dot 's monologue . Banks @-@ Smith and The Times 's Tim Teeman questioned Dot 's characterisation , and Teeman ultimately found the episode " much @-@ loved character overkill " , while Gerard O 'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph called Brown 's performance " mesmerising " but said the episode was " fuss over nothing " . Brown received a British Academy Television Award nomination for Best Actress in 2009 for her performance in the episode .
= = Plot = =
It is night time , and as Dot Branning ( June Brown ) makes herself a cup of cocoa at home , she records a message on a tape recorder for her husband Jim ( John Bardon ) , who is in hospital recovering from a stroke . Dot tells Jim everyone is missing him , and that she has been dreading recording the message . She talks about her Christian faith and remembers her childhood , her first marriage to Charlie Cotton ( Christopher Hancock ) and her friendship with Ethel Skinner ( Gretchen Franklin ) . She talks about when she was evacuated to Wales during the Second World War and how she did not cry when she left her mother . She says she was happy moving away to live with her guardians , a Welsh couple named Gwen and Will , as they made her feel special , and recalls the happiest day of her life . She remembers how Will would sing " Pretty Baby " to her at night , but says since then everyone she has cared about has died . She finishes by telling Jim that the hospital staff want to send him home , but she fears she will not be able to cope and concludes she is better on her own .
= = Production = =
On 14 November 2007 , it was announced that former EastEnders scriptwriter Tony Jordan had been contacted by Controller of BBC Drama Production John Yorke with an idea for an episode and that Jordan had returned to EastEnders having written the script for the episode . The single @-@ hander episode was announced the next day , the first episode of any soap opera to feature just one character . Jordan had wanted to write a solo episode for EastEnders – well known for its two @-@ hander episodes – for some time , but the opportunity had never arisen until Bardon had a stroke in real life , which was reflected in storyines when Jim was said to have suffered a stroke when visiting relatives off screen . Cast and crew were grateful for the opportunity to make the episode but were aware it had come about due to the suffering of somebody they loved . Brown was initially sceptical that her character could carry an entire episode by herself , but stated that Dot has a lot of history so there was a lot to call upon .
When writing the script , Jordan had in his head an image of Samuel Beckett 's play Krapp 's Last Tape . The script was 27 pages long , instead of the normal average of about 65 , due to lack of stage directions . Clive Arnold was asked to direct the episode , and was allowed to input more into the script than would be normal , which he said was due to his good working relationship with Jordan . Jordan also gave Brown the opportunity to change anything she wanted to . Arnold was careful that the episode would not alienate regular EastEnders viewers by making it too left of field , ensuring that it would be recognisable as an EastEnders episode , and made sure viewers would identify with the character , emphasising her state of mind with visual links . Brown found her lines for the episode easy to learn as they " flowed " and the script was well written . Arnold and Brown worked closely together , rehearsing and working on the script in detail . Rehearsals went on for a number of weeks and after being able to judge the pace of the episode , Arnold was able to introduce choreography and stage directions . He stated that the rehearsals were invaluable as he , Brown and Jordan could work together to develop and tweak the script as they progressed . He broke the script down into scenes to aid Brown 's performance by giving her one scene to concentrate on per day of filming .
The episode was filmed over a number of afternoons at the end of 2007 , with each day 's filming beginning with a repeat of the last section from the previous day , to help blend each scene into the next . It was filmed with a " single camera mentality " but with up to five cameras running to give Brown a " freedom of performance away from hitting marks or favouring one particular camera position . " This also helped in the case of technical problems , meaning that second takes were not necessary . Brown cried when she read the script and though she did not cry during fiming , she had expected to , planning to pause the tape recorder if she did . She stated that the most difficult part of the script was the line about Jim being " here , but not here " because she felt that way about Bardon . Arnold admitted to " [ wiping ] away the tears " many times and noted that several other crew cried , and that one of the toughest things about it was that it mirrored real @-@ life events . Brown found the episode easy to film due to the fact there were no other cast members to make mistakes , and because she " knew the character backwards " and " exactly how she 'd behave and what she 'd feel and [ ... ] her history . " She praised Arnold and the crew , stating that the episode was " lovely " to make and she felt " very fortunate to be given the opportunity . " The performance was edited in post production after being committed to tape , where usually all scenes are vision mixed , and the usual EastEnders theme tune was replaced at the end of the episode with Tony Jackson 's " Pretty Baby " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and critical reception = = =
Overnight figures indicated that the episode averaged 8 @.@ 7 million viewers and a 37 % audience share . Official figures gave the episode ratings of 8 @.@ 86 million for its original airing and 740 @,@ 000 for its 10pm repeat on BBC Three . Brown 's performance in the episode was praised by Robert Hanks of The Independent who wrote : " I don 't ever remember hearing anybody on a soap talk like this before . I mean , like a real person , with real feelings , such as self @-@ pity and a desperate urge for self @-@ preservation . Brown conveyed the seedy gloom of it all beautifully , as well . " Nancy Banks @-@ Smith of The Guardian deemed Brown possibly the only member of the cast , with the exception of Barbara Windsor ( Peggy Mitchell ) , capable of carrying such a monologue , opining that she " carried it off magnificently " . She took issue with Dot 's characterisation , however , believing that Dot is presented as the serial 's " moral compass " , and would not leave her husband in a nursing home .
Jim Shelley from the Daily Mirror praised Jordan 's writing and Brown 's acting , saying " tonight 's episode of EastEnders is as powerful and poignant a piece of drama as you will see on TV all year " . Shelley opined that " June [ ... ] proves what the soaps can achieve when they use actors of genuine class and let them show what they are capable of " and stated " The fact that co @-@ star John Bardon [ ... ] is recovering from a stroke in real life adds an extra terrible pathos to the episode . " Cole Moreton of The Independent wrote " The preview disc had revealed it to be a mesmerising piece of television , a kind of cor blimey Samuel Beckett , in which Brown conveyed her character 's conflicting emotions beautifully . " Mark Wright of The Stage praised Brown 's acting as " amazing " , observing that she made the episode look " effortless " and commenting : " I don 't think there 's another soap actress out there who could carry this . " Virgin Media selected the episode as showcasing one of the best ever soap opera performances , deeming Brown 's portrayal " comic and endearing " and the episode " never less than riveting . "
However , reviews were not uniformly positive . Tim Teeman posed the question in The Times : " I know she 's a national institution and June Brown plays her like a dream , but was last night 's Dot Cotton extravaganza really that great ? Or even necessary ? " Teeman opined that : " Quite rightly , the producers want to eke as much gold out of the character and actress as possible : both are fantastic . But this was much @-@ loved character overkill . " He noted that Jordan 's script worked best as Dot remembered Ethel , but assessed that the episode was overly indulgent , and did not reveal anything " substantially new " about Dot . As with Banks @-@ Smith 's review , Teeman felt that the episode was incompatible with Dot 's former characterisation , suggesting that her Christian faith ought to have tempered her decision not to care for Jim . He felt that overall , the episode was somewhat dull and boring , describing Dot as an EastEnders " jewel " who should be cherished , not turned into a " drag act " .
The Guardian 's Gareth McLean described the episode as a " bold move " on the part of the EastEnders producers in deviating from the serial 's usual format , and found it to be " compelling and brave " , but " not as convincing as it should be " . The Daily Telegraph 's Gerard O 'Donovan felt that Brown gave a " mesmerising " performance , but was critical of the episode as a whole , concluding : " Overall [ ... ] the feeling couldn 't be avoided that in the greater scheme of things this was a fuss over nothing . Had it been a swan song , it would have been a worthy one . But doubtless Dot will be out and about again tonight , fag in hand , quoting from the Good Book . Enjoyable as this Albert Square indulgence was , I suspect that most fans will be hoping this one @-@ hander remains a one @-@ off . " Leigh Holmwood for The Guardian suggested that viewers may have agreed with O 'Donovan 's assessment , highlighting the fact that the episode received only 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , compared to 9 @.@ 4 million watching EastEnders the previous week . O 'Donovan compared the episode to Krapp 's Last Tape , saying " it must be said there were quite a few moments of positively ( or perhaps that should be negatively ) Beckettian bleakness here as Dot recalled , in painfully vivid detail , how time and time again ' life took away everything I ever cared about ' and ' all that I ever ' ad , I lorst ' . "
= = = Award nomination = = =
Brown was nominated in the Best Actress category at the 2009 British Academy Television Awards based on her performance in the episode , becoming the first soap actress nominated in the category since 1988 , when Jean Alexander was shortlisted for her role as Hilda Ogden in Coronation Street . She commented that she was proud to be nominated , but was not overly excited as : " I don 't believe anything is going to happen until it does , until you see your name on a paper or it actually happens and you have something in your hand . " Brown lost out to Anna Maxwell Martin , but the show 's executive producer , Diederick Santer , described the nomination as his proudest moment of 2009 , saying : " I 'm not one to complain to the referee , but it 's beyond me why she didn 't win . Week in , week out , she turns out amazing performances . The audience knew it and we knew it . With the greatest respect to the actress who won , you could hear the audience in the Royal Festival Hall that night sigh with disappointment . It was a missed opportunity by BAFTA [ ... ] to connect with a big audience . " McLean agreed that Brown deserved to win , but commented on the awards : " never underestimate snobbery towards soap . " Brown spoke of the nomination in 2013 , saying : " You never [ win ] if you 're in a soap . [ ... ] I would 've liked it , yes . I would 've felt it had crowned my acting in a way , made it sound worthwhile , I think . So I didn 't care that I didn 't get nominated for any other awards that time ! "
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= World War II =
World War II ( often abbreviated to WWII or WW2 ) , also known as the Second World War , was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945 , although related conflicts began earlier . It involved the vast majority of the world 's nations — including all of the great powers — eventually forming two opposing military alliances : the Allies and the Axis . It was the most widespread war in history , and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries . In a state of " total war " , the major participants threw their entire economic , industrial , and scientific capabilities behind the war effort , erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources . Marked by mass deaths of civilians , including the Holocaust ( in which approximately 11 million people were killed ) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres ( in which approximately one million were killed , and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) , it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities . These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history .
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937 , but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . From late 1939 to early 1941 , in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe , and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Under the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours , Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth , with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns , the aerial Battle of Britain , the Blitz bombing campaign , the Balkan Campaign as well as the long @-@ running Battle of the Atlantic . In June 1941 , the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis ' military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941 , Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific .
The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway , near Hawaii , and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then , decisively , at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union . In 1943 , with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front , the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender , and Allied victories in the Pacific , the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts . In 1944 , the Western Allies invaded German @-@ occupied France , while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies . During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma , while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands .
The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union , culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms , the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively . With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent , the possibility of additional atomic bombings , and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria , Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 . Thus ended the war in Asia , cementing the total victory of the Allies .
World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world . The United Nations ( UN ) was established to foster international co @-@ operation and prevent future conflicts . The victorious great powers — the United States , the Soviet Union , China , the United Kingdom , and France — became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War , which lasted for the next 46 years . Meanwhile , the influence of European great powers waned , while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery . Political integration , especially in Europe , emerged as an effort to end pre @-@ war enmities and to create a common identity .
= = Chronology = =
The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939 , beginning with the German invasion of Poland ; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later . The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War on 7 July 1937 , or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931 .
Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who held that the Sino @-@ Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941 . This article uses the conventional dating . Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935 . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939 .
The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon . It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 ( V @-@ J Day ) , rather than the formal surrender of Japan ( 2 September 1945 ) . A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities . A treaty regarding Germany 's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post @-@ World War II issues .
= = Background = =
= = = Europe = = =
World War I had radically altered the political European map , with the defeat of the Central Powers — including Austria @-@ Hungary , Germany and the Ottoman Empire — and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union . Meanwhile , the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France , Belgium , Italy , Greece and Romania , gained territory , and new nation @-@ states were created out of the collapse of Austria @-@ Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires .
To prevent a future world war , the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . The organisation 's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security , military and naval disarmament , and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration .
Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states . These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial , colonial , and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty , Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies , while German annexation of other states was prohibited , reparations were imposed , and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces .
The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918 – 1919 , and a democratic government , later known as the Weimar Republic , was created . The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left . Italy , as an Entente ally , had made some post @-@ war territorial gains ; however , Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement . From 1922 to 1925 , the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist , totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist , left @-@ wing and liberal forces , and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power , promising the creation of a " New Roman Empire " .
Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923 , eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 . He abolished democracy , espousing a radical , racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . It was at this time that political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place . Meanwhile , France , to secure its alliance , allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession . The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles , accelerated his rearmament programme , and introduced conscription .
Hoping to contain Germany , the United Kingdom , France and Italy formed the Stresa Front ; however , in June 1935 , the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany , easing prior restrictions . The Soviet Union , concerned by Germany 's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France . Before taking effect though , the Franco @-@ Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations , which rendered it essentially toothless . The United States , concerned with events in Europe and Asia , passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year .
Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936 . He encountered little opposition from other European powers . In October 1936 , Germany and Italy formed the Rome – Berlin Axis . A month later , Germany and Japan signed the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , which Italy would join in the following year .
= = = Asia = = =
The Kuomintang ( KMT ) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid @-@ 1920s , but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies . In 1931 , an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire , which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia , used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo .
Too weak to resist Japan , China appealed to the League of Nations for help . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria . The two nations then fought several battles , in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933 . Thereafter , Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi 'an Incident , the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan .
= = Pre @-@ war events = =
= = = Italian invasion of Ethiopia ( 1935 ) = = =
The Second Italo – Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936 . The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire ( also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d 'Italia ) , which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI ) ; in addition , it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace . Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations , but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League 's own Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion . Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany 's goal of absorbing Austria .
= = = Spanish Civil War ( 1936 – 39 ) = = =
When civil war broke out in Spain , Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . The Soviet Union supported the existing government , the Spanish Republic . Over 30 @,@ 000 foreign volunteers , known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists . Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics . The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians . The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939 ; Franco , now dictator , bargained with both sides during the Second World War , but never concluded any major agreements . He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory .
= = = Japanese invasion of China ( 1937 ) = = =
In July 1937 , Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China . The Soviets quickly signed a non @-@ aggression pact with China to lend materiel support , effectively ending China 's prior co @-@ operation with Germany . Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but , after three months of fighting , Shanghai fell . The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back , capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 . After the fall of Nanking , tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese .
In March 1938 , Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May . In June 1938 , Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October . Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve ; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war .
= = = Soviet @-@ Japanese border conflicts = = =
In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s , Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin @-@ ron , which emphasised Japan 's expansion northward , was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time . With the devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets , this policy would prove difficult to maintain . Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941 , and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin @-@ ron , promoted by the Navy , which took its focus southward , eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies .
= = = European occupations and agreements = = =
In Europe , Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive . In March 1938 , Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers . Encouraged , Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population ; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government , in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands . Soon afterwards , Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland .
Although all of Germany 's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement , privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation . In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish " war @-@ mongers " and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build @-@ up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy . In March 1939 , Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro @-@ German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania , forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region .
Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939 , the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco @-@ British pledge to Poland , Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to " encircle " Germany and renounced the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement and the German – Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact .
In August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , a non @-@ aggression treaty with a secret protocol . The parties gave each other rights to " spheres of influence " ( western Poland and Lithuania for Germany ; eastern Poland , Finland , Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR ) . It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence . The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two @-@ front war , as it had in World War I , after it defeated Poland .
The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border . In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister , Count Ciano , Hitler asserted that Poland was a " doubtful neutral " that needed to either yield to his demands or be " liquidated " to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future " unavoidable " war with the Western democracies . He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict . On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August , but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality , he decided to delay it .
In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war , Germany made demands on Poland , which only served as a pretext to worsen relations . On 29 August , Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession . The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30 – 31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected .
= = Course of the war = =
= = = War breaks out in Europe ( 1939 – 40 ) = = =
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border . Two days later , on 3 September , after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored , Britain and France , followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth — Australia ( 3 September ) , Canada ( 10 September ) , New Zealand ( 3 September ) , and South Africa ( 6 September ) — declared war on Germany . However , initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland , consisting of a cautious , half @-@ hearted French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country 's economy and war effort . Germany responded by ordering U @-@ boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships , which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic .
On 17 September 1939 , after signing a cease @-@ fire with Japan , the Soviets invaded Poland from the east . The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September , with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October . Poland 's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union , with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares . After the defeat of Poland 's armed forces , the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army . About 100 @,@ 000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries ; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war . Poland 's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France .
On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France , but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union . Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October , saying " Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government . " After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France , but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940 .
After signing the German – Soviet Treaty of Friendship , Cooperation and Demarcation , the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries — Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania — to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of " mutual assistance " . Finland rejected territorial demands , prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939 . The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions . Britain and France , treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans , responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations .
In June 1940 , the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia , Northern Bukovina and Hertza . Meanwhile , Nazi @-@ Soviet political rapprochement and economic co @-@ operation gradually stalled , and both states began preparations for war .
= = = Western Europe ( 1940 – 41 ) = = =
In April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters . Denmark capitulated after a few hours , and despite Allied support , during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans , Norway was conquered within two months . British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain , with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940 .
Germany launched an offensive against France and , adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940 . That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands . The U.S. in close co @-@ operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C. , agreed to protect Greenland , laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941 . The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks , respectively . The French @-@ fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region , mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles . As a result , the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten . The majority were taken prisoner , whilst over 300 @,@ 000 , mostly British and French , were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June , although abandoning almost all of their equipment .
On 10 June , Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom . Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which , though officially neutral , was generally aligned with Germany . France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it , so on 3 July , the British attacked it .
The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . On 19 July , Hitler again publicly offered to end the war , saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire . The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum . The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command , and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort .
Using newly captured French ports , the German Navy enjoyed success against an over @-@ extended Royal Navy , using U @-@ boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . Perhaps most importantly , during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe 's assault , and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941 .
Throughout this period , the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies . In November 1939 , the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies . In 1940 , following the German capture of Paris , the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September , the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still , a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941 .
Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war , he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war . In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless , calling for the US to become an " arsenal for democracy " and promoted the passage of Lend @-@ Lease aid to support the British war effort . In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war . They decided on a number of offensive policies , including an air offensive , the " early elimination " of Italy , raids , support of resistance groups , and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany .
At the end of September 1940 , the Tripartite Pact united Japan , Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country , with the exception of the Soviet Union , not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three . The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact . Romania would make a major contribution ( as did Hungary ) to the Axis war against the USSR , partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR , partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu 's desire to combat communism .
= = = Mediterranean ( 1940 – 41 ) = = =
Italy began operations in the Mediterranean , initiating a siege of Malta in June , conquering British Somaliland in August , and making an incursion into British @-@ held Egypt in September 1940 . In October 1940 , Italy started the Greco @-@ Italian War because of Mussolini 's jealousy of Hitler 's success but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania , where a stalemate soon occurred . The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece . Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans , to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean , and to secure his hold on Romanian oil .
In December 1940 , British Commonwealth forces began counter @-@ offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner . The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats , with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan .
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy . Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February , and by the end of March they had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece . In under a month , Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk . The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June , but failed on both occasions .
By late March 1941 , following Bulgaria 's signing of the Tripartite Pact , the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece . Plans were changed , however , because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia . The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March , only to be overthrown two days later by a British @-@ encouraged coup . Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it . On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece , making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month . The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May . Although the Axis victory was swift , bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war .
The Allies did have some successes during this time . In the Middle East , Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy @-@ controlled Syria , then , with the assistance of the Free French , invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences .
= = = Axis attack on the USSR ( 1941 ) = = =
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable , Germany , Japan , and the Soviet Union made preparations . With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource @-@ rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941 . By contrast , the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union , massing forces on the Soviet border .
Hitler believed that Britain 's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later . He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany 's relations with the Soviets , or failing that , to attack and eliminate them as a factor . In November 1940 , negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact . The Soviets showed some interest , but asked for concessions from Finland , Bulgaria , Turkey , and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable . On 18 December 1940 , Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union .
On 22 June 1941 , Germany , supported by Italy and Romania , invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them . They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary . The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine , with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk @-@ Astrakhan line , from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler 's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power , exterminate Communism , generate Lebensraum ( " living space " ) by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany 's remaining rivals .
Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter @-@ offensives before the war , Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence . During the summer , the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory , inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel . By the middle of August , however , the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad . The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful , resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies , and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine ( the First Battle of Kharkov ) possible .
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy . In July , the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran 's oil fields . In August , the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter .
By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved , with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing . A major offensive against Moscow was renewed ; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow , where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive . Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces , but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives : two key cities remained in Soviet hands , the Soviet capability to resist was not broken , and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential . The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended .
By early December , freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops . This , as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter @-@ offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 – 250 kilometres ( 62 – 155 mi ) west .
= = = War breaks out in the Pacific ( 1941 ) = = =
In 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing economic pressure . During this time , Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , a strategically important Chinese city , but was repulsed by late September . Despite several offensives by both sides , the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940 . To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes , and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers , Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina . Afterwards , the United States embargoed iron , steel and mechanical parts against Japan . Other sanctions soon followed .
In August of that year , Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; in retaliation , Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists . Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co @-@ operation . In March , the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao . In September , Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces .
German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941 . In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina , thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East . The United States , United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo .
Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China . During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate . At the same time the US , Britain , and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories , in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them . Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines ( an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946 ) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any " neighboring countries " .
Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch sanctions , Japan prepared for war . On 20 November it presented an interim proposal as its final offer . It called for the end of American aid to China and to supply oil and other resources to Japan . In exchange they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina . The American counter @-@ proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non @-@ aggression pacts with all Pacific powers . That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China , or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force ; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option , and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war .
Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific ; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over @-@ stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war . To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset . On 7 December 1941 ( 8 December in Asian time zones ) , Japan attacked British and American holdings with near @-@ simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor , the Philippines , landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong .
These attacks led the United States , Britain , China , Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan , whereas the Soviet Union , being heavily involved in large @-@ scale hostilities with European Axis countries , maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan . Germany , followed by the other Axis states , declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan , citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt .
= = = Axis advance stalls ( 1942 – 43 ) = = =
In January 1942 , the Big Four ( the United States , Britain , Soviet Union , China ) and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter , and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers .
During 1942 , Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue . All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective . The Americans favoured a straightforward , large @-@ scale attack on Germany through France . The Soviets were also demanding a second front . The British , on the other hand , argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength , lead to increasing demoralisation , and bolster resistance forces . Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign . An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large @-@ scale armies . Eventually , the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa .
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943 , the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations , and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies . The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes . Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war , in May 1943 , the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944 .
= = = = Pacific ( 1942 – 43 ) = = = =
By the end of April 1942 , Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners . Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942 , forcing its government into exile . On 16 April , in Burma , 7 @,@ 000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division . Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea and Indian Ocean , and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia . In January 1942 , the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident , as well as overextended .
In early May 1942 , Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia . The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force centered on two American fleet carriers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . Japan 's next plan , motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated ; as a diversion , Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . In early June , Japan put its operations into action but the Americans , having broken Japanese naval codes in late May , were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy .
With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle , Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . The Americans planned a counter @-@ attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia .
Both plans started in July , but by mid @-@ September , the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese , and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna @-@ Gona . Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal . By the start of 1943 , the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . In Burma , Commonwealth forces mounted two operations . The first , an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 , went disastrously , forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943 . The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front @-@ lines in February which , by the end of April , had achieved mixed results .
= = = = Eastern Front ( 1942 – 43 ) = = = =
Despite considerable losses , in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year . In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov , and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942 , to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front . The Germans split Army Group South into two groups : Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south @-@ east to the Caucasus , while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga .
By mid @-@ November , the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter @-@ offensive , starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed disastrously . By early February 1943 , the German Army had taken tremendous losses ; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender , and the front @-@ line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive . In mid @-@ February , after the Soviet push had tapered off , the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk .
= = = = Western Europe / Atlantic & Mediterranean ( 1942 – 43 ) = = = =
Exploiting poor American naval command decisions , the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . By November 1941 , Commonwealth forces had launched a counter @-@ offensive , Operation Crusader , in North Africa , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made . In North Africa , the Germans launched an offensive in January , pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February , followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives . Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy @-@ held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942 . An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . On the Continent , raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets , culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid , demonstrated the Western Allies ' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation , equipment , and operational security .
In August 1942 , the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and , at a high cost , managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . A few months later , the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt , dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya . This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo @-@ American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies . Hitler responded to the French colony 's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice , they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces . The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943 .
In early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive , a strategic bombing campaign against Germany . The goals were to disrupt the German war economy , reduce German morale , and " de @-@ house " the civilian population .
= = = Allies gain momentum ( 1943 – 44 ) = = =
After the Guadalcanal Campaign , the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific . In May 1943 , Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . Soon after , the U.S. with support from Australian and New Zealand forces began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . By the end of March 1944 , the Allies had completed both of these objectives , and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April , the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea .
In the Soviet Union , both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 4 July 1943 , Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week , German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets ' deeply echeloned and well @-@ constructed defences and , for the first time in the war , Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success . This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies ' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which , combined with previous Italian failures , resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month . Also , in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40 @,@ 000 people .
On 12 July 1943 , the Soviets launched their own counter @-@ offensives , thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east . The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority , giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front . The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther @-@ Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives .
On 3 September 1943 , the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy 's armistice with the Allies . Germany responded by disarming Italian forces , seizing military control of Italian areas , and creating a series of defensive lines . German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid @-@ November .
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered . By May 1943 , as Allied counter @-@ measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign . In November 1943 , Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai @-@ shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . The former conference determined the post @-@ war return of Japanese territory , while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany 's defeat .
From November 1943 , during the seven @-@ week Battle of Changde , the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition , while awaiting Allied relief . In January 1944 , the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . By the end of January , a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , ending the longest and most lethal siege in history .
The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre @-@ war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re @-@ establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region . By late May 1944 , the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops . The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and , at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat , on 4 June , Rome was captured .
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched the first of two invasions , an operation against British positions in Assam , India , and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . In May 1944 , British forces mounted a counter @-@ offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma , and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China 's main fighting forces , secure railways between Japanese @-@ held territory and capture Allied airfields . By June , the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province .
= = = Allies close in ( 1944 ) = = =
On 6 June 1944 ( known as D @-@ Day ) , after three years of Soviet pressure , the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy , they also attacked southern France . These landings were successful , and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year . An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed . After that , the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany , but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive . In Italy , Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line .
On 22 June , the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ( " Operation Bagration " ) that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely . Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland . The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation . However , the largest of these in Warsaw where German soldiers massacred 200 @,@ 000 civilians and a national uprising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans . The Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d 'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries ' shift to the Allied side .
In September 1944 , Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off . By this point , the Communist @-@ led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941 , controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south . In northern Serbia , the Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces , assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October . A few days later , the Soviets launched a massive assault against German @-@ occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945 . Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans , bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet @-@ Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions , although Finland later shifted to the Allied side .
By the start of July 1944 , Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina . In China , the Japanese had more successes , having finally captured Changsha in mid @-@ June and the city of Hengyang by early August . Soon after , they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid @-@ December .
In the Pacific , US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter . In mid @-@ June 1944 , they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands , and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister , Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands . In late October , American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after , Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history .
= = = Axis collapse , Allied victory ( 1944 – 45 ) = = =
On 16 December 1944 , Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter @-@ offensive in the Ardennes to split the Western Allies , encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement . By January , the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled . In Italy , the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line . In mid @-@ January 1945 , the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland , pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany , and overran East Prussia . On 4 February , US , British , and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post @-@ war Germany , and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan .
In February , the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river . By March , the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B , while the Soviets advanced to Vienna . In early April , the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany , while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April . American and Soviet forces joined on Elbe river on 25 April . On 30 April 1945 , the Reichstag was captured , signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany .
Several changes in leadership occurred during this period . On 12 April , President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman . Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April . Two days later , Hitler committed suicide , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz .
German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April . Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May .
In the Pacific theatre , American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945 . They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins . Fighting continued on Luzon , Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . On the night of 9 – 10 March , B @-@ 29 bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with incendiary bombs , which killed 100 @,@ 000 people within a few hours . Over the next five months , American bombers firebombed 66 other Japanese cities , causing the destruction of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of between 350 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 Japanese civilians .
In May 1945 , Australian troops landed in Borneo , over @-@ running the oilfields there . British , American , and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March , and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May . Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945 . American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan , taking Iwo Jima by March , and Okinawa by the end of June . At the same time American bombers were destroying Japanese cities , American submarines cut off Japanese imports , drastically reducing Japan 's ability to supply its overseas forces .
On 11 July , Allied leaders met in Potsdam , Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany , and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan , specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction " . During this conference , the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister .
The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July , but the Japanese government was internally divided on whether to make peace and did not respond . In early August , the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Like the Japanese cities previously bombed by American airmen , the US and its allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity , to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 Allied troops and millions of Japanese troops and civilians . Between the two bombings , the Soviets , pursuant to the Yalta agreement , invaded Japanese @-@ held Manchuria , and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force . The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On 15 August 1945 , Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 , ending the war .
= = Aftermath = =
The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany . The former became a neutral state , non @-@ aligned with any political bloc . The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR , accordingly . A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex @-@ Nazis from power , although this policy moved towards amnesty and re @-@ integration of ex @-@ Nazis into West German society .
Germany lost a quarter of its pre @-@ war ( 1937 ) territory . Among the eastern territories , Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland , East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR , followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces , as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany . By the 1950s , every fifth West German was a refugee from the east . The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line , from which 2 million Poles were expelled ; north @-@ east Romania , parts of eastern Finland , and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR .
In an effort to maintain peace , the Allies formed the United Nations , which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 , and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 , as a common standard for all member nations . The great powers that were the victors of the war — the United States , Soviet Union , China , Britain , and France — formed the permanent members of the UN 's Security Council . The five permanent members remain so to the present , although there have been two seat changes , between the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China in 1971 , and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union . The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over .
Germany had been de facto divided , and two independent states , the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones , accordingly . The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to establishment of Communist @-@ led regimes , with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities . As a result , Poland , Hungary , East Germany , Czechoslovakia , Romania , and Albania became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the USSR .
Post @-@ war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances , the United States @-@ led NATO and the Soviet @-@ led Warsaw Pact ; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them , the Cold War , would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars .
In Asia , the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan 's former islands in the Western Pacific , while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . Korea , formerly under Japanese rule , was divided and occupied by the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948 . Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948 , each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea , which led ultimately to the Korean War .
In China , nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946 . Communist forces were victorious and established the People 's Republic of China on the mainland , while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949 . In the Middle East , the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful , leading to decolonisation .
The global economy suffered heavily from the war , although participating nations were affected differently . The US emerged much richer than any other nation ; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy . The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945 – 1948 . Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years .
Recovery began with the mid @-@ 1948 currency reform in Western Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan ( 1948 – 1951 ) both directly and indirectly caused . The post @-@ 1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded . By contrast , the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin , and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance , more than any other European country , continued relative economic decline for decades .
The Soviet Union , despite enormous human and material losses , also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post @-@ war era . Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth , becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s . China returned to its pre @-@ war industrial production by 1952 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Casualties and war crimes = = =
Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary , because many deaths went unrecorded . Most suggest that some 75 million people died in the war , including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians . Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide , massacres , mass @-@ bombings , disease , and starvation .
The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war , including 8 @.@ 7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths . The largest portion of military dead were 5 @.@ 7 million ethnic Russians , followed by 1 @.@ 3 million ethnic Ukrainians . A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed . Germany sustained 5 @.@ 3 million military losses , mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany .
Of the total number of deaths in World War II , approximately 85 percent — mostly Soviet and Chinese — were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the Axis side . Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories . An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi ideological policies , including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust , along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs ( including Ukrainians and Belarusians ) — Roma , homosexuals , and other ethnic and minority groups . Hundreds of thousands ( varying estimates ) of ethnic Serbs , along with gypsies and Jews , were murdered by the Axis @-@ aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia , and retribution @-@ related killings were committed just after the war ended .
In Asia and the Pacific , between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians , mostly Chinese ( estimated at 7 @.@ 5 million ) , were killed by the Japanese occupation forces . The best @-@ known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre , in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered . Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2 @.@ 7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen . General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung .
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) and in early conflicts against the Soviets . Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and , sometimes on prisoners of war .
The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22 @,@ 000 Polish officers , and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD , in the Baltic states , and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army .
The mass @-@ bombing of civilian areas , notably the cities of Warsaw , Rotterdam and London ; including the aerial targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees by the German Luftwaffe , along with the bombing of Tokyo , and German cities of Dresden , Hamburg and Cologne by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes . The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the death of more than 600 @,@ 000 German civilians . However , no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II .
= = = Concentration camps , slave labour , and genocide = = =
The German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust , the killing of approximately 6 million Jews , as well as 2 @.@ 7 million ethnic Poles , and 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " ( including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , homosexuals , Freemasons , Jehovah 's Witnesses , and Romani ) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination . About 12 million , most of whom were Eastern Europeans , were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers .
In addition to Nazi concentration camps , the Soviet gulags ( labour camps ) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland , Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia , as well as German prisoners of war ( POWs ) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis . Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war . Richard Overy gives the number of 5 @.@ 7 million Soviet POWs . Of those , 57 percent died or were killed , a total of 3 @.@ 6 million . Soviet ex @-@ POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators , and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD .
Japanese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps , many of which were used as labour camps , also had high death rates . The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 @.@ 1 percent ( for American POWs , 37 percent ) , seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians . While 37 @,@ 583 prisoners from the UK , 28 @,@ 500 from the Netherlands , and 14 @,@ 473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56 .
According to historian Zhifen Ju , at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries . After 1942 , the number reached 10 million . The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java , between 4 and 10 million romusha ( Japanese : " manual laborers " ) , were forced to work by the Japanese military . About 270 @,@ 000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese @-@ held areas in South East Asia , and only 52 @,@ 000 were repatriated to Java .
On 19 February 1942 , Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , interning about 100 @,@ 000 Japanese living on the West Coast . Canada had a similar program . In addition , 14 @,@ 000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned .
In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union . In Hungary 's case , Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955 .
= = = Occupation = = =
In Europe , occupation came under two forms . In Western , Northern and Central Europe ( France , Norway , Denmark , the Low Countries , and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69 @.@ 5 billion reichmarks ( 27 @.@ 8 billion US Dollars ) by the end of the war , this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products , military equipment , raw materials and other goods . Thus , the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation , a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on .
In the East , the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front @-@ lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders . Unlike in the West , the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent ; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions . Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories , they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943 .
In Asia , Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples . Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories , their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks . During Japan 's initial conquest it captured 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels ( 640 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil ( ~ 5 @.@ 5 × 105 tonnes ) left behind by retreating Allied forces , and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels ( ~ 6 @.@ 8 × 10 ^ 6 t ) , 76 percent of its 1940 output rate .
= = = Home fronts and production = = =
In Europe , before the outbreak of the war , the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics . In 1938 , the Western Allies ( United Kingdom , France , Poland and British Dominions ) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis ( Germany and Italy ) ; if colonies are included , it then gives the Allies more than a 5 : 1 advantage in population and nearly 2 : 1 advantage in GDP . In Asia at the same time , China had roughly six times the population of Japan , but only an 89 percent higher GDP ; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included .
Though the Allies ' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan , they became the decisive factor by 1942 , after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies , as the war largely settled into one of attrition . While the Allies ' ability to out @-@ produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources , other factors , such as Germany and Japan 's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , Allied strategic bombing , and Germany 's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly . Additionally , neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war , and were not equipped to do so . To improve their production , Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; Germany used about 12 million people , mostly from Eastern Europe , while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia .
= = = Advances in technology and warfare = = =
Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground @-@ support , and each role was advanced considerably . Innovation included airlift ( the capability to quickly move limited high @-@ priority supplies , equipment , and personnel ) ; and of strategic bombing ( the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy 's ability to wage war ) . Anti @-@ aircraft weaponry also advanced , including defences such as radar and surface @-@ to @-@ air artillery , such as the German 88 mm gun . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and , though late introduction meant it had little impact , it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide .
Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war , actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship .
In the Atlantic , escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys , increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid @-@ Atlantic gap . Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured . Submarines , which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second . The British focused development on anti @-@ submarine weaponry and tactics , such as sonar and convoys , while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability , with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics . Gradually , improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light , hedgehog , squid , and homing torpedoes proved victorious .
Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War , had evolved into the primary weapon . In the late 1930s , tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I , and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed , armour and firepower .
At the start of the war , most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications . This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour , and German doctrine of avoiding tank @-@ versus @-@ tank combat . This , along with Germany 's use of combined arms , were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France . Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti @-@ tank guns ( both towed and self @-@ propelled ) , mines , short @-@ ranged infantry antitank weapons , and other tanks were utilised . Even with large @-@ scale mechanisation , infantry remained the backbone of all forces , and throughout the war , most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.
The portable machine gun spread , a notable example being the German MG34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings . The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun , became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces .
Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines , the most well known being the German Enigma machine . Development of SIGINT ( signals intelligence ) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption . Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war . Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception , which the Allies used to great effect , such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard . Other technological and engineering feats achieved during , or as a result of , the war include the world 's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ) , guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel .
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= London Symphony Orchestra =
The London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) , founded in 1904 , is the oldest of London 's symphony orchestras . It was set up by a group of players who left Henry Wood 's Queen 's Hall Orchestra because of a new rule requiring players to give the orchestra their exclusive services . The LSO itself later introduced a similar rule for its members . From the outset the LSO was organised on co @-@ operative lines , with all players sharing the profits at the end of each season . This practice continued for the orchestra 's first four decades .
The LSO underwent periods of eclipse in the 1930s and 1950s when it was regarded as inferior in quality to new London orchestras , to which it lost players and bookings : the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic in the 1930s and the Philharmonia and Royal Philharmonic after the Second World War . The profit @-@ sharing principle was abandoned in the post @-@ war era as a condition of receiving public subsidy for the first time . In the 1950s the orchestra debated whether to concentrate on film work at the expense of symphony concerts ; many senior players left when the majority of players rejected the idea . By the 1960s the LSO had recovered its leading position , which it has retained subsequently . In 1966 , to perform alongside it in choral works , the orchestra established the LSO Chorus , originally a mix of professional and amateur singers , later a wholly amateur ensemble .
As a self @-@ governing body , the orchestra selects the conductors with whom it works . At some stages in its history it has dispensed with a principal conductor and worked only with guests . Among conductors with whom it is most associated are , in its early days , Hans Richter , Sir Edward Elgar , and Sir Thomas Beecham , and in more recent decades Pierre Monteux , André Previn , Claudio Abbado , Sir Colin Davis and Valery Gergiev .
Since 1982 , the LSO has been based in the Barbican Centre in the City of London . Among its programmes there have been large @-@ scale festivals celebrating composers as diverse as Berlioz , Mahler and Bernstein . The LSO claims to be the world 's most recorded orchestra ; it has made gramophone recordings since 1912 and has played on more than 200 soundtrack recordings for the cinema , of which the best known include the Star Wars series .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
At the turn of the twentieth century there were no permanent salaried orchestras in London . The main orchestras were those of Covent Garden , the Philharmonic Society and the Queen 's Hall ; their proprietors engaged players individually for each concert or for a season . As there were competing demands for the services of the finest players it was an accepted practice that , even though under contract to play for a concert , a player was at liberty to accept a better @-@ paid engagement if it were offered . He would then engage another player to deputise at him for the original concert and the rehearsals for it . The treasurer of the Philharmonic Society described the system thus : " A , whom you want , signs to play at your concert . He sends B ( whom you don 't mind ) to the first rehearsal . B , without your knowledge or consent , sends C to the second rehearsal . Not being able to play at the concert , C sends D , whom you would have paid five shillings to stay away . " There was much competition for good orchestral players , with well @-@ paid engagements offered by more than fifty music halls , by pit bands in West End musical comedies , and by grand hotels and restaurants which maintained orchestras .
In 1904 , the manager of the Queen 's Hall , Robert Newman and the conductor of his promenade concerts , Henry Wood , agreed that they could no longer tolerate the deputy system . After a rehearsal in which Wood was faced with dozens of unfamiliar faces in his own orchestra , Newman came to the platform and announced : " Gentlemen , in future there will be no deputies ! Good morning ! " This caused a furore . Orchestral musicians were not highly paid , and removing their chances of better @-@ paid engagements permitted by the deputy system was a serious financial blow to many of them . While travelling by train to play under Wood at a music festival in the north of England in May 1904 , soon after Newman 's announcement , some of his leading players discussed the situation and agreed to try to form their own orchestra . The principal movers were three horn players ( Adolf Borsdorf , Thomas Busby , and Henri van der Meerschen ) and a trumpeter , John Solomon .
= = = Foundation = = =
Busby organised a meeting at St. Andrew 's Hall , not far from the Queen 's Hall . Invitations were sent to present and former members of the Queen 's Hall Orchestra . About a hundred players attended . Busby explained the scheme : a new ensemble , the London Symphony Orchestra , to be run on co @-@ operative lines , " something akin to a Musical Republic " , with a constitution that gave the organisation independence . At concerts promoted by the LSO the members played without fee , their remuneration coming at the end of each season in a division of the orchestra 's profits . This worked well in good years , but any poorly @-@ patronised series left members out of pocket , and reliant on the LSO 's engagements to play for provincial choral societies and other managements . The proposal was approved unanimously , and a management committee was elected , comprising the four original movers and Alfred Hobday ( viola ) and E F ( Fred ) James ( bassoon ) . Busby was appointed chief executive , a post variously titled " Secretary " , " Managing Director " , " General Secretary " and " General Manager " over the years .
Borsdorf was a player of international reputation , and through his influence the orchestra secured Hans Richter to conduct its first concert . Newman held no grudge against the rebels , and made the Queen 's Hall available to them . He and Wood attended the LSO 's first concert , on 9 June 1904 . The programme consisted of the prelude to Die Meistersinger , music by Bach , Mozart , Elgar and Liszt , and finally Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony . In a favourable review in The Times , J A Fuller Maitland noted that 49 members of the new orchestra were rebels against Newman 's no @-@ deputy rule , 32 had left the Queen 's Hall Orchestra earlier , and the other 21 had no connexion with Wood and Newman .
In a profile of the orchestra in 1911 , The Musical Times commented :
Thus encouraged , the committee ventured to arrange for a series of symphony concerts at Queen 's Hall . They had no regular conductor , and to this day they have pursued this policy of freedom . Dr. ( now Sir ) Frederic Cowen conducted the first concert of the series on October 27 , 1904 , and the others were conducted by Herr Arthur Nikisch , Mr. Fritz Steinbach , Sir Charles Stanford , M. Edouard Colonne , Sir Edward Elgar , and Mr. Georg Henschel . At every one of these concerts brilliant performances were given , and the reputation of the organization as one of the finest of its kind in the world was made .
= = = Early years = = =
The orchestra made its first British tour in 1905 , conducted by Sir Edward Elgar . Elgar 's conducting was highly praised ; as to the orchestra , Ernest Newman wrote in The Manchester Guardian , " Its brass and its wood @-@ wind were seen to be of exceptional quality , but the strings , fine as they are , have not the substance nor the colour of the Hallé strings . " The following year the LSO played outside Britain for the first time , giving concerts in Paris , conducted by Edouard Colonne , Sir Charles Stanford and André Messager . Richard Morrison , in his centenary study of the LSO , writes of " stodgy programmes of insipid Cowen , worthy Stanford , dull Parry and mediocre Mackenzie " ; they put the Parisian public off to a considerable degree , and the players ended up out of pocket .
In its early years , Richter was the LSO 's most frequently @-@ engaged conductor , with four or five concerts every season ; the orchestra 's website and Morrison 's 2004 book both count him as the orchestra 's first chief conductor , though the 1911 Musical Times article indicates otherwise . Richter retired from conducting in 1911 , and Elgar was elected conductor @-@ in @-@ chief for the 1911 – 12 season . Elgar conducted six concerts , Arthur Nikisch three , and Willem Mengelberg , Fritz Steinbach and Gustave Doret one each . As a conductor Elgar did not prove to be a big enough box @-@ office draw , and after one season he was replaced by the charismatic Hungarian maestro Nikisch .
Nikisch was invited to tour North America in 1912 , and despite his long association with the Berlin Philharmonic and Leipzig Gewandhaus orchestras , he insisted that the LSO should be contracted for the tour . The orchestra , 100 @-@ strong ( all men except for the harpist ) , was booked to sail on the Titanic , but the tour schedule was changed at the last minute , and the players sailed safely on the Baltic . The tour was arduous , but a triumph . The New York Press said , " The great British band played with a vigor , force and temperamental impetuousness that almost lifted the listener out of his seat . " The New York Times praised all departments of the orchestra , though , like The Manchester Guardian , it found the strings " brilliant rather than mellow " . The paper had a little fun at the LSO 's expense : from the viewpoint of a country that had long enjoyed permanent , salaried orchestras such as the Boston Symphony , it gently mocked the LSO 's " bold stand for the sacred right of sending substitutes "
= = = First World War and 1920s = = =
Shortly after the beginning of the war the board of the orchestra received a petition from rank and file players protesting about Borsdorf 's continued membership of the LSO . Although he had done as much as anyone to found the orchestra , had lived in Britain for 30 years and was married to an Englishwoman , Borsdorf was regarded by some colleagues as an enemy alien and was forced out of the orchestra .
During the war the musical life of Britain was drastically curtailed . The LSO was helped to survive by large donations from Sir Thomas Beecham , who also subsidised the Hallé and the Royal Philharmonic Society . For a year he took the role , though not the title , of chief conductor of the LSO . In 1916 his millionaire father died and Beecham 's financial affairs became too complicated for any further musical philanthropy on his part . In 1917 the LSO 's directors agreed unanimously that they would promote no more concerts until the end of the war . The orchestra played for other managements , and managed to survive , although the hitherto remunerative work for regional choral societies dwindled to almost nothing .
When peace resumed , many of the former players were unavailable . A third of the orchestra 's pre @-@ war members were in the armed forces , and rebuilding was urgently needed . The orchestra was willing to allow the ambitious conductor Albert Coates to put himself forward as chief conductor . Coates had three attractions for the orchestra : he was a pupil of Nikisch , he had rich and influential contacts , and he was willing to conduct without fee . He and the orchestra got off to a disastrous start . Their first concert featured the premiere of Elgar 's Cello Concerto . Apart from the concerto , which the composer conducted , the rest of the programme was conducted by Coates , who overran his rehearsal time at the expense of Elgar 's . Lady Elgar wrote , " that brutal selfish ill @-@ mannered bounder ... that brute Coates went on rehearsing . " In The Observer Newman wrote , " There have been rumours about during the week of inadequate rehearsal . Whatever the explanation , the sad fact remains that never , in all probability , has so great an orchestra made so lamentable an exhibition of itself . " Coates remained as chief conductor for two seasons , and after the initial debacle is credited by Morrison with " breathing life and energy into the orchestra " .
After Coates left , the orchestra reverted to its preferred practice of engaging numerous guest conductors rather than a single principal conductor . Among the guests were Elgar , Beecham , Otto Klemperer , Bruno Walter , Wilhelm Furtwängler and Serge Koussevitzky ; soloists in the 1920s included Sergei Rachmaninoff , Artur Schnabel and the young Yehudi Menuhin . Revenues were substantial , and the orchestra seemed to many to be entering into a golden age . In fact , for lack of any serious competition in the 1920s , the LSO allowed its standards of playing to slip . In 1927 the Berlin Philharmonic , under Furtwängler , gave two concerts at the Queen 's Hall . These , and later concerts by the same orchestra in 1928 and 1929 , made obvious the poor standards then prevailing in London . Both the BBC and Beecham had ambitions to bring London 's orchestral standards up to those of Berlin . After an early attempt at co @-@ operation between the BBC and Beecham , they went their separate ways . In 1929 the BBC began recruiting for the new BBC Symphony Orchestra under Adrian Boult . The prospect of joining a permanent , salaried orchestra was attractive enough to induce some LSO players to defect . The new orchestra immediately received enthusiastic reviews that contrasted starkly with the severe press criticisms of the LSO 's playing . According to the critic W J Turner the LSO 's problem was not that its playing had deteriorated , but that it had failed to keep up with the considerable improvements in playing achieved over the past two decades by the best European and American orchestras .
= = = 1930s = = =
In 1931 , Beecham was approached by the rising young conductor Malcolm Sargent with a proposal to set up a permanent , salaried orchestra with a subsidy guaranteed by Sargent 's patrons , the Courtauld family . Originally Sargent and Beecham had in mind a reorganised version of the LSO , but the orchestra balked at weeding out and replacing underperforming players . In 1932 Beecham lost patience and agreed with Sargent to set up a new orchestra from scratch . The London Philharmonic Orchestra ( LPO ) , as it was named , consisted of 106 players including a few young musicians straight from music college , many established players from provincial orchestras , and 17 of the LSO 's leading members .
To try to raise its own standards , the LSO had engaged Mengelberg , a famous orchestral trainer , known as a perfectionist . He made it a precondition that the deputy system must be abandoned , which occurred in 1929 . He conducted the orchestra for the 1930 season , and music critics commented on the improvement in the playing . Nonetheless , as patently the third @-@ best orchestra in London , the LSO lost work it had long been used to , including the Covent Garden seasons , the Royal Philharmonic Society concerts and the Courtauld @-@ Sargent concerts . The orchestra persuaded Sir Hamilton Harty , the popular conductor of the Hallé Orchestra , to move from Manchester to become the LSO 's principal conductor . Harty brought with him eight of the Hallé 's leading players to replenish the LSO 's ranks , depleted by defections to the BBC and Beecham . Critics including Neville Cardus recognised the continued improvement in the LSO 's playing : " On this evening 's hearing the London Symphony Orchestra is likely , after all , to give its two rivals a gallant run . Under Sir Hamilton it will certainly take on a style of sincere expression , distinguished from the virtuoso brilliance cultivated by the B.B.C. Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra under Beecham . " Among the milestones on the orchestra 's path to recovery were the premieres of Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast ( 1930 ) and First Symphony ( 1934 ) , showing the orchestra " capable of rising to the challenge of the most demanding contemporary scores " ( Morrison ) .
The foundation of the Glyndebourne Festival in 1934 was another good thing for the LSO , as its players made up nearly the entirety of the festival orchestra . An important additional source of income for the orchestra was the film industry . In March 1935 the LSO recorded Arthur Bliss 's incidental music for Alexander Korda 's film Things to Come . According to the LSO 's website the recording took 14 full orchestral sessions and " started a veritable revolution in film production history . ... For the first time , music for the cinema , previously regarded as a lowly art form , captured the attention of classical music scholars and enthusiasts , music critics and the film and music public . The LSO had begun its long historic journey as the premier film orchestra . "
In London Harty did not prove to be a box @-@ office draw , and according to Morrison , he was " brutally and hurtfully " dropped in 1934 , as his LSO predecessor Elgar had been in 1912 . After this the orchestra did not appoint a chief conductor for nearly 20 years . By 1939 the orchestra 's board was planning an ambitious programme for 1940 , with guests including Bruno Walter , Leopold Stokowski , Erich Kleiber and George Szell .
= = = 1940s and 50s = = =
When the Second World War broke out the orchestra 's plans had to be almost completely changed . During the First World War the public 's appetite for concert @-@ going diminished drastically , but from the start of the Second it was clear that there was a huge demand for live music . The LSO arranged a series of concerts conducted by Wood , with whom the orchestra was completely reconciled . When the BBC evacuated its orchestra from London and abandoned the Proms , the LSO took over for Wood . The Carnegie Trust , with the support of the British government , contracted the LSO to tour Britain , taking live music to towns where symphony concerts were hitherto unknown .
The orchestra 's loss of manpower was far worse in the Second World War than in the First . Between 1914 and 1918 there were 33 members of the LSO away on active service ; between 1939 and 1945 there were more than 60 , of whom seven were killed . The orchestra found replacements wherever it could , including the bands of army regiments based in London , whose brass and woodwind players were unofficially recruited .
During the war it had become clear that private patronage was no longer a practical means of sustaining Britain 's musical life ; a state body , the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts – the forerunner of the Arts Council – was established , and given a modest budget for public subsidy . The council made it a condition of sponsoring the LSO that the profit @-@ sharing principle should be abandoned and the players made salaried employees . This renunciation of the principles for which the LSO had been founded was rejected by the players , and the offered subsidy was declined .
At the end of the war the LSO had to face new competition . The BBC SO and the LPO had survived the war intact , the latter , abandoned by Beecham , as a self @-@ governing body . All three were quickly overshadowed by two new orchestras : Walter Legge 's Philharmonia and Beecham 's Royal Philharmonic ( RPO ) . To survive , the LSO played in hundreds of concerts of popular classics under undistinguished conductors . By 1948 the orchestra was anxious to resume promoting its own concert series . The players decided to accept the Arts Council 's conditions for subsidy , and changed the LSO 's constitution to replace profit @-@ sharing with salaries . With a view to raising its playing standards it engaged Josef Krips as conductor . His commitments in Vienna preventing him from becoming the LSO 's chief conductor until 1950 , but from his first concert with the orchestra in December 1948 he influenced the playing for the better . His chosen repertoire was good for the box office : cycles of Beethoven symphonies and concertos ( the latter featuring Wilhelm Kempff in one season and Claudio Arrau in another ) helped restore the orchestra 's finances as well as its musical standards . With Krips and others the orchestra recorded extensively for the Decca Record Company during the early 1950s . The orchestra 's workload in these years was second only to the other self @-@ governing London orchestra , the LPO : the LPO played 248 concerts in the 1949 – 50 season ; the LSO 103 ; the BBC SO 55 ; the Philharmonia and RPO 32 each . When the Royal Festival Hall opened in 1951 the LSO and LPO engaged in a mutually bruising campaign for sole residency there . Neither was successful , and the Festival Hall became the main London venue for both orchestras and for the RPO and Philharmonia .
Krips left the LSO in 1954 , and the following year tensions between the orchestral principals and the rank @-@ and @-@ file players erupted into an irreconcilable dispute . The principals argued that the future of the LSO lay in profitable session work for film companies , rather than in the overcrowded field of London concerts . They also wished to be free to accept such engagements individually , absenting themselves from concerts if there were a clash of dates . The LSO 's board , which reflected the majority opinion of the players , refused to accommodate the principals , most of whom resigned en masse , to form the Sinfonia of London , a session ensemble that flourished from the mid @-@ 1950s to the early 1960s , and then faded away . For fifteen years after the split the LSO did little film work , recording only six soundtracks between 1956 and 1971 , compared with more than 70 films between 1940 and 1955 .
To replace the departing principals the LSO recruited rising young players including Hugh Maguire , Neville Marriner and Simon Streatfeild in the string sections , Gervase de Peyer and William Waterhouse in the woodwinds , and Barry Tuckwell and Denis Wick in the brass . With the new intake the orchestra rapidly advanced in standards and status . The average age of the LSO players dropped to about 30 . In 1956 the orchestra visited South Africa to play at the Johannesburg Festival . The players were impressed by the dynamic director of the festival , Ernest Fleischmann , and engaged him as general secretary of the orchestra when the post fell vacant in 1959 . He was the LSO 's first professional manager ; all his predecessors as secretary / managing director had been orchestral players combining the duties with their orchestral playing .
= = = 1960s = = =
To raise the profile and prestige of the orchestra , Fleischman strove to attract top soloists and conductors to work with the LSO . After Krips 's resignation the orchestra had worked with a few leading conductors , including Klemperer , Stokowski , Jascha Horenstein and Pierre Monteux , but also with many less eminent ones . Fleischmann later said , " It wasn 't difficult to change the list of conductors that the orchestra worked with , because one couldn 't do much worse , really " . A rising conductor of a younger generation , Georg Solti , began working with the LSO ; Fleischmann persuaded the management of the Vienna Festival to engage the LSO with Solti , Stokowski and Monteux for the 1961 Festwochen .
While in Vienna , Fleischmann persuaded Monteux to accept the chief conductorship of the orchestra . Though 86 years old , Monteux asked for , and received , a 25 @-@ year contract with a 25 @-@ year option of renewal . He lived for another three years , working with the LSO to within weeks of his death . Members of the LSO believed that in those few years he had transformed the orchestra ; Neville Marriner said that Monteux " made them feel like an international orchestra ... He gave them extended horizons and some of his achievements with the orchestra , both at home and abroad , gave them quite a different constitution . " Announcing Monteux 's appointment , Fleischmann added that the LSO would also work frequently with Antal Doráti and the young Colin Davis .
Together with Tuckwell , chairman of the orchestra , Fleischmann worked to create the LSO Trust , a fund to finance tours and provide sick and holiday pay for LSO players , thus ending , as Morrison says , " nearly sixty years of ' no play , no pay ' ... this was a revolution . " They also pioneered formal sponsorship by commercial firms : the orchestra 's " Peter Stuyvesant " concerts , underwritten by the tobacco company of that name , were given in London , Guildford , Bournemouth , Manchester and Swansea . The company also sponsored LSO commissions of new works by British composers .
In 1964 the LSO undertook its first world tour , taking in Israel , Turkey , Iran , India , Hong Kong , Korea , Japan and the United States . The following year István Kertész was appointed principal conductor . Negotiations with the Corporation of the City of London with a view to establishing the LSO as the resident orchestra of the planned Barbican Centre began in the same year . In 1966 Leonard Bernstein conducted the LSO for the first time , in Mahler 's Symphony of a Thousand at the Royal Albert Hall . This was another coup for Fleischmann , who had to overcome Bernstein 's scorn for the inadequate rehearsal facilities endured by London orchestras . Bernstein remained associated with the LSO for the rest of his life , and was its president from 1987 to 1990 .
Mindful of the enormous success of the Philharmonia Chorus , founded in 1957 by Legge to work with his Philharmonia Orchestra , the LSO decided to establish its own chorus . The LSO Chorus ( later called the London Symphony Chorus ) was formed in 1966 under John Alldis as chorus master . Its early years were difficult ; Kertész did not get on with Alldis , and there were difficulties within the chorus . Most of its members were amateurs , but at first they were reinforced by a small number of professionals . This led to disputes over the balance between amateurs and professionals . There was a brief crisis , after which the professional element was removed , and the LSO chorus became , and remains , an outstanding amateur chorus .
By 1967 many in the LSO felt that Fleischmann was seeking to exert too much influence on the affairs of the orchestra , and he resigned . Kertész , too , was dispensed with when he sought control of all artistic matters ; his contract was not renewed when it expired in 1968 . His successor as principal conductor was André Previn , who held the post for 11 years – at 2013 the longest tenure of the post to date .
By the Previn era the LSO was being described as the finest of the London orchestras . A reviewer of an Elgar recording by one of the other orchestras remarked , " these symphonies really deserve the LSO at its peak . " The implication that the LSO was not always at its peak was illustrated when Sir Adrian Boult , who was recording Elgar and Vaughan Williams with the LSO , refused to continue when he discovered that five leading principals had absented themselves . EMI took Boult 's side , and the orchestra apologised .
= = = 1970s and 80s = = =
In 1971 John Culshaw of BBC television commissioned " André Previn 's Music Night " , bringing classical music to a large new audience . Previn would talk informally direct to camera and then turn and conduct the LSO , whose members were dressed in casual sweaters or shirts rather than formal evening clothes . The programme attracted unprecedented viewing figures for classical music ; Morrison writes , " More British people heard the LSO play in Music Night in one week than in sixty @-@ five years of LSO concerts . " Several series of the programme were screened between 1971 and 1977 . Previn 's popularity with the public enabled him and the LSO to programme works that under other conductors could have been box @-@ office disasters , such as Messiaen 's Turangalila Symphony . In the early 1970s the LSO recorded two firsts for a British orchestra , appearing at the Salzburg Festival , conducted by Previn , Seiji Ozawa and Karl Böhm , in 1973 , and playing at the Hollywood Bowl the following year .
The lack of good rehearsal facilities to which Bernstein had objected was addressed in the 1970s when , jointly with the LPO , the LSO acquired and restored a disused church in Southwark , converting it into the Henry Wood Hall , a convenient and acoustically excellent rehearsal space and recording studio , opened in 1975 .
In 1978 two aspects of the LSO 's non @-@ symphonic work were recognised . The orchestra shared in three Grammy awards for the score to Star Wars ; and the LSO " Classic Rock " recordings , in the words of the orchestra 's website , became hugely popular and provided handsome royalties . The recordings led to " Classic Rock " tours by the orchestra , characterised by Morrison as " enormously lucrative but artistically demeaning . "
Claudio Abbado , principal guest conductor since 1971 , succeeded Previn as chief conductor in the orchestra 's diamond jubilee year , 1979 . In a 1988 study of the LSO in Gramophone magazine James Jolly wrote that Abbado was in many ways the antithesis of Previn in terms of style and repertoire , bringing to the orchestra a particular authority in the Austro @-@ German classics as well as a commitment to the avant @-@ garde . From the orchestra 's point of view there were disadvantages to his appointment . His relationship with the players was distant and he was unable to impose discipline on the orchestra in rehearsals . He insisted on conducting without a score , and many times this led to barely @-@ avoided disaster in concerts . Abbado had considerable international prestige , but this too had its downside for the LSO : he frequently made his major recordings with the Boston or Chicago Symphony Orchestras or the Vienna Philharmonic . One of the LSO 's principals commented , " Although we were sweating our guts playing those vast Mahler symphonies for ... Abbado , he would go and record them with other orchestras , which made us feel like second , maybe even third choice " .
In 1982 the LSO took up residence at the Barbican . In the first years of the residency the orchestra came close to financial disaster , primarily because of over @-@ ambitious programming and the poor ticket sales that resulted . The Times commented that the LSO " were tempted by their own need for challenge ( and a siren chorus of critics ) to begin a series of more modern and adventurous music : six nights a week of Tippett , Berlioz , Webern , Stockhausen designed to draw in a new public . Instead it put an old audience to flight . " The LSO 's difficulties were compounded by the satirical magazine Private Eye , which ran a series of defamatory articles about the orchestra . The articles were almost wholly untrue and the magazine was forced to pay substantial libel damages , but in the short term serious damage was done to the orchestra 's reputation and morale .
In August 1984 the orchestra 's managing director , Peter Hemmings , resigned . For the first time since 1949 the orchestra appointed one of its players to the position . Clive Gillinson , a cellist , took over at a bad time in the LSO 's fortunes , and played a central role in turning them round . He negotiated what Morrison calls " a dazzling series of mega @-@ projects , each built around the personal enthusiasm of a ' star ' conductor or soloist " , producing sell @-@ out houses . In 1985 the orchestra mounted " Mahler , Vienna and the Twentieth Century " , planned by Abbado , followed the next year by an equally successful Bernstein festival .
During 1988 the orchestra adopted an education policy which included the establishment of " LSO Discovery " , offering " people of all ages , from babies through music students to adults , an opportunity to get involved in music @-@ making " . The programme was still in place in 2012 , benefiting more than 60 @,@ 000 people every year . In September 1988 Michael Tilson Thomas succeeded Abbado as chief conductor .
In 1989 the Royal Philharmonic Society established its Orchestra Award for " excellence in playing and playing standards " ; the LSO was the first winner .
= = = 1990s to 2010s = = =
The LSO visited Japan in 1990 with Bernstein and Tilson Thomas . The conductors and players took part in the inaugural Pacific Music Festival in Sapporo , teaching and giving masterclasses for 123 young musicians from 18 countries . Colin Matthews was appointed as the orchestra 's associate composer in 1991 , and the following year Richard McNicol became LSO Discovery 's first music animateur . Gillison secured increased funding from the Arts Council , the City of London Corporation and commercial sponsors , enabling the orchestra to set up a system of joint principals , attracting top musicians who could play in the LSO without having to give up their solo or chamber careers .
In 1993 the LSO again featured in a British television series , playing in Concerto ! with Tilson Thomas and Dudley Moore . Among those appearing were Alicia de Larrocha , James Galway , Steven Isserlis , Barry Douglas , Richard Stoltzman and Kyoko Takezawa . The series received an Emmy Award . In 1994 the orchestra and the Royal Shakespeare Company ( RSC ) , resident at the Barbican Theatre , came under threat from a new managing director of the Barbican Centre , Baroness O 'Cathain , an economist with no cultural background . O 'Cathain , described by Morrison as " a Thatcherite free marketeer " , dismissed the LSO and RSC as " arty @-@ farty types " , and opposed public subsidy . Such was the press and public reaction that she was obliged to seek a vote of confidence from the LSO and RSC ; failing to gain it , she resigned , and was succeeded by John Tusa , whom Morrison calls " steeped in culture . " The danger that the concert hall would become a conference centre was averted .
In 1995 Sir Colin Davis was appointed chief conductor . He had first conducted the LSO in 1959 , and had been widely expected to succeed Monteux as principal conductor in 1964 . Among the most conspicuous of Davis 's projects with the orchestra was the LSO 's most ambitious festival thus far , the " Berlioz Odyssey " , in which all Berlioz 's major works were given . The festival continued into 2000 . Many of the performances , including Les Troyens , were recorded for the orchestra 's new CD label , LSO Live , launched in 2000 . Les Troyens won two Grammy awards .
In 2003 , with backing from the banking firm UBS , the orchestra opened LSO St Luke 's , its music education centre , in a former church near the Barbican . The following year the orchestra celebrated its centenary , with a gala concert attended by the LSO 's Patron , the Queen . After serving as managing director for 21 years , Clive Gillinson left to become chief executive of Carnegie Hall , New York . His successor was Kathryn McDowell .
During the second half of the decade major changes were made to the conductorship of the orchestra . In 2006 Daniel Harding joined Michael Tilson Thomas as principal guest , and the following year Davis retired as chief conductor and was appointed president of the orchestra , its first since the death of Bernstein in 1990 . Davis was succeeded as chief conductor by Valery Gergiev . In Gergiev 's first season in charge , a complete cycle of Mahler Symphonies was given , with the Barbican Hall sold out for every concert . In 2009 Davis and the LSO celebrated 50 years of working together . In the same year the LSO took over from the Berlin Philharmonic as the resident orchestra at the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival , adding to a roster of international residences at venues including the Lincoln Center in New York , the Salle Pleyel in Paris and the Daytona Beach International Festival in Florida . In 2010 the LSO visited Poland and Abu Dhabi for the first time , and made its first return to India since the 1964 world tour . The orchestra played at the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony , conducted by Sir Simon Rattle .
It was announced in March 2015 that Gergiev would leave the principal conductorship at the end of the year , to be succeeded by Sir Simon Rattle from September 2017 , with an initial contract of five years . In February , 2016 , the orchestra further announced that beginning with the 2016 @-@ 17 season Gianandrea Noseda will be titled " Principal Guest Conductor " ( joining the orchestra 's other Principal Guest Conductor , Daniel Harding , who has held that post since 2006 ) , and that Michael Tilson Thomas will be titled " Conductor Laureate " and Andre Previn will be titled " Conductor Emeritus . "
= = Reputation = =
In a 1988 Gramophone article James Jolly said of the LSO :
Some would claim ... that it is the most American of our orchestras , thinking no doubt of the Previn legacy , Bernstein 's Presidency and Tilson Thomas 's appointment . Others , looking back further to Pierre Monteux 's reign , think it our most French orchestra , a quality nurtured by Previn and latterly Claudio Abbado . But what of their essaying of the Slavonic repertoire under Istvan Kertész , or of Mahler , whose idiom has been finely honed by Abbado ? No , the LSO remains enigmatic , unpredictable and supremely individual . Of all the London orchestras the LSO seems to have more " personalities " , more " individuals " and has given the solo world more than its fair share of " star " performers . As an orchestra the LSO has never been prepared to submit to one principal conductor for long ( one thinks of Karajan in Berlin , Haitink in Amsterdam or Mravinsky in Leningrad ) but one of its greatest strengths remains its ability to attract fine conductors and dedicate itself wholeheartedly to creating a genuine performance .
For many years the LSO had a reputation as an almost exclusively male ensemble ( women harpists excepted ) . Morrison describes the LSO of the 1960s and 1970s as " a rambunctious boys ' club that swaggered round the globe . " Before the 1970s one of the few women to play in the orchestra was the oboist Evelyn Rothwell , who joined in the 1930s and found herself regarded as an outsider by her male colleagues . She was not admitted to full membership of the orchestra : the first woman to be elected as a member of the LSO was Renata Scheffel @-@ Stein in 1975 . By that time other British orchestras had left the LSO far behind in this regard .
By the time of its centenary about 20 per cent of the LSO 's members were women . Some musicians , including Davis , judged that this improved the orchestra 's playing as well as its behaviour . Others , including Previn and the veteran principal trumpet Maurice Murphy , felt that although the technical standard of playing had improved , the diminution of the orchestra 's machismo was a matter for regret . Comparing the LSO of 2004 with the orchestra of the 1960s and 1970s , Murphy said , " Now the strings have improved so much , the playing is fantastic , but it has lost something of its gung @-@ ho quality . " The orchestra of the 1960s had a reputation for tormenting conductors it disliked ; even such notorious martinets as George Szell were given a hard time . By the 21st century the orchestra had long abandoned such aggression ; civilities were maintained even with conductors whom the orchestra took against : they were simply never re @-@ engaged .
= = Recordings and films = =
= = = Audio recordings = = =
The LSO has made recordings since the early days of recording , beginning with acoustic versions under Nikisch of Beethoven 's Egmont Overture , Weber 's Oberon Overture , and Liszt 's Hungarian Rhapsody in F minor , followed soon after by the overtures to Der Freischütz and The Marriage of Figaro . HMV 's Fred Gaisberg , who supervised the sessions , wrote of " virtuoso playing which was unique at that time " . Since then , according to the orchestra 's website , the LSO has made more recordings than any other orchestra , a claim endorsed by Gramophone magazine . In 1920 the LSO signed a three @-@ year contract with the Columbia Graphophone Company and what Jolly calls " a magnificent series of recordings " followed . Under Felix Weingartner the orchestra recorded Mozart ( Symphony No 39 ) , Beethoven ( the Fifth , Seventh and Eighth Symphonies ) and Brahms 's First . Other recordings from this period included the premiere recording of Holst 's The Planets , conducted by the composer , and Richard Strauss 's Don Juan , Ein Heldenleben and Tod und Verklärung , likewise conducted by their composer .
When Elgar recorded his major works for HMV in the late 1920s and early 1930s , the LSO was chosen for most of the recordings . The LSO 's pre @-@ war recordings for Decca include Hamilton Harty 's version of Walton 's First Symphony , of which Gramophone magazine said , " There are one or two moments where the LSO are audibly hanging on by the skin of their teeth , but these moments simply add to the ferocious impact of the music " .
In the 1950s and early 1960s EMI generally made its British recordings with the Royal Philharmonic and Philharmonia orchestras ; the LSO 's recordings were chiefly for Decca , including a Sibelius symphony cycle with Anthony Collins , French music under Monteux , early recordings by Solti , and a series of Britten 's major works , conducted by the composer . Of the later 1960s Jolly writes , " Istvan Kertész 's three @-@ year Principal Conductorship has left a treasure trove of memorable and extraordinarily resilient recordings – the Dvořák symphonies are still competitive ... and his classic disc of Bartók 's Duke Bluebeard 's Castle admirably demonstrates what a superb ensemble the LSO were under his baton . "
Since 2000 , the LSO has published commercial CD recordings on its own label , LSO Live . Recordings are made live at the Barbican hall over several dates and are edited in post @-@ production . Initially available on CD they have since been issued on Super Audio CD and also as downloads . LSO Live has published more than 70 recordings featuring conductors including Gergiev , Davis and Bernard Haitink . Gergiev 's version of Prokofiev 's Romeo and Juliet was BBC Music Magazine 's Disc of the Year in 2011 , and Davis 's discs of Berlioz 's Symphonie Fantastique and Les Troyens and Dvořák 's Eighth Symphony were BBC Radio 3 's top recommendations in comparative reviews of all available versions .
= = = Films = = =
Even in the era of silent films the LSO was associated with the cinema . During the 1920s the orchestra played scores arranged and conducted by Eugene Goossens to accompany screenings of The Three Musketeers ( 1922 ) , The Nibelungs ( 1924 ) , The Constant Nymph ( 1927 ) and The Life of Beethoven ( 1929 ) .
Since 1935 the LSO has recorded the musical scores of more than 200 films . The orchestra owed its engagement for its first soundtrack sessions to Muir Mathieson , musical director of Korda Studios . On the LSO 's website , the film specialist Robert Rider calls Mathieson " the most important single figure in the early history of British film music , who enlisted Bliss to write a score for Things to Come , and who was subsequently responsible for bringing the most eminent British 20th @-@ century composers to work for cinema . " Mathieson described the LSO as " the perfect film orchestra " . Among the composers commissioned by Mathieson for LSO soundtracks were Vaughan Williams , Walton , Britten and Malcolm Arnold and lighter composers including Eric Coates and Noël Coward .
As a pinnacle of Mathieson 's collaboration with the LSO , Rider cites the 1946 film Instruments of the Orchestra , a film record of the LSO at work . Sargent conducted the orchestra in a performance of Britten 's The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra , composed for the film . Rider adds , " Mathieson 's documentary , with its close @-@ ups of the musicians and their instruments , beautifully captures the vibrancy and texture of the Orchestra amidst the optimism of the post @-@ Second World War era . "
Another milestone in the LSO 's history in film music was in 1977 with the recording of John Williams 's score for the first of the Star Wars films . Rider comments that this film and its sequels " attracted a new group of admirers and consolidated the period of film music activity for the Orchestra , which continues unabated to this day " . The LSO also recorded other Williams film scores , including Superman ( 1978 ) and Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) .
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= Boyfriend ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Boyfriend " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , taken from his third studio album Believe ( 2012 ) . Bieber explained that the track would surprise people in different ways , since it is a musical departure from his previous material . A snippet of " Boyfriend " was previewed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on March 1 , 2012 , Bieber 's 18th birthday . The song was announced as a single on the same day , and was released on March 26 , 2012 . The cover art was revealed on March 19 , 2012 .
Musically , " Boyfriend " is a R & B influenced song that features pop beats reminiscent of American record producer Pharrell Williams and boy band ' N Sync . The instrumentation is kept in a lower sound to highlight Bieber 's vocals . However , critics dismissed the lyrics as immature and silly . " Boyfriend " was a commercial success , debuting at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 after selling a total of 521 @,@ 000 digital units of the single . The song is the fifth @-@ highest @-@ ever debut digital sales week in the United States and has also charted at number 9 on the Pop Songs component chart . It also debuted at number one in Canada and number two in the United Kingdom .
Island Records initially commissioned a music video to be directed by Colin Tilley ; however , the video was later scrapped and re @-@ shot with Director X. Released on May 3 , 2012 , the video broke the VEVO record for having the most views in a 24 @-@ hour period with 8 @.@ 00 million , later bested by One Direction 's " Live While We 're Young " ( 8 @.@ 24 million ) . As part of promotion for the song , Bieber performed " Boyfriend " in a number of live appearances , including at the second season finale of The Voice , and at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards . The rapping duo Ying Yang Twins also released a remixed version of the track with new verses added . Another remix of " Boyfriend " features 2 Chainz , Mac Miller and Asher Roth .
= = Background and artwork = =
In late 2011 , Bieber confirmed to radio network Capital FM that he was recording material for his third studio album , which was originally going to be released in early 2012 . He later spoke to MTV News and revealed that Believe would surprise people in different ways , since it musically is a departure from his previous works . " Boyfriend " was written by Bieber , Michael Posner , Mason D. Levy and Mat Musto . During an interview with radio DJ Bootleg Kev , Posner revealed that he was impressed with Bieber 's work ethic , and further commented , " he 's super talented . At first I didn 't know what to expect because he 's super young , but dude can write . " Posner said that people would " flip " over the beat and that radio stations would want to play the song . Levy also commented on the track , and described it as " definitely edgier , it 's more grown @-@ up , it 's more developed and it 's sexier . " Prior to the song 's release , it had been previewed by several industry insiders , including radio host Mick Lee of WZFT , who said that the song was " so much different than his previous music .
On March 1 , 2012 , Bieber was featured as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where he announced that the song would be officially released on March 26 . He said , " My big announcement is that on March 26 , my first single is coming out and it 's called ' Boyfriend . ' The song , it 's basically I 'm talking to this girl , [ saying ] if I was your boyfriend , I would never let you go . We wrote it , and the verses I 'm talking / rapping and then on the hook I 'm singing . It 's a really awesome song . " Bieber also previewed the song 's introduction on the show . Through his Twitter account , the singer released a poll in which fans were allowed to choose between two artworks for the single . Jessica Sager of Pop Crush noted that Bieber sports a mature look on both covers , using Elvis Presley 's hair style and wearing a white t @-@ shirt underneath a short sleeved , navy and white plaid button down with a thin chain necklace . The winning artwork was revealed on March 19 , 2012 .
= = Composition = =
" Boyfriend " is a R & B influenced track that lasts for two minutes and 50 seconds , which incorporates elements of acoustic music , while still having club beats . The song was written in the key of B ♭ minor and its tempo is 54 beats per minute . The song opens with Bieber using a lower @-@ register and breathy vocals while rapping , " If I was your boyfriend , I ’ d never let you go / I can take you places you ain ’ t never been before / Baby , take a chance or you ’ ll never ever know / I got money in my hands that I ’ d really like to blow / Swag , swag , swag on you / Chillin ' by the fire while we eatin ’ fondue . " As the chorus follows , he adopts a Michael Jackson similar falsetto , and sings about being " everything you want " .
The instrumentation , produced by Posner and Levy , infuses hand claps and Pharrell Williams similar style beats , and , as noted by Pop Crush reviewer Amy Sciaretto , " is kept to a minimum , allowing The Biebs ’ voice , which has strengthened and deepened as he matures and grows up , to shine and take center stage . " Sciaretto also thought that " Boyfriend " is similar to Timberlake 's song " Cry Me a River " ( 2002 ) , while it was perceived by Robbie Daw of Idolator as a homage to the early 1990s . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone dismissed the lyrical content , and summarized it as " Justin Has Actually Had Sexual Intercourse – But He Won 't Harm Your Nine @-@ Year @-@ Old . " Spin writer Marc Hogan said that the lyrics have references to several tracks , including Beyoncé 's " Party " ( 2011 ) , Britney Spears ' " Till the World Ends " ( 2011 ) , and Janet Jackson 's " If " ( 1993 ) . Andrew Hampp of Billboard said that " the club @-@ ready beat and guitar @-@ plucked chorus " recalls ' N Sync 's final single " Girlfriend " ( 2002 ) , and compared it to early songs by Justin Timberlake and Usher .
= = Critical reception = =
" Boyfriend " has received mixed reviews . Andrew Hampp of Billboard rated it 82 out of 100 , stating that Bieber sounds more adult than ever , but noted that most of his fans are still 12 @-@ year @-@ old girls . Amy Sciaretto of Pop Crush praised the track , and said that the result of trying new music styles resulted on " a more mature , more well @-@ rounded Justin Bieber song . " Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV said that " Boyfriend " is " crazy dope " , and realized that the lyrics are directed to the things Bieber does with his current girlfriend Selena Gomez . Becca Grim of Rolling Stone thought that the song is " edgier @-@ than @-@ usual , " while Artistdirect reviewer Breña Brandano said that " Boyfriend " not only marks Bieber 's transition to an adult , but also deemed it as a " new dawn for pop . " Marc Hogan of magazine Spin said that Bieber " wants to sex you up " with the track , but thought that " Bieber might be a wealthy suitor , but he 's not grown up just yet . " A Rap @-@ Up reviewer complimented " Boyfriend " for showcasing a mature Bieber and urban sound on it . The A.V. Club editors Steven Hyden and Genevieve Koski rated the song an A- , complimenting its production and vocals and considering it " irresistible , and when Bieber launches into that Timberlakian falsetto , it all feels pretty perfect . " They also ranked it among his best singles , although they criticized its lyrical content .
Jordan Zakarin of The Hollywood Reporter described the song as a " more or less a proposition , with Bieber outlining both solid small town date ideas and eternal promises . " Raju Mudhar of Toronto Star commented that , lyrically , Bieber is " nowhere near bringing ' SexyBack ' , but sounds like he 's love to walk home holding your hand . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone also rated it three out of five stars , and , while seeing its background as a " expertly calculated to ease the Biebs ' transition from tweenpop dreamboat to post @-@ tweenpop dreamboat " , questioned , " how can a song that begins with Bieber rapping in his thickest patois about his " swag " not be hater @-@ bait ? " About.com critic Bill Lamb considered it a " simplistic song derivative of Justin Timberlake " , and stated that the lyrics does not have " substance to expand into an entire song . " HitFix blogger Chris Eggertsen thought that " Boyfriend " is lyrically the same song Bieber has sung since his career first started , but noted that none of his fans would notice such aspect . Gregory Hicks of The Michigan Daily commented that Bieber is copying Timberlake 's R & B style on the song , and described the lyrics as original " in the sense that few artists are willing to introduce this much poetic stupidity into their music . " . RedEye 's Ernest Wilkins said that Bieber doesn 't know how to rap well , adding that " I yearn for the days of the Wahlberg men being the most awkward white male rappers on Earth . "
= = Chart performance = =
A few hours after its release , " Boyfriend " reached the top position on the US iTunes Store . According to Keith Caulfied of Billboard , industry sources suggested that the track could sell around 400 @,@ 000 downloads by the end of the tracking week on April 1 , 2012 , and noted that it could debut into the top five of the Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number two on the chart , only being held off the top spot by " We Are Young " by Fun. featuring Janelle Monáe . It sold a total of 521 @,@ 000 digital units , the second @-@ highest @-@ ever debut digital sales week . Bill Werde of Billboard noted that it failed to debut at number one because the digital download of the track was only available through iTunes Store , " restricting the buying option for those that do not frequent the Apple retail store . " The song has sold 3 @,@ 216 @,@ 000 downloads in the US by December 2012 . " Boyfriend " is also Bieber 's first single to ever reach the top position on the Canadian Hot 100 by debuting at number one and staying on for one week .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number two with sales of 54 @,@ 817 on the week ending April 15 , 2012 , held off from achieving his first number one in the country by his own protégée Carly Rae Jepsen , with her single " Call Me Maybe " . The track was also able to reach the top ten in Denmark , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden , while attaining top twenty positions in Belgium ( Flanders ) , France , Finland , Germany , Spain , and Switzerland . In Australia , " Boyfriend " debuted and peak at number five on the chart issue dated April 8 , 2012 . The track failed to reach the top position in New Zealand , where it debuted and peaked at number two .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
Island Def Jam Music Group commissioned a music video to be directed by Colin Tilley , who previously worked with Bieber on the music video for " U Smile " ( 2010 ) . Filming sessions occurred on the week of March 28 , 2012 , and took place in a studio located in California . Bieber revealed that the music video doesn 't have a " steady concept , " adding that it mostly features artistic shots intercalated with dance scenes . He continued to explain , " It 's not like ' Justin follows this girl to this spot . ' No , it 's a bunch of amazing scenes : Like a fire scene , we have an ice scene . " On April 3 , 2012 , a teaser of the clip was unveiled by Bieber . Becky Bain of Idolator revealed that the following number of teasers featured Bieber " being groped by several female hands , dancing in front of a large white spotlight a la Michael Jackson , [ and ] posing menacingly in front of a fire and floating underwater . " Nicola Sia also of Idolator considered the scenes where the singer " provocatively whispering into girls ’ ears " as too " erotic " .
However , it was later reported that the music video directed by Tilley was scrapped , and re @-@ shot with Director X on the week of April 21 , 2012 . The second version of the video premiered on May 3 , 2012 on MTV . Director X summarized the synopsis of the video saying , " it was just cars and the simplicity that they liked . Cars , girls , just young people hanging out , having fun , that kind of thing . When I heard it , I thought that 's what it should be . "
Brogan Driscoll of The Huffington Post wrote that Bieber " shows he 's all grown up , driving fast cars and taking one rather scantily @-@ clad young lady into his arms " . James Montgomery of MTV News wrote that " Filled with cool clothes , hot cars and even hotter women , ' Boyfriend ' ... is the stuff of every newly minted heterosexual adult 's dreams ... only on overdrive " and added that " It 's a cool , confident clip , and , given where he 's at right now , it 's also an important one . " Bruna Nessif of E ! Online shortly commented that Bieber " is not a little boy anymore " in the music video for the song . Upon release , the video broke the VEVO record for having the most views in a 24 @-@ hour period with 8 @.@ 00 million . The previous records were held by Nicki Minaj 's " Stupid Hoe " ( 4 @.@ 8 million ) and Rihanna 's " Where Have You Been " ( 4 @.@ 9 million ) . Released on 20 September 2012 , the video for One Direction 's " Live While We 're Young " garnered 8 @.@ 24 million views in a 24 @-@ hour period , thus besting Bieber 's record ( 8 @.@ 00 million ) .
= = = Live performances = = =
As part of promotion for the song , Bieber performed " Boyfriend " at the second season finale of The Voice , concluding with a choreographed routine reminiscent of Janet Jackson 's " Rhythm Nation . " It was also performed at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards and on Germany 's Next Top Model . Bieber performed " Boyfriend " at the Capital FM Summertime Ball 2012 . For the performance , he sported fingerless gloves , a Union Jack tank with matching vest , and jeans . The singer also performed the track during a promotional concert in Europe on June 4 , 2012 , along with " All Around the World " and " Die in Your Arms " . Bieber performed the song for the first time after a year at the 2015 Wango Tango .
= = Cover versions and remixes = =
In 2012 , the song was also covered by metalcore band Issues on Punk Goes Pop 5 .
In May 2012 , Cimorelli covered this song for a contest called " The Bieber @-@ off " and Cimorelli won the contest after May 21 , 2012 .
In 2012 , actor Jaden Smith , who is also a friend of Bieber , has made a remix to the song entitled " Flame ( Just Cuz ) " .
Another remix featuring Mac Miller , Asher Roth and 2 Chainz was released on May 24 , 2012 .
On April 18 , 2012 , Marina and the Diamonds covered the song during a performance at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . During the performance , she changed the lyrics of the song and according to Jeff Benjamin of Billboard magazine , " have put a completely different spin on his track , turning The Bieb 's latest into a dark , acoustic lament " .
In 2012 , Kevin McHale and Darren Criss ( as their characters Artie Abrams and Blaine Anderson ) performed the song in a mash @-@ up with Britney Spears ' song " Boys " in episode " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " of musical TV series Glee .
The rapping duo Ying Yang Twins remixed " Boyfriend " on the week of May 10 , 2012 . D @-@ Roc , one of the members , explained that after his friends compared Bieber 's song to their song " Wait ( The Whisper Song ) " ( 2005 ) , " I was so amped up to hear the song too . When I actually did , I listened to it and I was like , it sounded like us . He complimented us , " he said . " So I wanted to compliment him by getting on it . "
A mashup of " Boyfriend " and ' N Sync 's 2002 single " Girlfriend " was uploaded on YouTube by mashup artist Raheem on July 13 , 2012 and quickly became a viral video .
In 2013 , a cappella group SIX covered " Boyfriend " , with Bass Vocalist Jak Knudsen singing the lead vocals , for their recent album " Life Is A Highway " .
= = Track listings = =
Digital download / CD single
" Boyfriend " – 3 : 31
Digital download – Remixes
" Boyfriend " ( Oliver Twizt Radio ) – 3 : 44
" Boyfriend " ( Oliver Twizt Club ) – 4 : 27
" Boyfriend " ( Oliver Twizt Instrumental ) – 4 : 27
" Boyfriend " ( Vice Radio ) – 3 : 08
" Boyfriend " ( Vice Club ) - 4 : 46
" Boyfriend " ( Vice Instrumental ) – 4 : 46
" Boyfriend " ( Joe Gauthreaux & Peter Barona Full Vocal Club ) – 6 : 58
" Boyfriend " ( Joe Gauthreaux Dark Dub ) – 7 : 46
Digital download – Boyfriend ( Dada Life Remix ) - Single
" Boyfriend " ( Dada Life Remix ) – 5 : 32
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Chalice Recording Studios , Hollywood , Los Angeles and in London , England
Mixed at Larrabee Studios , Burbank , California
Personnel
Mike Posner – songwriter , producer , keyboards
Justin Bieber – songwriter , vocals
Mason " MdL " Levy – songwriter , producer
Matthew Musto – songwriter , guitar production
Kuk Harrell – vocal producer
Josh Gudwin – engineer
Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan – engineer
Thomas Cullison – assistant engineer
Manny Marroquin – mixer
Chris Galland – assistant mixer
Del Bowers – assistant mixer
Benny Steele – guitar recording
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Bad Boys ( Alexandra Burke song ) =
" Bad Boys " is a song by British recording artist Alexandra Burke . The song is her second single after winning the fifth series of The X Factor , and the lead single from her debut album , Overcome . The song features American rapper Flo Rida . It was written by Mark Fowler , Laura Senior , Flo Rida , Melvin K. Watson Jr , Larry Summerville Jr . , busbee , Lauren Evans , Alex James , and was produced by The Phantom Boyz . It was first released for digital download on 12 October 2009 . The song is an uptempo electrohop song , lyrically about becoming attracted to dangerous men .
" Bad Boys " received positive reviews from critics , commending its production and composition as well as Burke 's vocals . The song topped the charts in the United Kingdom and Ireland , the top ten of Sweden , the Netherlands , Hungary , Norway , Slovakia , the Czech Republic and Belgium ( Wallonia ) and the top twenty of several other countries . The song 's accompanying music video takes place in an alleyway and a warehouse , and follows Burke 's adventure when her convertible breaks down . The song has been performed a number of times , including on the sixth series of The X Factor .
= = Background and composition = =
Burke premiered the song on 25 August 2009 , on The Chris Moyles Show . Before its release , The Sun had leaked lyrics from the song online . In an interview with Popjustice when asked about the song , Burke said , " I 've got a passion against liars , but I do like myself a bad boy . All young girls my age go for them , we just don 't like to admit it , because we always go for them " . The song is described as having a " stomping electro @-@ R & B tune " . The intro has been described as " a demented elasticated siren effect bouncing from speaker to speaker " , which has been called a hybrid of Girls Aloud 's " Biology " , and Britney Spears ' " Womanizer " , but with a more " euphoric disco feel " . According to Popjustice , the song is lyrically about " fancying dangerous men " . Flo Rida appears in the intro and during the middle eight .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mostly positive reviews commending Burke 's vocals and the mainstream R & B / pop feel and production of the song . Matthew Chisling of Allmusic called the track " the most brilliant , perfect mainstream pop single of 2009 " , commending the song 's synthesized beat and larger @-@ than @-@ life chorus , and Flo Rida 's rap , stating that it made Burke " the prime UK import for the North American market " . Popjustice called the song " brilliant " and " phenomenal " , commending the song 's " Womanizer " -like intro and the chorus ’ s strong melodic topline . The review praised Burke 's vocals , calling them " Whitneyish in parts " and compared them to Donna Summer . Although the review noted the song was not built for Burke 's extreme vocals , it said , " that there 's something quite exciting about an incredible singer being forced to follow a very strong and melodic topline instead of going all over the show . " Bill Lamb of About.com also said the song was reminiscent of Donna Summer , and said , " Big international success seems a real possibility as Burke steps into the battle for R & B @-@ pop diva crown . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy said the song complimented Burke 's " sass and all @-@ around performance skill " rather than a ballad would , and called the song " fun " , pulling off a " minor pop miracle- turning a cameo by Flo Rida into a good thing " . Alexis Petrids of The Guardian noted although some may see the single as " generic " , and " currently pop 's factory @-@ default setting " , he ascertained the song was " a superior example of the type , furnished with an effortlessly unshakeable chorus " . Although Harry Guerin of RTÉ noted the production and formula of the music was a flaw of the album , he noted that that technique worked in " Bad Boys " . Simon Price of The Independent was more critical of the song , calling it a " pale imitation " of Britney Spears ' " Womanizer " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bad Boys " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , replacing Chipmunk 's " Oopsy Daisy " , and becoming Burke 's second consecutive chart @-@ topper , selling over 187 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , a total of 860 @,@ 000 copies to date . The song also debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number one . The song fell off the top spot in the second week , ceding the throne to Cheryl Cole 's " Fight for This Love " . It was certified platinum in the United Kingdom , and spent 25 consecutive weeks in the top seventy @-@ five on the UK Singles Chart . The song also charted within the top ten of Sweden , the Netherlands , Hungary , Norway , Slovakia , the Czech Republic and Belgium ( Wallonia ) . It charted within the top twenty of Finland , Belgium ( Flanders ) , and Germany , twenty @-@ two in Austria , and thirty @-@ nine in Denmark . While the track failed to chart in Australia on the Singles Chart , it peaked at # 11 on the Physical Singles Chart In the UK , ' Bad Boys ' is the 18th biggest download of all time .
= = Music video = =
The video was filmed from 31 August to 1 September 2009 in various locations in Los Angeles , directed by Bryan Barber . The clip starts with Alexandra dressed in a one @-@ piece black leather suit , as her car has broken down in a bad part of town . It then cuts to Flo Rida who sings the opening lines of the song . Next , Burke performs various dance moves in deserted streets while being followed by several men . The video then shows Alexandra entering a bar in a mirrored silver dress , which has been compared to Janet Jackson around the janet. era , where she is mobbed by more of these men . She then performs more dance routines , before a fight ensues between the men in the bar over Alexandra and Flo Rida performs his part in the song . During his rap , there are scenes where Alexandra backflips off a bar table , and pushes two men powerfully over a bar and through a door . The video then shows Alexandra dancing with more men in a deserted parking lot .
David Whitehouse of Wonderland Magazine declared the " Bad Boys " video as " the birth of a pop star " . After commenting that America generates better , glossier pop than the British , such as the " holy trinity of 21st century pop music " , Christina Aguilera , Britney Spears , and Justin Timberlake , Whitehouse said that the video looked and sounded American , " dripping " with " dollar signs and expensive lenses " . The review commending Burke 's look in the video calling her , " the gutsier , sassier alternative to the anaemic , high school warbling of , say , Kelly Clarkson or the pre @-@ pubescent offal piped into our children by Miley Cyrus . " Whitehouse stated , " It has pomposity , big dance routines , cars built like tanks , moody street hunks ( also built like tanks ) , stunts , jewellery and a rapper , Flo Rida , who in honesty , could have been anyone " . He went on to say , " If we want to make a megastar , let the Americans do it for us . They make megastars . If Alexandra Burke is going to be the pop star we want her to be , she ’ s going the right way about it " .
= = Live performances and promotion = =
Burke performed Bad Boys on the sixth series of The X Factor ' s first week results show on 11 October 2009 . Flo Rida joined Burke on stage . She then performed the on GMTV on 13 October 2009 at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y and at Wembley Arena on 17 October 2009 . She also performed it on Ireland 's Childline concert in Dublin . Burke also performed the song , as well as others from her while presenting the launch of the Viva Network in the UK and Ireland . She returned for the finale of the sixth series of The X Factor , where she and past runner @-@ up JLS performed a melody of the song and their hit , " Everybody in Love " . Burke also performed the song at The O2 Arena in London for the Jingle Bell Ball , while also appearing on Cheryl Cole 's Night In to perform the solo version . " Bad Boys " was also the background music in Dancing On Ice during the first week when introducing the male celebrities . In week seven of the fifth season of Dancing on Ice , actress Emily Atack danced to the song and achieved her highest score at the time in the show . In the UK , Burke also performed it on Ant and Dec 's Push The Button on 13 March 2010 , and is set to perform it on T4 on the Beach on 4 July 2010 . Burke also performed the song while promoting Overcome on her European Promo Tour . She performed " Bad Boys " live on the 20th Concert in Poland , on Queensday in the Netherlands at the Radio 538 Museumplein , and on the Dutch The X Factor .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Chart succession = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Cabaret ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" Cabaret " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album , The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 ( 2013 ) . Featuring a rap verse by Canadian rapper Drake , the song was written and produced by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon and Daniel Jones , with additional writing from James Fauntleroy and Drake . " Cabaret " is a pop and soul song which features beatboxing , handclapping , guitars and keyboards in its composition . Music critics noted its similarity to Timbaland 's earlier works with singer Aaliyah and Timberlake 's 2006 single " My Love " . Lyrically , it finds the singer comparing his love to a burlesque and features sexually oriented lyrics .
" Cabaret " received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics who praised Timbaland 's production as well as Drake 's rap verse on the song . As a result of the strong digital downloads following the release of the album , the track debuted on the charts in South Korea and the United States . It peaked at number 18 on the US R & B Songs chart and number 50 on the South Korean Gaon Chart , selling over 3 @,@ 800 digital copies for the week in the latter country . Timberlake included " Cabaret " on the set list of his fourth worldwide concert tour entitled The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .
= = Writing and production = =
" Cabaret " was written by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Aubrey Graham , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , James Fauntleroy and Daniel Jones . The song was produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production . Elliot Ives recorded the song at the Jungle City Studios in New York City . Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals . Harmon provided keyboards for the song , while Ives played the guitar . The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , Godbey and Timberlake ; for the process they were assisted by Matt Webber . The keyboards were provided by Harmon and Jones .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Cabaret " is a pop and soul song with a length of four minutes and thirty @-@ three seconds ( the shortest song on The 20 / 20 Experience - 2 of 2 ) that features " stuttering beatboxing " . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted that the song builds a symphony of mouth noises and compared it to Aaliyah 's 1998 single " Are You That Somebody ? " Brad Stern of MTV Buzzworthy agreed with Anderson , however , labeled " Cabaret " " as a much more ' dirty @-@ minded ' " version of the former . ABC News ' Allan Raible noticed the song 's beat has a classic sounding Timbaland beat , which — according to him — " the kind of beat Aaliyah used to turn into gold " . Arasia Graham of HipHopDX stated that " Cabaret " sounds like a 2013 answer to Timberlake 's 2006 single " My Love " .
Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times stated that " Cabaret " is a " percolating bedroom jam that depicts sex as a form of at @-@ home theater " . Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman called the song a " sexed @-@ up jam " . HitFix 's Melinda Newman described the song as a " loop @-@ driven to getting down with your lady , who ’ s taking off her clothes as quickly as she can " . According to Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine , in " Cabaret " , Timberlake compares the love to a burlesque and noted that the song resembles producer Timbaland 's earlier work . Andy Kellman of Allmusic wrote that the song features Timbaland 's signature sound and finds Timberlake proclaiming more " clever / nauseating " lyrics : " If sex is a contest , then you 're coming first " ; " ' Cause I got you saying Jesus so much , it 's like we 're laying in a manger . " The chorus is consisted of Timberlake singing " It 's a cabaret " while being accompanied by Timbaland , who repeats " Put on a show , get on the floor " . According to Stern , in his part with a duration about two minutes , Drake raps raunchy and fast @-@ talking lines , " I ’ mma fuck you like we ’ re having an affair " . Nick Krewen of Toronto Star wrote that Drake raps lines " about a sexual tête @-@ à @-@ tête amidst a melee of scattershot rhythms " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Cabaret " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Even though giving mixed review to the album , Kellman of Allmusic called the song a " standout " . Anderson of Entertainment Weekly chose " Cabaret " as the best song on the album , labeling it a " slick drum orgy with a ferocious Drake cameo " . Similarly , Julia Leconte of Now selected the song as a top track on the album and stated that it has catchy hook and cheesy lyrics which only Timberlake can pull off . Mesfin Fekadu of The Huffington Post wrote that " the song is smooth and has an addictive hook " . John Meagher of Irish Independent labelled the song " highly potent " and noted that it features Timberlake 's " typical heavy @-@ hitting approach " .
Los Angeles Times 's Wood praised Drake 's verse and wrote that he " takes the sex talk to a level that Timberlake the boy @-@ band veteran still can 't " . HitFix 's Newman graded the song with a " B- " mark , and wrote that " Drake comes in for a rap that works perfectly with the song in their first collaboration " . Dave Hanratty of Drowned in Sound stated that " Cabaret " feels " navel @-@ gazing " as a result of Drake 's braggadocios appearance and the mechanical input given by Timbaland . Entertainmentwise 's Amy Gravelle stated that Drake is featured on the track to add substance and style and proves that he was the " hottest " rapper at the moment . A reviewer of Capital FM stated that the song proves why Drake was the rapper on everyone 's lips and further described " Cabaret " as a smart team @-@ up between the artists backed by Timbaland 's classic beats . On the negative side , Lanre Bakare of The Guardian criticized the rapper 's verse calling it " predictably self @-@ indulgent " . Vibe 's Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis noted that although Drake gives some " lover @-@ boy swag " to the song , Jay @-@ Z outperformed him with his verse on " Murder " .
In a review of The 20 / 20 Experience - 2 of 2 , Craig Manning of website AbsolutePunk wrote that even thought the song features " a rapidfire " rap verse by Drake , both " Cabaret " and the lead single , " Take Back the Night " , " feel somehow less impressive than a lot of the songs Timberlake was slinging last time around , if only because they don ’ t add up to an ' experience ' greater than the sum of their parts . " According to Brice Ezell of PopMatters , " for whatever reason [ the song ] never gets off of the ground . " Lydia Jenkin of New Zealand Herald opined that the song would be a lot of sexier without the overpowering bass pulses in its production and " some odd lyrics " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake included " Cabaret " on the set list of his 2013 @-@ 14 worldwide tour entitled The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour . In a review of the concert that took place at the United Center in Chicago on February 16 , Claudia Perry of the Chicago Tribune wrote " the whole apparatus returned to the A position ( hey , Timberlake likes golf ) while he performed ' Cabaret ' and ' Take Back the Night ' . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 .
Locations
Vocals recorded and mixed at Jungle City Studios , New York City
Personnel
= = Charts = =
Following the release of The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 , " Cabaret " debuted on charts in South Korea and the US . The song debuted at number 50 in South Korea , with sales of 3 @,@ 800 copies for that week ending October 5 , 2013 . Additionally , it debuted and peaked at number 18 on the US R & B Songs chart .
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= Saltwell Park =
Saltwell Park is a Victorian park in Gateshead , Tyne and Wear , England . Opened in 1876 , the park was designed by Edward Kemp and incorporates the mansion and associated grounds of the Saltwellgate estate owner , William Wailes , who sold his estate to Gateshead Council for £ 35 @,@ 000 . Upon opening , it became known as " The People 's Park " . The park was expanded in 1920 when the council purchased the adjacent gardens to the Saltwell Grove estate and added these to the park . This extended the park 's total size to 55 acres ( 22 ha ) . Towards the end of the 20th century , the park had fallen into disrepair , but between 1999 and 2005 , it was subject to a £ 9 @.@ 6 million restoration project , funded collaboratively by the Heritage Lottery Fund and Gateshead Council and is now host to around 2 million visitors per year .
The park is split broadly into three sections . Saltwell Grove , the southern section , is an area of grassed open space with a bandstand to the western corner . The central area contains the centrepiece of the park – Wailes 's former home , the Grade II listed Saltwell Towers and its surrounding belvedere walls . These have been fully restored and are now a visitor centre . There are also three war memorials , a yew @-@ tree maze , a dene and an area containing several species of caged animals known as Pet 's Corner . The largest section of the park is the Northern Fields section which contains a four @-@ acre boating lake with a wooded island at its centre , as well as three bowling greens and two pavilions .
Saltwell Park has been presented with numerous awards in recent years , including being named " Britain 's Best Park " in 2005 and Civic Trust Park of the Year in 2006 . It has won a Green Flag award every year since 2006 and in was 2013 re @-@ listed as one of fifty @-@ five Green Heritage sites in the UK . The park has been a social hub for over a century ; an annual public bonfire night display was first held in 1883 , a circus in 1886 and the park hosted the Holidays at Home programme during World War II . Today the bonfire display has grown into one of the largest in Tyne and Wear and is attended by thousands of people every year . In October 2012 , Saltwell Park was the site of the first British Legion Field of Remembrance in North East England . It also plays a role in local sport and recreation ; it has hosted a fundraising day in support of Sport Relief , a Race for Life for a number of years and in November 2012 a " green gym " was installed at the park – one of only two in Gateshead .
= = Conception and opening = =
At the turn of the 19th century , Gateshead was beginning to expand but , save a smattering of industrial elements mainly at Sheriff Hill and at the south shore of the River Tyne , the town and its surrounds were mostly agricultural and most of the town was covered by large , private estates . The largest of these was the Saltwell estate , which consisted of around 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of land in a broad quadrangle between the Team Valley and the villages of Bensham and Low Fell . In 1805 this estate was broken up into a number of smaller properties including Saltwell Cottage . By 1856 Saltwell Cottage had become the Saltwellside estate and was in the hands of William Wailes , a native of Newcastle upon Tyne who had become one of the leading exponents of stained glass in England . In 1856 Wailes commissioned the design of a grand Victorian mansion for his family to live at Saltwellside . Work began in 1859 and continued until 1871 when Wailes ' Saltwell Towers was finally completed . Saltwell Towers was a large , eclectic mansion in red brick with Gothic turrets and mock battlements .
While Wailes was building Saltwell Towers , Gateshead was expanding and industrialising . The resultant air pollution , poor social conditions and general shortage of clean drinking water in the town led to concern about public health and gave rise to calls for the creation of public parks . One such call was made in 1857 when the editorial of the local newspaper , the Gateshead Observer , demanded that a park be built at Windmill Hills . In 1861 , the owners of ten acres of land at Windmill Hills approached the town council and offered the land free of charge so long as it was used as a place of recreation for the people of Gateshead . The land was formally conveyed on 18 November 1861 and the opening of the first public park in Gateshead was celebrated by the closing of workplaces and a day of holiday in the town .
Gateshead Council subsequently considered other sites for a second park , but it was discouraged by the high prices being asked by the estate owners at Redheugh and Shipcote . The Shipcote estate was owned by Sir Walter James , who was approached by a council park committee in 1874 and asked how much would be required to purchase at least part of his estate . Whilst negotiations were ongoing , James ' offer to sell part of his estate at £ 650 per acre was met by fierce criticism from members of the public and the council began to seek an alternative to the Shipcote proposal . The town clerk wrote to William Wailes to ask if he would be willing to sell his 37 acres ( 15 ha ) Saltwellside estate . On 11 November 1874 , Wailes replied that the council could have his entire estate for £ 32 @,@ 000 , and in March 1875 James told the park committee that he did not wish to compete with Wailes but that he would offer a subscription if the council went ahead at Saltwellgate . Later that month the park committee formally opened talks with Wailes and , after various proposals were considered and rejected , in September 1875 the council decided to buy the entire Saltwellgate estate for an increased total price of £ 35 @,@ 000 after securing a loan for the full amount from the Local Government Board . The agreement was formalised two months later and included a provision to lease Saltwell Towers back to Wailes for the remainder of his life .
Having obtained the Saltwellgate estate , the council contacted local ornithologist and landscaper John Hancock and asked him to submit designs for the new park . When Hancock refused , citing the pressure of his existing work , the park committee retained Edward Kemp at four guineas a day until his plans were submitted and approved in February 1876 . Kemp 's plans were implemented over a period of years by borough surveyor James Bowyer at a cost of around £ 11 @,@ 000 . Original plans to officially open the park on Whit Monday 1876 were not realised , and the park was never officially opened , but nonetheless , public usage began in late 1876 .
= = Design and layout = =
Saltwell Park is located within a residential area around 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) south of Gateshead town centre on land which slopes towards the Team Valley in the west . It is a broad rectangle with boundaries at East and West Park Roads , Saltwell View and Saltwell Road South . The original site purchased from Wailes was joined by the gardens of a late 19th century villa at East Park Road known as Saltwell Grove ( or " The Grove " ) after these were purchased by Gateshead Council in 1920 . The park today constitutes around 55 acres ( 22 ha ) of land in total .
The park is split into three sections – southern , central and northern areas – and the entire park is bordered by perimeter shrubs , plants and trees . The southern Saltwell Grove area is demarcated from the central section by an old stone wall running in a west @-@ east direction which formed the park 's original southern boundary and is , according to a Gateshead Council document , an " important feature in the history and development of the park " . This section consists largely of open space , meandering pathways skirting the perimeter , a bandstand and some flowerbeds . Entrances to this section of the park are to the west at Saltwell Road and to the extreme south @-@ east corner .
The central section comprises Saltwell Towers and its grounds and is some 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) in total area . Saltwell Towers is located in the middle of the central section of the park and it is surrounded to the south by its accompanying walls , walkways and ha @-@ ha . An enclosed rose garden lies to the east of the building and to the west there is a maze and a dene through which a stream runs into a lily @-@ pond at an entrance to the park at Saltwell Road South . The approach from the southern section is a large grassed area replete with paths which wind towards a footbridge to the Towers , which is used for general leisure activities and picnicking and is home to a stone @-@ built war memorial . The entrance to the footbridge is the site of a bronze war memorial which sits in the centre of a roundabout surrounded by bedding flowers . The footbridge was built in 2003 and is also a war memorial .
The northern section of the park constitutes 19 acres ( 7 @.@ 7 ha ) of land and can be accessed either by external entrances at the north @-@ eastern corner of the park and West Park Road or internally from the central section through the dene or from Pets Corner . The north @-@ eastern entrance consists of a pair of imposing gateposts and the view from this access point sweeps across the entire northern section of the park . The eastern perimeter of this section is a terraced walkway known as the Broadwalk with adjacent , banked bedded planting . A central path from the Broadwalk splits a large grassed area almost neatly in half and leads to a lake and two child 's play areas . A path circles the perimeter of the lake and seating is placed at the fringe of the lake at various points . To the south of the lake are three bowling greens and to the north are tennis courts . These cannot be seen from the lake due to a screen of plants . The plants within the screen are typical of those bedded throughout the park , which include French marigolds , roses , tulips , phlomis , sedum and silver dust .
= = Principal attractions = =
There are eleven listed buildings in Saltwell Park . Saltwell Towers , former home of William Wailes and later to lawyer Joseph Shipley ( founder of the nearby Shipley Art Gallery ) , was the seat of the former Saltwellgate estate and has been described by a BBC report as a " fairytale mansion " . The building is a dark red and yellow brick construction with asymmetrical towers , tall chimney stacks and corner turrets . It has been used for a number of purposes , including as a hospital during the First World War and as a museum from 1933 to 1969 , but was then abandoned and fell into considerable disrepair . However , after a £ 3 million , five @-@ year refurbishment programme was completed in 2004 , the building was officially reopened as a visitors centre in the presence of Wailes ' great @-@ great @-@ grandson . Saltwell Towers today includes a cafe , some pieces of local art , an exhibition on the history of the park and also a stained glass centrepiece commissioned from a local artist . A Gateshead Blue Plaque in commemoration of Wailes was installed in 2005 . The mansion was protected in 1973 as a Grade II listed building , along with the two storey , sandstone belvedere walls which surround the west and south of the mansion . These are replete with stairs and corner battlements and the entire walls are conjoined by a walkway which is open to the public .
A stable block is at the north @-@ west of Saltwell Towers , built in 1871 in the same style as the mansion in red brick and with a slate roof . This is a Grade II listed building and is now an educational area for schools and local community groups . Also to the north @-@ west of Saltwell Towers is the Charlton Memorial Drinking Fountain , a stone and granite fountain inscribed in memory of George Charlton , the mayor of Gateshead between 1874 – 75 . This is Grade II listed , as is the ' Salte Well ' at the west entrance to the central section of the park . The latter is dated 1872 and is a sandstone construction with a basin in the central alcove . Midway along the Broadwalk in the north section of the park is a Grade II listed bronze statue of Alderman John Lucas , mounted on a sandstone plinth and granite base . Built in 1902 , it was paid for by public subscription . The wrought iron gates and accompanying stone piers which greet visitors at the north @-@ eastern entrance to the park are also Grade II listed .
There are three war memorials in the park . There is a Boer War memorial in the central section of the park around 100 metres south of Saltwell Towers . This consists of a bronze angel perched on a granite plinth and is dated 1905 . A modern Durham Light Infantry memorial was unveiled on 12 July 1981 by the mayor of Newcastle . This takes the form of a sandstone wall with adjoining flanking walls which create a small ornamental garden . There are three plaques and a description commemorating men of the battalion who died in battle between 1900 – 45 . The third war memorial is the bridge adjoining the lawned , central gardens to the belvedere walls of Saltwell Towers . This timber footbridge , 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , is named the Primosole Bridge and is a copy of the original Edwardian bridge which once crossed the ha @-@ ha . The name is carved onto a low stone wall which runs alongside and an inscription commemorates the men of the Durham Light Infantry who died whilst crossing the original Primosole Bridge during Operation Fustian in the Second World War .
The principal feature of the northern section of the park is a boating lake . This has been in situ since a tender to install a 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) lake with an island in the centre was accepted in August 1880 . An approach to Joseph Swan to illuminate the lake received no response , but a further approach to John Hancock to design the lake edge was more successful ; the lake edge today still follows Hancock 's original design . Model boating has been a fixture of the lake since 1886 and the Saltwell Park Model Boat Club is the latest organisation to use the lake for this purpose . The island in the centre of the lake was in 1909 home to a bandstand , and visiting performers were required to travel by boat to the island , but the bandstand was moved to the Saltwell Grove section of the park in 1921 . During the summer months , visitors can hire rowing boats and pedalos for use on the lake . The lake has long been inhabited by mallards and tufted ducks and it is also home to several other species of wildfowl , including swans , Canada and barnacle geese , coots and moorhens . Common pochard and grebe also inhabit the lake in winter after migrating from Russia and central Europe . Kingfisher are also reported to have returned to the lake after a lengthy absence .
There have been animals kept in Saltwell Park since June 1877 – initially , these included monkeys , deer and a raccoon . Caged animals are still kept in the north @-@ east of the park in an area called " Pets Corner " , where there are a peacock and peahen , pheasants , rabbits and guinea pigs kept in a pair of aviaries built in 1880 and paid for by John Elliot , then chief constable of Gateshead . The aviaries are stone and wrought iron , octagonal constructions which were listed at Grade II by English Heritage in 1973 . A bandstand was erected in 1876 and was subsequently replaced in May 1895 by an octagonal , red @-@ brick , cast @-@ iron and wood structure which was first sited in the northern fields . This was then moved to the island in the lake and moved again to Saltwell Grove . It was taken down and rebuilt at Beamish Museum in 1978 , where it remains in use and has been designated a Grade II listed building . The present bandstand is in the Saltwell Grove area and is used every Sunday during the summer months by brass bands .
In the western shadow of Saltwell Towers there is a maze , built in 1877 by Wailes for his family 's use . The maze was replanted with yew trees as part of the 2005 regeneration project to the original plans laid by Wailes . Also renovated was Saltwell Dene , a picturesque wooded area with a stream , bridges , cascades and a lily pond which inspired local artist Thomas Miles Richardson to paint a watercolour of it in the 19th century . Saltwell Dene was the final part of the 21st century restoration project to be completed , reopening to the public in March 2005 . At either end of the Broadwalk there are two wooden shelters whilst the centre of the Broadwalk is marked by the Almond Pavilion . The pavilion was opened in 1881 and was a refreshment pavilion for decades before it fell into disrepair ; by the 1980s it was derelict and it was then completely destroyed by fire . It has been fully reconstructed , including a replica of the original clock tower , and is once more a refreshment kiosk with new toilet facilities . It offers panoramic views into the northern fields and across the boating lake . An oriental garden was opened in 2011 to mark the twenty @-@ year anniversary of the twinning arrangement between Gateshead and Komatsu . This includes a gravel pond , waterfalls and stone lanterns . The park is also host to three well @-@ used bowling greens , replete with their own pavilion ( the Avenue Green Pavilion ) and a rose garden .
Various other attractions have been installed and subsequently removed from the park , including a paddling pool , a museum and , from 1982 to 1993 , a retired and modified Vickers Viscount 701 airplane . The aircraft had its wings cut short and was marked " Saltwell Airways " .
= = Awards and usage = =
Upon opening , Saltwell Park was also called The People 's Park and the name is still used locally today . Today , the park is a green lung in the centre of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead which attracts over two million visitors a year . In 2005 it was named " Britain 's Best Park " . In 2006 the park was chosen as Civic Trust Park of the Year and received a Gold Laurel Award from the Institute of Maintenance and Building Management . The park has won a Green Flag award every year since 2006 and was in 2013 re @-@ listed as one of fifty @-@ five Green Heritage sites in the UK .
The park has long been a hub of local social activities and events . A public firework display was first held in 1883 , the first circus was hosted in 1886 and the Holidays at Home programme was conducted there during World War II – from September 1942 to the end of the war , families and American G.I.s could enjoy donkey rides , dancing , brass bands and gymnastic events . A bonfire night fireworks display has been held at the park for many years , one of three public displays in Gateshead ( the other two are at Barmoor in Ryton and Oliver Henderson Park in Leam Lane ) . This event has grown into one of the largest displays in Tyne and Wear and is attended by thousands of people . In October 2012 , Saltwell Park was the site of the first British Legion Field of Remembrance in North East England . Around ten thousand crosses were planted in Saltwell Grove . An Enchanted Parks event was hosted for the seventh consecutive year in December 2012 . This is a collection of winter @-@ themed visual arts , sculpture and interactive features which attracts around 14 @,@ 000 visitors every year . An annual sculpture day has been held at the park for twenty @-@ seven years and members of the public are invited to build themed sculptures under the supervision of local professionals . The 2012 renewal , themed " Wonders of the World " , was held in Saltwell Grove and attracted hundreds of families .
Saltwell Park has hosted a Race for Life – a national fundraising event for women only , organised by Cancer Research UK – for a number of years . The 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) course has been attempted by over 8 @,@ 000 competitors in the last three years , with the latest renewal held in May 2012 . On 21 March 2010 the park hosted a fundraising day in support of Sport Relief , a bi @-@ annual charity event organised by the BBC . Three fun runs around the boating lake attracted over 4 @,@ 000 participants in total , including Jayne Middlemiss , Andrew Hayden Smith and Futureheads guitarist David Craig . Local athletics club Saltwell Harriers have hosted an annual 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) race in and around Saltwell Park since 1911 . Named the Ronnie Walker Saltwell Road Race since 2010 in honour of the long @-@ standing club president , it is the oldest road race in England . 1984 Olympic silver medallist Mike McLeod won the race for 16 consecutive years between 1974 – 1990 and the 2012 renewal saw Coventry Godiva Harrier Matthew Armstrong beat almost 400 competitors to win the race for a second time . In November 2012 a " green gym " was opened at the park . Fitness equipment was installed near the tennis courts in the Northern Fields section of the park and is available for use by the public free of charge . This is one of only two such outdoor public gyms in Gateshead , the other being opened simultaneously at Windy Nook Nature Reserve .
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= The Boat Race 1880 =
The 37th Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 22 March 1880 following a postponement two days earlier as a result of thick fog . It is the only time in the history of the event that the race has been rescheduled . Oxford won by a margin of three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual rowing eight competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by three lengths . However , Oxford held the overall lead , with 18 victories to Cambridge 's 17 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were George Drinkwater Bourne ( who rowed in the 1842 race ) and Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss ( who rowed four times for Oxford between the 1875 and 1878 race ) . There is no record of Cambridge 's coaches . The race was umpired , for the final time , by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle . The race was originally scheduled for the preceding Saturday , 20 March , but was postponed until the Monday by the umpire as a result of thick fog . It is the only time the history of the event that such a course of action has been taken .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 13 lb ( 75 @.@ 6 kg ) , 3 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 6 kg ) more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew contained three rowers with previous Boat Race experience , including the Cambridge University Boat Club president Edward Henry Prest who was participating in his third race . Similarly Oxford saw three former Blues return , including H. B. Southwell rowing for a third time .
For the first time in the history of the event , two of the competitors were regeistered as non @-@ British , both rowing for Cambridge . Their number three , William Barton , was born in Wellington , New Zealand , while the number five , C. N. L. Armytage ( whose brother George had rowed in the 1874 race ) , was recorded as being Australian .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . At the time of the race , which commenced at 10.40am , there was a strong easterly wind . With a higher stroke rate than their opponents , the Light Blues took the lead from the start and by Craven Steps were almost clear . At the Mile Post , Oxford had cut the lead to half a length , but were forced to take evasive action to avoid a collision with river traffic .
By Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge were nearly clear again , but at The Doves pub , Oxford 's stroke L. R. West increased the rate and reduced the deficit . Despite catching a " crab " , the Dark Blues continued to overhaul Cambridge and were level by the bottom of Chiswick Eyot . They took the lead along Chiswick Reach , held a two length advantage at Barnes Bridge and passed the finishing post " fairly comfortably " . They won by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds , securing their second victory in three years and taking the overall record to 19 – 17 in their favour .
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= Polyozellus =
Polyozellus is a fungal genus in the family Thelephoraceae , a grouping of mushrooms known collectively as the leathery earthfans . A monotypic genus , it contains the single species Polyozellus multiplex , first described in 1899 , and commonly known as the blue chanterelle , the clustered blue chanterelle , or , in Alaska , the black chanterelle . The distinctive fruit body of this species comprises blue- to purple @-@ colored clusters of vase- or spoon @-@ shaped caps with veiny wrinkles on the undersurface that run down the length of the stem .
Polyozellus has had a varied taxonomic history and has been reclassified several times at both the family and genus level . The range of Polyozellus includes North America and eastern Asia , where P. multiplex may be found growing on the ground in coniferous forests , usually under spruce and fir trees . It is an edible species , and has been harvested for commercial purposes . Polyozellus multiplex contains the bioactive compound polyozellin , shown to have various physiological properties , including suppressive effects on stomach cancer .
= = History and taxonomy = =
The first published description of the species was written by botanist Lucien M. Underwood in 1899 , based on a specimen found the previous year in the woods of Mount Desert , Maine . Although he called the new species a Cantharellus , he noted that " the plant is a remarkable one and from its habit might well form a distinct genus since it has little in common with Cantharellus except its fold @-@ like gills . " In 1910 , William Murrill transferred it to the new genus Polyozellus ; Murrill thought the compound structure of the stem to be a sufficiently unique characteristic to warrant it being separated from Cantharellus species , which have simpler stem structures . In 1920 , specimens from a Japanese collection compiled by A. Yasuda were sent to mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd , who believed the fungus to be a new species and named it Phyllocarbon yasudai .
No further collections of the fungus were reported until 1937 , when it was found in Quebec , Canada . The next year , Paul Shope considered the genus Polyozellus to be superfluous , pointed out that the compound fruit bodies and the wrinkled hymenium were instead consistent with the genus Craterellus . In 1939 , American mycologist Lee Oras Overholts , in a letter to the journal Mycologia , opined that both of these authors had overlooked a 1925 publication by Calvin Henry Kauffman , who made notes and photos of the species collected in the Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado , and in the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon . Kauffman believed the species to be merely " a very extreme growth condition " of Cantharellus clavatus ( now known as Gomphus clavatus ) and suggested there was no reason for transferring the species to the genus Craterellus . Mycologists Alexander H. Smith and Elizabeth Morse , in their 1947 publication on Cantharellus species in the United States , placed the species in a new section Polyozellus , but did not separate it from the genus Cantharellus ; they defined the distinguishing characteristics of Polyozellus as the small , roughened , hyaline spores and the color change of the flesh in potassium hydroxide solution , adding that " the spores are unusual for the genus but in our estimation do not warrant excluding the species . "
In 1953 , Rokuya Imazeki took into consideration differences in spore characteristics : species in the genus Cantharellus were not known to have spores that were subglobose ( roughly spherical ) and tuberculate ( covered with wart @-@ like projections ) like Polyozellus ; however , these spore characteristics were common in species in the Thelephoraceae family ( Cantharellus belongs in a different family , the Cantharellaceae ) . Other characteristics linking the blue chanterelle with the Thelephoraceae included the dark color , the strong odor ( especially in dried specimens ) , and the presence of thelephoric acid , a mushroom pigment common in the family . Taken together , these factors led Imazeki to propose the new family Phylacteriaceae . The suggested family @-@ level taxonomical change was not accepted by other authors ; for example , in 1954 , Seiichi Kawamura renamed it Thelephora multiplex . As of 2009 , both Index Fungorum and MycoBank list Polyozellus as being within the Thelephoraceae family , a grouping of mushrooms commonly known as the leathery earthfans . The genus name is derived from the Greek poly meaning many , and oz , meaning branch . The specific epithet multiplex means " in many pieces " , referring to the compound nature of the fruit body . Common names for this species include the blue chanterelle and the clustered blue chanterelle . In Alaska , where specimens typically have very dark @-@ colored fruit bodies , it is called the black chanterelle , although this name is shared with some Craterellus species .
= = Description = =
Polyozellus multiplex is part of the group of fungi collectively known as cantharelloid mushrooms ( which includes the genera Cantharellus , Craterellus , Gomphus , and Polyozellus ) because of the similarity of their fruit body structures and the morphology of the spore @-@ producing region ( the hymenophore ) on the underside of the caps . The fan- or funnel @-@ shaped fruit bodies of the black chanterelle grow clustered together on the ground , often in large masses that may reach aggregate diameters of up to 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , although they are usually up to 30 centimeters ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) .
The individual caps , 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide and almost as long , are violet @-@ black , with edges that are initially whitish , and with a glaucous surface — a white powdery accumulation of spore deposit . The upper surface may be zonate — lined with what appear to be multiple concentric zones of texture caused by areas of fine hairs ( a tomentum ) ; and the edges of the caps have a layer of very fine hairs and are lobed and wavy . The underside of the caps bears the fertile , spore @-@ making tissue called the hymenium , which typically has shallow , crowded wrinkles or veins that are roughly the same color or paler than the top surface . Some variation in color has been observed depending on the collection location . For example , specimens found in Alaska are more likely to be jet @-@ black in color with a dark gray underside .
Fruit bodies may be up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) high ( including the stem ) and 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide . Occasionally , much larger clusters of fused mushrooms are found , up to a meter in diameter . The stem is dark purplish @-@ black with a smooth ( glabrous ) and dry surface ; the stems are often fused at the base . It is typically 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide and up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . The flesh is dark violet , soft but breaking easily . The spore deposit is white .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid in shape , covered with small wart @-@ like projections ( tubercules ) , and have dimensions of 6 – 8 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 5 – 8 µm . Viewed microscopically , they are hyaline , meaning they appear translucent or colorless . Chemical tests may also be used to help distinguish the spores : in the presence of potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) , the spores turn slightly green ; the spores are not amyloid , meaning they do not take iodine when treated with Melzer 's reagent ; the spores are acyanophilous , meaning they do not readily absorb methyl blue stain . The cystidia that comprise the hymenium are filamentous and 3 – 4 µm wide by 28 – 40 µm long . The outer tissue layer of the cap — the cuticle , or pileipellis — is made of interwoven hyphae , and stains olive @-@ green in KOH . Clamp connections are present , but not at all the cell partitions . The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells , are 32 – 38 by 5 – 6 µm and four @-@ spored .
= = = Similar species = = =
The horn @-@ of @-@ plenty mushroom ( Craterellus cornucopioides ) also has a blackish fruit body and a smooth hymenium , but is distinguished from P. multiplex by its thin flesh , a trumpet- or tubular @-@ shaped fruit body ( rather than fan- or spoon @-@ shaped ) , and grey to black colors . A closely related species , the fragrant chanterelle ( Cantharellus odoratus ) , also tends to grow in dense clusters , but it is orange rather than blue . Craterellus caeruleofuscus does not form compound clusters , and is not restricted to coniferous forests . The pig 's ear Gomphus , species Gomphus clavatus , is similar in shape and form but fleshier , and light violet to pink .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Polyozellus multiplex is an ectomycorrhizal species , meaning that the hyphae of the fungus grow in a mutualistic association with the roots of plants , but the fungal hyphae generally do not penetrate the cells of the plant 's roots . The species grows in coniferous woods under spruce and fir , and more frequently at higher elevations . It is most often encountered in summer and fall .
This species is northern and alpine in distribution , and rarely encountered . Collections have been made in the United States ( including Maine , Oregon , Colorado , New Mexico , and Alaska ) , Canada ( Quebec and British Columbia ) , China , Japan , and Korea . The disjunct distribution of this species in North America and East Asia has been noted to occur in a number of other fungal species as well . Polyozellus multiplex is also found in the Queen Charlotte Islands , where it is commercially harvested .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Polyozellus multiplex is edible , and is collected for sale in Asian countries such as Korea , Japan , and China . In North America , it is sometimes collected recreationally , and commercially . The taste is described as mild , and the odor as mild or aromatic . Mycologist David Arora claims the flavor to be inferior to Craterellus . Fruit bodies may be preserved by drying .
= = = Bioactive compounds = = =
The compound polyozellin — a chemical which can be isolated and purified from P. multiplex — inhibits prolyl endopeptidase ( PEP ) , an enzyme that has a role in processing proteins ( specifically , amyloid precursor protein ) in Alzheimer 's disease . Chemicals that inhibit PEP have attracted research interest due to their potential therapeutic effects . Further analyses of extracts from P. multiplex revealed similar dibenzofuranyl derivatives of polyozellin , each with different chemical properties , including kynapcin @-@ 12 , kynapcin @-@ 13 and -28 , and -24 . A total synthesis of kynapcin @-@ 24 was achieved in 2009 .
= = = Antitumor properties = = =
Research conducted in 2003 suggests that extracts from Polyozellus multiplex may have suppressive effects on stomach cancer . The study showed that feeding a low concentration ( 0 @.@ 5 % or 1 % ) of the mushroom extract enhanced the activities of the enzymes glutathione S @-@ transferase and superoxide dismutase , and increased the abundance of the molecule glutathione . The extract also augmented the expression of the protein p53 . All of these substances protect the human organism against cancer . Additional studies reported in 2004 and 2006 attribute anti @-@ tumor properties to polyozellin .
= = Cited literature = =
Pilz D , Norvell L , Danell E , Molina R ( 2003 ) . Ecology and management of commercially harvested chanterelle mushrooms . General Technical Report PNW @-@ GTR @-@ 576 ( PDF ) . Portland , OR : Department of Agriculture , Forest Service , Pacific Northwest Research Station . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 .
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= Klaus Fuchs =
Emil Julius Klaus Fuchs ( 29 December 1911 – 28 January 1988 ) was a German theoretical physicist and atomic spy who , in 1950 , was convicted of supplying information from the American , British , and Canadian Manhattan Project to the Soviet Union during and shortly after the Second World War . While at the Los Alamos National Laboratory , Fuchs was responsible for many significant theoretical calculations relating to the first nuclear weapons , and later , early models of the hydrogen bomb .
The son of a Lutheran pastor , Fuchs attended the University of Leipzig , where his father was a professor of theology , and became involved in student politics , joining the student branch of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) , and the Reichsbanner Schwarz @-@ Rot @-@ Gold , the SPD 's paramilitary organisation . He was expelled from the SPD in 1932 , and joined the Communist Party of Germany ( KPD ) . He went into hiding after the 1933 Reichstag fire , and fled to the United Kingdom , where he received his PhD from the University of Bristol under the supervision of Nevill Mott , and his DSc from the University of Edinburgh , where he worked as an assistant to Max Born .
After the Second World War broke out in Europe , he was interned on the Isle of Man , and later in Canada . After he returned to Britain in 1941 , he became an assistant to Rudolf Peierls , working on " Tube Alloys " — the British atomic bomb project . He began passing information on the project to the Soviet Union through Ruth Kuczynski , codenamed " Sonia " , a German communist and a major in Soviet Military Intelligence who had worked with Richard Sorge 's spy ring in the Far East . In 1943 , Fuchs and Peierls went to Columbia University , in New York City , to work on the Manhattan Project . In August 1944 Fuchs joined the Theoretical Physics Division at the Los Alamos Laboratory , working under Hans Bethe . His chief area of expertise was the problem of implosion , necessary for the development of the plutonium bomb . After the war he returned to the UK and worked at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell as head of the Theoretical Physics Division .
In January 1950 , Fuchs confessed that he was a spy . He was sentenced to fourteen years ' imprisonment and stripped of his British citizenship . He was released in 1959 , after serving nine years , and emigrated to the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) , where he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and the Socialist Unity Party of Germany ( SED ) central committee . He was later appointed deputy director of the Institute for Nuclear Research in Rossendorf , where he served until he retired in 1979 .
= = Early life = =
Emil Julius Klaus Fuchs was born in Rüsselsheim , Grand Duchy of Hesse , on 29 December 1911 , the third of four children of a Lutheran pastor , Emil Fuchs , and his wife Else Wagner . Fuchs was always known by his last given name , Klaus . He had an older brother Gerhard , an older sister Elisabeth , and a younger sister , Kristel . The family moved to Eisenach , where he attended the gymnasium , and took his Abitur . At school , Fuchs and his siblings were taunted over his father 's unpopular political views , which they came to share . They became known as the " red foxes " , Fuchs being the German word for fox .
Fuchs entered the University of Leipzig in 1930 , where his father was a professor of theology . He became involved in student politics , joining the student branch of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) , a party that his father had joined in 1912 , and the Reichsbanner Schwarz @-@ Rot @-@ Gold , the party 's paramilitary organisation . His father took up a new position as professor of religion at the Pedagogical Academy in Kiel , and in the autumn Fuchs transferred to the University of Kiel , which his brother Gerhard and sister Elisabeth also attended , and continued his studies in mathematics and physics . In October 1931 , his mother committed suicide by drinking hydrochloric acid . The family later discovered that his maternal grandmother had also taken her own life .
In the March 1932 German presidential election , the SPD supported Paul von Hindenburg for president , fearing that a split vote would hand the job to the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( NSDAP ) candidate , Adolf Hitler . However , when the Communist Party of Germany ( KPD ) ran its own candidate , Ernst Thälmann , Fuchs offered to speak for him , and was expelled from the SPD . That year Fuchs and all three of his siblings joined the KPD . Fuchs and his brother Gerhard were active speakers at public meetings , and occasionally attempted to disrupt NSDAP gatherings . At one such gathering , Fuchs was beaten up and thrown into the river .
When Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 , Fuchs decided to leave Kiel , where the NSDAP was particularly strong , and he was a well @-@ known KPD member , and he enrolled at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin . On 28 February , he took an early train to Berlin for a KPD meeting there . On the train , he read about the Reichstag fire in a newspaper . Fuchs correctly assumed that opposition parties would be blamed for the fire , and quietly removed his hammer and sickle lapel pin .
The KPD meeting in Berlin was held in secret . Fellow party members urged him to continue his studies in another country . He went into hiding for five months in the apartment of a fellow party member . In August 1933 , he attended an anti @-@ fascist conference in Paris chaired by Henri Barbusse , where he met an English couple , Ronald and Jessie Gunn , who invited Fuchs to stay with them in Clapton , Somerset . He was eventually expelled from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in October 1933 .
= = Refugee in Britain = =
Fuchs arrived in England on 24 September 1933 . Jessie Gunn was a member of the Wills family , the heirs to Imperial Tobacco and benefactors of the University of Bristol . She arranged for Fuchs to meet Nevill Mott , Bristol 's professor of physics , and he agreed to take Fuchs on as a research assistant . Fuchs earned his Ph.D. in physics there in 1937 . A paper on " A Quantum Mechanical Calculation of the Elastic Constants of Monovalent Metals " was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1936 . By this time Mott had a number of German refugees working for him , and lacked positions for them all . He did not think that Fuchs would make much of a teacher , so he arranged a research post for Fuchs , at the University of Edinburgh working under Max Born , who was himself a German refugee . Fuchs published papers with Born on " The Statistical Mechanics of Condensing Systems " and " On Fluctuations in Electromagnetic radiation " in the Proceedings of the Royal Society . He also received a Doctorate in Science degree from Edinburgh . Fuchs proudly mailed copies back to his father in Germany .
In Germany , Emil had been dismissed from his academic post , and , disillusioned with the Lutheran Church 's support of the NSDAP , had become a Quaker in 1933 . He was arrested for speaking out against the government , but was only held for one month . Elisabeth married a fellow communist , Gustav Kittowski , with whom she had a child they named Klaus . Elisabeth and Kittowski were arrested in 1933 , and sentenced to 18 months imprisonment , but were freed at Christmas . Gerhard and his wife Karin were arrested in 1934 , and spent the next two years in prison . Gerhard , Karin , Elisabeth and Kittowski established a car rental agency in Berlin , which they used to smuggle Jews and opponents of the government out of Germany .
After Emil was arrested in 1933 , Kristel fled to Zurich , where she studied education and psychology at the University of Zurich . She returned to Berlin in 1934 , where she too worked at the car rental agency . In 1936 , Emil arranged with Quaker friends in the United States for Kristel to attend Swarthmore College there . She visited Fuchs in England en route to America , where she eventually married an American communist , Robert Heineman , and settled in Cambridge , Massachusetts . She became a permanent resident in the United States in May 1938 . In 1936 , Kittowski and Elisabeth were arrested again , and the rental cars were impounded . Gerhard and Karin fled to Czechoslovakia . Elisabeth was released and went to live with Emil , while Kittowski , sentenced to six years , later escaped from prison and also made his way to Czechoslovakia . In August 1939 , Elisabeth committed suicide by throwing herself from a train , leaving Emil to raise young Klaus .
= = Second World War = =
Fuchs applied to become a British citizen in August 1939 , but his application had not been processed before the Second World War broke out in Europe in September 1939 . There was a classification system for enemy aliens , but Born provided Fuchs with a reference that said that he had been a member of the SPD from 1930 to 1932 , and an anti @-@ Nazi . There , matters stood until June 1940 , when the police arrived and took Fuchs into internment on the Isle of Man . In July , he was sent to an internment camp in Sherbrooke , Quebec , Canada , where he joined a communist discussion group led by Hans Kahle . Kahle was a KPD member who had fought in the Spanish Civil War . After fleeing to Britain with his family , Kahle had helped Jurgen Kuczynski organise the KPD in Britain . Kristel arranged for Israel Halperin , the brother @-@ in @-@ law of a friend of hers , Wendell Furry , to bring Fuchs some magazines . Max Born lobbied for his release . On Christmas Day 1940 , Fuchs and Kahle were among the first group of internees to board a ship to return to Britain .
Fuchs returned to Edinburgh in January , and resumed working for Born . During 1940 , he published four more papers with Born on The Mass Centre in Relativity , Reciprocity , Part II : Scalar Wave Functions , Reciprocity , Part III : Reciprocal Wave Functions and Reciprocity , Part IV : Spinor Wave Functions , and one by himself , On the Statistical Method in Nuclear Theory . On May 1941 , he was approached by Rudolf Peierls of the University of Birmingham to work on the " Tube Alloys " program – the British atomic bomb research project . Despite wartime restrictions , he was granted British citizenship on 7 August 1942 and signed an Official Secrets Act declaration form . As accommodation was scarce in wartime Birmingham , he stayed with Rudolf and Genia Peierls . Fuchs and Peierls did some important work together , which included a fundamental paper about isotope separation .
Soon after , Fuchs contacted Jurgen Kuczynski , who was now teaching at the London School of Economics . Kuczynski put him in contact with Simon Davidovitch Kremer ( codename : " Alexander " ) the secretary to the military attaché at the Soviet Union 's embassy , who worked for the GRU ( Russian : Главное Разведывательное Управление ) , the Red Army 's foreign military intelligence directorate . After three meetings , Fuchs was teamed up with a courier so he would not have to find excuses to travel to London . She was Ruth Kuczynski ( codename : " Sonia " ) the sister of Jurgen Kuczynski . She was a German communist , a major in Soviet Military Intelligence and an experienced agent who had worked with Richard Sorge 's spy ring in the Far East .
In late 1943 , Fuchs ( codename : " Rest " ; he became " Charles " in May 1944 ) transferred along with Peierls to Columbia University , in New York City , to work on gaseous diffusion as a means of uranium enrichment for the Manhattan Project . Although Fuchs was " an asset " of GRU in Britain , his " control " was transferred to the NKGB ( Russian : Народный Kомиссариат Государственной Безопасности ) , the Soviet Union 's civilian intelligence organisation , when he moved to New York . He spent Christmas 1943 with Kristel and her family in Cambridge . He was contacted by Harry Gold ( codename : " Raymond " ) , an NKGB agent in early 1944 .
From August 1944 Fuchs worked in the Theoretical Physics Division at the Los Alamos Laboratory , under Hans Bethe . His chief area of expertise was the problem of imploding the fissionable core of the plutonium bomb . At one point , Fuchs did calculation work that Edward Teller had refused to do because of lack of interest . He was the author of techniques ( such as the still @-@ used Fuchs @-@ Nordheim method ) for calculating the energy of a fissile assembly that goes highly prompt critical , and his report on blast waves is still considered a classic . Later , he also filed a patent with John von Neumann , describing a method to initiate fusion in a thermonuclear weapon with an implosion trigger . Fuchs was one of the many Los Alamos scientists present at the Trinity test . Bethe considered Fuchs " one of the most valuable men in my division " and " one of the best theoretical physicists we had . "
Fuchs , who was known as " Karl " rather than " Klaus " at Los Alamos , dated grade school teachers Evelyn Kline and Jean Parker . He befriended Richard Feynman . Fuchs and Peierls were the only members of the British Mission to Los Alamos who owned cars , and Fuchs lent his Buick to Feynman so Feynman could visit his dying wife in hospital in Albuquerque .
Klaus Fuchs 's main courier was Harry Gold . Allen Weinstein , the author of The Haunted Wood : Soviet Espionage in America ( 1999 ) , has pointed out : " The NKVD had chosen Gold , an experienced group handler , as Fuchs ' contact on the grounds that it was safer than having him meet directly with a Russian operative , but Semyon Semyonov was ultimately responsible for the Fuchs relationship . "
Gold reported after his first meeting with Klaus Fuchs :
He ( Fuchs ) obviously worked with our people before and he is fully aware of what he is doing . … He is a mathematical physicist … most likely a very brilliant man to have such a position at his age ( he looks about 30 ) . We took a long walk after dinner . … He is a member of a British mission to the U.S. working under the direct control of the U.S. Army . … The work involves mainly separating the isotopes ... and is being done thusly : The electronic method has been developed at Berkeley , California , and is being carried out at a place known only as Camp Y. … Simultaneously , the diffusion method is being tried here in the East . … Should the diffusion method prove successful , it will be used as a preliminary step in the separation , with the final work being done by the electronic method . They hope to have the electronic method ready early in 1945 and the diffusion method in July 1945 , but ( Fuchs ) says the latter estimate is optimistic . ( Fuchs ) says there is much being withheld from the British . Even Niels Bohr , who is now in the country incognito as Nicholas Baker , has not been told everything .
= = Post war = =
At the request of Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Robert Oppenheimer as director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in October 1945 , Fuchs stayed on at the laboratory into 1946 to help with preparations for the Operation Crossroads weapons tests . The US Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) prohibited the transfer of information on nuclear research to any foreign country , including Britain , without explicit official authority , and Fuchs supplied highly classified US information to nuclear scientists in Britain as well as to his Soviet contacts . As of 2014 British official files on Fuchs were still being withheld .
He was highly regarded as a scientist by the British , who wanted him to return to the United Kingdom to work on Britain 's post @-@ war nuclear weapons program ; he returned in August 1946 and became the head of the Theoretical Physics Division at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell . From late 1947 to May 1949 he gave Alexander Feklisov , his Soviet case officer , the principal theoretical outline for creating a hydrogen bomb and the initial drafts for its development as the work progressed in England and America . Meeting with Feklisov six times , he provided the results of the test at Eniwetok Atoll of uranium and plutonium bombs and the key data on production of uranium @-@ 235 .
Fuchs later testified that he passed detailed information on the project to the Soviet Union through courier Harry Gold in 1945 , and further information about Edward Teller 's unworkable " Super " design for a hydrogen bomb in 1946 and 1947 . Fuchs attended a conference of the Combined Policy Committee ( CPC ) in 1947 , a committee created to facilitate exchange of atomic secrets at the highest levels of governments of the United States , Great Britain and Canada ; Donald Maclean , another Soviet spy , was also in attendance as British co @-@ secretary of CPC .
By September 1949 , information from the Venona project indicated to GCHQ that Fuchs was a spy , but the British intelligence services were wary of indicating the source of their information . The Soviets had broken off contact with him in February . Fuchs may have been subsequently tipped off by Kim Philby . In October 1949 , Fuchs approached Henry Arnold , the head of security at Harwell , with the news that his father had been given a chair at the University of Leipzig in East Germany .
Under interrogation by MI5 officer William Skardon at an informal meeting in December 1949 , Fuchs initially denied being a spy and was not detained . In January 1950 , Fuchs arranged another interview with Skardon and voluntarily confessed that he was a spy . Three days later , he also directed a statement more technical in content to Michael Perrin , the deputy controller of atomic energy within the Ministry of Supply . Fuchs told interrogators that the NKGB had acquired an agent in Berkeley , California , who had informed the Soviet Union about electromagnetic separation research of uranium @-@ 235 in 1942 or earlier . Fuchs 's statements to British and American intelligence agencies were used to implicate Harry Gold , a key witness in the trials of David Greenglass and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in the United States .
= = Value of Fuchs 's data to the Soviet project = =
Hans Bethe once said that Klaus Fuchs was the only physicist he knew who truly changed history . Because the head of the Soviet project , Lavrenti Beria , used foreign intelligence as a third @-@ party check , rather than giving it directly to the scientists , as he did not trust the information by default , it is unknown whether Fuchs 's fission information had a substantial effect . Considering that the pace of the Soviet program was set primarily by the amount of uranium they could procure , it is hard for scholars to accurately judge how much time this saved .
According to On a Field of Red , a history of the Comintern ( Communist International ) by Anthony Cave Brown and Charles B. MacDonald , Fuchs 's greatest contribution to the Soviets may have been disclosing how uranium could be processed for use in a bomb . Fuchs gave Gold technical information in January 1945 that was acquired only after two years of experimentation at a cost of $ 400 million . Fuchs also disclosed the amount of uranium or plutonium the Americans planned to use in each atomic bomb .
Whether the information Fuchs passed relating to the hydrogen bomb would have been useful is still debated . Most scholars agree with Hans Bethe 's 1952 assessment , which concluded that by the time Fuchs left the thermonuclear program — the summer of 1946 — too little was known about the mechanism of the hydrogen bomb for his information to be useful to the Soviet Union . The successful Teller @-@ Ulam design was not devised until 1951 . Soviet physicists later noted that they could see as well as the Americans eventually did that the early designs by Fuchs and Edward Teller were useless .
Later archival work by Soviet physicist German Goncharov suggested that while Fuchs 's early work did not help Soviet efforts towards the hydrogen bomb , it was closer to the final correct solution than anyone recognized at the time — and indeed spurred Soviet research into useful problems that eventually provided the correct answer . Since most of Fuchs 's work on the bomb , including a 1946 patent on a particular model for the weapon , are still classified in the United States , it has been difficult for scholars to fully assess these conclusions . In any case , it seems clear that Fuchs could not have just given the Soviets the " secret " to the hydrogen bomb , since he did not himself actually know it .
= = Later life = =
Fuchs 's espionage likely led the U.S. to cancel a 1950 Anglo @-@ American plan to give Britain American @-@ made atomic bombs . He was prosecuted by Sir Hartley Shawcross , and was convicted on 1 March 1950 of four counts of breaking the Official Secrets Act by " ... communicating information to a potential enemy . " After a trial lasting less than 90 minutes , Lord Goddard sentenced him to fourteen years ' imprisonment , the maximum for espionage , because the Soviet Union was classed as an ally at the time . In December 1950 he was stripped of his British citizenship . The head of the British H @-@ bomb project , Sir William Penney , visited Fuchs in prison in 1952 .
Fuchs was released on 23 June 1959 , after serving nine years and four months of his sentence ( as then required in England where long @-@ term prisoners were entitled by law to one @-@ third off for good behaviour in prison ) at Wakefield Prison and promptly emigrated to the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) . A tutorial he gave to Qian Sanqiang and other Chinese physicists helped them to develop the first Chinese atomic bomb , the 596 , which was tested five years later — according to Thomas Reed and Daniel Stillman , the authors of The Nuclear Express : A Political History of the Bomb and Its Proliferation ( 2009 ) . Three historians of nuclear weapons history , Robert S. Norris , Jeremy Bernstein , and Peter D. Zimmerman , challenged this particular assertion as " unsubstantiated conjecture " and asserted that The Nuclear Express is " an ambitious but deeply flawed book " .
In 1959 , Fuchs married a friend from his years as a student communist , Grete ( Margarete ) Keilson . He continued his scientific career and achieved considerable prominence . He was elected to the Academy of Sciences and the SED central committee and was later appointed deputy director of the Institute for Nuclear Research in Rossendorf , where he served until he retired in 1979 . He received the Patriotic Order of Merit , the Order of Karl Marx and the National Prize of East Germany . He died in Berlin on 28 January 1988 . He was cremated and his ashes buried in the " Pergolenweg " of the Socialists ' Memorial in Berlin 's Friedrichsfelde Cemetery .
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= Howard Kippenberger =
Major General Sir Howard Karl Kippenberger KBE , CB , DSO & Bar , ED ( 28 January 1897 – 5 May 1957 ) , known as " Kip " , was an officer of the New Zealand Military Forces who served in the First and Second World Wars .
Born in the Canterbury Region of New Zealand , Kippenberger joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in late 1915 . He saw action in France on the Western Front , participating in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette . A serious wound in November 1916 saw him repatriated to New Zealand and discharged from the NZEF . He qualified as a solicitor in 1920 and worked in a legal practice in Rangiora . In 1924 , he joined the Territorial Force and by 1936 had advanced in rank to lieutenant colonel .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Kippenberger was appointed to command the 20th Battalion . He led the battalion for two years , through the Battles of Greece and Crete as well as part of the North African Campaign before being promoted to brigadier and taking command of the 5th Infantry Brigade . The pinnacle of his military career was as commander of the 2nd New Zealand Division during the Italian Campaign . He was wounded on 3 March 1944 during the Battle of Monte Cassino when he stepped on a land mine . As a result of his wounds , he lost both of his feet . After recovery in England , during which he was fitted with artificial limbs , he helped prepare for and assisted in the repatriation of newly released New Zealand prisoners of war . In 1946 , he was appointed Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of New Zealand 's largest @-@ ever publishing project , the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 . He was still working on the project when he died on 5 May 1957 in Wellington .
= = Early life = =
Howard Kippenberger was born on 28 January 1897 in Ladbrooks , in the Canterbury Region of New Zealand , to Karl and Annie Kippenberger . His unusual surname came from his paternal great @-@ grandparents , who emigrated to New Zealand from Germany in 1862 . The oldest of five children , he received his early education at local schools in Ladbrooks and nearby Prebbleton ( Kippenberger 's father was the headmaster at Prebbleton School ) . When he was 14 , his father became a farmer and moved the family to Oxford . Kippenberger continued his schooling at Christchurch Boys ' High School as a boarder . Intellectually advanced for his age , he was not academically challenged at school and misbehaved in class . This , together with a low attendance rate , led to the school authorities asking him to leave high school . Returning home to Oxford , he worked on the family farm .
Always interested in military history , Kippenberger joined the local unit of the New Zealand Cadet Corps and found that he enjoyed soldiering . His father did not approve of his interest but regardless , Kippenberger enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in late 1915 at the age of 18 . Because only men between the ages of 19 and 45 were required to register for service , he falsified his age to ensure that he would be eligible for duty overseas .
= = First World War = =
From January to April 1916 , Kippenberger underwent basic training at Trentham Military Camp as part of the 12th Reinforcement of the NZEF . On 1 May , he embarked for Europe to join the New Zealand Division . However , during transit his transport ship was unexpectedly diverted to Egypt . For two months , his contingent was based at the training camp of the Australian Imperial Force at Tel @-@ el @-@ Kebir but had very little to do with only a few hours of training each day . The 12th Reinforcement left in July for Sling Camp in England , where it underwent more intense training .
= = = Western Front = = =
Kippenberger finally arrived on the Western Front in September 1916 , as a private in the 1st Canterbury Regiment . His arrival at the front coincided with the Somme Offensive . He took part in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette which began on 15 September and remained in the front lines for over three weeks before the regiment was withdrawn . His unit suffered heavy casualties during this time ; Kippenberger was one of just five soldiers left in his platoon after the battle ended .
After rest and recovery , the regiment moved to the Fromelles sector of the front in mid @-@ October . Here Kippenberger volunteered for sniper duty despite not being known for his accuracy as a marksman . He served in this capacity until he was badly wounded in the arm by shrapnel on 10 November 1916 . Although he eventually recovered from his wound , at the time it was serious enough that he was repatriated to New Zealand and discharged from the NZEF in April 1917 .
= = Civilian life = =
Kippenberger appreciated the need to establish a career for himself and to this end , decided on a profession in law . In early 1918 he enrolled at Canterbury College to study law and later in the year found a job as a law clerk in a legal practice in Christchurch . Here he met Ruth Isobel Flynn , a secretary , whom he married in 1922 . The couple had three children , two sons and a daughter . Working by day , and studying in the evenings , he qualified as a solicitor in 1920 . He moved to Rangiora , becoming the manager and then a partner of the Rangiora branch of a Christchurch legal firm .
Kippenberger became immersed in the Rangiora community , serving on the local council and becoming involved in various committees . He also retained an interest in the military and in 1924 , joined the Territorial Force . He firmly believed that a large scale conflict would once again occur in Europe , and he wanted to be prepared for this eventuality . Therefore , he built up an extensive military library and studied the theory of warfare and analysed past campaigns to ascertain strategy and tactics for a given situation . He noted the influence of landscape on the outcomes of battles and the qualities of a successful military commander . He even set up a large sand table in his office at his law practice for war gaming . What he would learn from his studies , he put into practice in his training with the Territorials . By 1936 , he was a lieutenant @-@ colonel , commanding the 1st Battalion of the Canterbury Regiment .
= = Second World War = =
On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , Kippenberger was given command of the 20th Battalion . Formed at Burnham Military Camp in early October , the battalion was to be part of the 2nd New Zealand Division . After a period of training , it departed for the Middle East on 5 January 1940 . The battalion arrived at its base in Maadi , Egypt , on 14 February , and was involved in training and garrison duty at Baggush for most of the next 12 months .
= = = Greece and Crete = = =
Anticipating an invasion of Greece by the Germans in 1941 , the British Government decided to send troops to support the Greeks . The 2nd New Zealand Division , under the command of Major General Bernard Freyberg , was amongst the various Allied units dispatched to Greece in early March . As part of the 4th Infantry Brigade , the 20th Battalion prepared and manned the western edge of the Aliakmon Line , a position Kippenberger was not particularly happy with . He felt the defensive line allocated to his battalion was too wide to meaningfully defend , and he took care to reconnoiter avenues of retreat from his positions . On 6 April , the expected German invasion began and they advanced so rapidly a threat to Florina Gap became apparent . The 4th Infantry Brigade , in danger of being outflanked , was withdrawn to the Servia Pass where it manned defensive positions much superior to its previous positions .
The German attack commenced on 14 April and the brigade defended its position for three days before being withdrawn . Kippenberger 's battalion was chosen to be the rearguard and he personally intervened in the demolition of bridges and culverts through Servia Pass to ensure that as many stragglers as possible were collected . He and some of his demolition party later came under artillery and tank fire as they attempted to catch up with the main body of the brigade , and were forced to abandon their vehicles and rejoin the battalion on foot . After conducting further delaying actions on the road leading into Athens , Kippenberger and his command were evacuated to Crete on 28 April .
On Crete , Kippenberger was promoted to temporary colonel and given command of the 10th Brigade , an ad @-@ hoc formation , which included a 750 @-@ man composite battalion consisting mainly of artillery and Army Service Corps men ( sans most of their heavy equipment and trucks ) , New Zealand Divisional Cavalry , some machine gunners and two Greek regiments ( although Kippenberger assessed the Greek units to be of limited use ) . His 20th Battalion was also part of the brigade but strict controls were in place around its deployment and use .
When the Germans launched the invasion of Crete on 20 May , Kippenberger , like most of the defenders of the island , was surprised at the sight of hundreds of Fallschirmjäger ( paratroopers ) descending under parachutes . He quickly recovered and was making his way to his headquarters , when a burst of gunfire from a paratrooper was directed his way . After twisting his ankle in avoiding the gunfire , he stalked and killed the paratrooper with a shot to the head . His brigade was positioned east of Maleme airfield , on the Galatas plains . It was well positioned to counterattack scattered paratroopers who were beginning to consolidate into a good starting position from which an attack on the airfield could be launched . His request to do so was denied by the acting divisional commander , Brigadier Edward Puttick . An attack launched later without Kippenberger 's knowledge failed although he believed the outcome could have been different if his troops had been involved .
For most of the remaining days of the battle , a series of attacks and counterattacks were launched . The 10th Brigade had been made subordinate to the 4th Infantry Brigade , although Kippenberger remained in command of the forward troops of the brigade around the town of Galatas . For the next few days , he was instrumental in maintaining defensive discipline of the forward troops , most of whom were not trained infantry . When Galatas fell to the Germans on 25 May , he quickly planned , led and executed a successful counterattack to recapture the town . Despite this notable success , it was short @-@ lived as the brigade had to withdraw to a shorter defensive line and the town was abandoned . Kippenberger joined up with the 20th Battalion as it gradually retreated to Sphakia , on the south coast of the island , from where it was to be evacuated to Egypt . On arrival at Sphakia he had to select a number of his men to remain as a rearguard while the rest of the battalion was evacuated on 30 May . Much to his pleasure , the rearguard that he thought he had had to abandon on Crete was able to follow the next day .
As a result of his actions in Greece and Crete , Kippenberger had forged a reputation for himself as one of the leading officers of the 2nd Division . His brigade commander , Puttick , recommended him for leadership of an infantry brigade although for the time being he would remain commander of the 20th Battalion . Later in the year , he would be awarded a Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his leadership during the Battle of Crete .
= = = North Africa = = =
Back in Egypt , and after a short period of rest , Kippenberger set about rebuilding the battalion , which had lost over half its original complement . Nearly 400 replacements joined the battalion and stragglers continued to arrive for several weeks as they made their way across the Mediterranean in small sailboats . By mid @-@ June , it was back up to strength . Several weeks were spent at the battalion 's previous positions at Baggush , engaged in intensive desert training .
= = = = Operation Crusader = = = =
In November 1941 , the 2nd Division participated in Operation Crusader and conducted offensive operations towards the Sidi Azeiz area . Kippenberger enjoyed early successes in this campaign , with his battalion engaged in several battles . At one stage , he responded to an attack in the battalion 's rear with a frontal assault resulting in the capture of 300 prisoners . Later on the night of 25 November , along with the 18th Battalion , he was tasked with the night @-@ time capture of Belhamed , a hill adjacent to Sidi Rezegh . As the units moved to its positions , he made a navigational error which resulted in his headquarters company becoming separated from the other companies of the battalion . It took him until daylight for him to re @-@ establish contact with the remainder of the battalion which , when he located it , was in its expected position having taken the hill with few losses . He was wounded by machine gun fire when he carelessly exposed himself while assessing the battalion 's situation . Evacuated to a dressing station , he was captured by elements of the 15th Panzer Division three days later . Still on Belhamed , the 20th Battalion was destroyed in a counterattack , an action observed by a distressed Kippenberger through field glasses .
The dressing station was now under the guard of Italians , the Germans having moved on . The Italians began to send the captive senior officers to prisoner of war camps in Italy , a fate Kippenberger wanted to avoid . On 4 December , he , with a party of 20 others , was able to discreetly abscond from the station by stealing a truck . Making his way back to Baggush , he ran into a group of armoured cars which forced the truck to a stop . To his relief , the armoured cars proved to be those of a South African unit . On reaching Baggush , he met up with Freyberg , who was extremely pleased to see him and promptly promoted Kippenberger to brigadier and command of the 5th Infantry Brigade on the spot ; the brigade 's previous commander , Brigadier James Hargest , had been captured during a German counteroffensive . While in Baggush , Kippenberger also convinced his superiors to send a unit back to the dressing station to rescue the remaining prisoners . For his work during the campaign , Kippenberger was mentioned in despatches .
The 5th Brigade consisted of the 21st , 22nd and 23rd Battalions . With the Maori Battalion frequently attached to his command , the brigade numbered 5 @,@ 000 personnel . It was regarded as a substandard formation by the other brigades of the division , and Kippenberger set about rectifying this . While the rest of the 2nd Division moved to Syria , he and his brigade remained in Baggush , and worked on defensive fortifications for several months . In April , the brigade moved to Syria to complete the 2nd Division .
= = = = El Alamein = = = =
Two months after Kippenberger 's brigade arrived in Syria , Panzer Army Afrika attacked into Libya . This prompted the recall of the 2nd New Zealand Division . The Eighth Army was defeated at the Battle of Gazala and retreated into Egypt . The recalled New Zealanders manned a defensive position at Minqar Qaim , and rebuffed several attacks . However , it was not long before the division was cut off . It successfully forced a breakout with minimal losses on 27 June and withdrew to new positions at El Alamein . On 14 July 1942 , during the First Battle of El Alamein , Kippenberger led the 5th Brigade in what would be known as the Battle of Ruweisat Ridge . Ruweisat Ridge was held by the enemy and was in the centre of the El Alamein line , dominating the surrounding area . The 5th Brigade was tasked with the capture of the centre of the ridge . The 4th Brigade was to take the western end of the ridge and the 5th Indian Brigade the eastern end . British armour , in the form of two armoured brigades , was to protect the flanks and be in support to deal with the expected counterattack . However , little thought was given to communication and liaison between the infantry and armoured brigades , nor was a clear chain of command established . This would have implications for the outcome of the battle .
Kippenberger 's attack required a night @-@ time advance of six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) across a front of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) . He decided to have two battalions , the 21st and 23rd Battalions , attack across this front , with the 22nd Battalion in reserve . Artillery and anti @-@ tank units would follow at daybreak . However , he not only decided to use unreliable short @-@ range radios but also failed to make it clear to the inexperienced commander of the 21st Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel Sam Allen , that it was not expected to cover the whole frontal advance . During the advance , the elements of the battalion were spread so far apart that they lost cohesion and bypassed numerous strong points , leaving the German line in front of the ridge largely intact .
In the morning , the supporting British armour was nowhere to be seen and the artillery and anti @-@ tank units were unable to break through , leaving the two New Zealand brigades in position on the exposed ridge . Kippenberger inspected the brigade 's position and found his battalions under fire from German tanks . Unable to contact nearby units by radio and realising the degree to which his men were exposed , he raced off under fire in a Bren carrier to locate the British armour . Coming across an armoured brigade four miles away , he implored its commander to bring his unit forward but was refused meaningful support until the intervention of Major General Herbert Lumsden , commander of the British 1st Armoured Division . By the time the tanks had arrived , the men of the 22nd Battalion had been largely killed or captured . The headquarters element of the 23rd Battalion were also prisoners of war . By nightfall , the 4th Brigade had been overrun . Kippenberger asked for and received permission to withdraw his brigade from the ridge . Although awarded a Bar to his DSO for his dash for help from the British , Kippenberger was bitter about the poor planning of the operation and admitted his own errors of judgement .
On the opening day of the Second Battle of El Alamein , Kippenberger led his brigade , which had spent much of the previous weeks in defensive lines , in an attack on Miteirya Ridge during which it achieved all of its objectives . In contrast to three months earlier at Ruweisat Ridge , he took care to establish his headquarters as far forward as possible prior to the commencement of the battle to minimise communication difficulties with the units of the brigade . Despite this , he still lost contact with the leading 23rd Battalion which quickly overwhelmed its opposition . In fact , the battalion had advanced so quickly that it arrived at its final objective so far ahead of schedule that it believed it had only reached its first objective and so advanced even further . The battalion 's commander blamed his unit 's eagerness for a rapid advance on Kippenberger 's inspirational pre @-@ battle speech which particularly enthused his men .
= = = = Tunisia and home leave = = = =
As the Afrika Korps retreated into Libya and Tunisia , the 2nd Division , as part of X Corps , was in pursuit . A series of engagements with the enemy followed , occupying Kippenberger and his men . After the battle at Takrouna , the 5th Brigade was withdrawn from the frontlines , having lost 38 % of its strength . He remained a highly regarded officer , deputising as commander of the 2nd Division in Freyberg 's occasional absence from the field in higher commands .
By July 1943 , it was decided to send a group of 6 @,@ 000 long serving veterans of the NZEF to New Zealand for three months leave . Kippenberger was the ranking officer of the group , and with a high public profile due to his exploits in Crete and North Africa , he spent much of his leave in extensive speaking engagements . He became very rundown and was seriously ill in September , when he was originally expected to return to Egypt . He did not return to command the 5th Brigade until November .
= = = Italy = = =
At this stage of the war , the 2nd New Zealand Division was fighting in Italy as part of the British Eighth Army with the 5th Brigade poised to attack across the Sangro River in central Italy . On his arrival , Kippenberger conducted a survey of the terrain and recommended to Freyberg that the attack plan be modified to include an additional brigade , a recommendation Freyberg concurred with . The reorganised attack was successfully executed on the evening of 28 November with light casualties . The 2nd Division then attempted three times to capture the town of Orsogna . The second attack on the town of 7 December was the first to involve the 5th Brigade . Despite Kippenberger 's brigade achieving all its objectives on the flank of the town , the attack was not successful . The failure of another brigade , tasked with capture of Orsogna itself , to achieve its goals left elements of the 5th Brigade exposed , and it had to partially withdraw .
A further attack involving the 5th Brigade was mounted on 14 December , and this also failed , despite armoured support . Kippenberger found the close fighting in the mountainous terrain in Italy to be in marked contrast to the open campaign of the deserts of North Africa . Despite this , he remained the best of the brigadiers of the division and was not afraid to voice his concerns when given difficult orders by his superiors . When the commander of British XIII Corps , Lieutenant General Miles C. Dempsey , ordered what Kippenberger regarded to be wasteful attacks on ground in front of the 5th Brigade , he was not pleased and twice voiced his concerns .
In early 1944 , Freyberg was made commander of the New Zealand Corps , newly formed for the Battle of Monte Cassino , while Kippenberger was promoted to temporary major @-@ general and made commander of the 2nd Division . This was the pinnacle of his military career . The division had moved into the line around Cassino , replacing the U.S. 36th Infantry Division , which had been attacking the strongly defended German positions . The first attack by the New Zealanders on 17 February was unsuccessful despite the bombing of the Monte Cassino abbey , which Kippenberger supported . A second attack was planned for 20 February , but it was delayed by bad weather . On 2 March , Kippenberger climbed the slopes of nearby Mount Trocchio to gain an overview of the Cassino battlefield . Near the top of the mountain , he triggered a land mine which exploded and injured both legs to the extent that one foot was severed in the blast . He was evacuated to a medical centre , and the other foot and the lower portions of both legs were amputated . When the news of his injuries spread to the men of the 2nd New Zealand Division , it was met with some disbelief and shock , greatly affecting morale .
= = = England = = =
In April , Kippenberger was transferred to Queen Mary 's Hospital in London to be fitted with artificial limbs . He was discharged from hospital in early September after a four @-@ month period of convalescence . His wartime services were recognised that same month by being made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and in December he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath .
Graded by a medical board as only being fit for administrative duties , Kippenberger still harboured hopes of returning to the 2nd Division . However , he was named to replace Brigadier James Hargest , who had been killed in France in August , as commander of the New Zealand Reception Group . This organisation had been formed to arrange accommodation as well as social and medical services for New Zealand military personnel who were expected to be released from prisoner of war camps in Germany when the war ended . These personnel were to be evacuated to England to await repatriation to New Zealand . It was recognised that transition from the harsh life as a captive to normal life may be difficult for some , and the Reception Group provided much needed support for these individuals . He threw himself into his new role , setting up facilities and accommodation centres around Dover . The first former prisoners of war began arriving in late March 1945 , and Kippenberger made it a point to personally meet with each group of arrivals . By the following October , the overwhelming majority of released personnel had been returned to New Zealand , negating the need for the Reception Group .
= = Later life = =
In 1945 , Kippenberger was offered the position of Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of New Zealand 's largest @-@ ever publishing project , the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 . The New Zealand government had made initial plans for a published record of New Zealand 's involvement in the war as early as 1943 . Kippenberger , well respected across all branches of New Zealand 's services , was championed by New Zealand 's prime minister , Peter Fraser , as the person to coordinate the project . The resulting series of books , covering campaign and unit histories as well as volumes on the New Zealand people at war , was to be published by the War History Branch at the Department of Internal Affairs . By 1946 , his work with the Reception Group was largely complete and he returned to New Zealand to take up his new position . Initially contracted for seven years from 1 July 1946 , he would be involved with the project for the rest of his life . In his capacity as Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief , he guided the planning and production of volumes dedicated to specific campaigns , units and the war effort in general .
Kippenberger set a high standard for the official histories . He disavowed any censorship and diligently read every draft of every volume produced under his editorship , providing extensive , but constructive , feedback to the authors . He took special interest in the unit history of his former command , the 20th Battalion . He stressed the need for objectivity but struggled with his own views on battles in which he had been personally involved . The volume on the Battle of Crete proved to be particularly difficult to produce , requiring critical analysis of the leadership of some of his personal friends during the battle . Leslie Andrew , former commander of the 22nd Battalion , was one who took offence at the account of his handling of the battle .
The official histories had on occasion been threatened with political interference , particularly with the change in government in 1949 . Kippenberger , a person of high standing with both the government and the ordinary New Zealander , was a strong advocate for the project , and was able to convince the new government of the merits of the official histories . Kippenberger encouraged a positive atmosphere at the War History Branch , despite a tight budget and at times crowded work conditions . He was proud of its rate of output , which exceeded the efforts of the better resourced official histories of Australia and Great Britain . By 1963 , the War History Branch he had presided over for much of its life had produced nearly 50 major volumes .
Kippenberger also found the time to write his own book , Infantry Brigadier , an account of his wartime service . It was a work that began in 1944 , as he worked with the Reception Group and it was largely complete by late 1946 . Published in 1949 by Oxford University Press , it proved to be a critical and commercial success and was translated into seven languages . When first appointed Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the official histories , he had intended to write one or two volumes . He still had hopes of doing so in 1955 when negotiating an extension to his contract with the War History Branch but this never eventuated .
In 1948 , Kippenberger was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire . He was also elected Dominion President of the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services ' Association ( RSA ) , a position he would hold until 1955 . While serving as RSA president , he courted controversy by his outspoken opposition to the All Black tour of South Africa in 1949 , on the basis of the exclusion of Maori players from the team . While forced to apologise for his remarks , he received much support from Maori veterans .
In April 1957 , his wife 's health deteriorated and she was hospitalised . Although seriously ill , she recovered sufficiently to be moved home . On 4 May 1957 , while preparing for his wife 's homecoming , Kippenberger complained of a headache and then collapsed . Taken to hospital in a coma , he died the next day of a cerebral haemorrhage . He was buried on 7 May at Karori Cemetery in Wellington with full military honours . Ruth Kippenberger watched the funeral procession of her husband from her hospital window ; she died ten years later .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Kippenberger 's extensive library was purchased by the New Zealand Army . He was a keen reader of military studies , annotating many of the books in the margins as he read them . His notes give an insight into his thinking on warfare and strategy . His collection is housed in the Kippenberger Research Library , in the QEII Army Memorial Museum , Waiouru , together with other books covering a wide range of military subjects , with an emphasis on all major wars involving New Zealanders .
In 2006 the Victoria University of Wellington announced the creation of the Sir Howard Kippenberger Chair in Strategic Studies . It receives support from the Garfield Weston Foundation and provides support for the holder of the chair to teach undergraduates and conduct research into strategic studies . The New Zealand Army operates what is known as the Kippenberger Scheme . It allows officer cadets based at Linton Military Camp , near Palmerston North , the chance to study at Massey University before becoming commissioned .
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= The Million Second Quiz =
The Million Second Quiz is an American game show hosted by Ryan Seacrest and broadcast by NBC . The series aired from September 9 to September 19 , 2013 . For a titular million seconds ( 11 days , 13 hours , 46 minutes , and 40 seconds ) , contestants attempted to maintain control of a " money chair " by winning trivia matches against other contestants , earning money for every second they occupied the chair . The top four scoring contestants were sequestered together until either they dropped from the top four and were replaced by another contestant or the million seconds were up at which point they were awarded the money they had accumulated and then had to compete in a stepladder playoff for the top prize of $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
Executive produced by Stephen Lambert , Eli Holzman , and David Hurwitz , The Million Second Quiz was positioned as a live , multi @-@ platform television event , which Lambert dubbed " the Olympics of quiz " , that would help to promote NBC 's lineup for the 2013 – 14 television season . The series was cross @-@ promoted through a number of NBCUniversal properties , and NBC broadcast a live prime time show for each night of the competition ( except for September 15 , due to Sunday Night Football ) and a two @-@ hour finale . Additionally , through a mobile app , viewers could play the game against others and potentially earn a chance to appear as a contestant during the prime time episodes . Outside of the prime time episodes , the program was also webcast throughout the competition by means of the Million Second Quiz app and NBC.com.
Critics argued that the confusing format of The Million Second Quiz along with its lack of drama and technical issues with the show 's app during the first days of the series , caused viewers to lose interest in watching it on air . Although peaking at 6 @.@ 52 million viewers for its premiere , ratings steadily dropped during the show 's run before rising again near the finale .
= = Development = =
The concept of The Million Second Quiz was intended to make the show a " national event " ; while pitching the format to NBC , creator Stephen Lambert compared the game to a tennis match and called it " the Olympics of quiz . " To promote the series , NBC relied on a cross @-@ platform promotional strategy similar to what it had used in the past for The Voice ; including appearances by host Ryan Seacrest on other NBC programs , such as the network 's NFL pre @-@ game show , Football Night in America. to support the show , and tie @-@ in advertisements for programs airing across other NBCUniversal properties ( such as USA Network ) . The program itself also served as a vehicle for promoting NBC 's then @-@ upcoming lineup for the 2013 @-@ 14 television season .
NBC wanted the game 's prime time portions aired live from an outdoor location in Manhattan with the city skyline for background . Production designer Anton Goss , who also designed the set for NBC 's The Voice , came up with a three @-@ story bent @-@ steel structure in the shape of a giant hourglass laced with lights and containing the custom @-@ made Money Chair - " ... on a rooftop with the city behind us ... we have to do something significant ... It 's like we 're building our own little skyscraper . " Because of the 18 @,@ 000 lb weight of the hourglass structure in addition to bleachers full of audience members during show times , the building 's rooftop required shoring so that the second floor could help carry the large loads . Geiger Engineers provided the structural engineering for the hourglass and other rooftop structures as well as the required rooftop shoring .
= = Gameplay = =
The quiz was set in an hourglass @-@ shaped structure located on a roof in midtown Manhattan . An indoor set in the same building was also constructed for use during the non @-@ prime time portions of the game and for any inclement weather situations , as occurred on Day 4 . Contestants played in a quiz competition that ran 24 hours a day for 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 seconds , or about eleven and a half days .
At any given time , one contestant sat in the " Money Chair " and accumulated money while at the same time defending his / her position against a series of challengers in head @-@ to @-@ head quiz bouts . These bouts lasted a set number of seconds with both contestants using keypads to lock in their still @-@ secret answers within five seconds of hearing each question . Winnings were accumulated at a constant rate of $ 10 per second spent in the chair , even when bouts were not being played and during the prime time commercial breaks . Contestants in the chair earned money until they were defeated by a challenger , who replaced the occupant on the chair . Only the four contestants with the highest total winnings got to keep their money once the countdown clock ran out of time .
= = = Prime time bouts = = =
During prime time , there are three bouts : the " Challenger " bout , the " Line Jumper " bout , and the " Winner 's Defense " bout . Questions start at one point each , with the value increasing by one every 100 seconds . At any time , either contestant may choose to " double " instead of answering ; doing so doubles that question 's value and forces the opponent to act . A doubled opponent may either answer or " double back , " quadrupling the point value and forcing the original contestant to answer . If a doubled or doubled @-@ back contestant answers incorrectly or fails to act within five seconds , the points are awarded to his / her opponent . Contestants may double as often as they wish during a bout .
At the end of the bout , the contestant with the higher score wins and either retains the Money Chair or replaces its current occupant . If the bout ends in a tie score , a tiebreaker question is asked ; the contestant who locks in the correct answer first is the winner . If both of them miss , the contestant who has accumulated more money wins the bout . If a question is in play when the clock runs out , it is completed under the normal rules .
The " Challenger " bout features a person who has successfully completed an on @-@ site tryout process . The " Line Jumper " bout of each episode features a contestant who has achieved a sufficiently high score on the official Million Second Quiz app , allowing him / her to skip the tryouts and advance directly onto the show .
At any given time , the four contestants who have accumulated the most money in their bouts live in " Winners ' Row , " an area of living quarters set up next to the hourglass . They are at risk of being displaced if someone else out @-@ scores them . During a " Winner 's Defense " bout , the current " Power Player " chooses one of the four Winners ' Row occupants ( including himself / herself ) to face off against the current Money Chair occupant . The winner claims the loser 's entire winnings in addition to his / her own and takes / keeps the Money Chair , while the loser is eliminated . In episode 1 , the Power Player was the contestant with the most winnings ; starting with episode 2 , it was the contestant who had the highest number of correct answers from playing along in Winners ' Row that day . Contestants who are defeated in the Winner 's Defense bouts lose all winnings they have accumulated . All other defeated contestants , including those displaced from Winners ' Row by being out @-@ scored , may try out again for a chance to win their way back into the Money Chair .
= = = Non @-@ prime time bouts = = =
Outside of the one @-@ hour television segments , bouts last 500 seconds . Every question is worth one point ; no doubling is allowed . Four bouts are played per hour , with a five @-@ minute pause after each of the first three . The fourth bout is followed by an 11 @-@ minute break , in which the contestant may eat , drink , or use the restroom as necessary . Money continues to accumulate during the five @-@ minute pauses , but not during the 11 @-@ minute break .
However , in the only international version ( the Chinese version ) , the prize money only accumulate during the bouts . Once the contestant is eliminated in any moment , they can walk away with a tenth of their prize money that accumulated so far .
= = = Finals = = =
Once the countdown clock reaches zero , the four contestants with the highest totals throughout the game keep all of their credited winnings and compete in a series of three elimination bouts ; the fourth and third @-@ place winners face off in a 400 @-@ second bout , the victor of bout # 1 faces the second @-@ place winner ( 400 seconds ) , and the victor of bout # 2 faces the first @-@ place winner ( 500 seconds ) . The victor of bout # 3 receives an additional $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( in Chinese version , ¥ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) .
In the season finale , Andrew Kravis defeated Brandon Saunders to win the grand prize , for an overall total of $ 2 @,@ 326 @,@ 346 . Seacrest then announced that Kravis 's winnings would be increased to $ 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ; this made him the all @-@ time biggest regular @-@ season winner on a single American game show , surpassing Ken Jennings 's $ 2 @,@ 522 @,@ 700 run on Jeopardy ! in 2004 .
= = Broadcast history = =
The Million Second Quiz premiered on September 9 , 2013 ; however , the non @-@ primetime quiz began a day earlier at 7 : 17 AM EDT . The first episode started with 867 @,@ 826 seconds remaining . The show ran for ten episodes before it concluded on September 19 , 2013 .
= = = Ratings = = =
= = = Reception = = =
The Million Second Quiz generally received negative reviews from television critics and the public alike , and ratings went down over time : its premiere and finale were seen by 6 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 95 million viewers respectively , but fell lower in between .
The New York Times ' Mike Hale believed that the general failure of the series was a result of its unclear format , the " banal " subject matter of many of its questions ( citing examples which ranged from American history , to the name of Kim Kardashian 's cat ) , the fact that second screen interactions with game shows were not a new concept , and that the show and its interactive components were not " convergent " enough — beyond the small chance users received to appear on the show , arguing that " the one authentic way for the public to engage with Million Second Quiz was resolutely old school : coming to Times Square and standing on the sidewalk . "
Writing for The A.V. Club , Sonia Saraiya felt that The Million Second Quiz , in contrast to other major reality shows such as Big Brother , was a " hyped show about hype " that lacked substance , and was designed primarily to be a vehicle for social media interaction , product placement , and self @-@ promotion for NBC 's programming and personalities . Saraiya wrote that " there might be more to say about the show , but it almost doesn 't matter . Inane as it is , it 's not mean @-@ spirited , just bizarre . And the show is so deeply flawed and so universally unpopular that it is not going to remain in anyone 's memory for long . But the real story here isn 't about the show , it 's about the network . In this wildly expensive failure , it ’ s possible to see so many of NBC 's flaws , all in the same package . " However , she did praise the show 's production for featuring contestants who were " friendly " and " relatable , " rather than " chosen for their reprehensibility . "
= = International version = =
China 's Hunan TV adapted this show , which was entitled " 百万秒问答 " , presented by Kevin Tsai . The show premiered on September 30 , 2015 , and ran for eight days constantly as the special transmission for the National Day holiday . SNH48 and four other local female presenters would co @-@ present the show live along with Kevin at non @-@ primetime . The winner of the first season was Shen Jiaxin , with the grand total of RMB 1 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 ( US $ 178 @,@ 574 or € 158 @,@ 648 ) pre @-@ tax .
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= Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg , BWV 149 =
Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg ( There are joyful songs of victory ) , BWV 149 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the work in Leipzig for the Feast of Saint Michael and first performed it on 29 September 1728 or 1729 . It is his third and last of his extant cantatas for the feast . The topic is derived from the prescribed readings for the Sunday from the Book of Revelation , Michael fighting the dragon . The libretto was written by Picander and published in a 1728 / 29 volume of cantata texts . He included as the first movement two verses from Psalm 118 and as the closing chorale the third stanza of Martin Schalling 's hymn " Herzlich lieb hab ich dich , o Herr " . The text focuses on the guardian angels , which the chorale mentions specifically for the situation of death .
Bach structured the work in seven movements and scored it festively with four vocal parts and a Baroque orchestra of three trumpets , timpani , three oboes , bassoon , strings and continuo . He derived the opening chorus from his Hunting Cantata , composed already in 1713 .
= = History and text = =
Bach composed the cantata in Leipzig for the feast of St. Michael ( Michaelmas ) ; it is his third and last of his extant cantatas for the feast , a feast celebrating the archangel and all angels . The prescribed readings for that Sunday were from the Book of Revelation , Michael fighting the dragon ( Revelation 12 : 7 – 12 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , heaven belongs to the children and the angels see the face of God ( Matthew 18 : 1 – 11 ) . St. Michael , the archangel , has a prominent position in Lutheranism , as in Judaism . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted all of Bach 's church cantatas in 2000 on the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , notes that the Sanctus , composed for Christmas 1724 in close relation to the text by Isaiah , and much later integrated to Bach 's Mass in B minor , shows the relevance of angels for Bach 's Lutheranism .
The libretto was written by Christian Friedrich Henrici , better known as Picander , Bach began to work with him in 1725 , and they collaborated notably on the major St Matthew Passion . Picander wrote his cantata texts , including this one , with Bach as the composer in mind . The poet included as the first movement two verses from a psalm ( Psalms 118 : 15 – 16 ) and as the closing chorale the third stanza of Martin Schalling 's hymn " Herzlich lieb hab ich dich , o Herr " . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that battle scenes were often depicted in art and music . In the opening lines taken from a psalm , the battle of Michael against Satan is already won . Satan is mentioned only in the first movement . A focus of the later sequence of alternating arias and recitatives is on guardian angels seen as " holy watchmen " . The libretto was published in the 1728 / 29 year of his collection Ernstschertzhaffte und satyrische Gedichte / Cantaten auf die Sonn- und Fest @-@ Tage . They appeared in quarterly volumes to help the congregation following the text .
Bach led the Thomanerchor in the first performance of the cantata in Leipzig on 29 September , either in 1728 or 1729 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements and scored it for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ) ( B ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque orchestra of three trumpets ( Tr ) , timpani ( Ti ) , three oboes ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , violas ( Va ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , violone ( Vo ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The title of the autograph score reads simply : " J.N.J. Festo Michaelis . / Man singet mit Freuden etc. di I.S.Bach. "
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The time signature is provided using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
Bach based the music of the opening chorus , " Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg " ( There are joyful songs of victory ) , on the final movement of his secular Hunting Cantata , which had been his first cantata using " modern " recitatives and arias in 1713 . The polyphonic movement is described by Simon Crouch as being a " high @-@ octane start " . Gardiner notes that in comparison to earlier works for the same occasion , this movement is " festive rather than combative " . Bach reworked the earlier movement considerably to adjust from the court music context to joyful songs of victory : he replaced two horns with three trumpets and timpani , transposed the music from F major to D major , and expanded it " on every level " , as Hofmann notes . The beginning of a different setting of the text hints at the fact that the idea to use the early music as a base was not planned from the start .
= = = 2 = = =
The bass aria , " Kraft und Stärke sei gesungen " ( Power and strength be sung ) , is accompanied by two low instrumental melodies . It examines the conflict between God and Satan , and includes a very active continuo to represent " the fury of the battle " . The imagery of a " great voice " , as mentioned in the Book of Revelation , is used , announcing the Lamb " that has defeated and banished Satan " .
= = = 3 = = =
A short alto recitative , " Ich fürchte mich " ( I am afraid ) , was described as " tonally unstable " .
= = = 4 = = =
The soprano aria , " Gottes Engel weichen nie " ( God 's angels never yield ) , is lyrical and dancing . The string accompaniment uses parallel thirds and sixths . It is stylistically similar to a minuet , and is formally an adapted ternary structure .
= = = 5 = = =
The tenor recitative , " Ich danke dir " ( I thank You ) , ends with an ascending phrase meant to represent an appeal to heaven .
= = = 6 = = =
The duet aria for alto and tenor , " Seid wachsam , ihr heiligen Wächter " ( Be wakeful , you holy watchers ) , employs canon technique and a repeated interrupted cadence . Its introduction has been described as " the most athletic of bassoon lines " . The tenor and alto voices repeat the opening bassoon figure in canon .
= = = 7 = = =
The work ends with a harmonically complex four @-@ part setting of the chorale , " Ach , Herr , laß dein lieb Engelein " ( Ah , Lord , let Your dear little angel ) . It is a prayer to be sent an angel to carry the soul in Abraham 's Bosom , and a promise to praise God eternally . Bach 's setting is remarkable for its final two bars : the trumpets and timpani create a " magnificent blaze of sound " . Bach chose the same stanza of Schalling 's chorale to end his St John Passion , in the work 's first and last version .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable table is excerpted from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background , orchestras playing on period instruments in historically informed performances by green background in the column Instr ..
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= Neighborhood Watch ( White Collar ) =
" Neighborhood Watch " is the 13th episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series White Collar , and the 43rd episode overall . It was first broadcast on USA Network in the United States on January 31 , 2012 . The episode was directed by Andrew McCarthy and written by Jeff F. King .
The episode has been noted to draw many themes from Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window . When Elizabeth Burke ( Tiffani Thiessen ) overhears a neighbor ( Joe Manganiello ) discussing a future crime , she , Mozzie ( Willie Garson ) , and Neal Caffrey ( Matt Bomer ) work together to prove his guilt .
According to the Nielsen ratings system , an estimated 3 @.@ 042 million household viewers watched the original broadcast of the episode , with 1 @.@ 0 million in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Neighborhood Watch " received mostly positive reviews , with many complimenting Thiessen 's performance .
= = Plot = =
After Peter Burke ( Tim DeKay ) leaves a scanner at home , Elizabeth overhears plans for a robbery . Peter visits the scene of the alleged crime , but finds nothing to suggest that the robbery exists . Neal and Peter attribute Elizabeth ’ s actions to paranoia stemming from her recent kidnapping by Matthew Keller . However , Mozzie believes that the robbery was real , and begins helping Elizabeth monitor Peter ’ s scanner . Mozzie and Elizabeth soon hear the same voices from the original transmission , and discover that they are the voices of the Burke ’ s new neighbors , Ben ( Manganiello ) and Rebecca Ryan ( Lola Glaudini ) . Elizabeth immediately visits their house , coercing an invitation for dinner that night . While at dinner , Elizabeth excuses herself from the table in order to search the house . She discovers nothing , but soon finds herself locked in a bedroom . Neal , speaking to her through a window , walks her through picking the lock . However , she is soon found by an annoyed Peter .
Peter finally agrees to investigate the Ryans , quickly being informed by Diana Berrigan ( Marsha Thomason ) that Ben has an armed robbery conviction . As Peter phones Elizabeth to let her know that she was correct , Ben visits the Burke home and vaguely threatens Elizabeth . Clinton Jones ( Sharif Atkins ) follows Ben and discovers the identity of Ben ’ s partner : Connor Bailey ( Will Chase ) . In order to get closer to the suspects , Neal visits Ben ’ s parole office under the alias Nick Halden . Using information gathered by Neal , Peter quickly realizes that the target of the heist is a luxury hotel . Peter and Neal hurry to the hotel , barely missing Ben and Connor . At the Burke home , Elizabeth and Mozzie follow Rebecca as she leaves the house . Realizing that Peter will not reach them in time , Elizabeth approaches the Ryans as an FBI agent . Her attempt fails just as Peter and the FBI arrive .
= = Production = =
It was first reported on June 30 , 2011 that Joe Manganiello would appear in an episode of White Collar as an ex @-@ con and the Burkes ' new neighbor at some point during the second half of the season . A day after Manganiello 's casting was announced , it was reported that Will Chase would appear in an episode with Manganiello as Connor Bailey , another ex @-@ con . On July 11 , 2011 , series creator Jeff Eastin announced via Twitter that Andrew McCarthy would direct the episode . It was his first directing credit , though he had previously portrayed Vincent Adler during the second season .
" Neighborhood Watch " was written by Jeff F. King , his first writing credit after directing " Power Play " in the second season . Eastin has acknowledged that the episode contains various themes from Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window , and that the idea had been in development for multiple seasons ; many reviewers mentioned the theme as well . Tiffani Thiessen announced on July 26 , 2011 that production had recently wrapped on the episode . On August 26 , 2011 , USA Network announced simultaneously with the fourth season renewal that Lola Glaudini would appear in the series ; she ultimately appeared in " Neighborhood Watch " as Rebecca Ryan .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The initial broadcast of " Neighborhood Watch " was viewed by 3 @.@ 042 million viewers , which at the time was the second @-@ lowest of the series . It received 1 @.@ 0 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , down by approximately 0 @.@ 1 million viewers from the previous week . The episode ranked eleventh overall in the 18 – 49 demographic for the night and finished fifth in its timeslot , after Teen Mom 2 , Tosh.0 , The Game , and Justified .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Neighborhood Watch " received positive reviews , with many critics praising Tiffani Thiessen 's larger role . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club gave the episode a mostly positive review , noting that Thiessen was " great as a catalyst for the action . " He also compared the episode to the previous week 's " Upper West Side Story " , calling it " a nice reprieve after the previous 10 @-@ plus episodes ' high drama . " He ultimately gave the episode a B. C. Charles of TV Fanatic heavily praised the episode , calling it " a great hour " and " the Rear Window of the 21st century . " Jessica Rae mentioned that the episode was " well thought @-@ out and delightful , " and praised Elizabeth 's more prominent appearance . Brittany Frederick of Starpulse.com gave the episode a more mediocre review , calling it " fairly run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill . " She stated that Manganiello " has the glower down pat " and complimented the additional scenes between Thiessen and Willie Garson ; however , she said that she hoped that the episode would mark the end of Elizabeth 's recovery after her kidnapping .
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= 2011 Subway Fresh Fit 500 =
The 2011 Subway Fresh Fit 500 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race held on February 27 , 2011 at Phoenix International Raceway in Avondale , Arizona . Contested over 312 laps , it was the second race of the 2011 season and was won by Jeff Gordon for Hendrick Motorsports . Kyle Busch of Joe Gibbs Racing finished in second , while Gordon 's teammate , Jimmie Johnson , finished third .
Carl Edwards led the first lap from pole position ahead of Kurt Busch who started second on the grid . The race was caution free until lap 29 ( debris ) , and then 48 laps later a multiple crash occurred involving 13 drivers . Later there were several lead changes , and another four cautions . With nine laps remaining , Gordon took the lead from Kyle Busch to win his first race of the season , his first in more than 60 races .
There were eight cautions and 29 lead changes among 12 different drivers during the race . Gordon 's win moved him to sixth position in the drivers ' championship , 15 points behind leader Kyle Busch and one ahead of Bobby Labonte in seventh . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Toyota , Ford and Chevrolet had 12 points , four ahead of Dodge . A total of 75 @,@ 000 people attended the race , and 10 @.@ 36 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Phoenix International Raceway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Richmond International Raceway , Dover International Speedway , Bristol Motor Speedway , and Martinsville Speedway . The standard track at Phoenix International Raceway is a four @-@ turn short track oval that is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . The track 's turns were banked from 9 to 11 degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , was banked at 3 degrees . The back stretch had a 9 degree banking . The racetrack has seats for 76 @,@ 800 spectators .
Before the race , Carl Edwards was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 42 points , and David Gilliland stood in second with 41 points . Bobby Labonte followed in third also with 41 points , one ahead of Kurt Busch and two ahead of Juan Pablo Montoya in fourth and fifth . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Ford was leading with nine points , three points ahead of their rival Toyota . Dodge , with 4 points , was one point ahead of Chevrolet in the battle for third . Ryan Newman was the race 's defending winner .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held before the race on Friday . The first session lasted 80 minutes long , while the second was 85 minutes long . Kurt Busch was quickest with a time of 26 @.@ 366 seconds in the first session , more than five @-@ tenths of a second faster than Jeff Burton . Denny Hamlin was just off Burton 's pace , followed by Kevin Harvick , Kyle Busch , and Brad Keselowski . Kasey Kahne was seventh , still within a second of Kurt Busch 's time . Also in the session , Trevor Bayne collided into the wall , so the team had to go to their back @-@ up car . In the second practice session , Kyle Busch was fastest with a time of 26 @.@ 454 seconds , only one @-@ hundredth of a second quicker than second @-@ placed David Ragan . Edwards took third place , ahead of Jamie McMurray , Greg Biffle and Martin . Newman only managed seventh place .
Forty @-@ four cars were entered for qualifying , but only forty @-@ three raced because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Edwards clinched his eighth pole position during his career , with a time of 26 @.@ 224 seconds , which was a new track record . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Kurt Busch . Kahne qualified third , Kyle Busch took fourth , and Smith started fifth . Joey Logano , Martin Truex , Jr . , McMurray , Keselowski , and Biffle rounded out the first ten positions . The driver who failed to qualify for the race was Brian Keselowski , who had a time of 27 @.@ 431 seconds .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the second in the season , began at 3 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race with the air temperature at 54 ° F ( 12 ° C ) . Phoenix International Raceway Chaplain Ken Bowers began pre @-@ race ceremonies , by giving the invocation . Actress Emmy Rossum then performed the national anthem , and Olympian Apolo Anton Ohno gave the command for drivers to start their engines . Before the start of the race , a competition caution was scheduled for the 40th lap in the race .
Edwards retained his pole position lead into the first corner , followed by Kurt Busch , who started second . However , by the end of the first lap , Busch was the leader . Two laps later , Edwards fell to the third position , as Kyle Busch passed him . On the fifth lap , Logano moved into the fourth position . On the following lap , Kyle Busch became the leader after passing his brother Kurt . By lap eight , Kurt Busch had fallen to third once Edwards overtook him for second . On lap nine , McMurray moved to sixth , as Keselowski fell to 11th . Ten laps later , Edwards reclaimed the first position , as the first caution was given because of debris on the track . The front @-@ runners made pit stops during the caution , so Kurt Busch became the leader . At the lap 26 restart , Kurt Busch was the leader , as Joe Nemechek retired from the race . By the following lap , Hamlin had moved up to the second position , as Brian Vickers claimed third . On the 32nd lap , Hamlin became the leader . Two laps later , Robby Gordon spun sideways , prompting the second caution to be given . The caution was announced to replace the competition caution . Most of the front runners made pit stops during the caution . At the lap 38 restart , Edwards was the leader , ahead of Clint Bowyer and Kurt Busch .
On the following lap , Bowyer fell to third . At the end of lap 45 , Edwards remained the leader , ahead Kurt Busch and Burton . By the 48th lap , Gordon had moved up 15 positions since the beginning of the race . On the 50th lap , the third caution was given after Bayne collided with the wall , sustaining major damage . Most drivers made pit stops during the caution . At the lap 55 restart , Kurt Busch was the leader , while Edwards fell to 15th . On lap 56 , Matt Kenseth up moved to second , as Tony Stewart up moved to the third position . On the following lap , Marcos Ambrose moved up to the fifth position . On the 67th lap , the caution was given because of an accident involving 13 drivers . Afterward , the red flag was waved to help the officials to continue removing debris . At the lap 72 restart , Hamlin was the leader , ahead of Newman , and Menard . Dale Earnhardt , Jr. had to restart last , after getting a penalty for excessive speed on pit row . Three laps later , Newman overtook the lead after passing Hamlin , as Gordon moved up to second . On the 77th lap , Gordon passed Newman to become the leader , as his team @-@ mate Johnson passed Kyle Busch to move the 11th position . On the following lap , Hamlin fell to third . On the next lap , Stewart passed Hamlin to claim third .
By lap 84 , Gordon had a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ second lead over Newman ; however , after one lap , Newman reclaimed the position . Gordon continued to lose positions as Stewart moved to second . On lap 91 , Stewart passed Newman to move to the first position . Four laps later , Truex , Jr. moved up to the third position . At lap 98 , Stewart remained the leader , followed by Newman , Gordon , and Truex . After the 100th lap , Stewart maintained a 1 @.@ 8 @-@ second lead . Four laps later , Gordon moved to the second position . On lap 109 , Johnson claimed the sixth position , as Bowyer and Robby Gordon returned to the race . On the 116th lap , both David Reutimann and Edwards returned to the race , after being in the garage . On lap 125 , Gordon reclaimed the first position from Stewart . Two laps later , Ragan collided with the wall , prompting the sixth caution to be given . During the caution , most of the front @-@ runners made pit stops . At the lap 133 restart , Stewart was the leader followed by Gordon , Johnson , Kurt Busch , and Harvick .
Six laps later , Vickers returned to the race , as Gordon passed Stewart for the first position . On lap 144 , Bowyer returned to the race . Four laps later , Allmendinger moved into the ninth position . On the 150th lap , Kurt Busch moved the fourth position . By lap 160 , Hamlin moved to eleventh , while Allmendinger moved down to tenth . Twelve laps later , Kyle Busch passed his brother Kurt for the fourth position , as Stewart claimed first . On the 176th lap , Johnson moved to the second position . Eight laps later , Johnson became the leader , as Stewart made a pit stop . On lap 190 , Johnson , Jeff Gordon , Newman , Kurt Busch and Hamlin made a pit stop , and Kenseth became the leader . After the green flag pit stops concluded , Johnson continued to be the leader , ahead of Stewart , Gordon , Kyle Busch , and Harvick . By the 201st lap , Stewart fell to fourth , as Gordon and Kyle Busch moved up to the second and third positions .
Four laps later , Gordon passed Johnson to become the leader . On lap 218 , the seventh caution was given after Logano 's engine failed . Most of the front @-@ runners made pit stops during the caution . At the lap 225 restart , Gordon was the leader , ahead of Kyle Busch , Harvick , and Stewart , while Johnson restarted in ninth , after having an 18 @-@ second pit stop . By lap 236 , Johnson had moved up to the fifth position . Four laps later , Dale Earnhardt , Jr. made pit stops because of a loose wheel . By lap 244 , Gordon had a 1 @.@ 1 second lead over Kyle Busch . Gordon continued to increase his lead over the second position , while Martin passed Menard for the 11th position . On the following lap , Stewart moved into the third position . By the 277th lap , Gordon had a 1 @.@ 8 second lead over Kyle Busch in second . On lap 282 , Kyle Busch made a pit stops , one lap before Gordon , Stewart , and Harvick made pit stops . On lap 284 , Johnson made a pit stop , as the eighth caution was given after Andy Lally collided with the wall . At the lap 290 restart , Stewart was the leader , ahead of Kyle Busch , Gordon , and Johnson .
On the following lap , Kyle Busch became the leader , as Stewart fell to third . On the 294th lap , Johnson passed Stewart to claim the third position . Nine laps later , Gordon passed Kyle Busch to become the leader . Gordon maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2011 season . Kyle Busch finished second , ahead of Johnson in third and Harvick in fourth . Newman clinched the fifth position , after starting 14th .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Gordon appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , and his second Sprint Cup win at Phoenix International Raceway , in front of a crowd of 75 @,@ 000 people . " I was feeling the emotions , but to see ( the fans ) react like that . Then the push truck pushed me around and to see them all the way down ( the frontstretch ) doing that , I was like , ‘ I don 't know if I 've ever experienced something like that . ’ And that to me made it all worth it right there to have that feeling , " said Gordon of his triumph .
Kyle Busch , who finished second , said , " He was on a mission today , that 's for sure . When Jeff Gordon has a good car and he has the opportunity to beat you , he 's going to beat you . He 's my hero . I 've always watched him and what he 's been able to accomplish over the years . " In the subsequent press conference , pole position winner , Edwards , stated his frustration at his accident , " I ’ m not exactly sure what happened . I ’ ll have to talk to Kyle about it . I thought at first he was just frustrated and he turned left to get back in line and he didn ’ t know I was there , but I watched the tape and I think he really did get loose . He hit me hard and I was left with nothing . I got rammed to the infield . " Rick Hendrick , the owner of Hendrick Motorsports , expressed his enjoyment of winning the race , stating , " When you 're a champion like Jeff Gordon , you know you can still do it , ( even ) when people overlook you . He 's been right there but he hasn 't had that edge . I think we 're going to see a lot of momentum out of that team right now . "
Busch also commented , " When Jeff Gordon has a good car and he 's got the opportunity to beat you , he 's going to beat you , there 's no doubt about that . He 's my hero and I 've always watched him and what he 's been able to accomplish over the years , so it 's no surprise that he beat us . " The race result left Kyle Busch leading the Driver 's Championship with 80 points . Kurt Busch , who finished eighth , was second with 77 , eight points ahead of Stewart and Allmendinger . Gordon was fifth with 65 points . Ford maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 12 points . Toyota and Chevrolet placed second and third with the same amount of points , four ahead of Dodge in fourth . 10 @.@ 36 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , one minute and forty @-@ nine seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 137 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Pavo ( constellation ) =
Pavo is a constellation in the southern sky with the Latin name for peacock . It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman . Pavo first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm ( 14 in ) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer 's star atlas Uranometria of 1603 . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille gave its stars Bayer designations in 1756 . The constellations Pavo , Grus , Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the " Southern Birds " .
The constellation 's brightest member , Alpha Pavonis , is also known as Peacock and appears as a 1 @.@ 91 @-@ magnitude blue @-@ white star , but is actually a spectroscopic binary . Delta Pavonis is a nearby Sun @-@ like star some 19 @.@ 9 light @-@ years distant . Six of the star systems in Pavo have been found to host planets , including HD 181433 with a super @-@ earth , and HD 172555 with evidence of a major interplanetary collision in the past few thousand years . The constellation contains NGC 6752 , the third @-@ brightest globular cluster in the sky , and the spiral galaxy NGC 6744 , which closely resembles the Milky Way but is twice as large . Pavo is the radiant of two annual meteor showers : the Delta Pavonids and August Pavonids .
= = History and mythology = =
= = = History of the modern constellation = = =
Pavo was one of the twelve constellations established by Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman , who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition , known as the Eerste Schipvaart , to the East Indies . It first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm ( 14 in ) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius .
The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name De Pauww , " The Peacock " .
Pavo and the nearby constellations Phoenix , Grus and Tucana are collectively called the " Southern Birds " .
An alternate Latin name for the constellation was Junonia Avis .
= = = The peacock in Greek mythology = = =
According to Mark Chartrand , former executive director of the National Space Institute , Plancius may not have been the first to designate this group of stars as a peacock : " In Greek myth the stars that are now the Peacock were Argos [ or Argus ] , builder of the ship Argo . He was changed by the goddess Juno into a peacock and placed in the sky along with his ship . " Indeed , the peacock " symboliz [ ed ] the starry firmament " for the Greeks , and the goddess Hera was believed to drive through the heavens in a chariot drawn by peacocks .
The peacock and the " Argus " nomenclature are also prominent in a different myth , in which Io , a beautiful princess of Argos , was lusted after by Zeus ( Jupiter ) . Zeus changed Io into a heifer to deceive his wife ( and sister ) Hera and couple with her . Hera saw through Zeus 's scheme and asked for the heifer as a gift . Zeus , unable to refuse such a reasonable request , reluctantly gave the heifer to Hera , who promptly banished Io and arranged for Argus Panoptes , a creature with one hundred eyes , to guard the now @-@ pregnant Io from Zeus . Meanwhile , Zeus entreated Hermes to save Io ; Hermes used music to lull Argus Panoptes to sleep , then slew him . Hera adorned the tail of a peacock — her favorite bird — with Argus 's eyes in his honor .
As recounted in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the death of Argus Panoptes also contains an explicit celestial reference : " Argus lay dead ; so many eyes , so bright quenched , and all hundred shrouded in one night . Saturnia [ Hera ] retrieved those eyes to set in place among the feathers of her bird [ the peacock , Pavo ] and filled his tail with starry jewels . "
It is uncertain whether the Dutch astronomers had the Greek mythos in mind when creating Pavo but , in keeping with other constellations introduced by Plancius through Keyser and De Houtmann , the " peacock " in the new constellation likely referred to the green peacock , which the explorers would have encountered in the East Indies , rather than the blue peacock known to the ancient Greeks .
= = = Equivalents in other cultures = = =
The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia saw the stars of Pavo and the neighbouring constellation Ara as flying foxes .
= = Characteristics = =
Pavo is bordered by Telescopium to the north , Apus and Ara to the west , Octans to the south , and Indus to the east and northeast . Covering 378 square degrees , it ranks 44th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0 @.@ 916 % of the night sky . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Pav " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 10 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 18h 10.4m and 21h 32.4m , while the declination coordinates are between − 56 @.@ 59 ° and − 74 @.@ 98 ° . As one of the deep southern constellations , it remains below the horizon at latitudes north of the 30th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere , and is circumpolar at latitudes south of the 50th parallel in the Southern Hemisphere . Some of the stars in the constellation form an asterism known as " the Saucepan " in Australia when they are used for navigation , as they point toward the southern celestial pole .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Although he depicted Pavo on his chart , Bayer did not assign its stars Bayer designations . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Omega in 1756 , but omitted Psi and Xi , and labelled two pairs of stars close together Mu and Phi Pavonis . In 1879 , American astronomer Benjamin Gould designated a star Xi Pavonis as he felt its brightness warranted a name , but dropped Chi Pavonis due to its faintness .
Lying near the constellation 's northern border with Telescopium is Alpha Pavonis , the brightest star in Pavo . Its proper name — Peacock — is an English translation of the constellation 's name . It was assigned by the British Her Majesty 's Nautical Almanac Office in the late 1930s ; the Royal Air Force insisted that all bright stars must have names , the star hitherto having lacked a proper name . Alpha has an apparent ( or visual ) magnitude of 1 @.@ 91 and spectral type B2IV . It is a spectroscopic binary system , one estimate placing the distance between the pair of stars as 0 @.@ 21 astronomical unitS ( AU ) , or half the distance between Mercury and the Sun . The two stars rotate around each other in a mere 11 days and 18 hours . The star system is located around 180 light years away from Earth .
With an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 43 , Beta Pavonis is the second @-@ brightest star in the constellation . A white giant of spectral class A7III , it is an aging star that has used up the hydrogen fuel at its core and has expanded and cooled after moving off the main sequence . It lies 135 light years away from the Solar System .
Lying a few degrees west of Beta is Delta Pavonis , a nearby Sun @-@ like but more evolved star ; this is a yellow subgiant of spectral type G8IV and apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 56 that is only 19 @.@ 9 light years distant from Earth . East of Beta and at the constellation 's eastern border with Indus is Gamma Pavonis , a fainter , solar @-@ type star 30 light years from Earth with a magnitude of 4 @.@ 22 and stellar class F9V . Other nearby stars in Pavo are much fainter : SCR 1845 @-@ 6357 is a binary system with an apparent magnitude of 17 @.@ 4 consisting of a red dwarf and brown dwarf companion lying around 12 @.@ 6 light years distant , while Gliese 693 is a red dwarf of magnitude 10 @.@ 78 lying 19 light years away .
Pavo contains several variable stars of note . Lambda Pavonis is a bright irregular variable ranging between magnitudes 3 @.@ 4 and 4 @.@ 4 ; this variation can be observed with the unaided eye . Classed as a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable or shell star , it is of spectral type B2II @-@ IIIe and lies around 1430 light years distant from Earth . Kappa Pavonis is a W Virginis variable — a subclass of Type II Cepheid . It ranges from magnitude 3 @.@ 91 to 4 @.@ 78 over 9 days and is a yellow @-@ white supergiant pulsating between spectral classes F5I @-@ II and G5I @-@ II . NU and V Pavonis are pulsating semiregular variable red giant stars . NU has a spectral type M6III and ranges from magnitude 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 3 , while V Pavonis ranges from magnitude 6 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 2 over two periods of 225 @.@ 4 and 3735 days concurrently . V is a carbon star of spectral type C6,4 ( Nb ) with a prominent red hue .
Located in the west of the constellation and depicting the peacock 's tail are Eta and Xi Pavonis . At apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 6 , Eta is a luminous orange giant of spectral type K2II some 350 light years distant from Earth . Xi Pavonis is a multiple star system visible in small telescopes as a brighter orange star and fainter white companion . Located around 470 light years from Earth , the system has a magnitude of 4 @.@ 38 . AR Pavonis is a faint but well @-@ studied eclipsing binary composed of a red giant and smaller hotter star some 18000 light years from Earth . It has some features of a cataclysmic variable , the smaller component most likely having an accretion disc . The visual magnitude ranges from 7 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 6 over 605 days .
= = = Planetary systems and debris disks = = =
Six stars with planetary systems have been found . Three planets have been discovered in the system of the orange star HD 181433 , an inner super @-@ earth with an orbital period of 9 @.@ 4 days and two outer gas giants with periods of 2 @.@ 6 and 6 years respectively . HD 196050 and HD 175167 are yellow G @-@ class Sun @-@ like stars , while HD 190984 is an F @-@ class main sequence star slightly larger and hotter than the Sun ; all three are accompanied by a gas giant companion . HD 172555 is a young white A @-@ type main sequence star , two planets of which appear to have had a major collision in the past few thousand years . Spectrographic evidence of large amounts of silicon dioxide gas indicates the smaller of the two , which had been at least the size of Earth 's moon , was destroyed , and the larger , which was at least the size of Mercury , was severely damaged . Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope . In the south of the constellation , Epsilon Pavonis is a 3 @.@ 95 @-@ magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth . It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The deep @-@ sky objects in Pavo include NGC 6752 , the third @-@ brightest globular cluster in the sky , after 47 Tucanae and Omega Centauri . An estimated 100 light years across , it is thought to contain 100 @,@ 000 stars . Lying three degrees to the south is NGC 6744 , a spiral galaxy around 30 million light years away from Earth that resembles the Milky Way , but is twice its diameter . A type 1c supernova was discovered in the galaxy in 2005 ; known as SN2005at , it peaked at magnitude 16 @.@ 8 . The dwarf galaxy IC 4662 lies 10 arcminutes northeast of Eta Pavonis , and is of magnitude 11 @.@ 62 . Located only 8 million light years away , it has several regions of high star formation . The 14th @-@ magnitude galaxy IC 4965 lies 1 @.@ 7 degrees west of Alpha Pavonis , and is a central member of the Shapley Supercluster .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Pavo is the radiant of two annual meteor showers : the Delta Pavonids and August Pavonids . Appearing from 21 March to 8 April and generally peaking around 5 and 6 April , Delta Pavonids are thought to be associated with Comet Grigg @-@ Mellish . The shower was discovered by Michael Buhagiar from Perth , Australia , who observed meteors on six occasions between 1969 and 1980 . The August Pavonids peak around August 31 and are thought to be associated with the Halley @-@ type Comet Levy ( P / 1991 L3 ) .
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= Ansgar Løvold =
Ansgar Løvold ( 19 November 1888 – 12 November 1961 ) was a wrestler , butcher and philanthropist from Kristiansund , Norway . He is most known for participating at the 1912 Summer Olympics and for launching the idea for the Kristiansund and Frei Fixed Link .
Løvold started wrestling during his journeyman years while living in Oslo . He joined IF Ørnulf and became Norwegian Champion in Greco @-@ Roman wrestling in 1912 . This qualified him to the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm , but Løvold lost both his matches in the light heavyweight event . He moved back to Kristiansund in 1913 , where he founded a wrestling club and started as an instructor . He also founded wrestling clubs in Molde and Trondheim . As a butcher , he ran several butcher shops in town . From 1951 , Løvold dedicated his time to working towards a fixed link for Kristiansund .
= = Early life and professional career = =
Løvold was born on 19 November 1888 in Kristiansund , Norway , as son of Missionary Ole Løvold ( 1846 – 1919 ) . Løvold started as a butcher apprentice with his brother B. O. Løvold , before setting out on his journeyman years , where he worked at Bye in Bergen and Axel Jensen in Oslo . He received his trade certificate in 1910 . He moved back to Kristiansund in 1913 , where he lived for the rest of his life . He married Bergljot , who died in 1958 .
Løvold established a butcher shop in Storgaten in 1914 , which he ran until it was taken over by the municipality in 1917 . He then operated various retailing businesses until joining Nordmøre Slakteri . There he was chief of operations until the slaughtering company closed in 1932 . He then established Ansgar Kjøtt og Pølseforretning , which at first was located at Nordmør Landbruksforretning butafter two years moved to Massestretet . His store was destroyed in the bombings of the Norwegian Campaign during World War II , although rebuilt after the war . After he retired , the store was taken over by his sons .
= = Sports career = =
It was during the journeyman years in Oslo that Løvold joined organized wrestling . Wrestling in Kristiansund was first introduced by Løvold wrestling at circuses and town fairs . On 8 January 1911 he held a major show against circus artist Erik Blixt , for which Løvold was promised 100 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) if he won . Although successful , he did not accept the prize money , as it would have made him a professional . He started competing for Fagforeningernes TIF and later IF Ørnulf in Oslo . He represented the latter when he won the 1912 Norwegian championships , thus qualifying him for the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm . There he participated in the Greco @-@ Roman light heavyweight , but was sent home after losing both his introductory rounds , against Finland 's Karl Lind and Austria 's Karl Barl .
After moving home to Kristiansund in 1913 , Løvold was instrumental in establishing a wrestling club . The sport became popular and within a few years all the major sports clubs were offering wrestling . Especially the labor movement 's clubs took up the sport , and Kristiansund was quickly known as a wrestling town . Løvold coached several clubs , including IL Nordlandet and Ynglingen . In 1913 he succeeded at getting sponsorships of NOK 300 from various companies throughout town to purchase mats , which was instrumental in making the sport more popular in town . He later became known as a benefactor and sponsor of local wrestling . Kristiansund 's first major national tournament was held in 1915 and the first Norwegian Championships in Kristiansund were held in 1922 . Løvold also traveled to the neighboring town of Molde to establish a wrestling club there , although wrestling never became as popular in Molde as in Kristiansund . He also established Trondheim 's first wrestling club . From 1939 , when the labourers ' wrestling clubs in Kristiansund merged to form the club Kristiansund AK , Løvold represented this club .
= = Philanthropy = =
Løvold was an active member of Foreningen Kristiansunderen , an organization which worked for the betterment of the town . After seeing The Little Mermaid in Copenhagen , Løvold started working to build a mermaid statue fountain in Kristiansund . The mermaid statue was never built , although he eventually secured sufficient funding to build a fountain . Løvold traveled to the United States in 1951 to visit his siblings Oscar and Lise in Minnesota , which he had not seen in 42 years . He also visited New York City , where he drove through the Holland Tunnel . On his way home he came in contact with Prime Minister Oscar Torp .
Back in Kristiansund , Løvold started working with the idea of building a subsea road tunnel from Kristiansund to the mainland . He discussed the issue in Foreningen Kristiansunderen where it received support . Løvold was an important enthusiast for the fixed link project , which would materialize as the Kristiansund and Frei Fixed Link in 1992 . The local press dubbed him the fixed link general . In 1955 he organized an inspection of Freifjorden ; using echo sounding it was possible to survey the depth of the fjord . Afterwards he took contact with County Governor Olav Oksvik and the two started working towards implementing the plans .
Along with Engineer Gunnar Tonning , Løvold traveled several times to Oslo to meet with national politicians and authorities . In addition to Torp , he consulted the engineering company Aas @-@ Jakobsen , the NATO office and Kolbjørn Varmann , Minister of Transport and Communications . In 1958 a joint municipal and county committee was established to follow up the plans , where Løvold was appointed chairman . Its main function was the ordering seismic surveys of Freifjorden , which gave positive results . Major Worm Eide manned for caution and stated that there was no funding available . Subsequently a committee led by Ole Mollan was appointed , which criticized the original committee for not prioritizing more critical transport investments .
During the entire planning and construction of the Tromsø Bridge , Løvold subscribed to both the Tromsø newspapers , Nordlys and Bladet Tromsø , to follow the development . Erling Kjeldsen , who was the main initiator of the Tromsø Bridge , was an inspiration for Løvold . Following in the steps of Tromsø , Løvold established Tunnellforeningen ( " The Tunnel Association " ) . Its prime goal was to circulate a petition , which received 6 @,@ 000 signatures — two thirds of the electorate . The organization also featured paroles in the 1961 Constitution Day parade . During the summer , Løvold painted a large , while " tunnel entrance " on a cliff at Spellmannshaugen as a public relations gimmick . The point he painted was the exact location the Freifjord Tunnel would have its opening . Another organization , Fastlandsforeningen ( " The Mainland Association " ) was established by Løvold on 27 September 1961 . That year another public committee was established , again chaired by Løvold . Løvold died on 12 November 1961 in Kristiansund , 72 years old .
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= Bikernieki Memorial =
Bikernieki Memorial ( Latvian : Biķernieku memoriāls ) is a war memorial to The Holocaust victims of World War II in Bikernieki forest ( Latvian : Biķernieku mežs ) , near Riga , Latvia . Bikernieki forest is the biggest mass murder site during The Holocaust in Latvia with two memorial territories spanning over 80 @,@ 000 square metres ( 860 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with 55 marked burial sites with around 20 @,@ 000 victims still buried in total .
The memorial was initially planned and construction started in 1986 , but was delayed after Latvia declared independence in 1991 . The construction was revived in 2000 by German War Graves Commission with the help of local Latvian organisations and several German cities . It was financed mostly by German government and organisations , Austrian State Fund , and involved city donations . It was designed by Sergey Rizh and opened on November 30 , 2001 .
= = Description = =
The architect of the memorial is Sergey Rizh ( Russian : Серге ́ й Рыж ) , who worked for 15 years on the design of the memorial , saying it was " his human obligation " to devote his career to this . The memorial is located in the Bikernieki forest , next to the Bikernieku Street ( Latvian : Biķernieku iela ) passing through the forest . There are two memorial territories – 6 @,@ 550 and 79 @,@ 630 square metres ( 70 @,@ 500 and 857 @,@ 100 sq ft ) wide on both sides from the road . In addition to smaller forest pathways , there are two roads leading to the memorial 's central square – a historic road used to bring the victims and the main central road paved with concrete slabs and marked with a concrete arc exiting to Bikernieku Street .
The centre of assembly houses a black granite cube – a symbolic altar with engraving from Book of Job 16 : 18 " Earth , don 't cover my blood . Let my cry have no place to rest . " in Latvian , Russian , German , and Hebrew languages . The immediate area is surrounded by 4 @,@ 000 granite stones arranged in a grid of forty @-@ five 4 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ metre ( 13 ft × 13 ft ) squares , and resembles a traditional Jewish cemetery . The unique rough @-@ hewn 0 @.@ 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 0 @.@ 66 to 4 @.@ 92 ft ) high granite stones of black , gray , and reddish colors come from Zhytomyr region in Ukraine . The stones are carved with European city names representing the home towns of the victims . The entrances to the memorial and other grave sites in the forest are marked with concrete pillars with symbols representing various groups of the fallen – Star of David representing Jews , Crown of Thorns representing war prisoners , and Christian cross representing civilians . Historians from the New Synagogue Berlin – Centrum Judaicum , educational establishment House of the Wannsee Conference , and historians from the member cities have documented the names of over 31 @,@ 000 victims , published in Book of Remembrance : The German , Austrian and Czechoslovakian Jews deported to the Baltic States ( 2003 ) .
Despite the nature of memorial , the surrounding hills are a popular summer hiking and winter sledding and skiing location . Although Germany supplies annual funding for memorial maintenance , it is insufficient to fund regular police patrols and surveillance . The memorial and gravestones have been vandalised several times , each time attracting media attention .
= = History = =
Bikernieki forest is Latvia 's biggest mass murder site during The Holocaust of World War II during years 1941 – 44 . There are 55 marked mass burial sites in the forest . About 46 @,@ 500 people were reported to have been killed there , including Latvian and Western European Jews , Soviet prisoners of war , and Nazis ' political adversaries . The exact number of victims is unknown . Although Soviet Nazi War Crime Research Committee declared over 46 @,@ 000 murders , later excavations did not confirm this number . The number of victims is speculated to be closer to 30 @,@ 000 .
The first victims were a few thousand men arrested in July 1941 and brought from Riga Central Prison . In 1942 another 12 @,@ 000 Jews were brought from Germany , Austria , and Czechoslovakia . In 1943 Riga Ghetto prisoners were brought here who were unable to work at Kaiserwald concentration camp , followed by those from the camp itself unable to work in 1944 . In 1943 and onwards Nazis dug up graves and burned the bodies to hide the evidence . It is estimated that there are now around 20 @,@ 000 victims buried in the forest .
= = Planning and construction = =
In the 1960s , only a simple commemorative plaque was placed in the forest and the grave sites were marked with concrete borders . The plaque stated that 46 @,@ 500 Soviet citizens had died and omitted mentioning nationalities . The location had been neglected and slowly degrading since . The first plans for the Bikernieki forest grave site cleanup were formed in 1986 by a team from the Komunālprojekts Institute . The team included Gaļina Lobaševa , Vija Jansone , Gaļina Alsina , Ineta Vītola , Māris Galarovskis , and Sergey Rizh in the lead . The project received Riga City Council 's approval and state funding and the works continued until 1991 when the current government was dissolved after Latvia declared independence . The work halted at around a fifth of the completion with only the surrounding terrain cleared and central and entrance memorial signs erected .
The project was revived in 1993 – 4 by the initiative of Eric Herzl , an expert from Austrian Society of Memorials , who obtained the permission from Riga City Council to continue the construction work . Austria brought the project to the attention of the German War Graves Commission and more than a dozen German cities in 1999 . On May 23 , 2000 , 13 German city representatives and the president of German War Graves Commission met in Berlin to form German Riga Committee . [ a ] The chapter was formed to plan and build a war memorial in Bikernieki forest to commemorate the Jews deported and killed at the start of the 1940s . The project was funded by German War Graves Commission , the National Fund of the Republic of Austria , the German government including Central Council of Jews in Germany , and donations from several German town municipalities . The work was carried out by The German Commission , Latvian Fraternal Cemeteries Commission , and the Riga City Council . The projected cost was DEM 900 @,@ 000 and the actual project cost DEM 1M ( or LVL 285 @,@ 000 ) .
The memorial was opened on November 30 , 2001 , 60 years after the start of the deportations . The event was opened by the former president of Latvia Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga who in her speech noted the importance of raising people 's awareness about the events that took place there . The event was well attended , including former Latvian Prime Minister Andris Bērziņš , Latvian chief rabbi Natans Barkans , officials and ambassadors from various countries , former ghetto and concentration camp inmates , and relatives of the victims from Lithuania , Estonia , Germany , Israel , Austria , and Russia . Several research , education , and remembrance events were held after the opening ceremony . The opening and the following events received local and foreign media coverage . The opening ceremony ended with a Jewish prayer Kaddish by Riga Jewish community cantor Vlad Shulman .
= = Reception = =
The architect Sergey Rizh says he attempted to show the idea of the memorial with a " concise language of architectural forms " . His goal was to encompass the surrounding terrain in line with contemporary art . Art historian Solvita Krese called the project successful and lauded the design for avoiding exaggeration of themes at hand . She also noted that the memorial fit well with the terrain . Architect Ausma Skujiņa also said the project was successful among many other less successful ones . She stressed its positive nature and how the memorial " reconciles with the pain , and evens it out . " Winfried Nachtwei describes it as the " first of its kind in Eastern Europe " .
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= Leo Ryan =
Leo Joseph Ryan , Jr . ( May 5 , 1925 – November 18 , 1978 ) was an American teacher and politician . He served as a U.S. Representative as a member of the Democratic Party . He represented California 's 11th congressional district from 1973 until he was shot to death in Guyana by members of the Peoples Temple , shortly before the Jonestown mass suicide on November 18 , 1978 , just 11 days after Ryan 's election to a fourth term . He is the only sitting member of the U.S. House of Representatives to have been assassinated in office .
After the Watts Riots of 1965 , Assemblyman Ryan took a job as a substitute school teacher to investigate and document conditions in the area . In 1970 , he investigated the conditions of California prisons by being held , under a pseudonym , as an inmate in Folsom Prison , while presiding as chairman of the Assembly committee that oversaw prison reform . During his time in Congress , Ryan traveled to Newfoundland to investigate the practice of seal hunting .
Ryan was also famous for vocal criticism of the lack of Congressional oversight of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , and authored the Hughes – Ryan Amendment , passed in 1974 . He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal posthumously in 1983 .
= = Early life and education = =
Ryan was born in Lincoln , Nebraska . Throughout his early life , his family moved frequently through Illinois , Florida , New York , Wisconsin , and Massachusetts . He graduated from Campion Jesuit High School in Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin , in 1943 . He then received V @-@ 12 officer training at Bates College and served with the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946 as a submariner .
Ryan graduated from Nebraska 's Creighton University with a B.A. in 1949 and an M.S. in 1951 . He served as a teacher , school administrator and South San Francisco city councilman from 1956 to 1962 . He taught English at Capuchino High School , and chaperoned the marching band in 1961 to Washington , D.C. , to participate in President John F. Kennedy 's inaugural parade . Ryan was inspired by Kennedy 's call to service in his inaugural address , and decided to run for higher office .
= = Career = =
= = = State of California = = =
In 1962 , Ryan was elected mayor of South San Francisco . He served less than a year as mayor , before taking a seat in the California State Assembly 's 27th district , winning his assembly race by a margin of 20 @,@ 000 votes . He had previously run for the State Assembly 's 25th district in 1958 , but lost to Republican Louis Francis . Ryan served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1964 and 1968 , and he held his Assembly seat through 1972 , when he was elected to the United States House of Representatives . He was successively elected three more times to the United States Congress .
U.S. Congresswoman and former California State Senator and Ryan aide Jackie Speier described Ryan 's style of investigation as " experiential legislating " . After the Watts Riots of 1965 , Assemblyman Ryan went to the area and took a job as a substitute school teacher to investigate and document conditions in the area . In 1970 , using a pseudonym , Ryan had himself arrested , detained , and strip searched to investigate conditions in the California prison system . He stayed as an inmate for ten days in the Folsom Prison , while presiding as chairman on the Assembly committee that oversaw prison reform .
As a California Assemblyman , Ryan also served as the Chairman of legislative subcommittee hearings and presided over hearings involving his later successor as Congressman , Tom Lantos . Ryan pushed through important educational policies in California and authored what came to be known as the Ryan Act , which established an independent regulatory commission to monitor educational credentialing in the state .
= = = United States Congress = = =
During his time in Congress , Ryan went to Newfoundland with James Jeffords to investigate the inhumane killing of seals , and he was famous for vocal criticism of the lack of Congressional oversight of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , authoring the Hughes – Ryan Amendment , which would have required extensive CIA notification of Congress about planned covert operations . Congressman Ryan once told Dick Cheney that leaking a state secret was an appropriate way for a member of Congress to block an " ill @-@ conceived operation " . Ryan supported Patricia Hearst , and along with Senator S. I. Hayakawa , delivered Hearst 's application for a presidential commutation to the Pardon Attorney .
= = Peoples Temple = =
In 1978 , reports regarding widespread abuse and human rights violations in Jonestown among the Peoples Temple , led by cult leader Jim Jones , began to filter out of the organization 's Guyana enclaves . Ryan was friends with the father of former Temple Member Bob Houston , whose mutilated body was found near train tracks on October 5 , 1976 , three days after a taped telephone conversation with Houston 's ex @-@ wife in which leaving the Temple was discussed . Ryan 's interest was further aroused by the custody battle between the leader of a " Concerned Relatives " group , Timothy Stoen , and Jones following a Congressional " white paper " written by Stoen detailing the events . Ryan was one of 91 Congressmen to write Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham on Stoen 's behalf .
Later , after reading an article in the San Francisco Examiner , Ryan declared his intention to go to Jonestown , an agricultural commune in Guyana where Jim Jones and roughly 1 @,@ 000 Temple members resided . Ryan 's choice was also influenced both by the Concerned Relatives group , which consisted primarily of Californians , as were most Temple members , and by his own characteristic distaste for social injustice . According to the San Francisco Chronicle , while investigating the events , the United States Department of State " repeatedly stonewalled Ryan 's attempts to find out what was going on in Jonestown " , and told him that " everything was fine " . The State Department characterized possible action by the United States government in Guyana against Jonestown as creating a potential " legal controversy " , but Ryan at least partially rejected this viewpoint . In a later article in The Chronicle , Ryan was described as having " bucked the local Democratic establishment and the Jimmy Carter administration 's State Department " in order to prepare for his own investigation .
= = = Travels to Jonestown = = =
On November 1 , 1978 , Ryan announced that he would visit Jonestown . He did so as part of a government investigation and received permission and government funds to do so . He made the journey in his role as chairman of a congressional subcommittee with jurisdiction over U.S. citizens living in foreign countries . He asked the other members of his Bay Area congressional delegation to join him on the investigation to Jonestown , but they all declined his invitation . Ryan had also asked his friend , Indiana Congressman and future Vice President Dan Quayle , to accompany him – Quayle had served with Ryan on the Government Operations Committee – but Quayle was unable to go on the trip .
While the party was initially planned to consist of only a few members of the Congressman 's staff and press as part of the congressional delegation , once the media learned of the trip the entourage ballooned to include , among others , concerned relatives of Temple members . Congressman Ryan traveled to Jonestown with 17 Bay Area relatives of Peoples Temple members , several newspaper reporters and an NBC TV team . When the legal counsel for Jones attempted to impose several restrictive conditions on the visit , Ryan responded that he would be traveling to Jonestown whether Jones permitted it or not . Ryan 's stated position was that a " settlement deep in the bush might be reasonably run on authoritarian lines " . However , residents of the settlement must be allowed to come and go as they pleased . He further asserted that if the situation had become " a gulag " , he would do everything he could to " free the captives " .
= = = Jungle ambush and assassination = = =
On November 14 , according to the Foreign Affairs Committee report , Ryan left Washington and arrived in Georgetown , the capital of Guyana located 150 miles ( 240 km ) away from Jonestown , with his congressional delegation of government officials , media representatives and some members of the " Concerned Relatives " .
That night the delegation stayed at a local hotel where , despite confirmed reservations , most of the rooms had been canceled and reassigned , leaving the delegation sleeping in the lobby . For three days , Ryan continued negotiation with Jones 's legal counsel and held perfunctory meetings with embassy personnel and Guyanese officials .
While in Georgetown , Ryan visited the Temple 's Georgetown headquarters in the suburb of Lamaha Gardens . Ryan asked to speak to Jones by radio , but Sharon Amos , the highest @-@ ranking Temple member present , told Ryan that he could not because his present visit was unscheduled . On November 17 , Ryan 's aide Jackie Speier ( who became a Congresswoman in April 2008 ) , the United States embassy Deputy Chief of Mission Richard Dwyer , a Guyanese Ministry of Information officer , nine journalists , and four Concerned Relatives representatives of the delegation boarded a small plane for the flight to an airfield at Port Kaituma a few miles outside of Jonestown . At first , only the Temple legal counsel was allowed off the plane , but eventually the entire entourage ( including Gordon Lindsay , reporting for NBC ) was allowed in . Initially , the welcome at Jonestown was warm , but Temple member Vernon Gosney handed a note to NBC correspondent Don Harris which stated , " Please help me get out of Jonestown , " listing himself and Temple member Monica Bagby . That night , the media and the delegation were returned to the airfield for accommodations following Jones ' refusal to allow them to stay the night ; the rest of the group remained . The next morning , Ryan , Speier , and Dwyer all continued their interviews , and in the morning met a woman who secretly expressed her wish to leave Jonestown with her family and another family . Around 11 : 00 A.M. local time , the media and the delegation returned and took part in interviewing Peoples Temple members . Around 3 : 00 p.m. , 14 Temple defectors , and Larry Layton posing as a defector , boarded a truck and were taken to the airstrip , with Ryan wishing to stay another night to assist any others that wished to leave . Shortly thereafter , a failed knife attack on Congressman Ryan occurred while he was arbitrating a family dispute on leaving . Against Ryan 's protests , Deputy Chief of Mission Dwyer ordered Ryan to leave , but he promised to return later to address the dispute .
The entire group left Jonestown and arrived at the Kaituma airstrip by 4 : 45 p.m. local time . Their exit transport planes , a twin @-@ engine Otter and a Cessna , did not arrive until 5 : 10 p.m. The smaller six @-@ seat Cessna was just taxiing to the end of the runway when one of its occupants , Larry Layton , opened fire on those inside , wounding several . Concurrently , several other Peoples Temple members who had escorted the group out began to open fire on the transport plane , killing Congressman Ryan , three journalists and a defecting Temple member , while wounding nine others , including Speier . The gunmen riddled Congressman Ryan 's body with bullets before shooting him in the face . The passengers on the Cessna subdued Larry Layton and the surviving people on both planes fled into nearby fields during and after the attack .
That afternoon , before the news became public , the wife of Ryan 's aide , William Holsinger , received three threatening phone calls . The caller allegedly stated , " Tell your husband that his meal ticket just had his brains blown out , and he better be careful . " The Holsingers then fled to Lake Tahoe and later to a ranch in Houston . They never returned to San Francisco . Following its takeoff , the Cessna radioed in a report of the attack , and the U.S. Ambassador , John R. Burke , went to the residence of Prime Minister Forbes Burnham . It was not until the next morning that the Guyanese army could cut through the jungle and reach the settlement . They discovered 909 of its inhabitants dead ; the individuals died in what the United States House of Representatives described as a " mass suicide / murder ritual " .
= = = Conviction of Larry Layton = = =
Larry Layton , brother of author and former Peoples Temple member Deborah Layton , was convicted in 1986 of conspiracy in the murder of Leo Ryan . Temple defectors boarding the truck to Port Kaituma warned about Larry Layton that " there 's no way he 's a defector . He 's too close to Jones . " Layton was the only former Peoples Temple member to be tried in the United States for criminal acts relating to the murders at Jonestown . He was convicted on four different murder @-@ related counts .
On March 3 , 1987 , Layton was sentenced to concurrent sentences of life in prison for " aiding and abetting the murder of Congressman Leo Ryan " , " conspiracy to murder an internationally protected person , Richard Dwyer , Deputy Chief of Mission for the United States in the Republic of Guyana " , as well as fifteen years in prison on other related counts . At that time , he was eligible for parole in five years . On June 3 , 1987 , Layton 's motion to set aside the conviction " on the ground that he was denied the effective assistance of counsel during his second trial " was denied by the United States District Court of the Northern District of California . After spending eighteen years in prison , Layton was released from custody in April 2002 .
= = Memorial = =
In honor of Leo Ryan , Veterans for Peace Chapter 124 was named after him . VFP 124 Leo J. Ryan Memorial .
= = = Burial = = =
Leo Ryan 's body was returned to the United States and interred at Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno , California . The official Congressional Memorial Services for Ryan were compiled into a book : Leo J. Ryan – Memorial Services – Held In The House Of Representatives & Senate Of The U. S. , Together With Remarks . Ryan 's younger sister Shannon said she was surprised both by the number of supporters that attended the funeral , and by the " outgrowth of real , honest sorrow " .
= = Legacy and honors = =
1983 Ryan was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress , as the only member of Congress killed while in the line of duty ; the bill was signed by President Ronald Reagan . In President Reagan 's remarks about the medal , he said : " It was typical of Leo Ryan 's concern for his constituents that he would investigate personally the rumors of mistreatment in Jonestown that reportedly affected so many from his district . " Ryan 's daughters Patricia and Erin had helped to garner support for the Congressional Gold Medal , in time for the fifth anniversary of Ryan 's death .
1984 , the National Archives and Records Center in San Bruno , California was named the Leo J. Ryan Federal Building in his honor , through a Congressional bill passed unanimously and signed by President Reagan .
Jackie Speier , Ryan 's former aide , was elected in 1998 to the California State Senate . In 2008 she won a special election to the US Congress from California 's 12th congressional district , much of it formerly Ryan 's constituency . After redistricting , since 2013 it has been designated as the state 's 14th congressional district .
= = = Daughters = = =
Shannon Jo Ryan , the eldest daughter , joined the Rajneesh movement . After the Bhagwan moved to Oregon in 1981 , she joined his commune , which became known as Rajneeshpuram Taking the name Ma Amrita Pritam , by December 1982 she had married another member , who also lived at the commune .
Patricia Ryan received her Masters in Public Administration from the George Washington University in Washington , D.C. , and later served ( from 2001 @-@ 2012 ) until her retirement as Executive Director of the California Mental Health Directors Association ( now the County Behavioral Health Directors Association of California ) . During the 1980s , she got involved as a volunteer and eventually served as president of Board of the national Cult Awareness Network .
Erin Ryan went to University of California 's Hastings School of Law , afterward working until 1992 as an intelligence analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency . She next worked in New York as a pastry chef for eight years . In 2000 Erin Ryan joined California Senator Jackie Speier in politics , working as her aide .
= = = Anniversaries = = =
On the 25th anniversary of his death , a special memorial tribute was held in his honor in Foster City , California . Ryan 's family and friends , including his three daughters and Jackie Speier , attended . The San Francisco Chronicle reported that " Over and over today , people described a great man who continually exceeded his constituents ' expectations . " Near the end of the memorial service , parents of those who had died in Jonestown stood to honor and thank Congressman Ryan for giving his life while trying to save their children . After the service ended , mounted police escorted the family and friends into Foster City 's Leo J. Ryan Memorial Park . A wreath was laid next to a commemorative rock that honors Ryan . The same year , his daughter Erin Ryan , an aide to Speier , attended a memorial for those who died at Jonestown , held at the Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland . On the anniversary of Congressman Ryan 's death , Jackie Speier and Patricia Ryan , his daughter and friend , visit his grave at the Golden Gate National Cemetery .
For the 30th anniversary , US Congresswoman Jackie Speier sponsored a bill to designate the United States Postal Service facility at 210 South Ellsworth Avenue in San Mateo , California , as the " Leo J. Ryan Post Office Building " . President George W. Bush signed it into law on October 21 , 2008 . On November 17 , 2008 , Jackie Speier spoke at the dedication ceremony at the post office . In part , she said ,
" There are those – still , thirty years after his passing – who question his motives , or the wisdom of his actions . But criticism was just fine with Leo . Leo Ryan never did anything because he thought it would make him popular . He was more interested in doing what he knew was right . "
= = In popular culture = =
Ryan has been portrayed in films about the Jonestown mass murder / suicide , including by actor Gene Barry in the 1979 film Guyana : Crime of the Century , and by Ned Beatty in the 1980 made @-@ for @-@ TV miniseries , Guyana Tragedy : The Story of Jim Jones .
His assassination was discussed in the documentaries Jonestown : The Life and Death of Peoples Temple ( 2006 ) , on The History Channel documentaries : Cults : Dangerous Devotion and Jonestown : Paradise Lost ( 2006 ) , as well as the MSNBC production , Witness to Jonestown ( 2008 ) , which aired on the 30th anniversary of Ryan 's assassination and the mass suicides at Jonestown .
= = Electoral history = =
Source
= = Published works = =
Books
USA / From Where We Stand : Readings in Contemporary American Problems , Paperback book , Fearon Publishers , ( 1970 )
Understanding California Government and Politics , 152 pages , Fearon Publishers , ( 1966 )
Congressional reports
NATO , pressures from the southern tier : Report of a study mission to Europe , August 5 – 27 , 1975 , pursuant to H. Res. 315 , 22 pages , Published by United States Government Print Office , ( 1975 )
Vietnam and Korea : Human rights and U.S. assistance : a study mission report of the Committee on Foreign Affairs , U.S. House of Representatives , 15 pages , Published by United States Government Print Office , ( 1975 )
The United States oil shortage and the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict : Report of a study mission to the Middle East from October 22 to November 3 , 1973 , 76 pages , Published by United States Government Print Office , ( 1973 )
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= Jack Faber =
John Edgar Faber , Jr . ( January 13 , 1903 – January 14 , 1994 ) was an American microbiologist and college football and lacrosse coach at the University of Maryland . Faber served as the Maryland lacrosse coach from 1928 to 1963 , during which time he compiled a 249 – 57 record and secured numerous national and conference championships . Faber was inducted into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame in 1963 . He coached the Maryland football team in 1935 and again , as a co @-@ head coach alongside Al Heagy and Al Woods , from 1940 to 1941 . He compiled a 12 – 13 – 4 record in football .
= = Early life = =
Faber was born in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania on January 13 , 1903 , and attended Central High School in Washington , D.C. He then went on to college at the University of Maryland , where he played on the Maryland lacrosse team , earning letters in 1926 and 1927 , and the basketball team , earning letters from 1924 to 1927 . The United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) named Faber an honorable mention All @-@ American as an inside attackman in 1926 and a third @-@ team All @-@ American at the out home position in 1927 .
= = Professional career = =
From the University of Maryland , Faber earned a B.S. in 1926 , a M.S. in 1928 , and a Ph.D. in bacteriology in 1937 . In 1945 , he was appointed the head of his alma mater 's Department of Microbiology , a position he held for 18 years . During World War II , Faber joined the United States Army and served from 1942 to 1946 , attaining the rank of major . He spent three years working at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington , D.C.
While teaching bacteriology at Maryland , Faber also held coaching duties . He served as the head coach for the Maryland lacrosse team from 1928 to 1963 . During his tenure , Faber 's lacrosse teams compiled a 249 – 57 record and secured eight outright or shared USILA national championships and nine Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) championships . From 1930 onward , Faber shared coaching duties with Albert Heagy , with the former running the offense and the latter the defense . In 1936 , Faber led Maryland to capture the first Wingate Memorial Trophy , the national championship bestowed by the USILA . The following year , they shared the title with Princeton . In the inaugural North @-@ South Senior All @-@ Star Game in 1940 , Faber coached the South team , which lost to the North team coached by Princeton 's William F. Logan , 6 – 5 . He also coached all @-@ star teams in 1946 and 1956 . In 1955 and 1956 , Faber led Maryland to back @-@ to @-@ back 11 – 0 seasons , with the only close matches coming against period powerhouse Navy , in 1955 , and the highly successful Mount Washington Lacrosse Club , 12 – 11 in 1956 . In 1959 , Maryland finished with a 10 – 1 mark as USILA co @-@ champions alongside Army and Johns Hopkins , and Faber was named the USILA Coach of the Year .
Faber also served on the football staff . He became the assistant field coach under Curly Byrd in 1933 . Byrd was able to devote less time to the team because of his duties as university vice president . In 1930 , Faber enticed Bosey Berger , Maryland 's first basketball All @-@ American , to join the football team with the promise of free late night dining hall meals . In 1935 , Faber took over as head coach when Byrd was promoted to university president . Faber continued to employ his predecessor 's pass @-@ oriented " Byrd system " and hired Richmond head coach Frank Dobson as an assistant . Despite facing " an almost suicidal schedule " , Faber 's veteran team led by back Bill Guckeyson compiled a 7 – 2 – 2 record to finish in third place in the Southern Conference . Faber was succeeded as head football coach by Dobson in 1936 , but in turn , replaced him as a co @-@ head coach alongside Al Heagy and Al Woods in 1940 and 1941 . Those teams finished with 2 – 6 – 1 and 3 – 5 – 1 records , respectively , to bring Faber 's combined football coaching record to 12 – 13 – 4 . The coaching trio was subsequently replaced by Clark Shaughnessy , who two seasons prior had orchestrated a remarkable one @-@ year turnaround at Stanford using a revolutionary version of the T formation . Faber also spent time as an assistant basketball coach at Maryland , and in 1932 , filled in for head coach Burton Shipley who had fallen ill . Faber served two terms as a president of the ACC .
= = Later life = =
He retired from the University of Maryland in 1963 but continued teaching Epidemiology into the 1970s . Faber was inducted into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame that year and into the University of Maryland Athletic Hall of Fame in 1983 . He survived his wife of 62 years , Olyure née Hammack , who died in 1992 . Faber died of pneumonia two years later on January 14 , 1994 , and was interred at Arlington National Cemetery . The University of Maryland Alumni Association Hall of Fame posthumously inducted Faber in 2000 . In 2003 , Maryland established the Faber Memorial Men 's Lacrosse Scholarship Endowment Fund through the Maryland Educational Foundation , Inc. to award scholarships to men 's lacrosse players .
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= Wilhelm Lemke =
Wilhelm Lemke ( 27 September 1920 – 4 December 1943 ) was a Luftwaffe flying ace of World War II . Lemke was credited with 131 aerial victories — that is , 131 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft . All but six of his victories were claimed over the Soviet Air Forces in 617 combat missions .
Born in Arnswalde , Lemke joined the military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1939 . Following flight training , he was posted to 9 . Staffel ( squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) . He flew his first combat missions in Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , and claimed his first aerial victory on 26 June 1941 . There , after 59 aerial victories , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 12 September 1942 . He was given command as Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel on 11 August 1942 . On 16 March 1943 , he was credited with his 100th aerial victory . Four months later , on 28 July 1943 , he claimed his 125th and last victory on the Eastern Front .
Lemke was subsequently relocated to the Western Front , where he flew in the Defense of the Reich and claimed six further victories . In mid @-@ November 1943 , he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of JG 3 " Udet " ; he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 25 November . Lemke was killed in action on 4 December 1943 northwest of Nijmegen in combat with United States Army Air Forces fighters .
= = Early life and career = =
Lemke , the son of a civil servant , was born on 27 September 1920 in Gundelsdorf near Arnswalde , in what was then the Free State of Prussia of the Weimar Republic ( today Choszczno in Poland ) . He joined the military service of the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker ( cadet ) on 15 November 1939 . Following fighter pilot training , he was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 April 1941 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Eastern Front = = =
Lemke was posted to a front @-@ line unit in 1941 , almost two years after the start of World War II . His unit was 9 . Staffel ( squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) . In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , JG 3 under the command of Major ( major ) Günther Lützow was relocated east . Lemke claimed two Soviet Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers shot down on 26 June 1941 — his first aerial victories . He was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) on 4 July 1941 and Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) on 20 July .
By 26 August 1941 , Lemke had accumulated 15 aerial victories . On this day , flying Messerschmitt Bf 109 F @-@ 2 ( Werknummner 8245 — factory number ) , he was hit and wounded in the abdomen during combat with Soviet bombers but managed to make an emergency landing . On 3 November 1941 , while convalescing , he was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) . He returned to active service on 17 February 1942 and was posted to 8 . Staffel of JG 3 " Udet " . On 31 March 1942 , Lemke claimed his 20th aerial victory . He claimed three Lavochkin @-@ Gorbunov @-@ Gudkov LaGG @-@ 3 fighters shot down in combat with 6 UAG ( 6th Soviet strike aviation group — Udarnaya Aviatsionnaya Gruppa ) on 4 April . He was credited with his 30th victory on 24 June 1942 , and aerial victories 39 to 42 on 29 July . Subsequently , he was nominated for the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) by his 8 . Staffel . He was given command as Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of his former 9 . Staffel on 11 August 1942 , leading this unit until 5 November 1943 .
Lemke claimed his 57th victory on 7 September 1942 , his 58th one day later , and his 59th victory on 11 September . The next day , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . On 27 December , he involuntarily rammed a LaGG @-@ 3 in combat . By 31 December 1942 his score had increased to 90 victories . As well as his aerial victories , he was credited with the destruction of aircraft on the ground , as well as three tanks , three fuel trucks , eleven other trucks , three Katyusha rocket launchers , one anti @-@ tank gun , and two mortars . On 16 March 1943 , he claimed his 100th aerial victory , a Lavochkin La @-@ 5 fighter . Lemke was the 35th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . He was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 April 1943 and to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 1 June . He was credited with his last victory on the Eastern Front on 28 July 1943 , taking his total to 125 .
= = = Western Front and death = = =
On 2 August 1943 , JG 3 " Udet " began transferring to Western Front and flew in Defense of the Reich . Lemke claimed two United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighters shot down on 17 August during the Schweinfurt – Regensburg mission , his first on the Western Front . By 14 October 1943 , he was credited with one victory and two Herausschüsse ( separation shots ) — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box , which was counted as an aerial victory — over Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers . On that day , he claimed his 129th and 130th victory , one of which was a Herausschuss , over B @-@ 17s on their second Raid on Schweinfurt .
In mid @-@ November 1943 , Lemke was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of JG 3 " Udet " . He succeeded Major Kurt Brändle , who had been killed in action on 3 November . Lemke surrendered command of 9 . Staffel to Leutnant Ekkehard Tichy and took command of the Gruppe a few days later at the Schiphol airfield , near Amsterdam in the Netherlands . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 25 November , the 338th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored . On 30 November 1943 at 11 : 25 am , he achieved his 131st and final aerial victory over a P @-@ 47 .
Lemke was killed in action in his Bf 109 G @-@ 6 ( Werknummner 410558 ) on 4 December 1943 near Dodewaard , 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) northwest Nijmegen . His mission was to lead an attack of 55 aircraft on a fighter intercept mission against USAAF fighters escorting Eighth Air Force bombers . He was shot down by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts of the 352nd Fighter Group . Lemke was buried at the German war cemetery Ysselsteyn in the Netherlands .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Lemke was credited with 131 aerial victories claimed in 617 combat missions , 125 of which were on the Eastern Front and included 28 Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 ground @-@ attack aircraft .
This and the – ( dash ) indicates unwitnessed aerial victory claims for which Lemke did not receive credit . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates an Herausschuss ( separation shot ) — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box which was counted as an aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 4 July 1941 )
1st Class ( 20 July 1941 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ) on 3 November 1941 as Leutnant and pilot
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 12 September 1942 as Leutnant and Staffelführer of the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet "
338th Oak Leaves on 25 November 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet "
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= Puffadder shyshark =
The puffadder shyshark or happy Eddie ( Haploblepharus edwardsii ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae , endemic to the temperate waters off the coast of South Africa . This common shark is found on or near the bottom in sandy or rocky habitats , from the intertidal zone to a depth of 130 m ( 430 ft ) . Typically reaching 60 cm ( 24 in ) in length , the puffadder shyshark has a slender , flattened body and head . It is strikingly patterned with a series of dark @-@ edged , bright orange " saddles " and numerous small white spots over its back . The Natal shyshark ( H. kistnasamyi ) , formally described in 2006 , was once considered to be an alternate form of the puffadder shyshark .
When threatened , the puffadder shyshark ( and other members of its genus ) curls into a circle with its tail covering its eyes , giving rise to the local names " shyshark " and " doughnut " . It is a predator that feeds mainly on crustaceans , polychaete worms , and small bony fishes . This shark is oviparous and females deposit egg capsules singly or in pairs onto underwater structures . Harmless to humans , the puffadder shyshark is usually discarded by commercial and recreational fishers alike for its small size . It has been assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , as its entire population is located within a limited area and could be affected by a local increase in fishing pressure or habitat degradation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first known reference to the puffadder shyshark in literature was by prominent English naturalist George Edwards in 1760 , by the name Catulus major vulgaris , of three individuals caught off the Cape of Good Hope that have since been lost . In 1817 , French zoologist Georges Cuvier described this species as " Scyllium D 'Edwards " , based on Edwards ' account , though he was not considered to be proposing a true scientific name . In 1832 , German zoologist Friedrich Siegmund Voigt translated Cuvier 's description under the name Scyllium edwardsii , thus receiving attribution for the species . However , in 2001 M.J.P. van Oijen discovered that Swiss naturalist Heinrich Rudolf Schinz had provided an earlier translation of Cuvier 's text with the proper scientific name in 1822 , and subsequently the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) rendered a decision that this species is properly attributed to Schinz . In 1913 , American zoologist Samuel Garman created the new genus Haploblepharus for this and other shyshark species .
Two forms of puffadder shyshark were once recognized : " Cape " and " Natal " , which differed in appearance and habitat preferences . In 2006 , the " Natal " form was described as a new species , the Natal shyshark . A 2006 phylogenetic analysis , based on three mitochondrial DNA genes , found that the puffadder shyshark is the most basal member of its family , with a sister relationship to the clade containing the dark shyshark ( H. pictus ) and the brown shyshark ( H. fuscus ) . The Natal shyshark was not included in the study , though it is very close morphologically to this species . The common name " puffadder shyshark " refers to the puff adder ( Bitis arietans ) , a widely distributed African viper with similar coloration . " Happy Eddie " ( from the scientific name Haploblepharus edwardsii ) is used by academics for this shark , and was recently introduced to the public as an easily remembered alternative to the ambiguous vernaculars " shyshark " and " doughnut " , which can apply to several different species and have confounded research efforts .
= = Description = =
The puffadder shyshark is more slender than other shysharks , with a short , broad , dorsally flattened head and a narrowly rounded snout . The large , oval @-@ shaped eyes have cat @-@ like slit pupils , a simple nictitating membrane ( a protective third eyelid ) , and a prominent ridge underneath . The nostrils are very large , with a pair of greatly expanded , triangular flaps of skin in front that are fused together and reach the mouth . There is a deep groove connecting the excurrent ( outflow ) opening of each nostril to the mouth , obscured by the nasal flaps . The mouth is short with furrows at the corners on both jaws . There are 26 – 30 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 27 – 33 tooth rows in the lower jaw . Tooth shape is sexually dimorphic : those of males are longer and three @-@ pointed , while those of females are shorter and five @-@ pointed . Unusually , the two halves of the lower jaw are connected by a special cartilage , which allows a more even distribution of teeth and may increase bite strength .
The five pairs of gill slits are positioned somewhat on the upper surface of the body . The dorsal , pelvic , and anal fins are all of similar size . The dorsal fins are located far back on the body , the first originating behind the pelvic fin origins and the second behind the anal fin origin . The pectoral fins are broad and of moderate size . The short , broad caudal fin comprises about one @-@ fifth of the body length and has a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe and a barely developed lower lobe . The skin is thick and covered by well @-@ calcified , leaf @-@ shaped dermal denticles . The dorsal coloration consists of a light to dark brown background with a series of 8 – 10 striking yellowish to reddish brown " saddles " with darker margins , all covered by a profusion of small white spots . The underside is white . This species attains a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) , with a maximum record of 69 cm ( 27 in ) . Sharks found west of Cape Agulhas are smaller than those found east , reaching only 48 cm ( 19 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the puffadder shyshark is limited to the continental shelf along the coast of South Africa , from Langebaan Lagoon in Western Cape Province to the western shore of Algoa Bay . Previous records of it being found as far north as Durban are now thought to be misidentifications of other species . This bottom @-@ dwelling shark is most common over sandy or rocky bottoms . It is found in progressively deeper water towards the northeastern portion of its range , from 0 – 15 m ( 0 – 49 ft ) off Cape Town to 40 – 130 m ( 130 – 430 ft ) off KwaZulu @-@ Natal ; this distribution pattern may reflect this shark 's preference for cooler waters .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Quite common within its small range , the sluggish and reclusive puffadder shyshark is often seen lying still on the sea floor . It is gregarious and several individuals may rest together . A generalist predator with grasping dentition , the puffadder shyshark is known to take a variety of small benthic prey : crustaceans ( including crabs , shrimp , crayfish , mantis shrimp , and hermit crabs ) , annelid worms ( including polychaetes ) , bony fishes ( including anchovies , jack macherels , and gobies ) , cephalopods ( including squid ) , and fish offal . Overall , the most important component of this shark 's diet is crustaceans , followed by polychaetes and then fishes . Males seem to prefer polychaetes , while females prefer crustaceans . It has been observed attacking a common octopus ( Octopus vulgaris ) by tearing off an arm with a twisting motion .
The puffadder shyshark is preyed upon by larger fishes , such as the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) . The Cape fur seal ( Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus ) has been documented capturing and playing with puffadder shysharks , tossing them into the air or gnawing on them . The shark is often injured or killed during these encounters ; the seal may eat torn @-@ off pieces of flesh , but seldom consumes the entire shark . On occasion , black @-@ backed kelp gulls ( Larus dominicanus vetula ) take advantage of this behavior and steal the sharks from the seals . When threatened or disturbed , the puffadder shyshark adopts a characteristic posture in which it curls into a ring and covers its eyes with its tail ; this reaction is the basis for the common names " shyshark " and " doughnut " , and is likely meant to make the shark harder for a predator to swallow .
The eggs of the puffadder shyshark are fed upon by the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria , at least in captivity . Known parasites of this species include the trypanosome Trypanosoma haploblephari , which infests the blood , the nematode Proleptus obtusus , which infests the intestine , and the copepods Charopinus dalmanni and Perissopus oblongatus , which infest the skin . Another parasite is the praniza larval stage of the isopod Gnathia pantherina , which infests the nares , mouth , and gills . The deep @-@ penetrating mouthparts of these larvae significantly damage local tissue , causing bleeding and inflammation .
= = = Life history = = =
The puffadder shyshark is oviparous ; there is no distinct breeding season and reproduction occurs year @-@ round . Females deposit egg capsules one or two at a time , attaching them to vertical structures such as sea fans . The thin @-@ walled egg cases are brown with distinctive pale transverse bands ; and have a slightly furry texture and long adhesive tendrils at the corners . They are smaller than those of other shyshark species , measuring 3 @.@ 5 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) across . The young shark hatches after three months , and measures around 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long . The length at maturation for both sexes has been reported as anywhere from 35 to 55 cm ( 14 to 22 in ) by various sources ; this high degree of variation may reflect regional differences as sharks from deeper waters in the eastern part of its range seem to mature at a larger size than those from the west . The age at maturation is estimated to be around 7 years , and the maximum lifespan is at least 22 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the puffadder shyshark can be easily caught by hand . Not targeted by commercial fisheries because of its small size , it is taken incidentally and discarded by bottom trawlers operating between Mossel Bay and East London , and by fishing boats in False Bay . Many are hooked by recreational anglers casting from the shore , who also generally discard or kill them as minor pests . Some local exploitation of this species does occur for lobster bait and the aquarium trade . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the puffadder shyshark as Near Threatened . Although it remains abundant , the small range of this shark lies entirely within a heavily fished region , and any increase in fishing activities or habitat degradation could potentially impact the entire population .
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= Accounting ethics =
Accounting ethics is primarily a field of applied ethics and is part of business ethics and human ethics , the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to accountancy . It is an example of professional ethics . Accounting introduced by Luca Pacioli , and later expanded by government groups , professional organizations , and independent companies . Ethics are taught in accounting courses at higher education institutions as well as by companies training accountants and auditors .
Due to the diverse range of accounting services and recent corporate collapses , attention has been drawn to ethical standards accepted within the accounting profession . These collapses have resulted in a widespread disregard for the reputation of the accounting profession . To combat the criticism and prevent fraudulent accounting , various accounting organizations and governments have developed regulations and remedies for improved ethics among the accounting profession .
= = Importance of ethics = =
The nature of the work carried out by accountants and auditors requires a high level of ethics . Shareholders , potential shareholders , and other users of the financial statements rely heavily on the yearly financial statements of a company as they can use this information to make an informed decision about investment . They rely on the opinion of the accountants who prepared the statements , as well as the auditors that verified it , to present a true and fair view of the company . Knowledge of ethics can help accountants and auditors to overcome ethical dilemmas , allowing for the right choice that , although it may not benefit the company , will benefit the public who relies on the accountant / auditor 's reporting .
Most countries have differing focuses on enforcing accounting laws . In Germany , accounting legislation is governed by " tax law " ; in Sweden , by " accounting law " ; and in the United Kingdom , by the " company law " . In addition , countries have their own organizations which regulate accounting . For example , Sweden has the Bokföringsnämden ( BFN - Accounting Standards Board ) , Spain the Instituto de Comtabilidad y Auditoria de Cuentas ( ICAC ) , and the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board ( FASB ) .
= = History = =
Luca Pacioli , the " Father of Accounting " , wrote on accounting ethics in his first book Summa de arithmetica , geometria , proportioni , et proportionalita , published in 1494 . Ethical standards have since then been developed through government groups , professional organizations , and independent companies . These various groups have led accountants to follow several codes of ethics to perform their duties in a professional work environment . Accountants must follow the code of ethics set out by the professional body of which they are a member . United States accounting societies such as the Association of Government Accountants , Institute of Internal Auditors , and the National Association of Accountants all have codes of ethics , and many accountants are members of one or more of these societies .
In 1887 , the American Association of Public Accountants ( AAPA ) was created ; it was the first step in developing professionalism in the United States accounting industry . By 1905 , the AAPA 's first ethical codes were formulated to educate its members . During its twentieth anniversary meeting in October 1907 , ethics was a major topic of the conference among its members . As a result of discussions , a list of professional ethics was incorporated into the organization 's bylaws . However , because membership to the organization was voluntary , the association could not require individuals to conform to the suggested behaviors . Other accounting organizations , such as the Illinois Institute of Accountants , also pursued discussion on the importance of ethics for the field . The AAPA was renamed several times throughout its history , before becoming the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants ( AICPA ) as it 's named today . The AICPA developed five divisions of ethical principles that its members should follow : " independence , integrity , and objectivity " ; " competence and technical standards " ; " responsibilities to clients " ; " responsibilities to colleagues " ; as well as " other responsibilities and practices " . Each of these divisions provided guidelines on how a Certified Public Accountant ( CPA ) should act as a professional . Failure to comply with the guidelines could have caused an accountant to be barred from practicing . When developing the ethical principles , the AICPA also considered how the profession would be viewed by those outside of the accounting industry .
= = Teaching ethics = =
Courses on this subject have grown significantly in the last couple of decades . Teaching accountants about ethics can involve role playing , lectures , case studies , guest lectures , as well as other mediums . Recent studies indicate that nearly all accounting textbooks touch on ethics in some way . In 1993 , the first United States center that focused on the study of ethics in the accounting profession opened at State University of New York at Binghamton . Starting in 1999 , several U.S. states began requiring ethics classes prior to taking the CPA exam .
In 1988 , Stephen E. Loeb proposed that accounting ethics education should include seven goals ( adapted from a list by Daniel Callahan ) . To implement these goals , he pointed out that accounting ethics could be taught throughout accounting curriculum or in an individual class tailored to the subject . Requiring it be taught throughout the curriculum would necessitate all accounting teachers to have knowledge on the subject ( which may require training ) . A single course has issues as to where to include the course in a student 's education ( for example , before preliminary accounting classes or near the end of a student 's degree requirements ) , whether there is enough material to cover in a semester class , and whether most universities have room in a four @-@ year curriculum for a single class on the subject .
There has been debate on whether ethics should be taught in a university setting . Supporters point out that ethics are important to the profession , and should be taught to accountants entering the field . In addition , the education would help to reinforce students ' ethical values and inspire them to prevent others from making unethical decisions . Critics argue that an individual is ethical or not , and that teaching an ethics course would serve no purpose . Despite opposition , instruction on accounting ethics by universities and conferences , has been encouraged by professional organizations and accounting firms . The Accounting Education Change Commission ( AECC ) has called for students to " know and understand the ethics of the profession and be able to make value @-@ based judgments . "
Phillip G. Cottel argued that in order to uphold strong ethics , an accountant " must have a strong sense of values , the ability to reflect on a situation to determine the ethical implications , and a commitment to the well @-@ being of others . " Iris Stuart recommends an ethics model consisting of four steps : the accountant must recognize that an ethical dilemma is occurring ; identify the parties that would be interested in the outcome of the dilemma ; determine alternatives and evaluate its effect on each alternative on the interested parties ; and then select the best alternative .
= = Accounting scandals = =
Accounting ethics has been deemed difficult to control as accountants and auditors must consider the interest of the public ( which relies on the information gathered in audits ) while ensuring that they remained employed by the company they are auditing . They must consider how to best apply accounting standards even when faced with issues that could cause a company to face a significant loss or even be discontinued . Due to several accounting scandals within the profession , critics of accountants have stated that when asked by a client " what does two plus two equal ? " the accountant would be likely to respond " what would you like it to be ? " . This thought process along with other criticisms of the profession 's issues with conflict of interest , have led to various increased standards of professionalism while stressing ethics in the work environment .
The role of accountants is critical to society . Accountants serve as financial reporters and intermediaries in the capital markets and owe their primary obligation to the public interest . The information they provide is crucial in aiding managers , investors and others in making critical economic decisions . Accordingly , ethical improprieties by accountants can be detrimental to society , resulting in distrust by the public and disruption of efficient capital market operations .
From the 1980s to the present there have been multiple accounting scandals that were widely reported on by the media and resulted in fraud charges , bankruptcy protection requests , and the closure of companies and accounting firms . The scandals were the result of creative accounting , misleading financial analysis , as well as bribery . Various companies had issues with fraudulent accounting practices , including Nugan Hand Bank , Phar @-@ Mor , WorldCom , and AIG . One of the most widely reported violation of accounting ethics involved Enron , a multinational company , that for several years had not shown a true or fair view of their financial statements . Their auditor Arthur Andersen , an accounting firm considered one of the " Big Five " , signed off on the validity of the accounts despite the inaccuracies in the financial statements . When the unethical activities were reported , not only did Enron dissolve but Arthur Andersen also went out of business . Enron 's shareholders lost $ 25 billion as a result of the company 's bankruptcy . Although only a fraction of Arthur Anderson 's employees were involved with the scandal , the closure of the firm resulted in the loss of 85 @,@ 000 jobs .
= = = Causes = = =
Fraudulent accounting can arise from a variety of issues . These problems usually come to light eventually and could ruin not only the company but also the auditors for not discovering or revealing the misstatements . Several studies have proposed that a firm 's corporate culture as well as the values it stresses may negatively alter an accountant 's behavior . This environment could contribute to the degradation of ethical values that were learned from universities .
Until 1977 , ethics rules prevented accounting and auditing firms from advertising to clients . When the rules were lifted , spending by the largest CPA firms on advertisements rose from US $ 4 million in the 1980s to more than $ 100 million in the 2000s . Critics claimed that , by allowing the firms to advertise , the business side overstepped the professional side of the profession , which led to a conflict of interest . This focus allowed for occurrences of fraud , and caused the firms , according to Arthur Bowman , " ... to offer services that made them more consultants and business advisers than auditors . " As accounting firms became less interested in the lower @-@ paying audits due to more focus on higher earning services such as consulting , problems arose . This disregard for the lack of time spent on audits resulted in a lack of attention to catching creative and fraudulent accounting .
A 2007 article in Managerial Auditing Journal determined the top nine factors that contributed to ethical failures for accountants based on a survey of 66 members of the International Federation of Accountants . The factors include ( in order of most significant ) : " self @-@ interest , failure to maintain objectivity and independence , inappropriate professional judgment , lack of ethical sensitivity , improper leadership and ill @-@ culture , failure to withstand advocacy threats , lack of competence , lack of organizational and peer support , and lack of professional body support . " The main factor , self @-@ interest , is the motivation by an accountant to act in his / her best interest or when facing a conflict of interest . For example , if an auditor has an issue with an account he / she is auditing , but is receiving financial incentives to ignore these issues , the auditor may act unethically .
= = = = Principles and rules = = = =
The International Financial Reporting Standards ( IFRS ) are standards and interpretations developed by the International Accounting Standards Board , which are principle @-@ based . IFRS are used by over 115 countries including the European Union , Australia , and Hong Kong . The United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles ( GAAP ) , the standard framework of guidelines for financial accounting , is largely rule @-@ based . Critics have stated that the rules @-@ based GAAP is partly responsible for the number of scandals that the United States has suffered . The principles @-@ based approach to monitoring requires more professional judgment than the rules @-@ based approach .
There are many stakeholders in many countries such as The United States who report several concerns in the usage of rules @-@ based accounting . According to recent studies , many believe that the principles @-@ based approach in financial reporting would not only improve but would also support an auditor upon dealing with client ’ s pressure . As a result , financial reports could be viewed with fairness and transparency . When the U.S. switched to International accounting standards , they are composed that this would bring change . However , as a new chairperson of the SEC takes over the system , the transition brings a stronger review about the pros and cons of rules- based accounting . While the move towards international standards progresses , there are small amount of research that examines the effect of principle- based standards in an auditor ’ s decision- making process . According to 114 auditing experts , most are willing to allow clients to manage their net income based on rules- based standards . These results offers insight to the SEC , IASB and FASB in weighing the arguments in the debate of principles- vs. rules based- accounting .
IFRS is based on " understandability , relevance , materiality , reliability , and comparability " . Since IFRS has not been adopted by all countries , these practices do not make the international standards viable in the world domain . In particular , the United States has not yet conformed and still uses GAAP which makes comparing principles and rules difficult . In August 2008 , the Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) proposed that the United States switch from GAAP to IFRS , starting in 2014 .
= = = Responses to scandals = = =
Since the major accounting scandals , new reforms , regulations , and calls for increased higher education have been introduced to combat the dangers of unethical behavior . By educating accountants on ethics before entering the workforce , such as through higher education or initial training at companies , it is believed it will help to improve the credibility of the accounting profession . Companies and accounting organizations have expanded their assistance with educators by providing education materials to assist professors in educating students .
New regulations in response to the scandals include the Corporate Law Economic Reform Program Act 2004 in Australia as well as the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act of 2002 , developed by the United States . Sarbanes @-@ Oxley limits the level of work which can be carried out by accounting firms . In addition , the Act put a limit on the fee which a firm can receive from one client as a percentage of their total fees . This ensures that companies are not wholly reliant on one firm for its income , in the hope that they do not need to act unethically to keep a steady income . The act also protects whistleblowers and requires senior management in public companies to sign off on the accuracy of its company 's accounting records . In 2002 , the five members of the Public Oversight Board ( POB ) , which oversaw ethics within the accounting profession , resigned after critics deemed the board ineffective and the SEC proposed developing a new panel , the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board ( PCAOB ) . The PCAOB was developed through the Act , and replaced the POB .
In 2003 , the International Federation of Accountants ( IFAC ) released a report entitled Rebuilding Public Confidence in Financial Reporting : An International Perspective . By studying the international company collapses as a result of accounting issues , it determined areas for improvement within organizations as well as recommendations for companies to develop more effective ethics codes . The report also recommended that companies pursue options that would improve training and support so accountants could better handle ethical dilemmas . A collaborative effort by members of the international financial regulatory community led by Michel Prada , Chairman of the French Financial Markets Authority , resulting in establishment of the Public Interest Oversight Board ( PIOB ) on 1 March 2005 . The PIOB provides oversight of the IFAC standards @-@ setting boards : the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board ( IAASB ) , the International Accounting Education Standards Board ( IAESB ) and the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants ( IESBA ) .
The most recent reform came into effect in July 2010 when President Obama signed " The Dodd @-@ Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act " . The act covers a broad range of changes . The highlights of the legislation are consumer protections with authority and independence , ends too big to fail bail outs , advance warning system , transparency and accountability for exotic instruments , executive compensation and corporate governance , protects investors , and enforces regulations on the books . The legislation also resulted in the Office of the Whistleblower , which was established to administer the SEC 's whistleblower program . Congress authorized the SEC to provide monetary awards to whistleblowers who come forward with information that results in a minimum of a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sanction . The rewards are between 10 % and 30 % of the dollar amount collected . Whistleblowers help identify fraud and other unethical behaviors early on . The result is less harm to investors , quickly holding offenders responsible , and to maintain the integrity of the U.S. markets .
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= Divisional Cavalry Regiment ( New Zealand ) =
The Divisional Cavalry Regiment , commonly known as Div Cav , was an armoured cavalry regiment of the 2nd New Zealand Division during the Second World War and was New Zealand 's first armoured unit . The regiment served as a reconnaissance force for the 2nd New Zealand Division . Formed on 29 September 1939 , the regiment embarked for Egypt on 4 January 1940 . It and the division , part of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force , fought in Greece , Crete , North Africa and Italy . The regiment formed part of J Force , New Zealand 's contribution to the occupation of Japan at the end of the war .
Initially stationed at Maadi , the regiment was moved to Garawla in July and participated in the defence of the Baggush Box two months later . In January 1941 , it moved to Helwan for training . In March , the regiment became part of W Force , the British contingent sent to Greece to defend the country from Germany . It took up positions on the Aliakmon Line before the regiment was scattered during the British retreat from the country . Most of the regiment ended up in Crete , where it faced a German paratroop attack in May and evacuated with the remainder of the British force .
After spending several months reequipping , Div Cav fought in Operation Crusader and was the first unit to enter Bardia in January 1942 . After returning to Maadi , the regiment was sent to Syria with the 2nd New Zealand Division to prevent an Axis attack from Turkey and was sent back to Egypt after the British rout in the Battle of Gazala . It fought at the first and second battles of El Alamein and the Battle of Alam el Halfa . The regiment pursued retreating German troops and fought at the Battle of El Agheila . In January 1943 it was based at Castel Benito , and participated in the March Battle of the Mareth Line . After the German surrender in Tunisia on 13 May , the regiment moved back to Maadi for refitting .
In September the regiment was sent to Italy with the rest of the division and fought in the Moro River Campaign on the Adriatic coast in December . The division fought in the Battle of Monte Cassino , for which Div Cav provided support . The regiment then participated in the drive on the Gothic Line , where elements entered Florence in August . In October it was reorganised as the Divisional Cavalry Battalion , an infantry unit , because its armoured cars were unsuitable for Italian terrain . The battalion fought in the final Allied offensive in Italy , Operation Grapeshot , during the spring of 1945 . It reached Trieste in the first week of May and was stationed there until February 1946 . That month the Divisional Cavalry deployed to Japan , once again called a regiment . Stationed in southern Kyushu , it was disbanded on 1 September 1947 .
= = Formation = =
The regiment was mobilised as part of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2 NZEF ) in September 1939 and was issued with six Bren gun carriers . It had a headquarters , HQ squadron and a machine @-@ gun squadron ; the structure was soon changed to conform with that of the British Divisional Cavalry Regiments , which included three fighting squadrons and a headquarters squadron . The regiment was established from 27 – 30 September at Ngaruawahia Military Camp , except for No. 3 Squadron ( later C Squadron ) , which was formed at Narrow Neck . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Caro Pierce , a World War I veteran and Military Cross recipient . The squadrons at Ngaruawahia were visited by Governor @-@ General George Galway on 30 November . A special march through Auckland Domain was held on 3 January and next day , the regiment ( except for C Squadron ) embarked for Egypt aboard the troopship RMS Rangitata . The Rangitata arrived at Port Tewfik on 13 February and the regiment disembarked the following day and entrained for the New Zealand base camp at Maadi , the central depot and training area for 2 NZEF in the Middle East . In March , twelve Bren gun carriers and five Light Tanks Mark III arrived and tank @-@ gunnery training began on the range at Abbassia ; the regiment participated in brigade manoeuvres at El Saff the following month . On 19 June , the regiment experienced its first fatality when Trooper Vincent Thompson died of meningitis .
C Squadron completed its training in New Zealand , was attached to the Second Echelon of the 2 NZEF ( which included the 5th Brigade ) and was diverted to Britain , while enroute to Egypt , when Italy entered the war and arrived on 16 June . The squadron was based near Aldershot and conducted further training there . C Squadron became part of the Second Echelon 's Headquarters Covering Force , defending Britain against German invasion . In early September , the squadron was moved to Westwell , Kent ; it underwent further training and was sent back to Aldershot in November . With the remainder of the 5th Brigade , C Squadron left Britain for Egypt on 4 January 1941 .
In July 1940 , the 2nd New Zealand Division was sent to Mersa Matruh . The cavalry regiment , camped at Garawla , dug the outer anti @-@ tank ditch along the Wadi Naghamish ( later known as the Kiwi Canal ) . That month , volunteers from the regiment joined the Long Range Desert Patrol , and the regiment 's base came under air attack . In the pre @-@ dawn darkness of 15 July , Italian bombers attempting to bomb the NAAFI dump were driven off by anti @-@ aircraft fire from the regiment . During the night of 18 July , regimental anti @-@ aircraft guns mistakenly fired on a damaged Bristol Blenheim . The regiment received orders to move to Baggush and build fortifications , completing the move on 1 September ; the following day , it began constructing defences at Maaten Baggush . After finishing the task , it was transferred to the rear area at El Daba in a week . The regiment defended No. 2 sector of the Baggush Box . After Operation Compass began on 9 December , a number of Italian Fiat M11 / 39 tanks were left behind at Nibeiwa . The regiment was ordered to salvage the tanks and on 15 December , Lieutenant H. A. Robinson led a party of 25 other ranks to Nibeiwa for the task . Div Cav received Marmon @-@ Herrington Armoured Cars , replacing its obsolete Light Tanks Mk II and Mk III , and was transferred to Helwan in January 1941 . The mortally ill Pierce was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Carruth on 22 February and C Squadron joined the regiment at Helwan on 5 March .
= = Greece = =
In early March 1941 , the 2nd New Zealand Division ( including Div Cav ) was earmarked for W Force , the British Commonwealth force sent to Greece to bolster its defence against a German invasion . The regiment embarked for Greece on 18 March 1941 on the Greek ship Ionia , with its vehicles aboard the cargo ship Anglo @-@ Canadian . The ships arrived at Piraeus on 21 March and the troops stayed at the transit camp at Kifisia . The regiment advanced northward , reaching its position on the Aliakmon Line near Katerini on 26 March . Its mission was to destroy the Aliakmon River bridges , delaying the German advance . Two troops of artillery , consisting of four 25 @-@ pounder and four 2 @-@ pounder guns , were attached to the regiment . On 4 April , two troops of Marmon @-@ Harrington armoured cars were sent to reinforce the British 1st Armoured Brigade on the Macedonian plain and in exchange , the regiment received seven cruiser tanks . The two troops withdrew with the 1st Armoured Brigade when it retreated on 8 April and reached Perdika by the following day . The regiment and E Troop , 5th Field Regiment were the only units left on the plain between Mount Olympus and the Aliakmon on 8 April . The next day , A Squadron demolished the main bridge across the Aliakmon , after the 1st Armoured Brigade had withdrawn southward .
German forces reached the regimental positions on 12 April ; the following day , their attempts to cross the river in assault boats were repulsed . During the evening , the regiment disengaged and fell back to Kolindros and it was attacked by German tanks and infantry on 14 April . Boys anti @-@ tank rifles were useless against the German tanks , although Bren gun fire was effective against the German infantry . When its positions were flanked by tanks , the regiment retreated to Olympus Pass and was ordered to take up positions at Dheskati Pass as a rearguard . The pass , a possible withdrawal route for the 1st Armoured Brigade , was reached on 15 April . On the 17th , division commander Major General Bernard Freyberg dispersed the regiment to screen the rear of his retreating troops . The next day , A and C Squadrons withdrew from Olympus Pass and Elevtherokhorion after a German tank attack . B Squadron fought a rearguard action at Tempe , retreating down the Volos road and losing several carriers .
The regiment , reunited on the Volos road , retreated to the Thermopylae Line . On 21 April it was ordered to patrol Euboea but its vehicles were too badly damaged to do so . The Divisional Cavalry , less A Squadron , was instructed instead to screen Kriekouki under Lieutenant Colonel Clifton , to cover the retreat of the 4th NZ Brigade ; A Squadron was detached to screen the withdrawal of the 1st Armoured Brigade at Khalkis . By the evening of 25 April , the Div Cav had fulfilled its mission and retreated beyond the village of Mazi . In the evening , Div Cav was ordered to guard the Corinth Canal bridge ; A Squadron retreated with the 1st Armoured Brigade to Malakasa . A and B Squadrons retreated to Rafina Beach , embarking on the supply ship Glengyle . One hundred and fifty men from the regiment were left behind and were taken out by HMS Havock on the night of 27 April . C Squadron , caught in the German paratroop attack on Corinth , was forced to abandon its vehicles . It marched to Navplion for embarkation but the ship they were scheduled to board was full and the squadron instead set off for Crete in caïques .
= = Crete = =
The evacuation of Greece divided the regiment , Regimental headquarters and most of HQ Squadron were sent to Egypt and most of the other three squadrons remained on Crete . A total of 194 soldiers from the regiment were on the island , with several wounded men evacuated to Egypt ; A , B and C Squadrons trained and reequipped . Div Cav , commanded by Major J. T. Russell and renamed Russell Force , joined the ad @-@ hoc 10th NZ Brigade under newly promoted Acting Colonel Howard Kippenberger and was positioned on the road from Chania to Alikianos . Russell Force was moved to Aghya in early May 1941 .
German paratroops attacked Crete on 20 May . Many paratroopers landed near the Div Cav positions and were beaten back . Cut off from the 10th Brigade headquarters , Russell followed Kippenberger 's orders and withdrew to Galatas in Chania , to reinforce a Greek unit south of the village . At dusk , the regiment dug in near a stone wall . B Squadron held the right flank and C Squadron the centre ; A Squadron and the 19th Battalion held the left , with the Greek unit in reserve .
The brigade was strafed by German aircraft on the morning of 21 May . The 19th Battalion ( supported by C Squadron and light tanks from the 3rd Hussars ) assaulted Cemetery Hill , where two German machine guns threatened A and C Squadrons and part of the battalion . Although the Germans were driven off , the battalion could not hold under heavy mortar fire and withdrew ; Cemetery Hill became a no man 's land . On 25 May , heavy German attacks drove British forces from Wheat Hill and exposed the centre of the 18th Battalion , which withdrew through Galatas . The right flank of Div Cav and the Petrol Company , acting as infantry , was exposed and the 23rd Battalion counter @-@ attacked and retook Galatas at dusk , withdrawing during the night . That night Div Cav retreated to Church Hill , behind the 19th Battalion . At 01 : 00 on 26 May the regiment joined remnants of the 21st Battalion commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Allen on the main coast road between Chania and Galatas on Hellfire Hill .
The force retreated by night to a position near Suda Bay , where the 21st Battalion took up positions on 42nd Street with Div Cav in reserve . The regiment fell back to Stilos , arriving at 04 : 00 on 28 April and formed the extreme right of a defensive position , with the 23rd Battalion on the left . During the afternoon it was ordered to withdraw through Vrises towards Sphakia . After reaching Sphakia on 31 April , the regiment was evacuated by HMS Abdiel to Egypt that night and during the early morning of 1 June . The regiment suffered a total of 130 casualties in Greece and Crete , including 61 captured and 17 killed .
= = North Africa and Syria = =
= = = Reorganization and Operation Crusader = = =
On 3 June , the rest of the regiment arrived at Helwan from Crete . Major Arthur Nicoll succeeded Carruth in command after the latter took command of the Composite Training Depot on 26 July . Fourteen Bren Gun Carriers arrived on 22 August 1941 and replacements were trained . In early September , the regiment prepared to move into the Western Desert to take part in the coming British offensive to raise the siege of Tobruk . An advance party , led by Major Russell , left Helwan on 14 September and the regiment garrisoned the Baggush Box in September and October . In October , it received 26 Light Tank Mk VI .
During Operation Crusader , it was planned that the New Zealand Division would cross the Egyptian border north of and parallel to XXX Corps and would then advance northwards . The offensive was to begin on 17 November . In early November , Div Cav left Baggush and took the main road to Mersa Matruh ( Matruh ) . It then took the Siwa road past Matruh , moving south for an hour before swinging west into the desert . The regiment bivouacked at dusk and continued in stages the following day . Lieutenant Colonel Nicoll visited the 4th Indian Division headquarters on 9 November . Regimental Headquarters , B and C Squadrons were brought under command of the 4th Indian Division , advancing to Alam el Seneini the next day . A Squadron continued 10 mi ( 16 km ) and was taken under the command of the 4th South African Armoured Car Regiment , with the HQ Squadron was 12 mi ( 19 km ) behind with the B Echelon of the South Africans . A troop of the 65th Anti @-@ Tank Regiment and a troop of the 57th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment ( 57th LAA ) were placed under Div Cav ; the 57th LAA shot down an Italian aircraft at El Rabta on 14 November .
At dusk on 17 November , Regimental HQ and A Squadron advanced to El Beida ; C Squadron bivouacked at El Rabta and B Squadron screened the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade as it advanced towards Bir Gibni . C Squadron crossed the frontier towards Bir Gibni the following day , joined by Regimental Headquarters and A Squadron later in the morning . B Squadron patrolled the Indian brigade 's flank near Bir Gibni and was fired on by German Panzer III tanks . One Panzer III was disabled by 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns , and was towed away by a retreating Panzer . B Squadron pulled back a mile at night and laagered . At 15 : 00 on 19 November , the regiment advanced towards Bir Gibni , with C Squadron forward and A Squadron in reserve . C Squadron reached the Trigh el Abd and observed the British 4th Armoured Brigade fighting a battle group from the 21st Panzer Division . B Squadron was transferred back to regimental command late on 19 November , after providing flank support to the 7th Indian Brigade .
On the morning of 20 November , B Squadron patrolled in front of the 4th Indian Division and captured a German car and its passenger . C Squadron patrolled closer to Bir Gibni , observing the tank battles in that area . XIII Corps began driving north the following day ; Div Cav advanced to Sidi Azeiz , capturing 49 Italians from the 52nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery and six German and Italian artillerymen . After the engagement at Sidi Azeiz , the regiment formed a line at Bir ez Zemla . The 4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade arrived the next day ; the 20th Battalion attacked enemy positions , while C Squadron captured several Italian machine @-@ gun posts . A Squadron captured three grounded German aircraft , taking prisoners and B Squadron captured five ambulance cars with their drivers . On the evening of 22 November , the regimental line was taken over by units of the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade and C Squadron was transferred to command of the 4th Infantry Brigade for its advance on Gambut ; the rest of Div Cav moved to Sidi Azeiz .
= = = = C Squadron at Gambut and Ed Duda = = = =
C Squadron , leading a brigade group , advanced towards Gambut on the morning of 23 November . On the outskirts of Gambut , the line was stopped to allow the Matilda tanks to lead the column . C Squadron , ordered to charge into Gambut , when it became apparent that the Axis was retreating , pursued until the New Zealand infantry engaged and then withdrew to Gambut aerodrome . The following evening , the squadron screened the 4th Brigade Group and advanced westward before being recalled at dusk . On 25 November , C Squadron screened the brigade in its advance on Sidi Rezegh and captured a number of German soldiers before being sent to guard divisional headquarters . Four Stuart tanks , captured from the British by the Germans and then recaptured , were given to C Squadron on the afternoon of 27 November .
Next day , the squadron patrolled the Sidi Rezegh and Gambut escarpments , driving off German tanks and infantry in the afternoon and incurring vehicle and crew losses . The German column turned north during the night , attacking the divisional headquarters from the east ; the four Stuart tanks repulsed the assault ; 2 and 5 Troops attempted to regain the New Zealand field hospital , which had been captured the night before . They withdrew , narrowly escaping encirclement by German tanks from the 15th Panzer Division . When the remnants of the 21st Battalion were destroyed on Point 175 , the New Zealand Division rear was shelled . The Italian Ariete Armoured Division attacked on 30 November and were repulsed by the divisional artillery . During the afternoon , the 24th Battalion and most of the 26th were overrun by the 15th Panzer Division .
On 1 December , the Germans overran the 20th Battalion and split the 19th in half , cutting off the 18th Battalion . The remnants of the 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade fell back through the 4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade to Zaafran and the Ed Duda corridor was closed . The division retreated , led along the Trigh Capuzzo by C Squadron , which halted at Bir Gibni at 04 : 00 on 2 December . At noon , the squadron headed north to rejoin the regiment .
= = = = Regiment at Bardia = = = =
B and C Squadrons were ordered to patrol Sidi Azeiz on 24 November , linking the 22nd and 23rd Battalion positions and screening the brigade against an expected German assault on 25 November . On the morning of 26 November , several German transport vehicles were captured when they ran into the B Squadron laager . The squadrons patrolled the line , capturing several prisoners , before withdrawing from a German attack on 27 November . After the brigade headquarters was captured , the regiment set off to join the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade at Sidi Omar Nuovo , moving to Bir Zemla to cut Bardia 's communications from the west on 1 – 3 December . On 3 December , an Axis column approached ; the regiment retreated , leading the Axis into an ambush by the 28th Maori Battalion and 22nd Infantry Battalion . C Squadron arrived on 6 December and the squadrons screened at Menastir . On 7 December , the regiment split into four mobile columns and moved west , discovering 29 tanks in a wadi near the coast . Two days later A and C Squadrons and three anti @-@ tank gun batteries attacked the area , a tank @-@ repair workshop , destroying the tanks and taking 30 prisoners .
From 10 to 16 December , the regiment established a chain of posts on the roads south of Bardia to prevent Axis movement . The 2nd South African Division , supported by A and C Squadrons , made an abortive attack Bardia on 16 December ; the 2nd South African battalions retreated two days later . The regiment participated in a deception operation , concealing the attack on Bardia with dummy tanks in the desert . On 2 January 1942 , Lieutenant E. W. Kerr accepted the surrender of German General Artur Schmitt . HQ and B Squadrons entered Bardia after Kerr 's troops , releasing Allied prisoners and C Squadron was the first Allied force to enter Bardia . On 6 January , the regiment left Bardia for Baggush , returning to Maadi on 26 January .
= = = Syria and Rommel 's second offensive = = =
On 13 March , the New Zealand Division moved to Syria to build fortifications in the Beqaa Valley , to protect against the prospect of an Axis attack from Turkey . The regiment had to build roads at Laboue and Wadi Fa 'rah , camping at Djedeida . In mid @-@ May the road @-@ building was finished and the regiment prepared for manoeuvres with the 4th and 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigades . On 21 May , the regiment moved into the desert for the manoeuvres . When the exercises were completed on 1 June , it returned to Djedeida for more training .
On 16 June , the Div Cav was ordered to move to Egypt with the rest of the division . The offensive by General Erwin Rommel had created a need for more troops to stop the Axis advance . The regiment arrived at Matruh ten days later , where it was to cover the northern and eastern parts of the minefields around the village . Div Cav was the last of the divisional units to arrive back in Egypt . When the division left Matruh on 26 June , the regiment 's tanks and carriers had not yet arrived . B Squadron was equipped with carriers and transport available in Matruh and was sent ahead to Garawla , losing two carriers to tanks along the way and split up in the darkness . Half went to Minqar Qaim , where the 4th and 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigades were positioned and the other half , led by Major Sutherland , laagered in a depression and was surrounded by German tanks . Sutherland 's force broke out , losing one soldier who was taken prisoner . Arriving at headquarters at 08 : 00 , he found the rest of the squadron . B Squadron was then sent to Bir Khalda to replace the 21st Battalion , patrolling there for the rest of the day . By evening the division was nearly surrounded , so acting division commander Brigadier Inglis decided on a breakout to Fortress A ( also known as the Kaponga Box ) south @-@ west of El Alamein . B Squadron retreated south along the Qattara Depression before turning north to the fortress , rejoining the regiment on 30 June .
The remainder of Div Cav left Matruh for Fuka on 27 June , receiving new Bren Gun Carriers at Baggush and A Squadron prepared the new carriers for battle . After a report of approaching Axis tanks , the squadrons were withdrawn to Daba on 28 June and to Fortress A in the afternoon . On 30 June , the regiment screened west and south of the box . From 1 July , the regiment fought in the First Battle of El Alamein . B Squadron was shelled on 1 July and withdrew to the Deir el Munassib . The regiment probed ahead of the box , engaging the Axis forces and B Squadron lost a carrier to anti @-@ tank guns on the Alam Nayil ridge . The Axis forces were halted by a New Zealand counter @-@ attack led by Brigadier Weir . Alam Nayil was captured by Weir 's force on 3 July and C Squadron held the ridge while Weir 's force pressed ahead . After the Italian guns on the ridge were destroyed , C Squadron withdrew and came under fire from Ruweisat Ridge . On 3 July , A Squadron reconnoitred around Gebel Kalakh and was ineffectually shelled by the friendly 6th Field Regiment . Two troops from A Squadron engaged an Italian truck @-@ mounted battalion of the Trieste Division , destroying two trucks , capturing one Italian and releasing three Indian PoWs .
On 4 July , as part of a divisional attack toward Daba , the regiment was ordered to send C squadron north @-@ west to join the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade at El Mreir and continue to Daba . The squadron was ambushed on its way to El Mreir at 07 : 15 ; two carriers were destroyed and C Squadron was replaced by two troops from B Squadron shortly afterwards . During the afternoon , A and C Squadrons set out towards Daba but halted when night fell . A Squadron approached Mungar Wahla on 5 July but withdrew to Qaret el Yidma after heavy artillery fire . A and B Squadrons patrolled the 4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade front on 6 July . The next day , the division again attempted to drive toward the coast , after an all @-@ clear report . B Squadron screened the 4th and 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigades before being halted by Axis fire and A and C Squadrons were ordered into the line to reconnoitre . Axis tanks attacking C Squadron during the afternoon were repulsed by the 4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade anti @-@ tank guns . Div Cav , the rearguard for the 4th and 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade retreat , reached Deir el Munassib on the morning of 8 July and received 15 Stuarts . A Squadron patrolled the front of the 22nd Battalion during the afternoon , returning to Deir el Munassib at night . The regiment screened the front on 9 – 10 July , covering the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade night retreat .
A and C Squadrons supported a costly , abortive 15 July attack on Ruweisat Ridge and the regiment retreated as the division dug in at the boxes . Two troops were dispatched to join the 18th Battalion on 22 July , encountering an Axis pocket and losing a troop commander . The regiment was incorporated into the New Zealand Divisional box ; A and C Squadrons dug in , and B Squadron patrolled south . From 17 – 18 August , A and C Squadrons were relieved by the Buffs and Royal West Kents and moved out .
= = = Battle of Alam Halfa = = =
The regiment fought in the Battle of Alam el Halfa , during an attempted German thrust towards the Nile Delta . On 31 August , the regiment was alerted of the coming attack . B Squadron blocked a German advance through the box minefield , retreating after it was flanked and two troops from A Squadron drove off eight Italian Fiat M13 / 40 tanks . Later in the morning ten Axis tanks with two 88 mm guns attacked from the Deir el Muhafid and were repulsed by the 26th Battery artillery . The regiment patrolled the northern flank on 3 September and was the mobile reserve during the New Zealand Division attack on the retreating Axis line . It was to follow the 132nd Infantry Brigade and advance to Deir Alinda , to destroy Axis motorized transport but the brigade was stopped and the regiment withdrew to the box .
= = = Battle of El Alamein = = =
Div Cav moved rearward on 10 September for leave in Cairo . The regiment conducted manoeuvres with the division in September and returned to Burg el Arab . Colonel Nicoll was beaten up on 5 October by drunken soldiers in Maadi , where he had gone to arrange replacements and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel James Sutherland . A total of 23 carriers with new equipment arrived from workshops on 11 October . The regiment advanced to El Hammam on 19 October in preparation for Operation Lightfoot , the first Allied attack in the Second Battle of El Alamein ; it was notified the following day of plans to attack the Axis rear behind the armoured brigade , advancing to El Imayid . On 22 October , Div Cav moved to its starting position at Alam el Onsol .
The advance began at night on 23 October , with the regiment advancing down a track during the artillery barrage . At daybreak , Div Cav stopped at Miteiriya Ridge because the 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade was unable to clear lanes through the minefield . A gap was created in the evening and B and C Squadrons advanced , screening the 9th Armoured Brigade . After traversing the minefield , the squadrons were stopped by anti @-@ tank fire . Ten men were killed , and five tanks and four carriers destroyed .
The next day , the regiment was withdrawn and became part of the divisional reserve at Alam el Onsol . Orders arrived for an advance on 30 October for Operation Supercharge , planned as the final attack of the battle . The regiment was placed under the command of the 9th Armoured Brigade ] ] on 1 November , with each squadron attached to an armoured unit . A Squadron was attached to the 3rd Hussars , C Squadron to the Warwickshire Yeomanry and B Squadron to the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry . The assault began the following day , with the squadrons ordered to screen the minefields for the armoured brigade . The 3rd Hussars reached the Rahman track , losing their anti @-@ tank guns . The Wiltshire Yeomanry lost a Crusader squadron to anti @-@ tank fire and was nearly destroyed by the end of the day . Four B Squadron men were killed by anti @-@ tank fire as the squadron advanced behind the Wiltshires . The Warwickshires , mistaking high ground for their objective , destroyed a number of anti @-@ tank guns there . At the end of the day the regiment , except for C Squadron , returned to Alam el Onsol .
Div Cav resumed the offensive on 4 November , advancing south @-@ west against retreating Axis forces and ending the day at Agramiya . The regiment advanced on the northern flank of the New Zealand Division the next day , screening the division at the recaptured Baggush Box on 6 November . It then set off towards Mersa Matruh on the coast road and the escarpment , in contact with the 9th Armoured Brigade . The regiment halted at Gambut on 13 November , moving east to Menastir six days later .
= = = Battle of El Agheila = = =
Div Cav spent the first three weeks of the pursuit camped near Bardia . On 2 December , as part of the outflanking move around El Agheila , the regiment began an eight @-@ day drive on transporters to El Haseiat . After unloading its vehicles , the regiment continued its flanking movement . On 14 December , it was placed under the command of the 4th Light Armoured Brigade , with which it spent the night . C Squadron screened the brigade in the morning and by 16 : 00 the regiment had drawn away from the brigade as C Squadron reached the escarpment . The German 15th Panzer Division , halted on the road due to a fuel shortage , was targeted by Div Cav . During the night , the regiment withdrew and laagered while the Germans retreated . At 05 : 45 the next morning , XXX Corps headquarters ordered the division to attack the Germans and the regiment was advised to expect an attack from the east by a hundred tanks . Div Cav was ordered to withdraw south @-@ west , along the line of its previous advance . When the regiment had gone back 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , it surprised a German column . A Squadron engaged , as the other squadrons hastily withdrew . In the evening , the regiment advanced a mile west and laagered .
On 17 December , Div Cav guarded the northern flank of the brigade in its advance on Nofilia ; B and C Squadrons engaged the German rearguard , knocking out one Panzer III and losing two carriers . The brigade failed to capture Nofilia ; although it cut the road , the Germans escaped during the night . The regiment was scheduled to camp at Nofilia for a week , with C Squadron dispatched to guard the airfield at Sultan with a detachment of engineers to clear mines . The minefield was cleared by 23 December , when A Squadron replaced C Squadron . In late December , 18 new carriers arrived and the regiment prepared for another advance .
= = = Advance on Tripoli = = =
From 8 – 9 January 1943 , Div Cav advanced again , the A Squadron vehicles at Nofilia being loaded on transporters , which drove down the main road while the rest of the regiment screened the New Zealand Division advance . The A Squadron vehicles were unloaded near Wadi Bei el Chebir , east of the expected German rearguard near Wadi Temet and the regiment caught up on 14 January . The following day , A Squadron crossed the road and withstood shelling by anti @-@ tank guns and artillery , until the afternoon . B Squadron probed south , also encountering German anti @-@ tank guns . After one of its Stuart tanks knocked out an anti @-@ tank gun , B Squadron advanced through the German line , dislodging a number of anti @-@ tank guns and destroying a Sd.Kfz. 250 half @-@ track . During the afternoon , C Squadron failed to break through the German centre but that night the Germans withdrew . On 16 January , the regiment advanced to high ground above the airstrip at Sedada , losing a tank and carrier . C Squadron advanced down the plateau in the darkness , losing a carrier to a mine on the trail . The regiment found an alternate route , ending the day in Wadi Merdum . On 18 January , Div Cav advanced through rugged country to Beni Ulid . The regiment advanced towards Tarhuna the following day , bivouacking halfway there , before discovering a route through the hills north of the road .
On 21 January , Div Cav moved out of the hills , with C Squadron artillery driving off German rearguards . Next morning A and B Squadrons advanced west , turning north after crossing the Garian road , before they were halted by German resistance at Azizia . The Germans retreated during the night and the regiment found an empty village in the morning . Racing down the road , Div Cav ended the day 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Tripoli before being transferred to Bianchi for a week . The regiment next encamped around Castel Benito . On 28 January , Lieutenant Colonel Sutherland left for New Zealand and was replaced by Ian Bonifant . In February , the regiment unloaded supplies from landing craft in Tripoli . On the 4th , the Eighth Army paraded through the city before Winston Churchill , Bernard Montgomery , Richard McCreery and Freyberg .
= = = Tunisia = = =
The Divisional Cavalry Regiment left Castel Benito on 2 March as part of the attack on the Mareth Line . On 3 March the regiment was in Tunisia , camped near the road at Medenine . The next morning it was put under command of the 4th Light Armoured Brigade , in preparation for a German assault and moved forward , behind the 5th New Zealand Brigade positions . After the Axis repulse , A Squadron was sent south to probe the eastern end of the hills while B and C Squadrons harassed the German retreat on 7 March . The regiment patrolled the area between the 11th Hussars and the Free French Flying Column for the next five days and moved back to Foum Tatahouine on 13 March , where the New Zealand Division assembled for a flanking movement inland . Div Cav advanced south @-@ west and then north , guarding the divisional right flank . On 21 March , contact was made with the Germans and elements of the division attacked during the night . C Squadron advanced behind the infantry in the morning before being stopped by shellfire near Point 201 , a battlefield elevation . As the shelling decreased , A and HQ Squadrons advanced to the C Squadron position . B Squadron arrived from night patrol , and the regiment laagered behind Point 201 . On the morning of 23 March , B and C Squadrons advanced , capturing fifteen 77 mm guns and several prisoners . From 24 to 26 March , the regiment patrolled the left flank of the line in preparation for an assault by the 1st Armoured Division . When close air support preparation for the assault began , Div Cav marked the bomb line with smoke canisters and advanced on the flank when the ground assault began . The regiment laagered next to the Kebili @-@ El Hamma road during the night .
On 27 March , B and C Squadrons made contact with the 1st Armoured Division and next day , the regiment maintained contact with the retreating Germans , entering Gabes the following day . Div Cav stopped at a wadi to determine where the division could cross on a nine @-@ vehicle front . A location was found on 30 March and C Squadron pressed ahead near the Wadi Akarit . The wadi was strongly defended ; the regiment patrolled and probed until 5 April , before an attack by XXX Corps infantry in which the 2nd New Zealand would be in reserve . The assault did not break through the Axis resistance on the first day but succeeded on the second morning and the division pursued , the regiment advanced with the division , capturing 1 @,@ 300 PoWs . On 8 April , it became part of a battlegroup consisting of the 8th Armoured and 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigades and the 1st King 's Dragoon Guards ( KDG ) . The regiment advanced another 20 mi ( 32 km ) halting in the afternoon . Resuming its advance that evening , it reached the head of the division late at night . Div Cav guarded the eastern flank the following day , with orders not to attack substantial German forces . The advance towards Sousse resumed on 10 April , with A and B Squadrons reaching El Djem . The regiment , pursuing the retreating Germans at dawn , was past Sousse by 08 : 30 . As A Squadron advanced up the main road , B and C Squadrons swung west . The regiment was within 10 mi ( 16 km ) of Enfidaville by 13 April and probed the German positions until the 19th .
Div Cav was withdrawn on 24 April and was sent back to a rest area two days later . The regiment moved forward west of Enfidaville on 4 May , moving near the town on 8 May , to exploit a breakthrough by tanks the following day . The breakthrough was forestalled by the First Army drive across Tunisia and the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered on 13 May . Three days later , the regiment began moving back to Maadi , arriving on 1 June . At Maadi the regiment received replacements while a number of personnel , who had served with the first three echelons , received three @-@ month leaves in New Zealand . On 5 July , new personal weapons were issued and the regiment began training on the rifle and light machine gun ranges . A month later the first Staghound armoured cars arrived , the regiment being was one of the first units equipped with the vehicle . Five troops in each squadron received T17s and one troop in each was equipped with a Daimler Dingo Scout Car . On 17 September , the regiment moved to Burg el Arab and began embarking for Italy . By 1 November its equipment had arrived and the regiment moved up to Altamura .
= = Italy = =
After the Allied invasion of Italy in early September , the Eighth Army advanced rapidly . By the middle of October the army was on the line of Termoli , Campobasso and Vinchiaturo . German resistance had stiffened in the last stages of the advance . The Fifth Army captured Naples on 1 October and then crossed the Volturno against strong German resistance . By this point the Allies had run up against the fortifications of the Winter Line . The 15th Army Group commander Harold Alexander revised the plan for the winter , which involved the capture of the high ground north of Pescara after crossing the Trigno , Sangro and Pescara rivers . The Fifth Army would advance up the Liri Valley and when both armies were close to Rome , an amphibious operation would be launched south of the Tiber . To prepare for the offensive , the Allies advanced through the outlying Winter Line defences . The Eighth Army crossed the Trigno in late October and Montgomery planned to advance along the coast road to Pescara , which was the most defended route . Montgomery considered his four infantry divisions too weak to break the line without reinforcement .
Div Cav became part of the Eighth Army reserve along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division and was positioned several miles north of Lucera , near the Foggia Airfield Complex , on 4 November . On 12 November , the regiment left Lucera for the front , arriving at Cupello in the afternoon to guard a bridge over the Sinello River below the village of Gissi . At 09 : 00 the next day , the regiment moved out to its new position , 20 mi ( 32 km ) forward ; the trip taking all day , through sleet and mountainous terrain . A Squadron guarded the bridge , while the rest of the regiment bivouacked . On 18 November , B Squadron guarded the left flank of the division , south @-@ west of Atessa . C and HQ Squadrons advanced 10 mi ( 16 km ) forward , to the village of Monte Marconi , on 20 November and A and B Squadrons were sent back to Carpineto Sinello in reserve . C Squadron made contact with the British V Corps on foot , since the road was demolished in three places .
= = = Advance across the Sangro = = =
In the planned offensive on the Sangro , C Squadron was to follow the 19th Armoured Regiment in its advance at 03 : 00 . Although its tanks reached the river , they bogged in the mud and the squadron remained on the other bank as B Squadron advanced to Monte Marconi . Three troops from C Squadron finally crossed the river by the afternoon of 29 November ; one was ordered to advance to Elici and a second was to make contact with the 8th Indian Infantry Division at La Defenza . The routes were mined and the troops spent the night at 23rd Battalion headquarters . In the morning , the mines were cleared and the second troop contacted the Indians and advanced east of Elici ; the first troop was held up by shelling south of Elici .
Three troops from B Squadron tried to probe Casoli but failed since the bridges over the river had been destroyed and a foot patrol formed from the squadron was sent . C Squadron advanced forward of Elici after it was abandoned by the Axis . The New Zealand Engineers constructed a Bailey bridge over the river , allowing B Squadron to cross on 1 December . The squadron attempted to capture Guardiagrele the next day but was repulsed by anti @-@ tank gunfire . Two troops from C Squadron entered Castelfrentano , joining the tanks of the 18th Armoured Regiment . On 4 December , A and B Squadrons attempted to find a way through Frisa , working to the right for an easier approach towards Arielli . The division was to attack on the Orsogna road and contain the 26th Panzer Division . On 1 January 1944 , B Squadron was sent forward as infantry to take over the sector between San Eusanio and Guardiagrele . It was relieved on 19 January and the regiment moved back over the Sangro to another sector .
= = = Battle of Monte Cassino = = =
To divert German troops from the Anzio landings ( Operation Shingle ) , the Fifth Army was ordered to advance towards Cassino and Frosinone before 22 January , D @-@ Day for the operation . To provide a reserve for the army group , the 2nd New Zealand Division was withdrawn to the Naples area . The division became part of the ad hoc New Zealand Corps after its reinforcement by the 4th Indian Division and the regiment was posted above the Volturno River around the village of Raviscanina . Arriving on 22 January , it moved forward to an assembly area at Stazione di Toro on 6 February . The Fifth Army advance had stalled and the 2nd New Zealand Division moved into the line . Three days later the regiment replaced the 21st Battalion on the Gari river , opposite Sant 'Angelo . On 15 February , the Benedictine monastery on Monte Cassino was bombed and two days later the Maori Battalion attacked the Cassino railway station . There was only enough space for a two @-@ company advance , so Divisional Cavalry and 24th Battalion machine @-@ gunned and mortared the area to their front to create the impression of a larger attack . The regiment laid down a mortar barrage on its front to screen the Maoris with smoke . The Maori Battalion advanced to the railway station but was forced back over the Rapido in the late afternoon . Div Cav moved out of the line to Monte Trocchio on 23 February and was relieved by the 1st Battalion , East Surrey Regiment from the British 78th Division . On 15 March , the Monte Cassino assault resumed , and C Squadron kept the Route 6 bridge over the Gari @-@ Rapido shrouded from German observation with smoke . The regiment pulled out of the line on 20 March , taking up the new left flank of New Zealand Division along the Gari River and was relieved on 9 April by the 22nd Battalion .
Div Cav rested near Filignano and Montaquila . Two troops from C Squadron were positioned along the Venafro – Atina road and the rest of the regiment built the road between Filignano and Montaquila . On 18 April , Bonifant left for New Zealand on furlough and was replaced by his second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Nicholas Wilder . On 10 May , the final offensive against the Gustav Line began ; the regiment was combined with the 22nd and 24th Battalions and No. 2 Company of the 27th Machine Gun Battalion to become Pleasants Force , to take over positions held by the Kimberley Rifles . On the night of 11 May , the final battle for Monte Cassino began . The French Expeditionary Corps outflanked the German defences in an advance along the Aurunci Mountains . The 78th Infantry Division advanced to Route 6 and on the right of the Eighth Army the II Polish Corps captured Monte Cassino . The Gustav Line was soon broken through and Allied troops in the Anzio beachhead conducted a breakout . By 26 May , the Axis was retreating ; the regiment retrieved its vehicles and drove up the valley to Atina , passing through during the evening before it was stopped by opposition at Vicalvi . Three days later Vicalvi was captured by the 21st Battalion and the regiment advanced through the town . Since the bridge over the Fibreno River had been destroyed , B Squadron guarded the site while two troops found their way across and provided a flank guard for the Maori Battalion . C Squadron remained in Vicalvi on 31 May and A Squadron held Posta until it was replaced by the RAF Regiment . B Squadron moved up to Sora when the bridge was completed . On 1 June , B Squadron advanced toward Isola del Liri , which was captured by the 8th Indian Infantry Division . A Squadron was transferred to the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade to advance with it in pursuit , while the rest of the regiment laagered on the Fibreno . Allied troops rapidly advanced and Rome was captured on 4 June .
= = = Advance to Florence = = =
On 5 June , the main part of the regiment was combined with two companies of infantry and a squadron of tanks to form Wilder Force , which was to take over the front from the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade . A Squadron pushed up the valley and Wilder Force advanced behind , through Balsorano . After the Axis retreated to their next line of defence , the New Zealand Division withdrew to Arce for training . The regiment moved forward again on 10 July , advancing to Cortona from 11 – 12 July . B Squadron was transferred to 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade and sent forward to Castiglion Fiorentino to clear the road between Castiglion and Palazzo del Pero . The road was opened by the 6th Armoured Division , and the crossroads on Route 73 was reached on 15 July . The New Zealand Division moved to capture Florence ; the regiment advanced west to Siena and then turned north to Castellina . A Squadron supported the 23rd and 28th Battalions advancing on San Casciano and the remainder of the regiment arrived at San Donato by 22 July . Two days later , C Squadron combined with A Squadron of the 19th Armoured Brigade , No. 2 Company of the 22nd Battalion and 1st Troop of the 31st Anti @-@ tank Battery to form Armcav . The force advanced on 25 July , taking Fabbrica and advancing toward Bibbione . Bibbione was taken despite determined opposition the next day and the other two squadrons supported the Maori Battalion . Armcav was disbanded on 27 July and C Squadron remained under the command of the 4th Armoured Brigade .
San Casciano was captured shortly afterwards and the final assault on Florence began on 1 August . A Squadron was in reserve and B Squadron patrolled northward . C Squadron advanced on Geppetto , covering the left flank of the 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade . Geppetto was captured the next morning and C Squadron patrolled forward to San Michele . B Squadron advanced with the Maori Battalion , ending the day and advancing the next morning with that unit . C Squadron moved west on Route 67 until it was halted by opposition near Grioli and A Squadron advanced to Scandicci in the afternoon as Florence fell .
= = = Gothic Line = = =
The New Zealand Division was temporarily relieved and to cover its replacement by the US Fifth Army , B Squadron was attached to the 4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade , C Squadron to the 5th New Zealand Infantry and A Squadron to the 6th New Zealand Infantry . On the morning of 11 August , C Squadron supported the 23rd Battalion advance from Emboli to the Arno River . B Squadron was positioned in San Vito and A Squadron behind the Pesa River . The regiment withdrew to the divisional area near Castellina on 16 August , moving with the division to Iesi on the Adriatic . Arriving on 29 August , it was transferred to Fano on 5 September . The regiment moved back into the line on 22 September at Rimini , advancing along Route 16 towards Ravenna . On 29 September , all armoured cars were recalled due to heavy rain and poor visibility . Wilder Force was re @-@ formed on 3 October from the dismounted regiment and a machine @-@ gun platoon and it began crossing the Fiumicino River on 15 October . Four days later , Wilder Force was dissolved and the regiment returned to its vehicles . On 21 October , B and C Squadrons attempted to secure the area around Pisignano and were within a mile of the town by the end of the day . Since it was strongly held by the Axis , the 22nd Battalion came forward and the squadrons withdrew .
Div Cav withdrew to Cesolo near San Severino , 60 mi ( 97 km ) in the rear . The regiment was converted to a standard infantry battalion , since its light armoured vehicles were considered unsuited to Italian terrain and the division was short of infantry . The battalion retained the title of Squadron for its company @-@ size units , spent a month retraining as infantry and left Cesolo on 24 November . The New Zealand Division was placed under the command of V Corps for the crossing of the Lamone river and the capture of Faenza . The regiment became part of the 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade , operating in the sector facing the Lamone opposite Faenza and the brigade 's small front was held by the 26th Battalion . The 24th and 25th Battalions were scheduled to replace the 26th next , with Div Cav replacing them . The regiment camped in Forlì before taking over its positions on 2 December . The division mounted a simulated attack to support the British 46th Division crossing of the Lamone with an artillery barrage and tank fire . After the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade moved south to take over the 46th Division positions , the 6th New Zealand Infantry Brigade moved west to take over the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade sector and the regiment was now opposite Faenza . A and B Squadrons moved to the rear , after being relieved by the British 4th Reconnaissance Regiment and C Squadron laid smoke to cover the 13 December crossing of the Lamone by 4th Brigade tanks . The attack on Faenza began the next day and the Maori and 23rd Battalions were at their objectives by 15 December but Axis holdouts continued to resist in the town . The regiment entered Faenza in the afternoon and camped there until 27 December , when it replaced 26th Battalion on the Senio . During the night of 1 / 2 January 1945 , the Maori Battalion relieved the regiment , which moved to Forlì . Div Cav returned to the front after a week and took up the positions of the 25th Battalion , which it fortified against a possible German counter @-@ attack . Alexander decided to wait for early spring to advance to the Po and the regiment settled into static positional warfare . The regiment was relieved by the 25th Battalion on 21 January and returned to Forlì .
= = = Spring 1945 offensive in Italy = = =
During the final Allied offensive in Italy , the regiment was assigned to the new 9th New Zealand Infantry Brigade , which was allocated as the divisional reserve in April for Operation Buckland . Initially , the regiment protected the engineers bridging the Senio . When the bridges were finished , it covered the open flank around Barbiano resulting from a delay to the 3rd Carpathian Division . The regiment then attacked Massa Lombarda in preparation for a crossing of the Sillaro river , boarding Kangaroo APCs and moving forward . Tiger tanks forced the regiment to dismount and dig in before the Tigers were knocked out by Allied artillery . A and C Squadrons supported the 22nd Battalion in attacking Squazzaloca . The regiment reached the Sillaro River , crossed it at first light and was relieved by the 27th Battalion on 15 April . D Squadron cleared Sesto Imolese of Axis troops , with A and B Squadrons protecting the left flank . From 16 – 17 April , the regiment protected the right flank behind the 22nd Battalion . The attack across the Gaiana began with a massive artillery barrage during the night of 18 April . Although the regiment crossed the river unopposed , it was counter @-@ attacked beyond the barrage area . Advancing against stiff Axis resistance , A and C Squadrons were on the far side of the Quaderna Canal by 01 : 30 on 19 April . The regiment dug in there , resisting Axis counter @-@ attacks ; eleven men from the regiment were killed and 47 wounded .
Relieved by the 23rd Battalion , Div Cav was moved back to Medicina . After two days of rest there , the brigade returned to the front lines behind the Allied advance towards the Po river . The regiment was 7 mi ( 11 km ) north of Bologna by the first night back , when it was bombed by an Axis aircraft which wounded four men . Next day the regiment was on the banks of the Reno river and crossed the Po after the rest of the brigade on 26 April . After its advance was stopped by the Fratta Canal , the regiment moved east to Ospedaletto . A and C Squadrons cleared Ospedaletto of the Axis rearguard , taking fifty prisoners . The regiment bypassed scattered German units , racing for Padua during the night . It reached Padua around midnight and was greeted by jubilant Italian crowds . On 29 April a shell struck regimental headquarters , wounding Lieutenant Colonel Wilder and killing two men ( the last men killed in action during the war ) . Wilder was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Victor Tanner ; the regiment advanced again at midday on Route 11 towards Venice , encountering its last strong German resistance in Mira . No. 12 Troop flanked the German positions , capturing 140 men and killing about 20 . The regiment raced on , changing to Route 14 , headed for Trieste and was ferried over the Piave on 30 April ; it was at Monfalcone , controlled by Yugoslav partisans , by the end of 1 May . Trieste was reached the next day and the regiment camped just beyond the city . Div Cav was relieved on 6 May by a battalion of the 363rd Infantry Regiment of the US 91st Division , and moved to Barcola .
= = Japan = =
After the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 , the New Zealand government agreed to contribute units to a joint British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . The 9th New Zealand Infantry Brigade – including Div Cav , which regained its identity as a regiment – became part of the NZ contingent , known as J Force . In October , a new D Squadron composed of Maori soldiers was added to the regiment . The regiment embarked for Kure on 21 February 1946 , reaching its destination on 19 March and relieving the 67th Australian Battalion on Eta @-@ Jima on 23 March ; it was billeted in Naval Academy Etajima . After patrolling the island , the regiment was replaced by the Royal Welch Fusiliers and moved to Hirao . By May its permanent headquarters was at the Mizuba naval barracks . Lieutenant Colonel John Worsnop took command on 28 June 1946 and he regimental flag was lowered for the last time on 5 August 1947 ; the regiment was disbanded on 1 September 1947 .
= = Casualties , decorations and battle honours = =
During the war , the regiment suffered a total of 686 casualties , including 134 killed , 430 wounded , and 111 captured . Five officers received the Distinguished Service Order . In addition , the following awards ( in some cases , multiple times ) were bestowed : 12 Military Crosses , 5 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 24 Military Medals , and one British Empire Medal . Three soldiers received the title Member of the Order of the British Empire . One officer also received the Silver Cross of the Greek Order of the Phoenix . A number of these awards were bestowed to Div Cav personnel for actions while attached to the Long Range Desert Group .
In 1957 , the New Zealand Scottish Regiment , which inherited the Divisional Cavalry 's lineage , was awarded the following battle honours for the service of the Divisional Cavalry Regiment :
Mount Olympus , Aliakmon Bridge , Tempe Gorge , Elasson , Greece 1941 , Crete , Galatas , Canea , 42nd Street , Withdrawal to Sphakia , Middle East 1941 – 1944 , Tobruk 1941 , Sidi Azeiz , Zemla , Bardia 1942 , Defence of the Alamein Line , Ruweisat Ridge , El Mreir , Alam el Halfa , El Alamein , El Agheila , Nofilia , Advance to Tripoli , Medinine , Tebaga Gap , Point 201 ( Roman Wall ) , El Hamma , Enfidaville , Djebibine , North Africa 1940 – 43 , The Sangro , Castel Frentano , Orsogna , Cassino I , Advance to Florence , Cerbaia , San Michele , Paula Line , Sant Angelo in Salute , Pisciatello , Bologna , Sillaro Crossing , Italy 1943 – 45 .
= = Commanders = =
The following officers commanded the Divisional Cavalry Regiment :
Lieutenant Colonel Caro James Pierce ( 29 September 1939 – 22 February 1941 )
Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Graeme Carruth ( 22 February – 26 July 1941 )
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur J. Nicoll ( 26 July 1941 – 5 October 1942 )
Lieutenant Colonel James Henderson Sutherland ( 5 October 1942 – 28 January 1943 )
Lieutenant Colonel Ian Bonifant ( 28 January 1943 – 18 April 1944 )
Lieutenant Colonel Nicholas Perry Wilder ( 18 April 1944 – 6 January 1945 )
Lieutenant Colonel James Rutherford Williams ( 6 January – 29 April 1945 )
Lieutenant Colonel Victor Joseph Tanner ( 29 April – 7 August 1945 )
Lieutenant Colonel Duncan MacIntyre ( 7 August 1945 – 28 June 1946 )
Lieutenant Colonel John Albert Worsnop ( 28 June 1946 – 3 May 1947 )
Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Bonner McQueen ( 3 May – 1 September 1947 )
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= The Orange Box =
The Orange Box is a video game compilation for Microsoft Windows , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , OS X and Linux . The Windows and Xbox 360 versions were produced and published by Valve Corporation and released on October 10 , 2007 , as a boxed retail copy . A Windows @-@ only download through Valve 's Steam service was released the previous day .
The PlayStation 3 version was published by Electronic Arts and released in North America and Europe on December 11 , 2007 . Valve also released a soundtrack containing music from the games within the compilation . The compilation contains five games , all powered by Valve 's Source engine . Two of the games included , Half @-@ Life 2 and its first stand @-@ alone expansion , Episode One , had previously been released as separate products . Three new games were also included in the compilation : the second stand @-@ alone expansion , Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two , the puzzle game Portal , and Team Fortress 2 , the multiplayer game sequel to Team Fortress Classic . A separate product entitled The Black Box was planned , which would have included only the new games , but was cancelled .
The Orange Box received critical acclaim , with Portal being recognized as a surprise favorite of the package . The PlayStation 3 version of The Orange Box was noted for several technical shortcomings that were not present in the other versions , only a few of which were fixed through a single patch .
= = Overview = =
The Orange Box features five complete games compiled into one retail unit : Half @-@ Life 2 and its two continuations , Episode One and Episode Two ; Portal ; and Team Fortress 2 . All of these games use Valve 's Source engine .
Through the Steam platform for the Windows version , the games can collect and report in @-@ depth data such as where the player 's character died , completion time , and total victories in multiplayer modes . This data is compiled to generate gameplay statistics for Episode One , Episode Two , and Team Fortress 2 .
Although Half @-@ Life 2 has the largest proportion of Achievements , there are 99 spread across all five games , exceeding the 50 @-@ Achievement limit that Microsoft maintains to feature the most Achievements of any Xbox 360 product . These Achievements include killing a certain number of monsters , finding hidden weapon caches , or other tasks specific to each game .
All the games except Half @-@ Life 2 contain in @-@ game commentary that can be enabled , allowing the player to listen to the developers discuss the creation and purpose of particular sections and components of each game . This has been a feature of every Valve game since Half @-@ Life 2 : Lost Coast due to the commentary 's popularity in that game , according to Erik Wolpaw , lead writer for Portal .
= = = Half @-@ Life 2 = = =
Half @-@ Life 2 is a science fiction first @-@ person shooter game and the sequel to Half @-@ Life . While remaining similar in style to the original , Half @-@ Life 2 introduces new concepts to the series such as physics @-@ based puzzles and vehicle sections . The game takes place in the fictional City 17 and surrounding areas as the player takes on the role of scientist Gordon Freeman . Freeman is thrust into a dystopian environment in which the aftermath of the events of Half @-@ Life have come to bear fully upon human society , and he is forced to fight against increasingly unfavorable odds in order to survive . In his struggle , he is joined by various acquaintances , including former Black Mesa colleagues , oppressed citizens of City 17 , and the Vortigaunts , all of whom later prove to be valuable allies . Half @-@ Life 2 received critical acclaim , including 35 Game of the Year awards , when it was originally released for Windows in 2004 . As of December 3 , 2008 , over 6 @.@ 5 million copies of Half @-@ Life 2 have been sold at retail . Although Steam sales figures are unknown , their rate surpassed retail 's in mid @-@ 2008 and they are significantly more profitable per @-@ unit .
= = = Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One = = =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One continues from the events of Half @-@ Life 2 . Episode One builds on the original , adding cooperative play with friendly non @-@ player characters such as Alyx Vance , whose new abilities complement Freeman 's abilities and allow her to comprehend and respond to the player 's actions by lending help . It is set immediately after the end of Half @-@ Life 2 in the war @-@ torn City 17 and nearby areas . Episode One follows scientist Gordon Freeman and his companion Alyx Vance as they continue to cope with the events chronicled in Half @-@ Life 2 and humanity 's continuing struggle against the Combine . The game was originally released in 2006 for Windows as a standalone game and was generally well received .
= = = Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two = = =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two was first available as part of The Orange Box and focuses on expansive environments , travel , and less linear play . In the game , Gordon Freeman and the series ' other major characters move away from City 17 to the surrounding wilderness following the closing events of Episode One . The game was praised for its new environments and features and was well received by critics .
= = = Portal = = =
Portal is a single @-@ player first @-@ person action / puzzle game that was first available as part of The Orange Box . The game consists primarily of a series of puzzles that are solved by creating portals through which the player and simple objects can use the portals in order to reach an exit point while being ordered by an AI @-@ programmed robot named GLaDOS throughout the game . The portal system and the unusual physics it creates are the emphasis of this game . Portal was a surprise favorite of The Orange Box , receiving widespread praise and several Game of the Year awards .
= = = Team Fortress 2 = = =
Team Fortress 2 is a multiplayer team @-@ based first @-@ person shooter that was first available as part of The Orange Box . The game is a sequel to the original Quake modification , Team Fortress , and Valve 's Half @-@ Life modification , Team Fortress Classic . Its focus is on two competing teams that attack each other in order to achieve varying objectives , including capturing control points or defending them from attack , or capturing a flag . Players can choose to play as one of nine classes in these teams , each with different strengths and weaknesses . Unlike most other Source @-@ powered games , Team Fortress 2 features a cartoon art style and non @-@ realistic graphics . Team Fortress 2 was very well received by critics ; it was particularly praised for its unique artistic direction and graphics . It is the only multiplayer game to appear in the collection . The Xbox 360 version has not received any updates since July 21 , 2009 and the PlayStation 3 version received no updates at all , both missing out on most of the PC exclusive content such as item drops , custom loadouts , new gamemodes , cosmetics , new weapons , and trading .
= = Development = =
= = = The Black Box = = =
Valve planned on releasing an additional compilation for Windows entitled The Black Box , which would have contained only the new material — Episode Two , Portal , and Team Fortress 2 . The Black Box was later cancelled for retail and is now only available through Steam exclusively to owners of certain ATI graphics cards , who received a voucher for a free copy of The Black Box .
During development , the simultaneous release of two game compilation packages with different content combinations was touted by Valve as a new direction for the game industry . Gabe Newell , co @-@ founder of Valve , said , " The Black Box and The Orange Box represent a new approach to publishing multiple products on multiple platforms . " After first discontinuing The Black Box , however , Valve released all the new material for individual download via Steam .
The Black Box was to be priced US $ 10 lower than The Orange Box . To compensate for the cancellation of The Black Box , Valve offered gift subscriptions to Steam users who had previously purchased Half @-@ Life 2 or Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One and then purchased The Orange Box so that they could give their second copies of those two games as gifts to people added to their Steam Friends list . Still , the cancellation of The Black Box sparked complaints from game critics and consumers alike , unhappy that they were obliged to pay for games that they already owned . It also raised concerns among those who had bought the ATI Radeon HD 2900 XT graphics card , which came with a voucher for The Black Box , but Valve clarified that only the retail version of The Black Box had been cancelled . While Valve never expressed its reasons for this decision , industry writers speculated that it might have been to increase profits on retail copies or to avoid customer confusion between similar game packages and their availability across the platforms .
= = = PlayStation 3 version = = =
While the Windows and Xbox 360 versions of The Orange Box were developed and published by Valve , the development of the PlayStation 3 port was outsourced to Electronic Arts . In an interview with Edge magazine before the game 's release , Valve co @-@ founder Gabe Newell commented , " I think the people who have The Orange Box on the PS3 are going to be happy with their game experience . We 've done the PC and 360 versions here and EA has a team doing the PS3 version – and they 'll make the PS3 version a good product ; EA got the job done in putting a lot of people with PS3 experience on the project . But I think it 's harder to get it to the same standard as the 360 and PC versions " . Despite this , he noted that Valve will probably handle PlayStation 3 versions of its products in the future .
In a preview of The Orange Box in November 2007 , 1UP.com revealed numerous problems with the late beta build of EA 's PlayStation 3 version of The Orange Box , citing pervasive frame rate issues which , they claimed , " at best merely hinder gameplay and at worst make the experience downright unplayable . " IGN 's Hilary Goldstein disagreed , writing that although EA " is one of the worst offenders when it comes to porting games to the PS3 , " the frame rate issues were not bad enough " to make me throw my controller in disgust . "
On January 3 , 2008 , IGN reported that Valve employees had created a thread on Valve 's website forums for players to list the problems they had encountered and to suggest fixes , which caused speculation that a patch was being planned to address the issues in the PlayStation 3 version , such as the frame rate issues , the connection problems in Team Fortress 2 , and the slow loading times in Portal . A patch for the PlayStation 3 version was later released in North America on March 19 , 2008 and in Europe a short while after that ; however , it made no mention of fixing frame rate issues or slow loading times .
= = = Region @-@ specific versions = = =
Valve deactivated accounts with CD keys that were purchased outside of the consumer 's territory in order to maintain the integrity of region @-@ specific licensing . This generated complaints from North American customers who had circumvented their Steam end @-@ user license agreement by purchasing The Orange Box through cheaper , Asian retailers . Some customers who then purchased the game a second time from a local vendor experienced difficulty adding the new CD key to their accounts in order to activate their newly purchased games and also had trouble communicating with Steam 's customer support team about this problem . Doug Lombardi of Valve stated , " Some of these users have subsequently purchased a legal copy after realizing the issue and were having difficulty removing the illegitimate keys from their Steam accounts . Anyone having this problem should contact Steam Support to have the Thai key removed from their Steam account . "
The German version of The Orange Box is set to a low violence mode in order to comply with German laws regulating the sale of violent video games . Blood effects are replaced by sparks and bullet wounds are replaced with dents as if the characters were metal robots . Additionally in Team Fortress 2 , instead of body parts ' being scattered after a player 's character is blown apart , various items such as hamburgers , coils , rubber ducks , and Chattery Teeth appear ( known as " sillygibs " by the community ) . Characters from different classes leave different items and different ratios of these items when killed by explosives . In the Half @-@ Life games , bodies fade away after the death of non @-@ player characters and the blood has been altered to a gray color .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack for The Orange Box consists of music that Valve employees composed for Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One , Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two , Portal , and Team Fortress 2 . It also includes the original version and an exclusive remix of " Still Alive " , both by Jonathan Coulton . It was released on December 21 , 2007 and is sold by the official Valve Store , Amazon.com , and digital music services such as iTunes , Napster , and eMusic . A more @-@ complete version of this soundtrack that also includes music files from Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 was released on Steam as part of the Audiosurf package . " Still Alive " was subsequently released as a free downloadable song for the rhythm game Rock Band on March 31 , 2008 .
= = = Promotions = = =
Pre @-@ purchasing of the Windows version on Steam began on September 11 , 2007 . Those who pre @-@ purchased via this method received a ten @-@ percent discount and were able to play the Team Fortress 2 beta starting on September 17 , 2007 . The Orange Box comes with Peggle Extreme , a ten @-@ level playable demo of Peggle Deluxe that is only available for PC , with graphical themes from The Orange Box . Peggle , published by PopCap Games , is a puzzle game combining elements of pinball and pachinko .
= = Reception = =
The Orange Box was met with universal acclaim from reviewers . The averaging website GameRankings cites both the Xbox 360 version and the PC version as the highest @-@ rated game of their respective platforms . IGN described The Orange Box as " the best deal in video game history , " and awarded both the Windows and Xbox 360 versions with an Editors ' Choice Award . All three versions won GameSpot 's Editors ' Choice Award . Approximately 3 million copies of The Orange Box were sold by the end of November 2008 .
Portal was singled out for praise by reviewers . Official Xbox Magazine admired its unique puzzle gameplay mechanics , stating that it was the first major advance in puzzle gaming " since Russians started dropping blocks . " Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw , The Escapist 's usually acerbically critical reviewer , stated in his Zero Punctuation review that he couldn 't think of any criticism for Portal , which has " some of the funniest pitch @-@ black humor [ he had ] ever heard in a game " and concluded that it is " absolutely sublime from start to finish , and I will jam forks into my eyes if I ever use those words to describe anything else , ever again . "
The PlayStation 3 version 's critical review scores suffered because of the technical issues first uncovered by 1UP.com. While discussing the retail version on a podcast , 1UP.com staff members agreed that a significant number of the frame rate problems had been resolved , but not all of them . They concluded that the PlayStation 3 version was not quite as smooth as the Xbox 360 version and recommended that " if you own both [ consoles ] , you should do the 360 " version . Kotaku 's Michael McWhertor echoed that recommendation , though stated that those who only have a PlayStation 3 should still consider The Orange Box .
While frame rate issues were the main complaint , the PlayStation 3 version was also criticized for unreliable voice chat and excessive network delay or lag in Team Fortress 2 , as well as long load times generally . It was , however , praised for featuring anti @-@ aliasing and a quick @-@ save feature , neither of which were present in the Xbox 360 version ( but were present in the PC version ) . After release , the game received further criticism from fans for the lack of surround sound support when using an optical cable . An open letter to Valve , asking them to put pressure on EA to release a fix was posted to the Steam forum . A response was posted by a Valve employee going by the name of " BurtonJ " , directing disappointed customers to a dedicated thread on the subject .
= = = Awards = = =
The Orange Box won a number of awards for its overall high standard and use of technology . The compilation won " Computer Game of the Year " at the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards and was nominated in the " Overall Game of the Year " , " Action Game of the Year " , and " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " categories . The Orange Box won the " Breakthrough Technology Award " and the " Best PC Game Award " at the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards , and was additionally nominated in the " Game of the Year " , " Best Shooter " , " Best Xbox 360 Game " , and " Best Multiplayer Game " categories . It was also named the second @-@ best video game of 2007 by Time Magazine , while the PlayStation 3 version was nominated in the category of Action and Adventure at the BAFTA Video Games Awards . Valve also received developer awards for their work on The Orange Box . The Orange Box received 17 Game of the Year awards and over 100 awards in total . The Orange Box was placed as the 22nd most influential video game in history by the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition , 2009 .
Portal won " Outstanding Achievement in Game Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering " , and " Outstanding Character Performance " at the 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards . The game won 76 awards , including 37 Game of the Year awards , and was recognized for innovative design and game mechanics . The dark humor of Portal and the ending music track Still Alive were also singled out for awards .
Team Fortress 2 was nominated in the categories of " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " and " Outstanding Achievement in Animation " at the 11th Interactive Achievement Awards . Although unsuccessful at the IAA , the game did receive 10 awards , including five Game of the Year awards , and other awards for its artistic direction and multiplayer gameplay .
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two won four awards , including one Game of the Year award , and was recognized for excellent NPC AI , level design , and story .
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= Grotesque ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Grotesque " is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and the show 's 63rd episode overall . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on February 2 , 1996 . It was written by Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Grotesque " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 6 , being watched by 18 @.@ 32 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a serial killer who claims a gargoyle spirit committed the crimes . When Mulder joins the case , his obsession with solving it causes Scully to question his sanity .
Gordon was inspired to write the episode after walking down the streets of New York and seeing several stone gargoyles on the corner , staring at him . Gordon developed the concept with series creator Chris Carter , who suggested the addition of more psychological aspects to the episode . Originally , the teaser was planned to be filmed at a Catholic hospital , but the shot was relocated to the site of a historic post office after concerns were raised about attaching a fake gargoyle to the building .
= = Plot = =
At George Washington University , a group of artists sketch a nude male model . However , one of the artists , John Mostow ( Levani Outchaneichvili ) , draws a demonic creature in the model 's place ; while using a utility knife to sharpen his pencil he cuts his hand trying and smears the blood on his drawing . When the model reaches his car after the session , he is attacked and killed by an obscured assailant . The following morning , Mostow is arrested in his apartment by an FBI task force led by Agent Bill Patterson ( Kurtwood Smith ) , who finds the utility knife used in the murder covered in blood .
Mostow , an immigrant from Uzbekistan with a history of involuntary commitment , is charged with killing seven men by mutilating their faces . Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) become involved in the investigation when Mostow insists that he was possessed during the killings ; his claims are given credence when another murder occurs after his arrest . Mostow draws a gargoyle and claims it made him kill . Mulder meets with Patterson , his former mentor , who has spent three years on the case . The relationship between the two is tense , and Patterson is skeptical of Mulder 's theories . Mulder and Scully go to Mostow 's studio and discover a hidden room full of gargoyle sculptures , finding corpses within them .
A glassblower is attacked and hospitalized . Nemhauser ( Greg Thirloway ) , another agent on the case , tells Scully that Patterson was responsible for getting Mulder assigned to the case and may admire him after all . Patterson finds Mulder in the library studying gargoyles ; he tells Mulder that he 's wasting his time and is a disappointment to him . Scully goes to Mulder 's apartment and finds it covered with gargoyle drawings . Mulder , having sculpted a gargoyle himself in Mostow 's studio before falling asleep , awakens to find a figure with a gargoyle @-@ like face standing over him ; he gives chase but is attacked , his face slashed with a utility knife . Mulder refuses to explain to Scully why he was in Mostow 's studio . Scully confronts Patterson , who tells her not to try and stop Mulder from doing what he 's doing , because she won 't be able to . Mulder goes to see Mostow again , but Mostow will not tell him how to find the creature that attacked him .
Scully finds a disassembled utility knife at the latest crime scene with Mulder 's prints on it and discovers that the murder weapon is missing from the evidence room . She meets with Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who is also worried about Mulder 's behavior . Mulder has a nightmare about being attacked by a gargoyle that is really himself . He wakes up and goes to Mostow 's studio again , finding a severed arm . Scully gets a message to call Nemhauser , but his phone is answered by Mulder , who denies taking the knife . Mulder searches Mostow 's studio and finds Nemhauser 's body inside a new sculpture . Mulder is then confronted by Patterson , who is unaware of how he arrived at the studio . Mulder then deduces that Patterson is the killer , based on his three @-@ year obsession with Mostow and his request for Mulder to investigate the case . Mulder confronts him , but Patterson flees when Scully arrives . Mulder pursues him and they fight ; Patterson is shot and apprehended .
In the last scene , Patterson is pressed against the bars of his cell , screaming and pleading that he is innocent , while the camera focuses on a gargoyle drawn in blood on the wall of his cell . Earlier in the episode , Mulder told Scully that he and Patterson disagreed on the best way to investigate serial murders , and Patterson always tried to empathize with the suspect , imagining himself in the killer 's place . Mulder 's closing narration concludes that it was this that eventually drove Patterson insane .
= = Production = =
Writer Howard Gordon conceived the idea for the episode while he was walking down the streets of New York and noticed several stone gargoyles on the corner staring at him . Gordon developed the idea into an X @-@ File involving possession by a gargoyle spirit . He wrote a draft script for the episode but had to turn to series creator Chris Carter three days before production began in order to rework it . The two worked on the script over the weekend to add more psychological aspects to the episode . Gordon claimed to be very proud of the final product . Assistant Art Director Gary Allen drew the gargoyle sketches used in this episode .
The producers originally planned to film the teaser sequence at a Catholic hospital , but the hospital was reluctant to affix a faux gargoyle to the building . Thus , the shot was relocated to Heritage Hall , a noted filming location and former post office in Vancouver . Some last minute scrambling was required when city workmen tore up the sidewalk on the very spot where the producers planned to film the scene . The construction crew reassured the show that the construction would be finished in time for filming . Indeed , the work was finished two hours before shooting of the episode started . Additional exterior shots were filmed at an alley near Bonanza Meat Market . The walls were painted to match those of Heritage Hall , although after filming was completed , they were returned to their original state .
Kim Manners called " Grotesque " his favorite third season episode and praised David Duchovny 's performance on this episode , saying " Duchovny drove himself , and he was brilliant in that show . " Manners also said of the episode : " I think ' Grotesque ' is a frightening show . I think it is a disturbing show , and I think that 's why — for me — it 's such a good show . We pulled it off making the viewer feel uneasy . I even found it a difficult show to watch . Yeah , it was a pretty dark hour of television and I would like to do more of those . " In order to get a proper feel for the episode , Manners listened to the music from the 1990 film Jacob 's Ladder until his wife " finally asked , ' Do we have to listen to that ( bleeping ) CD again ? ' " Manners also theorized that the episode may have been the template for the show Millennium , which premiered on Fox the following television season .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Grotesque " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on February 2 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . This totaled 18 @.@ 32 million viewers . The episode had the third highest ratings of the third season .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Grotesque " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Reviewer Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A − and noted that while the episode is " ponderous and pretentious " , this aspect of the entry turns it into " a benefit " . VanDerWerff wrote , " here 's the thing : ' Grotesque ' is absolutely [ ... ] self @-@ serious , just as much as I feared it would be . It also , unquestionably , works . The reason it works is very simple : It 's pretty scary " . Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode a largely positive review , awarding it an 8 out of 10 . He noted , " Overall , this is a solid effort by Howard Gordon . It ’ s good to see some of the methods that earned Mulder his nickname , and the underlying dynamic between Mulder and Scully is very well played . The central premise is vague enough to fall within the confines of the unusual , if not necessarily paranormal , and the supporting cinematography and score rise to the occasion . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five , and praised the themes of the episode , writing that , " Because ' Grotesque ' certainly surprises , and shocks , and even appals — this is the closest The X @-@ Files ever gets to staring into the face of insanity . " Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson praised Duchovny 's acting , calling it " his best performance yet seen in the series " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She referred to the episode as " one of the [ the show 's ] darkest ever " and called it " a triumph for director Manners , cinematographer Bartley , and The X @-@ Files art department . " Vitaris , however , was critical of the episode 's closing monologue , noting that " [ Mulder ] spells out what the camera is saying a hundred times more effectively with its finale shot of a pairing of a gargoyle . " Jonathan Dunn , writing for What Culture , described " Grotesque " as a " deep , dark , twisted psychological moment for The X @-@ Files that I absolutely love " and included it in the " 5 Episodes [ of The X @-@ Files ] That Could Be Made Into Movies " list .
Not all reviews were positive . Author Phil Farrand was critical of the episode , rating it his fourth least favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files . Entertainment Weekly gave " Grotesque " a D , labeling it as " ponderous , oblique , and featuring one of Mulder 's always annoying , easy @-@ way @-@ out soliloquy summations " .
= = = Awards = = =
" Grotesque " earned an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Cinematography - Series .
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= Mephedrone =
Mephedrone , also known as 4 @-@ methyl methcathinone ( 4 @-@ MMC ) or 4 @-@ methyl ephedrone , is a synthetic stimulant drug of the amphetamine and cathinone classes . Slang names include drone , M @-@ CAT , White Magic and meow meow . It is chemically similar to the cathinone compounds found in the khat plant of eastern Africa . It comes in the form of tablets or a powder , which users can swallow , snort or inject , producing similar effects to MDMA , amphetamines and cocaine .
In addition to its stimulant effects , mephedrone produces side effects , of which teeth grinding is the most common . The metabolism of mephedrone has been studied in rats and humans and the metabolites can be detected in urine after usage .
Mephedrone was first synthesised in 1929 , but did not become widely known until it was rediscovered in 2003 at which point it was legal to produce and possess in many countries . By 2007 , mephedrone was reported to be available for sale on the internet , by 2008 law enforcement agencies had become aware of the compound , and by 2010 , it had been reported in most of Europe , becoming particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom . Mephedrone was first made illegal in Israel in 2008 , followed by Sweden later that year . In 2010 , it was made illegal in many European countries and in December 2010 , the EU ruled it illegal . In Australia , New Zealand and the United States , it is considered an analog of other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws similar to the US Federal Analog Act . In September 2011 , the US temporarily classified mephedrone as a Schedule I drug , effective October 2011 . This classification was made permanent in July 2012 with the passage of the Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act ( SDAPA ) .
= = Uses = =
= = = Recreational = = =
Users have reported that mephedrone causes euphoria , stimulation , an enhanced appreciation for music , an elevated mood , decreased hostility , improved mental function and mild sexual stimulation ; these effects are similar to the effects of cocaine , amphetamines and MDMA , and last different amounts of time depending on the way the drug is taken . Of 70 Dutch users of mephedrone , 58 described it as an overall pleasant experience and 12 described it as an unpleasant experience . In a survey of UK users who had previously taken cocaine , most users found it produced a better @-@ quality and longer @-@ lasting high and was less addictive . The users were also asked to compare the " risk " , and they answered that it was equal . A study of users in Northern Ireland found they did not equate the fact that mephedrone was legal with it being safe to use . This was contrary to another study in New Zealand , where users of benzylpiperazine thought that because it was legal , it was safe .
= = = Available forms = = =
Mephedrone can come in the form of capsules , tablets or white powder that users may swallow , snort , inject , smoke or use rectally . When taken orally , users reported they could feel the effects within 15 – 45 minutes ; when snorted , the effects were felt within minutes and peaked within half an hour . The effects last for between two and three hours when taken orally or nasally , but only half an hour if taken intravenously . It is sometimes sold mixed with methylone in a product called bubbles in the UK and also mixed with other cathinones , including ethcathinone , butylone , fluoromethcathinone and methedrone .
= = = = Purity = = = =
One published study that analysed samples of mephedrone bought using the internet in the UK in 2010 found it was racemic ( a mixture of both stereoisomers ) and of high purity . An unpublished study of six samples also ordered off the internet in the UK in 2010 found they contained very few organic impurities . Four products sold in Irish head shops were tested in 2010 and were found to contain between 82 % and 14 % mephedrone , with some products containing benzocaine and caffeine .
= = Adverse effects = =
= = = Short @-@ term effects = = =
The ECMDDA reported mephedrone can cause various unintended side effects including : dilated pupils , poor concentration , teeth grinding , problems focusing visually , poor short @-@ term memory , hallucinations , delusions , and erratic behaviour . They noted the most severe effects appear anecdotally to be linked with high doses or prolonged usage , and the effects may be due to users taking other intoxicants at the same time . Other effects users in internet forums have noted include changes in body temperature , increased heart rate , breathing difficulties , loss of appetite , increased sweating , discolouration of extremities , anxiety , paranoia and depression . When snorted , it can also cause nose bleeds and nose burns . A survey conducted by the National Addiction Centre , UK , found 67 % of mephedrone users experienced sweating , 51 % suffered from headaches , 43 % from heart palpitations , 27 % from nausea and 15 % from cold or blue fingers , indicative of vasoconstriction occurring . Doctors at Guy 's Hospital , London reported , of 15 patients they treated after taking mephedrone in 2009 , 53 % were agitated , 40 % had increased heart rates , 20 % had systolic hypertension and 20 % had seizures ; three required treatment with benzodiazepines , predominantly to control their agitation . They reported none of their patients suffered from cold or blue peripheries , contrary to other reports . Nine of the 15 of patients had a Glasgow coma scale ( GCS ) of 15 , indicating they were in a normal mental state , four had a GCS below 8 , but these patients all reported using a central nervous system depressant , most commonly GHB , with mephedrone . The patients also reported polydrug use of a variety of compounds .
= = = Neurotoxicity = = =
Despite similarities to known neurotoxins such as methamphetamine and cathinone derivatives , mephedrone does not appear to produce neurotoxic effects in the dopamine system of mice .
= = = Reinforcement disorders = = =
There have been reports of users craving mephedrone , suggesting it may be addictive .
= = Overdose = =
= = = Toxicity = = =
In 2009 , one case of sympathomimetic toxicity was reported in the UK after a person took 0 @.@ 2 g of mephedrone orally , and after this did not achieve the desired effect , subcutaneously injected 3 @.@ 8 g mixed with water into his thighs . Shortly afterwards , the user " developed palpitations , blurred tunnel vision , chest pressure and sweating " . The patient was treated with 1 mg of lorazepam and the sympathomimetic features decreased and the user was discharged within six hours of arrival . One case of serotonin syndrome has been reported , where the patient was already prescribed fluoxetine and olanzapine , and then took 40 tablets containing mephedrone in one night . He was treated with lorazepam and discharged 15 hours after admission . Both enantiomers of methcathinone , which differs only in the lack of the methyl group on the aryl ring when compared to mephedrone , have been shown to be toxic to rat dopamine neurons , and the S @-@ enantiomer was also toxic against serotonin neurons . Simon Gibbons and Mire Zloh of the School of Pharmacy , University of London stated , based on the chemical similarities between methcathinone and mephedrone , " it is highly likely that mephedrone will display neurotoxicity " . However , Brunt and colleagues stated , " extreme caution " should be used when inferring the toxicity of mephedrone from methcathinone , noting some of the toxicity associated with methcathinone is due to manganese impurities related to its synthesis , rather than the compound itself . They concluded more experimental research is needed to investigate the toxicity of mephedrone .
Doctors who treated a 15 @-@ year @-@ old female suffering from mephedrone intoxication suggested in The Lancet that , like MDMA , mephedrone may promote serotonin @-@ mediated release of antidiuretic hormone , resulting in hyponatraemia and an altered mental state . In another case , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old male was admitted to hospital suffering from inflammation of the heart , 20 hours after taking one gram of mephedrone . The doctors treating the patient stated it was caused by either a direct toxic effect of mephedrone on the heart muscle , or by an immune response . One case of acquired methaemoglobinaemia , where a patient had " bluish lips and fingers " , has also been reported , after the user snorted one gram of mephedrone . The patient started to recover after arriving at the hospital and it was not necessary to administer any medication .
= = = Deaths = = =
= = = = Sweden = = = =
In 2008 , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Swedish woman died in Stockholm after taking mephedrone . The newspaper Svenska Dagbladet reported the woman went into convulsions and turned blue in the face . Doctors reported she was comatose and suffering from hyponatremia and severe hypokalemia ; the woman died one and a half days after the onset of symptoms . An autopsy showed severe brain swelling . Mephedrone was scheduled to be classified as a " dangerous substance " in Sweden even before the woman 's death at Karolinska University Hospital on 14 December , but the death brought more media attention to the drug . The possession of mephedrone became classified as a criminal offence in Sweden on 15 December 2008 .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
In 2010 , unconfirmed reports speculated about the role mephedrone has played in the deaths of several young people in the UK . By July 2010 , mephedrone had been alleged to be involved in 52 fatalities in the UK , but detected in only 38 of these cases . Of the nine that coroners had finished investigating , two were caused directly by mephedrone . The first death reported to be caused by mephedrone use was that of 46 @-@ year @-@ old , John Sterling Smith , who had underlying health problems and repeatedly injected the drug . A report in Forensic Science International in August 2010 stated mephedrone intoxication has been recorded as the cause of death in two cases in Scotland . Post mortem samples showed the concentration of mephedrone in their blood was 22 mg / L in one case and 3 @.@ 3 mg / L in the other . The death of a teenager in the UK in November 2009 was widely reported as being caused by mephedrone , but a report by the coroner concluded she had died from natural causes . In March 2010 , the deaths of two teenagers in Scunthorpe were widely reported by the media to be caused by mephedrone . Toxicology reports showed the teenagers had not taken any mephedrone and had died as a result of consuming alcohol and the heroin substitute methadone . According to Fiona Measham , a criminologist who is a member of the ACMD , the reporting of the unconfirmed deaths by newspapers followed " the usual cycle of ‘ exaggeration , distortion , inaccuracy and sensationalism ' " associated with the reporting of recreational drug use .
= = = = United States = = = =
Mephedrone has been implicated in the death of a 22 @-@ year @-@ old male , who had also injected black tar heroin . Mephedrone was found in his blood at a concentration of 0 @.@ 50 mg / L and in his urine at a concentration of 198 mg / L. The blood concentration of morphine , a metabolite of heroin , was 0 @.@ 06 mg / L. For comparison , the average blood morphine concentration resulting from deadly overdoses involving only heroin is around 0 @.@ 34 mg / L.
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacodynamics = = =
The pharmacology and toxicology of mephedrone had not been studied in detail until well after its sale as a designer drug and its addition to controlled drug lists in many countries . Writing in the British Medical Journal , psychiatrists stated , given its chemical structure , " mephedrone is likely to stimulate the release of , and then inhibit the reuptake of monoamine neurotransmitters " . The cathinone derivatives methcathinone and methylone act in a similar way to amphetamines , mainly acting on catecholamine transporters , so mephedrone is expected also to act in this way . The actions of amphetamines and cathinones are determined by the differences in how they bind to noradrenalin , dopamine and serotonin transporters . Molecular modelling of mephedrone suggests it is more hydrophilic than methyl @-@ amphetamines , which may account for the higher doses required to achieve a similar effect , because mephedrone is less able to cross the blood – brain barrier . Mephedrone has a chiral centre , so exists in two forms , called enantiomers ; the S form is thought to be more potent than the R form , because this applies to cathinone . A study by Gregg et al . , determined that the R form is more dopaminergic and rewarding than the S form , in contrast to what is observed with cathinone .
Mephedrone is often consumed with alcohol . A study in mice investigated the interrelation between these two substances , focusing on the psychostimulant and rewarding properties of mephedrone . It found that at low ( non stimulant ) doses alcohol significantly enhanced the psychostimulant effects of mephedrone . This effect was mediated by an increase in synaptic dopamine , as haloperidol , but not ketanserin , was able to block the potentiation by alcohol . Similarly , the rewarding properties of mephedrone were enhanced by a low non @-@ rewarding dose of alcohol .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
Several articles published near the end of 2011 examined the effects of mephedrone , compared to the similar drugs MDMA and amphetamine in the nucleus accumbens of rats , as well as examining the reinforcing potential of mephedrone . Dopamine and serotonin were collected using microdialysis , and increases in dopamine and serotonin were measured using HPLC . Reward and drug seeking are linked to increases in dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens , and drug half @-@ life plays a role in drug seeking , as well . Based on histological examination , most of the author 's probes were in the nucleus accumbens shell . Mephedrone administration caused about a 500 % increase in dopamine , and about a 950 % increase in serotonin . They reached their peak concentrations at 40 minutes and 20 minutes , respectively , and returned to baseline by 120 minutes after injection . In comparison , MDMA caused a roughly 900 % increase in serotonin at 40 minutes , with an insignificant increase in dopamine . Amphetamine administration resulted in about a 400 % increase in dopamine , peaking at 40 minutes , with an insignificant increase in serotonin . Analysis of the ratio of the AUC for dopamine ( DA ) and serotonin ( 5 @-@ HT ) indicated mephedrone was preferentially a serotonin releaser , with a ratio of 1 @.@ 22 : 1 ( serotonin vs. dopamine ) . Additionally , half @-@ lives for the decrease in DA and 5 @-@ HT were calculated for each drug . Mephedrone had decay rates of 24 @.@ 5 minutes and 25 @.@ 5 minutes , respectively . MDMA had decay values of 302 @.@ 5 minutes and 47 @.@ 9 minutes , respectively , while amphetamine values were 51 minutes and 84 @.@ 1 minutes , respectively . Taken together , these findings show mephedrone induces a massive increase in both DA and 5 @-@ HT , combined with rapid clearance . The rapid rise and subsequent fall of DA levels could explain some of the addictive properties mephedrone displays in some users .
= = = = Metabolism = = = =
Based on the analysis of rat and human urine by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry , mephedrone is thought to be metabolised by three phase 1 pathways . It can be demethylated to the primary amine ( producing compounds 2 , 3 and 5 ) , the ketone group can be reduced ( producing 3 ) or the tolyl group can be oxidised ( producing 6 ) . Both 5 and 6 are thought to be further metabolised by conjugation to the glucuronide and sulfate derivatives . Knowledge of the primary routes of metabolism should allow the intake of mephedrone to be confirmed by drug tests , as well as more accurate determination of the causes of side effects and potential for toxicity .
= = = Detection in body fluids = = =
Mephedrone may be quantitated in blood , plasma or urine by gas chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation . Blood or plasma mephedrone concentrations are expected to be in a range of 50 – 100 μg / l in persons using the drug recreationally , > 100 μg / l in intoxicated patients and > 500 μg / l in victims of acute overdosage .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
= = = Appearance and odour = = =
Mephedrone is a white substance . It is sold most commonly as crystals or a powder , but also in the form of capsules or pills . It can have a distinctive odour , reported to range from a synthetic fishy smell to the smell of vanilla and bleach , stale urine , or electric circuit boards .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Mephedrone can be synthesised in several ways . The simplest method , due to the availability of the compounds , is to add 4 @-@ methylpropiophenone dissolved in glacial acetic acid to bromine , creating an oil fraction of 4 ' -methyl @-@ 2 @-@ bromopropiophenone . The oil fraction can then be dissolved in dichloromethane ( CH2Cl2 ) and drops of the solution added to another solution of CH2Cl2 @-@ containing methylamine hydrochloride and triethylamine . Hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) is then added and the aqueous layer is removed and turned alkaline using sodium hydroxide before the amine is extracted using CH2Cl2 . The CH2Cl2 is then evaporated using a vacuum , creating an oil which is then dissolved in a nonaqueous ether . Finally , HCl gas is bubbled through the mixture to produce 4 @-@ methylmethcathinone hydrochloride . This method produces a mixture of both enantiomers and requires similar knowledge to that required to synthesise amphetamines and MDMA .
It can also be produced by oxidising the ephedrine analogue 4 @-@ methylephedrine using potassium permanganate dissolved in sulfuric acid . Because 4 @-@ methylephedrine can be obtained in a specific enantiomeric form , mephedrone consisting of only one enantiomer can be produced . The danger associated with this method is it may cause manganese poisoning if the product is not correctly purified .
A stereospecific form of ( S ) -mephedrone could be prepared via Friedel – Crafts acylation . The first step in the synthesis would be to react toluene and ( S ) -N @-@ trifluoroacetylalanoyl chloride in the presence of aluminium chloride , then deprotect the intermediate with hydrochloric acid @-@ propyl alcohol . This would produce ( S ) -4 @-@ methylcathinone , which could then be methylated to produce mephedrone .
= = = Analysis = = =
Mephedrone does not react with most reagent testing kits . The exception is the liebermann reagent , which gives a bright yellow reaction .
= = History = =
Mephedrone is one of hundreds of designer drugs or legal highs that have been reported in recent years , including artificial chemicals such as synthetic cannabis and semisynthetic substances such as methylhexanamine . These drugs are primarily developed to avoid being controlled by laws against illegal drugs , thus giving them the label of designer drugs . According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction , the synthesis of mephedrone was first reported in 1929 by Saem de Burnaga Sanchez in the Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France , under the name " toluyl @-@ alpha @-@ monomethylaminoethylcetone " , but the compound remained an obscure product of academia until 2003 , when it was " re @-@ discovered " and publicised by an underground chemist on The Hive website , working under the pseudonym " Kinetic " . Kinetic posted on the site , " I ’ ve been bored over the last couple of days and had a few fun reagents lying around , so I thought I ’ d try and make some 1- ( 4 @-@ methylphenyl ) -2 @-@ methylaminopropanone hydrochloride , or 4 @-@ methylmethcathinone . " before going on to describe that after taking it , the user had a " fantastic sense of well @-@ being that I haven ’ t got from any drug before except my beloved Ecstasy . " In interviews Kinetic was described as " a mathematician who used to design sleeping pills for a major pharmaceutical company " and he stated that he was based in Israel when he rediscovered mephedrone .
A drug similar to mephedrone , containing cathinone , was sold legally in Israel from around 2004 , under the name hagigat . When this was made illegal , the cathinone was modified and the new products were sold by the Israeli company , Neorganics . The products had names such as Neodoves pills , but the range was discontinued in January 2008 after the Israeli government made mephedrone illegal . The Psychonaut Research Project , an EU organisation that searches the internet for information regarding new drugs , first identified mephedrone in 2008 . Their research suggested the drug first became available to purchase on the internet in 2007 , when it was also discussed on internet forums . Mephedrone was first seized in France in May 2007 , after police sent a tablet they assumed to be ecstasy to be analysed , with the discovery published in a paper titled " Is 4 @-@ methylephedrone , an " Ecstasy " of the twenty first century ? " Mephedrone was reported as having been sold as ecstasy in the Australian city of Cairns , along with ethylcathinone , in 2008 . An annual survey of regular ecstasy users in Australia in 2010 found 21 % of those surveyed had used mephedrone , with 17 % having done so in the previous six months . The price they paid per gram varied from A $ 16 to $ 320 .
Europol noted they became aware of it in 2008 , after it was found in Denmark , Finland and the UK . The Drug Enforcement Administration noted it was present in the United States in July 2009 . By May 2010 , mephedrone had been detected in all 22 EU member states that reported to Europol , as well as in Croatia and Norway . The Daily Telegraph reported in April 2009 that it was manufactured in China , but it has since been made illegal there . In March 2009 , Druglink magazine reported it only cost a " couple of hundred pounds " to synthesise a kilogram of mephedrone , the same month , The Daily Telegraph reported manufacturers were making " huge amounts of money " from selling it . In January 2010 , Druglink magazine reported dealers in Britain spent £ 2 @,@ 500 to ship one kilogram from China , but could sell it for £ 10 a gram , making a profit of £ 7 @,@ 500 . A later report , in March 2010 , stated the wholesale price of mephedrone was £ 4000 per kilogram .
In March 2011 , the International Narcotics Control Board published a report about designer drugs , noting mephedrone was by then being used recreationally in Europe , North America , Southeast Asia , New Zealand and Australia .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
Between the summer of 2009 and March 2010 , the use of mephedrone grew rapidly in the UK , with it becoming readily available at music festivals , head shops and on the internet . A survey of Mixmag readers in 2009 , found it was the fourth most popular street drug in the United Kingdom , behind cannabis , cocaine , and ecstasy . The drug was used by a diverse range of social groups . Whilst the evidence was anecdotal , researchers , charity workers , teachers and users reported widespread and increasing use of the drug in 2009 . The drug 's rapid growth in popularity was believed to be related to both its availability and legality .
Fiona Measham , a criminologist at The University of Lancaster , thought the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the decreasing purity of ecstasy and cocaine on sale in the UK , a view reinforced in a report by the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse . The average cocaine purity fell from 60 % in 1999 to 22 % in 2009 and about half of ecstasy pills seized in 2009 contained no MDMA , and by June 2010 almost all ecstasy pills seized in the UK contained no MDMA . A similar pattern was observed in the Netherlands , with the number of ecstasy tablets containing no MDMA rising from 10 % in mid @-@ 2008 to 60 % by mid @-@ 2009 , with mephedrone being detected in 20 % of ecstasy tablets by mid @-@ 2009 . The decrease of MDMA was thought to be partly due to the seizure of 33 tonnes of sassafras oil , the precursor to MDMA , in Cambodia in June 2008 , which could have been used to make 245 million doses of MDMA . According to John Ramsey , a toxicologist at St George 's , University of London , the emergence of mephedrone was also related to the UK government banning the benzylpiperazine class of drugs in December 2009 @.@ gamma @-@ Butyrolactone ( GBL ) , another previously " legal high " , was also banned in August 2009 despite concerns it would be replaced by other drugs .
By December 2009 mephedrone was available on at least 31 websites based in the UK and by March 2010 there were at least 78 online shops , half of which sold amounts of less than 200 grams and half that also sold bulk quantities . The price per gram varied from £ 9 @.@ 50 to £ 14 . Between July 2009 and February 2010 , UK health professionals accessed the National Poisons Information Service 's ( NPIS ) entry on mephedrone 1664 times and made 157 telephone inquiries ; the requests increased month on month over this period . In comparison , over a similar time period , the entries for cocaine and MDMA were accessed approximately 2400 times . After mephedrone was made illegal the number of inquiries to the NPIS fell substantially , to only 19 in June 2010 .
Media organisations including the BBC and The Guardian incorrectly reported mephedrone was commonly used as a plant fertiliser . In fact sellers of the drug described it as " plant food " because it was illegal to sell the compound for human consumption . In late 2009 UK newspapers began referring to the drug as meow or miaow ( sometimes doubled as meow meow or miaow miaow ) , a name that was almost unknown on the street at the time . In November 2009 , the tabloid newspaper , The Sun published a story stating that a man had ripped off his own scrotum whilst using mephedrone . The story was later shown to be an online joke posted on mephedrone.com , later included in a police report with the caveat that it could be unreliable . The police report was used as a source for the story in The Sun . Other myths the media often repeated during 2010 were that mephedrone had led to the deaths of over 20 people , teachers were unable to confiscate the drug from pupils and the government was too slow to ban the drug . Parallels were drawn between the media coverage of mephedrone and a piece of satire by Chris Morris in 1997 on Brass Eye when he tricked public figures into talking of the dangers of taking the fictional legal drug " cake " . The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs ( ACMD ) have suggested that the media coverage of the drug led to its increased usage . Jon Silverman , a former BBC Home Affairs Correspondent , has written two articles discussing how the media had a strong influence over the UK government 's drugs policy , particularly in that the government wished to demonstrate they were being " tough " on drugs .
A survey of 1000 secondary school pupils and university students in Tayside conducted in February 2010 found 20 % of them had previously taken mephedrone . Although at the time it was available legally over the internet , only 10 % of users reported purchasing it online , with most purchasing it from street dealers . Of those who had used mephedrone , 97 % said it was easy or very easy to obtain . Around 50 % of users reported at least one negative effect associated with the use of mephedrone , of which teeth grinding is the most common . Detailed interviews with users in Northern Ireland similarly found that few purchased mephedrone online , with most interviewees citing concerns that their address would be traced or that family members could intercept the package .
On 30 March 2010 , Alan Johnson , the then Home Secretary , announced mephedrone would be made illegal " within weeks " after the ACMD sent him a report on the use of cathinones . The legislation would make all cathinones illegal , which Johnson said would " stop unscrupulous manufacturers and others peddling different but similarly harmful drugs " . The ACMD had run into problems with the UK Government in 2009 regarding drugs policy , after the government did not follow the advice of the ACMD to reclassify ecstasy and cannabis , culminating in the dismissal of the ACMD chairman , David Nutt , after he reiterated the ACMD 's findings in an academic lecture . Several members resigned after he was sacked , and prior to the announcement that mephedrone was to be banned , the trend continued when Dr Polly Taylor resigned , saying she " did not have trust " in the way the government would use the advice given by the ACMD . Eric Carlin , a member of the ACMD and former chairman of the English Drug Education Forum , also resigned after the announcement . He said the decision by the Home Secretary was " unduly based on media and political pressure " and there was " little or no discussion about how our recommendation to classify this drug would be likely to impact on young people 's behaviour . " Some former members of the ACMD and various charity groups expressed concern over the banning of the drug , arguing it would inevitably criminalise users , particularly young people . Others expressed concern that the drug would be left in the hands of black market dealers , who will only compound the problem . Carlin 's resignation was specifically linked to the criminalisation of mephedrone , he stated : " We need to review our entire approach to drugs , dumping the idea that legally @-@ sanctioned punishments for drug users should constitute a main part of the armoury in helping to solve our country ’ s drug problems . We need to stop harming people who need help and support " .
The parliamentary debate was held on 8 April , one day after the 2010 general election had been announced , meaning it was during the so @-@ called " wash @-@ up period " when legislation is passed with little scrutiny . Only one hour was spent debating the ban and all three parties agreed , meaning no vote was required . In an interview conducted in July 2010 , when he was no longer a minister , Johnson admitted the decision to ban mephedrone was sped up after widespread reporting of deaths caused by the drug , and because the government wished to pass the law before parliament was dissolved prior to the upcoming general election . In January 2011 , however , Johnson told the Scunthorpe Telegraph that the decision was based only on information from the ACMD . An editorial in the April 2010 edition of The Lancet questioned the decision to ban mephedrone , saying the ACMD did not have enough evidence to judge the potential harms caused by mephedrone and arguing that policy makers should have sought to understand why young people took it and how they could be influenced to not take it . Evan Harris , then the Liberal Democrat science spokesman , stated the ACMD " was not ' legally constituted ' " as required by the Misuse of Drugs Act , when the report on cathinones was published , since after Taylor resigned , it lacked a veterinary surgeon . In the rush to make mephedrone illegal , the act that was passed specified the inactive enantiomer of mephedrone , leaving the active form legal until the loophole was closed in February 2011 by another act of parliament . In Chemistry World , John Mann , professor of chemistry at Queen 's University Belfast , suggested the UK create a law similar to the Federal Analog Act of the United States , which would have made mephedrone illegal as an analog of cathinone . In August 2010 , James Brokenshire , the Home Office drugs minister , announced plans to create a new category in the Misuse of Drugs Act , through the Police Reform and Social Responsibility Bill , that would allow new legal highs to be made temporarily illegal , without the need for a vote in parliament or advice from the ACMD , as was required to categorise mephedrone .
According to the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs , after mephedrone was made illegal , a street trade in the drug emerged , with prices around double those prior to the ban , at £ 20 – £ 25 per gram . In September 2010 , Druglink reported the ban had had a mixed effect on mephedrone use , with it decreasing in some areas , remaining similar in others and becoming more prevalent in some areas . In an online survey of 150 users after the ban , 63 % said they were continuing to use mephedrone , half of those used the same amount and half said they used less . Compared to previous surveys , more users purchased it from dealers , rather than the internet . The average price per gram was £ 16 , compared to around £ 10 before the ban . The 2010 Mixmag survey of 2500 nightclubbers found one @-@ quarter had used mephedrone in the previous month , the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal , and it was more likely to be cut with other substances . Of those who had already used mephedrone prior to the ban , 75 % had continued to use it after the ban . Of the various drugs used by the survey participants , users were more likely to have concerns about it . Interviews with users in Northern Ireland also found the price had roughly doubled since it was made illegal , to around £ 30 a gram . Rather than the price rising due to increased scarcity of the drug , it is thought to have risen for two other reasons . Firstly , dealers knew there was still demand for mephedrone , but were aware the supplies may be exhausted in the future . Secondly , the dealers perceived customers were likely to be willing to pay more for an illegal substance .
Professor Shiela Bird , a statistician at the Medical Research Council , suggested the ban of mephedrone may lead to more cocaine @-@ related deaths . In the first six months of 2009 , the number of cocaine @-@ related deaths fell for the first time in four years , and fewer soldiers tested positive for cocaine in 2009 than in 2008 . She suggested this may have been due to users switching to mephedrone from cocaine , but cautioned that before full figures are available for 2009 and 2010 , it will be difficult to determine whether mephedrone saved lives , rather than cost them . Other supposedly legal drugs have filled the gap in the market since mephedrone was made illegal , including naphyrone ( NRG @-@ 1 ) ( since made illegal ) and Ivory Wave , which has been found to contain MDPV , a compound made illegal at the same time as mephedrone . However , some products branded as Ivory Wave possibly do not contain MDPV . When tested , some products sold six weeks after mephedrone was banned , advertised as NRG @-@ 1 , NRG @-@ 2 and MDAI , were found to be mephedrone . A Drugscope survey of drugs workers at the end of 2012 reported that mephedrone use was still widespread in the UK and that there increasing reports of problematic users . It was being taken as not only a " poor man 's cocaine " but also amongst users of heroin and crack cocaine . Cases of intravenous use were also reported to be on the increase .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legal status = = =
When mephedrone was rediscovered in 2003 , it was not specifically illegal to possess in any country . As its use has increased , many countries have passed legislation making its possession , sale , and manufacture illegal . It was first made illegal in Israel , where it had been found in products such as Neodoves pills , in January 2008 . After the death of a young woman in Sweden in December 2008 was linked to the use of mephedrone , it was classified as a hazardous substance a few days later , making it illegal to sell in Sweden . In June 2009 , it was classified as a narcotic with the possession of 15 grams or more resulting in a minimum of two years in prison – a longer sentence , gram for gram than given for the possession of cocaine or heroin . In December 2008 , Denmark also made it illegal and through the Medicines Act of Finland , it was made illegal to possess without a prescription . In November 2009 , it was classified as a " narcotic or psychotropic " substance and added to the list of controlled substances in Estonia and made illegal to import into Guernsey along with other legal highs , before being classified as a Class B drug in April 2010 . It was classified as a Class C drug in Jersey in December 2009 .
In 2010 , as its use became more prevalent , many countries passed legislation prohibiting mephedrone . It became illegal in Croatia and Germany in January , followed by Romania and the Isle of Man in February . In March 2010 , it was classified as an unregulated medicine in the Netherlands , making the sale and distribution of it illegal . The importation of mephedrone into the UK was banned on 29 March 2010 . The next day , the ACMD in the UK published a report on the cathinones , including mephedrone , and recommended they be classified as Class B drugs . On 7 April 2010 , the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 ( Amendment ) Order 2010 was passed by parliament , making mephedrone and other substituted cathinones , Class B drugs from 16 April 2010 . Prior to the ban taking effect , mephedrone was not covered by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 . It was , though , an offence under the Medicines Act to sell it for human consumption , so it was often sold as " plant food " or " bath salts " , although it has no use as these products ; this , too , was possibly illegal under the Trade Descriptions Act 1968 . In the US , similar descriptions have been used to describe mephedrone , as well as methylenedioxypyrovalerone ( MDPV ) . In May 2010 , the Republic of Ireland made mephedrone illegal , followed by Belgium , Italy , Lithuania , France and Norway in June and Russia in July . In August 2010 , Austria and Poland made it illegal and China announced it would be illegal as of 1 September 2010 . Mephedrone had been reported to be used in Singapore in February 2010 , but it was made illegal in November 2010 . In December 2010 , following the advice of the EMCDDA , mephedrone was made illegal throughout the EU , a move Switzerland also made shortly afterwards . Countries which have not already banned it , such as the Netherlands , Greece and Portugal , will need to change legislation to comply with the EU ruling . In Hungary , a government advisory body recommended mephedrone should be made illegal in August 2010 , which was followed , making it illegal in January 2011 ; Spain followed in February 2011 . Mexico , by Decree , outlawed mephedrone as a substance " with low or no therapeutical use which pose a serious threat to public health " in 2014 .
In some countries , mephedrone is not specifically listed as illegal , but is controlled under legislation that makes compounds illegal if they are analogs of drugs already listed . In Australia during 2010 , it was not specifically listed as prohibited , but the Australian Federal Police stated it is an analogue to methcathinone and therefore illegal . It is now listed as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and / or State or Territory Health Authorities . In February 2010 , 22 men were arrested in connection with importing mephedrone . By January 2011 , every state in Australia , other than Victoria , had listed it as a controlled drug .
In New Zealand , it is not included in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 , but is illegal , as it is similar to controlled substances .
In Canada , mephedrone is not explicitly listed in any schedule of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act , but " amphetamines , their salts , derivatives , isomers and analogues and salts of derivatives , isomers and analogues " are included in Section 19 of Schedule I of the act . Cathinone and methcathinone are listed in separate sections of Schedule III , while diethylpropion and pyrovalerone ( also cathinones ) , are listed in separate sections of Schedule IV , each without language to capture analogues , isomers , etc . Mephedrone is considered a controlled substance by Health Canada . According to the Canadian Medical Association , mephedrone is grouped with other amphetamines as Schedule I controlled substances . There have been several media reports of the Canadian police seizing mephedrone . Mephedrone is also currently scheduled in the United States as of 2011 . The Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) states , as an analogue of methcathinone , possession of mephedrone can be controlled by the Federal Analog Act , but according to the Los Angeles Times , this only applies if it is sold for human consumption . Several cities and states , such as New York State , have passed legislation to specifically list mephedrone as illegal , but in most areas it remained legal , so long as it is not sold for human consumption , so retailers described it as ' bath salts ' . In September 2011 , The DEA began using its emergency scheduling authority to temporarily control mephedrone . Except as authorized by law , this action made possessing and selling mephedrone or the products that contain it illegal in the US for at least one year while the DEA and the United States Department of Health and Human Services conduct further study . Control of these compounds became permanent on 9 July 2012 , via passage of the Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012 .
= = = Usage = = =
A survey conducted in late 2009 by the National Addiction Centre ( UK ) found 41 @.@ 3 % of readers of Mixmag had used mephedrone in the last month , making it the fourth most popular drug amongst clubbers . Of those , two @-@ thirds snorted the drug and the average dosage per session was 0 @.@ 9 g ; the length of sessions increased as the dosage increased . Users who snorted the drug reported using more per session than those who took it orally ( 0 @.@ 97 g compared to 0 @.@ 74 g ) and also reported using it more often ( five days per month compared to three days per month ) . An Irish study of people on a methadone treatment program for heroin addicts found 29 of 209 patients tested positive for mephedrone usage .
= = = Harm assessment = = =
Professor David Nutt , former chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs ( ACMD ) in the UK has said , " people are better off taking ecstasy or amphetamines than those [ drugs ] we know nothing about " and " Who knows what 's in [ mephedrone ] when you buy it ? We don 't have a testing system . It could be very dangerous , we just don 't know . These chemicals have never been put into animals , let alone humans . " Les King , a former member of the ACMD , has stated mephedrone appears to be less potent than amphetamine and ecstasy , but that any benefit associated with this could be negated by users taking larger amounts . He also told the BBC , " all we can say is [ mephedrone ] is probably as harmful as ecstasy and amphetamines and wait until we have some better scientific evidence to support that . "
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= The Stone Tape =
The Stone Tape is a television play directed by Peter Sasdy and starring Michael Bryant , Jane Asher , Michael Bates and Iain Cuthbertson . It was broadcast on BBC Two as a Christmas ghost story in 1972 . Combining aspects of science fiction and horror , the story concerns a team of scientists who move into their new research facility , a renovated Victorian mansion that has a reputation for being haunted . The team investigate the phenomena , trying to determine if the stones of the building are acting as a recording medium for past events ( the " stone tape " of the play 's title ) . However , their investigations serve only to unleash a darker , more malevolent force .
The Stone Tape was written by Nigel Kneale , best known as the writer of Quatermass . Its juxtaposition of science and superstition is a frequent theme in Kneale 's work ; in particular , his 1952 radio play You Must Listen , about a haunted telephone line , is a notable antecedent of The Stone Tape . The play was also inspired by a visit Kneale had paid to the BBC 's research and development department , which is located in an old Victorian house in Kingswood , Surrey . Critically acclaimed at time of broadcast , it remains well regarded to this day as one of Nigel Kneale 's best and most terrifying plays . Since its broadcast , the hypothesis of residual haunting – that ghosts are recordings of past events made by the natural environment – has come to be known as the " Stone Tape Theory " .
= = Plot summary = =
Peter Brock ( Michael Bryant ) is the selfish and petulant head of a research team for Ryan Electrics . His team is developing a new recording medium that will give the company an edge over its Japanese competitors . They move into a new facility at Taskerlands , an old Victorian mansion that has been renovated for their use . On arrival , they learn from estates manager Roy Collinson ( Iain Cuthbertson ) that the refurbishment of one of the rooms in Taskerlands remains uncompleted , the builders having refused to work in it because it is supposedly haunted . The room , with its stone walls , is a remnant of the original building , with foundations dating back to the Saxon era . The rest of the mansion was added on over the centuries .
Curious , the researchers explore the room and hear the sounds of a woman running followed by a gut @-@ wrenching scream . Jill Greeley ( Jane Asher ) , an emotionally sensitive computer programmer , has a vision of a woman running up the steps in the room and falling , apparently to her death .
Inquiring with the local villagers , they learn that a young maid died in that room during Victorian times and that an unsuccessful exorcism had previously been performed on the property .
Brock hypothesises that it is not a ghost , but that somehow the stone in the room has preserved an image of the girl 's death — this " stone tape " may be the new recording medium they have been seeking . Their scientific devices fail to detect any evidence of the phenomena the team experience , and different team members experience different phenomena : most are able to hear sounds , Jill can also see images , but another member of the team experiences no sensory input . Jill hypothesises that the " tape " does not produce actual sound or light , but instead interfaces with the human nervous system during playback to create the sensory impression of sound and vision , and some individuals are more sensitive to this than others . She surmises that the recordings are imprinted in moments of extreme emotion , like a kind of telepathy .
Excited by the possibilities presented by a recording medium which uses a person 's own senses as the means of recording and playback , Brock and his team move into the room . They bombard it with their technology , hoping to find the secret of the " stone tape " and have it play on demand . When results are not forthcoming and under mounting pressure to succeed , a last desperate attempt wipes the recording and some team members break under the strain . Brock 's failures are compounded when he is informed by his superiors that they have lost confidence in his work , and that the Taskerlands facility is to be shared with a rival research team working on a new washing machine .
Embittered , Brock no longer wants anything to do with the stone tape . He disregards Jill 's insistence that there is still more to learn about the room and her mounting concerns that it is dangerous to stop their research . After studying the failed exorcism , Jill presents the theory that the stone tape can be recorded over again and again , like magnetic recording tape ; the maid 's death was simply the most recent and clearest recording . Independently continuing her research , Jill realizes that the maid 's death was masking a much older recording , left many thousands of years ago . Brock cruelly dismisses her findings , and forces Jill to take a two @-@ month leave to prevent her from continuing her research .
Returning to the room one last time , Jill 's senses are besieged by a powerful , malevolent presence from the much @-@ degraded older recording . Like the maid before her , she dies while frantically trying to escape it .
During an inquest , Brock tries to save face by denouncing Jill as having been mentally unstable . Afterwards he orders that all of Jill 's research be destroyed without reviewing it . The " haunted " room has been declared of historical importance by a preservation society , prohibiting development , destruction , or commercial use . He makes a final visit to the room and discovers to his horror that the stone tape has made a new , crystal @-@ clear recording — that of Jill screaming his name as she dies .
= = Background = =
Nigel Kneale was a Manx television playwright who had first come to prominence in the 1950s thanks to his three Quatermass serials and his controversial adaptation of George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , all of which were produced by the BBC . Going freelance in the nineteen @-@ sixties , Kneale had produced scripts for Associated Television and for Hammer Films . In the late nineteen @-@ sixties and early nineteen @-@ seventies , Kneale had been coaxed back to the BBC , writing such plays as The Year of the Sex Olympics , Wine of India and , for the anthology series Out of the Unknown , The Chopper .
In the middle of 1972 , Christopher Morahan , who was Head of Drama at BBC2 and who had directed Kneale 's 1963 play The Road and the 1965 remake of Kneale 's adaptation of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , approached Kneale asking him to write a play to be broadcast over the Christmas period . Accepting the commission , Kneale quickly decided that , in keeping with Christmas tradition , he would write a ghost story , but with a difference – ancient spirits would come into collision with modern science . The concept of mixing the supernatural with high technology had long been a feature of Kneale 's work – most notably , his 1952 radio play You Must Listen , which concerned a telecommunications engineer who discovers that a telephone line has somehow preserved the final conversation between a woman and her lover before her suicide , was an important antecedent of The Stone Tape . The science and supernatural theme is also present in Kneale 's Quatermass and the Pit which , in addition , shares similar elements with The Stone Tape such as an abandoned house with a reputation for hauntings ; the collection of documentary evidence of the haunting ( also a trademark of M. R. James , a writer much admired by Kneale ) and the sensitivity of certain characters to the supernatural . In addition , the relationship between the scientists and the local villagers echoes that seen in Quatermass II .
For the research facility at " Taskerlands " , Kneale was influenced by a visit he had paid to the BBC 's research and development facility which was based at an old country house at Kingswood Warren in Kingswood , Surrey . Similarly , the researchers working at Kingswood Warren influenced the portrayal of the members of the Ryan research team in The Stone Tape . Kneale recalled of his visit to Kingswood Warren , " The sort of impression you got of the folk who worked there was a boyishness . They were very cheerful . It was all rather fun for them , which is a very clever way to go about doing that sort of heavy research ... They were nice chaps – and so we got some very nice chaps for the TV version " .
Kneale delivered his script , initially titled Breakthrough and later renamed The Stone Tape , in September 1972 . Because of its subject matter , it was felt that the play would be best handled as an instalment of Dead of Night , a supernatural anthology series produced by Innes Lloyd . In the end , The Stone Tape was broadcast as a standalone programme but production was handled by the Dead of Night team under Lloyd . Selected as director was Hungarian Peter Sasdy whose credits included adaptations of The Caves of Steel and Wuthering Heights for the BBC and Taste the Blood of Dracula and Hands of the Ripper for Hammer . Cast as Peter Brock was Michael Bryant , who had starred in the BBC 's 1970 adaptation of Jean @-@ Paul Sartre 's Roads to Freedom and had a reputation for playing " bad boy " roles . Jane Asher , playing Jill Greely , had , as a child , appeared in Hammer 's The Quatermass Xperiment , the film adaptation of Kneale 's BBC serial The Quatermass Experiment . Iain Cuthberston , playing Roy Collinson , was well known for his role in Budgie and would go to become the star of Sutherland 's Law while Michael Bates , cast as Eddie Holmes , would later become known for his roles in the sitcoms Last of the Summer Wine and It Ain 't Half Hot Mum .
Recording of The Stone Tape began on 15 November 1972 with the exterior scenes of the house , " Taskerlands " . These were shot at Horsley Towers , East Horsley in Surrey . This was once owned by Ada Lovelace , daughter of Lord Byron and sponsor of computer pioneer Charles Babbage . Production then moved to BBC Television Centre between 20 November 1972 and 22 November 1972 . Not all scenes were recorded in time and a remount was required on 4 December 1972 . Michael Bates was not available on this day and his lines had to be redistributed among the other cast members . Incidental music and sound effects were provided by Desmond Briscoe of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop and these proved significant in setting the mood of the play – sections were later used in a BBC educational programme on the effectiveness of incidental music .
The Stone Tape aired on 25 December 1972 on BBC2 to an audience of 2 @.@ 6 million . The Evening Standard praised the play , describing it as " one of the best plays of the genre ever written . Its virtues aren 't just the main spine of the story , but the way the characters shift , as in real life , the bitter comic conflict between pure and impure science " . Viewers were similarly impressed : a panel questioned for an audience report praised The Stone Tape as " thoroughly entertaining " and " both gripping and spine @-@ chilling " .
The Stone Tape was one of the last plays Nigel Kneale wrote for the BBC . He had become increasingly disenchanted with the organisation , mainly as a result of the rejection of several scripts such as Cracks , a proposed Play for Today , and a fourth Quatermass serial . Moving to Independent Television , he wrote and created series such as Beasts and Kinvig and succeeded in getting his rejected Quatermass scripts produced in 1979 . He died in 2006 .
The script of The Stone Tape was published , along with the scripts of The Road and The Year of the Sex Olympics in 1976 by Ferret Fantasy under the title The Year of the Sex Olympics and Other TV Plays .
= = Cultural significance = =
One of the first to promulgate the hypothesis of residual haunting , that ghosts may be recordings of past events made by the physical environment , was Thomas Charles Lethbridge in books such as Ghost and Ghoul , written in 1961 . Since the broadcast of the play , this hypothesis has come to be known as the " Stone Tape Theory " by parapsychological researchers .
The Stone Tape was a significant influence on John Carpenter 's 1987 film Prince of Darkness in which a group of scientists investigate a mysterious cylinder discovered in the basement of a church . Besides directing the film , Carpenter wrote the screenplay under the pseudonym " Martin Quatermass " , and included a reference to " Kneale University " . This homage did little to impress Kneale , who wrote in The Observer , " For the record I have had nothing to do with the film and I have not seen it . It sounds pretty bad . With an homage like this , one might say , who needs insults ? I can only imagine that it is a whimsical riposte for my having my name removed from a film I wrote a few years ago [ a reference to Halloween III for which Kneale wrote an early draft ] and which Mr Carpenter carpentered into sawdust " . The play also influenced the 1982 Steven Spielberg and Tobe Hooper film Poltergeist . In the 2004 BBC7 Radio Serial " Ghost Zone " , a character refers explicitly to the " Stone Tape theory " as an explanation for the way an invading alien intelligence is " replaying " scenes and figures from the past of the remote Scottish village in which the story is set . Author Marty Ross has explicitly acknowledged the influence of Kneale 's work , and the Quatermass serials in particular , on his own BBC SF drama .
The Stone Tape remains well @-@ regarded to this day . Roger Fulton , writing in The Encyclopedia of TV Science Fiction , calls it " arguably the most creepy drama ever seen on television " . The writer and critic Kim Newman regards it as " one of the masterpieces of genre television , an authentic alliance of mind @-@ stretching science fiction concepts with horror and suspense plot mechanics " . Writer and member of The League of Gentlemen , Jeremy Dyson feels that The Stone Tape " strikes a note that it just circumnavigates your intellect and gets you on a much deeper level [ ... ] it just has this impact on you , rather like being in the room itself . Extraordinary piece of work " . Writer Grant Morrison recalled The Stone Tape as " really creepy and very memorable . Just brilliant images . That scared the hell out of me ! " . Sergio Angelini , writing for the British Film Institute 's Screenonline , has said that " The Stone Tape stands as perhaps his finest single work in the genre " . Lez Cooke , in his book British Television Drama : A History , has praised the play as " one of the most imaginative and intelligent examples of the horror genre to appear on British television , a single play to rank alongside the best of Play for Today " .
= = Home video release = =
A DVD was released by the British Film Institute in 2001 with a commentary by Nigel Kneale and critic Kim Newman , sleeve notes by Kim Newman and the script of the play as well as the script of The Road . This edition is now out of print , but in 2013 the DVD was re @-@ released with new cover art by 101 Films , which also included the commentary by Kneale and Newman . It was also included in a two @-@ disc edition with the BBC 's Ghostwatch programme from 1992 .
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= Bedtime Stories ( Madonna album ) =
Bedtime Stories is the sixth studio album by American singer Madonna . It was released on October 25 , 1994 , by Maverick and Warner Bros. Records . Madonna collaborated with Dallas Austin , Babyface , Dave " Jam " Hall , and Nellee Hooper in order to move into a more mainstream sound . The singer wanted to soften her image following the critical and commercial backlash she faced after releasing sexually explicit projects in the previous two years , notably the Erotica album and the book Sex in 1992 . The success of the soundtrack single " I 'll Remember " in 1994 marked the beginning of this transformation and Madonna used Bedtime Stories to continue it .
Bedtime Stories is a pop album which was inspired by contemporary R & B. Like its predecessor Erotica , the album explores lyrical themes of love , sorrow , and romance , but with a toned @-@ down , less sexual approach . Critics described the album as " autobiographical " , as the song " Human Nature " addresses the controversy surrounding Erotica . Madonna also worked with Icelandic singer @-@ songwriter Björk , as she wanted to explore the British club musical scene , where genres such as dub had been growing in popularity .
Bedtime Stories received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who praised the album 's candid lyrics and production , and it was nominated for Best Pop Album at the 38th Grammy Awards . Commercially , the album proved to be successful . Debuting and peaking at number three on the Billboard 200 , the album was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . It also became her fifth number @-@ one album in Australia and peaked within the top five in other international territories . Bedtime Stories has sold more than seven million copies worldwide .
The lead single from the album , " Secret " , gave Madonna her record @-@ breaking 35th consecutive top ten single on the UK Singles Chart , while " Take a Bow " spent seven weeks at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Other singles released , " Bedtime Story " and " Human Nature " , did not match the previous singles ' success . In order to further promote Bedtime Stories , Madonna performed songs from the album on the American Music Awards of 1995 and the 1995 Brit Awards . A concert tour was also planned , but did not take place due to Madonna acquiring the title role in the 1996 musical film , Evita .
= = Background = =
In 1992 , Madonna released her controversial Sex book and her fifth studio album Erotica , both containing explicit sexual imagery and pictures of voyeuristic fantasies . She also starred in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence . During the same period , Madonna 's appearance on David Letterman 's talk show was noted for her controversial behavior . It included the singer using profanity that required censorship on television , and handing Letterman a pair of her panties and asking him to smell it . This made the episode the most censored in American network television talk @-@ show history , while at the same time garnering the show some of the highest ratings it ever received . All releases were panned by critics and fans alike , calling Madonna a sexual renegade and claiming that " she had gone too far " and that her career was over . A song titled " I 'll Remember " was included in the soundtrack of the film With Honors in early 1994 . The song was well received by critics and was seen as Madonna 's first positive step into reconnecting with the general public and repairing the damage that her provocative personality had caused to her career .
Regarding the controversial period of her career , Madonna said , " I feel I 've been misunderstood . I tried to make a statement about feeling good about yourself and exploring your sexuality , but people took it to mean that everyone should go out and have sex with everyone , and that I was going to be the leader of that . So I decided to leave it alone because that 's what everyone ended up concentrating on . Sex is such a taboo subject and it 's such a distraction that I 'd rather not even offer it up . " During 1994 , Madonna started recording her sixth studio album . She collaborated with R & B producers such as Dallas Austin , Dave " Jam " Hall , and Babyface , and also enlisting British producer Nellee Hooper to the project . It became one of the very few occasions where she collaborated with well @-@ known producers , the first since Nile Rodgers on Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) . When asked about the record , Madonna said she wanted people to concentrate on the musical aspects of it , and would like the songs to speak for themselves . She also commented that it was because she was not interested in giving many interviews and being on the cover of magazines . She described the album as " a combination of pop , R & B , hip @-@ hop and a Madonna record . It 's very , very romantic " . In an interview with The Face magazine , Madonna explained her inspirations behind Bedtime Stories as well as the reason for teaming up with R & B song producers .
I 've been in a reflective state of mind . I 've done lot of soul searching and I just felt in a romantic mood when I was writing for [ the album ] so that 's what I wrote about ... I decided that I wanted to work with a whole bunch of different producers . [ Icelandic singer @-@ songwriter ] Björk 's album was one of my favorite for years — it 's brilliantly produced . And I also wanted to work with Massive . So obviously , he was on the list . Nellee was the last person I worked with , and it wasn 't until then that I got a grip of what the sound of the whole record was , so I had to go back and redo a lot .
= = Development = =
Madonna 's initial work on the album had started with Shep Pettibone , who produced her fifth studio album , Erotica ( 1992 ) . However , she found out that they were doing the same vein of music from the previous album , which did not please her . At the time , Madonna was a fan of Babyface 's song " When Can I See You " ( 1994 ) , and became interested in working with him , as she wanted " lush ballads " for her record . They would collaborate on three songs for the album in his studio in Beverly Hills , with " Forbidden Love " and " Take a Bow " ending up on the album . Recalling the latter 's development , the producer commented , " I wasn 't so much thinking about the charts . I think I was more in awe of the fact that I was working with Madonna . It was initially surreal , but then you get to know the person a little bit , and you calm down and then it 's just work . And work is fun " . He also said that for " Forbidden Love " , " She heard the basic track and it all started coming out , melodies and everything ... It was a much easier process than I thought it would be " .
Madonna 's backup singers Donna De Lory and Niki Haris were called in to provide harmonies on " Survival " . She commented , " The minute you walked in [ the studio ] , she was giving you the lyric sheet . That was the atmosphere — we 're not here to just hang out . It 's fun , but we 're here to work and get this done " . De Lory recalls the sessions for " Survival " took a " couple of hours " and there were no retakes . During recording sessions , Madonna was interested in working with Austin after he produced Joi 's debut album The Pendulum Vibe ( 1994 ) . According to the singer , " She wanted to know , ' Who is this ? Who produced it ? How did this happen ? ' "
Aside from this , however , Madonna also wanted to explore the British club musical scene , where genres such as dub had been growing in popularity . In such a way , she decided to work with several European producers and composers within the electronic scene , including Nellee Hooper , who pleased Madonna due to his " very European sensibility " . Inviting Hooper over to Los Angeles , sessions started taking place in the Chappell Studios of Encino , California . Björk accepted the offer to write a track for Madonna 's album , and wrote a song initially named " Let 's Get Unconscious " . Once the song demo had been finished , Hooper and Marius De Vries rearranged the track and the final version was called " Bedtime Story " , which became the album 's third single . Academic Georges Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna As Postmodern Myth , felt that the album 's title was a pun ; " [ Madonna ] is referring to ( possible erotic ) stories told at bedtime ( in bed ) . In a way ( the album ) is really a book of stories you can tell your kids at bedtime [ ... ] sexuality explained to children [ ... ] Madonna has always thought that children should be better informed in that aspect " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album 's opening track is " Survival " . It is a " sweetly funky number " which tries to " convey a loosely drawn narrative of the punishment she endured from the media and her feelings leading up to the release " . It has a lyrical allusion to the singer 's 1986 single " Live to Tell " , with double @-@ tracked strong vocals and harmonies . In the song , Madonna enhanced the rhythmic sounds more and compressed the bass sounds , in order to cater to the then musical trend . Containing multiple hooks , " Survival " ' s lyrics are about dualities like heaven / hell , up / down , angels / saints . " Secret " , the second song , begins with just the sound of Madonna 's voice singing over a rhythmic , folksy guitar in descending chord sequence , before opening up to a sparse , retro rhythm section . A deep percussion starts around the one minute mark , accompanied by wah @-@ wah ascending string line , supporting the descending guitar . Towards the end , an upper harmonic melody is added to display variance . Madonna 's voice remains at the center of the song 's production , as she sings lyrics such as " happiness lies in your own hand " . Throughout the song , Madonna also sings the lyrics " My baby 's got a secret " , however she never discloses what the secret may be . During the next song , " I 'd Rather Be Your Lover " , Madonna lusts after the unattainable through processes of negotiation : " I could be your sister , I could be your mother , We could be friends , I 'd even be your brother " . Towards the middle of the song , an eight bar rap break is taken by singer and rapper Meshell Ndegeocello , who raps : " Tell me what you want / Tell me what you need ... " . Madonna interrupts , with her voice foregrounded and juxtaposed over the short interjections of Ndegeocello 's rap part . A trip hop track , the song is musically comparable to the tracks on Portishead 's 1994 album , Dummy , and also contains influences of new jack swing . It uses a sample from " It 's Your Thing " performed by Lou Donaldson .
The album 's fourth track , " Don 't Stop " , is characterized by a pulsating bass overlaid with strings punctuating and accompanying the riffs in sustained and glissandi gestures . The rhetoric of the track is displayed by Madonna 's commands : " Don 't stop doin ' what you 're doin ' baby , Don 't stop , keep movin ' keep groovin ' " . The next track " Inside of Me " starts with the same tempo as " Don 't Stop " , with guitars , sustained strings , " throbbing " bass and jazz @-@ y keyboards , with Madonna singing in a breathy vocal register . The singing conjures an erotic imagery as she sings on the chorus , " Even though you 're gone , love still carries on " , however the lyrics were interpreted as both about her deceased mother , or a long @-@ lost lover . The strings and an occasional saxophone sample makes " Inside of Me " a direct continuation of " Erotica " , with an interval where the drums drop off , exposing Madonna 's vocals . On the sixth track , " Human Nature " , Madonna confronts chauvinism as she sings , " And I 'm not sorry , I 'm not your bitch , don 't hang your shit on me " , while telling herself in whispered tones to " express yourself , don 't repress yourself " . Consisting of heavy bass and looping drum sounds in its four chord sequence , the song finds Madonna delivering a nasal tone reminiscent of 90s soul style . Together with " Survival " , the song became a vehicle for Madonna to lyrically vent off her frustrations regarding the controversies surrounding her .
" Forbidden Love " , seventh track on the album , finds Madonna comparing rejection to an aphrodisiac and dismissing any relationship untouched by taboo . Composed in a minor key with whispering voices in the background ( one of them being of Babyface 's ) , the song features a string section in the middle eight . The instrumentation is kept at minimum to emphasize the vocals , and the song ends with fading out . Track eight , " Love Tried to Welcome Me " , is a ballad which was inspired by a stripper Madonna met in a club , and has a fetish about rejection . The first 42 seconds consist of a string section , following which the verses start . The song projects a sombre and melancholy mood with Madonna lyrically asserting that she is " drawn to sadness " and " loneliness has never been a stranger " on the song . The next song on Bedtime Stories is " Sanctuary " where Madonna quotes Walt Whitman 's poem Vocalism in the lyrics , and aligns love and death . Musically it has a " techno pull " and has an atmospheric introduction with an assortment of odd noises , electric guitar and some strings . The song is linked to the beginning of the next album track , " Bedtime Story " , which starts with its chords . It is an electronic song where Madonna wonders " Words are useless , especially sentences , They don 't stand for anything , How could they explain how I feel ? " The last song on the album " Take a Bow " is a midtempo pop ballad with a " Sukiyaki " -like Japanese touch . The chorus expresses the theme of saying goodbye to a lover who had taken her for granted . The title plays upon the verse in the song " all the world is a stage and everyone has their part " , a reference to the line by William Shakespeare in his play As You Like It , " All the world 's a stage , and all the men and women mere players " .
= = Artwork = =
The artwork for Bedtime Stories was shot by French fashion photographer Patrick Demarchelier , at the Eden Roc Miami Beach Hotel in the United States in September 1994 . She also worked with hairstylist Sam McKnight for the pictures , which were directed by Fabien Baron . McKnight recalled that it was a " low @-@ key " photoshoot featuring less than 50 people , and was conducted on Madonna 's birthday , hence it was wrapped up fast since the singer had to go for her party . The cover was released online , and depicted the singer upside down , looking upward with heavy make @-@ up , a nose ring , blond hair , and simple neon fonts . Inspired by actress Jean Harlow , the singer sported over @-@ plucked eyebrows for the photos which were designed by makeup artist Francois Nars .
Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault website stated that the artwork was " colorful " and was seen by him as one of the high points of the release . While reviewing photographer Demarchelier 's life and career , the cover was seen as " memorable " by Valentine de Badereau . American singer Christina Aguilera 's fifth studio album artwork , Back to Basics ( 2006 ) received comparisons to Bedtime Stories ' cover for being too similar . The packaging for Bedtime Stories featured white plastic digitray holding the CD , while the cover was sky @-@ blue paper with a velvety texture . British journalist Paul Du Noyer gave a detailed description of Madonna 's image change with the album , during an interview with the singer for Q magazine , saying :
Madonna looks both older and younger than she does in the photos and the videos : a little more lined and possibly tired , but also less mature and grand . Her manner is quite teenaged , not femme fatale . She seems up for mischief , and yet quite conscious of her power . At the same time , her very frankness is almost innocent . These combinations are odd , and they give her the air of a prematurely wise child . Her current style is 1930s Hollywood meets early 1970s flash : Jean Harlow and Angie Bowie . She is not bewitching , but is certainly beautiful . She wears the nose stud that so troubled Norman Mailer in a recent interview . If you saw her in the street , you 'd think : she looks like a girl who looks a bit like Madonna .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Media appearances = = =
To promote the album 's release , Madonna talked about the album in an audio message available exclusively online prior to its release . There were promotional advertisements aired on television channels proclaiming that there will be " no sexual references on the album " and Madonna adding that " it 's a whole new me ! I 'm going to be a good girl , I swear . " One of the first promotional appearances the singer did was in Paris , where she was interviewed by Ruby Wax and talked about the album . According to Wax , she was quite intimidated by Madonna and her entourage and , in her own words , " [ my ] nerves got the best of me " . On February 18 , 1995 , Madonna arrived in Europe to promote Bedtime Stories . During the same day , she performed " Secret " and " Take a Bow " on German TV show Wetten , dass .. ? , while she was also interviewed on the program .
Madonna went back to United States and performed " Take a Bow " on the American Music Awards of 1995 , accompanied by Babyface and a full orchestra . She returned to Europe to sing " Bedtime Story " during the 1995 Brit Awards ; she wore a white Versace dress and long hair extensions , and featured a trio of satin @-@ clad male dancers . Madonna invited Björk , who wrote the track , to feature in the performance ; however , the singer turned it down . The singer also promoted " Take a Bow " by performing on Sanremo Music Festival . At the end of the performance , she thanked the audience in Italian language , and received standing ovation . In order to promote the video for " Bedtime Story " , MTV aired a special titled Madonna 's Pajama Party on March 18 , 1995 , where the singer could be seen reading a bedtime story in Webster Hall in New York City . At the event , " cutting @-@ edge " tribal and trance remixes , made by disc jockey and producer Junior Vasquez , were also played .
Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera mentioned that Madonna would play in Italy as part of a world tour to promote Bedtime Stories in spring or fall 1995 . However , Madonna and her manager Freddy DeMann cancelled all plans after she was offered the role of Eva Perón on the film Evita , directed by Alan Parker . Her spokesperson Liz Rosenberg considered a " shorter tour " because of filming , however , Madonna commented , " I 've waited years for this role , and I have to put every ounce of concentration into it . I love touring , and I very much want to go out with this album . But I can 't — I 'd be going straight from months on the road right into filming ; I 'd be exhausted and strained . It wouldn 't be in the best interests of the movie for me to be at any less than my peak of energy " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Secret " was released as the album 's lead single in September 1994 . The song achieved success in the charts , peaking inside the top five in most countries , while in the US the song reached number three on Billboard Hot 100 . " Take a Bow " , produced by Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , was the album 's second single . It topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for seven weeks and is her longest @-@ running number @-@ one single on this chart . It was her 11th single to top the Billboard Hot 100 and her 23rd top five entry @-@ both records for a female artist . She also replaced Carole King as the female who had written the most number one songs .
" Bedtime Story " was released as the third single in February 1995 . On the Hot 100 chart , the song peaked at number 42 , becoming the first Madonna single since " Burning Up " ( 1983 ) not to reach the top 40 . If the single reached the top 40 , Madonna would at the time have become the third woman in the " rock era " with the most top 40 hits , behind Aretha Franklin and Connie Francis . It would have given her a consecutive string of 33 top 40 hits , starting from her single " Holiday " ( 1983 ) . Nonetheless , the song 's " loss " of radio airplay and sales prevented it from peaking within the US top 40 . " Human Nature " was released as the fourth and final single from Bedtime Stories in June 1995 . Like the previous single , it failed to reach the top 40 in the United States , peaking at number 46 . However , the song reached the top 10 in several countries including Italy and the UK .
= = Critical reception = =
Bedtime Stories received generally positive reviews from music critics . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , praised the album for being " considerably more tame in tone and image than [ Erotica 's ] ethereal sounding , sexually explicit " content . AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars , claiming that it is a " warm album " and that it " offers her most humane and open music " . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a positive review as well , giving it a B + grade , and writing that " the new tracks work less as individual songs than as a sustained mood " and that Madonna " still has something to reveal " . Barbara O 'Dair of Rolling Stone also gave the album a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , writing that " Madonna has come up with awfully compelling sounds " . Billboard , while giving the album a positive review , commented that it " sticks to a pop recipe that yields hits galore , with little excess baggage " . In 2015 , Billboard ranked it as Madonna 's sixth best album ; " while not as hardcore as 1992 's Erotica , Bedtime captured Madonna in transition , swiveling away from explicit sexuality and relying on R & B and balladry before she dove headfirst into dance music four years later . Songs like ' Human Nature ' , ' Secret ' and ' I 'd Rather Be Your Lover ' proved more compelling than most of the New Jack music being released in the mid @-@ 90s , and ' Take a Bow ' added a classic slow jam to Madge 's canon " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave Bedtime Stories a positive review and four out of five stars , writing that it is " a fluffy @-@ pillowed concept album that unfolds like a musical fairy tale " .
The New York Times writer Stephen Holden considered Bedtime Stories as " easily Madonna 's best album " , and concluded that it was a " seductive mixture of soft @-@ focus hip @-@ hop and bittersweet ballads " . Peter Galvin from The Advocate magazine gave a positive review , describing the album as " a gourgeously produced R & B album with lots of funky beats lush keyboards , and soaring Love Unlimited @-@ style string arrangements " . Barry Walters from The San Francisco Examiner praised the album as Madonna 's most low @-@ key album and her best work at the date . J.D. Considine , while writing his review for the album for The Baltimore Sun , declared that Bedtime Stories was more listener @-@ friendly than Madonna 's previous albums . He added that it " seems remarkably close in spirit to the singer 's first album , emphasizing dance grooves and pop melodies over genre exercises and conceptual statements " , while praising Madonna 's vocal performance . Linda L. Labin from the Bangor Daily News , noted that " [ Madonna ] isn 't taking any chances . This time around , her daring has more to do with music than lyrics " , while also praising her vocals ; " If anything , her singing is the album 's greatest strength . Madonna uses every trick from her repertoire . [ ... ] Bedtime Stories turns in some of the strongest performances of her career . ' Madonna sings well ' — bet you don 't see that headline in the tabloids anytime soon " . Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times gave it two @-@ stars @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four , writing that the album " seems the least remarkable of all Madonna 's albums . But it 's not necessarily the least of them . [ ... ] It has a nice , consistently relaxed feel , its slow jams hip @-@ hop @-@ inflected but not as self @-@ consciously as last time " .
The Milwaukee Journal 's Tina Maples provided a mixed review for the album , criticizing its " hoary cliches " and " bland , mid @-@ tempo soul @-@ pop ballads that confuse sophistication with sonambulism " , and added that with the album , Madonna was feeling the " fallout " of building her career on " shock value " . However , she highlighted " Secret " , " Bedtime Story " and " Take a Bow " as the standout tracks from Bedtime Stories . Steve Morse , writer from The Boston Globe journal , criticized the album for lacking " life " , and being " flat and listless " , and said that Madonna seemed lost throughout the album . Allen Metz and Carol Benson , authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , opined that " rather than signify ( ing ) some bold new direction for Madonna , Bedtime Stories takes hardly any risks at all . [ ... ] it offers neither the pop epiphany of Like a Prayer nor the shameless frolic of Madonna 's earlier dance hits " . British magazine NME ranked Bedtime Stories as the 30th best album of 1994 . At the 38th Grammy Awards in 1996 , the album received a nomination for Best Pop Album . Slant Magazine included Bedtime Stories on their list of " The Best Albums of the 1990s " at number 63 , with Cinquemani writing , " instead of simply following American trends of the time , Madge infused the album with the edgier trip @-@ hop sounds that were happening on the other side of the pond . But it was her refined literary taste , from Proust to Whitman , and both the media and the public 's rejection of her sexual politicking that truly informed the singer 's seventh album . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Bedtime Stories debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart on the issue date of November 12 , 1994 , with 145 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . It was considerably less than its predecessor , Erotica ( 1992 ) , which debuted at number two and sold 167 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . Following Madonna 's appearance on the American Music Awards , sales of the album increased 19 % . It was eventually certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of more than three million units within the country . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 2 @,@ 309 @,@ 000 copies as of August 2009 . In Canada , the album entered the RPM Albums Chart at number four on November 7 , 1994 , and was certified double platinum by the Music Canada ( MC ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies .
The album enjoyed success in Europe , reaching the top five of most countries of the continent . It sold over 2 million copies across Europe , earning a double platinum certification from the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . On November 5 , 1994 , Bedtime Stories debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , behind Bon Jovi 's Cross Road . It remained a total of 30 weeks on the chart . The album was certified platinum on November 1 , 1994 , by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . Bedtime Stories also peaked at number two in France , staying in the top 10 for five weeks and remaining a total of 22 weeks on the chart . It became a number four hit in Germany , remaining 37 weeks on the German Albums Chart , and received a platinum certification by Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) after moving in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies in that market .
Bedtime Stories also performed well in Asia @-@ Pacific . It debuted at number one on the ARIA Charts on November 6 , 1994 , and remained on the chart for 30 weeks . The album was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 140 @,@ 000 copies . It experienced moderate success in New Zealand , debuting at its peak of number six , before dropping to number 16 the next week , and remaining for nine weeks in total . Bedtime Stories entered the Japanese Oricon Weekly Album Chart at number nine , continuing Madonna 's uninterrupted streak of top ten hit albums there . In total , Bedtime Stories has sold a total of 7 million copies worldwide as of April 2009 .
= = Legacy = =
According to journalist Mary von Aue from Vice magazine , Bedtime Stories is the " most important " album released by Madonna . For months leading up to its release , the promotion associated cited the record as an apology for the singer 's sexually provocative imagery . Critics had also hoped for a return to more innocent form of music . However Madonna instead chose to portray herself as unapologetic for her imagery , as well as talking about scrutiny that female musicians faced . Madonna went opposite to what was being portrayed as the theme of the album in the promotional campaigns , and continued addressing her critics and people who had tried to shame her for being provocative .
Von Aue added that the two @-@ punch of the tracks " Human Nature " and " Bedtime Story " illustrated the duality of the album , with the former being about how nonchalant Madonna was with the criticism she had faced , and the latter as a feminist piece . Von Aue concluded by saying that " Today , Bedtime Stories is not the first album that comes to mind in Madonna 's legacy . It is , however , the most relevant to many of the cultural conversations that are still happening . Had she acquiesced to the public 's call for apology , it could have set a dangerous standard for how the public can decree an artist ’ s silence , and it would have allowed the categories for female singers to remain in place " .
Bianca Gracie from Idolator website wrote that " Bedtime Stories proved that Madonna never lost her edge ; she just decided to soften it so that her image could regroup . When listening to the sultry undertones and R & B influences threaded throughout it , you come to realize how flawlessly the singer could change up her persona while still sounding genuine " . Gracie believed that Bedtime Stories was an album with " timeless sound " and signified an evolution of Madonna as an artist , acting as the front @-@ runner to her more experimental album like Ray of Light ( 1998 ) . However she noted how the album never let go of the sexual provocation associated with Madonna and how the singer chose to turn against what people expected from her at that time — being apologetic .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Sample credits
" I 'd Rather Be Your Lover " contains samples of " It 's Your Thing " , performed by Lou Donaldson .
" Inside of Me " samples " Back and Forth " , performed by Aaliyah , " Outstanding " , performed by The Gap Band , and " The Trials of Life " , performed by Gutter Snypes .
" Human Nature " features samples of " What You Need " , performed by Main Source .
" Forbidden Love " contains samples of " Down Here on the Ground " , performed by Grant Green .
" Sanctuary " samples " Watermelon Man " , performed by Herbie Hancock .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
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= Ostend Manifesto =
The Ostend Manifesto , aka Ostend Circular , was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused . Cuba 's annexation had long been a goal of U.S. slaveholding expansionists , and was supported by a faction in Cuba itself . At the national level , American leaders had been satisfied to have the island remain in weak Spanish hands so long as it did not pass to a stronger power such as Britain or France . The Ostend Manifesto proposed a shift in foreign policy , justifying the use of force to seize Cuba in the name of national security . It resulted from debates over slavery in the United States , Manifest Destiny , and the Monroe Doctrine , as slaveholders sought new territory for slavery 's expansion .
During the administration of President Franklin Pierce , a pro @-@ Southern Democrat , Southern expansionists called for acquiring Cuba as a slave state , but the breakout of violence following the Kansas – Nebraska Act left the administration unsure of how to proceed . At the suggestion of Secretary of State William L. Marcy , American ministers in Europe — Pierre Soulé for Spain , James Buchanan for Great Britain , and John Y. Mason for France — met to discuss strategy related to an acquisition of Cuba . They met secretly at Ostend , Belgium , and drafted a dispatch at Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle . The document was sent to Washington in October 1854 , outlining why a purchase of Cuba would be beneficial to each of the nations and declaring that the U.S. would be " justified in wresting " the island from Spanish hands if Spain refused to sell . To Marcy 's chagrin , Soulé made no secret of the meetings , causing unwanted publicity in both Europe and the U.S. The administration was finally forced to publish the contents of the dispatch , which caused it irreparable damage .
The dispatch was published as demanded by the House of Representatives . Dubbed the " Ostend Manifesto " , it was immediately denounced in both the Northern states and Europe . The Pierce administration suffered a significant setback , and the manifesto became a rallying cry for anti @-@ slavery Northerners . The question of Cuba 's annexation was effectively set aside until the late 19th century , when support grew for Cuban independence from Spain .
= = Historical context = =
Located 90 miles ( 140 km ) off the coast of Florida , Cuba had been discussed as a subject for annexation in several presidential administrations . Presidents John Quincy Adams and Thomas Jefferson expressed great interest in Cuba , with Adams observing during his Secretary of State tenure that it had " become an object of transcendent importance to the commercial and political interests of our Union " . He later described Cuba and Puerto Rico as " natural appendages to the North American continent " – the former 's annexation was " indispensable to the continuance and integrity of the Union itself . " As the Spanish Empire had lost much of its power , a no @-@ transfer policy began with Jefferson whereby the U.S. respected Spanish sovereignty , considering the island 's eventual absorption inevitable . The U.S. simply wanted to ensure that control did not pass to a stronger power such as Britain or France .
Cuba was of special importance to Southern Democrats , who believed their economic and political interests would be best served by the admission of another slave state to the Union . The existence of slavery in Cuba , the island 's plantation economy based on sugar , and its geographical location predisposed it to Southern influence ; its admission would greatly strengthen the position of Southern slaveholders , whose way of life was under fire from Northern abolitionists . Whereas immigration to Northern industrial centers had resulted in Northern control of the population @-@ based House of Representatives , Southern politicians sought to maintain the fragile balance of power in the Senate , where each state received equal representation . As slavery @-@ free Western states were admitted , Southern politicians increasingly looked to Cuba as the next slave state . If Cuba were admitted to the Union as a single state , the island would have sent two senators and nine representatives to Washington .
In the Democratic Party , the debate over the continued expansion of the United States centered on how quickly , rather than whether , to expand . Radical expansionists and the Young America movement were quickly gaining traction by 1848 , and a debate about whether to annex the Yucatán portion of Mexico that year included significant discussion of Cuba . Even John C. Calhoun , described as a reluctant expansionist who strongly disagreed with intervention on the basis of the Monroe Doctrine , concurred that " it is indispensable to the safety of the United States that this island should not be in certain hands . " likely referring to Britain .
In light of a Cuban uprising , President James K. Polk refused solicitations from filibuster backer John L. O 'Sullivan and stated his belief that any acquisition of the island must be an " amicable purchase . " Under orders from Polk , Secretary of State James Buchanan prepared an offer of $ 100 million , but " sooner than see [ Cuba ] transferred to any power , [ Spanish officials ] would prefer seeing it sunk into the ocean . " The Whig administrations of presidents Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore did not pursue the matter and took a harsher stand against filibusters as Venezuelan Narciso Lopez , with federal troops intercepting several expeditions bound for Cuba . When Franklin Pierce took office in 1853 , however , he was committed to Cuba 's annexation .
= = The Pierce administration = =
At Pierce 's inauguration , he stated , " The policy of my Administration will not be controlled by any timid forebodings of evil from expansion . " While slavery was not the stated goal nor Cuba mentioned by name , the antebellum makeup of his party required the Northerner to appeal to Southern interests , so he favored the annexation of Cuba as a slave state . To this end , he appointed expansionists to diplomatic posts throughout Europe , notably sending Pierre Soulé , an outspoken proponent of Cuban annexation , as United States Minister to Spain . The Northerners in his cabinet were fellow doughfaces ( Northerners with Southern sympathies ) such as Buchanan , who was made Minister to Great Britain after a failed bid for the presidency at the Democratic National Convention , and Secretary of State William L. Marcy , whose appointment was also an attempt to placate the " Old Fogies . " This was the term for the wing of the party that favored slow , cautious expansion .
In March 1854 , the steamer Black Warrior stopped at the Cuban port of Havana on a regular trading route from New York City to Mobile , Alabama . When it failed to provide a cargo manifest , Cuban officials seized the ship , its cargo , and its crew . The so @-@ called Black Warrior Affair was viewed by Congress as a violation of American rights ; a hollow ultimatum issued by Soulé to the Spanish to return the ship served only to strain relations , and he was barred from discussing Cuba 's acquisition for nearly a year . While the matter was resolved peacefully , it fueled the flames of Southern expansionism .
Meanwhile , the doctrine of Manifest Destiny had become increasingly sectionalized as the decade progressed . While there were still Northerners who believed the United States should dominate the continent , most were opposed to Cuba 's annexation , particularly as a slave state . Southern @-@ backed filibusters , including Narciso López , had failed repeatedly since 1849 to 1851 to overthrow the colonial government despite considerable support among the Cuban people for independence , and a series of reforms on the island made Southerners apprehensive that slavery would be abolished . They believed that Cuba would be " Africanized , " as the majority of the population were slaves , and they had seen the Republic of Haiti established by former slaves . The notion of a pro @-@ slavery invasion by the U.S. was rejected in light of the controversy over the Kansas – Nebraska Act . During internal discussions , supporters of gaining Cuba decided that a purchase or intervention in the name of national security was the most acceptable method of acquisition .
= = Writing the Manifesto = =
Marcy suggested Soulé confer with Buchanan and John Y. Mason , Minister to France , on U.S. policy toward Cuba . He had previously written to Soulé that , if Cuba 's purchase could not be negotiated , " you will then direct your effort to the next desirable object , which is to detach that island from the Spanish dominion and from all dependence on any European power " – words Soulé may have adapted to fit his own agenda . Authors David Potter and Lars Schoultz both note the considerable ambiguity in Marcy 's cryptic words , and Samuel Bemis suggests he may have referred to Cuban independence , but acknowledges it is impossible to know Marcy 's true intent . In any case , Marcy had also written in June that the administration had abandoned thoughts of declaring war over Cuba . But Robert May writes , " the instructions for the conference had been so vague , and so many of Marcy 's letters to Soulé since the Black Warrior incident had been bellicose , that the ministers misread the administration 's intent . "
After a minor disagreement about their meeting site , the three American diplomats met in Ostend , Belgium from October 9 – 11 , 1854 , then adjourned to Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle for a week to prepare a report of the proceedings . The resulting dispatch , which would come to be known as the Ostend Manifesto , declared that " Cuba is as necessary to the North American republic as any of its present members , and that it belongs naturally to that great family of states of which the Union is the Providential Nursery " .
Prominent among the reasons for annexation outlined in the manifesto were fears of a possible slave revolt in Cuba parallel to the Haitian Revolution ( 1791 – 1804 ) in the absence of U.S. intervention . The Manifesto urged against inaction on the Cuban question , warning ,
" We should , however , be recreant to our duty , be unworthy of our gallant forefathers , and commit base treason against our posterity , should we permit Cuba to be Africanized and become a second St. Domingo ( Haiti ) , with all its attendant horrors to the white race , and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores , seriously to endanger or actually to consume the fair fabric of our Union . "
Racial fears , largely spread by Spain , raised tension and anxiety in the U.S. over a potential black uprising on the island that could " spread like wildfire " to the southern U.S. The Manifesto stated that the U.S. would be " justified in wresting " Cuba from Spain if the colonial power refused to sell it .
Soulé was a former U.S. Senator from Louisiana and member of the Young America movement , who sought a realization of American influence in the Caribbean and Central America . He is credited as the primary architect of the policy expressed in the Ostend Manifesto . The experienced and cautious Buchanan is believed to have written the document and moderated Soulé 's aggressive tone . Soulé highly favored expansion of Southern influence outside the current Union of States . His belief in Manifest Destiny led him to prophesy " absorption of the entire continent and its island appendages " by the U.S. Mason 's Virginian roots predisposed him to the sentiments expressed in the document , but he later regretted his actions . Buchanan 's exact motivations remain unclear despite his expansionist tendencies , but it has been suggested that he was seduced by visions of the presidency , which he would go on to win in 1856 . One historian concluded in 1893 , " When we take into account the characteristics of the three men we can hardly resist the conclusion that Soulé , as he afterwards intimated , twisted his colleagues round his finger . "
To Marcy 's chagrin , the flamboyant Soulé made no secret of the meetings . The press in both Europe and the U.S. were well aware of the proceedings if not their outcome , but were preoccupied with wars and midterm elections . In the latter case , the Democratic Party became a minority in the United States Congress , and editorials continued to chide the Pierce administration for its secrecy . At least one newspaper , the New York Herald , published what Brown calls " reports that came so close to the truth of the decisions at Ostend that the President feared they were based on leaks , as indeed they may have been " . Pierce feared the political repercussions of confirming such rumors , and he did not acknowledge them in his State of the Union address at the end of 1854 . The administration 's opponents in the House of Representatives called for the document 's release , and it was published in full four months after being written .
= = Fallout = =
When the document was published , Northerners were outraged by what they considered a Southern attempt to extend slavery . American free @-@ soilers , recently angered by the strengthened Fugitive Slave Law ( passed as part of the Compromise of 1850 and requiring officials of free states to cooperate in the return of slaves ) , decried as unconstitutional what Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune labeled " The Manifesto of the Brigands . " During the period of Bleeding Kansas , as anti- and pro @-@ slavery supporters fought for control of the state , the Ostend Manifesto served as a rallying cry for the opponents of the Slave Power . The incident was one of many facrors that gave rise to the Republican Party , and the manifesto was criticized in the Party 's first platform in 1856 as following a " highwayman 's " philosophy of " might makes right . " But , the movement to annex Cuba did not fully end until after the American Civil War .
The Pierce Administration was irreparably damaged by the incident . Pierce had been highly sympathetic to the Southern cause , and the controversy over the Ostend Manifesto contributed to the splintering of the Democratic Party . Internationally , it was seen as a threat to Spain and to imperial power across Europe . It was quickly denounced by national governments in Madrid , London , and Paris . To preserve what favorable relations the administration had left , Soulé was ordered to cease discussion of Cuba ; he promptly resigned . The backlash from the Ostend Manifesto caused Pierce to abandon expansionist plans . It has been described as part of a series of " gratuitous conflicts ... that cost more than they were worth " for Southern interests intent on maintaining the institution of slavery .
Buchanan was easily elected President in 1856 . Although he remained committed to Cuban annexation , he was hindered by popular opposition and the growing sectional conflict . It was not until thirty years after the Civil War that the so @-@ called Cuban Question again came to national prominence .
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= Battle of Vauchamps =
The Battle of Vauchamps ( 14 February 1814 ) was the final major engagement of the Six Days Campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition . It resulted in a part of the Grande Armée under Napoleon I defeating a superior Prussian and Russian force of the Army of Silesia under Field @-@ marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher .
At the beginning of 1814 , the armies of the French Empire , under the direct command of Emperor Napoleon I , were scrambling to defend Eastern France against the invading Coalition Armies . Despite fighting against vastly superior forces , Napoleon managed to score a few significant victories and , between 10 and 13 February repeatedly beat Blücher ’ s Army of Silesia . On 13 February , reeling from his successive defeats , Blücher looked to disengage from Napoleon and instead manoeuvre with a part of his forces to fall upon the isolated VI Corps of Marshal Auguste de Marmont , who was defending Napoleon ’ s rear . The Prussian commander attacked and pushed back Marmont late on 13 February . Nevertheless , the Emperor had read into his enemy ’ s intentions and directed powerful forces to support Marmont .
On the morning of 14 February , Blücher , commanding a Prussian Corps and elements of two Russian Corps , resumed his attack against Marmont . The latter continued to fall back until he was reinforced . Napoleon arrived on the battlefield with strong combined @-@ arms forces , which allowed the French to launch a determined counterattack and drive back the leading elements of the Army of Silesia . Blücher realized that he was facing the Emperor in person and decided to pull back and avoid another battle against Napoleon . In practice , Blücher 's attempt to disengage proved extremely difficult to execute , as the Coalition force was by now in an advanced position , had virtually no cavalry present to cover its retreat and was facing an enemy who was ready to commit its numerous cavalry .
While the actual pitched battle was short , the French infantry , under Marshal Marmont , and most of all the cavalry , under General Emmanuel de Grouchy , launched a relentless pursuit that rode down the enemy . Retreating in slow @-@ moving square formations in broad daylight and along some excellent cavalry terrain , the Coalition forces suffered very heavy losses , with several squares broken by the French cavalry . At nightfall , combat ceased and Blücher opted for an exhausting night march in order to take his remaining forces to safety .
= = Context = =
On 13 February , having fought three successful actions in three days against the Prussian and Russian army at Champaubert , Montmirail and Château @-@ Thierry , Napoleon was pursuing the defeated enemy . After his consecutive defeats , Field @-@ marshal Blücher decided to disengage from Napoleon and move a significant force against the isolated French Army Corps of Marshal Marmont , at Étoges . Blücher knew that Marmont 's Corps was weak and his plan was to destroy it and thus fall upon the rear of Napoleon 's main force .
Still in pursuit of the debris of the enemy force , late on 13 February , Napoleon received reports that Marmont 's Corps had been attacked and pushed out of his position at Étoges . The Emperor deduced that the enemy force before him would have to be a much reduced one and promptly decided to go to Marmont 's aid . The Emperor left Château @-@ Thierry on 14 February , towards 3 o 'clock in the morning , leaving a small portion of his forces with Marshal Édouard Mortier , duc de Trévise , with orders to continue the pursuit of the enemy . Taking with him the cavalry of the Guard and Grouchy 's Cavalry Reserve , Napoleon headed for the village of Vauchamps .
Meanwhile , late on 13 February , having successfully regrouped what forces he could muster at Bergères @-@ lès @-@ Vertus , Blücher had launched an attack against Marmont 's single division , pushing him out of Étoges and advancing as planned towards Champaubert and Fromentières , in the rear of Napoleon 's force . However , having read Blücher 's intentions , Napoleon had given orders for a concentration of French forces in that very sector .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Army of Silesia = = =
During the battle of Vauchamps on 14 February , Prussian Field @-@ Marshal Blücher , commander of combined Prussian @-@ Russian Army of Silesia could count on 20 @,@ 000 to 21 @,@ 500 men , from three Army Corps :
IInd ( Prussian ) Corps , commanded by General Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf :
10th brigade under George Dubislaw Ludwig von Pirch
11th brigade under Hans Ernst Karl , Graf von Zieten
12th brigade under Prince Augustus of Prussia
Cavalry brigade under von Hacke
Cavalry brigade under von Röder
Reserve artillery under Braun .
IXth ( Russian ) Corps :
9th division under Udom II .
Xth ( Russian ) Corps under General Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich :
8th division under Prince Urusov ( or Orosov ) ,
22nd division under Turchaninov .
Kleist 's II Corps numbered 13 @,@ 500 men while Kaptzevich 's X Corps counted 6 @,@ 500 soldiers . There were also the 1 @,@ 500 troops from IX Corps who survived the Battle of Champaubert . These were grouped into three or four temporary battalions and an artillery battery . The rump of IX Corps lost 600 men and all of its guns on the evening of 14 February . The II Corps had eight 6 @-@ pound batteries and two 12 @-@ pound batteries . Each battery had eight guns or a total of 80 cannons . There was also a howitzer battery of unknown strength . The X Corps had three batteries attached .
= = = Grande Armée = = =
Napoleon had sent orders for a major concentration of forces , which resulted in a force of some 25 @,@ 000 men being assembled in this sector . However , of these men , only 19 @,@ 000 soldiers got to the battlefield in time , with no more than 10 @,@ 000 men engaged in the actual fighting :
VI Corps , commanded by Marshal of the Empire Auguste de Marmont :
3rd Division under Joseph Lagrange
8th Division under Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard
Reinforcements temporarily attached : 7th division under Jean François Leval
Cavalry , commanded by General Emmanuel de Grouchy :
Division Antoine Louis Decrest de Saint @-@ Germain
Division Jean @-@ Pierre Doumerc
Division Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle
Guard cavalry , commanded by General Étienne de Nansouty :
2nd Division under Charles , comte Lefebvre @-@ Desnouettes ,
3rd Division under Louis Marie Levesque de Laferrière .
Guard artillery under Antoine Drouot .
Guard infantry , under Marshal , Prince of the Moskowa Michel Ney ( Reinforcements not engaged ) :
1st ( Old Guard ) division under Louis Friant ,
2nd ( Young Guard ) division under Philibert Jean @-@ Baptiste Curial .
Grouchy 's I Cavalry Corps and II Cavalry Corps , each of two divisions , numbered a combined 3 @,@ 600 horsemen . The two Guard cavalry divisions together counted 3 @,@ 300 troopers . The 1st Old Guard Division had 4 @,@ 000 men and the 2nd Old Guard Division had 3 @,@ 000 . The 1st Young Guard Division was made up of 4 @,@ 000 soldiers while the 2nd Young Guard Division had 2 @,@ 500 troops . Marmont 's two divisions could muster only 3 @,@ 000 men . Jean François Leval 's 7th Division comprised 4 @,@ 500 soldiers . Of these forces , only the cavalry , Marmont 's infantry and one battalion of the Old Guard were actually engaged in the fighting . The others were marching along behind .
= = Battle = =
Having begun to push back the feeble French forces from Marmont 's VI 's Corps the day before , Blücher occupied Champaubert early on 14 February , sending his vanguard forward , as far as the village of Fromentières and then Vauchamps . Marmont , commanding only the Lagrange division and 800 men from the Ricard division , had cautiously pulled his men back towards Montmirail , where he began to receive reinforcements . Towards 9 o 'clock in the morning , Blücher set Zieten 's brigade and some cavalry in motion from Vauchamps towards Montmirail . To their surprise , Marmont 's men didn 't give ground this time and vigorously counterattacked , pushing Zieten 's advance guard back into the village of Vauchamps . The accompanying Prussian cavalry was dispersed by a violent French cannonade . With now both brigades of Ricard 's division available , Marmont launched these men against the Prussian position at Vauchamps , with the 1st brigade on his right , advancing under the cover of the Beaumont forest , south of the Montmirail @-@ Vauchamps road and the 2nd brigade on his left , north of the road , advancing frontally towards the position . Marmont also had with him his own escort cavalry squadron and four élite Imperial Guard duty squadrons from the Emperor 's own escort , under general Lion . Marmont 's leftmost brigade entered Vauchamps , but , with the village heavily invested with Zieten 's Prussian defenders , the Frenchmen were soon repulsed , with the Prussians in pursuit . Marshal Marmont then launched his five squadrons to the rescue and the cavalry promptly forced the Prussians back to the village , with one of their battalions taken prisoner , after taking refuge in an isolated farm .
Zieten then decided to pull back his forces towards the village of Fromentières . There , Zieten was joined by Generals Kleist and Kapsevitch , who , having heard the sound of the guns , had begun to move their respective Army Corps in that direction , coming from Champaubert . The French also moved forward , with Marmont 's two divisions ( Lagrange and Ricard ) in pursuit of Zieten , along the road to Fromentières . Marmont was now supported on his left by General Grouchy , who had just arrived on the field of battle with the divisions of Saint @-@ Germain and Doumerc , moving past the village of Janvilliers , in order to cut off Zieten 's retreat . Further French reinforcements were now available , this time on Marmont 's right : the division of Leval , who had been steadily moving up the valley of the Petit Morin river , in a bid to outflank the Prussians . With the French Imperial Guard artillery now also deployed and firing at them , Zieten 's Prussians drew back in good order , and formed in squares to fend off Grouchy 's cavalry . Towards 2 o 'clock in the afternoon , after assessing the situation , Blücher realised that he was facing Napoleon himself and thus decided to immediately withdraw . He ordered all of his forces to retreat through Champaubert and directed a part of his artillery to safety , towards Étoges .
= = Pursuit = =
With the Coalition forces now in full retreat , Marmont received orders to aggressively pursue the enemy , knowing that he could count on his two infantry divisions , plus that of Leval , as well as on the support of General Drouot 's Guard artillery , on Nansouty 's Guard cavalry on his right and on Grouchy 's two cavalry divisions on his left . Following Marmont at a short distance were further reinforcements , two Guard infantry divisions ( Friant and Curial ) under the command of Marshal Ney and with them was Napoleon himself . Napoleon was followed by an additional " Young Guard " division , under General Meunier , which the Emperor had taken with him when he left Château @-@ Thierry early that morning .
The French cavalry had been hindered in its movements by the broken terrain and thus far unable to really bother Zieten 's infantry squares . Consequently , Blücher was able to lead an exemplary retreat up to Fromentières and Janvilliers . However , once past these villages , the terrain became flat and even , proper for cavalry action , and now , with the increasingly aggressive action of the enemy cavalry against his flank and rear , Zieten and his brigade became increasingly isolated . Grouchy , with the divisions of Doumerc and Saint @-@ Germain was now boldly menacing Zieten 's right , while on his left , the Prussian general saw Nansouty 's Guard cavalry ( Laferrière @-@ Levesque 's division , plus the four service squadrons , under Lefebvre @-@ Desnouettes ) . Zieten 's brigade was finally cut off from the rest of the army and charged violently by Grouchy 's cuirassiers , who broke the infantry squares and took no less than 2 @,@ 000 prisoners , with the rest of the brigade routed .
Abandoning his position at Fromentières , where Marmont 's infantry had just begun to irrupt , Blücher ordered the continuation of the retreat towards Champaubert and Étoges , with Kleist 's Corps on the left , south of the road and Kaptzevitch 's Corps on the right , north of the road . Again taking advantage from the flat terrain , Grouchy was able to advance rapidly and fall onto the rear of the Coalition infantry squares , which were now slowly withdrawing in echelon and efficiently using the terrain to take shelter from the artillery bombardment . With night approaching and their retreat towards Étoges now barred by enemy cavalry , the Prussian squares began to lose cohesion . Spotting this weakness , Grouchy , who had been reinforced by Bordesoulle 's division , energetically launched his three divisions against the Coalition squares , dispersing a number of them , with these men fleeing in disorder to take refuge in the Étoges forest . The old Blücher , who had been bravely exposing himself to great danger in order to boost the morale his men , was almost taken prisoner , together with his Chief of Staff , Gneisenau , Generals Kleist , Kapsevitch and Prince Augustus of Prussia .
Only just escaping capture , Blücher crossed the forest of Vertus and took up positions at Étoges with Prince Urusov 's division , which had been left there in reserve . Russian General Udom , with 1 @,@ 800 men and 15 cannon , was instructed to cover the position , by occupying the park at Étoges . Udom 's men were exhausted after the long retreat and fighting and , seeing that night had fallen , thought themselves in safety . However , Doumerc 's cuirassiers , formed unseen in the night , surprised these men and a single charge was enough to send the panicked men fleeing . Prince Urusov , 600 men and eight artillery pieces were captured during this action , with the French sailors ' regiment from Lagrange 's division subsequently entering the village of Étoges . Blücher abandoned this position too and made a hasty retreat towards Vertus and Bergères . He then opted for a speedy night march and the next day he managed to bring his remaining men to Châlons , where he was joined by Yorck 's and Sacken 's corps .
= = Result = =
The battle was actually no more than a very long cavalry pursuit and was a very costly defeat for Blücher 's " Army of Silesia " , which lost as much as 10 @,@ 000 men , during this day . French author Jean @-@ Pierre Mir states that the Prussian Corps of Kleist had 3 @,@ 500 men out of action ( killed , wounded and missing ) , as well as 2 @,@ 000 prisoners . According to this author , the Russian Corps had around 3 @,@ 500 men , killed , wounded or missing and also lost 15 cannons and 10 flags . Historian Alain Pigeard places overall losses of the Army of Silesia throughout this day between 9 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 men but the detail of these losses seems to suggest lighter casualties . Pigeard speaks of only 1 @,@ 250 men killed , wounded or missing and 2 @,@ 000 prisoners for the Prussians , and of 2 @,@ 000 men lost for the Russians . Since Pigeard asserts that these casualties occurred during the pursuit , it is possible that these figures do not take into account the casualties incurred during the initial actions of this battle ( one battalion of Zieten 's brigade captured , plus the 2 @,@ 000 prisoners taken during Grouchy 's and Nansouty 's joint action against Zieten ) . According to Pigeard , the French registered very light casualties of around 600 men .
Military Historian Jacques Garnier , analysing the battle in Jean Tulard 's Dictionnaire Napoléon , notes that only the muddy , sodden ground , hampering an efficient deployment of the French artillery and infantry , prevented a much more emphatic victory . He also notes that after Vauchamps , Napoleon was able to safely turn south and fall upon the " Army of Bohemia " , commanded by Prince of Schwarzenberg .
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= Two @-@ cent piece ( United States ) =
The two @-@ cent piece was produced by the Mint of the United States for circulation from 1864 to 1872 and for collectors in 1873 . Designed by James B. Longacre , there were decreasing mintages each year , as other minor coins such as the nickel proved more popular . It was abolished by the Mint Act of 1873 .
The economic turmoil of the American Civil War caused government @-@ issued coins , even the non @-@ silver Indian Head cent , to vanish from circulation , hoarded by the public . One means of filling this gap was private token issues , often made of bronze . The cent at that time was struck of a copper @-@ nickel alloy , the same diameter as the later Lincoln cent , but somewhat thicker . The piece was difficult for the Philadelphia Mint to strike , and Mint officials , as well as the annual Assay Commission , recommended the coin 's replacement . Despite opposition from those wishing to keep the metal nickel in the coinage , led by Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens , Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1864 , authorizing bronze cents and two @-@ cent pieces .
Although initially popular in the absence of other federal coinage , the two @-@ cent piece 's place in circulation was usurped by other non @-@ precious metal coins which Congress subsequently authorized , the three @-@ cent piece and the nickel . It was abolished in 1873 ; large quantities were redeemed by the government and melted . Nevertheless , two @-@ cent pieces remain inexpensive by the standards of 19th @-@ century American coinage .
= = Inception = =
A two @-@ cent piece had been proposed in 1806 by Connecticut Senator Uriah Tracy , along with a twenty @-@ cent piece or " double dime " . Reflecting the then @-@ prevalent view that coins should contain their value in metal , Tracy 's bill provided that the two @-@ cent piece be made of billon , or debased silver . The bill was opposed by Mint Director Robert Patterson , as it would be difficult to refine the silver from melted @-@ down pieces . Although Tracy 's legislation passed the Senate twice , in 1806 and 1807 , it failed in the House of Representatives . Patterson sent a brass button with two of the billon planchets that would have been used for the coin to Tracy , showing how hard it would be to prevent counterfeiting . The Mint considered a two @-@ cent piece in 1836 , and experiments were conducted by Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht and Melter and Refiner Franklin Peale . The piece was to be again of billon , and provision for the coin was included in early drafts of the Mint Act of 1837 , but the proposal was dropped when Peale was able to show that the coin could be easily counterfeited .
Until 1857 , the cent coin was a large copper piece , containing about its face value in metal . These coins were unpopular , and in 1857 , after receiving congressional approval , the Mint began issuing the Flying Eagle cent , of the diameter of the later Lincoln cent , but somewhat thicker and made of copper @-@ nickel alloy . These pieces readily circulated , and although the design did not strike well and was replaced by the Indian Head cent in 1859 , the coins were commonly used until all federal coinage vanished from circulation in much of the United States in 1861 and 1862 , during the economic turmoil of the American Civil War . This happened because many Northerners feared that if the war went poorly , paper money and government bonds might become worthless . The gap was filled by , among other things , private token issues , sometimes in copper @-@ nickel approximating the size of the cent , but often thinner pieces in bronze .
This fact did not escape government officials , and when , in 1863 , they attempted to restore coins to circulation , the use of bronze coins , which would not contain their face values in metal , was considered . In his annual report submitted October 1 , 1863 , Mint Director James Pollock noted that " whilst people expect a full value in their gold and silver coins , they merely want the inferior [ base metal ] money for convenience in making exact payments " . He observed that the private cent tokens had sometimes contained as little as a fifth of a cent in metal , yet had still circulated . He proposed that the copper @-@ nickel cent be replaced with a bronze piece of the same size . Pollock also wanted to eliminate nickel as a coinage metal ; its hard alloys destroyed dies and machinery . On December 8 , Pollock wrote to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , proposing a bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece , and enclosing pattern coins of the two @-@ cent piece that he had had prepared . According to numismatist Neil Carothers , a two @-@ cent piece was most likely proposed in order to get as much dollar value in small change into circulation in as short a time as possible , as the Mint could strike a two @-@ cent piece as easily as a cent .
= = Legislation = =
On March 2 , 1864 , Pollock wrote urgently to Chase , warning him that the Mint was running out of nickel and that demand for cents was at an all @-@ time high . He also informed the Secretary that the United States Assay Commission , composed of citizens and officials who had met the previous month to test the nation 's silver and gold coinage , had recommended the use of French bronze ( 95 % copper with the remainder tin and zinc ) as a coinage metal for the cent and a new two @-@ cent piece . Three days later , Chase sent Pollock 's December letter and draft legislation for bronze one- and two @-@ cent pieces to Maine Senator William P. Fessenden , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . Fessenden took no immediate action , and on March 16 , Pollock wrote again to Chase , warning that the Mint was going to run out of nickel , much of which was imported . Chase forwarded his letter to Fessenden . Legislation was finally introduced by New Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark on March 22 ; Pollock 's letters were read and apparently influenced proceedings as the Senate passed the bill without debate .
The domestic supply of nickel was at that time produced by a mine at Gap , Pennsylvania , owned by industrialist Joseph Wharton . On March 19 , Pollock wrote to Chase that they had no more nickel , nor was any available from overseas ; " we are thus shut up to the home supply ; from the works of Mr. Wharton " . Opposed to the removal of nickel from the cent , Wharton published a pamphlet in April 1864 proposing coinage of one- , two- , three- , five- , and ten @-@ cent pieces of an alloy of one part nickel to three of copper , doubling the percentage of nickel used in the cent . Despite Wharton 's efforts , on April 20 , a select committee of the House of Representatives endorsed the bill . It was opposed by Pennsylvania 's Thaddeus Stevens , who represented the mining area from which Wharton extracted his nickel . Wharton had spent $ 200 @,@ 000 to develop his mine and ore refinement machinery , Stevens related , and it was unfair to deprive him of the major use of his metal . " Shall we destroy all this property because by coining with another metal more money may be saved to the government ? " Besides , he argued , the copper @-@ nickel alloy for the cent had been approved by Congress , and the new metal , which he termed " brass " , would show rust . He was rebutted by Iowa Congressman John A. Kasson , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , who stated that the bronze alloy did not resemble brass , and he could not support the proposition that the government is bound to purchase from a supplier because he has spent money in anticipation of sales .
The legislation passed the House , and the Coinage Act of 1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April 22 , 1864 . The legislation made base metal coins legal tender for the first time : both cents and two @-@ cent pieces were acceptable in quantities of up to ten . The government would not , however , redeem them in bulk . The act also outlawed the private one- and two @-@ cent tokens , and later that year Congress abolished all such issues . The legislation did not allow for the redemption of the old copper @-@ nickel cents ; it had been drafted by Pollock , who was hoping that the seignorage income from issuing the new coins would help finance Mint operations , and he did not want it reduced by the recall of the old pieces . Wharton and his interests were appeased by the passage of a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in 1865 and a five @-@ cent piece in 1866 , both of his proposed alloy , out of which the " nickel " , as the latter coin has come to be known , is still struck .
= = Design = =
In late 1861 , the Reverend Mark R. Watkinson of Ridleyville , Pennsylvania , had written to Chase , proposing that some reference to God be placed on the coinage in that time of war , and on November 20 of that year , Chase wrote to Mint Director Pollock , " You will cause a device to be prepared without unnecessary delay with a motto expressing in the fewest tersest terms possible this national recognition . " Several mottos were considered by Pollock , including " God Our Trust " and " God and Our Country " . Some of the patterns he sent Chase in December 1863 used " God Our Trust " , and he wrote of the design , " the devices are beautiful and appropriate , and the motto on each such , as all who fear God and love their country , will approve . " He also sent pattern coins depicting George Washington ; Chase responded to the letter , " I approve your mottoes , only suggesting that on that with the Washington obverse the motto should begin with the word OUR , so as to read OUR GOD AND OUR COUNTRY . And on that with the shield , it should be changed so as to read : IN GOD WE TRUST . " Pollock had been inspired by " The Star Spangled Banner " , a later stanza of which includes the line , " And this be our motto , ' In God Is Our Trust ' " . Chase may have been influenced in his decision by the motto of his alma mater , Brown University , In Deo Speramus ( In God We Hope ) .
As the mottos to be placed on coinage were prescribed by the 1837 act , a legislative change was needed . The act which created the two @-@ cent piece authorized the Mint Director , with the Secretary of the Treasury 's approval , to prescribe the designs and mottos to be used . Longacre 's two @-@ cent piece was the first coin inscribed with " In God We Trust " . The motto was popularized by the new coin ; on March 3 , 1865 Congress passed legislation ordering its use on all coins large enough to permit it . Since 1938 , " In God We Trust " has been used on all American coins .
The obverse design is a Longacre version of the Great Seal of the United States . His design focuses on the shield , or escutcheon , as a defensive weapon , signifying strength and self @-@ protection through unity . The upper part of the shield , or " chief " , symbolizes Congress , while the 13 vertical stripes , or " paleways " , represent the states ; consequently the entire escutcheon symbolizes the strength of the federal government through the unity of the states . The crossed arrows represent nonaggression , but imply readiness against attack . The laurel branches , taken from Greek tradition , symbolize victory . In heraldic engraving , vertical lines represent red , clear areas white and horizontal lines blue , thus the escutcheon is colored red , white and blue and is meant to evoke the American flag . The reverse contains the denomination " 2 cents " with a somewhat ornate wheat wreath . The rest of the coin is filled with the name of the country .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deemed the two @-@ cent piece " the most Gothic and the most expressive of the Civil War " of all American coins . " The shield , arrows , and wreath of the obverse need only flanking cannon to be the consummate expression of Civil War heraldry . " Vermeule suggested that the coin appears calligraphic , rather than sculptural , and ascribed this to Longacre 's early career as a plate engraver .
= = Production and collecting = =
A few thousand of the first circulation strikes , as well as a handful of proof coins , came from a prototype die with smaller letters in the motto than all other 1864 pieces . Although specimens of the two @-@ cent piece , being of base metal , were not set aside for testing by the annual Assay Commission , Congress did order that internal checks be done at the Mint as to their composition and weight .
The two @-@ cent piece was at first a success , circulating freely once enough of them were issued to be recognized by the public . It initially circulated because of the wartime coin shortage , which was alleviated by the new cent and two @-@ cent piece . Although Pollock reported hoarding of cents in his June 1864 report , he did not thereafter mention such activities . Silver coins still did not circulate in much of the nation , and the new coins ( joined by the three- and five @-@ cent pieces of copper @-@ nickel , first struck in 1865 and 1866 respectively ) answered the need for small change . In October 1864 , he reported that the demand for both coins had been unprecedented and that every effort was being made to increase production ; in his report the next June , he called the two @-@ cent piece " a most convenient and popular coin " . The Act of March 3 , 1865 , that provided for the three @-@ cent nickel piece , reduced the legal tender limit of the bronze coins to four cents , while making the newly authorized coin acceptable up to sixty cents .
After the large mintage of just under twenty million in the first year , according to numismatist Q. David Bowers , " enthusiasm and public acceptance waned " . After the war , bank demand for the denomination dropped , while demand for the new five @-@ cent nickel increased ; mintages of the two @-@ cent piece were smaller every year . Lange notes , " it was evident by the end of the 1860s that its coinage was no longer necessary " . According to Carothers , " the coinage of a 2 cent piece was unnecessary . While it was popular at first because of the great public demand for metallic small change , it was a superfluous denomination , and its circulation waned rapidly after the 5 cent nickel coin was introduced . "
Beginning in 1867 , the new Mint Director , Henry Linderman , ( Pollock had resigned ) began to advocate for Congress to authorize redemption of surplus copper and bronze coinage . Although the nickel could be redeemed in lots ( permission granted in its authorizing act ) , there was no provision for the government to buy back the smaller coins , and with more being issued every year , there were too many small @-@ value coins . Treasury officials insisted the government could not accept the pieces beyond their legal tender limits , even if what was being done was exchanging them for other currency . Under Linderman , the Mint , without any legal authority , purchased $ 360 @,@ 000 in bronze coins using three @-@ cent pieces and nickels . Still , millions of two @-@ cent pieces accumulated in the hands of newspaper and transit companies , postmasters , and others who took small payments from the public , and there were complaints to Congress . With the advent of the Grant administration , Pollock returned to office and opposed the redemption proposals . Although he included Pollock 's opinions as part of his annual report , Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell asked Congress to pass a redemption act , and it did so on March 3 , 1871 , allowing for the redemption of minor coinage in lots of not less than $ 20 . It also allowed the Treasury Secretary to discontinue the coinage of any piece redeemed in large numbers . Pursuant to the new law , the Mint in 1871 and 1872 redeemed over 37 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 small coins , including two @-@ cent pieces .
In the postwar years , Congress and the Treasury considered a revision of the coinage laws , as the act of 1837 was deemed outdated . Retention of the two @-@ cent piece was never seriously considered in the debates over what became the Mint Act of 1873 ; the only question concerning the minor coinage was whether to make the cent from bronze or copper @-@ nickel , and how large to make the three @-@ cent nickel . With those pieces remaining unchanged , the bill passed on February 12 , 1873 , putting an end to the two @-@ cent piece series .
With the two @-@ cent piece likely to be abolished , only 65 @,@ 000 were struck for circulation in 1872 ; it is unclear why they were struck at all . On January 18 , 1873 , Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner Archibald Loudon Snowden complained that the " 3 " in the date , as struck by the Mint , too closely resembled an " 8 " , especially on the smaller @-@ sized denominations . In response , Pollock ordered the new chief engraver , William Barber ( Longacre had died in 1869 ) , to re @-@ engrave the date , opening the arms of the " 3 " wider on most denominations . The two @-@ cent piece was struck only in proof condition in 1873 , and due to its February abolition , there should not have been time or reason for Barber to re @-@ engrave the coin . Nevertheless , it exists in " Closed 3 " and " Open 3 " varieties . Breen suggested that the " Open 3 " variety was actually struck at a later date , probably clandestinely ; it was not known to exist until discovered by a numismatist in the 1950s . Numismatist Paul Green ascribed the two varieties to the two types of proof sets that the Mint sold at the time that would have contained the two @-@ cent piece . The " nickel set " contained only the low @-@ value coins without precious metal , while another contained also the silver coins ; he suggested that one variety was struck for each .
Large quantities of two @-@ cent pieces were withdrawn in the 1870s and after . Approximately 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of the some 45 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 two @-@ cent pieces issued had been repurchased by the Treasury as of 1909 . Withdrawn pieces were melted and recoined into one @-@ cent pieces . A bill for a two @-@ cent piece bearing the portrait of recently deceased former president Theodore Roosevelt passed the Senate in 1920 and was strongly recommended by a House committee but never enacted . Numismatist S. W. Freeman noted in 1954 that few alive could remember using a two @-@ cent piece , but for those who did , it was often associated with spending it at a candy store . He recalled that two cents would buy a quantity of sweets , as a dime did in Freeman 's day , and , he feared , it would take a quarter to do in the future . Full legal tender status was granted the two @-@ cent piece by the Coinage Act of 1965 , long after the coin had passed from circulation , as it made all coins and currency of the United States good for all public and private debts without limit . Nevertheless , numismatist Jack White pointed out in a 1971 column that due to its short lifespan , the piece " hardly got its two cents in " .
R.S. Yeoman 's 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1864 large motto and the 1865 as the least expensive two @-@ cent pieces , in good ( G @-@ 4 ) condition at $ 18 , though every issue by year through 1871 lists for $ 40 or less in that condition . The reason for the relatively flat prices , even in top grades , is a lack of collectors who seek the entire series ( it is most popularly collected with a single specimen as part of a " type set " of the various issues of American coins ) . Despite the high mintage , it is the 1864 date that has one of the more highly valued varieties , the " small motto " . Yeoman lists the 1864 small motto in Proof condition , at $ 18 @,@ 500 and in Very Fine ( VF @-@ 20 ) it is $ 500 .
= = Mintage figures = =
All two @-@ cent pieces were minted at the Philadelphia Mint , and bore no mint mark . Proof mintages are estimated .
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= Murder of Marwa El @-@ Sherbini =
Marwa Ali El @-@ Sherbini ( Egyptian Arabic : مروه على الشربينى ) , was an Egyptian woman and German resident who was killed in 2009 during an appeal hearing at a court of law in Dresden , Germany . She was stabbed by Alex Wiens , an ethnic German immigrant from Russia against whom she had testified in a criminal case for verbal abuse . El @-@ Sherbini 's husband , who was present at the hearing , tried to intervene . He too was repeatedly stabbed by Wiens and was then mistakenly shot and wounded by a police officer who was called to the court room . Wiens was arrested at the crime scene and subsequently tried for murder and attempted murder . He was found guilty of both charges ; it was also found that Wiens 's actions constituted a heinous crime , because they were committed in front of a child , against two people , in a court of law , and fulfilled the murder criterion of treacherousness , such as hatred against foreigners . Wiens was sentenced to life imprisonment .
The death of El @-@ Sherbini immediately resulted in international reactions , with the most vocal responses coming from predominantly Muslim nations . The Egyptian public and media focused attention on the religious and racial hatred aspect of the killing , especially as the initial confrontation between the victim and perpetrator had happened because she wore an Islamic headscarf . In response to anti @-@ German sentiments and public protests in Egypt and other countries , the German government issued a statement of condolence nine days after the incident . Wiens 's trial for murder and attempted murder occurred under strict security measures and was observed by national and international media , diplomats and legal experts .
= = Marwa El @-@ Sherbini = =
Marwa El @-@ Sherbini was born in 1977 in Alexandria , Egypt , to the chemists Ali El @-@ Sherbini and Laila Shams . In 1995 , she graduated from El Nasr Girls ' College , where she had acted as a student speaker . El @-@ Sherbini went on to study pharmacy at Alexandria University , obtaining a bachelor 's degree in pharmaceutical sciences in 2000 . From 1992 to 1999 , she was a member of the Egypt national handball team . In 2005 , El @-@ Sherbini moved with her husband , Elwy Ali Okaz , to Bremen , Germany . In 2008 , the couple and their two @-@ year @-@ old son moved to Dresden , where Okaz , a lecturer at Minufiya University , obtained a doctoral research position at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics . El @-@ Sherbini worked at the University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus in Dresden and at a local pharmacy as a part of an accreditation programme to practice pharmacy in Germany .
Together with others , El @-@ Sherbini founded a registered voluntary association with the aim of establishing an Islamic cultural and education centre in Dresden . At the time of her death , El @-@ Sherbini was three months pregnant , expecting her second child .
= = Alex Wiens = =
Alex Wiens ( Russian : Алекс Винс , also known as Alexander Wiens ) was born in 1980 in Perm , Russia . After leaving school , he completed a vocational training programme as a warehouseman . In 1999 , after a medical examination for conscription , Wiens was exempted from compulsory military service in the Russian armed forces ; it was stated that Wiens probably had suffered from a severe and chronic psychosis . In 2003 , he immigrated to Germany and gained German citizenship as a result of his ethnic origin . In Germany , he worked as a builder and caretaker , but had been living on welfare benefits for the long @-@ term unemployed at the time of the murder . In November 2009 , at the time of sentencing , Wiens was 28 years old , unmarried and without children .
= = Verbal abuse and court case for defamation = =
On 21 August 2008 , Wiens and El @-@ Sherbini met at a public playground in Dresden 's Johannstadt district , where Wiens 's niece and El @-@ Sherbini 's son were playing . During a quarrel over whose child should be using the playground 's swing , Wiens began shouting verbal abuse at El @-@ Sherbini . El @-@ Sherbini who was wearing an Islamic headscarf , was called " Islamist " , " terrorist " and ( according to one report ) " slut " . Other people present tried to intervene , but Wiens vehemently continued the verbal abuse for several minutes , directing epithets in Russian and German at the Russian @-@ speaking bystanders who attempted to reason with him . El @-@ Sherbini called the police on a bystander 's mobile phone and within a few minutes four police officers arrived in two vehicles at the scene . El @-@ Sherbini and Wiens were questioned ; El @-@ Sherbini was subsequently driven away in one of the police vehicles .
Wiens was charged with criminal defamation and given a penalty order to pay a fine of € 330 . After formally objecting and refusing to pay the fine , Wiens was tried at the district court of Dresden . He was found guilty by the court and fined € 780 in November 2008 . However , during the trial Wiens claimed mitigating circumstances for the act of insulting El @-@ Sherbini , suggesting that " people like her " were not really human beings and therefore incapable of being insulted . The public prosecutor appealed the verdict , aiming at a custodial sentence , due to the openly xenophobic character of the incident . Wiens also appealed the verdict and was subsequently granted a court @-@ appointed defence counsel . His counsel intended to withdraw the appeal before the scheduled hearing at the regional court , but Wiens objected to this .
= = Appeal case and fatal attack in courtroom = =
At the appeal hearing at the regional court in Dresden , in the morning 1 July 2009 , nine people were present in the courtroom : three judges , the prosecutor , Wiens as the defendant , his court @-@ appointed defence counsel , El @-@ Sherbini as witness for the prosecution , and her husband and son as observers . No security personnel were present and no security searches of individuals and their possessions were carried out ; this was a common procedure for cases without anticipated security concerns or detained persons present .
During the trial , the defendant Wiens appeared reserved but was noted for extreme statements . He said that Muslims were monsters to him and asked the court why they were not deported after the 9 / 11 attacks . He stated that German people should not mingle with foreigners and declared that he would vote for the far right National Democratic Party of Germany . The judge then requested a verbatim record , while the defence counsel tried to mediate . Wiens continued in this fashion , prompting the judge to ask whether he had ever visited a concentration camp .
Following Wiens 's defence statement , El @-@ Sherbini testified to the court . After El @-@ Sherbini had finished her testimony , the judge asked whether there were any further questions . Wiens replied and asked why above all El @-@ Sherbini was in Germany . The question was rejected by the judge ; Wiens responded with a further question to which the defence counsel motioned for recess . El @-@ Sherbini was not intending to wait until the end of the hearing and tried to leave . When she , her husband , and their three @-@ year @-@ old son were at the door , Wiens suddenly attacked El @-@ Sherbini with a kitchen knife with an 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) long blade , which he apparently had taken into the courtroom in a backpack . El @-@ Sherbini received more than 15 stab wounds to the upper body and arm ; the attack was carried out in such a forceful and sudden manner that it resulted in a notable absence of defence wounds . While trying to protect his wife , El @-@ Sherbini 's husband Okaz was stabbed at least 16 times to the head , neck , upper body and arm . Wiens 's defence counsel tried to help El @-@ Sherbini by obstructing Wiens with chairs and a table . The victim 's three @-@ year @-@ old son was injured while being ushered to safety .
At 10 : 23 , the judge raised a security alarm . Judicial officers , and a federal police officer who was in the court building testifying in an unrelated case , arrived at the scene ; however , during the ongoing commotion the police officer mistook Okaz for the attacker and shot him in the upper leg . Wiens collapsed and was apprehended after one of the judges pointed out that not Okaz but Wiens was the assailant . While under arrest , Wiens resisted and begged the police officer to shoot him dead . Okaz , critically wounded in the stabbing attack , was in a coma for two days . He was subsequently treated for several weeks in a hospital near Dresden for the stabbing and shooting injuries . El @-@ Sherbini died in the court building at 11 : 07 , succumbing to her injuries .
= = Murder trial = =
Wiens was held on remand on the suspicion of murder of El @-@ Sherbini and attempted murder of Okaz . He was formally charged with murder , attempted murder and grievous bodily harm by the public prosecutor 's office on 25 August 2009 . In the indictment , prosecutors stated treacherousness and malice ( based on hatred against non @-@ Europeans and Muslims ) as a motive . An application for a change of venue by Wiens 's defence lawyer was refused by the upper regional court . Following a psychiatric assessment , full criminal responsibility was assumed ; however , as the defendant had been diagnosed by Russian doctors to suffer from severe and chronic psychotic conditions , prosecutors requested relevant information from the Russian authorities prior to the trial . The requested documents arrived shortly before the end of the murder trial , without affecting its outcome .
The trial at the upper regional court in Dresden began on 26 October 2009 . It took place under strict security precautions due to alleged death threats to Wiens . All concurrent trials were transferred to other local venues , due to the security concerns , the great interest by the national and international media , and the public . El @-@ Sherbini 's widower , brother and parents acted in the role of ' co @-@ claimant ' and were represented by eight lawyers . On the first day of the trial , the entire prosecution counsel constituted of eight lawyers from Germany , France and Egypt was present in court ; the defendant arrived in court shrouded behind a mask , sunglasses , hat and a hood . The judge asked the defendant to remove his head attire and to confirm his name and date of birth . The defendant complied , except for removing his sunglasses , for which he was fined for contempt of court . The defence counsel motioned for the judges to be removed from the trial on the grounds of bias as they were colleagues of witnesses and worked near the crime scene . This was denied by a separate panel that had ruled on this motion .
Okaz testified on the first day of the trial . Further witnesses during the first week of the trial included an appointed medical examiner on the causes of the victim 's death , the judge who had presided over the trial at the regional court on 1 July 2009 , another judge ( Schöffe ) who had co @-@ presided over the aforementioned trial , a social worker on the defendant 's previous behaviour , the court @-@ appointed counsel who had previously represented the defendant , a court security officer , and the judge of the defamation trial at the district court . Witnesses in the second week of the trial included people present in the original confrontation on the playground and the police officers responding to the attack on 21 August 2008 . The police officer who had mistakenly shot Okaz exercised the right to remain silent during the murder trial , as a criminal investigation against him was ongoing at the time .
At the beginning of the third day of the trial , Wiens incurred a self @-@ inflicted injury by banging his head against a table . He was diagnosed with haematomas and a suspected traumatic brain injury , but was judged fit to stand trial after a hospital @-@ based medical examination . While continuing with noncompliant and destructive behaviour , Wiens was temporarily restrained by nine security officers in court .
The closing arguments were heard on 9 and 10 November 2009 . The prosecution and the co @-@ plaintiffs argued for a conviction for murder and attempted murder , with the legal specification " heinous crime " . The defence argued for a conviction for manslaughter and attempted manslaughter , by reasoning that the killing was in the heat of the moment and that the defendant may have a paranoid personality disorder . The verdict was delayed because the requested medical information from Russian authorities that arrived 9 November 2009 attested " undifferentiated schizophrenia " in 2000 , thereby requiring additional testimony by a medical expert witness .
On 11 November 2009 , Wiens was found guilty of the murder of El @-@ Sherbini and the attempted murder of Okaz , and sentenced to life imprisonment . Judge Birgit Wiegand stated that the court had also found that Wiens 's deeds constituted a heinous crime , because they were committed in front of a child , against two people , in a court of law , and fulfilled the murder criterion of treacherousness , such as hatred against foreigners . It meant that Wiens received the maximum sentence for this crime . Wiens appealed the conviction ; however , the appeal was rejected by the Federal Court of Justice . In a decision published on 18 June 2010 , the fifth criminal division of the court of justice in Leipzig stated that the appeal on points of law was unfounded and confirmed the verdict and sentence of the regional court as final matter of criminal law .
= = = Redress for victim 's family = = =
In October 2009 in an out @-@ of @-@ court discussion , lawyers on behalf of El @-@ Sherbini 's family and widower approached the Ministry of Justice of the State of Saxony about compensation . In the verdict on 11 November 2009 , Judge Birgit Wiegand granted the claimant 's request ( Adhäsionsantrag , § 406 StPO ) to claim for damages against the defendant in an ' adherent case ' within the remit of this criminal case . It established — without a separate trial for a private law claim — that Wiens has an obligation to compensate Okaz and El @-@ Sherbini 's beneficiaries for having harmed Okaz and killed El @-@ Sherbini .
= = Investigation of shooting of Elwy Ali Okaz = =
The shooting of El @-@ Sherbini 's husband Okaz by the federal police officer , who mistook him for the attacker , was cited by El @-@ Sherbini 's brother as indicative of racism in Germany . Following a complaint , a criminal investigation was launched against the police officer who shot Okaz . In October 2009 , a criminal investigation for involuntary manslaughter and denial of assistance was launched against the judge who presided over the July trial , and against the president of the regional court . On 29 December 2009 , the public prosecutor 's office in Dresden announced that all investigations had been closed on 21 December 2009 without indictment , as no suspicion of a criminal offence could be substantiated . Prosecutors argued that it must have been particularly difficult to assess the situation for the intervening police officer , because when he entered the room " Elwy Okaz and Alex Wiens were both covered in blood and Elwy Okaz had just managed to grab the handle of the knife with his hand , making it appear as though he was the attacker " . There were further assessment difficulties because " the actual attacker — Wiens — was holding the blade of the knife , which added to the impression that he was the one being attacked " . The prosecutors ' conclusion was that shooting of Okaz was a tragic mistake . In January 2010 , a lawyer acting for El @-@ Sherbini 's family filed a complaint against the prosecutors ' decisions to close the investigations against the police officer , the judge presiding in the 1 July 2009 trial and the regional court president .
= = German media and public reaction to the crime = =
= = = Initial media reports = = =
The killing was reported on 1 July 2009 in German radio and television and in print media on the following day . In line with common practice regarding reporting in the German media about crime and legal proceedings , El @-@ Sherbini was referred to as " 32 [ sic ] -year old " witness in a Deutschlandfunk report broadcast on 1 July , without any mention to the victim 's ethnic or religious background . The Minister of Justice for Saxony , Geert Mackenroth , who had visited the crime scene on the same day , publicly expressed his " deep compassion for the victim 's family , for the victim herself " . Another politician called for an investigation and the Association of Judges in Saxony ( Sächsischer Richterbund ) demanded a review of security procedures in court buildings .
Writing in The Guardian , Anja Seeliger commented that " the German media initially reported on the case at the back page " , and only in the light of the vociferous protests by thousands of Egyptians in Cairo , " the German federal government , which had kept silent for nearly a week , issued words of sorrow . "
= = = Response by Jewish and Muslim organisations = = =
The General Secretaries of Germany 's Muslim and Jewish Councils visited El @-@ Sherbini 's husband in hospital on 6 July 2009 . Stephan Kramer , General Secretary of the Central Council of Jews in Germany stated : " You don 't have to be Muslim to oppose anti @-@ Muslim behavior , and you don 't have to be Jewish to oppose anti @-@ Semitism . We must stand together against such inhumanity . " Kramer later wrote " ... as a Jew I know that anyone who attacks a person because of their race , nationality or religion is not only attacking the minority , they are attacking democratic society as a whole . " He also deplored the " largely unchecked hate propaganda against Muslims " .
The Central Council of Muslims in Germany suggested that the death of El @-@ Sherbini was a result of a growing " Islamophobia " , evident in many Internet discussion boards . They called upon Muslims not to instrumentalise the woman 's death . A local Islamic association in Dresden stated that their planned centre for cultural exchange will be named after El @-@ Sherbini , to promote mutual understanding between Muslims and non @-@ Muslims .
= = = Public commemoration = = =
On 6 July 2009 , about 2 @,@ 000 Muslims of the Egyptian community and other nationalities in Germany held funeral prayers for El @-@ Sherbini , in Dar Al @-@ Salam Mosque , in Berlin . Five days later a public memorial was organized by civil rights groups in Dresden ; it was attended by more than 1 @,@ 000 people , including the Egyptian ambassador and officials from the state of Saxony ; white roses and photos of El @-@ Sherbini and her family were placed outside Dresden City Hall . About the same time , the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics , where El @-@ Sherbini 's husband researches , issued a statement on the occasion of the official ceremony , expressing shock and sympathy . This was preceded by the Max Planck Society having strongly condemned the attack on 8 July , by stating : " The fact that the attack was racially motivated is especially distressing to us , considering that the Max Planck Society is a scientific research organisation with staff members from the most various nations . "
In December 2009 , the Ministry of Justice in Saxony announced plans to commemorated the death of El @-@ Sherbini with a memorial plaque in the regional court building . This plaque will state both in German and Arabic language : " [ Marwa El @-@ Sherbini ] She fell victim to Islamophobia and xenophobia . With dignity and commendable moral courage she withstood this . "
In July 2010 , one year after the murder , an association of local citizens organised a memorial art installation across Dresden , to commemorate the loss of life caused by the heinous crime and as a symbol against racism in everyday life . Eighteen concrete stelae in form of knives were temporary displayed in different public places , to represent the eighteen knife stab wounds that were inflicted on the victim . Some of the stelae were vandalised during the display .
In October 2012 , a scholarship in memory of Marwa El @-@ Sherbini was awarded for the first time . It is jointly funded by the city administration of Dresden and the state government of Saxony . The Marwa El @-@ Sherbini Stipendium für Weltoffenheit und Toleranz aims at developing future leaders who support freedom , democracy , and human rights . It is awarded to postgraduate students enrolled at an institution of higher education in Dresden .
= = International reactions to killing = =
El @-@ Sherbini 's death caused considerable public and media attention in Egypt , accompanied by strong anti @-@ German sentiments . Egypt 's Prosecutor General Abdel Meguid Mahmud announced that a prosecutor from Alexandria was to be dispatched to Germany to assist in the investigation , and the Egyptian Pharmacists ' Association called for a boycott of German drugs . At El @-@ Sherbini 's funeral in Alexandria , mourners referred to her as " a ' martyr ' of the head scarf " and accused Germany of " racism " and " Islamophobia . " Mourners carried banners criticising both German and Egyptian authorities ' reactions to the crime . Egyptian police temporarily cordoned off the German embassy in Cairo to protect it from angry protesters . In response to the anti @-@ German sentiments and public protests in Egypt and elsewhere , the German government eventually issued a statement of condolence . Some Egyptian commentators took a reconciling approach . Writing in the opinion section of Al @-@ Ahram Weekly , Abdel @-@ Moneim Said called on those who mourn for Marwa El @-@ Sherbini " not [ to fall ] into the same morass of bigotry and hatred that killed her , " but to " create Arab @-@ Muslim @-@ European fronts , together with other faiths , to stand up against fanaticism , bigotry and discrimination on both sides . "
Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad blamed the German government for El @-@ Sherbini 's murder and called for international condemnation of Germany . In a letter to UN Secretary General Ban Ki @-@ moon , Ahmadinejad demanded firm action against Germany and stated that " there is a strong view that the crime was a pre @-@ planned attempt engineered by the judicial system and security forces " . Iran also issued a postage stamp featuring El @-@ Sherbini , which Press TV reported was banned in Egypt . Al @-@ Wafd an Egyptian newspaper accused Iran of exploiting the killing of El @-@ Sherbini to turn Muslims and Arabs against Europe and the US .
= = Media reactions to murder trial = =
Interviewed by Deutschlandfunk radio , Al Jazeera correspondent to Germany Aktham Suliman said that their viewers watched the trial closely , because they were disaffected by the initial reaction in Germany to the killing . He also noted that the perceptions of a speculated verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity differed vastly between Al Jazeera and Deutschlandfunk audiences . Accordingly , the former tend to apprehend such a verdict as an absence of punishment in terms of criminal justice , whereas the latter tend to be discerned with containment away from public life through being involuntarily committed to a forensic psychiatry institution . Media scientist Hanan Badr commented on reporting in Germany and Egypt as being " a prime example of mass @-@ media miscommunication between cultures " .
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= Greg Pikitis =
" Greg Pikitis " is the seventh episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the thirteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 29 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie attempts to catch a suspected teenage vandal in the act of defacing a public statue . Meanwhile , Ann throws a Halloween party , which turns out to be very boring until Tom livens it up .
The episode was written by series co @-@ founder Michael Schur and directed by Dean Holland , an editor on the series . " Greg Pikitis " featured a guest performance by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. as Dave Sanderson , Leslie 's police officer boyfriend . It also featured Cody Klop as Greg Pikitis , a teenager whom Leslie considers her nemesis .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Greg Pikitis " was seen by 4 @.@ 96 million household viewers , only a slight drop from the previous week despite direct competition from the 2009 World Series . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) visits the Pawnee high school to confront Greg Pikitis ( Cody Klop ) , a teenager who she describes as her " arch @-@ nemesis " . Leslie warns Greg she knows he vandalizes the town 's statue of Mayor Percy every Halloween , but that she will be watching him closely and will catch him this year . Greg casually denies having any such plans . At the Pawnee town hall , Ann ( Rashida Jones ) talks excitedly about her upcoming Halloween party . She asks the others not to mention it to Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , but she is disappointed to learn Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) has already told him . That night , Leslie watches Greg with the help of her boyfriend , Pawnee police officer Dave Sanderson ( Louis C.K. ) , while Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , who now has a part @-@ time job with the parks department , guards the statue .
Ann 's party is off to a boring start and she soon begins to fear it will be a failure altogether . When Tom and his wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) arrive , however , Tom spices up the party by turning the living room into a dance floor . The party is soon a big hit , and Ann thanks Tom profusely . Wendy tells Ron ( Nick Offerman ) she knows Ron learned her marriage to Tom was a " green card marriage " to keep her from being deported to Canada , and thanks him for his discretion . She tells him they will soon be able to divorce without raising any suspicions , unaware that Tom is visibly upset about it .
After watching Greg for hours , Leslie and Dave decide to go to Ann 's party . They stop at the parks department to get Leslie 's costume , only to find the office has been toilet papered and vandalized . Leslie immediately suspects Greg , even though they had been watching him all night . Dave reluctantly agrees to bring Greg in for questioning , but Greg insists he is innocent . Andy comes in and questions Greg , pretending to be an FBI agent named Burt Macklin , but Greg is so mean to him Andy soon starts crying . Greg 's mother eventually arrives and takes him away after threatening to report the trio for holding her son without proof of his guilt .
Later , Andy helps Leslie clean the parks office and , after a few beers , they decide to toilet paper Greg 's house . Dave arrives in his police car and tells them he had been called to stop them . When an unfamiliar woman comes out of the house , Leslie thinks she has toilet papered the wrong house . However , the woman reveals she is Greg 's actual mother , and that Greg hired a " fake mother " off of Craigslist to get him out of trouble . When she realizes Greg is not home , Leslie believes he is vandalizing the mayor statue . They go to the statue and catch Greg in the process ; although Leslie wishes to have him " locked up , " Dave points out he is still a minor and will likely only receive probation . Later , Leslie wonders how Greg managed to trash the parks department . The episode ends with a flashback showing Greg sneaking into the department disguised as a janitor , hiding in a dumpster until everybody leaves , then vandalizing the office .
= = Production = =
" Greg Pikitis " was written by series co @-@ founder Michael Schur and directed by Dean Holland , an editor on the series . Both Schur and Holland previously worked on the NBC series , The Office . The episode featured a guest performance by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. , who reprises his recurring role as Dave Sanderson , Leslie 's police officer boyfriend . It also featured Cody Klop as Greg Pikitis himself .
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Greg Pikitis " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first minute @-@ long clip , Leslie broadcasts an impression of a police officer on Dave 's police radio , which gets him into trouble . She also discusses the frequent use of torture by Jack Bauer , the protagonist of the Fox series 24 , while she contemplates torturing Greg Pikitis . In the second 75 @-@ second clip , Jerry nearly passes out from dehydration in his oversized Halloween dragon costume , and Leslie arrives late to the party dressed as a nurse .
= = Cultural references = =
For her Halloween party , Ann dressed like Raggedy Ann , the rag doll protagonist of a series of children 's books written by Johnny Gruelle . Tom comes to the party dressed as T @-@ Pain . Ann has a large amount of Almond Joy chocolate bars at her party . The 1962 song " Monster Mash " by Bobby Pickett is played in the background of the party . Pikitis hires an actress to play his fake mother using Craigslist . April says that during a previous gay Halloween party , she saw three Jonas Brothers making out with three Robert Pattinsons . Leslie refers to Greg as " an invisible , adolescent , James Bond super @-@ villain criminal mastermind " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 29 , 2009 , " Greg Pikitis " was seen by 4 @.@ 96 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was only a slight drop from the previous week , despite direct competition from game two of the 2009 World Series on Fox . " Greg Pikitis " drew a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 5 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Many commentators said the awkward exchanges between Ron and Wendy at the Halloween party seemed to be hinting at a possible romance between the two in future episodes . Matt Fowler of IGN said " Greg Pikitis " was " probably the best conceived and most hilarious episode " of Parks and Recreation so far . Fowler said he liked the Leslie and Andy pairing , and he was relieved the show found something " meaty and meaningful " to do with the character . Fowler said Ann 's party was less funny , but advanced many of the supporting characters .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger declared " Greg Pikitis " one of the episodes he would suggest to newcomers seeking to become familiar with Parks and Recreation , calling it " the version of Parks and Recreation that I most enjoy : silly , but also intentionally small in scale " . He particularly praised Louis CK and some of the smaller jokes in the episode , like the fact that a gay character 's " straight guy " Halloween costume is identical to Mark 's regular wardrobe . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said the episode " demonstrated how an episode of P & R can work wonders — dial up the conditions that might drive a character insane , as they did to Leslie , and watch them squirm " . He also said the episode featured every supporting character well , but that Ann was less funny without a " wacky person to play off of " . Time magazine critic James Poniewozik said it was a " strong episode that hit office and personal sides of the characters equally well " . Poniewozik praised Pratt and Louis C.K. in particular , but also said Leslie was pushed " a little too far into the crazy @-@ obsessive end of the spectrum " . Not all reviews were positive . Linda Stasi of New York Post said the episode was " a big yawn " , although she praised the performance of Cody Klop as Greg Pikitis .
During a brainstorming session among the Parks and Recreation writers prior to season four , screenwriter Chelsea Peretti proposed bringing the Greg Pikitis character back for a future episode . This finally happened in episode 18 of season six ( " Prom " ) .
= = DVD release = =
" Greg Pikitis " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Rapid strep test =
The rapid strep test ( RST ) , or rapid antigen detection test ( RADT ) , is a rapid diagnostic test that is widely used in clinics to assist in the diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci ( GAS ) , sometimes termed strep throat . There are currently several types of rapid strep test in use , each employing a distinct technology . However , they all work by detecting the presence of GAS in the throat of a patient by responding to GAS @-@ specific antigens on a throat swab .
= = Applications = =
A rapid strep test may assist a clinician in deciding whether to prescribe an antibiotic to a patient with pharyngitis , a common infection of the throat . Viral infections are responsible for the majority of pharyngitis , but a significant proportion ( 20 % to 40 % in children and 5 % to 15 % in adults ) is caused by bacterial infection . The symptoms of viral and bacterial infection may be indistinguishable , but only bacterial pharyngitis can be effectively treated by antibiotics . Since the major cause of bacterial pharyngitis is GAS , the presence of this organism in a patient 's throat may be seen as a necessary condition for prescribing antibiotics . GAS pharyngitis is a self @-@ limiting infection that will usually resolve within a week without medication . However , antibiotics may reduce the length and severity of the illness and reduce the risk of certain rare but serious complications .
RSTs may also have a public health benefit . In addition to undesirable side @-@ effects in the individual , inappropriate antibiotic use is thought to contribute to the development of drug @-@ resistant strains of bacteria . By helping to identify bacterial infection , RSTs may help to limit the use of antibiotics in viral illnesses , where they are not beneficial .
Some clinical guidelines recommend the use of RSTs in patients with pharyngitis , but others do not . US guidelines are more consistently in favor of their use than their European equivalents . The use of RSTs may be most beneficial in the third world , where the complications of streptococcal infection are most prevalent , but their use in these regions has not been well studied .
Microbial culture from a throat swab is a reliable and affordable alternative to an RST which has high sensitivity and specificity . However , a culture requires special facilities and usually takes 48 hours to give a result , whereas an RST can give a result within several minutes .
= = Procedure = =
The patient ’ s throat is first swabbed to collect a sample of mucus . In most RSTs , this mucus sample is then exposed to a reagent containing antibodies that will bind specifically to a GAS antigen . A positive result is signified by a certain visible reaction . There are three major types of RST : First , a latex fixation test , which was developed in the 1980s and is largely obsolete . It employs latex beads covered with antigens that will visibly agglutinate around GAS antibodies if these are present . Second , a lateral flow test , which is currently the most widely used RST . The sample is applied to a strip of nitrocellulose film and , if GAS antigens are present , these will migrate along the film to form a visible line of antigen bound to labeled antibodies . Third , optical immunoassay is the newest and more expensive test . It involves mixing the sample with labeled antibodies and then with a special substrate on a film which changes colour to signal the presence or absence of GAS antigen .
= = Interpretation = =
The specificity of RSTs for the presence of GAS is at least 95 % , with some studies finding close to 100 % specificity . Therefore , if the test result is positive , the presence of GAS is highly likely . However , 5 % to 20 % of individuals carry GAS in their throats without symptomatic infection , so the presence of GAS in an individual with pharyngitis does not prove that this organism is responsible for the infection . The sensitivity of lateral flow RSTs is somewhat lower at 65 % to 80 % . Therefore , a negative result from such a test cannot be used to rule out GAS pharyngitis , a considerable disadvantage compared with microbial culture , which has a sensitivity of 90 % to 95 % . However , newer optical immunoassay RSTs have been found to have a much higher sensitivity of 94 % .
Although an RST cannot distinguish GAS infection from asymptomatic carriage of the organism , most authorities recommend antibiotic treatment in the event of a positive RST result from a patient with a sore throat . US guidelines recommend following up a negative result with a microbial culture , whereas European guidelines suggest relying on the negative RST .
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= Petlyakov Pe @-@ 3 =
The Petlyakov Pe @-@ 3 was the long @-@ range , night fighter version of the successful Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 high @-@ speed bomber used by the Soviet Union during World War II .
Its design and use followed a comparable path to those taken by the German Luftwaffe with the Junkers Ju 88 and the British Royal Air Force with the De Havilland Mosquito . The Soviets realized the need for a night fighter after the first night bombing of Moscow during Operation Barbarossa . The Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 was selected for modification as the most suitable aircraft available .
It was initially used for daylight ground attack missions during the Battle of Moscow , but this proved to be costly since the aircraft was unarmored . Armor and additional guns were retrofitted to the existing aircraft to make it more effective , but the evacuation of the sole factory building the Pe @-@ 3 in October 1941 limited the number of aircraft available and many units of the Soviet Air Forces flying the Pe @-@ 3 were either disbanded or converted to other aircraft . Although production was stopped and restarted several times , the aircraft remained in service throughout World War II . Most of the later production runs were given to reconnaissance units .
= = Development = =
A crash @-@ development program began after the July 1941 German night bombing of Moscow to field a night fighter with heavy armament and long endurance . Only an aircraft currently in production could be used to satisfy the extremely tight deadline and the Pe @-@ 2 was selected for modification by the State Commissariat for Defence ( Russian : Narodnyy Komissariaht Oborony — NKO ) as the fastest twin @-@ engined aircraft in service . The order only authorized four days to modify the aircraft 's fuel , armament and radio systems , but this deadline was met when the modified aircraft made its first flight on 7 August and it passed its manufacturer 's trials the following day .
Three additional fuel tanks , with a capacity of 700 liters ( 154 imp gal ; 185 U.S. gal ) were fitted in the prototype , one in the fuselage bomb bay and the other two replaced the ventral gunner 's position . The nose armament was reinforced with an additional 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) Berezin UBK machine gun with 150 rounds and a fixed 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine gun with 250 rounds was added in the tail cone . Removal of two of the fuselage bomb racks reduced the maximum bomb load to 700 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 543 lb ) , one 250 @-@ kilogram ( 551 lb ) bomb on each of the fuselage racks and one 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) in each of the engine nacelles . The electric bomb release system was removed and the bombs had to be dropped using the mechanical system , initially designed as the emergency system . The dive brakes under the wings were also removed . The BSBbis radio was exchanged for the RSI @-@ 4 model commonly used in single @-@ seat fighters and the radio direction finder was also removed to save weight . The prototype weighed 5 @,@ 890 kg ( 12 @,@ 985 lb ) empty and it had a normal take @-@ off weight of 7 @,@ 800 kg ( 17 @,@ 196 lb ) , slightly heavier than the version of the Pe @-@ 2 then in production . During testing it demonstrated a maximum speed of 530 km / h ( 329 mph ) at 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) , a service ceiling of 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 528 ft ) and a maximum range of 2 @,@ 150 km ( 1 @,@ 336 mi ) . This was considered adequate and Factory ( Russian : Zavod ) Nr. 39 in Moscow was ordered on 14 August to build five pre @-@ production aircraft for delivery by 25 August . This process proved difficult because drawings had not been made for many of the new parts and they had to be fitted by hand , slowing the production rate .
Slightly more extensive testing of a pre @-@ production aircraft was done by the Air Force Scientific Test Institute ( Russian : Nauchno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-@ Vozdushnykh Seel — NII VVS ) between 29 August and 7 September . Although they confirmed the initial performance figures , the tests revealed other problems . The lower nose Plexiglas windows cracked when the lower UBK machine gun was fired , a problem initially cured by replacing some of the glazing with a duralumin skin , but this too proved to be too weak , and it was itself later replaced by a steel panel . Pre @-@ production testing also revealed that the casings and links from the large @-@ caliber weapons damaged the skin of the wings and sometimes entered the radiator intakes , where they could cause extensive damage . Revising the shape of the ejector chutes did not help and the casings had to be collected in the nose . Pre @-@ production testing also identified several other specific weaknesses that had to be corrected on the production line . The Pe @-@ 3 's offensive firepower was too weak and a 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon was added . The firepower of the dorsal 7.62mm ShKAS machine gun was considered inadequate , and on the production line , was replaced by a 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine gun . To protect the crew , the production line added frontal armor and extended existing armor to the rear to protect the navigator . The production line also replaced the RSI @-@ 4 radio with model that had greater range and added a camera for the Pe @-@ 3 's reconnaissance role . Although most of the initial aircraft were delivered without these adaptations , they were modified in the field by factory teams .
The first Pe @-@ 3s were issued to the 95th High @-@ Speed Bomber Regiment in the Moscow Military District and the Regiment 's experiences with the aircraft revealed other problems . Firing the guns at night dazzled the pilot and destroyed his night vision and the glare from searchlights through the glazing on the lower nose also blinded the pilot . Crews complained bitterly that the lack of frontal armor made them vulnerable to defensive fire from German bombers . Flash hiders installed on the guns and curtains covering the windows cured the first problems , but the lack of armor could not be rectified immediately . Many aircraft were also fitted with launchers for four to six RS @-@ 82 and RS @-@ 132 rockets for ground @-@ attack missions . Another common addition was a launcher for DAG @-@ 10 aerial grenades mounted in the tail .
The Petlyakov design bureau addressed these concerns in September and they were tested in the Pe @-@ 3bis prototype between September and October . The armament was upgraded with 250 rounds provided for each of the UBK machine guns , a 20 mm ShVAK cannon with 250 rounds was mounted in the nose and a 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine gun with 180 rounds in boxes replaced the 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS in the dorsal position . Frontal armor was installed and the navigator 's seat armor was thickened with a total weight of 136 kg ( 300 lb ) . Automatic leading edge slats were fitted and the nitrogen fuel tank pressurization system was replaced by one that used inert gases from the engine exhaust . The crash pylon was moved forward 48 centimeters ( 1 ft 7 in ) and the cockpit canopy shortened .
Many of these changes were made to aircraft before Pe @-@ 3bis production resumed in April 1942 and combat @-@ use revealed several additional problems that had to be addressed in a second Pe @-@ 3bis prototype , which began its State acceptance tests in May 1942 . Reloading the nose guns proved to be time @-@ consuming , taking up to 45 minutes , and the night @-@ firing of the port @-@ side UBK continued to blind the pilot . These problems prompted the transfer of both UBK guns to the wing center section where they were installed in a compartment that was hinged at the front to drop down and allow easier access to the guns and their ammunition . The starboard gun was given 230 rounds and the port gun had 265 rounds . This change reduced the capacity of the Nr. 7 fuel tank by 100 liters ( 22 imp gal ; 26 U.S. gal ) , but an asbestos bulkhead was added to protect the tank from heat generated by the guns . The changes meant that the cartridge cases from the ShVAK cannon could not be collected , making the skin and lower fuselage vulnerable . These were reinforced with steel sheets to minimize the damage inflicted by the large @-@ caliber cases . The original mounting for the dorsal UBT machine gun provided an excellent field of fire , but lack of aerodynamic balance prevented the gunner / navigator to use its full range . Pressure exerted by the airstream prevented the gunner from traversing more than about 40 – 50 ° from the centerline . A twin @-@ petal compensator proved mostly ineffective . The crash pylon was removed to give the gunner more working space . The ammunition box of the UBT was too small , only 30 rounds , and took about a minute to reload . The boxes were deleted and the UBT was given a 200 @-@ round belt with an electric drive to help to prevent feed problems . An anti @-@ icing system was added for the propellers and the pilot 's windscreen . The nose glazing was replaced entirely and the crew 's armor was increased to a total weight of 148 kg ( 326 lb ) . These changes moved the aircraft 's center of gravity forward and the landing gear struts were lengthened , moving the wheels 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) forward , which helped to reduce the chance of the aircraft tipping over .
= = = Production = = =
Zavod Nr. 39 built 16 Pe @-@ 3s in August , including the prototype , 98 in September and 82 in October before the factory was evacuated to Irkutsk late in October . Production was restarted in April 1942 with a total of 132 built during the year . All were Pe @-@ 3bis models except for eleven Pe @-@ 3s that had not been completed before the evacuation . Thirteen were built in 1943 before production was canceled in favor of Ilyushin Il @-@ 4 bombers . A final production batch of 19 was built at Zavod Nr. 22 in early 1944 , but these were more lightly armed than earlier versions , with only a single ShVAK cannon in the wing center section and one UBK in the nose . The bomb racks in the engine nacelles were eliminated entirely , as was the fixed ShKAS machine gun in the tail . Two DAG @-@ 10 grenade launchers were fitted in the rear fuselage , each with ten grenades .
= = Operational history = =
The first Pe @-@ 3s were issued to the 95th High @-@ Speed Bomber Aviation Regiment in August 1941 and it was initially committed to the ground attack and escort roles after retraining through September . It was redesignated as the 95th Fighter Aviation Regiment on 25 September and assigned to the 6th Fighter Aviation Corps of the PVO defending Moscow . A few days later six Pe @-@ 3s escorted C @-@ 47s carrying a British military delegation flying from Vologda to Moscow and successfully defended against several German attacks on the transports . Pe @-@ 3s strafed German troop columns as they approached Moscow during Operation Typhoon . On 24 October the 95th and 208th Fighter Aviation Regiments , with a total of twenty @-@ seven Pe @-@ 3s between them , attacked the German airfield at Kalinin , claiming thirty German aircraft destroyed for the loss of five Soviet aircraft and pilots , including the commander of the 208th Regiment , Major S. Kibirinym . The 9th , 40th , 54th and 511th Bomber Aviation Regiments also received Pe @-@ 3s during September and performed similar missions . Approximately 50 aircraft were lost during the Pe @-@ 3 's first three months of combat , about 25 % of the aircraft produced thus far . This was a very high loss rate and a number of units began to conduct less risky reconnaissance missions to minimize casualties . Pe @-@ 3s were issued to the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Reconnaissance Aviation Regiments in October as well .
With production terminated in October due to the evacuation of the factory , the number of available Pe @-@ 3s could not sustain as many units and many began to convert to other aircraft or roles . The 40th Fast Bomber Aviation Regiment was re @-@ designated as the 40th Separate Long @-@ range Reconnaissance Aviation Regiment on 15 December and mustered five Pe @-@ 3s on 1 May 1942 and eleven Pe @-@ 3s on 1 January 1943 . The 9th Bomber Aviation Regiment was directly assigned to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force at the end of November 1941 and received the additional task of leading groups of fighters and attack aircraft to their targets because their pilots could not navigate on their own . Over 2000 aircraft were led to their targets in this manner before the regiment was converted to other roles . The 54th Bomber Aviation Regiment appears to have been disbanded on or after 20 May 1942 . The 208th Short @-@ Range Bomber Regiment lost ten aircraft before it transferred its surviving pilots and aircraft to the 95th Fighter Aviation Regiment in mid @-@ January 1942 and reformed on the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 . On 5 February 1942 the 511th Bomber Aviation Regiment was based at Tula and lost three of its eight Pe @-@ 3s on strength to a German air raid . It was disbanded in late March 1942 for lack of aircraft . The 95th Fighter Aviation Regiment was transferred on 1 March 1942 to the Air Force of the Northern Fleet where it performed convoy escort , ground attack and reconnaissance missions in support of the Fleet . It operated Pe @-@ 3s as late as the end of 1942 when some of its crews , which had just picked up new aircraft , were diverted to participate in the Battle of Stalingrad , although most of the 1942 production aircraft were given to the 2nd , 4th , and 40th Separate Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Regiments .
A single Pe @-@ 3 was captured by the Finns when it had to make a forced landing in marshy ground near Lake Inari on 28 November 1942 . It was relatively undamaged and was recovered , repaired and placed into service as ' PE @-@ 301 ' . It served with PLeLv 48 and was converted into a photo @-@ reconnaissance aircraft in 1944 before being destroyed by a Soviet bombing raid on the airfield at Lappeenranta on 2 July 1944 . By then , it had flown over 222 hours in Finnish service .
The Gneiss @-@ 2 airborne radar was evaluated in the Pe @-@ 3 beginning in July 1942 and it was sent to both Moscow and Stalingrad for combat trials in late 1942 . Another round of trials was conducted by aircraft of the 2nd Guards Fighter Corps of the PVO in Leningrad between February and May 1943 and it was approved for service the next month . Very few appear to have been deployed as only fifteen were fitted on Pe @-@ 3s .
= = Variants = =
Pe @-@ 3
Initial production model , 207 built .
Pe @-@ 3bis
Upgraded version put into production in 1942 ; 152 of these aircraft were built .
Pe @-@ 3M
Designation sometimes associated with the 1944 production aircraft .
= = Operators = =
Finland
Finnish Air Force operated one captured aircraft .
Soviet Union
VVS
PVO
Naval Aviation
Regimental listing :
95th Fighter Aviation Regiment
208th Fighter Aviation Regiment
9th Bomber Aviation Regiment
40th Fast Bomber Aviation Regiment , later the 40th Separate Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Regiment
54th Bomber Aviation Regiment
95th High @-@ Speed Bomber Aviation Regiment , later the 95th Fighter Aviation Regiment
208th Short @-@ Range Bomber Regiment , later the 208th Fighter Aviation Regiment
511th Bomber Aviation Regiment
1st Separate Reconnaissance Regiment
2nd Separate Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Regiment
3rd Separate Reconnaissance Regiment
4th Separate Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Regiment
40th Separate Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Regiment
Note that regiments often changed branches
= = Specifications ( Petlyakov Pe @-@ 3bis ) = =
Data from Gordon , Soviet Airpower in World War 2
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 12 @.@ 66 m ( 41 ft 6 in )
Wingspan : 17 @.@ 13 m ( 56 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 40 @.@ 5 m2 ( 436 sq ft )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 858 kg ( 12 @,@ 915 lb )
Gross weight : 8 @,@ 000 kg ( 17 @,@ 637 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Klimov M @-@ 105RA liquid @-@ cooled V12 engines , 820 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed
Performance
Maximum speed : 530 km / h ( 329 mph ; 286 kn ) @ 5 @,@ 050 meters ( 16 @,@ 568 ft )
Range : 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ; 810 nmi )
Service ceiling : 9 @,@ 100 m ( 29 @,@ 856 ft )
Time to altitude : 6 @.@ 65 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft )
Armament
Guns : 1 × 20 mm ShVAK cannon in the nose with 250 rounds
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm UBK machine guns in the fuselage with 500 rounds
1 × 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine gun in dorsal turret with 300 rounds
1 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine gun in the tail cone with 250 rounds ( later removed )
Bombs : up to 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 543 lb )
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= Baby Don 't Cry ( Namie Amuro song ) =
" Baby Don 't Cry " is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Namie Amuro for her eighth studio album , Play ( 2007 ) . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician Naoaki Yamato , under the alias Nao 'ymt . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Nobody " , a re @-@ recorded version of her single " White Light " . It premiered on January 24 , 2007 as the third single from the album in Japan . It was also released worldwide on February 21 , 2007 through Avex Entertainment Inc . Musically , " Baby Don 't Cry " is a pop ballad , influenced by R & B music .
Upon its release , the track garnered generally favorable reviews from music critics , who highlighted the song as one of Amuro 's best singles , and commended the production and her vocals . It achieved success in Japan , peaking at number three on the Oricon Singles Chart . The single has been certified within three different categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . An accompanying music video was shot by Masashi Muto ; it features Amuro walking around a city , singing in the winter time . With additional promotion through Japanese commercials and television shows , the song has been performed on several concert tours by Amuro , including her 2007 Play tour and 2008 Best Fiction tour .
= = Background and release = =
On December 28 , 2006 , Japanese magazine CD Journal confirmed the release of a new single , entitled " Baby Don 't Cry " . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician Naoaki Yamato , under the alias Nao 'ymt . The song was recorded in 2006 at On Air Azabu Studio , Minato @-@ ku , Tokyo by Toshihiro Wako . The song contains backing vocals by Japanese vocalist Hiromi . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Nobody " , a re @-@ recorded version of her single " White Light " . It was intended to appear on Amuro 's eighth studio album , Play , as the original version was omitted . However , the re @-@ recorded version did not end up on the final track list . It premiered on January 24 , 2007 as the third single from the album in Japan . It was also released worldwide on February 21 , 2007 through Avex Entertainment Inc .
The CD single contains both " Baby Don 't Cry " and " Nobody " , plus shortened versions of the tracks . These versions were used for various Japanese television commercials . The CD artwork features a close @-@ up facial shot of Amuro , whilst the DVD single has a close up with her face and eyes closed . The DVD single includes the music video to " Baby Don 't Cry " . Both formats features an extra lyric booklet , printed on plain white paper . Musically , " Baby Don 't Cry " is a pop ballad , influenced by R & B and J @-@ pop music . Japanese music editor Random J compared the composition to the works of American recording artist , Janet Jackson . CD Journal staff member 's felt the song 's composition was " simplistic " , and described the lyrical content as " painful " .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , " Baby Don 't Cry " received positive reviews from most music critics . Random J , reporting from his own blogsite , highlighted it as one of the album 's best tracks ; he felt it was a " really nice song with a hot beat which is carried by a stellar vocal performance . " Staff members from Amazon were positive in their review , labeling the song and Amuro 's vocal delivery as " impressive " . They also complimented Nao 'ymt 's " perfect " collaboration with Amuro . An editor writing from CD Journal praised the song 's mixture of R & B and pop genres . They also felt it was a " classic representation " of Amuro 's music inside of the 21st century . AllMusic 's editor Adam Greenberg commended the song 's departure from the album 's electronic music , saying " ' Baby Don 't Cry ' finally gives a peek at Amuro 's vocals with less electronic additions ... " . AllMusic staff selected the single as one of Amuro 's best songs in her discography .
= = Commercial performance = =
Commercial , " Baby Don 't Cry " was successful in Japan . It debuted at number three on the Oricon Daily Singles Chart , and stayed there for four days . This resulted in a debut position of number three on the Oricon Singles Chart , two positions behind entries by Mr. Children and Masafumi Akikawa ; it sold 52 @,@ 168 units within its first week of sales . This became Amuro 's first single in six years to sell over 50 @,@ 000 units in its first week since " Say the Word " . The following week , it fell to number four with 24 @,@ 643 units sold within its second week of sales . It slipped again to number seven with 18 @,@ 663 units sold in its third week of sales , and had its last top ten appearance the following week at number nine ; it sold 13 @,@ 088 units . It lasted 15 weeks in the Top 200 chart , and sold over 144 @,@ 081 units by the end of 2007 ; it ranked at number 48 on Oricon 's Annual Singles Chart . This became Amuro 's highest selling single since " Say the Word " ( with 184 @,@ 000 units sold ) , and was her highest selling single until it was outsold by her 2011 single " Sit ! Stay ! Wait ! Down ! / Love Story " ( with 162 @,@ 000 units sold ) . " Baby Don 't Cry " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
The single was certified million in May 2007 by the RIAJ for ringtone sales of one million units in Japan . This is her first single to be certified million by RIAJ since her 1997 single " How to Be a Girl " , and was her sixth overall . Although the song has not charted on any digital record charts in Japan , it was cerfifed double platinum by the RIAJ for cellphone sales of 500 @,@ 000 units . It was certified gold in December 2012 by the RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Live performances and music video = =
The single has been performed on several tours conducted by Amuro , and has appeared on Japanese commercials and television series . " Baby Don 't Cry " made its debut live performance on her Play Tour ( 2008 ) , which was in support of the album with the same title . The live DVD was released on February 27 , 2008 . It was included on Amuro 's greatest hits concert tour , Best Fiction 2008 – 2009 ; it was performed as the final song from the setlist . The live DVD was released on September 9 , 2009 . The track appeared on her Past < Future concert tour in 2010 , and was included on the live release on December 12 , 2010 . In celebration of Amuro 's 20th music career anniversary , the single was included on her 5 Major Dome concert tour in Japan ; the song was performed as an encore track . The live DVD was released on February 27 , 2013 . The song 's most recent appearance was her Live Style concert tour ( 2014 ) , where it was included on as the last track from the setlist . The live DVD was released on February 11 , 2015 .
" Baby Don 't Cry " was used as the theme song for the Japanese television drama series , Himitsu no Hanazono ( 2007 ) . Alongside this , it was included in three Japanese commercials : the Avex Trax " Myu @-@ Umo " music commercial , the Pokemero Joysound commercial , and for the Fuji TV television series , Secret Garden . An accompanying music video was shot in Japan by Masashi Muto . It opens with Amuro running on outdoor steps , and walking along a pavement bridge . As the chorus starts , intercut scenes of trees are shown , as she walks through the city . The second verse has her walking through a park , with yellow @-@ ish leaves on the ground . She witnessed two small children on a park bench , holding the chain to a dog . The third chorus then has her walking through a city square , and ends with her standing on a beach front at sunset . A short version of the video was uploaded on Amuro 's YouTube page on November 16 , 2011 , whilst a full version was uploaded one month later .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the Play album .
Recording
Recorded at On Air Azabu Studio , Minato @-@ ku , Tokyo ( 2005 ) .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Catalysts ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" Catalysts " is the seventh episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man , created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode sees Spider @-@ Man trying to stop the psychotic supervillain Green Goblin from bombing a dinner party filled with high @-@ class New York citizens on the night of his school 's big Fall Formal .
Written by Andrew Robinson and directed by the series ' co @-@ developer Victor Cook , " Catalysts " marked the first appearance of Green Goblin in the series . The villain 's design followed the show 's color scheme by emphasizing the color green and was based primarily on initial designs by Alex Ross for the character in the 2002 film Spider @-@ Man . Performers Steven Blum and Vanessa Marshall began their roles as Green Goblin and Mary Jane Watson , respectively .
The episode originally broadcast on April 26 , 2008 , following repeat episodes of " Natural Selection " and " Competition . " It is available on both the third volume DVD set for the series , as well as the complete season box set . It ranked as among the highest rated children 's telecast the morning it aired and received a generally positive response from television critics . Green Goblin 's appearance and new personality split critics , who felt that it was suitable but also strayed from his comic appearance .
= = Plot summary = =
On the night of Midtown High 's Fall Formal , Harry Osborn arrives with his date Glory and some football players , along with their dates , in a stretch limousine . When his friend , Gwen Stacy , tries to greet him , he ignores her and goes on his way . Soon , Peter Parker arrives and stuns everyone with his attractive date , Mary Jane Watson , whom he introduces to the group . Flash Thompson tries to ruin the date by mentioning a bet he and Peter had . Mary Jane is unscathed by the idea of the bet and goes to dance . Harry goes to get drinks and overhears Glory getting back together with her ex @-@ boyfriend . He is furious and goes to his locker where he drinks a vial of green formula .
Meanwhile , a mysterious , Halloween themed green and purple costumed , and psychotic supervillain named Green Goblin breaks into an Oscorp laboratory late at night and steals several pieces of equipment , including a glider . With the equipment , Goblin flies off and attacks a group of thieves who are working for the crime lord the " Big Man . " He uses some stolen money as incentive for them if they work for him and they accept . Now armed with personal terrorists , he crashes and holds up a black tie dinner party orchestrated by the " Big Man " in his alter ego as philanthropist L. Thompson Lincoln . Lincoln is unimpressed and sics his guards on the Goblin and his terrorists , but they are defeated easily . Air Force Colonel John Jameson tries to fight them , too , but is also taken down .
Peter is contacted by the Daily Bugle to go take photographs of the hold @-@ up at the party and is forced to leave Mary Jane , who understands as it is his job . Peter arrives at party as Spider @-@ Man , where he is greeted by Lincoln . At first , Spider @-@ Man thinks Goblin is simply working for the " Big Man " but is confirmed otherwise . Goblin briefly tries to convince Spider @-@ Man to join him but is turned down so the green goblin makes it his mission to kill spidey. so the two proceed to fight . Spider @-@ Man shoots a web at the Goblin 's glider and immediately defenestrated . His web fluid is out but he refuels and is pursued through the streets by Green Goblin . He finally defeats Goblin , wrapping him in webbing . The Goblin explains that a pumpkin bomb was hidden back at the black @-@ tie event . When Spider @-@ Man returns to find it , John Jameson opts that the pumpkin bomb is hidden in the chandelier and Spider @-@ Man retrieves it . He launches the bomb into the sky and it harmlessly explodes . However , when Spider @-@ Man goes back to arrest the Green Goblin , he has mysteriously disappeared .
Back at the dance , Harry 's group are outside and take the assumption that they have been abandoned by Harry because he has not showed up . In actuality , Harry is hiding at the wall near them and takes another drink of the vial of formula before walking off . Soon after , Peter returns to find the dance almost abandoned except for Mary Jane , who is dancing with another boy . Downtrodden , he is reassured when Mary Jane walks up to him and tells him that she saved the last dance for him .
= = Production = =
" Catalyst " was written by Andrew Robinson and directed by Victor Cook , a producer and developer of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man . It originally aired on the Kids WB ! block for The CW on April 26 , 2008 , at 10 : 00 a.m. Eastern / Pacific time , with a parental guidance rating of TV @-@ Y7 @-@ FV . It was preceded by repeats of the episodes " Natural Selection " and " Competition , " and was the first new episode of the series to air after a two @-@ week hiatus following the episode " The Invisible Hand . " The episode 's title , " Catalysts , " expands the series theme " The Education of Peter Parker " chosen by developer Greg Weisman . Episodes in the third season one arc all shared a naming scheme based on chemistry .
Green Goblin 's costume was mainly designed after his original comic book appearance . The basic structure was based on initial designs drawn by Alex Ross for the Goblin as he appeared in the 2002 film Spider @-@ Man , which was never used . Alterations were made to make it resemble Medieval clothing . The suit displays the color green , which , in Cook 's broad color scheme for the series , is used to symbolize negative situations in Peter 's life , while positive settings and occurrences , such as Peter 's biology class , feature other key colors like yellow .
Green Goblin was voiced by Steve Blum . Blum has starred in several different video games and animated series as a voice actor and , at the time of the episode 's broadcast , had been about to star as the titular character of the then @-@ forthcoming animated series Wolverine and the X @-@ Men on Nicktoons Network .
Mary Jane was voiced by Vanessa Marshall . Marshall has voice acted on several animated series and video games , as well as starring in commercials and other on @-@ screen roles and performing stand @-@ up comedy . Marshall was filming a Honda commercial when her agent , Cathey Lizzio , called her to confirm that she had landed the role as Mary Jane , simply saying , " Hello , is this Mary Jane ? " Overjoyed , Marshall dropped to her knees and began hyperventilating , which worried the producers of the commercial . Marshall 's mother had voiced Spider @-@ Woman in the original 1980s Spider @-@ Man animated series , though Marshall 's interest in Spider @-@ Man had dated back to reading the comic books in her youth . On her character , Marshall noted that she is " incredibly complex : "
" Her strength plays a major part in Peter ’ s growth and maturation – she really keeps him on the straight and narrow . Even though our characters are still only in high school during this cartoon , and you ’ re not going to get a lot of that character development at this point of the series , I know it ’ s going to be there in the future and so that has an effect on how I play her now . "
" Catalysts " became available on the DVD The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , Volume 3 , on March 17 , 2009 , alongside the episodes " Reaction " and " The Uncertainty Principle . " The volume featured episodes that detailed Green Goblin as a prominent character . It became available on the full season DVD box set entitled The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man : The Complete First Season DVD Review , which featured every other episode of season one for the series .
= = Reception = =
In its initial broadcast , " Catalysts " was met with season @-@ high Nielsen ratings , meeting well with all demographics and ranking as one of the highest rated children 's telecast for any network that morning .
The episode received generally positive reception from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN , gave it an 8 @.@ 0 ( " Impressive " ) , writing that " [ w ] hile not among the very best episodes , this was still another fun and involving installment of the show . " Goldman gave a mixed response about Green Goblin — noting that he is " perhaps a bit hyper sensitive on how he 's portrayed " — considering the design , while similar to the comics , be more of an exact version of it ; Goldman considered the character 's personality was " a bit too evocative of the Joker , " the iconic villain from DC 's Batman comics , but believed that his " malice side " worked . On the topic of Mary Jane , Goldman praised her for being " much like Stan Lee created her – a quick witted , fun loving girl . " He also applauded the mysterious factors of Green Goblin 's true identity .
Sean Elliot , editor for iF magazine , gave the episode an " A. " He wrote in his review that Goblin was " [ t ] rue to his early years in the comic books " and was " handled with superb finesse " . Elliot noted that the storyline with Peter and Mary @-@ Jane going to the Fall Formal together made him nostalgic of the old comic books that had the pair involved , whereas current publications do not . Similar to Goldman , Elliot applauded the mystery of Goblin 's true identity , which he described as a " bait and switch . "
Writing for DVD Talk , Justin Felix wrote that " Catalyst " was a " fun episode - although the teen histrionics at the school dance are a bit much . " Ultimate Disney reviewer Luke Bonanno did not include the episode among his top five episodes of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man 's first season , but " feel [ s ] obligated to point out that the uniform excellence of the lot [ makes ] this a challenging task . "
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= Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollar =
The Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollar or Huguenot @-@ Walloon Tercentenary half dollar is a commemorative coin issued by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1924 . It marks the 300th anniversary of the voyage of the Nieuw Nederland which landed in the New York area in 1624 . Many of the passengers were Huguenots who had lived in what is now Belgium , where they were known as Walloons ; they became early settlers of New York State and the surrounding area .
A commission run by the Federal Council of Churches in America sought issuance of a half dollar to mark the anniversary , and the bill passed through Congress without opposition in 1923 and was signed by President Warren G. Harding . Sketches were prepared by commission chairman Rev. John Baer Stoudt and converted to plaster models by the Mint 's aging chief engraver , George T. Morgan . The models were initially rejected by the Commission of Fine Arts , which required revisions under the supervision of Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser .
Of the 300 @,@ 000 coins authorized by Congress , fewer than half were actually struck , and of these , 55 @,@ 000 were returned to the Mint and released into circulation . The coin excited some controversy because of its sponsorship by a religious group . The choice of William the Silent and Gaspard de Coligny to appear on the obverse was also questioned as the men are considered martyrs by the Huguenots and died decades before the voyage of the Nieuw Nederlandt . The coins are currently valued in the hundreds of dollars , depending on condition .
= = Background = =
The Huguenots were French Protestants , who were often in conflict with the Catholic majority . Many Huguenots fled France in the 16th and 17th centuries , when there was intense persecution of them , most notably in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre of 1572 . Among those who fell in the rioting that day was the Huguenot military and political leader , Admiral Gaspard de Coligny .
Many Huguenots who fled France settled in what is today Belgium and have become known as Walloons . Others came to live in the Netherlands . William the Silent , the Prince of Orange was one of the leaders of the Dutch War of Independence against Spain . He was assassinated in 1584 by Balthasar Gérard , a pro @-@ Spanish extremist . Some Huguenots went elsewhere : on March 29 , 1624 , the ship Nieuw Nederlandt set out for New Netherland , the Dutch possessions centered on what is now the state of New York ; more ships followed . These were many of the early settlers of the area . In 1626 , Peter Minuit , the Director General for the Dutch West India Company , famously purchased the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans for goods worth some 60 guilders , often rendered as $ 24 .
The Huguenot @-@ Walloon New Netherland Commission was established in 1922 under the auspices of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America in anticipation of the upcoming anniversary . President Warren G. Harding was the honorary president of the commission , and Belgium 's King Albert I accepted an honorary chairmanship . The commission , led by its chairman , Rev. Dr. John Baer Stoudt , planned an observance for the 300th anniversary of the Nieuw Nederlandt voyage , and sought the issuance of commemorative stamps and coins . At the time , commemorative coins were not sold by the government — Congress , in authorizing legislation , designated an organization which had the exclusive right to purchase the coins at face value and vend them to the public at a premium .
= = Legislation = =
A bill for a Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollar was introduced in the House of Representatives on January 15 , 1923 by Pennsylvania Congressman Fred Gernerd , who was of Huguenot descent . It received a hearing before the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures on February 7 , with Indiana Representative Albert Vestal , a Republican , presiding . Congressman Gernerd , of Huguenot descent , told the committee that there were plans to have local celebrations in 1924 to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Huguenot voyage in cities where people of that heritage lived . Gernerd stated that while the sale of half dollars would raise money towards the observance , it was not intended as a serious fundraiser , but as a symbol of the occasion . He reminded the committee that the 300th anniversary of the voyage of the Mayflower had seen a half dollar issued .
Vestal stated that he could not support the bill as introduced because it did not designate who should order the coins , but Gernerd indicated that the Fifth National Bank of New York had agreed to act in that capacity . Stoudt appeared before the committee , explaining that his commission planned a design with the arrival of the New Netherlandt for one side , and for the other , Peter Minuit purchasing Manhattan from the Native Americans . New Jersey Congressman Ernest R. Ackerman briefly addressed the committee in support , noting that the coins would likely be retained as souvenirs , to the profit of the government . West Virginia 's Wells Goodykoontz also spoke in favor . The witnesses , all urging passage of the bill , concluded with a number of local pastors , led by E.O. Watson , secretary of the Federal Council of Churches . On February 10 , 1923 , Vestal issued a report recommending that the bill pass with an amendment adding the bank as the ordering organization .
A parallel bill was introduced into the Senate by Pennsylvania 's David A. Reed on January 29 , 1923 and was referred to the Committee on Banking and Currency . It was reported favorably on February 9 by Pennsylvania 's George Pepper , and the Senate passed the bill without objection . The Senate @-@ passed bill was received by the House the following day and was referred to Vestal 's committee . On February 19 , the House considered its bill on the unanimous consent calendar . Gernerd asked that the Senate @-@ passed bill be substituted for the House bill ( the two were identical ) and when this was agreed , proffered an amendment to add the bank as the depository for the coins . Texas Congressman Thomas L. Blanton asked several questions about the bank 's interest , but subsided once he was told that it would receive no compensation and that President Harding was connected with the commission . The amended bill passed the House without objection . The following day , the Senate agreed to the House amendment , and the bill was enacted by Harding 's signature on February 26 , 1923 . The act provided for a maximum of 300 @,@ 000 half dollars .
= = Preparation = =
Stoudt supplied the concept for the coins , as well as sketches . Rather than seeking a private designer to produce plaster models , the Huguenot @-@ Walloon commission approached the Mint 's chief engraver , George T. Morgan , who turned 78 in 1923 . Morgan , best remembered for his 1878 design for the Morgan dollar , had been chief engraver since 1917 , following forty years as an assistant , mostly under Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber . Both Barber and Morgan felt that coins should be designed by the Mint 's engravers , and were sometimes hostile when private sculptors were engaged to do the work .
Morgan 's models were transmitted on October 26 , 1923 , to the Commission of Fine Arts , charged with rendering advisory opinions on coins by a 1921 executive order by President Harding . Morgan 's work was examined by sculptor member James Earle Fraser , designer of the Buffalo nickel . On November 19 , committee chairman Charles Moore wrote to Mint Director Robert J. Grant , " while the ideas intended to be expressed are excellent , the execution is bad . The lettering is poor , the heads are not well modeled and the ship is ill designed . The workmanship is below the standard of excellence attained in previous coins . The models are therefore not approved . "
After discussion , it was decided to allow Morgan to revise his model under Fraser 's supervision . Numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen noted , " [ This ] must have been doubly and trebly humiliating in that Fraser 's initial was then adorning the current 5 ¢ nickel , while neither Barber 's nor Morgan 's was on any regular issue coinage then in production " . On January 3 , 1924 , Fraser wrote to Moore that the new models had been considerably improved , and complained that Vestal had advised the Huguenot @-@ Walloon commission to have the models made at the Mint as he had been told by its officials that private artists made models in a relief too high to be easily coined . " It seems to me perfectly disgusting that this inane and lying criticism should go on constantly " . The Fine Arts Commission approved the revised designs .
= = Design = =
The obverse features jugate busts of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny ( 1519 – 1572 ) and William the Silent , the Prince of Orange ( 1533 – 1584 ) . Neither had any direct involvement with the voyage of the Nieuw Nederlandt , having been killed forty years or longer before it . Both were Protestant leaders of the Reformation , and according to Swiatek , " their relationship with the 1624 founding was strictly spiritual in nature , " as the two are considered martyrs by Huguenots . The 1924 Report of the Director of the Mint explained that both were " leaders in the strife for civil and religious liberty " . Slabaugh , noting that the coin caused some controversy after it was issued , suggested that if the obverse had shown someone connected with the settlement of New Netherland , " chances are that the coin would have borne no religious significance and its promotion by the Churches of Christ in America would have been given little notice " .
The March 29 , 1924 edition of the Jesuit journal America contained an article by F.J. Zwierlein , who stated that the new coin " is more Protestant than the descriptions in the newspaper dispatches led us to believe " . He asserted that the two men featured on the coin were not killed for their religion and were anti @-@ Catholic : " the United States Government was duped into issuing this Huguenot half @-@ dollar so as to make a Protestant demonstration out of the tercentenary of the colonization of the State of New York " . The president of the Huguenot Society of North Carolina responded in a letter to the editor of The New York Times , " that Coligny and William the Silent were ' martyrs in the fight for religious liberty ' let the truth of history attest " .
The men have their names below the busts on the obverse , and wear hats of their period . They gaze toward the legend IN GOD WE TRUST , the only one of the national mottos usually present on U.S. coins to appear . The name of the country arcs above their heads , while HUGUENOT HALF DOLLAR is below them . Morgan 's initial " M " is on Coligny 's shoulder . The reverse depicts the ship Nieuw Nederlandt and the words , HUGUENOT – WALLOON – TERCENTENARY – FOUNDING OF NEW NETHERLAND with the years 1624 and 1924 to either side of the ship . Stoudt 's sketch for the reverse was also used on the one cent denomination of the stamp set issued in conjunction with the tercentenary .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule noted that the half dollar was probably one of Morgan 's last works ( he died in January 1925 ) and that the coin " is a worthy conclusion to Morgan 's long career of distinguished and rich production , marked by imagination within the conservative framework and by a generally high level of appeal " . Vermeule stated that the Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollar showed " that the die @-@ engravers trained in and around the Mint did have the ability to combine clear @-@ cut designs with considerable detail . "
= = Production , distribution and collecting = =
A total of 142 @,@ 080 Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint in February and April 1924 , with 80 of those pieces retained for inspection and testing by the 1925 Assay Commission . The Huguenot @-@ Walloon commission , to boost sales , engaged as distributor the man they considered to be the most prominent numismatist in the country , Moritz Wormser , president of the American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) . Wormser 's involvement , and the fact that Stoudt was an ANA member , led numismatist John F. Jones to deem this issue " the first instance we believe , where the coin fraternity has been consulted in the issue of a commemorative half dollar " .
The coins were sold to the public for $ 1 each through the Fifth National Bank and other outlets . Bulk sales were made to certain groups . The coins did not sell as well as expected , and 55 @,@ 000 were returned , after which they were placed in circulation . Relatively few are known in worn condition , causing author and coin dealer Q. David Bowers to conclude the public picked them out of pocket change . Money from the Huguenot @-@ Walloon half dollar was used towards a celebration in New York in May 1924 , during which the National Huguenot Memorial Church on Staten Island was dedicated . There was some debate in the pages of The Numismatist , the ANA 's journal , both as to whether William and Coligny should have appeared on the coin since they had nothing to do with the voyage , and whether the Churches of Christ should be allowed to sponsor a coin in view of the First Amendment 's prohibition of an establishment of religion . There was controversy in the press , which criticized the inclusion of William and Coligny as irrelevant to the commemoration and as religious propaganda . This in 1925 made politically infeasible the attempts of Minnesota Representative Ole Juulson Kvale , a Lutheran pastor , to obtain a coin for the Norse @-@ American Centennial ; he instead settled for a congressionally authorized medal .
Arlie R. Slabaugh , in his 1975 volume on commemoratives , noted that a uniface die trial of the reverse in brass was made . Swiatek in 2012 stated that both obverse and reverse die trials are known . The edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins published in 2015 lists the half dollar at between $ 130 and $ 650 depending on condition ; a near @-@ pristine specimen sold for $ 2 @,@ 115 in 2014 .
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= Benefits Street =
Benefits Street is a British documentary series broadcast on Channel 4 . It was first aired on 6 January 2014 , and ran for five episodes . The show was filmed by documenting the lives of several residents of James Turner Street , Winson Green , Birmingham , England , where newspapers including the Daily Mail and The Guardian reported that 90 % of the residents claim benefits . It shows benefits claimants committing crimes , including a demonstration of how to shoplift , and portrays a situation in which people are dependent on welfare payments and lack the motivation to seek employment .
The show was controversial , with the police , Channel 4 and the media regulator Ofcom receiving hundreds of complaints . There were Twitter death threats made against the residents of the street . Channel 4 was accused of making poverty porn . Many of those taking part claimed that they were misled by the documentary makers . Ofcom launched an investigation into whether the programme had breached the broadcasting regulations , but ultimately concluded its rules had not been broken .
The producers of Benefits Street defended the series , arguing that the reaction to it demonstrated the importance of making such a documentary . The series was mentioned in the House of Commons , and prompted some political debate on the topic of welfare . A number of programmes were commissioned by other channels covering the same topic , while Channel 4 commissioned a follow up series provisionally titled Immigration Street that would follow the lives of immigrants living in the United Kingdom . Benefits Street gave Channel 4 their highest viewing figures for any show since 2012 . In August 2014 , Love Productions confirmed the second series of Benefits Street was being filmed in Kingston Road , Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees .
= = Background = =
In 2012 , Love Productions approached the BBC with the idea for a programme that would feature a prominent member of the business community working with unemployed people , but the show did not come to fruition after the unnamed individual had to withdraw from it because of other commitments . The format for the series that would later become Benefits Street was then suggested , but the BBC declined to commission the series because it was producing a number of other programmes concerning similar issues , such as People Like Us and Nick and Margaret : We All Pay Your Benefits . Love Productions then suggested the format to Channel 4 , who agreed to commission the programme .
Writing in The Observer in January 2014 , Nick Mirsky , head of documentaries at Channel 4 , said that Love Productions intentionally selected an area where a high proportion of the residents were in receipt of welfare payments " to show the effect of benefit cuts on a community for whom they were the principal source of income " . The filming and production process took eighteen months . Both Mirsky , and Ralph Lee , Channel 4 's head of factual programming , said the residents of James Turner Street were consulted about the series before filming began . Cameras observed them over the course of a twelve @-@ month period . The decision to call the series Benefits Street was taken two weeks before the programme aired . The comedian Frank Skinner , who is from the West Midlands , was approached to narrate the documentary but turned it down because he had concerns about how people from Birmingham would be portrayed , and did not wish to criticise the city . The voice @-@ over was provided by former Coronation Street actor Tony Hirst instead .
The first episode of Benefits Street was aired at 9 : 00 pm on Monday 6 January 2014 , and ran for five episodes . A live one @-@ hour debate to discuss issues raised by the series was then scheduled to air after the final episode , Channel 4 announcing plans for this a few days after the second episode had been transmitted . During the week following the broadcasting of the third episode , West Midlands Police charged several James Turner Street residents with drugs @-@ related offences in connection with a raid their officers had carried out in June 2013 . Those facing charges included some people seen in episodes of the series . Channel 4 said they had no plans to alter any footage from the episodes yet to be transmitted .
On 23 January , the Birmingham Mail reported that items of Benefits Street branded merchandise , such as mugs and T @-@ shirts , were being produced for sale over the internet by individuals wishing to cash in on the programme .
= = = James Turner Street = = =
James Turner Street is a residential street of Victorian terraced houses in the Winson Green area of Birmingham . The street is in the city 's Soho Ward , part of the Ladywood constituency , and has a B18 postcode .
It is first recorded in local records as Osborne Street in 1877 , and given its present name in 1882 . According to education historian Alison Wheatley , the street is possibly named after a James Turner who taught at King Edward 's School in Birmingham , and the name may have been suggested by a former pupil , who became a town planner , as a way of honouring Turner 's legacy . However , the Birmingham historian Carl Chinn believes the street was named for a local businessman and partner in the firm Hammond , Turner & Sons , a manufacturer of buttons .
Of Winson Green , Chinn writes that it was originally developed as a " better @-@ off working class district " , but that by the latter part of the 20th century many of the properties in the area were falling into decay . Dr Chris Upton , reader in public history at the city 's Newman University , has described the street as part of a " ribbon development " of suburban districts built as Birmingham expanded during the latter part of the 19th century . While many of the street 's original residents were locals who moved from the inner city back @-@ to @-@ back houses , some had moved from as far away as London and Cornwall to work in Birmingham . Upton describes them as " the respectable working class " — skilled workers who earned around 30 shillings ( £ 1 @.@ 50 ) per week , and who in many cases could even afford to employ a maid . Those who grew prosperous moved to wealthier areas , and were replaced by immigrants from Asia and the West Indies , who came to the UK during the years after World War II . A high proportion of those who lived in the area were employed by Birmingham 's industrial economy , which enjoyed prosperity until the collapse of the city 's manufacturing industry during the early 1980s , resulting in mass unemployment . Professor Steven McCabe of Birmingham City Business School has noted that Birmingham lost 200 @,@ 000 manufacturing jobs between 1971 and 1981 , and that the city 's GDP per capita , which in 1976 was the highest for a UK city outside the south east region , had fallen to become the lowest in England seven years later .
During the 1980s , unemployment in Birmingham reached 20 % , and McCabe says that in many areas , including James Turner Street , this figure has not reduced since that decade . Clare Short , who grew up in the area and represented Winson Green as Member of Parliament for Ladywood for 27 years , has said that along with high unemployment came a " new culture of drugs , crime and mental health problems . " On their website , Channel 4 have described James Turner Street as " one of Britain 's most benefits @-@ dependent streets " . Sources such as the Daily Mail and The Guardian reported in January 2014 that 90 % of the street 's residents are benefits claimants .
= = Synopsis = =
Narrated by Tony Hirst , the series is presented in a fly on the wall documentary format that follows a year in the lives of the residents of James Turner Street , a road in the Winson Green area of Birmingham which Channel 4 describes as " one of Britain 's most benefit @-@ dependent streets " . The programme portrays a situation in which people are dependent on welfare payments , and often lack the motivation to find employment . Some residents are seen committing crimes such as shoplifting , and attempting to raise money to support themselves and their families . Others are shown to have more ambition , such as a young mother who wants to become a model . The series also aims to show the street 's sense of community spirit , with residents helping each other in times of difficulty .
= = Episode list = =
= = = Follow up programmes = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Political and media response = = =
The programme led to some political debate on the issue of welfare . Speaking in the House of Commons on 13 January , Iain Duncan Smith , the Conservative Secretary of State for Work and Pensions , suggested the programme justified the changes being made by the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition government 's Welfare Reform Act . The following week , Duncan Smith gave a speech to mark the tenth anniversary of his Centre for Social Justice in which he said that areas of the country were being ghettoised by long @-@ term unemployment and had remained largely hidden from the rest of society . Conservative MP Simon Hart raised the subject of Benefits Street at Prime Minister 's Questions on 15 January , saying that a street of the type seen in the series existed " in every constituency in the land " . Prime Minister and Conservative leader David Cameron responded that the government should " intervene in people 's lives " to get them off benefits and into employment . After declining an invitation to visit James Turner Street , Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg , leader of the Liberal Democrats , said that he believed both left- and right @-@ wing arguments on welfare were wrong . " We want a welfare system which is compassionate . " Shortly after Clegg 's comments , Birmingham councillor Desmond Jaddoo told the Birmingham Mail that he had compiled letters to Clegg , Cameron and Labour leader Ed Miliband on behalf of some James Turner Street residents inviting them to visit the street and asking for help to find employment .
Writing for the Wiltshire Gazette and Herald , the Liberal Democrat MP Duncan Hames argued that the programme would contribute little to the subject : " We do need to have a rational , informed debate about how to improve our welfare system , but the editorial line taken by supposedly factual ‘ reality TV ’ adds very little to that . " The programme was condemned by the current Ladywood MP , Labour 's Shabana Mahmood : " I found it shocking that Channel 4 or any other organisation would present poverty as entertainment . It was profoundly wrong . " In the Radio Times , Clare Short , who represented the constituency prior to Mahmood , said the series was " totally unrepresentative " of the area , and condemned it as " crummy and misleading " . Others have also criticised Benefits Street , arguing it does not present a balanced view of the subject . Labour MP Anne Begg , chair of the Commons Work and Pensions Select Committee , said that the programme was a " misrepresentation " of people claiming benefits , arguing that it focused on those claiming unemployment benefits which makes up a small proportion of the overall welfare bill . Referring to the first episode that featured a shoplifter , Chris Williamson ( also a Labour MP ) said it was " irresponsible " to portray him as a typical benefits claimant . Owen Jones , a columnist for The Independent , described the series as " medieval stocks updated for a modern format " . In an article for the Birmingham Mail , writer and television personality Samantha Brick , a native of Birmingham , said that the series was an " atrociously unbalanced " view of the city . Shadow Welfare Minister Chris Bryant claimed that the residents of The Bishop 's Avenue in Hampstead — known as Billionaire 's Row because of its expensive properties — were as likely to have drink and drugs problems as the residents of James Turner Street .
Fraser Nelson , editor of The Spectator , suggested the programme had highlighted a section of society who have been forgotten by the politicians : " These people are people who otherwise don ’ t have a voice . They don ’ t vote , so for many years they have just not mattered " . Nelson 's comments were echoed by Dominic Sandbrook in the Daily Mail , who felt the programme portrayed its participants sympathetically : " The real scandal of Benefits Street , in fact , is what it tells us about a welfare system that abandons thousands of people – through no fault of their own – to a life without hope or ambition , effectively turning them into an underclass , dependent on the charity of the State . " Charlie Brooker also felt the programme had been " broadly sympathetic " to those it portrays . In the Daily Mirror , entrepreneur John Bird , founder of The Big Issue , wrote that although Benefits Street did not fully represent the spectrum of people who claim benefits , it did show what could happen to those forgotten by the system " who get caught in a kind of social suicide " .
= = = = Benefits Britain : The Debate = = = =
A live one @-@ hour debate was scheduled to be broadcast by Channel 4 following the final episode of Benefits Street . Channel 4 announced on 16 January that this would be chaired by presenter Richard Bacon and feature a panel of guests who " represent the views across the political spectrum – and crucially those who claim benefits " . Mentorn Media , producers of programmes such as BBC One 's Question Time , was commissioned to produce the show . Originally scheduled for 10 February , the programme , titled Benefits Britain : The Debate , was subsequently moved back a week to 17 February after rival broadcaster Channel 5 announced plans for a two @-@ hour debate about immigration for the same evening . Channel 4 said Benefits Britain : The Debate would be immediately preceded by a follow @-@ up documentary , Benefits Street : The Last Word . The change was announced after many listings magazines had gone to press , a practice generally discouraged in the media industry .
Panelists for the programme were announced shortly before it aired , and included some Benefits Street participants , as well as Mike Penning , a minister from the Department of Work and Pensions , Chris Bryant from the opposition , Daily Telegraph columnist Allison Pearson , political editor of The Huffington Post Mehdi Hasan , and John Bird . Owen Jones , who also participated in the programme , described it as " a rowdy , chaotic show , based on the formula of " who shouts loudest " . " This view was echoed by Neil Midgley of The Telegraph , who felt that both follow @-@ up programmes " didn 't live up to [ the ] standards " of the series , and that the debate had " sparked a lot of shouting and tumult , but very little new wisdom " . The Independent 's Daisy Wyatt said the programme had " proved as rambling and unfocused as the documentary that sparked the hour @-@ long studio show , with ' neutral ' host Richard Bacon veering across topics and adding his own opinions Jeremy Kyle @-@ style . " Zoe Wllliams of The Guardian found the debate " unsatisfactory " , feeling the topics discussed were too broad , and that Bacon was not an effective chair . However , Roz Laws of the Birmingham Mail described the debate as " articulate " and felt that " interesting points were made , such as the fact that most people on benefits are pensioners yet we didn 't see any of them on Benefits Street . " The debate was watched by an average audience of 3 @.@ 2 million .
= = = = The Big Benefits Row : Live = = = =
Channel 5 aired The Big Benefits Row : Live , their own unconnected debate about the welfare state , on 3 February . Presented by Matthew Wright , the show featured a panel of guests made up of Conservative MP Edwina Currie , reality television star Katie Hopkins , former London Mayor Ken Livingstone , broadcaster Terry Christian , former model Annabel Giles , and two people associated with James Turner Street — charity campaigner Rev. Steve Chalke and Dierdre Kelly , known in the series as White Dee . The programme was watched by 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . The Daily Express described it as a " heated debate " in which Hopkins was heavily critical of Kelly for claiming welfare , and of Giles 's modelling career . The Independent 's Jess Denham felt that Hopkins 's " larger @-@ than @-@ life personality " had dominated proceedings , while " fact @-@ based arguments were lost to the non @-@ stop barrage of immature tempers " . The Daily Mirror described it as " a mess of a programme and a joke of a discussion " .
= = = Public reception = = =
= = = = Complaints to Ofcom = = = =
The first episode of the series attracted several hundred complaints both to Channel 4 and the media regulator Ofcom from viewers over a variety of issues . According to The Guardian , complaints were received about alleged criminal activities , foul language and misleading portrayals of welfare claimants . By 8 January 2014 , two days after the series debuted , Benefits Street had attracted 300 complaints to Ofcom and 400 to Channel 4 . Three weeks later that figure had collectively increased to 1 @,@ 700 . Ofcom said that it would assess the viewer feedback before deciding whether to launch an investigation . After generating a total of 960 complaints to Ofcom and 800 to Channel 4 , the broadcasting watchdog announced on 25 February that it would investigate the programme , an inquiry described by The Guardian as " Ofcom 's most high @-@ profile investigation into a TV programme since it cleared Channel 4 of unfair racial stereotyping in Big Fat Gypsy Weddings " .
Ofcom published its findings on 30 June , and concluded that Channel 4 had not breached broadcasting regulations . The watchdog looked at a number of issues raised by viewers , including concerns that rules governing child welfare had been broken , and that the programme featured " certain criminal techniques " . However , Ofcom concluded that Benefits Street had reflected the real lives of the children taking part , and Channel 4 had taken care to limit the amount of time they were seen on screen . Of the concerns about criminal activity , the watchdog said it was " satisfied that certain essential details were not broadcast which may have enabled the successful commission of a crime , and that there was a sufficient editorial justification for including the material broadcast . " The regulator also concluded that the programme had been fair in its portrayal of its participants because it was an observational documentary , and that almost 900 complaints about the " negative and offensive portrayal " needed no further investigation .
= = = = Other public responses = = = =
Following the first episode of Benefits Street , West Midlands Police said they had received a number of complaints from members of the public about alleged criminal activities that had been filmed , which they were considering whether to investigate . Alleged death threats by Twitter users against the residents were also being probed . Channel 4 said they would not provide investigators with any unbroadcast material from Benefits Street unless issued with a court order to do so .
The Birmingham Mail reported on 9 January that the programme had attracted an influx of tourists to the street , who wished to have their picture taken by the James Turner Street road sign . Police advised visitors to stay away . Steve Chalke , founder of the Oasis Academy Foundry , a charity that runs a primary school in James Turner Street , subsequently said that visitors had disrupted activity at the school and that he was preparing a complaint for Ofcom . Shortly afterwards , he submitted a letter to the watchdog alleging that children had been subject to public harassment because of the programme , and that Ofcom 's rules regarding the welfare of those under the age of majority had been breached . On 13 February , newspapers , including the Daily Mirror and Daily Star , reported the theft of the James Turner Street road sign from outside the school .
An online petition calling for Channel 4 to cancel the remaining episodes was launched , attracting 3 @,@ 000 signatures by 8 January . A total of 60 @,@ 000 people had signed it by the time the series ended on 10 February . The trade union Unite organised a protest at the offices of Love Productions on the afternoon of 13 January . A group of 30 people attended .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Several James Turner Street residents have claimed they were tricked into appearing in the series by Love Productions , who they say told them it would be about community spirit . One resident told the Birmingham Mail , " They told me it was about living as a community and how we all got along . But the actual programme doesn 't show any of that . If they had said it was about benefits and making the street look bad I would not have taken part . They tricked us . " Responding to allegations the residents were duped , Nick Mirsky said that Love Productions had spent much time consulting the residents before filming began , and that process continued afterwards : " Key contributors have been offered viewings of the programmes during the editing period and were given the opportunity to comment on them . Both Love and Channel 4 listened to any concerns raised , and in some cases made changes to the programme to accommodate them . " Dierdre Kelly , however , subsequently told ITV 's This Morning that she believed the programme had provided a one @-@ sided view of her community , and that the residents " went into the show naively " . Gareth Price of The Guardian suggested the show 's producers " adeptly edited their film in order to provoke a response from its intended audience " .
Sources including The Independent and Broadcast reported that several commentators had accused Channel 4 of making " poverty porn " . In response , Ralph Lee refuted those accusations during a debate on the 9 January edition of BBC Two 's Newsnight programme : " It ’ s inaccurate and it ’ s patronising towards the people that take part in these programmes and open up their lives , and it ’ s quite offensive to the people who make them . " Mirsky claimed the reaction to Benefits Street demonstrated how it had " touched a nerve " and subsequently proved it was " essential " the series was made . The boss of Love Productions , Richard McKerrow , also defended the series , saying it was not about " demonising the poor ... It ’ s a very honest and true portrayal of life in Britain and people are frightened of it . " Writing as the series concluded , The Daily Telegraph 's Neil Midgley felt that Benefits Street had not exploited its participants , and was " definitely the kind of series that Channel 4 should be making : easy to grasp and innovative , and yet a blinding revelation of some ills that are at the heart of modern Britain . " Midgley 's view was echoed by Jay Hunt , Channel 4 's chief creative officer , who described the series as " a perfect Channel 4 show [ because ] It engaged a huge audience and got millions of people thinking about the welfare state and people at the bottom of society . "
Emma Johnson , the head teacher of the Oasis school , organised a public meeting on the evening of 15 January to discuss issues raised by the programme . The event was attended by around 100 residents from the area . BBC journalist David Lumb said reporters were not allowed to take pictures , and those present felt the occasion was " an opportunity to preach a political agenda " . The meeting was told that an employed couple who were filmed for the series were dropped from the final version . Love Productions said this was because the show was about people on benefits , and one of the unnamed pair was a benefits officer .
After the third episode was televised on 20 January , the Daily Mail reported that community leaders and residents had accused Channel 4 of exploiting children , claiming it had led to the children featured in the documentary becoming targets for bullying . In response , a Channel 4 spokeswoman said that consent from parents and guardians , and the children themselves was obtained before filming began " in accordance with the relevant sections of the Ofcom broadcasting code . Any children without consent have been blurred in programmes . "
The Birmingham Mail reported on 10 February that figures released to the newspaper by Birmingham City Council 's fraud investigation service indicated instances of benefit fraud in the city were lower than had been suggested by the documentary , with 851 prosecutions in the five years preceding 2014 , an average of 0 @.@ 5 % of total benefit claimants . Furthermore , of the 152 @,@ 000 housing benefit claimants in Birmingham , 178 were prosecuted for fraudulent claims in 2013 .
= = = Viewership = = =
Overnight figures indicated the show 's first episode attracted 4 @.@ 3 million viewers and a 17 @.@ 7 % share of viewing , more than any Channel 4 show in the whole of 2013 . The second instalment , aired on 13 January , saw an increase of almost a million viewers to 5 @.@ 1 million , a 20 @.@ 8 % share of the audience and beating ITV 's The Bletchley Circle and an edition of Panorama on BBC One and its own former show Celebrity Big Brother ( now on Channel 5 ) which aired in the same time slot . The third episode drew 5 @.@ 2 million viewers giving it a 21 @.@ 2 % share of the audience , making it the most popular programme in the 9 : 00 pm time slot for the second week in a row , and giving Channel 4 their highest ratings since their coverage of the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in September 2012 . The fourth episode attracted fewer viewers , however , with an average of 4 @.@ 1 million , and was behind the first part of Jeremy Paxman 's World War I documentary series Britain 's Great War , which aired on BBC One and had an average viewership of 4 @.@ 23 million . The final episode drew 4 @.@ 5 million viewers , an 18 @.@ 6 % audience share , but was beaten by ITV 's DCI Banks which was watched by an average 6 million viewers .
= = Aftermath and related series = =
As the first series of Benefits Street came to a close on 10 February 2014 , Love Productions confirmed to the Birmingham Mail that it was investigating potential locations for a second series , but that this would not be filmed in Birmingham . On 11 March , the Liverpool Echo reported that a number of residents on a street in Birkenhead had been approached to appear in a second series , but did not wish to take part . Channel 4 subsequently confirmed the programme would not be filmed in Birkenhead . In April , the Teesside Evening Gazette reported similar approaches had been made to a number of people living in the Middlesbrough area , while The Northern Echo reported that " two young women , both dressed down in leggings and jumpers but with cut @-@ glass southern accents [ and describing ] themselves as TV producers " were attempting to persuade residents of a street in Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees to take part . The Evening Gazette reported on 21 May that residents in Stockton had chased and thrown eggs at researchers when they made a return visit to a street in the town . In April , The Guardian reported that Love Productions were " [ facing ] opposition from politicians and community leaders " in their attempt to secure participants for the series . In the same article , Kieran Smith , Executive Producer of Love Productions , conceded that the controversy surrounding the series had made it more difficult to find locations for future programmes , but hoped " to settle on somewhere soon " .
Speaking to BBC Radio 5 Live on 16 April , Smith confirmed plans for a follow @-@ up series provisionally titled Immigration Street that would focus on immigration issues , but said Channel 4 were yet to commission the programme . However , the Southern Daily Echo reported that some filming had already taken place in an area of Southampton , where city leaders had voiced their opposition to the series . Simon Letts of Southampton City Council expressed concerns the programme could lead to racial tension , while the area 's Member of Parliament , Alan Whitehead , suggested it " would follow a set script as opposed to accurately portraying reality " . On 11 July 2014 , Channel 4 confirmed that the series , provisionally titled Immigration Street , would be filmed in Derby Road , in the Bevois area of Southampton . After protests from local residents , the planned series was reduced to a single episode which aired on 24 February 2015 . On 26 August 2014 , Love Productions also confirmed that a second series of Benefits Street was being filmed in Kingston Road , Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees . Alex Cunningham , the Labour MP for Stockton North said he was " deeply disappointed " that the series was being filmed there .
On 12 February 2014 , Channel 5 confirmed to Broadcast magazine that it was in the process of filming a similar documentary , provisionally titled Living on the Social , in which individuals and families would discuss their lives on welfare . The Hull Daily Mail reported in March that Channel 5 were looking at Hull as a potential location for the series , but that the city council had urged residents not to participate . The Yorkshire Post reported a similar approach to residents in Bridlington in April . Love Productions also announced plans for Famous , Rich and Hungry , a two @-@ part documentary for the BBC 's Sport Relief that would see celebrities spending time with families experiencing food poverty in order to explore the issue .
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= Shin Megami Tensei : Nine =
Shin Megami Tensei : Nine ( Japanese : 真 ・ 女神転生 NINE , lit . " True Goddess Reincarnation : Nine " ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus and NexTech for the Xbox , and published by Atlus on December 5 , 2002 .
Forming part of the Megami Tensei series , Nine takes place in the period of time between Shin Megami Tensei and its sequel , with the survivors of Tokyo 's destruction sheltering in underground bunkers . Taking on the role of a debugger , the player navigates the Idea Space virtual world set up by the survivors of Tokyo 's destruction , which has come under attack by demonic beings called " noise " . The gameplay has the player navigating a customized avatar in third @-@ person through the virtual world of Tokyo , battling enemies using a real @-@ time command @-@ based battle system . The game 's title refers to the number of possible moral alignments available to players .
Shin Megami Tensei : Nine began development in 2001 , following staff discussions about how to make an online Shin Megami Tensei game . It was the first Megami Tensei title for Xbox , and the first to fully utilize 3D graphics . Established Megami Tensei staff worked on the project , such as producer Kouji Okada and demon designer Kazuma Kaneko . Newcomers to the project included character designer Yasuomi Umetsu , and composers Masaki Kurokawa and Takahiro Ogata . While Nine was originally planned as an online game , it was split into single @-@ player and online versions ; the latter was cancelled following development difficulties . The single @-@ player release met with mixed reception from critics , and sold below Atlus ' estimates ; its commercial failure coupled with development costs contributed to a financial loss . Development of the online version continued as a port for Microsoft Windows , which would eventually become Shin Megami Tensei : Imagine .
= = Gameplay = =
Shin Megami Tensei : Nine is a role @-@ playing video game primarily set in a cyberspace version of 1990s Tokyo , with players taking control of the silent main protagonist to explore various environments within Tokyo 's districts , along with switching between different districts with a dedicated fast @-@ travel menu . The player can adjust the protagonist 's name , gender , hair and skin color . Navigation through environments is presented through a third @-@ person perspective , with the player character being followed by one assigned demon . While navigating safe areas , players can enter shops to buy new equipment and items such as healing potions , and change their character 's clothing and hairstyle .
Combat is triggered through random encounters in environments such as dungeons . Combat in Nine plays out as a real @-@ time combat in an enclosed battle arena : while the battle continues automatically without direct interaction from the player , commands can be issued to party members to perform actions when their turn comes . In addition to specific commands , general offensive or defensive stances can be issued . Battles do not reward experience points as in other Megami Tensei games : instead , equipped jewels affect the protagonist 's strengths and stats . As with previous Megami Tensei games , players can negotiate with demons and get them to join their party . Demons can also be fused together to create more powerful demons . The attitudes of demons towards the player changes depending on the current moon phase . The number of demons the player can summon depends on the player 's and the demon 's " kilodevil " values : a player with 100 kilodevil can summon two 50 @-@ kilodevil demons . The player can compress their demons by visiting the Cathedral of Shadows , halving the demons ' kilodevil values and allowing the player to summon more demons .
At certain points in the game , the player also enters a " hacking " mode , which players out in a real @-@ time strategy simulation : the protagonist and their companions navigate within closed arenas along pre @-@ set pathways , knocking out nodes blocking the path , and defending against protection bots attempting to stop them . As the player progresses through the game , the character makes dialogue choices that are mapped across a three @-@ by @-@ three alignment matrix : three " down " ( Law , Neutral and Chaos ) , and three " across " ( Light , Neutral and Dark ) . The protagonist 's current alignment not only influences the story , but also the loyalty and responsiveness of demon party members .
= = Synopsis = =
Nine is set in the year " 202X " , taking place during the latter half of Shin Megami Tensei and in the time leading up to its sequel Shin Megami Tensei II . In the wake of the ICBM attack on Tokyo , communities of survivors now live in underground cities . In the face of their predicament , the underground inhabitants create " Idea Space " , a virtual world based on Tokyo from the 1990s . The protagonist , named Kei Azuma by default , is exploring the virtual world when " Noise " , digitized demons hostile to humans , appear and begin attacking Idea Space players through their avatars . After fending off an attack , Azuma is employed by the Central Administration Bureau as a Debugger , a player who traverses Idea Space and repels Noise invasions . During their missions through Idea Space , Azuma meets with multiple characters : Baraki / Sumire , a childhood friend who represents " Chaos " , Mubiora / Miranda , a representative from the Central Administration Bureau who represents " Law " . While going through their duty as a Debugger , the events of the latter half of Shin Megami Tensei take place , which culminate in all parts of Tokyo being destroyed in a Great Flood triggered by the God @-@ worshipping Order of Messiah : Azuma survives due to their body being in cold storage , meaning that their mind becomes linked to Idea Space along with their Law and Chaos allies .
During a mission into the virtual Shibuya 109 against the Noise demon Abaddon , the true origins of Idea Space are revealed . Idea Space was created by humans tired of awaiting the arrival of their " Messiah " in the real world : hoping to bring about salvation through technology , the humans created the Idea Space , and generated Maria as its goddess and administrator to further the creation of Millennial Kingdom by manipulating its users . On their mission into Shibuya 109 , Azuma retrieves a Desire Disc , an artifact containing the saved desires of humanity that is the key to both side 's plans . Azuma is faced with choices about which faction to support . The Law faction , supported by Maria , wishes to bring peace to humanity along with releasing the Idea Space 's inhabitants . The Chaos faction , which can be led by Lucifer if he is freed from his prison within a metaphysical plain called the Expanse , intends to destroy the inhabitants of Idea Space and start anew with the chosen Adam and Eve : Azuma and the Chaos companion . To fulfill any of their chosen roles , Azuma must defeat Yaldabaoth , the controller of Idea Space who is keeping the system going and will not allow either Maria or Lucifer to carry out their plans .
In both the Law and Chaos routes , with the defeat of the Yaldabaoth , the entire Idea Space is emptied of avatars besides Azuma . Upon returning to the real world , they are on the surface with either their Law or Chaos companion , with the Messian @-@ built Tokyo Millennium in the background : depending on the alignment , Azuma either goes to reinforce the Law @-@ based regime , or to begin a new Chaos @-@ based humanity outside it . In the " Neutral " routes , Azuma performs tasks for a mysterious woman minding a store in Idea Space : the woman is the goddess Sophia , who was forced to reincarnate as a human for the sin of birthing Yaldabaoth : she has been helping Azuma towards defeating Yaldabaoth to atone for her sin and ascend . Azuma defeats both Yaldabaoth and Maria , allowing Sophia to become her true self and ascend , leaving the fate of those within Idea Space ambiguous .
= = Development = =
Shin Megami Tensei : Nine was primarily developed by Atlus , the main developer for the Megami Tensei series . The game received additional development help from NexTech , a company that would later be rebranded as Nex Entertainment and work on games such as Shining Soul and Children of Mana . The game 's CGI cutscenes were developed with help from Frameworks Entertainment . Nine was produced by long @-@ time Megami Tensei producer Kouji Okada , directed by Kazunori Sakai , and written by Nobutaka Shimizu . Kazuma Kaneko , a regular designer for the series , returned to design new demons for the title . Many of them , such as the character Maria , proved challenging for him due to his past work mainly involving creating depictions of God and Lucifer as opposed to goddess @-@ like figures . He also found making them move convincingly in the new 3D environment problematic . Kaneko suggested that a new artist be brought on as a collaborator on the project , so Yasuomi Umetsu was hired to design the game 's main characters . This was part of an attempt to distinguish Nine from previous Megami Tensei games .
The concept for Nine originated during staff discussions about how Shin Megami Tensei would work as an online title . Development started at some point in 2001 , and was still in its early stages of development in October of that year . During its early stages , the game was known as Shin Megami Tensei Online . Although the team had the option of making NINE an online @-@ exclusive title , Okada wanted a single @-@ player mode to introduce players to the workings and world of the game . A part of the planned online component was teaming up with or fighting different players depending on their alignment . Nine is not the ninth game in Shin Megami Tensei series ; the title refers to the number of moral alignments that are available in the Shin Megami Tensei games . The decision to create a nine @-@ tiered alignment system was because Okada wanted to explore the original game 's moral alignments in more detail . This was also the reason why the game was set between Shin Megami Tensei and its sequel . The setting was directly based on Tokyo 's Shinjuku , Shibuya and Ikebukuro districts . The game was the first Megami Tensei title developed for the Xbox ; the first to switch over to a third @-@ person camera perspective from the first @-@ person perspectives of earlier Megami Tensei titles ; the first to feature a customizable player avatar ; and one of the first of Atlus ' titles to fully utilize 3D graphics , something previously accomplished to a lesser degree by Maken X for the Dreamcast and its PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) successor Maken Shao : Demon Sword . Okada described the development process as " challenging " , with developing the new real @-@ time battle system being a large part of that challenge . Two prevalent issues were adjusting the balance of the battle system , and incorporating the second tactical system for the hacking segments .
The game 's sound and music were handled by Takahiro Ogata , Masaki Kurokawa and Kenichi Tsuchiya : Ogata acted as sound director . To accurately create the sound of modern @-@ day Tokyo within Nine , Ogata and Kurokawa went to districts such as Kichijōji and Roppongi to make recordings of ambient sounds at different times of day . While there was a general theme for various city districts , the music subtly changed depending on the player 's overall alignment : for instance , to represent the Law and Chaos alignments in the game , piano was used for the former and guitar for the latter . Battle music also featured randomly @-@ generated soundtrack variations , with Ogata estimating somewhere over three hundred possible variants on battle themes . A major improvement enabled by the Xbox was the use of 5 @.@ 1 surround sound , which could enable richer use of both music and in @-@ game sound effects . According to Okada , this additional sound capacity would compensate for what could not be managed at a visual level . Maken X had already given the team a chance to use 3D sound , but Nine was the first title to make major use of 5 @.@ 1 , and implementing it alongside all the other features proved a challenge for the team .
= = Release = =
Nine was originally announced in August 2001 under the title Shin Megami Tensei Online . Originally rumored to be for the PS2 , its announced features included use of voice recognition and online broadband services . These features would later be clarified as being planned for online implementation rather than in development . After a long period of media silence , its official title was announced in February 2002 . Nine was heavily promoted at multiple Japanese gaming events throughout 2002 . The game released on December 5 , 2002 : it was celebrated with an official launch event attended by Okada and Kaneko . A Deluxe Edition released simultaneously with the standard edition , containing a figurine of Maria and a keycard related to accessing online content . The game was later re @-@ released as part of Microsoft 's Platinum Collection budget collection on October 23 , 2003 . A novelization , written by Takumi Miyajima and with a cover illustration by Kaneko , was published by Fujimi Shobo on March 25 , 2003 . A comics anthology was released by Enterbrain on March 24 .
After the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , it was stated by Atlus that while the small size of the game 's online component did not rule out a Western release , Atlus themselves were unable to finance a dedicated server and other companies such as Microsoft were unlikely to provide such funding . The following year at E3 2003 , Atlus responded with " no comment " when asked whether Nine would see a Western release . In 2006 , Atlus stated that there were no plans to bring Nine overseas , with their focus being on newer Megami Tensei titles .
The online functions planned for Nine were intended to be incorporated from release , but in August 2002 , Atlus announced that they would divide the game in two parts : one stand @-@ alone offline version , and one online version . The reason given for this was that the development team did not have enough time to integrate all online functions they wanted to include in the game , and that Atlus did not want to delay the game 's release . Atlus planned to release the online version in 2002 , but put development on hold due to the high costs of developing an online game , and postponed the release until 2003 . In August 2003 , they announced that they no longer had any plans to publish the online version for Xbox , due to problems relating to network @-@ based development and the profitability of online games . With the cancellation of the Xbox Live version , development continued on a version of Nine for Microsoft Windows personal computers ( PCs ) . This version formed the base for what would become Shin Megami Tensei : Imagine , a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game for PCs developed by Cave and released in Japan and Western regions across 2007 and 2009 .
= = Reception = =
Despite the heavy promotion it received , upon release the game only reached # 18 in the Dengeki charts with initial sales of 14 @,@ 000 units . Its sales continued to fall and within three weeks the game had dropped out of the Dengeki Top 50 . By the end of the year , Nine had sold just over 30 @,@ 000 . According to Atlus , the game 's sales by the end of the 2002 @-@ 2003 fiscal year had reached 45 @,@ 000 units : this fell below their planned sales number of 67 @,@ 000 units . In May , Atlus announced that the development costs and poor sales of Xbox games , including Nine , had resulted in a financial loss for that year .
The four reviewers for Famitsu gave it respective scores of 9 , 8 , 7 and 7 . On the positive side , demon fusion and negotiation being cited as " addictive " , and two of the reviewers lauded the shift into 3D graphics . On the negative side , aspects of the battle system was seen as convoluted or confusing , while other elements such as a confusing interface and the conspicuous lack of online functions brought the experience down . One reviewer also noted that the game was geared towards those who had already played Shin Megami Tensei . RPGFan 's John McCarrol was positive in his early preview despite not knowing much about the promised online functions , saying that despite some bland visuals Nine promised to be " one of the best Xbox games released in Japan and possibly North America " . Kurt Kalata and Christopher J. Snelgrove , writing for gaming website Hardcore Gaming 101 , had mixed feelings about the title , finding its visuals dull and gameplay system unimpressive . Due to the ultimate lack of online functionality , they also commented that Nine felt " weirdly incomplete " , saying that it was " not really worth tracking down " for series fans .
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= Battle of Albuera =
The Battle of Albuera ( 16 May 1811 ) was a battle during the Peninsular War . A mixed British , Spanish and Portuguese corps engaged elements of the French Armée du Midi ( Army of the South ) at the small Spanish village of Albuera , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the frontier fortress @-@ town of Badajoz , Spain .
From October 1810 Marshal Masséna 's Army of Portugal had been tied down in an increasingly hopeless stand @-@ off against Wellington 's Allied forces , safely entrenched in and behind the Lines of Torres Vedras . Acting on Napoleon 's orders , in early 1811 Marshal Soult led a French expedition from Andalusia into Extremadura in a bid to draw Allied forces away from the Lines and ease Masséna 's plight . Napoleon 's information was outdated and Soult 's intervention came too late ; starving and understrength , Masséna 's army was already withdrawing to Spain . Soult was able to capture the strategically important fortress at Badajoz on the border between Spain and Portugal from the Spanish , but was forced to return to Andalusia following Marshal Victor 's defeat in March at the Battle of Barrosa . However , Soult left Badajoz strongly garrisoned . In April , following news of Masséna 's complete withdrawal from Portugal , Wellington sent a powerful Anglo @-@ Portuguese corps commanded by Sir William Beresford to retake the border town . The Allies drove most of the French from the surrounding area and began the Siege of Badajoz .
Soult rapidly gathered a new army from the French forces in Andalusia and , joining with the troops retreating before Beresford , he marched to relieve the siege . With intelligence of another approaching force — a Spanish army under Gen. Joaquín Blake — he planned to turn Beresford 's flank and interpose his army between the two . However , Soult was again acting on outdated information ; unknown to the Marshal , the Spaniards had already linked up with the Anglo @-@ Portuguese corps , and his 24 @,@ 000 troops now faced a combined Allied army 35 @,@ 000 strong .
The opposing armies met at the village of Albuera . Both sides suffered heavily in the ensuing struggle and the French finally withdrew on 18 May . Beresford 's army was too battered and exhausted to pursue , but was able to resume the investment of Badajoz . Despite Soult 's failure to relieve the town , the battle had little strategic effect on the war . Just one month later , in June 1811 , the Allies were forced to abandon their siege by the approach of the reconstituted French Armies of Portugal and Andalusia .
= = Background = =
Despite his victory over elements of Marshal André Masséna 's Army of Portugal at the Battle of Bussaco in September 1810 , Viscount Wellington was forced by Masséna 's subsequent maneuvering to withdraw his numerically inferior force behind the extensive series of fortifications he had prepared around Torres Vedras to protect the approaches to Lisbon . By 10 October 1810 only the British light division and some cavalry patrols remained outside the " Lines " . Wellington manned the fortifications with " secondary troops " — 25 @,@ 000 Portuguese militia , 8 @,@ 000 Spaniards and 2 @,@ 500 British marines and artillerymen — keeping his main field army of British and Portuguese regulars dispersed in order to rapidly meet a French assault on any point of the Lines .
Masséna 's Army of Portugal concentrated around Sobral , apparently in preparation to attack . However , after a fierce skirmish on 14 October in which the strength of the Lines became apparent , the French dug themselves in rather than launch a costly full @-@ scale assault . They remained entrenched for a month before falling back to a position between Santarém and Rio Maior . Following Masséna 's withdrawal , Wellington moved the 2nd Division under Lt. Gen. Hill , along with two Portuguese brigades and an attachment of Dragoons , across the Tagus to protect the plains of Alentejo — both from Masséna and a possible attack from Andalusia by the French Army of the South .
Napoleon had previously sent dispatches to Marshal Soult , commander of the Army of the South , urging him to send assistance to Masséna . The Emperor 's orders were based on outdated intelligence and called for only a small force ; by the time Soult received them the situation had changed considerably . Soult now knew a successful attack against Lisbon was beyond his means with the forces proposed — there were 30 @,@ 000 Allied troops and six major fortresses between his army and the Portuguese capital — but he had received orders nonetheless and felt obliged to do something . He therefore gathered an army of 20 @,@ 000 men , mainly from V Corps , and launched an expedition into Extremadura with the limited aim of capturing the fortress at Badajoz and hopefully drawing some of the Allied forces away from their impregnable positions in the Lines . Along with V Corps , this venture also pulled both infantry and cavalry from Marshal Victor 's I Corps who were besieging Cádiz at the time . Soult ordered more of Victor 's men to fill the gaps left by his use of V Corps ; this was bitterly opposed by Victor since it severely weakened his own forces , leaving him with only 15 @,@ 000 men besieging a city garrisoned by around 26 @,@ 000 Allied troops .
Following a successful campaign in Extremadura , on 27 January 1811 Soult began his investment of Badajoz . Almost immediately the Spanish Army of Extremadura arrived in the vicinity with some 15 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Gen. Mendizabal . Soult 's army , too small to surround Badajoz , was unable to prevent 3 @,@ 000 of Mendizabal 's men from reinforcing the fortress and the remainder occupying the heights of San Cristóbal . This posed a major threat to the French , so Soult moved at once to engage . In the ensuing Battle of the Gebora the French inflicted 1 @,@ 000 casualties on the Spanish field army and took 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , at a cost to themselves of only 400 casualties . The remnants of Mendizabal 's defeated army fled towards Badajoz or into Portugal .
The garrison of Badajoz , ably commanded by Gen. Rafael Menacho , initially put up strong resistance and by 3 March the French had made little progress against the powerful fortress . On that day , however , Menacho was killed on the ramparts by a chance shot ; command of the garrison fell to Brig. Gen. José Imaz and the Spanish defense started to slacken . The walls were finally breached on 10 March . Soult was anxious to press the siege since he had learned that Masséna , in command of a disintegrating army plagued by sickness , starvation and an unusually harsh Portuguese winter , had retreated from Portugal . Concerned that the British would now be free to send a contingent to relieve Badajoz , Soult sent a deputation into the town to demand the garrison 's surrender . Imaz duly capitulated and the French took possession of the fortress on 11 March .
On 12 March , news of Victor 's defeat at the Battle of Barrosa reached Soult and he left Badajoz to return to Andalusia , anxious that the siege of Cádiz had been lifted . Reaching Seville on 20 March he was relieved to find that Victor 's siege lines still held and Andalusia remained under French control . Before his departure Soult had consolidated his gains in Extremadura by garrisoning Badajoz with 11 @,@ 000 French troops under the command of Marshal Édouard Mortier .
= = Prelude = =
With no political considerations to get in the way , the Allies soon learnt of Soult 's investment of Badajoz , and with the threat from Masséna diminished by his withdrawal towards Spain , Wellington prepared to send his 2nd and 4th divisions ( now under the command of General William Beresford ) to relieve the siege . The orders were first issued on 8 March , but countermanded the next day due to false reports of Masséna offering battle at Tomar . Following further delays as Beresford 's two divisions regrouped , the relieving force were ordered to hurry to Badajoz on 15 March . Around this time though , Wellington received news of the town 's surrender ; the urgency had diminished and Beresford 's expedition could proceed at a more moderate pace .
= = = Mortier keeps busy = = =
Marshal Édouard Mortier , commanding the Badajoz garrison , made good use of the Allied delays . Leaving six battalions to hold the fortress , in early March he moved against the nearby Portuguese town of Campo Maior with around 7 @,@ 000 men and three batteries borrowed from the siege @-@ train stationed at Badajoz . The French captured the outlying Fort São João on 14 March ( the night of their arrival ) but the Campo Maior fortress proved a harder proposition . Despite being manned by only 800 militia and Ordenanças , commanded by Major José Talaya , the town held out for seven days — surrendering only when an entire face of the bastion crumbled under the bombardment from Mortier 's artillery . Mortier also sent two cavalry regiments under General Marie Victor Latour @-@ Maubourg to invest Alburquerque ; the 6 @,@ 000 strong garrison there surrendered before French reinforcements needed to be brought up .
Major Talaya 's prolonged defence of Campo Maior gave Beresford 's divisions time to arrive before the captured fortress had been slighted . On returning to Badajoz after his successful foray into Portugal , Mortier had left one infantry and three cavalry regiments at Campo Maior , under Latour @-@ Maubourg , to dismantle its defences ; Beresford 's appearance on 25 March caught the French by surprise . However , despite the Allies having 18 @,@ 000 troops at their disposal , Latour @-@ Maubourg calmly formed up his command and retreated towards Badajoz . Beresford sent 1 @,@ 500 cavalry , under the command of Brigadier General Robert Long after the French . Most of the French cavalry were driven off by a charge of the 13th Light Dragoons ; however , the pursuit of Latour @-@ Maubourg 's force then faltered . It was poorly co @-@ ordinated and the greater part of the French force managed to reach the safety of Badajoz . The reason behind this failure was subsequently disputed between supporters of Brigadier Long and General Beresford .
= = = Allies invest Badajoz = = =
Beresford now began the task of positioning his army to invest Badajoz , but a series of mishaps delayed the Allied advance into Spain . The Guadiana , a major river of Spain and Portugal that delineates part of the border , lay across Beresford 's line of march . Wellington had promised a stock of Spanish pontoon boats so that a bridge could be erected , but these were not forthcoming . Instead , a bridge had to be fashioned in situ — a task that would take until 3 April to complete . Furthermore , the rations promised to Beresford , to be taken from the town of Estremoz , had been consumed by the remnants of Mendizabal 's Army of Extremadura , which had settled in the region following their defeat by Soult at the start of the year . Beresford 's troops eventually had to draw on rations from the fortress @-@ town of Elvas in order to feed themselves . Finally , the shoes of the 4th Division had completely worn out following two weeks of marching , and replacements from Lisbon would take a week to arrive . These delays gave the Badajoz garrison time to work on the fortifications , taking them from a state of serious disrepair on 25 March to being tenable on 3 April . Beresford began to bring his army forward on 4 April , but a sudden flood swept away his makeshift bridge across the Guadiana , trapping the Allied vanguard on the eastern bank . This could have proved disastrous for Beresford , but Mortier had been recalled to Paris leaving Latour @-@ Maubourg in command at Badajoz , and he was more concerned with repairing the fortress 's defences than confronting the Allied army . After a minor success involving the capture of an entire squadron of the 13th Light Dragoons , Latour @-@ Maubourg retired before Beresford 's superior forces , leaving 3 @,@ 000 men garrisoning Badajoz and 400 in Olivenza .
By 8 April new bridges had been thrown across the Guadiana and the following day Beresford 's army moved to Olivenza ; they were now over the border and 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) south of Badajoz . While the British 4th Division tackled the small French garrison there , the main Allied army followed Latour @-@ Maubourg south while sending covering forces to watch the Badajoz garrison from Valverde and Albuera . Beresford coordinated his movements with the remnants of the Spanish Army of Extremadura ( now under the command of General Castaños ) , adding 3 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry to his strength . On 15 April , Olivenza fell to the 4th Division , which technically put Beresford in a position to commence the more important task of besieging Badajoz . However , neither Beresford nor Wellington had provided a siege @-@ train for the expedition , so one had to be improvised on the spot . The solution adopted was to take sufficient artillery pieces of various qualities and vintages from the fortress of Elvas , but this expedient caused yet another delay in Allied progress . Beresford took the opportunity presented by this delay to have his forces clear southern Extremadura of French forces and Latour @-@ Maubourg was pushed back to Guadalcanal . Beresford left his cavalry and a brigade under Lieutenant Colonel John Colborne , along with a detachment of Spanish horse , to watch Latour @-@ Maubourg 's movements and dissuade him from returning to Extremadura . Wellington was so concerned by the lack of progress that he decided to pay a flying visit to the region . He and Beresford conducted a reconnaissance of Badajoz on 22 April and by the time he left for the north , he had prepared for Beresford a detailed set of memorandum concerning how he should conduct the impending siege and the rest of the campaign . Beresford followed the instructions slowly but surely and finally began the Siege of Badajoz on 4 May .
A positive development for the Allies during this time was the appearance of another Spanish force in the region . The Spanish Regency at Cádiz had sent General Joaquín Blake , with the two divisions of Zayas and Lardizábal , by sea to Ayamonte on the mouth of the Guadiana . Landing on 18 April , Blake 's army moved to join General Francisco Ballesteros at the Spanish town of Xeres .
Although Blake was himself a member of the Spanish Regency , he was junior to Castaños in the military hierarchy ( but senior to Ballasteros ) . He consequently did not protest when General Castaños agreed that Marshal Beresford , who was also junior to Castaños in rank , should command the combined Allied armies in any battle because there were more men in the Anglo @-@ Portuguese force .
= = = Armies gather = = =
From the moment the French were forced to retreat before Beresford , Soult knew that Badajoz was at risk and he was determined that he would not lose the one tangible gain of his winter campaign . By 9 May , he felt that time was running out , so he set out for Badajoz with all the men of I Corps and IV Corps of the Army of the South he could spare from the siege of Cadiz and the occupation of the rest of Andalusia . Combined with the men of V Corps under Latour @-@ Maubourg on the Andalusian border , Soult had a force of approximately 23 @,@ 000 men and 35 artillery pieces cannon moving towards Badajoz . His army was much smaller than that of the Allies , but he hoped the quality of his troops would compensate for his lack of numbers .
Beresford was alerted to the French advance by reports received on 12 May from Spanish patriots in Seville , who had sent word of Soult 's departure . Beresford kept up the pretence of besieging Badajoz by sending an unsuccessful demand for surrender to the French commander on the afternoon of that same day , but he realized he would now not have time to finish the job , so he ordered the withdrawal of his siege guns and supplies . On 13 May , the Spanish cavalry attached to Colborne 's brigade came into contact with the French force and , in accordance with orders given by Wellington in April , they fell back while sending word of Soult 's new position to Beresford . Later that day Long 's British cavalry also encountered the advancing French and hastily pulled back — although Long , too , was following Wellington 's orders not to engage , Beresford considered his withdrawal somewhat premature and thought Long could have delayed the French by forcing them to deploy .
Also on the 13th , Beresford moved the British 2nd Division , Major General John Hamilton 's Portuguese division and three artillery batteries from Badajoz to Valverde — an ideal position to observe the three routes open for Soult 's approach . Wellington 's orders left Beresford full discretion to fight Soult or to retreat and he was personally inclined to the latter course of action . However , when Beresford met with Blake and Castaños , the two most senior Spanish generals , at Valverde on 14 May , he allowed himself to be persuaded that the numerical superiority the Allied army had over Soult justified risking a battle . The Allied leaders consequently agreed to concentrate at Albuera , which was the location chosen by Wellington as best suited for an attempt to resist any French advance to relieve Badajoz .
By 15 May it was clear to Beresford that Soult was taking the central route to Badajoz , which ran through Santa Marta and the village of Albuera . He made further adjustments to his deployment , moving the 2nd Division and Hamilton 's Portuguese to defend the village , where they were joined by Alten 's KGL brigade and a further Portuguese brigade composed of garrison and light troops temporarily formed for the campaign . Soult 's movements became even clearer when his Chasseurs à cheval and hussars engaged Long 's cavalry at Santa Marta — once again Long retreated in what Beresford considered to be unreasonable haste . Major General William Lumley took over from Long as the Allied cavalry commander . Accounts differ as to the reason for this , some claiming it was because of Long 's incompetence , and others stating that it was simply down to Lumley 's seniority . The immediate reason for Beresford 's decision seems to have been that Long himself suggested that the appointment of Lumley would resolve questions of seniority that had arisen between Long and the commanders of the Spanish cavalry . The actual change of command did not take place until the morning of the 16th because Lumley did not arrive at the battlefield until then .
There were no further engagements that day , so Beresford was able to complete his dispositions . The front of the Allied position was defined by a series of small watercourses flowing from south to north . Two of these , the Nogales ( sometimes called the Feria ) and Chicapierna brooks , meet just south of the village to form the Albuera river , but none of these were formidable obstacles and the river itself could be crossed at two bridges and a ford . Alten 's men were placed in Albuera itself , while Hamilton 's division along with most of the Portuguese cavalry formed the Allied left wing to the north of the village and Major General William Stewart 's 2nd Division formed up on a hill just to the west of Albuera . The right wing of the Allied army was to be supplied by Castaños 's and Blake 's four Spanish infantry divisions , while the Allied cavalry and artillery along with the 4th Division would provide a strong strategic reserve . To the west of the Chicapierna and the Albuera , the land rises to a low , treeless north @-@ south ridge crowned by several knolls that become progressively higher to the south . After the battle , Beresford was severely criticized for failing to occupy two of these high points , the first of which lies approximately one mile southwest of the village and the second some 500 yards further south .
Blake 's divisions were delayed in coming forward and only arrived at around midnight 15 – 16 May , although they were in position in time for the opening of battle later that morning . Meanwhile , Lowry Cole 's 4th Division , and de España 's Spanish brigade marched from Badajoz to Albuera in the early hours of 16 May .
Meanwhile , Soult was making his own plans . He knew that Blake intended to join forces with Beresford , but he thought that the Spanish divisions were still several days march away . Based on that erroneous premise , Soult decided that his best course of action would be to turn the Allies ' southern flank , thus driving a wedge between the two parts of Beresford 's army . Soult hoped that as a result he could defeat his opponents in detail , overcoming Beresford 's force and then turning south to deal with Blake 's divisions .
= = Battle = =
Beresford deployed his troops on the reverse slopes of such hills as could be found on the battlefield ; unable to see the Allied army , Soult was still unaware that Blake 's Spanish divisions had come up during the night . Thus , on the morning of 16 May 1811 , the Marshal proceeded with his attempt to turn the Allied right flank . To approach Albuera village directly , the French would have to cross the Albuera River via a small bridge , and Soult 's first move was to launch a strong feint attack in this direction . He sent Godinot 's infantry brigade , flanked by Briche 's light cavalry and supported by artillery , across the bridge towards the village . Four platoons of Vistulan Lancers also crossed the river , but they were driven back by the 3rd Dragoon Guards . A Portuguese gun battery had been positioned to cover the approaches to the bridge , and as Godinot 's skirmishers advanced they became engaged with Alten 's KGL battalions , who were defending Albuera .
At the same time two brigades of dragoons and Werlé 's infantry brigade showed themselves on Godinot 's left , advancing out of an olive wood in front of Blake 's position to Alten 's right . With a large concentration of French troops now menacing the village , the Allied commanders took the bait exactly as Soult had planned , and sent reinforcements to Alten 's aid .
= = = French flank attack = = =
While the Allies were bracing themselves for a frontal assault on their centre and right , Soult was preparing his real thrust . The two V Corps divisions of Generals Girard and Gazan , preceded by a cavalry brigade , swung left to begin the Marshal 's flanking move — their progress was concealed by intervening olive woods , and the first the Allies knew of them was when four French cavalry regiments burst from the southern end of the woods , crossed two brooks , and scattered Loy 's Spanish cavalry on the right of Beresford 's lines . Alarmed , Beresford rode forward to observe the French manoeuvres ; when Godinot 's cavalry support and Werlé 's brigade began to move away from Albuera and toward Girard 's rear , Soult 's true intentions became clear .
Beresford immediately issued new orders . He directed Blake to swing his forward line around to face the approaching French . Lumley 's cavalry was sent to support Loy 's horse and hold Blake 's right flank , while Stewart 's 2nd Division was sent south from its location behind Albuera to take up a new position behind Blake in readiness to provide support if needed . Cole 's 4th Division was ordered to form up behind the cavalry , and Hamilton 's Portuguese moved to the Allied centre to hold Albuera and act as a reserve .
Blake however did not follow Beresford 's orders ; he still believed that the French attack would come at his front . Keeping his forward line in position , he instead moved four battalions from Zayas 's division to form his new southern @-@ facing front . Zayas deployed these battalions , from the Spanish second line , in two groups . Two battalions of Spanish Guards were formed up , in line , at the top of a steep incline while the remaining two formed close columns behind them ; a single battery of Spanish artillery supported the whole position .
Beresford , on hearing of Blake 's limited redeployment , rode back to personally supervise the operation . He merged Zayas 's second pair of battalions with the first pair , forming a front line four battalions strong . He then sent orders for Lardizabal to bring up three of his battalions to support Zayas 's right , and for Ballesteros to bring a further two in support of the left . However , these reinforcements did not arrive in time to meet the first French attack — Zayas 's four battalions had to face two entire French divisions alone .
= = = Thin Spanish line holds = = =
While Beresford had been redeploying his army , a " majestic movement changed the whole aspect of the French front " . Two brigades of dragoons galloped from the French right @-@ centre , passed behind V Corps , and joined Latour @-@ Maubourg 's cavalry on the left . At the same time Werlé 's division closed up with the rear of V Corps , becoming the French reserve . Soult had concentrated his entire infantry strength , except for Godinot 's 3 @,@ 500 men who were still engaged at Albuera , and all his cavalry save Briche 's light horse , into one front marching on Blake 's right flank .
The two divisions of V Corps advanced one behind the other against Zayas 's position . The first of these divisions , that of Girard , moved in ordre mixte — four battalions in column flanked on either side by a battalion in line , and further flanked by a battalion and a half in column — while Gazan 's division moved in battalion column . Girard 's tirailleurs engaged Zayas line and gradually thinned the Spanish front rank . When Girard 's main column came within about 50 metres ( 55 yd ) of the Spaniards , the skirmishers split to the left and right and the battalions behind them opened fire . The Spaniards held their ground , exchanging volleys with the French , and eventually repelled Girard 's first attack .
Despite their resistance Zayas 's men , possibly the best troops in the Spanish army at the time , were being slowly forced back . However , they held long enough for Ballesteros and Lardizabal to come up , and for Stewart 's 2nd Division to advance to their support . Stewart brought John Colborne 's 1st Brigade up , followed by the Division 's two other brigades . The 3rd Regiment of Foot ( the Buffs ) took the lead , followed by the 48th and the 66th . Colborne 's brigade formed up on the French left , and supported by a battery of KGL cannon the British opened fire , forcing Girard 's two flanking battalions to face outwards in order to return fire .
= = = Destruction of Colborne 's brigade = = =
The musketry duel that developed between Colborne 's brigade and Girard 's left flank was so intense that both sides faltered . The French began to break , and were only kept in place by their officers beating them back with swords as they tried to retreat . The left of Colborne 's brigade , assailed by both musket fire and grapeshot from Girard 's supporting guns , tried to force the issue with a bayonet charge but were unsuccessful . On the right Colborne 's men continued to trade volleys with the French and , seeing their resolve wavering , also fixed bayonets and charged .
As the brigade moved forward a blinding hail- and rain @-@ shower hit the battlefield , rendering both sides ' muskets useless . Under cover of the reduced visibility Latour @-@ Maubourg launched two Polish cavalry regiments at Colborne 's exposed right flank . Ploughing through the unprepared British infantry , the 1st Vistulan Lancers and the 2nd Hussars virtually annihilated Colborne 's first three regiments . Only the fourth , the 31st Regiment of Foot , was able to save itself by forming into squares . The cavalry pressed on against Colborne 's supporting KGL artillery battery and captured its guns ( although all but the howitzer were subsequently recovered ) .
Having captured five regimental flags and eight cannon the Uhlans swept past the 31st 's square , scattering Beresford and his staff , and attacked the rear of Zayas 's line . Zayas met this assault unflinchingly while continuing to direct fire at Girard . By this time the rainstorm had cleared and Lumley , commanding Beresford 's horse , could finally make out the devastation caused by the French and Polish cavalry . He sent two squadrons of the 4th Dragoons to disperse the Uhlans , which they did , but the British troopers were in their turn driven off by a fresh hussar regiment that Latour @-@ Maubourg had sent to cover the lancers ' retreat . Closing on the action , the 29th Regiment of Foot ( the lead regiment of Stewart 's second brigade ) opened fire on the scattered Vistula lancers . Most of this fusillade actually missed its intended targets and instead struck the rear ranks of Zayas 's men . The Spaniards nevertheless stood firm ; their actions very likely saved the allied army from destruction .
Some British sources claim that the Polish cavalrymen refused to accept any surrender by the British infantry , and deliberately speared the wounded as they lay . Tradition reports that the British 2nd Division swore to give no quarter to Poles following Albuera . According to Beresford , of the 1 @,@ 258 men lost by Colborne 's first three regiments , 319 were killed , 460 were wounded and 479 were taken prisoner . According to Soult 's report the Vistula Lancers had 130 casualties out of 591 troopers .
= = = Hoghton 's ordeal = = =
The fighting on the Allied right now paused as both sides sought to regroup . Girard 's division had suffered considerably in its battle with Zayas , and Colborne 's actions , although ultimately disastrous , had caused significant French casualties . Girard now regarded his division as a spent force and brought up Gazan 's 2nd Division to take its place . Advancing in column , Gazan 's battalions had to struggle through the remnants of Girard 's retiring units . As a result , many of the 1st Division 's survivors were swept up and incorporated into Gazan 's column , which grew by accretion into a dense mass of 8 @,@ 000 men , losing much of its cohesion in the process . The ensuing disruption and delay gave the Allies time to re @-@ form their own lines . Beresford deployed Hoghton 's brigade behind Zayas 's lines and Abercrombie 's to the rear of Ballesteros , then moved them forward to relieve the Spaniards . Joseph Moyle Sherer , an officer serving under Abercrombie , recounts how a young Spanish officer rode up and " begged me ... to explain to the English that his countrymen were ordered to retire [ and ] were not flying . "
Following this hiatus the second phase of the battle began — if anything even more bloodily than the first . The French only deployed a skirmish line against Abercrombie 's brigade , so the weight of the renewed assault fell on Hoghton . Despite being joined by the sole survivors of Colborne 's brigade ( the 31st Foot ) , just 1 @,@ 900 men stood in line to face the advancing corps . Hoghton 's three battalions ( the 29th Regiment of Foot , 1 / 48th Regiment of Foot and 1 / 57th Regiment of Foot ) , suffered huge casualties , with 56 officers and 971 men killed or wounded from their complement of 95 officers and 1 @,@ 556 men .
Ordinarily in a duel between Allied line and French column , the greater volume of fire laid down by the line ( where every single weapon could be brought to bear on the front and flanks of the narrower column ) could be expected to be the decisive factor . In this case however , the French were well supported by artillery . More than compensating for the firepower disadvantage of his infantry formation , Girard brought guns up to just 275 metres ( 300 yd ) from Hoghton 's line — close enough to enfilade it with a crossfire of grape and canister . Early in this engagement Colonel William Inglis of the 57th Foot was wounded by grapeshot from the French artillery . He refused to be carried to the rear and lay with the Colours ; throughout the battle his voice could be heard calmly repeating " Die hard 57th , die hard ! " In following his exhortations , the 57th earned their nickname : the " Die @-@ Hards " .
Under this combined arms assault Hoghton 's brigade lost two thirds of its strength . The Brigadier himself was killed , and as casualties rose its shrinking line could no longer cover the frontage of the attacking column . However , the French were in no condition to press home their numerical advantage ; British volley fire had taken its toll and Girard lost 2 @,@ 000 men during the confrontation . He had tried to form his unwieldy corps @-@ sized column into line to bring his full firepower to bear and overwhelm Hoghton 's brigade , but his deploying companies were constantly driven back into the column by the intense British musketry .
= = = Soult 's retreat = = =
Although the French attacks were being held , the result of the battle was still far from certain . Soult had Werlé 's divisional @-@ sized brigade in reserve , and most of Latour @-@ Maubourg 's cavalry had not been engaged . However , the presence of Cole 's fresh 4th Division , still formed up in readiness behind Lumley 's squadrons , seems to have persuaded Soult not to use his strong force of horsemen . In his subsequent dispatch to the Emperor , Soult claimed that he had only at that point learned that Blake had joined with Beresford and he faced a much larger Allied force than expected . The Marshal , having outmanoeuvred the Allies with his flank attack , went on the defensive : the cavalry were refused permission to charge , and Werlé remained in reserve .
On the Allied side Beresford was proving no more incisive . Anxious to reinforce Hoghton and Abercrombie , he tried to bring up de España 's independent brigade , but they refused to move within range of the French . Leaving Cole 's division in place ( according to Beresford , to protect the Allied flank from further cavalry attack , although Wellington was of the opinion that Beresford was actually securing his line of retreat ) , Beresford instead called upon Hamilton 's Portuguese Division , but Hamilton had moved closer to Albuera to support Alten in fending off Godinot 's attack , and the orders took a long time to reach him . Hamilton 's brigades only started moving half an hour after the orders had been sent . With his right under heavy pressure and casualties mounting , Beresford finally sent for Alten 's KGL , ordering 3 @,@ 000 Spaniards to Albuera to relieve them and take over the defence there . Alten hastily regrouped and marched south to the Allies ' right wing , but Godinot took Albuera before the Spaniards could arrive , exposing another Allied flank to the French .
It was at this critical point that the decisive move of the battle was made by General Cole . Standing idle under explicit orders from Beresford , he had nevertheless been considering advancing against the French left flank , but he was wary of moving his infantry across open country in the face of 3 @,@ 500 French cavalry . His mind was made up though when Colonel Henry Hardinge , of the Portuguese Quarter @-@ master @-@ general 's department , rode up and urged him to immediately advance . After a brief consultation with Lumley , Cole began to redeploy his division from column into line . Mindful of the dangers presented by Latour @-@ Maubourg 's horsemen , Cole flanked his line at either end with a unit in column : on the right were the division 's massed light companies , including those from Brigadier Kemmis 's brigade , while the first battalion of the Lusitanian Legion took station on the left . Lumley formed up the whole of the Allied cavalry to the rear and right , accompanied by a battery of horse artillery , and the whole mass , some 5 @,@ 000 infantrymen , advanced on V Corps ' left flank .
The sight of the approaching Allied line forced Soult 's hand — if Cole 's division was not stopped , defeat was certain . He sent four regiments of Latour @-@ Maubourg 's dragoons to charge the Portuguese section of Cole 's line , and committed the whole of Werlé 's reserve to protect V Corps ' flank . The dragoons swept down on Harvey 's Portuguese brigade fully expecting to destroy it as they had Colborne 's . The inexperienced Portuguese , however , stood firm and drove away the cavalry without even forming square . Having once been repulsed , Latour @-@ Maubourg 's dragoons made no further attack on Cole 's division , and the Allied line marched on . The Fusilier brigade and Lusitanian Legion on the division 's left soon encountered Werlé 's brigade , which outnumbered them two to one . Despite his advantage in numbers , Werlé had formed his nine battalions into three columns of regiments , and could not bring as many muskets to bear as the Allies . Three separate regimental musket duels ensued , as the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the two battalions of the 7th Fusiliers each took on a column . During the fire @-@ fight the French tried once more to extend into line , but as before the concentrated Allied fire prevented their deployment . After 20 – 30 minutes of bitter conflict they finally broke and ran . The Fusiliers had lost more than half their numbers , mainly to artillery fire , while Werlé 's brigade had suffered 1 @,@ 800 casualties .
Meanwhile , Abercrombie had wheeled his brigade round to face the right of the beleaguered V Corps and charged ; Girard 's and Gazan 's men fled to the rear , joining the fugitives from Werlé 's brigade . The Allied 4th Division and parts of the 2nd went after the retreating French , leading Beresford to exclaim " Stop ! Stop the Fifty Seventh ; it would be a sin to let them go on ! " This admonition was unnecessary though : Latour @-@ Maubourg quickly placed his cavalry between the chasing Allied divisions and the fleeing French infantry , and aborting their pursuit the British and Portuguese instead drew up on the heights they had just won . Soult also moved up his final reserve — two strong Grenadier battalions — to cover the retreat , and although these suffered heavily from Allied artillery fire , they and the cavalry ensured there was little further fighting . After some delay Beresford brought up three Portuguese brigades and drove the Grenadiers back , but by this time Soult had massed his artillery in a line against the Allies and Beresford did not further commit his forces .
As a postscript to the battle , Alten 's KGL , who had not had time to join the southern front , returned to Albuera and drove out what French force remained in the village . After six or seven hours of bitter conflict , the battle had come to an end .
= = Aftermath = =
On the morning of 17 May both sides formed up again . Beresford 's orders indicated that he would retreat if Soult advanced . All day Soult held his ground , long enough to arrange for transportation of his wounded to Seville . It was not apparent to Beresford that there was little chance of Soult resuming hostilities , even when Kemmis 's 1 @,@ 400 strong brigade ( previously stranded on the north bank of the Guadiana ) joined the Allied army on the battlefield at dawn . Beresford also had the relatively unscathed Portuguese division , Alten 's KGL and several Spanish battalions ready for duty ; Soult , in contrast , only had Godinot 's brigade and Latour @-@ Maubourg 's cavalry in a fit state to fight . News that Wellington was marching to Elvas with a further two divisions hastened the Marshal 's decision to retreat , as well as persuading Beresford not to launch a premature offensive against Soult 's superior artillery and cavalry .
Soult marched away before dawn on 18 May , leaving several hundred wounded behind for the Allies to treat and Beresford , despite a large advantage in numbers and a day 's rest , was nevertheless unable to pursue . So many were injured in the battle that two days later British casualties were still waiting to be collected from the field . The chapel at Albuera was filled with wounded Frenchmen , and the dead still lay scattered across the ground . In proportion to the numbers involved , the Battle of Albuera was the bloodiest of the whole Peninsular War .
The losses on both sides were horrific , and while Soult had failed in his aim of relieving the siege of Badajoz , neither side had demonstrated the will to press for a conclusive victory . Allied losses amounted to 5 @,@ 916 : 4 @,@ 159 British , 389 Portuguese and 1 @,@ 368 Spaniards . In his despatch of 21 May 1811 , Soult estimated British casualties as 5 @,@ 000 with 800 to 1 @,@ 000 captured ; Spanish as 2 @,@ 000 with 1 @,@ 100 captured ; Portuguese as 700 to 800 . French casualties are harder to ascertain — Soult initially declared 2 @,@ 800 in his dispatch to Napoleon , but the official figure drawn up on 6 July revised that number upward to 5 @,@ 936 . British historians dispute this , comparing Soult 's figure of 241 officer casualties with regimental returns that total 362 . Sir Charles Oman extrapolated this figure to come up with the total number of French casualties , which he puts at approximately 7 @,@ 900 . In comparison , the French historians Belmas and Lapène place Soult 's losses at 7 @,@ 000 . Some of the British dead from the battle , including Major General Daniel Hoghton , are buried in the British Cemetery , Elvas .
Reviewing Beresford 's after action report , Wellington was unhappy with its despondent tone and commented to a staff officer " This won 't do . It will drive the people in England mad . Write me down a victory . " The report was duly rewritten , although Wellington privately acknowledged that another such battle would ruin his army . Soult , on the basis of higher allied casualties , also claimed " a signal victory " . He generously paid tribute to the steadfastness of the allied troops , writing " There is no beating these troops , in spite of their generals . I always thought they were bad soldiers , now I am sure of it . I had turned their right , pierced their centre and everywhere victory was mine – but they did not know how to run ! "
= = Consequences = =
Although he failed to lift the siege of Badajoz , Soult 's campaign had managed to temporarily relieve it . On 12 May Beresford , when learned that Soult had reached Llerena , directed that the siege be abandoned and by the night of the 13th the siege train , artillery and supplies were withdrawn to Elvas and such material that could not be moved was burned . General Philippon , the garrison 's commander , took this opportunity to sally out and destroy the surrounding Allied trenchworks and batteries . On 18 May Beresford sent Hamilton 's Portuguese division , along with some cavalry , back to Badajoz . A show of Badajoz 's investment was resumed the following day. but Soult knew well that Beresford could no longer hurt Badajoz . Beresford 's corps was joined by Wellington 's field army during June 1811 , but even with this reinforcement time was fast running out . The French Army of Portugal , now reconstituted under Marshal Auguste Marmont , had joined up with Soult 's Army of the South , and Wellington was forced to pull his 44 @,@ 000 men back across the border to Elvas . On 20 June the combined French force , over 60 @,@ 000 strong , lifted the siege .
The Battle of Albuera had little effect on the overall course of the war , but it had shown that British and Spanish troops could work together . On the other hand , Anglo @-@ Spanish political relations suffered following the battle . Wellington placed most of the blame for the losses on Blake , while a dispatch read in the Spanish cortes implied that the British had played only a minor role in the battle , despite their much higher losses .
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= Conatus =
In early philosophies of psychology and metaphysics , conatus ( / koʊˈneɪtəs / ; Latin for " effort ; endeavor ; impulse , inclination , tendency ; undertaking ; striving " ) is an innate inclination of a thing to continue to exist and enhance itself . This " thing " may be mind , matter or a combination of both . Over the millennia , many different definitions and treatments have been formulated . Seventeenth @-@ century philosophers René Descartes , Baruch Spinoza , Gottfried Leibniz , and Thomas Hobbes made important contributions . The conatus may refer to the instinctive " will to live " of living organisms or to various metaphysical theories of motion and inertia . Often the concept is associated with God 's will in a pantheist view of Nature . The concept may be broken up into separate definitions for the mind and body and split when discussing centrifugal force and inertia .
The history of the term conatus is that of a series of subtle tweaks in meaning and clarifications of scope developed over the course of two and a half millennia . Successive philosophers to adopt the term put their own personal twist on the concept , each developing the term differently such that it now has no accepted definition . The earliest authors to discuss conatus wrote primarily in Latin , basing their usage on ancient Greek concepts . These thinkers therefore used " conatus " not only as a technical term but as a common word and in a general sense . In archaic texts , the more technical usage is difficult to discern from the more common one , and they are also hard to differentiate in translation . In English translations , the term is italicized when used in the technical sense or translated and followed by conatus in brackets . Today , conatus is rarely used in the technical sense , since modern physics uses concepts such as inertia and conservation of momentum that have superseded it . It has , however , been a notable influence on nineteenth- and twentieth @-@ century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Louis Dumont .
= = Classical origins = =
The Latin cōnātus comes from the verb cōnor , which is usually translated into English as , " to endeavor " ; but the concept of the conatus was first developed by the Stoics ( 333 – 264 BCE ) and Peripatetics ( c . 335 BCE ) before the Common Era . These groups used the word ὁρμή ( hormê , translated in Latin by impetus ) to describe the movement of the soul towards an object , and from which a physical act results . Classical thinkers , Marcus Tullius Cicero ( 106 – 43 BCE ) and Diogenes Laertius ( c . 235 BCE ) , expanded this principle to include an aversion to destruction , but continued to limit its application to the motivations of non @-@ human animals . Diogenes Laertius , for example , specifically denied the application of the term to plants . Before the Renaissance , Thomas Aquinas ( c . 1225 – 1274 CE ) , Duns Scotus ( c . 1266 – 1308 CE ) and Dante Alighieri ( 1265 – 1321 CE ) expressed similar sentiments using the Latin words vult , velle or appetit as synonyms of conatus ; indeed , all four terms may be used to translate the original Greek ὁρμή . Later , Telesius and Campanella extended the ancient Greek notions and applied them to all objects , animate and inanimate .
First Aristotle , then Cicero and Laertius each alluded to a connection between the conatus and other emotions . In their view , the former induces the latter . They maintained that humans do not wish to do something because they think it " good " , but rather they think it " good " because they want to do it . In other words , the cause of human desire is the natural inclination of a body to augment itself in accordance with the principles of the conatus .
= = Medieval views = =
There is a traditional connection between conatus and motion itself . Aquinas and Abravanel ( 1265 – 1321 ) both related the concept directly to that which Augustine ( 354 – 430 CE ) saw to be the " natural movements upward and downward or with their being balanced in an intermediate position " described in his De Civitate Dei , ( c . 520 CE ) . They called this force that causes objects to rise or fall , " amor naturalis " , or " natural love " .
In the 6th century , John Philoponus ( c . 490 – c . 570 CE ) criticized Aristotle 's view of motion , noting the inconsistency between Aristotle 's discussion of projectiles , where the medium of aether keeps projectiles going , and his discussion of the void , where there is no such medium and hence a body 's motion should be impossible . Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of some surrounding medium but by some property , or conatus implanted in the object when it was set in motion . This was not the modern concept of inertia , for there was still the need for an inherent power to keep a body in motion . This view was strongly opposed by Averroës and many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle . The Aristotelian view was also challenged in the Islamic world . For example , Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( Alhazen ) seems to have supported Philoponus ' views , while he developed a concept similar to inertia . The concept of inertia was developed more clearly in the work of his contemporary Avicenna , who conceived a permanent force whose effect is dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance , making him " the first to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non @-@ natural motion . " Avicenna 's concept of mayl is almost the opposite of the Aristotelian conception of violent motion and is reminiscent of Newton 's first law of motion . Avicenna also developed an idea similar to momentum , when he attempted to provide a quantitative relation between the weight and velocity of a moving body .
Jean Buridan ( 1300 – 1358 ) also rejected the notion that this motion @-@ generating property , which he named impetus , dissipated spontaneously . Buridan 's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the resistance of the air and the weight of the body which would oppose its impetus . He also maintained that impetus increased with speed ; thus , his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum . Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia , Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle 's basic philosophy , maintaining many other peripatetic views , including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest . Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear , but also circular in nature , causing objects such as celestial bodies to move in a circle .
= = In Descartes = =
In the first half of the seventeenth century , René Descartes ( 1596 – 1650 ) began to develop a more modern , materialistic concept of the conatus , describing it as " an active power or tendency of bodies to move , expressing the power of God " . Whereas the ancients used the term in a strictly anthropomorphic sense similar to voluntary " endeavoring " or " struggling " to achieve certain ends , and medieval Scholastic philosophers developed a notion of conatus as a mysterious intrinsic property of things , Descartes uses the term in a somewhat more mechanistic sense . More specifically , for Descartes , in contrast to Buridan , movement and stasis are two states of the same thing , not different things . Although there is much ambiguity in Descartes ' notion of conatus , one can see here the beginnings of a move away from the attribution of desires and intentions to nature and its workings toward a more scientific and modern view .
Descartes rejects the teleological , or purposive , view of the material world that was dominant in the West from the time of Aristotle . The mind is not viewed by Descartes as part of the material world , and hence is not subject to the strictly mechanical laws of nature . Motion and rest , on the other hand , are properties of the interactions of matter according to eternally fixed mechanical laws . God only sets the whole thing in motion at the start , and later does not interfere except to maintain the dynamical regularities of the mechanical behavior of bodies . Hence there is no real teleology in the movements of bodies since the whole thing reduces to the law @-@ governed collisions and their constant reconfigurations . The conatus is just the tendency of bodies to move when they collide with each other . God may set this activity in motion , but thereafter no new motion or rest can be created or destroyed .
Descartes specifies two varieties of the conatus : conatus a centro and conatus recedendi . Conatus a centro , or " tendency towards the center " , is used by Descartes as a theory of gravity ; conatus recendendi , or " tendency away from the center " , represents the centrifugal forces . These tendencies are not to be thought of in terms of animate dispositions and intentions , nor as inherent properties or " forces " of things , but rather as a unifying , external characteristic of the physical universe itself which God has bestowed .
Descartes , in developing his First Law of Nature , also invokes the idea of a conatus se movendi , or " conatus of self @-@ preservation " . This law is a generalization of the principle of inertia , which was developed and experimentally demonstrated earlier by Galileo . The principle was formalized by Isaac Newton and made into the first of his three Laws of Motion fifty years after the death of Descartes . Descartes ' version states : " Each thing , insofar as in it lies , always perseveres in the same state , and when once moved , always continues to move . "
= = In Hobbes = =
= = = Conatus and the psyche = = =
Thomas Hobbes ( 1588 – 1679 ) , too , worked off of the previous notions of the conatus principle . However , he criticized the previous definitions for failing to explain the origin of motion . Working toward this end became the primary focus of Hobbes ' work in this area . Indeed , Hobbes " reduces all the cognitive functions of the mind to variations of its conative functions " .
Furthermore , Hobbes describes emotion as the beginning of motion and the will as the sum of all emotions . This " will " forms the conatus of a body and its physical manifestation is the perceived " will to survive " . In order that living beings may thrive , Hobbes says , " they seek peace and fight anything that threatens this peace " . Hobbes also equates this conatus with " imagination " , and states that a change in the conatus , or will , is the result of " deliberation " .
= = = Conatus and physics = = =
I define [ conatus ] to be motion made in less space and time than can be given ; that is , less than can be determined or assigned by exposition or number ; that is , motion made through the length of a point , and in an instant or point of time .
As in his psychological theory , Hobbes 's physical conatus is an infinitesimal unit of motion . It is the beginning of motion : an inclination in a specified direction . The concept of impetus , as used by Hobbes , is defined in terms of this physical conatus . It is " a measure of the conatus exercised by a moving body over the course of time " . Resistance is caused by a contrary conatus ; force is this motion plus " the magnitude of the body " . Hobbes also uses the word conatus to refer to the " restorative forces " which may cause springs , for example , to contract or expand . Hobbes claims there is some force inherent in these objects that inclines them to return to their previous state . Today , science attributes this phenomenon to material elasticity .
= = In Spinoza = =
Conatus is a central theme in the philosophy of Benedict de Spinoza ( 1632 – 1677 ) . According to Spinoza , " each thing , as far as it lies in itself , strives to persevere in its being " ( Ethics , part 3 , prop . 6 ) . Spinoza presents a few reasons for believing this . First , particular things are , as he puts it , modes of God , which means that each one expresses the power of God in a particular way ( Ethics , part 3 , prop . 6 , dem . ) . Moreover , it could never be part of the definition of God that his modes contradict one another ( Ethics , part 3 , prop . 5 ) ; each thing , therefore , " is opposed to everything which can take its existence away " ( Ethics , part 3 , prop . 6 , dem . ) . This resistance to destruction is formulated by Spinoza in terms of a striving to continue to exist , and conatus is the word he most often uses to describe this force .
Striving to persevere is not merely something that a thing does in addition to other activities it might happen to undertake . Rather , striving is " nothing but the actual essence of the thing " ( Ethics , part 3 , prop . 7 ) . Spinoza also uses the term conatus to refer to rudimentary concepts of inertia , as Descartes had earlier . Since a thing cannot be destroyed without the action of external forces , motion and rest , too , exist indefinitely until disturbed .
= = = Behavioral manifestation = = =
The concept of the conatus , as used in Baruch Spinoza 's psychology , is derived from sources both ancient and medieval . Spinoza reformulates principles that the Stoics , Cicero , Laertius , and especially Hobbes and Descartes developed . One significant change he makes to Hobbes ' theory is his belief that the conatus ad motum , ( conatus to motion ) , is not mental , but material .
Spinoza , with his determinism , believes that man and nature must be unified under a consistent set of laws ; God and nature are one , and there is no free will . Contrary to most philosophers of his time and in accordance with most of those of the present , Spinoza rejects the dualistic assumption that mind , intentionality , ethics , and freedom are to be treated as things separate from the natural world of physical objects and events . His goal is to provide a unified explanation of all these things within a naturalistic framework , and his notion of conatus is central to this project . For example , an action is " free " , for Spinoza , only if it arises from the essence and conatus of an entity . There can be no absolute , unconditioned freedom of the will , since all events in the natural world , including human actions and choices , are determined in accord with the natural laws of the universe , which are inescapable . However , an action can still be free in the sense that it is not constrained or otherwise subject to external forces .
Human beings are thus an integral part of nature . Spinoza explains seemingly irregular human behaviour as really " natural " and rational and motivated by this principle of the conatus . In the process , he replaces the notion of free will with the conatus , a principle that can be applied to all of nature and not just man .
= = = = Emotions and affects = = = =
Spinoza 's view of the relationship between the conatus and the human affects is not clear . Firmin DeBrabander , assistant professor of philosophy at the Maryland Institute College of Art , and Antonio Damasio , professor of neuroscience at the University of Southern California , both argue that the human affects arise from the conatus and the perpetual drive toward perfection . Indeed , Spinoza states in his Ethics that happiness , specifically , " consists in the human capacity to preserve itself " . This " endeavor " is also characterized by Spinoza as the " foundation of virtue " . Conversely , a person is saddened by anything that opposes his conatus .
David Bidney ( 1908 – 1987 ) , professor at Yale University , disagrees . Bidney closely associates " desire " , a primary affect , with the conatus principle of Spinoza . This view is backed by the Scholium of IIIP9 of the Ethics which states , " Between appetite and desire there is no difference , except that desire is generally related to men insofar as they are conscious of the appetite . So desire can be defined as appetite together with consciousness of the appetite . " According to Bidney , this desire is controlled by the other affects , pleasure and pain , and thus the conatus strives towards that which causes joy and avoids that which produces pain .
= = In Leibniz = =
Gottfried Leibniz ( 1646 – 1716 ) was a student of Erhard Weigel ( 1625 – 1699 ) and learned of the conatus principle from him and from Hobbes , though Weigel used the word tendentia ( Latin : tendency ) . Specifically , Leibniz uses the word conatus in his Exposition and Defence of the New System ( 1695 ) to describe a notion similar that of Hobbes , but he differentiates between the conatus of the body and soul , the first of which may only travel in a straight line by its own power , and the latter of which may " remember " more complicated motions .
For Leibniz , the problem of motion comes to a resolution of the paradox of Zeno . Since motion is continuous , space must be infinitely divisible . In order for anything to begin moving at all , there must be some mind @-@ like , voluntaristic property or force inherent in the basic constituents of the universe that propels them . This conatus is a sort of instantaneous or " virtual " motion that all things possess , even when they are static . Motion , meanwhile , is just the summation of all the conatuses that a thing has , along with the interactions of things . The conatus is to motion as a point is to space . The problem with this view is that an object that collides with another would not be able to bounce back , if the only force in play were the conatus . Hence , Leibniz was forced to postulate the existence of an aether that kept objects moving and allowed for elastic collisions . Leibniz ' concept of a mind @-@ like memory @-@ less property of conatus , coupled with his rejection of atoms , eventually led to his theory of monads .
Leibniz also uses his concept of a conatus in developing the principles of the integral calculus , adapting the meaning of the term , in this case , to signify a mathematical analog of Newton 's accelerative " force " . By summing an infinity of such conatuses ( i.e. , what is now called integration ) , Leibniz could measure the effect of a continuous force . He defines impetus as the result of a continuous summation of the conatus of a body , just as the vis viva ( or " living force " ) is the sum of the inactive vis mortua .
Based on the work of Kepler and probably Descartes , Leibniz develops a model of planetary motion based on the conatus principle , the idea of aether and a fluid vortex . This theory is expounded in the work Tentamen de motuum coelestium causis ( 1689 ) . According to Leibniz , Kepler 's analysis of elliptical orbits into a circular and a radial component can be explained by a " harmonic vortex " for the circular motion combined with a centrifugal force and gravity , both of which are examples of conatus , to account for the radial motion . Leibniz later defines the term monadic conatus , as the " state of change " through which his monads perpetually advance .
= = Related usages and terms = =
Several other uses of the term conatus , apart from the primary ones mentioned above , have been formulated by various philosophers over the centuries . There are also some important related terms and concepts which have , more or less , similar meanings and usages . Giambattista Vico ( 1668 – 1744 ) defined conatus as the essence of human society , and also , in a more traditional , hylozoistic sense , as the generating power of movement which pervades all of nature . Nearly a century after the beginnings of modern science , Vico , inspired by Neoplatonism , explicitly rejected the principle of inertia and the laws of motion of the new physics . For him , nature was composed neither of atoms , as in the dominant view , nor of extension , as in Descartes , but of metaphysical points animated by a conatus principle provoked by God .
Arthur Schopenhauer ( 1788 – 1860 ) developed a philosophy that contains a principle notably similar to that of Hobbes 's conatus . This principle , Wille zum Leben , or " Will to Live " , described the specific phenomenon of an organism 's self @-@ preservation instinct . Schopenhauer qualified this , however , by suggesting that the Will to Live is not limited in duration . Rather , " the will wills absolutely and for all time " , across generations . Friedrich Nietzsche ( 1844 – 1900 ) , an early disciple of Schopenhauer , developed a separate principle which comes out of a rejection of the primacy of Schopenhauer 's Will to Live and other notions of self @-@ preservation . He called his version the Will to Power , or Wille zur Macht .
Sigmund Freud ( 1856 – 1939 ) , greatly depended on Spinoza 's formulation of the conatus principle as a system of self @-@ preservation , though he never cited him directly in any of his published works . Around the same time , Henri Bergson ( 1859 – 1941 ) , developed the principle of the élan vital , or " vital impulse " , which was thought to aid in the evolution of organisms . This concept , which implies a fundamental driving force behind all life , is reminiscent of the conatus principle of Spinoza and others .
For Max Scheler , the concept of Drang is the centerpiece of philosophical anthropology and metaphysics . Though his concept has been important throughout his entire philosophical career , it was only developed later in his life when his focus shifted from phenomenology to metaphysics . Like Bergson 's élan vital , Drang ( drive or impulsion ) is the impetus of all life ; however , unlike in Bergson 's vitalistic metaphysics , the significance of Drang is that it provides the motivation and driving force even of Spirit ( Geist ) . Spirit , which includes all theoretical intentionality , is powerless without the movement of Drang , the material principle , as well as Eros , the psychological principle .
The cultural anthropologist Louis Dumont ( 1911 – 1988 ) , described a cultural conatus built directly upon Spinoza 's seminal definition in IIIP3 of his Ethics . The principle behind this derivative concept states that any given culture , " tends to persevere in its being , whether by dominating other cultures or by struggling against their domination " .
= = Modern significance = =
= = = Physical = = =
After the advent of Newtonian physics , the concept of a conatus of all physical bodies was largely superseded by the principle of inertia and conservation of momentum . As Bidney states , " It is true that logically desire or the conatus is merely a principle of inertia ... the fact remains , however , that this is not Spinoza 's usage . " Likewise , conatus was used by many philosophers to describe other concepts which have slowly been made obsolete . Conatus recendendi , for instance , became the centrifugal force , and gravity is used where conatus a centro had been previously . Today , the topics with which conatus dealt are matters of science and are thus subject to inquiry by the scientific method .
= = = Biological = = =
The archaic concept of conatus is today being reconciled with modern biology by scientists such as Antonio Damasio . The conatus of today , however , is explained in terms of chemistry and neurology where , before , it was a matter of metaphysics and theurgy . This concept may be " constructed so as to maintain the coherence of a living organism 's structures and functions against numerous life @-@ threatening odds " .
= = = = Systems theory = = = =
The Spinozistic conception of a conatus was a historical precursor to modern theories of autopoiesis in biological systems . In systems theory and the sciences in general , the concept of a conatus may be related to the phenomenon of emergence , whereby complex systems may spontaneously form from multiple simpler structures . The self @-@ regulating and self @-@ maintaining properties of biological and even social systems may thus be considered modern versions of Spinoza 's conatus principle ; however , the scope of the idea is definitely narrower today without the religious implications of the earlier variety .
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= Roseville Avenue ( NJT station ) =
Roseville Avenue was a transfer station on New Jersey Transit 's Morris & Essex Lines ( consisting of the Montclair Branch , Morristown Line and Gladstone Branch ) in Newark , New Jersey , United States . The station was built by the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad in 1903 during a track depression to serve Newark 's Roseville neighborhood . It once had two tracks ( one each eastbound and westbound ) on the Lackawanna mainline and two low @-@ wall platforms , with an additional platform along the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . The station remained in service during most of the 20th century , until New Jersey Transit closed the station on September 16 , 1984 .
Today , the only landmarks that mark the former station site are a metal utility box labeled " Roseville , " and several flights of concrete stairs in the sides of the concrete @-@ lined depression in which the track of the Morristown Line runs between the East Orange and Newark Broad Street stations . Shortly eastward of this structure , the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line splits from the Morristown Line on its way to Montclair , Boonton , and Denville .
= = Station structure = =
Roseville Avenue station consisted of two different sets of double track to serve passenger trains for the Delaware , Lackawanna , and Western Railroad 's Montclair Branch ( now the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line ) and the Delaware , Lackawanna , and Western Railroad 's Morris & Essex Lines ( now the Morristown Line and the Gladstone Branch ) . The tracks were 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) below the street level , and the station below street level was a brick passenger station extending to the Roseville Avenue bridge at Seventh Avenue . The other structure stood on street level , above the cut , served the Morris and Essex Line just north of the fork at Roseville . The station had four platforms , two for the Montclair Branch and two for the Morristown / Gladstone Lines in both direction .
Roseville Tower was the interlocking tower at street @-@ level in Roseville that handled the nearby fork of the three lines ( Montclair , Morristown and Gladstone ) . The tower was used on limited services , with only three different shifts , two of which were manned . The tower was run from 5 a.m. in the morning to 10 p.m. in the evening manned . The rest of the time , the tower was set on automatic .
= = History = =
= = = Original station and track depression = = =
The original Roseville Avenue station dates back to the opening of the Morris & Essex Railroad Station in 1856 , when tracks were constructed through the Roseville district of Newark . These tracks went along Sixth and Seventh Avenues , while the original station served the Montclair Branch at a fork along Seventh Avenue and the Morris & Essex main line along Sixth Avenue . The station was designed with two platforms , one along each line , the Morris & Essex first made use of the Montclair Branch property in April 1868 after buying the Newark and Bloomfield Railroad .
In April 1901 , the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad announced track depression and raising throughout portions of the line through Newark and the Oranges . Although the depression went into Newark , most of the debate over localities of stations was basically into the Oranges . In 1903 , the track depression reached the Roseville Avenue Station , and the lines were depressed through Roseville . The new station built during the track depression was of similar style , with the station in the middle of the five @-@ track interlocking , with one platform servicing the Montclair Branch 's two tracks and one for the Main Line 's two tracks . Rather than crossing at @-@ grade , Roseville Avenue was bridged over the tracks with a brand new street @-@ level interlocking tower present at the intersection of Roseville and Seventh Avenues .
= = = Delaware , Lackawanna and Western , and Erie – Lackawanna ownership = = =
During the ownership of the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad , Roseville Avenue prospered , soon receiving sixty @-@ eight stops by trains daily . This caught attention during a 1913 complaint to the New Jersey Board of Public Utilities by Charles McCausland . The major complaint from McCausland cited that the Lackawanna was not providing quality seating service on trains that stop at Roseville , and several which led to overcrowding , while several bypassing trains did not suffer from such effects . The plaintiff , McCausland , cited that the need for the sixty @-@ eight trains was " additional but unnecessary " . The Board of Public Utility Commissioners did not justify any changes or wrongdoing by the railroad , and as a result , no changes to service were made at Roseville Avenue .
The station continued receiving major service over the next five decades , but by 1966 , fewer trains stopped at the station , with limited daily service to the station past the 4 : 33 p.m. train from Hoboken Terminal . Six years later , on June 24 , 1972 , the Erie – Lackawanna Railroad , who now maintained the station , announced further cutbacks on station service , axing twenty @-@ three train stops at Roseville Avenue for both directions of service . The changes were made as part of major commuter service appropriations and the lack of patronage at the station . From that point , Roseville Avenue went from 37 westbound trains to 14 , while eastbound was cut from 37 to 16 . Service on Saturdays were cut to flag stops only , while the station received no Sunday service at all . On April 1 , 1976 , the Erie – Lackawanna Railroad became defunct , and merged into Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) , with service sponsored by the New Jersey Department of Transportation .
= = = New Jersey Transit use and eventual closure = = =
After the takeover of service along the former Morris & Essex Lines by New Jersey Transit from Conrail in 1982 , the service at the Roseville Avenue station remained minimal . Many trains bypassed the station in favor of going to the nearby Newark Broad Street Station . Trains continued to serve the Roseville Avenue station throughout 1982 and 1983 , and service continued to be condensed during 1984 . However , as of the official September 1984 timetables , service was cut from Roseville Avenue in favor of Newark Broad Street to Grove Street , East Orange ( on the Morris & Essex ) or Ampere ( on the Montclair Branch ) , both of which closed in April 1991 . On September 16 , 1984 , trains began bypassing Roseville Avenue , and the station was closed permanently . Although the station was closed , Roseville Tower , for the interlocking between the Montclair Branch and Morris & Essex Lines , remained in service for almost two more decades . In 2002 , during construction of the Montclair Connection , the tower was demolished in favor of expanding the cut in Roseville for a second track of the new Montclair @-@ Boonton Line .
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= Ivan Jones ( Emmerdale ) =
Ivan Jones is a fictional character in the British soap opera Emmerdale , played by Daniel Brocklebank . He appeared in the series from 5 May 2005 until 2 August 2006 . Ivan was originally introduced to participate in a storyline about the character of Jarvis Skelton ( Richard Moore ) and only meant to feature in three episodes . The serial 's producers were impressed with Brocklebank and made Ivan a regular character . The character is a Geordie , which required the actor to adopt the accent . Ivan is characterised as a “ good @-@ humoured " and " charming " dustman , while Brocklebank described him as having " quite a few " love interests and stated that he has " slept his way around the village " .
It was later announced that the character is bisexual and he starts a sexual relationship with Paul Lambert ( Mathew Bose ) . Their relationship proved to be an " explosive combination " due to Ivan wanting it to remain a secret . Brocklebank has praised his storyline and spoke of his hopes that it would remove the social stigma attached to bisexuality . His sexuality is accidentally revealed to everyone he knows by Paul . Ivan is later subject to a revenge campaign after he turns down the advances of Paul 's sister , Nicola Blackstock ( Nicola Wheeler ) . She lies that Ivan has been having an affair with her , ruining his relationship with Paul . In April 2006 , Brocklebank announced his decision to leave the serial to concentrate on other projects . The actor said that he had grown " very attached " to Ivan and enjoyed being a part of Emmerdale . He filmed his final scenes in June and Ivan left in August .
The character caused controversy when 126 viewers complained to television watch dog Ofcom about Ivan and Paul 's intimacy . The company later cleared Emmerdale of any wrongdoing . Brocklebank said that Christian groups wrote to him condemning him to hell because of Ivan 's sexuality . However , he also had letters from young lesbian and gay people who claimed that Ivan gave them the courage to be themselves . Paul Flynn from The Guardian praised his storyline involving Nicola 's affair lies . Kevin O 'Sullivan from the Sunday Mirror opined that Ivan was clearly gay because he was as " camp as a row of tents " .
= = Casting = =
Brocklebank was hired by Emmerdale to play Ivan for a three episode stint . They introduced Ivan as part of the storyline about the character of Jarvis Skelton ( Richard Moore ) getting too old to be a binman . Brocklebank told Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury that the serial 's producers did not intend for his character to develop , but they enjoyed his work and kept him on . They later extended his contract to last into mid @-@ 2006 . Brocklebank found that taking the role gave him a " new respect " for soap opera actors because of how hard he had to work . While the actor is from Warwickshire ; Ivan is a Geordie and has the regional accent . Brocklebank had to put the accent on for the role and members of the public were confused when they heard him speak in person .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation and bisexuality = = =
A writer from Emmerdale 's Finnish broadcaster MTV3 described Ivan as being a " good @-@ humoured " , " dark " and " charming dustman " Ivan is revealed to be bisexual and admits his attraction to Paul Lambert ( Mathew Bose ) . Brocklebank told a writer from So So Gay that Ivan had " quite a few " love interests and " slept his way around the village " . When the actor first started the role , Ivan was straight and married . He said that it was not until eight months after he started that he was informed his character would be bisexual . Brocklebank , who is openly gay , said there was a risk of himself becoming " pigeonholed " playing a bisexual character , but added it was not something that worried him .
Ivan had previously been married to a woman and he enjoys flirting with females . One such moment is a flirtation with Jasmine Thomas ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) ; they bond over her liking of the Brontë novels Wuthering Heights and Shirley . When Nicola Blackstock ( Nicola Wheeler ) confesses her attraction to Ivan , he tells her that it is her brother , Paul that he is interested in and kisses him on the cheek . Brocklebank told Laws that he had known Bose for six years prior to joining the serial and was also living with him . He said that it would be " embarrassing " if romance developed between their characters because of their friendship . However , the actor did think it was " great " to be given " such a meaty storyline " . Brocklebank told a reporter from The People that he dreaded to think what his grandmother would make of the storyline . He said he was interested to receive the reaction from viewers because " it 's a subject that hasn 't been covered before " . The actor later said that he found Ivan 's bisexuality " really interesting " because he felt that it had not " really been tackled in soaps before " . Brocklebank later spoke of his belief that there was " still a stigma attached to being bisexual " and his hopes that Ivan 's storyline would " break some barriers " around the issue .
Ivan starts to pursue Paul and they start sleeping together . However , Ivan 's lax and secretive attitude to their relationship soon annoys Paul . Bose told a writer from Inside Soap that his character is a " serial monogamist " and " has a lot of love to give " . Ivan is the opposite and he has " been cracking on to all the girls in the village and Paul can 't relate to that " . His bisexuality and secretive nature becomes an issue for Paul ; Ivan cannot offer Paul " 100 per cent – physically , emotionally or spiritually , no matter how much they like each other " . Paul attempts to come to terms with the situation and tries to dump him . The next time they are around each other they struggle to keep their flirtation hidden . Bose added that Ivan still " wants to do everything on the quiet " , which is a " real hardship " for Paul . The dynamic of their relationship proves to be an " explosive combination " . Ivan later has to decide if he is ready for a gay relationship , while Paul weighs up the risks of getting hurt by Ivan . Bose told Laura Davidson from the Sunday Mail that " whether or not Ivan is the one for Paul , I 'd like to see him with someone who makes him happy . "
When Paul is tormented by a group of homophobic men , Ivan steps in to rescue him . Brocklebank told Kris Green of Digital Spy that Ivan tells the men that if they have a problem they should take it out on him , not his boyfriend . This is the first time Ivan " actually vocalises it " and he is shocked because " he has ever considered anyone to be his boyfriend before " . Paul then invites Ivan out for dinner with his father , but Ivan is not ready to come out . The actor said that Ivan needs more time until he feels comfortable with the situation . Ivan 's ex @-@ wife Jordan ( Erin Shanagher ) caught him with another man , outed him and which resulted in a " horrendous " reaction from those he knew . Brocklebank said that this causes his reluctance to come out again because " he 's become scared about opening himself up to a new community of people and is worried about the villagers ' reaction . "
Brocklebank explained the dynamic between the two characters : Paul finds it " extremely difficult " to be in a secretive relationship because he wants different things in a relationship . When Paul does his drag act " Thelma Louise " in the local pub , he mentions that he is a secret relationship . This annoys Ivan and an argument ensues in the toilets . However , Paul has accidentally left his microphone on and Ivan is outed to the whole pub . Brocklebank said that Ivan feels " upset and betrayed " and " deep down he knows he ’ s bisexual but isn ’ t sure if a relationship is going to work with Paul " as he cannot conform to Paul 's ideas about relationships .
= = = Nicola Blackstock 's lies = = =
Ivan and Paul 's relationship is tested when " scheming " Nicola attempts to seduce Ivan , despite the fact he is in a relationship with her brother . Ivan is not impressed and rebuffs Nicola 's advances . Wheeler told the Sunday Mail 's Davidson that Nicola trying to seduce Ivan is a " long shot " but she is not ready to give in because she has a " huge crush " on him . She added that the storyline was " hilarious " and " madness " because he is " having sex with her brother and she 's still entertaining the idea of being with him " . Once Nicola sees something she wants , " nothing will stop her " .
Nicola sets out to seduce Ivan after an argument with her boyfriend Simon Meredith ( Dale Meeks ) . Wheeler told Allison Maund from Inside Soap that Nicola calls Ivan for " some comfort " and they get drunk and " very cosy " ; but Ivan presumes they are just good friends . Ivan gets out of the shower wearing a towel and is confronted with Nicola " dressed in her sexiest underwear " . Ivan tells Nicola to stop because he loves Paul , but Simon 's mother Lesley Meredith ( Sherrie Hewson ) walks in on them and assumes that they are having an affair . Nicola does not correct Lesley and tells her to believe what she likes and then Paul learns of the situation . Wheeler said that Nicola realises she cannot " get out of the lie now " and even tells her father , Rodney Blackstock ( Patrick Mower ) that she has slept with Ivan . The actress added that " Nicola 's just quite pleased with the fact that she 's got her own back on Ivan " . He confronts her in public and asks her to tell the truth , but she " turns on the waterworks " to get everyone to turn against Ivan . Later Nicola argues with Paul and she tells him that she and Ivan have slept together many times . Wheeler said that Nicola just thinks " Sod it , I 'm going to leave them all stewing " . Her lies ruin Ivan 's relationship with Paul , who believes Nicola 's lies .
The serial later played out another chance for Ivan and Paul to be together . While interviewed by Claire Brand from Inside Soap , Bose said that Paul visits Ivan to give him back a CD he left over his house and " both of them realise that they don 't have anything left to say to each other . " Bose opined that Ivan and Paul were " doomed from the start " because he needed Ivan to commit . Rodney thinks that he can reunite Paul and Ivan and sets the pair up . He explained that the two had " just about got over their awkwardness with one another " and Rodney tells the whole pub that it is obvious that Paul and Ivan love each other and need to reconcile . The whole situation is " embarrassing for both of them " and Ivan is furious with Rodney 's intervention . After some " soul searching " , Ivan calms down and " stuns " Paul when he asks him to get back with him . Paul rejects Ivan 's advances , Bose said that Paul normally likes " the big love affair " but this time gives him his " marching orders " . Ivan is left heartbroken once again and decides to take some time away from the village . Bose stated that his character goes to see him off and there is a " terrible silent moment " between the two . He concluded that the audience could clearly see that Ivan and Paul were " kicking themselves " for not saying how they really feel .
= = = Departure = = =
In April 2006 , Brocklebank revealed that he had quit the role and would film his final scenes in June . He told a reporter from Inside Soap that the fact he was originally employed for a guest role ; then staying for a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half had been " great " . He added that he was pleased to see Ivan depart the series on a " high note " because he had enjoyed the experience . An Emmerdale spokesperson added that the character would become " a pawn in the rivalry " between his former employer King & Sons and Matthew King ( Matt Healy ) and Sadie King 's ( Patsy Kensit ) new business . In addition they planned a " romantic liaison " for Ivan which would be a " big shock to viewers and villagers alike " . Ivan departed the series in August 2006 when he left to work in Costa Rica alongside fellow character Simon . Brocklebank later told a columnist from the Peterborough Evening Telegraph that he would not rule out a future return because there was " room for the character to go back " . He found leaving " liberating in a way " because he wanted to pursue other projects .
= = Storylines = =
Ivan arrives in the village working as a binman for " King & Sons " just after he has separated from his wife . He starts to outperform Jarvis in his new job role and has a fling with Toni Daggert ( Kerry Stacey ) . Ivan takes an interest in Jasmine 's liking of literature . He gives her a copy of the Bronte novel Shirley and she lets him buy her a drink . Laurel Thomas ( Charlotte Bellamy ) becomes concerned and warns Jasmine away from Ivan because of their age difference . When Nicola reveals that she is attracted to Ivan , he reveals that he likes Paul by kissing him on the cheek . Ivan and Paul soon start a sexual relationship ; but Ivan does not want anyone else to know about the relationship , which Paul finds difficult . Paul grows tired of being secretive and dumps Ivan . However , when Nicola arranges a meal that they both attend , Ivan and Paul get drunk and flirt . Ivan moves in with Simon and Nicola .
Ivan goes to collect some things that he left behind at Jordan 's house . Paul goes with him and takes Rodney 's van . When he returns , Ivan finds the van with graffiti reading " ladyboys " and Paul surrounded by men . Ivan threatens the homophobic group with a cricket bat and tells them that he is Paul 's boyfriend . Ivan is shocked that he finally admitted it to someone but still insists that they remain quiet upon returning to the village . Nicola thinks that Paul is seeing someone and attempts to find out who it is . She tells Laurel that she still likes Ivan . When Paul does his drag queen act " Thelma Louise " at The Woolpack , he makes jibes about having a secret boyfriend and drops hints . Ivan gets angry and the pair argue in the toilets , unaware that the whole pub can still hear them because Paul forgets to switch off his microphone . Ivan accuses Paul of doing it on purpose , but he eventually deals with being outed .
When Nicola feels down about Simon moving on , she decides to seduce Ivan . He rebuffs her advances but she tells Lesley , Rodney and Laurel that she slept with Ivan . When Ivan tries to get the truth , she convinces everyone else that he lying . Paul refuses to speak to Ivan and makes his father throw Nicola out of her home . She then tells Laurel that she lied about the whole thing . Laurel then tells everyone inside the pub that Nicola has lied and Ivan refuses to accept everyone 's apologies . Rodney thinks that Ivan and Paul should get back together and lets the whole pub know . Ivan is annoyed but then realises he is right . When Ivan asks Paul for another chance , he turns him down and Ivan leaves the village . When he returns , Simon is annoyed with him for leaving him to pay the rent on Mulberry Cottage . He forgives him when Ivan reveals that he is just back for his job . He is made haulage manager for Matthew and Sadie 's new business after they poach him . However , the job soon ends and along with Simon they leave Emmerdale for a new life in Costa Rica .
= = Reception = =
A scene in which Ivan and Paul shared a kiss on a sofa sparked some controversy with viewers . 126 people complained to media watch dog Ofcom deeming the scenes to be explicit . The company later cleared Emmerdale of any wrongdoing , and a spokesperson said that " Ivan and Paul 's behaviour was no more explicit than that previously exhibited by other characters in the soap . Given the inexplicit portrayal of this relationship , we consider that these scenes were acceptable . " While Andy Green of the Liverpool Echo said " Paul and Ivan 's fumble on the sofa was probably the steamiest pre @-@ watershed gay scene ever shown on mainstream TV . " Brocklebank told So So Gay 's reporter that Ivan 's bisexuality storyline had a " huge effect " on the viewers . He revealed that he had received " a lot " of letters from Christian groups telling him that he would go to hell for kissing another male on pre @-@ watershed television . However , he also received many from young gay and lesbian teenagers who had thanked him for " making it easier to come out " because they had someone to relate to . He added that " the majority was very positive " feedback and felt happy to know that his portrayal had helped people face their sexuality .
On Ivan and Paul intimacy , Imogen Ridgway of the Evening Standard said that " Emmerdale was never this racy when my gran used to watch it " . She mocked Ivan 's plan to keep his relationship a secret because the village is full of gossips . Suzanne Kerins of the Sunday Mirror reported that viewers were " not impressed " when the " bisexual binman " shared a kiss with Paul . Ivan was labelled as a " hunky binman " by Jane Simon from the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mercury 's Laws , the latter branded his relationship with Paul a " surprising Emmerdale storyline " . Kevin O 'Sullivan from the Sunday Mirror opined that " Paul 's reluctant bisexual binman lover Ivan the Terrible Queen is as camp as a row of tents " . He added that Nicola was a " numbskull " with a " useless " gaydar for not realising Ivan liked men . Fiona Wynne of the Daily Mirror said that Paul tried hard to get Ivan out of the closet but " he 's hanging on so tightly by his fingertips he 's going to get splinters " .
A writer from the Yorkshire Evening Post opined that Ivan and Paul being confronted by homophobic thugs was a " dramatic moment " that made for a " gripping start to 2006 " in Emmerdale . Paul Lang from Lowculture said that he was enjoying the serial because of Ivan 's outing . He added that everyone wanted the two men to get together , " even if Paul is a fucking nightmare and Ivan is very much the wrong side of shifty . " Paul Flynn from The Guardian said that Ivan was a " hot bisexual " and felt that his storyline with Paul and Nicola was " played without resorting to cheap laughter " . Terry Ramsey of the Evening Standard questioned why Ivan even returned to the village after his break . The writer concluded that it was because " Emmerdale is probably the only bisexual @-@ friendly village in Yorkshire " . Upon learning that Brocklebank was leaving the series , the Daily Mail 's Carrie Fitton said that as " the only bisexual binman in the village he had staying power " .
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= River Witham =
The River Witham is a river almost entirely in the county of Lincolnshire in the east of England . It rises south of Grantham close to South Witham at SK8818 , passes Lincoln at SK9771 and at Boston , TF3244 , flows into The Haven , a tidal arm of The Wash , near RSPB Frampton Marsh . The name " Witham " seems to be extremely old and of unknown origin . Archaeological and documentary evidence shows the importance of the Witham as a navigation from the Iron Age onwards . From Roman times it was navigable to Lincoln , from where the Fossdyke was constructed to link it to the River Trent . The mouth of the river moved in 1014 following severe flooding , and Boston became important as a port .
From 1142 onwards , sluices were constructed to prevent flooding by the sea , and this culminated in the Great Sluice , which was constructed in 1766 . It maintained river levels above Boston , and helped to scour the channel below it . The land through which the lower river runs has been the subject of much land drainage , and many drains are connected to the Witham by flood doors , which block them off if river levels rise rapidly . The river is navigable from Brayford Pool in Lincoln to Boston , with Locks only in Lincoln , at Bardney and at the Grand Sluice . Passage through the Grand Sluice lock is restricted to short periods when the tidal levels are suitable . The river provides access for boaters to the Witham Navigable Drains , to the north of Boston , and to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain to the south , which was reopened as part of the Fens Waterways Link , a project to link the river to the River Nene near Peterborough . From Brayford Pool , the Fossdyke Navigation still links to the Trent .
= = Route = =
The Witham 's course is one of the strangest of British rivers , the result of glaciation ( and possibly isostatic rebound ) redirecting older rivers . The source of the river is on high ground near South Witham , Lincolnshire , from whence it flows generally north , very close to and almost parallel with the Trent around the outskirts of Newark , before turning east towards Lincoln . The upper waters are important for agricultural water extraction , and also for coarse fish such as roach , common bream and pike ; small mammals like water voles , and native crayfish . A gap in the limestone near Ancaster is believed to represent an earlier , straighter course of the upper river towards Boston , leading towards what is now the Slea .
From near Claypole to Beckingham , a distance of about three miles , the river forms the boundary between Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire . From North Witham to Long Bennington , the river largely follows the line of the A1 , which crosses the river just north of the B6403 junction near Easton .
In Lincoln , the river flows into Brayford Pool and exits along a narrow channel that passes under the mediaeval High Bridge . The bridge not only restricts navigation due to its small size , but the volume of water that can pass through the gap is limited in times of flood . This is alleviated by the Syncil Dyke , which leaves the main channel at Bargate Weir and runs for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) through the industrial areas to the south of the main city centre . It used to rejoin the main channel at Stamp End , but was re @-@ routed into the South Delph , a drainage ditch constructed by John Rennie in the early 19th century that joins the main channel below Bardney lock . The origins of the Sincil Dyke are unknown , but it is known to have been used as a drainage channel in the mid @-@ 13th century and is thought to be pre @-@ medieval or even Roman . Parts of it were culverted in 1847 to allow the construction of Lincoln Central railway station .
From Lincoln , the river again turns first east , then south , making a cut through an belt of upland known as the Lincoln Gap . This section is again believed to have been a lower course of the Trent during and before periods of glaciation .
From Dogdyke near Coningsby to Boston , the north bank of the river was used by a section of the Great Northern Railway from Lincoln to Boston . A long @-@ distance footpath , the Water Rail Way , follows the course of the river from Lincoln to Boston . The path uses sections of the river towpath and abandoned railway tracks , and has been opened in stages , with the final 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) being completed in September 2008 . The path is now part of Route 1 of the National Cycle Network and features a number of sculptures along its length , each commissioned from local artists . They include Lincoln longwool sheep at Stixwould , Lincoln red cows at Washingborough , and Lincoln curly pigs , which became extinct in 1972 , at Southrey .
= = History = =
The name " Witham " seems to be extremely old , apparently predating Anglo @-@ Saxon , Roman , and even Celtic influence . The meaning is not known . Archaeological evidence points to river navigation as far back as the Iron Age . Artefacts such as the Witham Shield and Fiskerton Boat have been recovered and are on display at the British Museum in London or The Collection in Lincoln .
The Witham , which was originally tidal up to Lincoln , was an important navigation in Roman times . Lincoln ( Lindum ) — the meeting point of Ermine Street , joining London to York , and Fosse Way , leading to Leicester and Bath — was an important Roman fort that became one of only four colonia in Britain . Most important Roman cities were situated near navigable water , which enabled goods to be transported in bulk , but Lincoln did not possess this advantage , and so the Romans constructed the Fossdyke from Lincoln to Torksey on the River Trent , improved the River Witham from Lincoln to The Wash , and built the Car Dyke from Lincoln to the River Cam near Cambridge . The Witham thus gave Lincoln access to the east coast , while the Fossdyke gave access to the Trent and further on to the Humber .
Trading continued throughout the medieval period evidenced by the importance of Torksey , which was then a flourishing town , now only a small village . However , the Fossdyke needed much maintenance to keep it clear of silt . Henry I had overseen the scouring of its channel , and there were inquiries in 1335 , 1365 and 1518 to consider the state of the Fossdyke and to compel the inhabitants of the region to maintain it . Lincoln was a centre for the collection of business taxes , but this came at the cost of maintaining the waterways , and having finally decided it was too large a cost , James I presented the Fossdyke to the City of Lincoln .
The Witham originally flowed into The Wash at Bicker Haven , where the port of Drayton was established in the Welland estuary , and it was only as a result of massive flooding in 1014 that it diverted itself to flow into The Haven at Boston . This gave rise to the growth of Boston as a port in the 12th and 13th centuries , exporting wool and salt to the Hanseatic League , though Boston only received its charter in 1545 .
The river was affected by silting which restricted trade despite the construction of various sluices and barriers from 1142 onwards , when the first sluice was built below Boston . Other sluices were erected at Boston in 1500 and at Langrick in 1543 , but navigation was again difficult on both the river and the Fossdyke by 1660 . In 1671 an Act of Parliament was obtained for the improvement of the Navigation . In 1743 , John Grundy , Sr. and his son John Grundy , Jr. were commissioned to produce a detailed survey of the river . They produced an engraved map in 1743 and a printed report , running to 48 pages , in the following year . The main recommendation was a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) new cut to eliminate the " prodigious meandering course " of the channel above Boston . Although the estimated cost of £ 16 @,@ 200 dissuaded the landowners from taking action at the time , the report formed the basis for improvements in the 1760s .
= = = Canalisation = = =
Following meetings of Landowners held in 1752 and 1753 , they asked John Grundy Jr , as his father had died in 1748 , to re @-@ evaluate his plans from 1744 and consider a plan for a " Grand Sluice " that had been produced by Daniel Coppin in 1745 . Grundy suggested that the 1744 cut should be extended by a further 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) into Boston , and that the sluice could then be built on the extension . The landowners moved the location of the sluice nearer to Boston , but otherwise approved his report , although no action was taken . John Grundy was again consulted in 1757 , and Langley Edwards of King 's Lynn was asked to review the positioning of the sluice in 1760 . The landowners then asked John Smeaton to liaise with Grundy and Edwards , and the three engineers produced a joint report in 1761 , with estimates of £ 38 @,@ 000 for drainage works and £ 7 @,@ 400 for improvements to navigation . The report was approved , although a meeting held in January 1762 decided that the new cut should revert to the alignment suggested by Grundy in 1753 . The location of the Grand Sluice would be as suggested by Edwards in 1760 . Grundy produced another engraved map , and parliamentary approval for the works were obtained in June 1762 .
Once the Act of Parliament was obtained , Edwards became the engineer for the project , and drew up the detailed plans , which Grundy and Smeaton checked and altered slightly , after which they had no further involvement with the scheme . Construction was started in April 1763 , and the drainage element of the project , which included the sluice , was finished in 1768 , having cost £ 42 @,@ 000 . Work on three locks and other work connected with navigation cost £ 6 @,@ 000 and continued until 1771 . The locks were located at Stamp End , Kirkstead and Barlings . The Grand Sluice was a major construction which maintained the height of water above Boston to near normal high tide level and had massive flood gates to cope with any tides above this . It was completed in 1766 and was effective in scouring the Haven below it , but actually encouraged further silting of the river above it .
The 1762 act created the Witham Navigation Commissioners and the Witham Drainage General Commissioners , who continued to promote drainage schemes actively , creating a drainage network known as the Witham Navigable Drains that transformed much of northern Lincolnshire from fen to farming land . Today many of these channels are managed by the Witham First , Third and Fourth District Internal Drainage Boards and Upper Witham Internal Drainage Board . These four internal drainage boards reduce the flood risk to the surrounding properties , land and environment .
In 1791 , as part of the campaign to promote the construction of the Horncastle Canal , the Commissioners of the River Witham asked the engineer William Jessop to assess the state of the Fossdyke Navigation and the Witham , with particular reference to the problems of navigating through Lincoln , where the channel was restricted by a medieval bridge . He proposed two solutions ; the first avoided the route through the city entirely , by utilising the course of the Sincil Dyke to the south , while the second involved lowering the bottom of the channel through the Glory Hole bridge , which was only 18 inches ( 46 cm ) deep at normal water levels . The Commissioners had imposed a toll on all traffic passing under the bridge , but decided that a channel bypassing the city would have grave financial consequences . They opted for improving the existing channel and the work to remove the wooden floor , to lower the river bed under the bridge and to underpin its foundations was completed in 1795 . The Commissioners dropped the collection of tolls at the bridge , but the amount they received from traffic passing through the locks increased as the volume of traffic grew in response to the easier passage through the bridge .
= = = The Grand Sluice = = =
When completed in 1766 , Edwards ' Grand Sluice consisted of three channels each 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide , fitted with pointed gates on both sides , and a lock adjacent to the north bank , which could be used as an additional flood relief channel if required . The lock was originally very small , but was lengthened to its current 41 by 12 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) in 1881 . The pointed doors on the non @-@ tidal side of the sluice were replaced by steel guillotine gates between 1979 and 1982 .
= = = Improvements = = =
The state of the Witham had deteriorated by 1802 , and the Commissioners asked John Rennie for advice . He stated that the Kirkstead lock was badly placed , and the associated staunch was in danger of collapse . He recommended that it be demolished and rebuilt elsewhere , and also suggested that access to Boston should be through the Witham Naviagable Drains , rather than the Grand Sluice , or that a new cut should be built to the south of the sluice , to rejoin the river at Boston Harbour . In 1803 , he suggested that High Bridge at Lincoln should be demolished and rebuilt . Four years later , he suggested that the locks at Kirkstead and Barlings should be removed , and replaced by one near Washingborough church . The Commissioners petitioned parliament in 1808 , and a new Act of Parliament authorised the work , to be carried out by a company of proprietors . They could borrow £ 30 @,@ 000 for the drainage element of the scheme and £ 70 @,@ 000 for the navigation element . Two new locks were built , one at Stamp End and the other at Bardney , which replaced the original locks . A new channel was cut near Fiskerton , upstream of Bardney , and the plan for a lock at Washingborough was dropped . While Stamp End lock was being rebuilt , an alternative route was provided , utilising the Sincil Dyke and the South Delph . Rennie recorded that Branston Delph , Carlton Dike , Nocton Delph and Timberland Dike were navigable at the time . The proprietors obtained three more Acts of Parliament , in 1812 , 1826 and 1829 , all with the main aim of allowing more capital to be raised .
Tolls on the Witham had gradually risen as improvements had been made . £ 263 was raised in 1763 @-@ 4 , and had reached £ 898 by 1790 . In 1819 , income exceeded £ 4 @,@ 100 for the six months from March to September , and a five per cent dividend was paid in the following year . By 1826 , over £ ! 80 @,@ 000 had been spent on improvements , and another £ 40 @,@ 000 was needed . However , the proprietors were still optimistic , and commissioned Sir John Rennie to investigate an extension to link the Witham to the River Ancholme , but although he made two proposals , neither was implemented . Most traffic was carried by sailing vessels of in barges hauled by horses , but in March 1816 , the first steam packet boat arrived on the river . It was named Witham and had been built by Shuttleworth and Robinson , whose yard was on Sincil Dyke . Despite a boiler explosion in March 1817 , fortunately without causing injury to any of the crew or the 30 passengers , a second steam packet was operating by July 1817 , and they soon displaced the sailing packet boats . During a flood in 1828 , one of them lost power when a floating hedge became jammed in the paddle wheels . In the following year , a Lincoln man , William Pool invented a new type of paddlewheel , which resulted in the boats travelling faster , and in 1836 , wooden vessels were superseded by iron packet boats .
Railways reached Lincoln in August 1848 , 15 years after the first proposal . The Wakefield , Lincoln and Boston Railway hoped to build railways in the area , and negotiated with the proprietors and those of the Fosdyke . Under the arrangement , they would take over both navigations , and guarantee a fixed income for the proprietors . They would then merge with the London and York Railway . Both proposals had been absorbed into the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) by the time an Act of Parliament was obtained , but the original agreement was retained , and the GNR leased the Witham for 999 years for a payment of £ 10 @,@ 545 per year to the proprietors . This figure represented the average profits for the previous three years , plus five per cent . The railway company also agreed to pay the interest on mortgages amounting to £ 24 @,@ 692 which the proprietors held , but had redeemed them by 1857 . The railway from Lincoln to Boston ran along the eastern bank of the river , and opened on 17 October 1848 .
Most of the stations were located near to the landing stages which the steam packets used , and the railway did all it could to draw passengers away from the river . This included the provision of fourth @-@ class carriages , with fares set at a halfpenny per mile , in 1850 , and by 1863 , the steam packet boats had ceased operation . Freight traffic also declined , with coal passing through the Grand Sluice dropping from 19 @,@ 535 tons in 1847 to 3 @,@ 780 tons in 1857 . Nevertheless , the railway company had to maintain the river , and in 1871 , spent £ 5 @,@ 000 on making Bardney lock deeper by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at the request of the drainage commissioners . The GNR leased the navigation to the Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Committee in 1882 , and in 1897 , by which time the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway had become the Great Central Railway , they built a large warehouse beside Brayford Pool , with a transhipment dock next to it . Total traffic on the river had fallen to 18 @,@ 548 tons in 1905 , and averaged 5 @,@ 870 tons during the years of the First World War , mainly general merchandise and agricultural produce . With the nationalisation of the waterways following the Second World War , the navigation eventually became the responsibility of British Waterways as a result of the Transport Act 1962 , and since 2 July 2012 has been managed by the Canal & River Trust .
= = Current navigation = =
Today , commercial traffic , apart from tour boats , has ceased above the port of Boston ( The Haven ) and only pleasure craft carry on through the lock at the Grand Sluice into the Witham . Although the lock is only 41 feet ( 12 m ) long , it is possible for longer boats to pass through it at certain states of the tide . Unlike many such sea locks , the reverse @-@ facing gates close on every tide , as the normal high tide water level is higher than the level of the river , while at low tides there is insufficient water in the Haven to allow exit from the lock . Passage is therefore restricted to a brief period approximately two hours before or after high water . It is still possible to navigate many of the drains in small vessels , and a new lock , completed in December 2008 , provides entry to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from below the Grand Sluice so that vessels will be able to reach the Fens without venturing out to the Wash as part of the Fens Waterways Link .
The Witham is navigable from Brayford Wharf in Lincoln to Boston . There are two locks between Boston and Lincoln – one at Bardney and the other in Lincoln itself , the Stamp End Lock which is unusually a guillotine lock . The main obstruction to navigation is the High Bridge or Glory Hole in Lincoln , a medieval structure which is only about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide and 2 @.@ 6 metres ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) high at normal river levels . In times of flood it is unnavigable . The bridge spans the river for 87 feet ( 27 m ) , and consists of an arch built in c1160 , with extensions added in 1235 , 1540 to 1550 and 1762 / 3 . It is the only British bridge which still has secular medieval buildings standing on it , and is believed to be the second oldest masonry arch bridge in the country . It is currently a Scheduled Ancient Monument and a Grade I Listed Building .
There are traffic lights on the short section between Brayford Pool and Stamp End Lock , which are used to indicate the state of the river in times of flood . Green indicates that flows are low or normal , and boats can proceed along this stretch . Red indicates that flows are high and that great care is required . Flashing red indicates that flows are very high and boats must not use the section .
= = = Connecting waterways = = =
There are a number of drains that connect to the River Witham and that are protected by flood doors . These consist of a single pair of mitre gates that are designed to close if the level in the river rises above the level in the drain . Several of these are navigable to the more adventurous boater . The river is also joined by the Kyme Eau , which connects to the Sleaford Navigation on which navigation will eventually be restored to Sleaford . At Antons Gowt , a lock drops down into the Witham Navigable Drains , a system of drainage ditches which are used to prevent flooding of the fens to the north of Boston . Since November 2008 there has been an active campaign by the Billinghay Skirth Regeneration Society to restore navigation on the River Skirth , and the project has won the support of Billinghay and other parish councils , the Inland Waterways Association , the Environment Agency , Lincolnshire County Council and the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership .
= = Points of interest = =
= = Tributaries = =
Foston Beck
River Brant
Fossdyke Navigation , a canalisation of the lower River Till
Barlings Eau
River Bain
Kyme Eau , the fenland part of the River Slea
The following flow into The Haven :
South Forty @-@ Foot Drain
Maud Foster Drain
Hobhole Drain
= = = Historical descriptions = = =
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= The Boat Race 1985 =
The 131st Boat Race took place on 6 April 1985 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by four @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths . Bruce Philp became the first man to row for both universities having previously rowed for Cambridge , and Henrietta Shaw became the first female cox for Cambridge .
Isis won the reserve race , while Oxford were victorious in the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 61 . The race was sponsored by Ladbrokes for the ninth consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , and weighed an average of 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained four former Blues while Cambridge featured three . Bruce Philp became the first man to row for both universities , having represented Cambridge in the 1982 and 1983 races . Henrietta Shaw became the first woman to cox the Cambridge boat .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . A quick start from Cambridge coupled with a poor one from Oxford saw the Light Blues take a third of a length lead before being reined back at Fulham Football Club . A one @-@ second lead at the mile post preceded a period of warnings from umpire Ronnie Howard to both coxes as they contested the same water . Oxford held a canvas ' lead as the crews passed under Hammersmith Bridge and began to move away along Chiswick Eyot . A ten @-@ second lead at Barnes Bridge became a thirteen @-@ second lead at the finishing post , as Oxford took the win by four and three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 17 minutes 11 seconds . This was Oxford 's tenth consecutive victory , and their eleventh in twelve years , and took the overall record to 68 – 62 in favour of Cambridge .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by six lengths , while Oxford won the 40th Women 's Boat Race .
= = Reaction = =
Cambridge stroke John Pritchard said " I tried everything . But at the vital moment , the boat went heavy . " His Oxford counterpart Francis Reininger said " I was always optimistic that the power was there waiting to be switched on . When I asked for it , it glowed . " Oxford coach Dan Topolski suggested that being given the Middlesex station was to their advantage , " I was glad to have Middlesex because in training our first three minutes had always been relatively poor . "
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= Fast Lane ( Bad Meets Evil song ) =
" Fast Lane " is the lead single by hip hop duo Bad Meets Evil , a group composed of Royce da 5 ' 9 " and Eminem , from their first EP Hell : The Sequel . The single was produced by Eminem , Supa Dups , and Jason " JG " Gilbert , and released on May 3 , 2011 by Shady Records . Texas rapper Chamillionaire released a remix . A music video by director James Larese of music video direction group Syndrome . The music video features animated visuals and kinetic typography , with cameo appearances by Mr. Porter and Slaughterhouse . Fans and critics considered it a return to Eminem 's Slim Shady alter ego .
The song was well received compared to the rest of the EP and was considered a highlight of Hell : The Sequel . Critics favored the song for its change from Eminem 's theme in Recovery . Rolling Stone called it " 1999 @-@ style " . Bad Meets Evil performed this song at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival and the Lollapalooza music festival .
= = Background = =
Bad Meets Evil first formed in 1998 . The group 's first single under the name was " Nuttin ' to Do " / " Scary Movies " . However , the group went their own separate ways in late 2002 . Royce da 5 ' 9 " and Eminem have since collaborated on other songs , but not under the name " Bad Meets Evil " . In late 2010 , Eminem and Royce da 5 ' 9 " began collaborating as Bad Meets Evil after 11 years of inactivity within the group . " Fast Lane " was released as the lead single for their then @-@ upcoming extended play , titled Hell : The Sequel . The song was released May 3 , 2011 by Shady Records .
" Fast Lane " was recorded by Mike Strange at Effigy Studios , in Ferndale , Michigan . Recorded a few months before its release , the song was written by Eminem , and Sly " Pyper " Jordan ( from " Seduction " and " Kush " ) , who also sings the chorus to the song . According to an interview with MTV , Eminem requested that Sly perform the chorus , after hearing Dr. Dre 's " Kush " . Supa Dups and Jason " JG " Gilbert produced the song and Eminem and Mike Strange mixed the song . JG and Supa Dups also sample their own vocals . According to Supa Dups , he was asked to make a beat with JG , without knowing it was for Bad Meets Evil . He said that " [ They ] didn 't even have Eminem in mind [ when they made the beat ] . " According to this interview with Mixtape Daily , Supa Dups had little knowledge about the project , but simply submitted the beat to Eminem :
I didn 't even know the project was coming out . I didn 't know what the beat was for ; I just knew Eminem asked me for the files and I sent it to them . ... When I saw Eminem in L.A. for Grammy weekend , Eminem said , ' Yeah , he ripped the track . ' Later on that day , I met Royce , and Royce was like , ' Yeah , download that track man . We ripped that track . That 's the first single . ' I was like , ' What ? ' But until then , I still wasn 't sure .
Months after recording the song , on April 28 , 2011 , when it leaked onto the Internet , Supa Dups was impressed by the finished version , " I was like , ' Damn , this record is crazy . ' " He was impressed by the song , lyrically , and was proud to have participated in the project . " Fast Lane " is a midwestern hip hop song . It has two main parts to the song . The first half of the four @-@ minute song begins with a verse performed by Royce da 5 ' 9 " , followed by Eminem 's verse . After the chorus , the second half has two verses by each rapper , followed by the chorus for the final time .
= = Critical reception = =
" Fast Lane " was received favorably by critics . Upon the release on the EP , Hell : The Sequel , Billboard editor Jason Lipshutz published a track @-@ by @-@ track review . According to Lipshutz , " Fast Lane " is " G @-@ funk on steroids , with sing @-@ song refrain breaking up crushing mic @-@ trading bout between Royce da 5 ' 9 " and Eminem . " He also referred to " Fast Lane " as one of the highlight songs of the album . Rolling Stone gave a positive review . According to Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone , " Eminem kicks ' Fast Lane ' 1999 @-@ style , reconnecting with the hungry young lunatic who sounded like he only had a stanza to blow us away or it was back to the auto plant . " Dolan also commented on the infamous lyric " I hope that I don 't sound too heinous when I say this , Nicki Minaj , but I wanna stick my penis in your anus , " saying that Eminem has been much more heinous before . According to Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly , Royce da 5 ' 9 " performs extremely well on the " hard @-@ hitting " song , even calling him a " lyrical beast " . Although music website Consequence of Sound gave a rather mixed review on the EP as a whole , editor Winston Robbins favored " Fast Lane " and said that it is " hands down one of the best hip @-@ hop tracks of 2011 " and that the rapping is " second to none " .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by James Larese of collective group Syndrome , a group that also directed videos for two other Eminem songs : " 3 a.m. " and " Crack a Bottle " . A 40 @-@ second video teaser was released on May 27 , 2011 , on Eminem 's YouTube channel , which shows the part of the video during the first time the chorus plays , confirming Sly Jordan 's appearance in the video and the use of cartoon animation . In an interview with Bootleg Kev , Royce da 5 ' 9 " revealed that a lot of the ideas for the animated visuals featured in the music video were Eminem 's ideas . The video was first expected to release on May 31 , 2011 . However , the date was delayed . The video premiered on June 8 , 2011 , at noon EST on VEVO and Bad Meets Evil 's official website .
The music video features animated visuals of the lyrics and kinetic typography of some lyrics , with the duo rapping in a warehouse @-@ like setting . Royce da 5 ' 9 " and Eminem both interact with the animations and occasionally hold and use them as actual objects . When transitioning between rappers , Eminem and Royce push each other out when it is their turn . Notable scenes include a cartoon blonde girl who gets ' drowned ' by Eminem , inside a fish @-@ bowl and then decapitated . Another scene includes Bad Meets Evil riding a green animated car , crashing into several obstacles , during the chorus . Sly Jordan appears in the video , singing the chorus . The music video features cameo appearances from American rapper and producer Mr. Porter of D12 , who lip syncs part of the chorus , and members of hip hop supergroup Slaughterhouse near the end of the video . Near the end of the video , Royce and Eminem try to stand in front of each other for attention . The video ends with them being pushed out of the way by the Bad Meets Evil logo . The video became notable for its humorous content .
= = Live performances = =
Eminem and Royce da 5 ' 9 " made their debut live performance as Bad Meets Evil for " Fast Lane " and " Lighters " at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival . According to James Montgomery of MTV , " what stood out the most about Em [ inem ] ' s performance was the sheer tenacity with which he attacked it . " Other than Royce , he was also accompanied by his hypeman Mr. Porter of D12 and performed wearing a black Bad Meets Evil t @-@ shirt , under a black hoodie . The duo 's performance was complemented by the " Fast Lane " music video playing in the background . " Fast Lane " was performed with Porter on the second day of Lollapalooza 2011 , which took place in Chicago . The song was referred to by Gil Kaufman of MTV as a " low @-@ rider anthem " . Prior to the performance , Eminem changed into the Bad Meets Evil t @-@ shirt .
= = Remixes and appearances in other media = =
Texas rapper Chamillionaire recorded a remix of the song which was released on May 8 , 2011 . The song was not officially released to iTunes , however . The remix features two added verses by Chamillionaire between Eminem 's and Royce Da 5 ' 9 " ' s verses ; one before the first time the chorus plays , and another verse after the chorus . He also replaces Sly Jordan with a modified chorus with different lyrics . The remix is five and a half minutes long .
The track was featured on both the soundtracks of the 2011 film Real Steel , and on 2K Sports ' NBA 2K12 . The track was also used for HBO 's Entourage season 8 trailer and the Extended First Look trailer for Fast & Furious 6 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Eminem – co @-@ producer , songwriter and audio mixer
Royce da 5 ' 9 " – songwriter
Supa Dups – songwriter , producer , drum programming , vocal arrangement and additional backing vocals
Jason " JG " Gilbert – songwriter , co @-@ producer , keyboards , additional backing vocals
Mike Strange – recording and audio mixer
Sly " Pyper " Jordan – songwriter and additional chorus vocals
Luis Resto – songwriter and additional keyboards
Credits adapted from Hell : The Sequel album digital booklet .
= = Charts = =
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= Croatian War of Independence =
The Croatian War of Independence was fought from 1991 to 1995 between Croat forces loyal to the government of Croatia — which had declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( SFRY ) — and the Serb @-@ controlled Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) and local Serb forces , with the JNA ending its combat operations in Croatia by 1992 . In Croatia , the war is primarily referred to as the " Homeland War " ( Domovinski rat ) and also as the " Greater @-@ Serbian Aggression " ( Velikosrpska agresija ) . In Serbian sources , " War in Croatia " ( Рат у Хрватској / Rat u Hrvatskoj ) is the most commonly in use and also the " War in Krajina " ( " Рат у Крајини / Rat u Krajini " ) .
A majority of Croats wanted Croatia to leave Yugoslavia and become a sovereign country , while many ethnic Serbs living in Croatia , supported by Serbia , opposed the secession and wanted Serb @-@ claimed lands to be in a common state with Serbia . Most Serbs effectively sought a new Serb state within a Yugoslav federation , including areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina with ethnic Serb majorities or significant minorities , and attempted to conquer as much of Croatia as possible . Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991 , but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991 .
The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia . After this failed , Serb forces established the self @-@ proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) within Croatia . After the ceasefire of January 1992 and international recognition of the Republic of Croatia as a sovereign state , the front lines were entrenched , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed , and combat became largely intermittent in the following three years . During that time , the RSK encompassed 13 @,@ 913 square kilometers ( 5 @,@ 372 sq mi ) , more than a quarter of Croatia . In 1995 , Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm , which would effectively end the war in its favor . The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) zone was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia by 1998 .
The war ended with Croatian victory , as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war : independence and preservation of its borders . 21 – 25 % of Croatia 's economy was ruined , with an estimated US $ 37 billion in damaged infrastructure , lost output , and refugee @-@ related costs . A total of 20 @,@ 000 people were killed in the war , and refugees were displaced on both sides . The Serb and Croatian governments began to progressively cooperate with each other but tension remains , in part due to verdicts by the ICTY and lawsuits filed by each country against the other .
In 2007 , the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) returned a guilty verdict against Milan Martić , one of the Serb leaders in Croatia , for having colluded with Slobodan Milošević and others to create a " unified Serbian state " . Between 2008 and 2012 , the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina , Mladen Markač and Ivan Čermak for alleged involvement in the crimes related to Operation Storm . Čermak was acquitted outright , and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel . The International Court of Justice dismissed Croatia and Serbia genocide claims in 2015 . The Court reaffirmed that serious crimes against civilians had taken place , but ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present .
= = Background = =
= = = Political changes in Yugoslavia = = =
Since the 1970s , Yugoslavia 's Communist regime became severely splintered into a liberal @-@ decentralist nationalist faction led by Croatia and Slovenia that supported a decentralized federation to give greater autonomy to Croatia and Slovenia , versus a conservative @-@ centralist nationalist faction led by Serbia that supported a centralized federation to secure Serbia 's and Serbs ' interests across Yugoslavia – as they were the largest ethnic group in the country as a whole . From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo , nationalist doctrines and actions caused ethnic tensions that destabilized Yugoslavia . The suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement .
A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the Communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War , as symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 . In Yugoslavia , the national communist party , officially called the League of Communists of Yugoslavia , had lost its ideological potency . SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization . SR Serbia , headed by Slobodan Milošević , adhered to centralism and single @-@ party rule , and in turn effectively ended the autonomy of the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina by March 1989 , taking command of their votes in the Yugoslav federal presidency . The nationalist ideas started to grow within the ranks of the still @-@ ruling League of Communists , while Milošević 's speeches , notably the 1989 Gazimestan speech in which he talked of " battles of quarrels " , favored continuation of a unified Yugoslav state — one in which all power would continue to be centralized in Belgrade .
In the fall of 1989 , the Serbian government pressured the Croatian government to allow a series of Serb nationalist rallies in the country , and the Serbian media and various Serbian intellectuals had already begun to refer to the Croatian leadership as " Ustaše " , and began to make reference to crimes committed by the Ustaše between 1941 @-@ 45 . The rhetoric was approved by the Serbian political leadership , and accused the Croatian leadership of being " blindly nationalistic " when it objected .
Having completed the anti @-@ bureaucratic revolution in Vojvodina , Kosovo , and Montenegro , Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes in 1991 , which rendered the governing body ineffective as other republics objected and called for reform of the Federation . In 1989 , political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded , including the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica ) ( HDZ ) , led by Franjo Tuđman , who later became the first president of Croatia .
In January 1990 , the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines , with the Croatian and Slovene factions demanding a looser federation at the 14th Extraordinary Congress . At the congress , Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of " supporting separatism , terrorism and genocide in Kosovo " . The Croatian and Slovene delegations , including most of their ethnic Serb members , eventually left in protest , after Serbian delegates rejected every proposed amendment .
January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavia 's Constitutional Court on the matter of secession . The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self @-@ determination . The Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavia 's republics and autonomous provinces . The Constitutional Court noted that 1974 Constitution 's Section I of the Basic Principles of the Constitution identified that self @-@ determination including secession " belonged to the peoples of Yugoslavia and their socialist republics " . The matter of Kosovo secession was addressed in May 1991 with the court claiming that " only the peoples of Yugoslavia " had the right to secession , Albanians were considered a minority and not a people of Yugoslavia .
In February 1990 , Jovan Rašković founded the Serb Democratic Party ( SDS ) in Knin , whose program aimed to change the regional division of Croatia to be aligned with ethnic Serb interests , Prominent members of the SDS including Milan Babić and Milan Martić , later testified that Belgrade directed a propaganda campaign that portrayed the Serbs in Croatia as being threatened with genocide by the Croat majority . On 4 March 1990 , 50 @,@ 000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora , and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman , chanted " This is Serbia " , and expressed support for Milošević .
The first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later . The first round of elections in Croatia were held on 22 April , and the second round on 6 May . The HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty ( eventually outright independence ) for Croatia , fueling a sentiment among Croats that " only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia " . It topped the poll in the elections ( followed by Ivica Račan 's reformed communists , Social Democratic Party of Croatia ) and was set to form a new Croatian Government .
A tense atmosphere prevailed in 1990 : on 13 May 1990 , a football game was held in Zagreb between Zagreb 's Dinamo team and Belgrade 's Red Star . The game erupted into violence between fans and police .
On 30 May 1990 , the new Croatian Parliament held its first session . President Tuđman announced his manifesto for a new Constitution ( ratified at the end of the year ) and a multitude of political , economic , and social changes , notably to what extent minority rights ( mainly for Serbs ) would be guaranteed . Local Serb politicians opposed the new constitution . In 1991 , Croats represented 78 @.@ 1 % and Serbs 12 @.@ 2 % of the total population of Croatia , but the latter held a disproportionate number of official posts : 17 @.@ 7 % of appointed officials in Croatia , including police , were Serbs . An even greater proportion of those posts had been held by Serbs in Croatia earlier , which created a perception that the Serbs were guardians of the communist regime . This caused discontent among the Croats despite the fact it never actually undermined their own dominance in SR Croatia . After the HDZ came to power , many Serbs employed in the public sector , especially the police , were fired and replaced by Croats . This , combined with Tuđman 's remarks , i.e. " they declare that my wife is Jewish or Serbian . Luckily for me , she never was either " , were distorted by Milošević 's media to spark fear that any form of an independent Croatia would be a new " Ustashe state " . In one instance , TV Belgrade showed Tuđman shaking hands with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl ( who would be the first government leader in the world to recognise independent Croatia and Slovenia ) accusing the two of plotting " a Fourth Reich " .
= = = Civil unrest and demands for autonomy = = =
Immediately after the Slovenian parliamentary election , 1990 and the Croatian parliamentary election , 1990 in April and May 1990 , the JNA announced that the Josip Broz Tito @-@ era doctrine of " general people 's defense " , in which each republic maintained a Territorial defense force ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana ) ( TO ) , would henceforth be replaced by a centrally directed system of defense . The republics would lose their role in defense matters and their TOs would be disarmed and subordinated to JNA headquarters in Belgrade , but the new Slovenian government acted quickly to retain control over the TO . On 14 May 1990 , the weapons of the TO of Croatia , in regions with Croatian majorities , were taken away by the Army , preventing the possibility of Croatia having its own weapons as was done in Slovenia . . Borisav Jović , Serbia 's representative on the Federal Presidency and a close ally of Slobodan Milošević , claimed that this action came at the behest of Serbia .
According to Jović , on 27 June 1990 he and Veljko Kadijević , the Yugoslav Defence Minister , met and agreed that they should , regarding Croatia and Slovenia , " expel them forcibly from Yugoslavia , by simply drawing borders and declaring that they have brought this upon themselves through their decisions " . According to Jović , the next day he obtained the agreement of Milošević . However Kadijević who was of mixed Serb @-@ Croat heritage had been a Yugoslav Partisan in World War II was loyal to Yugoslavia and not a Greater Serbia ; Kadijević believed that if Slovenia left Yugoslavia that the country would collapse and thus he discussed with Jović about possibly using the JNA to impose martial law in Slovenia to prevent a collapse of Yugoslavia and was willing to wage war with the secessionist republics to prevent their secession . Kadijević considered the political crisis in Yugoslavia of ethnic conflict to have been caused by the actions of foreign governments , particularly Germany that he accused of seeking to breakup Yugoslavia to allow Germany to exercise a sphere of influence in the Balkans . Kadijević regarded the Croatian government of Tuđman to be a fascist @-@ inspired and that Serbs had the right to be protected from Croatian " armed formations " .
The Serbs within Croatia did not initially seek independence before 1990 . In the 1990 elections , Serb majority municipalities in Croatia largely voted for the Communist Party of Croatia , because the Communist Party was more likely to defeat the nationalist Croatian Democratic Union , than the Serb Democratic Party was . After the election of Tuđman and the Croatian Democratic Union , a Serbian Assembly was established in Srb , north of Knin , on 25 July 1990 as the political representation of the Serbian people in Croatia . The Serbian Assembly declared " sovereignty and autonomy of the Serb people in Croatia " .
In August 1990 , an unrecognized mono @-@ ethnic referendum was held in regions with a substantial Serb population which would later become known as the RSK ( bordering western Bosnia and Herzegovina ) on the question of Serb " sovereignty and autonomy " in Croatia . This was an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution . The Croatian government sent police forces to police stations in Serb @-@ populated areas to seize their weapons . Among other incidents , local Serbs from the southern hinterlands of Croatia , mostly around the city of Knin , blocked roads to tourist destinations in Dalmatia . This incident is known as the " Log revolution " . Years later , during Martić 's trial , Babić claimed he was tricked by Martić into agreeing to the Log Revolution , and that it and the entire war in Croatia was Martić 's responsibility , and had been orchestrated by Belgrade . The statement was corroborated by Martić in an interview published in 1991 . Babić confirmed that by July 1991 Milošević had taken over control of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) . The Croatian government responded to the blockade of roads by sending special police teams in helicopters to the scene , but were intercepted by SFR Yugoslav Air Force fighter jets and forced to turn back to Zagreb . The Serbs felled pine trees or used bulldozers to block roads to seal off towns like Knin and Benkovac near the Adriatic coast . On 18 August 1990 , the Serbian newspaper Večernje novosti claimed almost " two million Serbs were ready to go to Croatia to fight " .
On 21 December 1990 , the SAO Krajina was proclaimed by the municipalities of the regions of Northern Dalmatia and Lika , in south @-@ western Croatia . Article 1 of the Statute of the SAO Krajina defined the SAO Krajina as " a form of territorial autonomy within the Republic of Croatia " in which the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia , state laws , and the Statute of the SAO Krajina were applied .
On 22 December 1990 , the Parliament of Croatia ratified the new constitution , which was seen by Serbs as taking away rights that had been granted by the Socialist constitution . The constitution did define Croatia as " the national state of the Croatian nation and a state of members of other nations and minorities who are its citizens : Serbs ... who are guaranteed equality with citizens of Croatian nationality ... "
Following Tuđman 's election and the perceived threat from the new constitution , Serb nationalists in the Kninska Krajina region began taking armed action against Croatian government officials , many of whom were forcibly expelled or excluded from the SAO Krajina . Croatian government property throughout the region was increasingly controlled by local Serb municipalities or the newly established " Serbian National Council " . This would later become the government of the breakaway Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) .
After it was discovered that Martin Špegelj had pursued a campaign to acquire arms through the black market in January 1991 an ultimatum was issued requesting disarming and disbanding of Croatian military forces considered illegal by the Yugoslav authorities . Croatian authorities refused to comply , and the Yugoslav army withdrew the ultimatum six days after it was issued .
On 12 March 1991 , the leadership of the Army met with the Presidency of the SFRY in an attempt to convince them to declare a state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country . Yugoslav army chief Veljko Kadijević declared that there was a conspiracy to destroy the country , saying :
" An insidious plan has been drawn up to destroy Yugoslavia . Stage one is civil war . Stage two is foreign intervention . Then puppet regimes will be set up throughout Yugoslavia . " Veljko Kadijević , 12 March 1991 .
Jovic claims that Kadijević and the Army in March 1991 supported a coup d 'etat as a way out of the crisis but then changed their minds four days later . Kadijević 's response to this was that " Jović is lying " . Kadijević claims that a March 1991 meeting two days after the huge protests organized by Vuk Drašković on the streets of Belgrade in Jović 's office to which Kadijević had been invited by Milošević where , according to Kadijević , Milošević requested that the army take control of the country through a military coup . Kadijević 's apparent response was informing Milošević that he could not make such a decision by himself , and that he 'd discuss the request with army leaders and later inform Jović 's office about their decision . Kadijević then said that their decision was against the putsch and that he informed Jović 's office in written form about it . Jović for his part , claims that such document doesn 't exist .
Ante Marković has described that after the Presidency meeting failed to achieve the results the Army wanted that Kadijević met with him with the proposed coup d 'etat against the secessionist republics . During the meeting Marković responded to Kadijević by saying that the plan failed to arrest Milošević . Kadijević replied " He is only one fighting for Yugoslavia . Without him , we could not be proposing this . " Marković rejected the plan and afterwards communication between Kadijević and Marković broke down .
= = Military forces = =
= = = Serb and Yugoslav People 's Army forces = = =
The JNA was initially formed during World War II to carry out guerrilla warfare against occupying Axis forces . The success of the Partisan movement led to the JNA basing much of its operational strategy on guerrilla warfare , as its plans normally entailed defending against NATO or Warsaw Pact attacks , where other types of warfare would put the JNA in a comparatively poor position . That approach led to maintenance of a Territorial Defense system .
On paper , the JNA seemed a powerful force , with 2 @,@ 000 tanks and 300 jet aircraft ( all either Soviet or locally produced ) . However , by 1991 , the majority of this equipment was 30 years old , as the force consisted primarily of T @-@ 54 / 55 tanks and MiG @-@ 21 aircraft . Still , the JNA operated around 300 M @-@ 84 tanks ( a Yugoslav version of the Soviet T @-@ 72 ) and a sizable fleet of ground @-@ attack aircraft , such as the Soko G @-@ 4 Super Galeb and the Soko J @-@ 22 Orao , whose armament included AGM @-@ 65 Maverick guided missiles . By contrast , more modern cheap anti @-@ tank missiles ( like the AT @-@ 5 ) and anti @-@ aircraft missiles ( like the SA @-@ 14 ) were abundant and were designed to destroy much more advanced weaponry . Before the war the JNA had 169 @,@ 000 regular troops , including 70 @,@ 000 professional officers . The fighting in Slovenia brought about a great number of desertions , and the army responded by mobilizing Serbian reserve troops . Approximately 100 @,@ 000 evaded the draft , and the new conscripts proved an ineffective fighting force . The JNA resorted to reliance on irregular militias . Paramilitary units like the White Eagles , Serbian Guard , Dušan Silni , and Serb Volunteer Guard , which committed a number of massacres against Croat and other non @-@ Serbs civilians , were increasingly used by the Yugoslav and Serb forces . There were also foreign fighters supporting the RSK , mostly from Russia . With the retreat of the JNA forces in 1992 , JNA units were reorganized as the Army of Serb Krajina , which was a direct heir to the JNA organization , with little improvement .
By 1991 , the JNA officer corps was dominated by Serbs and Montenegrins ; they were overrepresented in Yugoslav federal institutions , especially the army . 57 @.@ 1 % of JNA officers were Serbs , while Serbs formed 36 @.@ 3 % of the population of Yugoslavia . A similar structure was observed as early as 1981 . Even though the two people combined comprised 38 @.@ 8 % of the population of Yugoslavia , 70 % of all JNA officers and non @-@ commissioned officers were either Serbs or Montenegrins . In 1991 , the JNA was instructed to " completely eliminate Croats and Slovenes from the army . "
= = = Croatian forces = = =
The Croatian military was in a much worse state than that of the Serbs . In the early stages of the war , lack of military units meant that the Croatian Police force would take the brunt of the fighting . The Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde ) , the new Croatian military , was formed on 11 April 1991 , and gradually developed into the Croatian Army ( Croatian : Hrvatska vojska ) by 1993 . Weaponry was in short supply , and many units were either unarmed or were equipped with obsolete World War II @-@ era rifles . The Croatian Army had only a handful of tanks , including World War II @-@ surplus vehicles such as the T @-@ 34 , and its air force was in an even worse state , consisting of only a few Antonov An @-@ 2 biplane crop @-@ dusters that had been converted to drop makeshift bombs .
In August 1991 , the Croatian Army had fewer than 20 brigades . After general mobilization was instituted in October , the size of the army grew to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by the end of the year . In 1991 and 1992 , Croatia was also supported by 456 foreign fighters , including British ( 139 ) , French ( 69 ) , and German ( 55 ) . The seizure of the JNA 's barracks between September and December helped to alleviate the Croatians ' equipment shortage . By 1995 , the balance of power had shifted significantly . Serb forces in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were capable of fielding an estimated 130 @,@ 000 troops ; the Croatian Army , Croatian Defence Council ( Croatian : Hrvatsko vijeće obrane ) ( HVO ) , and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina could field a combined force of 250 @,@ 000 soldiers and 570 tanks .
= = Course of the war = =
= = = 1991 : Open hostilities begin = = =
= = = = First armed incidents = = = =
Ethnic hatred grew as various incidents fueled the propaganda machines on both sides . During his testimony before the ICTY , one of the top @-@ Krajina leaders , Milan Martić , stated that the Serb side started using force first .
The conflict escalated into armed incidents in the majority @-@ Serb populated areas . The Serbs attacked Croatian police units in Pakrac in early March , while one Josip Jović is widely reported as the first police officer killed by Serb forces as part of the war , during the Plitvice Lakes incident in late March 1991 .
In March and April 1991 , Serbs in Croatia began to make moves to secede from that territory . It is a matter of debate to what extent this move was locally motivated and to what degree the Milošević @-@ led Serbian government was involved . In any event , the SAO Krajina was declared , which consisted of any Croatian territory with a substantial Serb population . The Croatian government viewed this move as a rebellion .
More than 20 people were killed by the end of April . From the beginning of the Log Revolution and the end of April 1991 , nearly 200 incidents involving the use of explosive devices and 89 attacks on the Croatian police were recorded . The Croatian Ministry of the Interior started arming an increasing number of special police forces , and this led to the building of a real army . On 9 April 1991 , Croatian President Tuđman ordered the special police forces to be renamed Zbor Narodne Garde ( " National Guard " ) ; this marks the creation of a separate military of Croatia .
Significant clashes from this period included the siege of Kijevo , where over a thousand people were besieged in the inner Dalmatian village of Kijevo , and the Borovo Selo killings , where Croatian policemen engaged Serb paramilitaries in the eastern Slavonian village of Borovo and suffered twelve casualties . Violence gripped eastern Slavonian villages : in Tovarnik , a Croat policeman was killed by Serb paramilitaries on 2 May , while in Sotin , a Serb civilian was killed on 5 May when he was caught in a crossfire between Serb and Croat paramilitaries . On 6 May , the 1991 protest in Split against the siege of Kijevo at the Navy Command in Split resulted in the death of a Yugoslav People 's Army soldier .
On 15 May , Stjepan Mesić , a Croat , was scheduled to be the chairman of the rotating presidency of Yugoslavia . Serbia , aided by Kosovo , Montenegro , and Vojvodina , whose presidency votes were at that time under Serbian control , blocked the appointment , which was otherwise seen as largely ceremonial . This maneuver technically left Yugoslavia without a head of state and without a commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Two days later , a repeated attempt to vote on the issue failed . Ante Marković , prime minister of Yugoslavia at the time , proposed appointing a panel which would wield presidential powers . It was not immediately clear who the panel members would be , apart from defense minister Veljko Kadijević , nor who would fill position of JNA commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The move was quickly rejected by Croatia as unconstitutional . The crisis was resolved after a six @-@ week stalemate , and Mesić was elected president — the first non @-@ communist to become Yugoslav head of state in decades .
Throughout this period , the federal army , the JNA , and the local Territorial Defense Forces continued to be led by Federal authorities controlled by Milošević . Helsinki Watch reported that Serb Krajina authorities executed Serbs who were willing to reach an accommodation with Croat officials .
= = = = Declaration of independence = = = =
On 19 May 1991 , the Croatian authorities held a referendum on independence with the option of remaining in Yugoslavia as a looser union . Serb local authorities issued calls for a boycott , which were largely followed by Croatian Serbs . The referendum passed with 94 % in favor .
The newly constituted Croatian military units held a military parade and review at Stadion Kranjčevićeva in Zagreb on 28 May 1991 .
The parliament of Croatia declared Croatia 's independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 . The Croatian parliament 's decision was partially boycotted by left @-@ wing parliament deputies . The European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision .
The government of Yugoslavia responded to the declarations of independence of Croatia and Slovenia with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Marković declaring the secessions to be illegal and contrary to the Constitution of Yugoslavia , and supported the JNA taking action to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia .
In June and July 1991 , the short armed conflict in Slovenia came to a speedy end , partly because of the ethnic homogeneity of the population of Slovenia . It was later revealed that a military strike against Slovenia , followed by a planned withdrawal , was conceived by Slobodan Milošević and Borisav Jović , then president of the SFR Yugoslavia presidency . Jović published his diary containing the information and repeated it in his testimony at the Milošević trial at the ICTY .
Croatia agreed to the Brioni Agreement that involved freezing its independence declaration for three months , which eased tensions a little .
= = = = Escalation of the conflict = = = =
In July , in an attempt to salvage what remained of Yugoslavia , the JNA forces were involved in operations against predominantly Croat areas . In July the Serb @-@ led Territorial Defence Forces started their advance on Dalmatian coastal areas in Operation Coast @-@ 91 . By early August , large areas of Banovina were overrun by Serb forces .
With the start of military operations in Croatia , Croats and a number of Serbian conscripts started to desert the JNA en masse , similar to what had happened in Slovenia . Albanians and Macedonians started to search for a way to legally leave the JNA or serve their conscription term in Macedonia ; these moves further homogenized the ethnic composition of JNA troops in or near Croatia .
One month after Croatia declared its independence , the Yugoslav army and other Serb forces held something less than one @-@ third of the Croatian territory , mostly in areas with a predominantly ethnic Serb population . The JNA military strategy partly consisted of extensive shelling , at times irrespective of the presence of civilians . As the war progressed , the cities of Dubrovnik , Gospić , Šibenik , Zadar , Karlovac , Sisak , Slavonski Brod , Osijek , Vinkovci , and Vukovar all came under attack by Yugoslav forces . The United Nations ( UN ) imposed a weapons embargo ; this did not affect JNA @-@ backed Serb forces significantly , as they had the JNA arsenal at their disposal , but it caused serious trouble for the newly formed Croatian army . The Croatian government started smuggling weapons over its borders .
In August 1991 , the Battle of Vukovar began . Eastern Slavonia was gravely impacted throughout this period , starting with the Dalj massacre of August 1991 ; fronts developed around Osijek and Vinkovci in parallel to the encirclement of Vukovar .
In September , Serbian troops completely surrounded the city of Vukovar . Croatian troops , including the 204th Vukovar Brigade , entrenched themselves within the city and held their ground against elite armored and mechanized brigades of the JNA , as well as Serb paramilitary units . Vukovar was almost completely devastated ; 15 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed . Some ethnic Croatian civilians had taken shelter inside the city . Other members of the civilian population fled the area en masse . Death toll estimates for Vukovar as a result of the siege range from 1 @,@ 798 to 5 @,@ 000 . A further 22 @,@ 000 were exiled from Vukovar immediately after the town was captured .
Some estimates include 220 @,@ 000 Croats and 300 @,@ 000 Serbs internally displaced for the duration of the war in Croatia . In many areas , large numbers of civilians were forced out by the military . It was at this time that the term ethnic cleansing — the meaning of which ranged from eviction to murder — first entered the English lexicon .
On October 3 , the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia . This move followed months of standoff for JNA positions in Dalmatia and elsewhere now known as the Battle of the barracks . It also coincided with the end of Operation Coast @-@ 91 , in which the JNA failed to occupy the coastline in an attempt to cut off Dalmatia 's access to the rest of Croatia .
On October 5 , President Tuđman made a speech in which he called upon the whole population to mobilize and defend against " Greater Serbian imperialism " pursued by the Serb @-@ led JNA , Serbian paramilitary formations , and rebel Serb forces . On 7 October , the Yugoslav air force attacked the main government building in Zagreb , an incident referred to as the bombing of Banski dvori . The next day , as a previously agreed three @-@ month moratorium on implementation of the declaration of independence expired , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . 8 October is now celebrated as Independence Day in Croatia . The bombing of the government offices and the Siege of Dubrovnik that started in October were contributing factors that led to European Union ( EU ) sanctions against Serbia . After the capture of Cavtat by the JNA , on 15 October local Serbs led by Aco Apolonio proclaimed the Dubrovnik Republic . The international media focused on the damage to Dubrovnik 's cultural heritage ; concerns about civilian casualties and pivotal battles such as the one in Vukovar were pushed out of public view . Nonetheless , artillery attacks on Dubrovnik damaged 56 % of its buildings to some degree , as the historic walled city , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , sustained 650 hits by artillery rounds .
= = = = Peak of the war = = = =
In response to the 5th JNA Corps advance across the Sava River towards Pakrac and further north into western Slavonia , the Croatian army began a successful counterattack in early November 1991 , its first major offensive operation of the war . Operation Otkos 10 ( 31 October to 4 November ) resulted in Croatia recapturing an area between the Bilogora and Papuk mountains . The Croatian Army recaptured approximately 270 square kilometers ( 100 sq mi ) of territory in this operation .
The Vukovar massacre took place in November ; the survivors were transported to prison camps such as Ovčara and Velepromet , with the majority ending up in Sremska Mitrovica prison camp . The sustained siege of Vukovar attracted heavy international media attention . Many international journalists were in or near Vukovar , as was UN peace mediator Cyrus Vance , who had been Secretary of State to former US President Carter .
Also in eastern Slavonia , the Lovas massacre occurred in October and the Erdut massacre in November 1991 , before and after the fall of Vukovar . At the same time , the Škabrnja massacre occurred in the northern Dalmatian hinterland ; it was largely overshadowed by the events at Vukovar .
On 14 November , the Navy blockade of Dalmatian ports was challenged by civilian ships . The confrontation culminated in the Battle of the Dalmatian channels , when Croatian coastal and island based artillery damaged , sank , or captured a number of Yugoslav navy vessels , including Mukos PČ 176 , later rechristened PB 62 Šolta . After the battle , the Yugoslav naval operations were effectively limited to the southern Adriatic .
Croatian forces made further advances in the second half of December , including Operation Orkan 91 . In the course of Orkan ' 91 , the Croatian army recaptured approximately 1 @,@ 440 square kilometers ( 560 sq mi ) of territory . The end of the operation marked the end of a six @-@ month @-@ long phase of intense fighting ; 10 @,@ 000 people had died , hundreds of thousands had fled , and tens of thousands of homes had been destroyed .
On December 19 , as the intensity of the fighting increased , Croatia won its first diplomatic recognition by a western nation — Iceland — while the Serbian Autonomous Oblasts in Krajina and western Slavonia officially declared themselves the Republic of Serbian Krajina . Four days later , Germany recognized Croatian independence . On December 26 , 1991 , the Serb @-@ dominated federal presidency announced plans for a smaller Yugoslavia that could include the territory captured from Croatia during the war .
However , on December 21 , 1991 for the first time in the war Istria was under attack . The Serbian Forces attacked the airport near the city of Vrsar , situated in the south @-@ western of the peninsula between the city of Poreč and Rovinj , with two MiG @-@ 21 and two Galeb G @-@ 2 . Afterwards , Yugoslav airplanes carpet bombed Vrsar 's " Crljenka " airport , resulting in two deaths . Mediated by foreign diplomats , ceasefires were frequently signed and frequently broken . Croatia lost much territory , but expanded the Croatian Army from the seven brigades it had at the time of the first ceasefire to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by December 31 , 1991 .
The Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia , also referred to as Badinter Arbitration Committee , was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) on August 27 , 1991 , to provide the Conference on Yugoslavia with legal advice . The five @-@ member Commission consisted of presidents of Constitutional Courts in the EEC . Starting in late November 1991 , the committee rendered ten opinions . The Commission stated , among other things , that SFR Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics may not be altered unless freely agreed upon .
Factors in Croatia 's preservation of its pre @-@ war borders were the Yugoslav Federal Constitution Amendments of 1971 , and the Yugoslav Federal Constitution of 1974 . The 1971 amendments introduced a concept that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units , and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution . The 1974 Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principles introduced in 1971 . The borders had been defined by demarcation commissions in 1947 , pursuant to decisions of AVNOJ in 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organization of Yugoslavia .
= = = 1992 : Ceasefire = = =
A new UN @-@ sponsored ceasefire , the fifteenth one in just six months , was agreed on January 2 , 1992 , and came into force the next day . This so @-@ called Sarajevo Agreement became a lasting ceasefire . Croatia was officially recognized by the European Community on January 15 , 1992 . Even though the JNA began to withdraw from Croatia , including Krajina , the RSK clearly retained the upper hand in the occupied territories due to support from Serbia . By that time , the RSK encompassed 13 @,@ 913 square kilometers ( 5 @,@ 372 sq mi ) of territory . The area size did not encompass another 680 square kilometers ( 260 sq mi ) of occupied territory near Dubrovnik , as that area was not considered part of the RSK .
Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires , the UN deployed a protection force in Serbian @-@ held Croatia — the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) — to supervise and maintain the agreement . The UNPROFOR was officially created by UN Security Council Resolution 743 on February 21 , 1992 . The warring parties mostly moved to entrenched positions , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated . Croatia became a member of the UN on May 22 , 1992 , which was conditional upon Croatia amending its constitution to protect the human rights of minority groups and dissidents . Expulsions of the non @-@ Serb civilian population remaining in the occupied territories continued despite the presence of the UNPROFOR peacekeeping troops , and in some cases , with UN troops being virtually enlisted as accomplices .
The Yugoslav People 's Army took thousands of prisoners during the war in Croatia , and interned them in camps in Serbia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Montenegro . The Croatian forces also captured some Serbian prisoners , and the two sides agreed to several prisoner exchanges ; most prisoners were freed by the end of 1992 . Some infamous prisons included the Sremska Mitrovica camp , the Stajićevo camp , and the Begejci camp in Serbia , and the Morinj camp in Montenegro . The Croatian Army also established detention camps , such as the Lora prison camp in Split .
Armed conflict in Croatia continued intermittently on a smaller scale . There were several smaller operations undertaken by Croatian forces to relieve the siege of Dubrovnik , and other Croatian cities ( Šibenik , Zadar and Gospić ) from Krajina forces . Battles included the Miljevci plateau incident ( between Krka and Drniš ) , on June 21 – 22 , 1992 , Operation Jaguar at Križ Hill near Bibinje and Zadar , on May 22 , 1992 , and a series of military actions in the Dubrovnik hinterland : Operation Tigar , on 1 – 13 July 1992 , in Konavle , on 20 – 24 September 1992 , and at Vlaštica on September 22 – 25 , 1992 . Combat near Dubrovnik was followed by the withdrawal of JNA from Konavle , between September 30 and October 20 , 1992 . The Prevlaka peninsula guarding entrance to the Bay of Kotor was demilitarized and turned over to the UNPROFOR , while the remainder of Konavle was restored to the Croatian authorities .
= = = 1993 : Croatian military advances = = =
Fighting was renewed at the beginning of 1993 , as the Croatian army launched Operation Maslenica , an offensive operation in the Zadar area on January 22 . The objective of the attack was to improve the strategic situation in that area , as it targeted the city airport and the Maslenica Bridge , the last entirely overland link between Zagreb and the city of Zadar until the bridge area was captured in September 1991 . The attack proved successful as it met its declared objectives , but at a high cost , as 114 Croat and 490 Serb soldiers were killed in a relatively limited theater of operations .
While Operation Maslenica was in progress , Croatian forces attacked Serb positions 130 kilometers ( 81 mi ) to the east . They advanced towards the Peruća Hydroelectric Dam and captured it by January 28 , 1993 , shortly after Serb militiamen chased away the UN peacekeepers protecting the dam . UN forces had been present at the site since the summer of 1992 . They discovered that the Serbs had planted 35 to 37 tons of explosives spread over seven different sites on the dam in a way that prevented the explosives ' removal ; the charges were left in place . Retreating Serb forces detonated three of explosive charges totaling 5 tons within the 65 @-@ meter ( 213 ft ) high dam in an attempt to cause it to fail and flood the area downstream . The disaster was prevented by Mark Nicholas Gray , a colonel in the British Royal Marines , a lieutenant at the time , who was a UN military observer at the site . He risked being disciplined for acting beyond his authority by lowering the reservoir level , which held 0 @.@ 54 cubic kilometers ( 0 @.@ 13 cu mi ) of water , before the dam was blown up . His action saved the lives of 20 @,@ 000 people who would otherwise have drowned or become homeless .
Operation Medak Pocket took place in a salient south of Gospić , from September 9 – 17 . The offensive was undertaken by the Croatian army to stop Serbian artillery in the area from shelling nearby Gospić . The operation met its stated objective of removing the artillery threat , as Croatian troops overran the salient , but it was marred by war crimes . The ICTY later indicted Croatian officers for war crimes . The operation was halted amid international pressure , and an agreement was reached that the Croatian troops were to withdraw to positions held prior to September 9 , while UN troops were to occupy the salient alone . The events that followed remain controversial , as Canadian authorities reported that the Croatian army intermittently fought against the advancing Canadian Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry before finally retreating after sustaining 27 fatalities . The Croatian ministry of defense and UN officer 's testimonies given during the Ademi @-@ Norac trial deny that the battle occurred .
On February 18 , 1993 , Croatian authorities signed the Daruvar Agreement with local Serb leaders in Western Slavonia . The aim of the secret agreement was normalizing life for local populations near the frontline . However , authorities in Knin learned of this and arrested the Serb leaders responsible . In June 1993 , Serbs began voting in a referendum on merging Krajina territory with Republika Srpska . Milan Martić , acting as the RSK interior minister , advocated a merger of the " two Serbian states as the first stage in the establishment of a state of all Serbs " in his April 3 letter to the Assembly of the Republika Srpska . On January 21 , 1994 , Martić stated that he would " speed up the process of unification and pass on the baton to all Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević " if elected president of the RSK . " These intentions were countered by the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) Resolution 871 in October 1993 , when the UNSC affirmed for the first time that the United Nations Protected Areas , i.e. the RSK held areas , were an integral part of the Republic of Croatia .
During 1992 and 1993 , an estimated 225 @,@ 000 Croats , as well as refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia , settled in Croatia . Croatian volunteers and some conscripted soldiers participated in the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In September 1992 , Croatia had accepted 335 @,@ 985 refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , most of whom were Bosniak civilians ( excluding men of drafting age ) . The large number of refugees significantly strained the Croatian economy and infrastructure . The American Ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , tried to put the number of Muslim refugees in Croatia into a proper perspective in an interview on 8 November 1993 . He said the situation would be the equivalent of the United States taking in 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 refugees .
= = = 1994 : Erosion of support for Krajina = = =
In 1992 , the Croat @-@ Bosniak conflict erupted in Bosnia and Herzegovina , just as each was fighting with the Bosnian Serbs . The war was originally fought between the Croatian Defence Council and Croatian volunteer troops on one side and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) on the other , but by 1994 , the Croatian Army had an estimated 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 troops involved in the fighting . Under pressure from the United States , the belligerents agreed on a truce in late February , followed by a meeting of Croatian , Bosnian , and Bosnian Croat representatives with US Secretary of State Warren Christopher in Washington , D.C. on February 26 , 1994 . On March 4 , Franjo Tuđman endorsed the agreement providing for the creation of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and an alliance between Bosnian and Croatian armies against the Serb forces . This led to the dismantling of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia and reduced the number of warring factions in Bosnia and Herzegovina from three to two .
In late 1994 , the Croatian Army intervened several times in Bosnia : from November 1 – 3 , in Operation Cincar near Kupres , and on November 29 – December 24 in the Winter ' 94 operation near Dinara and Livno . These operations were undertaken to detract from the siege of the Bihać region and to approach the RSK capital of Knin from the north , isolating it on three sides .
During this time , unsuccessful negotiations mediated by the UN were under way between the Croatian and RSK governments . The matters under discussion included opening the Serb @-@ occupied part of the Zagreb – Slavonski Brod motorway near Okučani to transit traffic , as well as the putative status of Serbian @-@ majority areas within Croatia . The motorway initially reopened at the end of 1994 , but it was soon closed again due to security issues . Repeated failures to resolve the two disputes would serve as triggers for major Croatian offensives in 1995 .
At the same time , the Krajina army continued the Siege of Bihać , together with the Army of Republika Srpska from Bosnia . Michael Williams , an official of the UN peacekeeping force , said that when the village of Vedro Polje west of Bihać had fallen to a RSK unit in late November 1994 , the siege entered the final stage . He added that heavy tank and artillery fire against the town of Velika Kladuša in the north of the Bihać enclave was coming from the RSK . Western military analysts said that among the array of Serbian surface @-@ to @-@ air missile systems that surround the Bihać pocket on Croatian territory , there was a modern SAM @-@ 2 system probably brought there from Belgrade . In response to the situation , the Security Council passed Resolution 958 , which allowed NATO aircraft deployed as a part of the Operation Deny Flight to operate in Croatia . On November 21 , NATO attacked the Udbina airfield controlled by the RSK , temporarily disabling runways . Following the Udbina strike , NATO continued to launch strikes in the area , and on November 23 , after a NATO reconnaissance plane was illuminated by the radar of a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) system , NATO planes attacked a SAM site near Dvor with AGM @-@ 88 HARM anti @-@ radiation missiles .
In later campaigns , the Croatian army would pursue a variant of blitzkrieg tactics , with the Guard brigades punching through the enemy lines while the other units simply held the lines at other points and completed an encirclement of the enemy units . In a further attempt to bolster its armed forces , Croatia hired Military Professional Resources Inc . ( MPRI ) in September 1994 to train some of its officers and NCOs . Begun in January 1995 , MPRI 's assignment involved fifteen advisors who taught basic officer leadership skills and training management . MPRI activities were reviewed in advance by the US State Department to ensure they did not involve tactical training or violate the UN arms embargo still in place .
= = = 1995 : End of the war = = =
Tensions were renewed at the beginning of 1995 as Croatia sought to put increasing pressure on the RSK . In a five @-@ page letter on 12 January Franjo Tuđman formally told the UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali that Croatia was ending the agreement permitting the stationing of UNPROFOR in Croatia , effective 31 March . The move was purportedly motivated by actions by Serbia and the Serb @-@ dominated Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to provide assistance to the Serb occupation of Croatia and allegedly integrate the occupied areas into Yugoslav territory . The situation was noted and addressed by the UN General Assembly .
" ... regarding the situation in Croatia , and to respect strictly its territorial integrity , and in this regard concludes that their activities aimed at achieving the integration of the occupied territories of Croatia into the administrative , military , educational , transportation and communication systems of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( Serbia and Montenegro ) are illegal , null and void , and must cease immediately . "
International peacemaking efforts continued , and a new peace plan called the Z @-@ 4 plan was presented to Croatian and Krajina authorities . There was no initial Croatian response , and the Serbs flatly refused the proposal . As the deadline for UNPROFOR to pull out neared , a new UN peacekeeping mission was proposed with an increased mandate to patrol Croatia 's internationally recognized borders . Initially the Serbs opposed the move , and tanks were moved from Serbia into eastern Croatia . A settlement was finally reached , and the new UN peacekeeping mission was approved by United Nations Security Council Resolution 981 on March 31 . The name of the mission was the subject of a last @-@ minute dispute , as Croatian Foreign Minister Mate Granić insisted that the word Croatia be added to the force 's name . The name United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia ( UNCRO ) was approved .
Violence erupted again in early May 1995 . The RSK lost support from the Serbian government in Belgrade , partly as a result of international pressure . At the same time , the Croatian Operation Flash reclaimed all of the previously occupied territory in Western Slavonia . In retaliation , Serb forces attacked Zagreb with rockets , killing 7 and wounding over 200 civilians . The Yugoslav army responded to the offensive with a show of force , moving tanks towards the Croatian border , in an apparent effort to stave off a possible attack on the occupied area in Eastern Slavonia .
During the following months , international efforts mainly concerned the largely unsuccessful United Nations Safe Areas set up in Bosnia and Herzegovina and trying to set up a more lasting ceasefire in Croatia . The two issues virtually merged by July 1995 when a number of the safe areas in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina were overrun and one in Bihać was threatened . In 1994 , Croatia had already signaled that it would not allow Bihać to be captured , and a new confidence in the Croatian military 's ability to recapture occupied areas brought about a demand from Croatian authorities that no further ceasefires were to be negotiated ; the occupied territories would be re @-@ integrated into Croatia . These developments and the Washington Agreement , a ceasefire signed in the Bosnian theater , led to another meeting of presidents of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on 22 July , when the Split Agreement was adopted . In it , Bosnia and Herzegovina invited Croatia to provide military and other assistance , particularly in the Bihać area . Croatia accepted , committing itself to an armed intervention .
From 25 – 30 July , the Croatian Army and Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) troops attacked Serb @-@ held territory north of Mount Dinara , capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč during Operation Summer ' 95 . That offensive paved the way for the military recapture of occupied territory around Knin , as it severed the last efficient resupply route between Banja Luka and Knin . On 4 August , Croatia started Operation Storm , with the aim of recapturing almost all of the occupied territory in Croatia , except for a comparatively small strip of land , located along the Danube , at a considerable distance from the bulk of the contested land . The offensive , involving 100 @,@ 000 Croatian soldiers , was the largest single land battle fought in Europe since World War II . Operation Storm achieved its goals and was declared completed on 8 August .
Many of the civilian population of the occupied areas fled during the offensive or immediately after its completion , in what was later described in various terms ranging from expulsion to planned evacuation . Krajina Serb sources ( Documents of HQ of Civilian Protection of RSK , Supreme Council of Defense published by Kovačević , Sekulić , and Vrcelj ) confirm that the evacuation of Serbs was organized and planned beforehand . According to Amnesty International , the operation led to the ethnic cleansing of up to 200 @,@ 000 Croatian Serbs , the murder and torture of Serbs — both soldiers and civilians — as well as the plunder of Serb civilian property . The ICTY , on the other hand , concluded that only about 20 @,@ 000 people were deported . The BBC noted 200 @,@ 000 Serb refugees at one point . Croatian refugees exiled in 1991 were finally allowed to return to their homes . In 1996 alone , about 85 @,@ 000 displaced Croats returned to the former Krajina and western Slavonia , according to the estimates of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants .
In the months that followed , there were still some intermittent , mainly artillery , attacks from Serb @-@ held areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Dubrovnik area and elsewhere . The remaining Serb @-@ held area in Croatia , in Eastern Slavonia , was faced with the possibility of military confrontation with Croatia . Such a possibility was repeatedly stated by Tuđman after Storm . The threat was underlined by the movement of troops to the region in mid @-@ October , as well as a repeat of an earlier threat to intervene militarily — specifically saying that the Croatian Army could intervene if no peace agreement was reached by the end of the month .
= = = = Reintegration of Eastern Slavonia = = = =
Further combat was averted on 12 November when the Erdut Agreement was signed by the RSK acting defense minister Milan Milanović , on instructions received from Slobodan Milošević and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia officials . The agreement stated that the remaining occupied area was to be returned to Croatia , with a two @-@ year transitional period . The new UN mission was established as the United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1037 of 15 January 1996 . The agreement guarantees also right of establishment of Joint Council of Municipalities for local Serbian community .
The transitional period was subsequently extended by a year . On 15 January 1998 , the UNTAES mandate ended and Croatia regained full control of the area . As the UNTAES replaced the UNCRO mission , Prevlaka peninsula , previously under UNCRO control , was put under control of United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka ( UNMOP ) . The UNMOP was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1038 of 15 January 1996 , and terminated on 15 December 2002 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Assessment of type and name of the war = = =
Though the standard term applied to the war as directly translated from the Croatian language is Homeland war ( Croatian : Domovinski rat ) , the Croatian War of Independence gradually became the standard term for the war . Early English language sources also called it the War in Croatia , the Serbo @-@ Croatian War , and the Conflict in Yugoslavia .
Different translations of the Croatian name for the war are also sometimes used , such as Patriotic War , although such use by native speakers of English is rare . The official term used in the Croatian language is the most widespread name used in Croatia but other terms are also used . Another is Greater @-@ Serbian Aggression ( Croatian : Velikosrpska agresija ) . The term was widely used by the media during the war , and is still sometimes used by the Croatian media , politicians and others .
Two conflicting views exist as to whether the war was a civil or an international war . The prevailing view in Serbia is that there were two civil wars in the area : one between Croats and Serbs living in Croatia , and another between SFR Yugoslavia and Croatia , a part of the federation . The prevailing view in Croatia and of most international law experts , including both international courts ICTY and ICJ , is that the war was an international conflict , a war of aggression waged by the rump Yugoslavia and Serbia against Croatia , supported by Serbs in Croatia . Neither Croatia nor Yugoslavia ever formally declared war on each other . Unlike the Serbian position that the conflict need not be declared as it was a civil war , the Croatian motivation for not declaring war was that Tuđman believed that Croatia could not confront the JNA directly and did everything to avoid an all @-@ out war .
All acts and omissions charged as Grave Breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 occurred during the international armed conflict and partial occupation of Croatia . ... Displaced persons were not allowed to return to their homes and those few Croats and other non @-@ Serbs who had remained in the Serb @-@ occupied areas were expelled in the following months . The territory of the RSK remained under Serb occupation until large portions of it were retaken by Croatian forces in two operations in 1995 . The remaining area of Serb control in Eastern Slavonia was peacefully re @-@ integrated into Croatia in 1998 .
= = = Casualties and refugees = = =
Most sources place the total number of deaths from the war at around 20 @,@ 000 . According to the head of the Croatian Commission for Missing Persons , Colonel Ivan Grujić , Croatia suffered 12 @,@ 000 killed or missing , including 6 @,@ 788 soldiers and 4 @,@ 508 civilians . Official figures from 1996 also list 35 @,@ 000 wounded . Goldstein mentions 13 @,@ 583 killed or missing , while Anglo @-@ Croatian historian Marko Attila Hoare reports the number to be 15 @,@ 970 . Close to 2 @,@ 400 persons were reported missing during the war .
As of 2010 , the Croatian government was seeking information on 1 @,@ 997 persons missing since the war . As of 2009 , there were more than 52 @,@ 000 persons in Croatia registered as disabled due to their participation in the war . This figure includes not only those disabled physically due to wounds or injuries sustained but also persons whose health deteriorated due to their involvement in the war , including diagnoses of chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease , as well as posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . In 2010 , the number of war @-@ related PTSD @-@ diagnosed persons was 32 @,@ 000 .
In total , the war caused 500 @,@ 000 refugees and displaced persons . Around 196 @,@ 000 to 247 @,@ 000 ( in 1993 ) Croats and other non @-@ Serbs were displaced during the war from or around the RSK . The Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) said that 221 @,@ 000 were displaced in 2006 , of which 218 @,@ 000 had returned . The majority were displaced during the initial fighting and during the JNA offensives of 1991 and 1992 . Some 150 @,@ 000 Croats from Republika Srpska and Serbia have obtained Croatian citizenship since 1991 , many due to incidents like the expulsions in Hrtkovci .
The Belgrade @-@ based non @-@ government organization Veritas lists 6 @,@ 827 killed and missing from the Republic of Serbian Krajina , including 4 @,@ 177 combatants and 2 @,@ 650 civilians , and 307 JNA members who were from Croatia . Most of them were killed or went missing in 1991 ( 2 @,@ 729 ) and 1995 ( 2 @,@ 348 ) . The most deaths occurred in Northern Dalmatia ( 1 @,@ 605 ) . The JNA has officially acknowledged 1 @,@ 279 killed in action . The actual number was probably considerably greater , since casualties were consistently underreported . In one example , official reports spoke of two slightly wounded soldiers after an engagement , however , according to the unit 's intelligence officer , the actual number was 50 killed and 150 wounded .
According to Serbian sources , some 120 @,@ 000 Serbs were displaced from 1991 – 93 , and 250 @,@ 000 were displaced after Operation Storm . The number of displaced Serbs was 254 @,@ 000 in 1993 , dropping to 97 @,@ 000 in the early 1995 and then increasing again to 200 @,@ 000 by the end of the year . Most international sources place the total number of Serbs displaced at around 300 @,@ 000 . According to Amnesty International 300 @,@ 000 were displaced from 1991 to 1995 , of which 117 @,@ 000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2005 . According to the OSCE , 300 @,@ 000 were displaced during the war , of which 120 @,@ 000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2006 . However , it is believed the number does not accurately reflect the number of returnees , because many returned to Serbia , Montenegro , or Bosnia and Herzegovina after officially registering in Croatia . According to the UNHCR in 2008 , 125 @,@ 000 were registered as having returned to Croatia , of whom 55 @,@ 000 remained permanently .
The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps and Croatian Disabled Homeland War Veterans Association were founded to help victims of prison abuse .
= = = Wartime damage and minefields = = =
Official figures on wartime damage published in Croatia in 1996 specify 180 @,@ 000 destroyed housing units , 25 % of the Croatian economy destroyed , and US $ 27 billion of material damage . Europe Review 2003 / 04 estimated the war damage at US $ 37 billion in damaged infrastructure , lost economic output , and refugee @-@ related costs , while GDP dropped 21 % in the period . 15 percent of housing units and 2 @,@ 423 cultural heritage structures , including 495 sacral structures , were destroyed or damaged . The war imposed an additional economic burden of very high military expenditures . By 1994 , as Croatia rapidly developed into a de facto war economy , the military consumed as much as 60 percent of total government spending .
Yugoslav and Serbian expenditures during the war were even more disproportionate . The federal budget proposal for 1992 earmarked 81 percent of funds to be diverted into the Serbian war effort . Since a substantial part of the federal budgets prior to 1992 was provided by Slovenia and Croatia , the most developed republics of Yugoslavia , a lack of federal income quickly led to desperate printing of money to finance government operations . That in turn produced the worst episode of hyperinflation in history : Between October 1993 and January 1995 , Yugoslavia , which then consisted of Serbia and Montenegro , suffered through a hyperinflation of five quadrillion percent .
Many Croatian cities were attacked by artillery , missiles , and aircraft bombs by RSK or JNA forces from RSK or Serb @-@ controlled areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as Montenegro and Serbia . The most shelled cities were Vukovar , Slavonski Brod ( from the mountain of Vučjak ) , and Županja ( for more than 1 @,@ 000 days ) , Vinkovci , Osijek , Nova Gradiška , Novska , Daruvar , Pakrac , Šibenik , Sisak , Dubrovnik , Zadar , Gospić , Karlovac , Biograd na moru , Slavonski Šamac , Ogulin , Duga Resa , Otočac , Ilok , Beli Manastir , Lučko , Zagreb , and others Slavonski Brod was never directly attacked by tanks or infantry , but the city and its surrounding villages were hit by more than 11 @,@ 600 artillery shells and 130 aircraft bombs in 1991 and 1992 .
Approximately 2 million mines were laid in various areas of Croatia during the war . Most of the minefields were laid with no pattern or any type of record being made of the position of the mines . A decade after the war , in 2005 , there were still about 250 @,@ 000 mines buried along the former front lines , along some segments of the international borders , especially near Bihać , and around some former JNA facilities . As of 2007 , the area still containing or suspected of containing mines encompassed approximately 1 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 390 sq mi ) . More than 1 @,@ 900 people were killed or injured by land mines in Croatia since the beginning of the war , including more than 500 killed or injured by mines after the end of the war . Between 1998 and 2005 , Croatia spent € 214 million on various mine action programs . As of 2009 , all remaining minefields are clearly marked . During the 2015 European migrant crisis , there existed concerns over areas where mines could affect the flow of refugees coming from Serbia to Croatia .
= = = War crimes and the ICTY = = =
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) was established by UN Security Council Resolution 827 , which was passed on 25 May 1993 . The court has power to prosecute persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law , breaches of the Geneva Conventions , violating the laws or customs of war , committing genocide , and crimes against humanity committed in the territory of the former SFR Yugoslavia since 1 January 1991 .
The indictees by ICTY ranged from common soldiers to Prime Ministers and Presidents . Some high @-@ level indictees included Slobodan Milošević ( President of Serbia ) , Milan Babić ( president of the RSK ) , and Ante Gotovina ( general of the Croatian Army ) . Franjo Tuđman ( President of Croatia ) died in 1999 of cancer while the ICTY 's prosecutors were still investigating him . According to Marko Attila Hoare , a former employee at the ICTY , an investigative team worked on indictments of senior members of the " joint criminal enterprise " , including not only Milošević , but Veljko Kadijević , Blagoje Adžić , Borisav Jović , Branko Kostić , Momir Bulatović and others . These drafts were rejected , reportedly upon the intervention of Carla del Ponte and the indictment limited to Milošević .
Between 1991 and 1995 , Martić held positions of minister of interior , minister of defense and president of the self @-@ proclaimed " Serbian Autonomous Region of Krajina " ( SAO Krajina ) , which was later renamed " Republic of Serbian Krajina " ( RSK ) . He was found to have participated during this period in a joint criminal enterprise which included Slobodan Milošević , whose aim was to create a unified Serbian state through commission of a widespread and systematic campaign of crimes against non @-@ Serbs inhabiting areas in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina envisaged to become parts of such a state .
As of 2013 , the ICTY has convicted six officials from the Serb / Montenegrin side and two from the Croatian side . Milan Martić received the largest sentence : 35 years in prison . Babić received 13 years . He expressed remorse for his role in the war , asking his " Croat brothers to forgive him " . In 2007 , two former Yugoslav army officers were sentenced for the Vukovar massacre at the ICTY in The Hague . Veselin Šljivančanin was sentenced to 10 years and Mile Mrkšić to 20 years in prison . Prosecutors stated that following the capture of Vukovar , the JNA handed over several hundred Croats to Serbian forces . Of these , at least 264 ( mostly injured soldiers , but also two women and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old child ) were murdered and buried in mass graves in the neighborhood of Ovčara , on the outskirts of Vukovar . The city 's mayor , Slavko Dokmanović , was brought to trial at the ICTY , but committed suicide in 1998 in captivity before proceedings began .
Generals Pavle Strugar and Miodrag Jokić were sentenced by the ICTY to 8 and 7 years , respectively , for shelling Dubrovnik . A third indictee , Vladimir Kovačević , was declared mentally unfit to stand trial . The Yugoslav Army 's Chief of the General Staff , Momčilo Perišić , was charged with aiding and abetting war crimes but eventually acquitted on all charges . The trials of Jovica Stanišić , Franko Simatović , Vojislav Šešelj and Goran Hadžić are still pending .
A number of Croat civilians in hospitals and shelters marked with a red cross were targeted by Serb forces . There were numerous well @-@ documented war crimes against civilians and prisoners of war perpetrated by Serb and Yugoslav forces in Croatia : the Dalj killings , the Lovas massacre , the Široka Kula massacre , the Baćin massacre , the Saborsko massacre , the Škabrnja massacre , the Voćin massacre , and the Zagreb rocket attacks .
There were a number of prison camps where Croatian POWs and civilians were detained , including the Sremska Mitrovica camp , the Stajićevo camp , and the Begejci camp in Serbia , and the Morinj camp in Montenegro . The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps was later founded in order to help the victims of prison abuse . The Croatian Army established detention camps , like Lora prison camp in Split .
Croatian war crimes included the Gospić massacre , the killings in Sisak in 1991 and 1992 , and others , which were likewise prosecuted by Croatian courts or the ICTY . Another infamous instance of war crimes , in what would later become known as the " Pakračka poljana " case , committed by a reserve police unit commanded by Tomislav Merčep , involved the killing of prisoners , mostly ethnic Serbs , near Pakrac in late 1991 and early 1992 . The events were initially investigated by the ICTY , but the case was eventually transferred to the Croatian judiciary . More than a decade later , five members of this unit , although not its commander , were indicted on criminal charges related to these events , and convicted . Merčep was arrested for these crimes in December 2010 . In 2009 , Branimir Glavaš , a Croatian incumbent MP at the time , was convicted of war crimes committed in Osijek in 1991 and sentenced to jail by a Croatian court .
The ICTY indicted Croatian officers Janko Bobetko , Rahim Ademi and Mirko Norac , for crimes committed during Operation Medak Pocket , but that case was also transferred to Croatian courts . Norac was found guilty and jailed for 7 years ; Ademi was acquitted . Bobetko was declared unfit to stand trial due to poor health . The ICTY 's indictment against General Ante Gotovina cited at least 150 Serb civilians killed in the aftermath of Operation Storm . The Croatian Helsinki Committee registered 677 Serb civilians killed in the operation . Louise Arbour , a prosecutor of the ICTY , stated that the legality and legitimacy of the Operation itself was not the issue , but that the ICTY was required to investigate whether crimes were committed during the campaign . The Trial Chamber reiterated that the legality of Operation Storm is " irrelevant " for the case at hand , since the ICTY 's remit is processing war crimes . In 2011 , Gotovina was sentenced to 24 and Markač to 18 years in prison . In 2012 , their convictions were overturned and both were immediately released . Čermak was acquitted of all charges .
In the first @-@ degree verdict , the trial chamber found that " certain members of the Croatian political and military leadership shared the common objective of the permanent removal of the Serb civilian population from the Krajina by force or threat of force " , implicating Franjo Tuđman , Gojko Šušak , who was the Minister of Defence and a close associate of Tuđman 's , and Zvonimir Červenko , the Chief of the Croatian army Main Staff . Nevertheless , in the second @-@ degree verdict , the appeals chamber dismissed the notion of such a joint criminal enterprise . The verdict meant the ICTY convicted no Croats for their role in the Croatian War of Independence .
= = Serbia 's role = =
= = = During the war = = =
While Serbia and Croatia never declared war on each other , Serbia was directly and indirectly involved in the war through a number of activities . Its foremost involvement entailed material support of the JNA . Following the independence of various republics from SFR Yugoslavia , Serbia provided the bulk of manpower and funding that was channeled to the war effort through Serbian control of the Yugoslav presidency and the federal defense ministry . Serbia actively supported various paramilitary volunteer units from Serbia that were fighting in Croatia . Even though no actual fighting occurred on Serbian or Montenegrin soil , involvement of the two was evident through the maintenance of prison camps in Serbia and Montenegro , which became places where a number of war crimes were committed .
Milošević 's trial at the ICTY revealed numerous declassified documents of Belgrade 's involvement in the wars in Croatia and Bosnia . Evidence introduced at trial showed exactly how Serbia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia financed the war , that they provided weapons and material support to Bosnian and Croatian Serbs , and demonstrated the administrative and personnel structures set up to support the Bosnian Serb and Croatian Serb armies . It was established that Belgrade , through the federal government , financed more than 90 percent of the Krajina budget in 1993 ; that the Supreme Defense Council decided to hide aid to Republika Srpska and Krajina from the public ; that the National Bank of Krajina operated as a branch office of the National Bank of Yugoslavia ; and that by March 1994 FR Yugoslavia , Krajina , and Republika Srpska used a single currency . Numerous documents demonstrated that branches of the Krajina Public Accountancy Service were incorporated into Serbia 's accountancy system in May 1991 , and that the financing of Krajina and Republika Srpska caused hyperinflation in FR Yugoslavia . The trial revealed that the JNA , the Serbian Ministry of Interior , and other entities ( including Serb civilian groups and police ) armed Serb civilians and local territorial defense groups in the RSK before the conflict escalated .
In 1993 , the US State Department reported that right after the Maslenica and Medak pocket operations , authorities in Serbia dispatched substantial numbers of " volunteers " to Serb @-@ held territories in Croatia to fight . A former secretary of Serbian criminal Željko Ražnatović Arkan testified at the Hague , confirming that the paramilitary leader took his orders , and his money , directly from the secret police run by Milošević .
This degree of control was reflected in negotiations held at various times between Croatian authorities and the RSK , as the Serbian leadership under Milošević was regularly consulted and frequently made decisions on behalf of the RSK . The Erdut Agreement that ended the war was signed by a RSK minister on instructions from Milošević . The degree of control Serbia held over SFR Yugoslavia and later the RSK was evidenced through testimonies during the Milošević trial at the ICTY .
Serbia 's state @-@ run media were reportedly used to incite the conflict and further inflame the situation. and dismissing independent media reports of fires burning in Dubrovnik due to JNA artillery bombardment as being a purported ruse created by Croats burning tires in the city .
= = = After the war = = =
After the successful implementation of the Erdut Agreement which ended armed conflict in 1995 , the relations between Croatia and Serbia gradually improved and the two countries established diplomatic relations in 1996 .
In a case before the International Court of Justice , Croatia filed a suit against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 2 July 1999 , citing Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide . With the transformation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia into Serbia and Montenegro and the dissolution of that country in 2006 , Serbia is considered its legal successor . The application was filed for Croatia by a U.S. lawyer , David B. Rivkin . Serbia reciprocated with the genocide lawsuit against the Republic of Croatia on 4 January 2010 . The Serbian application covers missing people , killed people , refugees , expelled people , and all military actions and concentration camps with a historical account of World War II persecution of Serbs committed by the Independent State of Croatia during World War II .
By 2010 , Croatia and Serbia further improved their relations through an agreement to resolve remaining refugee issues , and visits of Croatian President Ivo Josipović to Belgrade , and of the Serbian President Boris Tadić to Zagreb and Vukovar . During their meeting in Vukovar , President Tadić gave a statement expressing his " apology and regret " , while President Josipović said " that no crimes committed at the time would go unpunished . " The statements were made during a joint visit to the Ovčara memorial center , site of the Vukovar massacre .
= = Role of the international community = =
The war developed at a time when the attention of the United States and the world was on Iraq , and the Gulf War in 1991 , along with a sharp rise in oil prices and a slowdown in the growth of the world economy .
Between 19 – 23 December , several other European countries , beginning with Germany and the Vatican City , followed by Sweden and Italy , announced their recognition of Croatia 's ( and Slovenia 's ) independence . The European Union as a whole recognized the independence of the two republics on 15 January 1992 .
Each of the major foreign governments acted somewhat differently :
United Kingdom – John Major 's government favoured neutrality .
United States – The United States , under George H. W. Bush , tended to favour non @-@ intervention at first , just like the United Kingdom . In contrast , from 1993 , the administration led by Bill Clinton tended to engage itself in order to end the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia . Cyrus Vance supported the ' integrity of Yugoslavia ' .
Germany – up until 1991 , Germany supported a ' status quo ' . According to diplomat Gerhard Almer , the Yugoslav disintegration was feared as " a bad example for the dissolution of the Soviet Union " . During the war , this policy changed , when Helmut Kohl announced that Germany recognized Slovenia and Croatia as independent countries .
Russia – Russia tended to oppose recognition of Croatia ( Russia recognized Croatia on February 17 , 1992 , United States on April 7th 1992 )
= = Annotations = =
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